Datasets:

wonabru-org
/

gutenberg_english_split_1000

Dataset card Data Studio Files Files and versions Community

Split (1)

train · 3M rows

text stringlengths 1 14k
Baltimore, 277, 298 Baltimore & Ohio Railroad, 232 Baltimore, Lord, 165, 328, 489 Baltimore Riot, 277 Bancroft (quoted), 293, 489, 612, 660, 829, 836 Bank, First in U. S., 921 Bank, First at Pittsburgh, 201 Bank of Germantown, 901 Bank, Girard, 355, 785 Bank of Massachusetts, 20 Bank, National, 20 Bank of New York, 20 Bank of North America, 18, 19, 20, 285, 923 Bank, Pennsylvania, 285, 708, 818 Bank of United States, 923 Barbadoes, 340, 447 Barbier, Monsieur, 840 Barclay, Commodore, 626 Barclay, Robert, 717 Barclay, Thomas, 922 Bard, Archibald, 264 Bard, Richard, 264 Barker, Thomas, 373 Barlow, Joel, 565 Barnes, Xtopper, 792 Barnes, John, 150 Barney, Capt. Joshua, 426 Barnitz, Ensign Jacob, 570 Baron of Finga, 10 Barren Hill, 308, 352 Barren Hill Church, 353 Barry, Commodore John, 325 Bartholomew, Edward, 380 Barton, Mr., 299 Bartram Gardens, 212, 213, 214 Bartram, Ann, 212 Bartram, John, 212, 213, 214, 884 Bartram, Mary, 212 Bartram, William, 213, 214, 580 Baskins, William, 255, 525 Bastile, 99 Bates, Samuel P. (quoted), 812 Battalions, First and Second, 185, 304, 311 Battles, General, 521 Battle of Antietam, 40 Battle of Brandywine, 81, 137, 138, 213, 570, 627 Battle of Bull Run, 40, 280 Battle of Bushy Run, 100, 496, 537 Battle of Chattanooga, 89 Battle of Chickamauga, 89 Battle of Chippewa, 144 Battle of Crooked Billet, 10, 307 Battle of Fallen Timbers, 572, 849 Battle of Fort Freeland (See Fort Freeland) Battle of Germantown, 138, 224 Battle of Gettysburg, Story, 451, 455 Brittle of Lake Erie, 624 Battle of Long Island, 311 Battle, Lundy’s Lane, 144 Battle, Monongahela, 470 Battle of Monmouth, 57 Battle of Princeton, 496 Battle of Stillwater, 634 Battle of Stony Point, 138, 210 Battle of Trenton, 81, 210, 311, 496 Battle of White Plains, 138 Bayard, John, 292, 669 Baynton, Peter, 834 Beale, Thomas, 630 Beard, Sarah, 556 Beard, William, 556 Bearnell, William, 2 927Beaujeu, Captain Hyacinthe Marie L. de, 470, 471, 472 Beaulieu, M., 894 Beaumarchais, Pierre Augustin Caron de, 915 Beaver, 121, 167, 174 Beaver County, 122, 147, 156, 175, 181, 208, 262, 597, 775 Beaver Creek, 174 Beaver, Governor James A., 280, 379, 735 Beaver, King, 303 Beck, Paul, 693 Becker, Hilarius, 284 Beddock, Edward, 822 Bedford, 100, 145; Story, 177, 304, 537, 689 Bedford, Captain, 587 Bedford County, 61, 72, 138, 145, 147, 177, 180, 181, 208, 210, 257, 259, 266, 416, 420, 508, 551, 587, 596, 606, 731 Bedford, England, 177 Bedford, Fort (See Fort Bedford) Bedford Springs, 179 Beekman, William, 667 Beissel, John Conrad, Story, 463 Bell, Liberty, 504 Bell, William, 630 Belle Riviere, 412 Bells Church, 223, 504 Bellefonte, 735, 834 Bellew, Captain, 324 Belleville, 9 Bender, Charles A., 523 Benezet, John, 922 Beninger, Hiram, 108 Bensell, Charles, 283 Bensell, Lane, 284 Benton, 429 Benway, John, 474 Berkeley, Lord, 716 Berkley, Mrs., 861 *Beresford, Sir John P., 335 Berks County, 16, 60, 66, 67, 131, 180, 190, 207, 208, 210, 215, 308, 416, 419, 508, 582, 596, 606, 616, 617, 645, 648, 726, 736, 797, 808, 895, 916, 918 Bern Township, 808 Bernard, 890 Bernard, Governor, 380, 700 Berry, James, 254 Berwick, 515, 614 Berzar, John, 531 Bessonett & Co., C., 834 Best, Valentine, 118 Bethany, Pa., 194 Bethel Township, 797 Bethlehem (Pa.), 15, 17, 32, 33, 102, 159, 191, 222, 237, 302, 303, 313, 336, 359, 360, 384, 425, 504, 514, 541, 575, 576, 588, 710, 917, 918 “Bethlehem,” 867 Bethlehem Hospital, Story, 222 Bethlehem Moravians, 222 Bethlehem Township, 312 Bethesda, 312 Betsy (Ship), 325 Bevan, Catherine, 30 Bezac, Edward, 150 Bezar, John, 340 Bezel, John, 474 Bezold, Gottleib, 17 Bicentennial, William Penn, Story, 733 Bickley, Abraham, 859 Biddle, Charles J., General, 280, 452 Biddle, Clement C., 334 Biddle, Edward, 611 Biddle, Henry J., Adjutant General, 280 Biddle, James, Captain, 292 Biddle, John, 308 Biddle, Nicholas, Captain, 326 Biddle, Owen, 385, 483 Biddle, Thomas, 334 Big Beaver, 423, 722 Big Cat (Indian), 174, 282 Big Island, 476 Big Mahoning, 168 Big Sewickley Creek, 149, 168 “Big Tree” Indian, 638 Biles, William, 150, 530 Bigler, John, Governor, 881 Bigler, William, Governor, 389, 880 Billet, Crooked, 10, 307 Billingsport, 324, 545, 669, 908 Bills of Credit, 160 Bingham, William, 896, 922 Binghamton, 298 Binns, John, 433, 783, 785, 802, 876 Binns, Recollections, etc.,(quoted), 433 Biographical Annals, 262 Bird, Captain Harry, 141 Birmingham, 98, 201 Birmingham, East, 201 Birmingham, James M., 473 Birmingham Meeting House, 260, 504, 628 Bissell, George H., 592 Black Boys, 178, 829 Black, Captain David, 442 Black, Mr., 218 Black, Chauncey F., 735 Black, Jeremiah S., 179, 390 Blackbeard, 152 Blackburn, Admiral, 582 Blacky (horse), 218 Blackfish, Chief, 738 “Black Horse” Tavern, 680 Black Lick Creek, 146 Black Walnut Bottom, 439 Blackwell, Captain John, 843 Blacons, M. De, 894 Blaine, Ephraim, 110, 679 Blaine, Lieutenant, 346 Blair County, 177, 181, 257, 596 Blair, John, 496 Blair, Thomas, 390 Blair’s Gap, 265 Blairsville, 309 Blake, Thos. F., 473 Bland, Colonel Theodoric, Jr., 629 Blenker, Colonel, 369 Blennerhassett, Mrs. Adeline Agnew, 894 Bloody Saturday, Story, 557 Bloomfield, John, 514 Bloomsburg, 49, 210, 491, 614, 868, 904 Bloomsbury Forge, 483 “Blue Bell” Tavern, 396 Blue Hill, 287, 772 Blue Mountain, 25, 561, 651, 721 Blue Rock, 822 Blues, Philadelphia, 334 Blues, Quaker, 292 Blummaert, Samuel, 229 Blunston, Samuel, 821 Blythe, William, 26, 469 Board of War, 570 Boatman, Claudius, 556 Boatman, Miss, 555 Boatman, Mrs. Claudius, 554, 555 Bobb, Matthias, 809 Bodley, General Thomas, 334 Boeckel, Dame Barbara, 222 Boeckel, Liesel, 222 Boehler, William, 222, 312 Boelson, Jan, 792 Boen, Andrew, 396 Bogharat, Jost de, 231 Bok, Edward W., 532 Boileau, N. B., 784 Bolilogue, Charles Felix Bea, 892 Boozar, William, 2 Bom (quoted), 696 Bombaugh, Conrad, 679 Bonaparte, 565 Bonaparte, Charles Lincoln, 581 Bond, Becky, 348 Bond, Dr. Thomas, 602 928Bond, Dr. Thomas, Jr., 224 Bond, Wilhelmina, 348 Bonham, John, 694 Bonham, William, 878 Bonnecamps, Father, 412 Boone, Daniel, 515, 736 Boone, George, 736 Boone, George III, 736 Boone, Hawkins, Captain, 515 Boone, Mary Maugridge, 736 Boone, Squire, 736 Boonesborough, 737 Bordentown, 909
Border Dispute, Story, 338 Borrows, Arad, 369 Boston, 507, 508 Boston, Siege of, 311 Bothwell Howe, 863 Bouquet, Henry, 10, 42, 105, 169, 178, 304, 346, 347, 371, 388, 537, 547, 587, 588, 636, 680, 704, 710, 781, 782, 827, 830 Boundary Dispute, 99, 659 Bounties for Scalps, Story, 267 Bowen, Major, 521 Bower, Philip, 820 Bower, Thomas, 797 Bowman, John, 284 Bowrey Theatre, 251 Bowser, William, 710 Boyd Family, 326 Boyd, Captain James, 189 Boyd, Captain John, 137, 186, 442, 517, 633 Boyd, Robert, 206 Boyd, Thomas, 137, 633, 814 Boyd, William, 137, 633 Boyle, James, 193, 314 Boynton & Wharton, 170 Brackenridge, Hugh Henry, 517, 688 Braddock, Edward, 60, 73, 77, 134, 148, 149, 172, 260, 267, 319, 370, 408, 470, 476, 486, 547, 549, 573, 623, 686, 704, 721, 726, 757, 760, 797, 825, 827, 830, 916 Braddock Road, Story, 319 Bradford, Andrew, 115, 130, 897 Bradford, Cornelia, 897 Bradford County, 156, 181, 194, 195, 208, 210, 359, 423, 458, 596, 597, 775, 892, 893 Bradford, David, 687, 689 Bradford, Thomas, 899 Bradford, William, 128, 580, 597, 669, 689, 793, 899 Bradford, William, (Jr.), 115, 292 Bradstreet, General John, 347, 388, 548, 781, 828 Bradt, Captain Andrew, 740 Brady, 423, 533 Brady, Fort, See Fort Brady Brady, Hannah, 259 Brady, Hugh, 259, 334 Brady, James, Story, 542 Brady, Captain John, 11; Story, 259, 305, 544 Brady, Mary, 544 Brady, Samuel, 261, 498 Brady, Captain Samuel, 168, 543, 544, 549, 740 Brady Tract, 11 Brainard, David, 475, 824 Braintrim, 299 Brandon, John, 498 Brandywine, Battle of, 504 Brandywine Creek, 504 Brant, Joseph, 323, 501, 529, 633, 814 Brassey, Thomas, 212, 373 Brattan, John, 731 Bread Street, 514 Breck, Senator Samuel, 184 Breed’s Hill, 606 Brethren House, 222 Brewer, Martin, 463 Breylinger, Hannah, 722 Breylinger, Jacob, 722 Bridges, Robert, 922 Bridgewater, Battle of, 583 Bridgewater, Duke of, 565 Bright, George, 820 Bringhurst, George, 284 Bristol, 859, 909 Brison, John, 479 Britannia Fire Company, 860 British Burn National Capitol, Story, 582 British Squadron, 625 Brobst, Christian, 299 Brobst, Michael, 252 Brockden, Charles, 514 Brodhead, Daniel, 162, 163, 167, 281, 462, 584, 585, 617, 618, 637, 654, 908 Brokenstraw, 550 Brook, Grassy, 501 Brook, Half Way, 501 Brook, John, 343 Brooks, Edward, 373 Brooks, Noah, 812 Brooke’s Tavern, 247 Brotherhood of Ephrata, 463 Brotherly Love, City of, 167 Brother Jethro, 463 Brown, B. S., 369 Brown, Enoch, 511 Brown, General Jacob, 142, 143, 144, 334 Brown, Lige, 785 Brown, Moses, 238 Brown, William, 186, 630, 910 Browne, George, 397 Browne, John, 792 Brownlee, John, 479 Brownsbury, 861 “Brown’s Hotel,”, 865 Brownsville, 143, 218, 328 Brulé, Etienne, 589, 741 Bruner’s Cotton Factory, 860 Brunner, Mary, 190 Brush Creek, 376 Brush Valley, 343 Bryan, George, 136, 662, 708, 779, 794 Bryan, Rebecca, 736 Bryson, Samuel, Story, 630 Buchanan, Arthur, 679 Buchanan, Polly, 679 Buchanan, William, 319 Buchanan, James, 34, 35, 183, 288, 624, 679 Bucher, Conrad, 306 Bucher, Jacob, 6 Buckalew, Charles R., 196 Buckaloons, 551 Buckingham, 179 Bucks County, 33, 57, 60, 84, 107, 142, 179, 180, 190, 191, 207, 307, 308, 334, 370, 416, 419, 448, 450, 530, 596, 649, 650, 662, 861, 867 Buckshot War, Story, 853 Budden, Captain, 383 Bull, Ole, 94, 95, 96 Buffalo, 877 Buffalo Creek, 175, 241 Buffalo Valley, 9, 11, 305, 461, 526 Buffalo Valley, Linn (quoted), 189 Buffington’s, 628 Building Commissioners, 5 Bull, Captain (Indian), 492, 718, 911 Bull, General John, 139, 380, 484, 544 Bull, Mary Phillips, 546 Bull, Rebecca, 139 Bull Run, 280 Bullet, Captain, 636 Bulletin, 813 Bunker Hill, 10, 606 Bunner, Murray & Co., 922 Burd, Edward, 209, 228, 483, 508, 693 Burd, Colonel James, 178, 237, 319, 684, 759 Burgoyne, General John, 456, 834 Burlington Meeting, 113 Burnes, Patrick, 760 Burnet, Dr. William, 602 Burnett, Governor of New Jersey, 161 Burnett’s Hills, 399 929Burning of Chambersburg, Story, 519 Burns, John, 583 Burns, Robert, 579 Burnt Cabins, 320, 680 Burr, Aaron, 894 Burroughs, Mrs., 250 Burrowes, Thomas H., 850, 855 Bush Hill, 351 Bushy Run, Battle of, 537, 548 Butler, 120, 121, 122, 854 Butler (Indian), 372 Butler County, 120, 121, 156, 181, 185, 208, 262, 265, 551, 596, 597 Butler, Colonel John, 456, 833 Butler, Colonel John (Tory), 71, 138, 168, 367, 456, 579, 633, 814 Butler, John Richard, 152 Butler, Lord, 111, 135 Butler, Richard, General, 3, 43, 146, 750 Butler, Colonel Zebulon, 438, 456, 492, 903 Butler’s Rift, 495 Buyers, Judge John, 819 Buzzard, Dr., 894 Byberry, 577 Bygrove, Lieutenant, 348 Bylhinge, Edward, 716 C Cabot, John, 446 Cadwalader, Colonel Lambert, 292, 908 Cadwalader, General Thomas, 334 Cadwallader, General John, 292, 417, 836, 868 Cady, 439 Caghuawaga, 363 Cagnawaga Creek, 185 Caledonia (ship), 626 Cajadies, 886 Caldwell, Captain, 456 Caldwell, Commodore Andrew, 324 Caldwell, Samuel, 332 Callander, Robert, 322, 762 Calvert, Charles, 330, 821, 919 Camden & Amboy Railroad, 21 Cambria, 378 Cambria County, 177, 181, 596, 725, 775 Cambria Iron Works, 232, 378 Cambridge, 409 Cameron County, 156, 182, 208, 596 Cameron, Donald, 498 Cameron House, 745 Cameron, Colonel James, 498 Cameron, General Simon, 196, 498, 812, 883 Cammerhoff, Bishop John Frederick, 15, 16, 17, 63 Campanius, Rev. John, 123, 609 Camp Curtin, Story, 276 to 280 Camp Union, 277 Camp, William, 299 Campbell, Alexander, 557, 558, 847 Campbell, James, 644 Campbell, John, 179, 200 Campbell, Michael, 400 Campbell, Mrs., 558 Campbell, Captain William, 527 Campbell (poet) quoted, 457 Canada, 743 Canajoharie, 302 Canal Commissioners, Board of, 723 Canal, Union, 26 Canal, Story, 130 Canassatego, 449, 867 Conewago, 744 Cannon, James, 485, 669, 794 Canoe Place, 731 Canon, John, 164 Canterbury, 845 Causeland, Nieu, 667 Cape Cornelius, 857 Capes of Chesapeake, 627 Capitol Hill, 746 Capitol, State, 3, 5, 6, 86, 89, 94, 135 Capson, John, 897 Captain Pipe, 226 Carantouan, 742 Carbon County, 47, 48, 65, 181, 193, 380, 448, 557, 564, 577, 597, 651, 846, 847, 918 Carbondale, 232 Carey, 591 Carey, Henry Charles, 643 Carey, Matthew, 641; Story, 775 Carleton, Sir Guy, 426, 739 Carigiatatie, Nikes, 700 Carlisle, 4, 27, 73, 74, 75,
110, 135, 170, 176, 178, 217, 227, 247, 248, 258, 288, 321, 322, 346, 388, 441, 443, 445, 508, Carlisle Barracks, 522, 854 Carlisle, Earl of, 417 Carlisle Indian School, 110; Story, 522 Carlisle Jail, 912 Carlisle, Hon. John S., 179 Carlisle Pike, 280 Carlisle, Raid on, Story, 441 Carmichael, William, 915 Carolina, 300 Carondowanen (Indian), 638 Carpenter, Emanuel, 798 Carpenter, Edward, 150 Carpenter, Samuel, 128, 150, 159 Carpenters’ Hall, 10, 33, 419, 611, 694 Carr, Colonel Robert, 446 Carroll, General Samuel Sprigg, 454 Carroll, James, 193, 314 Carroll Tract, 264 Carroll, Colonel William, 334 Carson, Ann, 784 Carson, John, 784 Carteret, Sir George, 716 Cartlidge, Edward, 805, 806, 822 Cartlidge, John, 552, 805, 806 Casey, Joseph, 864 Cashtown Pike, 452 Cass Township, 846 Cassimer, Fort, 609 Castle, James H, 249 Castleman, William, 586 Cat, Story of Singed, 532 Catawba, 300 Catawissa, 299, 893 Cathcart, Lord, 348 Catherine (ship), 302 Cave, 248 Cavet, James, 101, 149 Cayuga, 17 Celeron, Captain Bienville de, 411, 840 Cemetery Hill, 453 Centennial, 882 Center County, 156, 181, 208, 276, 344, 597, 775 Central Railroad of New Jersey, 243 Centralia, 192, 846 Chadd’s Ford, 503, 504, 628 Chain of Forts, 916 Chalfant, Thomas, 119 Chamberlin, Colonel Thomas, 453 Chambers, Benjamin, 23, 623, 822 Chambers, David, 400 Chambers, Fort, 23 Chambers, James, 343, 508, 688 Chambers, Jane, 331 Chambers, Joseph, 254, 623 Chambers Mill, 16 Chambers, Captain Stephen, Story, 331 Chambers, Thomas, 23 Chambersburg, 51, 519, 678, 680, 706, 707, 735, 860, 864 Chamberstown, 622 Champlain, Samuel, 742 Chance, Samuel, 822 Chance (ship), 325 Chancery Lane, 517 Chandler, Zachariah, 883 Chandler, Joseph R., 890 930Chapin, General, 153 Chapman, Dr., 861 Charles, Edward (Scotland), 498 Charles II, King, 165, 294, 446 Charles (Indian), 437 Charles, Robert, 382 Charlestown, 673 Charleston & Hamburg Railroad Company, 22 Charter, 5, 165, 166, 167 Chartiers Creek, 147, 163, 225, 528 Chartier, Peter, 300 Chase, Samuel, 383 Chase, Rev. Mr., 901 Chautauqua Creek, 412, 840 Chautauqua Lake, 413 Chautauqua, Story, 326 Chautauqua Literary and Scientific Circle, 327 Chautauqua Sunday School Assembly, 327 Chemung, 367 Chemung River, 17 Chemunk, 578 Cheat River, 100 Chenango, N. Y., 299 Cherry, Fort, 586 Cherry, John, 586 Cherry Tree Township, 591 Cherry Valley, 814 Chesapeake, 505, 588 Chesapeake & Delaware Canal, 131 Chester, 61, 75, 158, 275, 328, 396, 486, 503, 504, 610, 754 Chester County, 8, 10, 60, 70, 84, 127, 131, 137, 151, 152, 161, 179, 180, 191, 205, 207, 301, 308, 339, 414, 416, 419, 436, 463, 496, 503, 565, 582, 596, 610, 664, 709, 850 Chestnut Hill, 690, 870 Chestnut Ridge, 149 Chestnut Street Theatre, 250 Chevalier, John, 292 Chevalier, Peter, 780 Chevaux de frise, 324 Chevey, Squire Thomas, 629 Chew, Benjamin, 107, 357, 919 Chew, Benjamin, Jr., 357 Chew House, 691 Chew, Peggy, 348 Chew, Sophia, 348 Chickahominy, 677 Chilloway, Job, 359, 655 Chickies Creek, Little, 217, 821 Chickesalunga, 249 Child, Francis, 641 Chillisquaque Creek, 139, 305, 515, 553, 614 Chillisquaque Township, 208 China, 430 Chincklamoose, 228, 303, 770 Chippewa, 334, 583 Chobet, 840 Christ, Adam, 819 Christiana, 8, 667 Christiana Creek, 123, 324, 609 Christiana, Fort, 123, 609 Christiana Riots, 880 Chronicle, The Harrisburg, 4, 298 Church, Catholic, 86 Church, Christ, 46, 82 Church, First Dedication, 419 Church, First Moravian, Story, 512 Church, First Permanent Settlement, Story, 608 Church, Gloria Dei, 610 Church and King, 99 Church of the Brethren, 866, 867 Church, Old Swede, 610 Church Store, 222 Cicero, 752 Cilley, Colonel Joseph, 367 Cincinnati, 849 Cincinnati, Order of, 311, 332, 850 City Cavalry, First Troop, 694 City Grays, Harrisburg, 473 City Grays, Williamsport, 473 City Troop, First, 107, 357, 574 City Zouaves, Middletown, 473 Civil Government of Pennsylvania, 530 Civility, Chief, 301 Claess, Christian, 396 Clapham Colonel William, 24, 25, 227, 228, 229, 370, 393, 396, 770, 819, 918 Clarion County, 156, 181, 208, 597 Clark, 769 Clark, Dr. Adam, 901 Clark, Daniel, 784 Clark, General Geo. Rogers, 162, 488, 527, 528, 820 Clark, Governor (N. Y.), 500 Clark, John, 141, 343, 630, 740, 820 Clark, Walter, 209 Clarkson, Matthew, 325, 776 Clarkson (quoted), 755 Clay, Henry, 95 Claypoole, D. C. 899 Claypoole, James, 293, 373 Claypoole & Morris, 469 Clayton, Major Asher, 228, 259, 560, 711 718, 911 Clayton, William, 150, 396 Clearfield, 228, 491, 770 Clearfield County, 156, 181, 208, 597, 775 Clerkwell Prison, 802 Clermont, Fulton’s, 564 Cleveland, 309 Clingan, William, 921 Clinton, 183 Clinton County, 156, 181, 182, 208, 212, 596 597, 775 Clinton, DeWitt, 144, 233 Clinton, Sir Henry, 2, 3, 308 Clinton, General James, 240, 347, 367, 416 426, 443, 710 Clinton, Governor George, 412 Cloister, Ephrata, 464 Clow’s Dragoons, 349 Cluggage, Captain Robert, 178, 508 Clymer, Daniel, 248, 694 Clymer, George, 332, 643, 861, 872 Coaldale, 315 Coal Oil, 591 Coal Oil Johnnie, 592 Coates, William, 292 Coats, William, 380 Cobbett, William, 791 Cobb’s Creek, 124, 448 Cobb’s Run, 261 Cocalio Creek, 463 Cochran, Captain, 521 Cochran, Colonel, 442 Cochran, Dr. John, 442; Story, 601, 820 Cochran, William, 853 Cock, Lasse, 150 Cock, Laurens, 396 Cock, Moens, 792 Cock, Otto Ernest, 396, 792 Cock, Peter, 396, 667, 792 Code of Laws, Penn’s, 295 Codorus, 298 Coeur du Lac, Fort, 578 Coeur, Jean, 412 Confederation, Articles of, 5, etc. Coffee House, 325 Coffin, Lucretia, 6 Colebrookdale, 616 Coleman Guards, Lebanon, 473 Coleman, William, 919 Colesberry, Alexander P., 734 College, Dickinson, 4 Collett, Jeremiah, 150 Collins, Henry, 170 Colonial Dames, 753 Colonial Records, 880 Colonial Society, Swedish, 608 Colony of Pennsylvania, 507 931Colt, Mr., 299 Columbia, 112, 297, 414 Columbia County, 48, 49, 181, 192, 196, 208, 432, 564, 596, 846 Columbia Railroad, 499 Columbian Magazine, The, 642 Columbus, 26 Colver, Ephraim, 577 Combush (Indian), 650 Company H, 4th U. S. A., 277 Compass Hotel, 248 Concord, 290, 695 Concord Meeting House, 651 Conejohela Valley, 821 Conemaugh, 132, 149, 300, 377 Conemaugh, Lake, 378 Conemaugh River, 377 Conestoga, 105, 912 Conestoga Creek, 463 Conestoga Lock and Dam, 131 Conestoga Manor, 822 Conestoga Murdered by Shawnee, Story, 300 Conestoga Township, 821 Conewago Canal, 131, 132,
244 Conewago Falls, 298 Conewango Creek, 153, 411 Confederate Raid, 705 Conference, Provincial, 419 Congress (ship), 325 Congress Hall Hotel, 834 Congress, Mutiny Against, 426 Conlin, Patrick, 474 Connelly, Dr. John, 100, 145, 148, 489, 660 Connelly, Robber, 220 Connellsville, 328 Connecticut Settlers, 93 Connoquenessing Creek, 121 Connolloways, Big and Little, 749 Conococheague, 319, 622 Conococheague Creek, 510 Conococheague, Massacre at, Story, 510 Conococheague Navigation Company, 131, 169 Conococheague Valley, 510 Conodoguinet Creek, 217, 248 Conrad, Mrs. James, 369 Conrad, Robert T., 389 Constitution, 5, 214, 603, 643, 794, 816, 895 Constitution, Federal, 5; Story, 643 Constitution (ship), 583, 624 Constitutional Party, 692 Constitutionalists, 875 Contrecoeur, Captain M. de, 126, 470, 660 Continental Currency, 18 Conway Cabal, 417; Story, 834 Conway, General Thomas, 417, 690 Cook, Edward, 149 Cooke, Jay, 646 Cooke, Colonel Jacob, 896 Cooke, Jay & Co., 646 Cooke, Colonel William, 137, 260, 674, 820, 903 Coolin, Annakey, 151 Cooper Ferry, 670 Cooper Hospital, 369 Cooper, James, 8 Cooper, J. Fennimore, 323 Cooper, Mrs., 369 Cooper Shop Story, 368 Cooper, Thomas, 433, 803 Cooper, William M., 369 Copley, John Singleton, 410 Copley Medal, 95 Coppee, Henry, 280 Copper, John, 823 Copp’s Hill, 606 Corbar, Brother, 413 Corinthian Yacht Club, 608 Cork, 311 Corken, James, 510 Cornaghan’s Blockhouse, 527 Cornbury, Lord Edward Hyde, 639, 764 Cornelius, Cape, 589 Cornell, Hugh, 525 Cornerstone, 5, 239, 283 Cornplanter, Chief, 241, 549, 550, 572, 732 Cornwall, Captain, 298 Cornwall, William, 510 Cornstalk, Chief, 362, 750 Cornwallis, Lord Charles, 223, 443, 504, 628, 651, 669, 691, 692 Corporation Act., 99 Corry, 593 Coryell’s Ferry, 863, 909 Coshocton, 226, 281; Story, 656, 750 Couch, General Darius N., 519, 520, 707 Council of Censors, 794, 895 Council of Safety, 903 Council, Supreme Executive, Threatened, Story, 426 Counterfeiter, 217 Counties, Etymology of, 596 Country Club of Harrisburg, 23 Country Gentleman, 533 Courland, Colonel, 367 Court, Earliest, 396; Story, 791 Court of Admiralty, 325 Courtright, Milton C., 865 Cove, Great, 267, 623, 749 Cove, Little, 267, 622, 749 Cove Mountains, 707 Covenhoven, Robert, 400, 462 Covenhoven, Thomas, 402 Coventry, 463 Cowan, Edgar, 196 Cowan, Frank (quoted), 303 Cowan, J. F., 95 Cowan’s Gap, 320 Cowperthwaite, Joseph, 292 Cox, Assemblyman, 890 Cox, Gabriel, 164 Cox, John, 292, 922 Cox, Widow, 761 Crabtree Creek, 479 Craig, Isaac, 200 Craig, Jane, 348 Craig, Lieutenant, 869 Craig, Neville B., 518 Cragie, Dr. Andrew, 602 Craik, Dr. James, 602 Crain, Richard, 136 Crane, Hook, 610 Crantz, Dr. (quoted), 884 Cram, Claes, 397 Crascraft, Charles, 528 Crawford County, 156, 181, 185, 208, 596, 597 Crawford, Edward, Jr., 623 Crawford, Fort, 549 Crawford, Hugh, 236 Crawford, Captain John, 404 Crawford, Josiah, 622 Crawford, Captain William, 282, 488, 587 Crawford, Colonel William, 146, 148, 163; Story, 402, 739, 814 Crefeld, 696 Crellius, Joseph, 899 Crescent City, 201 Cresap, Michael, 361 Cresap, Thomas, 330, 365; Story, 821 Cresap War, 330 Cressinger, Dr. Jacob R., 500 “Crisis,” Paine’s, 571; quoted, 426 Crispin, Silas, 531 Crispin, William, 334, 531 Croghan, Catherine, 323 Croghan, Colonel George, 93, 235, 305, 319, 321, 323, 425, 525 Cromwell, 843, 901 Crook, Henry, 473 Crooked Billet, 10, 307; Massacre at, Story, 307 Crown Point, 70 932“Crown,” The, 541, 575, 576 Cubbertson, William, 154 Cucussea, 301 Culbertson, Elizabeth, 10 Culbertson, John, 510 Culbertson, Colonel Samuel, 10 Culloden, 498 Culp’s Hill, 454 Cumberland County, 26, 42, 127, 134, 170, 171, 172, 177, 180, 181, 187, 207, 208, 210, 216, 221, 257, 259, 319, 320, 416, 419, 496, 508, 544, 587, 596, 606, 615, 622, 678, 684, 698, 711, 731, 911 Cumberland, Md., 280, 470 Cumberland Valley, 23 Cunningham, Susan King, 511 Cunningham, Thomas S., 851 Curtin, Governor Andrew G., 389, 810 Curtis, Cyrus H. K., 532 Curtis Publishing Company, 533 Curtis, Tom (Indian), 359 Custis, George Washington, 358 Custis, Miss, 358 Cuyler, Theodore C., 8 Cyane (ship), 583 D Daillon, Father de la Roche, 742 Dallas, Alexander James, 69, 191, 817 Dallas, George Mifflin, 890 Dally, Philip, 263 Dalmatia, 63 Dandelot, M., 894 Dangerfield, 8 Danville, 118, 232 Danville Intelligencer, The, 118 Danziger, Charles W., 519 Darby, 159, 357, 504, 545, 580, 859 Darby Creek, 608, 611, 779, 848, 859 Darrah, Lydia, 868 Darrah, William, 868 Daughters American Revolution, 200 Dauphin County, 3, 25, 66, 131, 135, 172, 180, 181, 187, 188, 249, 255, 277, 498, 564, 582, 596, 597, 853, 896 Dauphin County Agriculture Society, 277 Daunt, Knowles, 822 Daventry, 97 Davidson, John, 800 Davidson, Samuel, 61, 324 Davies, William R., 872 Davis, Beaver, 619 Davis, Bill, 173 Davis, Philip, 614 Davy the Lame Indian, 375 Day, Sherman, 93 Dayton, Colonel Elias, 367 Dean, Colonel Joseph, 70 Dean, Samuel, 186 Dean, William, 731, 732 Deane, Silas, 308, 913 Dearborn, General Henry, 334, 582 Death of the Fox, 833 Deauchamp, David, 474 Debarre, General Prudhomme, 629 Decatur, Captain Stephen, 789 Declaration of Independence, 5, 46, 81, 458, 483, 871 Declaration of Rights, 611 Decker’s Tavern, 494 De Coudray, 72 Dee, River, 565 Deed for Christ Church, 436 Deed for Province, 598 De Formoy, General, 909 DeHaas, General John Philip, 306, 381, 545, 618, 922 D'haes, John, 792 DeHaven, Peter, 461 Deimer, John, 748 Delaware County, 179, 180, 212, 596, 598, 838, 858 Dekonoagah, 764 Delancy, Captain John Peter, 271 Delaware, 873 Delaware (ship), 789 Delaware Company, 492 Delaware & Schuylkill Canal, 131 Delaware Water Gap, 494 Delemater, George W., 86 Delaval, Lieutenant, 348 “Democratic,” 803 Democratic Press, The, 434, 783, 803, 879 Dennison (Indian), 523 Dennison, Colonel Nathan, 456 Densmore, James, 119 Denny, Ebenezer, 152, 201 Denny, David, 255 Denny, Governor William, 178, 303, 619, 700, 703 De Peyster, Captain Arent Schuyler, 283 Depontency, Captain, 840 Deposit, 775 Derr’s Mills, 11 Derrstown, 462, 878 Derry, 149 Dersham, Frank L., 9 Der Wochentlicks Phila. Staatsbate, 899 Desdemona, 76 Detroit, 140, 388, 704 Detroit, Fort (see Fort Detroit) Detroit, Ship, 625 Devane, Sarah, 137 Devil’s Den, 453 Devores Ferry, 528 DeVries, David Pieterson, 230, 590, 856 Dewart, John, 820 Dewees, Christina, 336 Dewees Mill, 130 Dewees, William, 31, 130, 336 Dewitt, Simeon, 240 Dick, Captain John, 561
Dickewanis, 245 Dickinson College, 4, 248, 288, 441 Dickinson, John, 60, 106, 186, 292, 428, 443, 458, 594, 623, 872, 874 Dickinson, General Philemon, 70 Dickinson (ship), 418 Dickinson’s Farmer’s Letters, Story, 786 Diefenbach, Captain, 798 “Diligent, Old,” 860 Dill, Andrew H., 733 Dill, Matthew, 698 Dill, Mary, 698 Dillsburg, 441, 698 Dinwiddie, Governor Robert, 67, 125, 657, 758, 799 Director of Mint, 238 Disberry, Joe, 818 Directory, French, 789 Disher, Peter, 820 Dixon, Jeremiah, 919 Doan Outlaws, Story, 662 Dock Creek, 374 Dock, Christopher, 159 Dodd, Dr., 77 Dodson, Abigail, 577 Dolland, 385 Donahue, John, 847 Donahue, Thomas, 49, 192 Donation Lands, 184, 185, 186 Dondel, Captain Michael, 508 Donegal, 62, 700, 821, 823 Donehoo, Dr. George P., 523, 884 Donop, Colonel Carl Emil Kurt von, 504, 671 Donnelly, Felix, 422 Donnelly, Francis, 422 Dorrance, George, 456 Doty, Senator, 136 Doubleday, General Charles William, 452 Doubling Gap, 218 933Dougal, Dr. James S., 252 Dougherty, Bernard, 61 Dougherty, Daniel, 769 Dougherty, David, 249 Dougherty, James, 516 Douglass, Stephen A., 810 Dove, Dr. David James, 188, 284 Downey, Captain John, 308 Downingtown, 329 Doyle, Michael, 47, 557 Doyle, Thomas H., 521 Doylestown, 34 Draft for Troops, 162, 163, 164 Drafton, Edmund, 792 Drake (quoted), 621 Drake, Colonel Edwin L., 591 Draper, Major Simeon, 559 Draper, Sir William, 77 Dreisbach Church, 9, 344, 732 Dreisbach, Yost, 61 Dreshler, David, 284 Drickett, Thomas, 150 Drury Lane Theatre, 251 Dry Run Cemetery, 343 Drystreet, Henry, 150 Duane, William J., 335, 434, 783, 803, 804, 876 Dublin Township Meeting, 113 DuBois, Colonel, 367 Duche, Rev. Jacob, 308, 418 Duck Creek, 436 Dudley, Gideon, 439 Dudley, Joseph, 439 Duels—Binns-Stewart, 434, 876; Cadwallader-Conway, 417; Chambers-Rieger, 331; Wilkinson-Gates, 571 Duffield, Rev. George, 59 Duffield, William, 170 Duffy, Thomas, 193, 314 Dugan, James, 558 Dugan, Patrick, 474 Duke of York, 28 Dunbar Camp, 471 Dunbar, Colonel Thomas, 133, 470, 471, 828 Duncan, Matthew, 508 Dungeon, The, 802 Dunkard Creek, 920 Dunkards, 32, 318 Dunlap, John, 899 Dunmore, Lord (John Murray), 43, 100, 101, 145, 148, 362, 489, 660, 737 Dunmore’s War, 101 Dunne, Henry H., 192, 217, 845 Dunquat (Indian), 584 Duponceau, Peter S., 77 Dupont, Camp, 334 Dupretit, 894 Dupui, Samuel, 918 Duquesne, Marquis, 127, 199 Durham, 516 Durham Iron Works, 300 Durham, James, 297 Durham, Mrs. Margaret W., 296 Durkee, Colonel John, 102, 429, 559, 560, 561 Dushore, 894 Dutch Control Delaware River, 665 Dutch East India Company, 589, 856 Dutch & English Gazette, The, 899 Dutchess County, N. Y., 6 Dutch Fork, 175 Dutchman, The Pennsylvania, 876 Dutch West India Company, 590, 667, 856 E Eagle County, 597 “Eagle” (ship), 671 Eagle Tavern, 861 Earl of Dunmore, 100 Earle Brothers, 439 Earle’s Royal Regiment, 765 Early, General Jubal A., 441, 454, 519 Eastborn, Benjamin, 650 East Cemetery Hill, 454 East Conemaugh, 378 Easton, 70, 71, 103, 153, 182, 202, 223, 233, 235, 240, 273, 279, 322, 366, 368, 370, 380, 413, 483, 504, 624, 840 Eaton, D. L., 518 Eckerline, Gabriel, 463 Eckerline, Israel, 463 Eckley, John, 85 Economy, 122 Ecuyer, Captain Simeon, 346 Edenberg, 309 Edinburgh, 46, 97 Edminston, Samuel, 630 Education, 158, 182, 183, 184 Edward, King, 98 “Edward” (ship), 325 Edwards, Benjamin, 299 Effigy, 91 “Effingham” (ship), 418 Egle, Dr. William—quoted, 62 Egypt, 327 Eichbaum, William, 200 Eichbaum & Johnson, 518 Eicher, Anna, 463 Eighth New York Regiment, 369 Eighth Pennsylvania Regiment, 140, 168, 462 Eighteenth Royal Regiment of Foot, 311 Eighty-fourth “Bloody,” 350 Elder, Rev. John, 25, 236, 718, 911 Elder, Joshua, 209 Election, Bloody, 682 Electrifying Machines, 97 Elger, Mr., 298 Elizabeth, Princess, 717 Elizabethtown, 249 Elk County, 156, 181, 182, 208, 597 Elk River, 503 Elkton, 503 Ellicott, Andrew, 240, 298, 921 Elliott, Andrew, 662 Elliott, Captain, 43, 152, 584 Elliott, Joseph, 457 Elliott, Matthew, 225 Ellsworth, Oliver, 872 Elmira, N. Y., 514 Elswick, 665 Emancipation, Proclamation, 41 Emanuel’s Reformed Church, 699 Emaus, 15 Emmerson, John, 822 Emmettsburg, 452 Endt, Theobold, 512 England, Philip, 30 Engle, Benj., 284 English, John, 556 Ephrata, 463, 602 Erie, 154, 233, 240, 333, 413, 592, 624, 840 Erie, Battle at, 624 Erie Canal, 36, 233 Erie County, 126, 152, 156, 181, 185, 208, 223, 596, 598, 718 Erie, Fort, see Fort Erie Erie, Lake, 624 Erie & Northwestern R. R., 863 Erie Observer—quoted, 387 Ernst, 94 Eros and Antiros, 286 Erskind, Sir William, 352, 545 Erwin, Arthur, 60 Essepenaick, 436 Essington, 608, 665 Esther’s Town, Queen, 619 Etter, Edward G., 520 Ettwein, Rev. John, 223 Ettinger, Joel B., 523 Etymology of Counties, 596 Etzweiler, George, 343 Eucharist, 33 Euer, Robert, 150 Eustice, Michael, 474 934Evans, John, 30, 205, 763 Evans, Lewis, 422, 884 Evans, Nathaniel, 150 Evans, Sam, 236 Everett, Edward, 811 Everett, W. S., 520 Ewell, General Richard C., 441, 454 Ewing, Alexander, 344 Ewing, Catherine, 606 Ewing, Colonel George W., 767 Ewing, General James, 698 Ewing, John, 188, 191, 385, 606, 708, 909, 919, 921 Ewing, Mrs. Sarah, 369 Eyer, Henry C., 568 Eyre, Emmanuel, 72 Eyre, Samuel, 922 Eyre, T. Lawrence, 137 Excise Laws, 196, 197, 198 Exeter, 736 Expedition, Forbes’, 685 Expedition, Hambright, 770 Expedition, Hartley, 616 Expedition, Sullivan, 366 F Fabricius, Brother, 825 Fagg, Manor of, 416 Fairfield Gap, 455 Fairman, Thomas, 396, 696 Fair Play Men, 156 Falkner, Daniel, 336, 512 Falkner Swamp, 31, 32, 335, 463 Fallen Timbers, 572, 849 Falling Spring, 623 Falls of Schuylkill, 504 Falls Township (Bucks Co.), 530 Falls of Trenton, 230 Faltz, M. A., 520 Family House, 222 Fanning, General Edmund, 900 Farmer’s Brother, 814 Farmer’s Letters, 786 Farquhar, Guy E., 109 Farragut, Admiral David Glasgow, 882 Fatland Ford, 668 Fayette County, 52, 99, 131, 147, 180, 198, 216, 596, 597, 775 Federal Constitution, 735, 871 Federal Party, 837 Felebaum, George, 741 Felkstrug, 436 Fellowship Fire Company, 860 Fenwick, John, 716 Ferdey, John, 350 Ferree, John, 60 Fever, Yellow, 775 Field Book of Revolution, Lossing’s, 363 Fifth National Guard, Pennsylvania, 379 Financier of Rebellion, 646 Findlay, Governor William, 5, 136, 198, 216, 332, 435, 605, 688, 810, 895 Findley, James, 69, 623
Fink, John, 174 Finland, 667 Finley, John, 736 Finns, 231 Fire Companies, 45, 858 Fires, Early, 858 First Army Corps, 452 First Defenders, 279 First Forty Settlers, 102 First German Reformed Church, 71 First Newspaper, 897 First Newspaper West of Allegheny Mountains, 517 First Regiment of Pennsylvania, 509 First and Second Battalions, 185 First State Regiment, 381 Fishbourne, Benjamin, 3 Fishbourne, William, 71, 764, 805, 859 Fisher, John, 150 Fisher, Joshua, 780 Fisher, Peter, 393 Fisher, Thomas P., 847 Fisher, William, 780 Fisher’s Ferry, 393 Fisher’s Stone House, 393 Fishing Creek, 16, 23, 210, 515, 623, 904 Fithian, Rev. Philip (quoted), 59, 331, 421 Fitzhugh, Captain, 520 Fitzsimmons, Thomas, 72, 643 Fitzwater, George, 374 Flag, 409, 483 Flag Captured at Monmouth, 443 Flatheads, 300 Fleming, Captain, 910 Fletcher, Governor Benjamin, 843 Fletcher & Gardner, 21 Fleury, Major Louis de, 672 Flood, Johnstown, 377 Flower, Enoch, 150, 158 Flying Camp, 570, 909 Folger, Josiah, 44 Foragers, British, 307 Forbes, Major General John, 100, 148, 177, 303, 380, 489, 544, 636, 660, 703, 827 Forbes Road, 148 Ford, Lieutenant, 418 Ford, Philip, 373 Forest County, 156, 181, 185, 208, 597 Foresters, The, 580 Forest House, 343 Forman, General David, 690 Forney, John W., 33, 34, 35, 249, 767 Forrest, Edwin, 249 Fort, C. V., 369 Fort Allen, 65, 236, 267, 270, 273, 370, 380, 540, 541, 544, 559, 574, 576, 577, 719, 918 Fort Antes, 335, 337, 400, 461 Fort Armstrong, 395, 549 Fort Augusta, 11, 24, 25, 27, 57, 58, 65, 67, 102, 103, 104, 110, 207, 211, 227, 236, 237, 266, 295, 305, 371, 372, 393, 395, 429, 430, 461, 462, 515, 516, 517, 527, 537, 542, 543, 544, 555, 587, 614, 618, 675, 685, 686, 711, 718, 719, 720, 770, 903, 904, 907 Fort Bedford, 177, 346, 388, 537, 547, 587, 711, 782, 831 Fort Billingsport, 324, 545, 669, 908 Fort Boone, 515 Fort Bostley, 515 Fort Brady, 260 Fort Buchanan, 175 Fort Burd, 686, 709 Fort Busse’s, 65, 757 Fort Carlisle, 178, 537, 587 Fort Cassimer, 610, 665, 667 Fort Chambers, 23 Fort Cherry, 585, 586 Fort Christiana, 123, 230, 231, 609, 610, 666 Fort Coeur du Lac, 578 Fort Coulon de Villiers, 840 Fort Crawford, 167, 549 Fort Cresap, 823 Fort Cumberland, 267, 686, 841 Fort Defiance, 572 Fort Detroit, 347, 388 Fort Dunmore, 100, 101, 489, 660 Fort Duquesne, 100, 127, 133, 177, 199, 265, 266, 272, 302, 303, 345, 380, 413, 470, 476, 489, 621, 635, 685, 704, 721, 722, 771, 827, 840 Fort Durkee, 102, 103, 104, 559 Fort Dupui, 918 Fort Elfborg, 124 Fort Erie, 144, 145, 334, 413, 572 Fort Forty, 456, 492 Fort Franklin, 918 Fort Freeland, 188, 253, 295, 296, 297, 326, 496, 514, 515, 516, 614, 674, 814 Fort Frontenac, 412, 828 Fort Granville, 525, 619, 620, 918 Fort Greenville, 572 935Fort Halifax, 25, 228, 371, 393, 394, 395, 918 Fort Hamilton, 918 Fort Hand, 167, 168, 607 Fort Harris, 744, 745 Fort Henry, 65, 66, 67, 544, 757, 758, 918 Fort Henry (Wheeling), 167, 282, 488, 528, 740 Fort Hunter, 23, 25, 64, 65, 74, 371, 393, 623, 685, 759, 918 Fort Island, 324 Fort Jenkins, 211, 295, 456, 515, 614, 616 Fort Johnson, 540 Fort Kittanning, 145 Fort Korsholm, 667 Fort Laurens, 140, 141, 142 Fort Lebanon, 758, 918 Fort LeBoeuf, 126, 145, 152, 318, 345, 388, 413, 537, 586, 718, 840 Fort Lee, 223 Fort Ligonier, 346, 388, 537, 547, 587, 636 Fort Littleton, 266, 918 Fort Loudoun, 100, 169, 170, 171, 177, 510, 511, 760, 762, 831 Fort McCord, 141, 265 Fort McDowell, 319, 320, 510, 760, 829, 918 Fort McHenry, 277, 488 Fort McIntosh, 140, 141, 142, 156, 167, 174, 241, 400, 406, 549 Fort McKee, 63 Fort Machault, 67, 318 Fort Manada, 758, 759 Fort Manyunk, 663 Fort Meninger, 469 Fort Mercer, 545, 670, 671, 672, 673 Fort Miami, 345 Fort Michillimackimac, 345 Fort Mifflin, 418, 670 Fort Montgomery, 515, 614 Fort Moultrie, 39 Fort Muncy, 260, 296, 366, 400, 401, 458, 462, 463, 515, 542, 543, 618 Fort Nassau, 123, 230, 446, 590, 858 Fort Necessity, 133, 272, 322 Fort New Gottenburg, 124 Fort Niagara, 147, 345, 347, 388, 516, 840 Fort Norris, 918 Fort Northkill, 758 Fort Onachtown, 345, 718 Fort Orange, 446 Fort, Old, 221 Fort, Palmer’s, 309 Fort Patterson, 74, 525, 684, 918 Fort Penn, 324, 918 Fort Pitt, 43, 62, 64, 100, 127, 140, 141, 142, 145, 147, 148, 149, 167, 169, 170, 171, 174, 175, 176, 178, 199, 225, 226, 245, 260, 281, 305, 309, 310, 323, 345, 347, 372, 375, 376, 388, 403, 425, 462, 482, 488, 489, 490, 517, 518, 528, 537, 539, 547, 549, 551, 585, 587, 606, 618, 654, 660, 661, 688, 710, 711, 718, 722, 728, 739, 740, 741, 749, 782 Fort Pomfret Castle, 684 Fort Potter, 221 Fort Presque Isle, 153, 318, 345, 387, 388, 413, 537, 586, 718, 840 Fort Randolph, 167 Fort Recovery, 572 Fort Redstone, Old, 52, 171, 322 Fort Reid, 614 Fort Rice, 615, 616 Fort Raystown, 177 Fort Sandusky, 345, 718 Fort San Marco, 522 Fort Swartz, 470, 616 Fort Shirley, 525, 619, 918 Fort, Six, 65, 918 Fort Smith, 757 Fort, Widow Smith’s, 467 Fort Standing Stone, 422 Fort Stanwix, 155, 156, 240, 247, 305, 361, 398, 410, 492, 773 Fort Steel, 760 Fort St. Joseph, 345 Fort Sumter, 39 Fort Swatara, 65, 757, 918 Fort Ticonderoga, 848 Fort Trinity, 610, 655 Fort Venango, 168, 345, 413, 537, 586, 718 Fort Wallace, 309 Fort Walthour, 376 Fort Washington, 223, 570 Fort Wayne, 850 Fort Wheeler, 210, 515 Fort Wheeling, 488 Fort, Wilkes-Barre, 457 Fort “Wilson,” 90, 332, 692 Fort Wintermoot, 456 Fort Wyoming, 560, 561 Fortune (ship), 589 Foster, John, 255, 343, 583 Foster, Sidney, George, 285 Foster, Thomas, 24 Foster Township, 192 Fothergill, Dr., 212 Foulk, Colonel Willis, 854 Foulke, Assessor, 190 FontainbleauFontainbleau, 704 Fourteenth Regiment National Guard of Pennsylvania, 379 Fouts, Christian, 308 Fowney (ship), 661 Fox, George, 447, 717 Fox, Gilbert, 790
Fox, James, 159 Fox, Speaker, 779 Frame of Government, 28, 293, 341 Francis, Hill Tench, 60 Francis, Tench, 18, 60, 200, 292, 922, 923 Francis, Turbutt, 60, 102, 103, 209, 305, 306, 428 Frankford, 21, 546 Frankford Arsenal, 853 Frankford Land Company, 336, 695 Franklin, Benjamin, 44, 54, 56, 57, 58, 61, 65, 97, 98, 116, 117, 134, 159, 160, 161, 187, 205, 212, 247, 267, 284, 292, 308, 318, 323, 371, 385, 386, 426, 458, 459, 460, 484, 490, 532, 533, 594, 597, 604, 612, 622, 643, 657, 658, 670, 684, 703, 747, 749, 752, 774, 778, 779, 780, 781, 786, 789, 791, 807, 816, 859, 860, 872, 873, 898, 913, 916, 921 Franklin, 412 Franklin County, 10, 180, 264, 288, 319, 510, 596, 597, 622, 678, 705, 706, 760, 829, 918 Franklin (ship), 325 Franklin, Deborah, 44 Franklin Institute, 21 Franklin, Colonel John, 438 Franklin and Marshall College, 624 Franklin, Superintendent, 193, 557 Franklin, Temple, 357 Franklin, William, 323 Franks, Rebecca, 348 Frankstown, 257, 619, 818 Fraser, Margaret, 179 Fraser, William, 178 Frazer, General Simon, 634 Frazer, John, 840 Frazier, John, 802 Frederick, 886 Frederick, Lord Baltimore, 919 Frederick the Great, 910 Frederick Township, 31, 512 Fredericksburg, Md., 470 Fredericksburg (Pa.), 25 Fredericksburg, Va., 107 Fredericktown, Md., 134 Freedom, 264 Freeland, Michael, 326, 516 Freeland Mills, 674 Freeman’s Journal, 641, 876 Freemasons, 182, 567 Free Masonry and Odd Fellowship, 890 Free Soil Movement, 881 936Free Traders Society, 754 Fremont, 35 Frew, 890 Frey, Mr., 248 French, 74, 126 French Creek, 126, 318, 413, 551 French deserter, 67 French and Indian War, 316 French, Colonel John, 415 Frenchtown, 639, 892 Freeze (attorney), 192 Freinsheim Church, 31 Freisbach, George, 826 Freisbach, John, 820 Frick, Henry, 429, 568 Frick, Philip, 819 Friedenstadt, 423 Friedenstal Mill, 33 Friedenshuetten, 360, 424 Friendship Fire Company, 860 Friends’ Meeting House, 859 Friends, Society of, 341 Fries, John, 189 Fries, Just Henry, 568 Fries Rebellion, 189, 190, 191 Friedsam, 464 Frietchie, Barbara, Story, 886 Fry, Colonel Joshua, 132 Fry, Henry, 886 Fry, General James B., 811 Fry, Joseph, 216 Fryling, Henry G., 500 Fugitive Slave Law, 880 Fuller, Benjamin, 780 Fullerton, Judge Humphrey, 622 Fulton County, 177, 181, 596, 597 Fulton, Robert, 564, 597 Fulton’s Folly, 566 Funk, George, 179 G Gabriel, George, 721, 726 Gage, General Thomas, 171, 304, 323, 388, 548 Gahontoto, 17 Gaine, Hugh, 642 Gaines, Camp, 334 Gaines, General Edmund Pendleton, 144 Gainsworth, Colonel, 367 Galena, 326, 327 Galissoniere, Marquis de la, 411, 840 Gallatin, Albert, 51, 52, 53, 152, 198, 216, 605, 688 Gallichwio, 15 Galloway, Joseph, 188, 284, 308, 358, 418, 593, 611, 613, 779, 899, 913 Galloway, Peter, 593 Galloway, Richard, 593 Galbraith, Andrew, 731 Galbraith, Bertram, 485 Galbraith, James, 60, 485, 541 Galbraith, John, 823 Gamble, Colonel, 452 Gamble, Judge James, 474 Gandtscherat, 17 Ganges (ship), 784 Gardner, Joseph, 669 Gardners, 456 Gardow, 246, 813 Garman, Sophia, 891 Garrett, Major John, 456, 905 Garrett, William, 61 Garrison Hill, 154 Garrison, William Lloyd, 6 Garrigues, Jacob, 484 Gates, General Horatio, 222, 571, 834 Gattenmayer, John, 826 Gawthrop, Judge Robert S., 88 Gazette, The, 898, 915 Gazette, Franklin’s, 45, 116 Gazette and Manufacturer and Mercantile Advertiser, 518 Gazette, Pennsylvania, 44, 532, 833, 898 Gazette, The Pittsburgh, 517, 837 Gazetteer (ship), 644 Gearhart, Maclay C., 500 Geary, Governor John W., 473, 474, 646, 879 Geehr, Balzar, 60 Gelemend (Killbuck), 174, 281 Genaskund, 425 General Advertiser, The, 899 Genesee, 138, 633 Genesee Castle, 138, 634 Geneva, 51 Genet, Edmond Charles, 779 Gentleman’s Magazine, The, 900 George III, King, 32, 45, 99, 170, 177, 212, 228, 311, 485, 606, 871 Georges Creek, 149 Georges, Mr. John, 339, 364 Gerard, Robert, 151 German Christians, 120 German Flats, 246, 814 German Printing Office, 899 German Reform Church, 512 German Regiment, 615 “German Rifles,” 369 German Town, 695 Germantown, 6, 31, 32, 112, 113, 114, 128, 129, 130, 152, 159, 203, 204, 284, 302, 304, 504, 512, 689, 695 Germantown Academy, 283, 284, 285 Germantown, Battle of, 689 Germantown, Settlement of, 695 Germantown Union High School House, 284 Gerry, Elbridge, 644, 872 Gertrude of Wyoming, 457 Gerwig, Edgar C., 137 Gesner, Dr. Abraham, 591 Gettig, Christian, 820 Gettysburg, 451, 452, 453, 455, 519, 698, 707, 735, 810 Gettysburg Address, Lincoln, Story, 810 Gettysburg, Battle of, Story, 451 to 455 Giant, Little, 810 Gibbons, John, 150 Gibbons, William, 136 Gibson, James, 187, 913 Gibson, Captain George, 486 Gibson, General John, 140, 175, 362, 750, 896 Gibson, John Bannister, 136, 890 Gibson’s Lambs, 486 Giddings, Edward, 567, 890 Gieger, Henry Gilbert, Benjamin Sr., 577 Gilbert Family in Captivity, 577 Gilfray, John, 418 Gill, Dr. (quoted), 866 Gill, John D., 86 Gillen, Elizabeth, 296 Gilmore, Major Harry, 520 Ginter, Philip, 111 Girard Bank, 355, 785 Girard College, 356 Girard, Stephen, 220, 335, 354, 776 Girardville, 49, 558 Girty, George, 42, 529 Girty, James, 42, 226 Girty, Simon, 41, 42, 43, 44, 140, 225, 395, 403, 404, 750, 849, 815 Girty, Simon Sr., 42 Girty, Thomas, 42 Girty’s Gap, 41 Girty’s Notch, 42 Girty’s Run, 43 Gist, Christopher, 99, 322, 799, 841, 870 Glen Carbon, 48, 192 Glen Carbon Coal Mining Company, 846 Glen Onoko, 557 Glickhickan (Indian), 425 Glidden, Carlos, 118 937Gloria Dei Church, 581 Gloucester, 434 Gloucester, Bishop of, 313 Gloucester Prison, 802 Gnadenhuetten, Ohio, 174, 282, 585 Gnadenhuetten (Pa.), 236, 267, 824 Gobin, John Peter Shindel, 473 Goddard, William, 899 Godey, Louis A., 117 Godfrey, Thomas, 753, 902 Godfrey, Thomas Jr., 271 Gold Medal, Congress, 144 Good Message, 15 Goodson, Job, 374 Gookin, Charles, 765 Gordon, Governor Patrick, 301, 407, 534, 639 Gordon (quoted), 754 Gore, Obadiah, 111 Goschgoschunk, 424 Goshen, 502 Goshen Meeting, 504, 651 Gosnold, Bartholomew, 676 Gottenberg, 608 Gottrecht, 464 Gould, Samuel, 326, 516 Govett, William, 292 Gowen, Franklin B., 48, 108, 192, 316 Graff, Sebastian, 731 Graham, William H., 137 Grand Army Republic, 699 Granger’s Hollow, 772 Granger, Postmaster General Gideon, 435 Grant, General James (British), 308, 352, 651, 691 Grant, Lieutenant Charles, 171 Grant, General U. S., 41, 326, 327, 882 Grant,
Major William, 303, 636, 827, 831 Granville, Fort (see Fort Granville) Grave Creek, 362 Gray, George, 72 Gray, Matthew, 732 Gray, William, 209 Graydon, Alexander, 69, 483 Graydon, Caleb, 209 Graydon, Mrs., 76 Graydon, William, 6 Grays City, 473 Gray’s Ferry, 291, 357, 545, 670, 694 Gray’s Ferry Road, 580 Gray’s Garden, 357 Great Cove, 830 Great Crossing, 320 Greathouse (Indian), 362 Great Island, 587, 711, 911 Great Meadows, 132, 472 Great Meeting House, 449 Great Path, 555 Great Plains, 722 Great Runaway, 228, 337, 460, 468, 496, 514, 618 Great Swatara, 16, 248 Great Swatara Gap, 16 Great Treaty, 755 Great Virginia Road, 319 Greece, 327 Green, General Abbott, 252 Green, Colonel Christopher, 671 Green, Judge, 8 Green, Judge D. B., 107, 193, 316 Green, Thomas, 7 Green, Colonel Timothy, 306, 912 Greenback Party, 735 Greencastle, 680, 707 Greene County, 131, 147, 181, 282, 596, 597, 775, 920 Greene, General Nathaniel, 571, 691, 834, 861 Greenleaf, Thomas, 641 Greens, 292 Greensburg, 88, 100 Greensweigs, 918 Greenville, 573 Greenway, Robert, 531 *Grenville, Lord George, 778 Greevy, Thomas H., 473, 474 Gregg, Andrew, 69 Gregg, General David McMurtrie, 452 Grey, General Charles, 352, 652 Grier, David, 570 Grier, Joseph, 661 Grier, Judge Robert Cooper, 38 Griffiths, Alderman, 682 Gripsholm, 667 Griscom, Andrew, 150 Griscom, Elizabeth, 79 Groshong, Jacob, 343 Grove, Adam, 819 Grove, Micheal, 211, 819 Grow, Galusha A., 195, 278 Growden, Grace, 593 Growden, Joseph, 269 Growden, Lawrence, 593 Grubb, Curtis, 669 Grubb, Captain John, 154 Grube, Rev. Bernard Adam, 712 Grumbine, Professor E., 25 Grundy, Thomas H., 88 Guelph, 871 Guerriere, 624 Guffy, Alexander, 297 Guinea, 113 Gurney, Francis, 292 Gurney’s, Henry, 89 Guss, A. L. (quoted), 507 Gustavus, 229 Guyasuta (Indian), 126, 549, 550, 749 Gwynedd Meeting, 736 Gwyther, Squire Thomas, 49, 108, 558 H Hackett, Thomas, 474 Haeger, Rev. John L., 407 Haigue, William, 150 Hail Columbia, 13, 790 Haldeman, John, 731 Haldeman Island, 63 Hale, Captain Matthew, 789 “Half Moon” (ship), 588, 742 Half King, 66 Halifax, 16, 42, 228 Halkett, Colonel, 133, 470 Hall, Carpenters’ (see Carpenters’ Hall) Hall, Colonel, 823 Hall, David, 898 Hall, David Jr., 899 Hall, E. S., 369 Hall, Independence (see Independence Hall) Hall, Joseph, 517 Hall, Pennsylvania, 7 Hall, William, 899 Hall & Pierre, 899 Hall & Sellers, 570, 898 Hallam, James, 270 Hallam, Mrs., 270 Haller, Mr., 121 Hailing, Dr. S., 224 Hall’s Station, 618 Hall’s Stone House, 618 Hambright’s, Captain John, Expedition, Story, 770 Hambus, 74 Hamilton, Mr., 631 Hamilton, General Alexander, 861, 862, 872 Hamilton, Andrew, 594, 749, 832 Hamilton, Captain Hance, 178, 698, 761 Hamilton, Colonel Henry, 730, 751 Hamilton James, 67, 76, 92, 105, 127, 132, 133, 172, 205, 224, 226, 268, 316, 318, 321, 359, 413, 562, 563, 660, 703, 705, 718, 719, 749, 763, 806, 911, 912, 917, 919 Hamilton, John, 89 Hamilton, Robert, 212 938Hamilton, William, 60, 75 Hammond, 400, 457 Hammond, General Robert H., 252 Hampton, Va., 522 Hampton Institute, 8 Hampton, General Wade, 524, 706 Hancock, 775 Hancock, John, 77, 291, 816 Hancock, General Winfield Scott, 453, 648 Hand, General Edward, 140, 224, 225, 226, 296, 309, 490, 507, 605, 606, 654, 728 Hand’s Expedition, General, Story, 728 Hand-in-Hand, 860 Hanjost (Indian), 633 Hanna, General John A., 215 Hanna, Robert, 100, 148, 178, 477 Hanna, Senator, 852 Hannastown, 99, 145, 477, 490, 660 Hannastown, Burning of, Story, 477 Hannah (Indian), 437 Hanover, 492 Hanover Junction, 453 Hanover, Township, 23, 173 Hansen, Andrew, 610 Hansen, Catherine, 610 Hansson, Mathys, 667 Hanway, Castner, 8 Hardin, Captain John, 164, 168 Hardin, General John, 164 Hardin, Lieutenant, 549 Hardings, 456 Hardman (Chief), 750 Hardman, Hannah, 76 Hare, Robert, 357 Harman’s Creek, 585 Harmar, General Josiah, 3, 572, 766, 849 Harmar’s Defeat, 766 Harmony, 120, 121, 122 Harner, Mrs. Abigail, 369 Harnick, Captain, 348 Harper’s Ferry, 51, 219, 680 Harrigar, Andrew, 577 Harris, Captain (Indian), 236 Harris, John, 135, 401, 496, 744, 912 Harris, Mary McClure, 496 Harris, Robert, 136 Harris, Samuel, 907 Harris, Samuel, 401 Harris’ Ferry, 16, 58, 59, 227, 228, 235, 236, 248, 321, 322, 392, 393, 430, 461, 711, 726, 744, 905 Harrisburg, 4, 5, 8, 23, 26, 33, 34, 37, 39, 40, 50, 58, 65, 68, 69, 70, 110, 132, 135, 136, 215, 236, 248, 276, 277, 279, 288, 298, 321, 434, 451, 453, 473, 474, 496, 497, 500 Harrisburg, Academy, 497 “Harrisburg Chronicle,” 4 Harrisburg, Portsmouth, Mount Joy and Lancaster Railroad, 233 Harrisburg & Presque Isle Company, 154 Harrison, Benjamin, 101 Harrison, George, 357 Harrison, George L., 734 Harrison, James, 150, 209 Harrison, Professor James A., 204 Harrison, John, 819 Harrison, Major, 404 Hart, Joseph, 60, 419, 664 Harter, Benjamin, 350 Hartley, George, 616 Hartley, Colonel Thomas, 229, 366, 458, 468, 616 Hartman, Henry, 758 Hartranft, Governor John F., 48, 193, 316, 647, 733 Hartsfelder, Jurian, 696 Hartshorne, Richard, 717 Harvard, 328 Harvey, Benjamin, 905 Harvey, Benjamin Sr., 906 Harvey, Henry L., 387 Harvey, Oscar, J. (Authorities consulted) Harvey’s Creek, 905 Harvey’s Landing, 905 Hasellum, Thomas, 793 Hassel, Mayor, 859 Hasset, Gilles, 856 Hastings, Governor Daniel H., 86, 379 Hastings, Henry, 792 Hastings, John, 69, 150 Hatboro, 307 Hatfield, Township, 190 Hauer, Barbara, 887 Hauer, Catherine Z., 887 Hauer, John Nicholas, 887 Hausegger, Nicholas, 306 Havre de Grace, 818 Hawley, Charles I., 88 Hay, Captain George, 571 Hayes, Alfred, 9 Hayes, James, 306 Hayes, Thomas, 173 Hayes, William, 380 Hayhurst, John, 861 Hays, Captain, 917 Hays, Christopher, 149, 163 Hays, John Casper, 713 Hazard’s Register of Pennsylvania, 902 Hazard, Samuel, 880 Hazelhurst, Hon. Isaac, 49 Hazelwood, Commodore John, 417, 670 Hazen, Colonel Moses, 740 Hazle, Edward, 226 Head, John B., 88 Head of Iron, 303 Hean, Captain B. Y., 473 Heart-in-Hand, 860 Heaton & Company, 49, 108 Heaton, Robert, 49, 108 Heberling, Solomon, 344 Heckewelder, Rev. John, 282, 304, 361, 584, 621 Hecksher’s Grove, 558 Heebner, George, 31 Heidelberg, 16, 66, 798 Heidelberg Township, 562 Himrod, John, 326, 327 Himrod, Martha, 327 Helm, Israel, 396, 792 Hempfield, 300 Henderson, J. J., 88 Hendricks, Jan, 792 Hendricks, John, 337, 364
Hendricks, Gerhardt, 112, 696 Hendricks, Captain William, 306, 508, 758 Hendrickson, Albertus, 150 Hendrickson, Cornelius, 856 Hendrickson, Yethro, 150 Henlopen, 666 Henlopen Cape, 600 Henlopen Light House, 385 Henry, Colonel, 282 Henry, John Joseph, 331, 509, 556 Henry, Patrick, 490, 644, 749 Henry, William, 287, 565, 571 Henry, William (Indian) 282 Hepburn, James, 296 Hepburn, Colonel William, 401 Hercules, 745 Herdic Park, 474 Herdic, Peter, 474 Herkimer County (New York) Historical Society, 118 Hermit of Blue Hill, 287 Herold’s, 732 Herring, Old Friend Pickle, 269 Herrnhut, 866 Herrnhutters, 866 Herron’s Branch, 680 Hess, Henry, 235 Hessians, 70, 110, 504, 505, 629, 668 Hester, Pat, 49 Heston, Senator, 136 Heverling, Jacob, 209 939Hewes, William, 150 Hewitt, Thomas, 209 Heyne, John C., 32 Hibernians, Ancient Order of, 47, 642 Hickman, Thomas, 173, 380 Hickok, Charles N., 178 Hicks, Gilbert, 308 Hickoqueon, 437 Hidon, 151 Hiester, Catherine, 808 Hiester, Daniel, 136, 215, 645, 808 Hiester, John, 808 Hiester, Governor Joseph, 136, 435, 605, 804, 808, 895 Higgenbotham, Captain, 823 High Dutch Pennsylvania Journal, 899 Highlanders, 170, 636 Higgins (Tory), 225 Hiles, Colonel Samuel, 332 Hill, General A. P., 452 Hill, Henry, 380, 922 Hill, Commissioner, 806 Hill, Richard. 764 Hillegas, Michael, 61 Hills, Stephen, 5 Hillsborough, Earl of, 787 Himrod, John, 326, 327 Himrod, Martha, 327 Hiokatoo, 246, 326, 514, 614, 813 Historic Tales of Olden Times, 902 History of Battle of Gettysburg (quoted), 812 History of the Brethren, 884 History of Lincoln (quoted), 811 History Moravian Church of Philadelphia, 513 History of Wyoming (quoted), 634 Hjort, Reverend, 666 Hobart, Captain, 348 Hockesson Meeting House, 503, 628 Hockley, Thomas, 60 Hog Island, 672 Hoge, Jonathan, 186, 484 Hogg, Lieutenant, 620 Holcroft, John, 688 Holland, 856 Hollenback, Matthais, 457, 893 Hollander, Peter, 231 Holler, Ensign, 110 Hollidaysburg, 257 Hollowday, James, 761 Holmes, Thomas, 150, 531 Holmes, Captain George, 446 Holmesburg, 249 Holt, Colonel, 631 Holt, John, 641 Holy Club, 313 Home for Actors, 249 Homestead, 87 Homman, Andrew, 396 Honesdale, 232 Honest John (Indian), 271 Hood, General John B., 454 Hooghkamer Hendrik, 231 Hooker, General Joseph, 451 Hoopes, Adam, 319, 760, 892 Hooper, Robert L., 922 Hoorn, 856 Hoover, William, 500 Hopkins House, 854 Hopkins, James, 288 Hopkins, Robert, 683 Hopkins, William, 851 Hopkinson, Francis, 13 Hopkinson, Joseph, 790 Horekill, 447 “Hornet” (ship), 324 Horse Island, 143 Horse & Groom, 249 Horse, Philadelphia Light, 503 Horsfield, Thomas, 222 Horticulture Hall, 882 Hospitals, Military, 222, 601 Hosterman, Colonel, 400, 819 Hosterman, Peter, 209 Hot Water War, 189, 190, 191 House Tax, 189 Houston, Dr. James, 224 Houston, Robert J., 735 Hovenden’s Loyalists, 307 Howard, 46 Howard, General, 452 Howard, Nicholas, 218 Howe, Admiral Richard, 13, 308, 347, 352, 627 Howe, Sir William, 72, 107, 347, 352, 358, 381, 416, 503, 533, 545, 595, 627, 690, 849, 868, 908 Howell, Mrs., 76 Howell, Reading, 731 Howell, Samuel, 780 Howelville, 652 Hoyer, George, 136 Hoyt, Henry Martyn, 733 Hubbard, William, 252 Hubley, Colonel Adam, 367, 634 Hudde, Andreas, 125, 667 Huddle, Joseph, 920 Hudson, Henry, 588, 742, 856 Hudson River, 124, 523 Huffnagle, Michael, 149 Hughes, John, 268 Hughes, Barney, 59, 63 Hughes, Ellis, 209, 674 Hughes, F. W., 49, 109 Hughes, John, 541, 779 Huguenots, 32 Hull, General William, 624 Hulings, Marcus, 301, 516 Hume, David, 98 Hummellstown, 461, 891 Humphreys, 459 Humphreys, Charles, 611 Humphreys, James Jr., 899 Humpton, Colonel, 653 Hunt, General, 455 “Hunter” (ship) 841 Hunter, General David (Civil War), 519 Hunter, Alexander, 209 Hunter, Mrs., 462 Hunter, Robert, 23, 639 Hunter, Colonel Samuel, 61, 209, 229, 265, 295, 305, 306, 445, 461, 462, 555, 615, 616, 674, 718, 907 Hunter, Samuel H., 265 Hunter’s Mills, 23, 24, 371 Hunting Club, 834 Huntingdon, 421, 850 Huntingdon County, 70, 177, 180, 181, 219, 254, 422, 596, 619 Huntingdon Furnace, 219 Hunsicker, Daniel, 306 Hurley, Mr., 299 Hurley, Thomas, 559 Huron, Lake, 743 Hursh, Samuel, 252 Huston, 890 Huston, Hon. Charles, 179 Huston, Joseph M., 137 Hutchins, John, 921 Huyghen, Hendrick, 230 I Iam, William, 474 Impeachment:—McKean, 876 Impeachment:—Dr. Moore, 340 Impeachment:—Yeates, Shippen, Smith, 874 Inauguration:—Governor Curtin, 39, 40, 41 Inauguration:—Governor Mifflin, 895 Independence Hall, 382, 810, 883 Indian Council, 235, 236 Indian Head (Girty’s Notch), 42 Indian Helper (Publication), 523 940Indian Outrages, Berks County, 797 Indian Queen Tavern, 421 Indian Walk, 536, 747 “Indiana” (ship), 883 Indiana County, 147, 156, 181, 208, 596, 775 Ingersoll, Jared, 643, 872 Ingham, Samuel B., 69 “In God We Trust,” 433 Inland Waterways, 731 In Old Pennsylvania Towns, 744 Inquirer, Philadelphia, 435 Inskeep & Bradford, 115 Insley, Captain, 270 Institute, Hampton, 8 Institute, Tuskegee, 8 Intelligencer, Harrisburg (quoted), 568 Intelligencer, Lancaster, 767 Invasion:—Lee’s, 626 Invasion:—McCausland’s 519, 520, 521 Ironcutter, John, 27, 28, 686 Iron Foundry (Pittsburgh), 201 Iron Hill, 627 Ironsides, Old, 21, 22 Irvin, Robert, 819, 820 Irvine, James, 306 Irvine, General William, 3, 152, 176, 186, 216, 217, 240, 306, 375, 376, 545, 584, 617, 713, 739, 740, 741, 870 Irvine, Mrs. William, 713 Irwin, Joseph, 179 Irwin, Matthew, 922 Irwin, Thomas, 922 Isaac (Indian), 425 Isle of Que, 721 “Isis” (ship), 671 Italy, 327 Izard, Ralph, 915 J Jack, John, 585, 622 Jack, John, Jr., 623 Jackham, 436 Jack’s Narrows, 256 Jackson, President Andrew, 184, 263, 804 Jackson, Major, 144 Jackson, Philip, 585 Jackson, Thomas J. (Stonewall), 203, 888 Jackson, William, 643 Jackson and Sharpless, 518 Jacob, French, 343 Jacob (Indian), 176 Jacobs, Captain (Indian), 526, 619 Jacobs, Henry, 396 Jacobs, John, 484 Jacob’s “Life of Cresap” (quoted), 361 Jacobson, Rev. Henry (quoted), 513 Jacques Island, 123, 858 Jacquet, John Paul, 667 James I., 717 James II., 598 James, Duke of York, 28, 84, 446, 792 James, Edward, 30 James, Gomer, 48, 108, 559, 770 James, Joshua, 173 James’ Loyalists, 307 James, Mesheck, 761 James River, 677 Jamestown, 505, 677 Japan, 430 Jargin, Captain Hans, 792 Jarvis, 436 Jay, John, 779 Jay’s Treaty, 52, 779 Jefferson County, 87, 156, 181, 208, 596 Jefferson, Thomas, 53, 182, 194, 237, 361, 386, 460, 490, 789 Jeffries, Lieutenant, 733 Jemison, Betsy, 245 Jemison, Jane Erwin, 244 Jemison, Jesse,
246 Jemison, John, 246, 815 Jemison, Mary, 244, 813 Jemison, Matthew, 245 Jemison, Robert, 245 Jemison, Thomas, 244, 815 Jemison, Thomas, Jr., 246, 815 Jenkins “Pennsylvania Colonial and Federal,” 189, 646 Jenkins, Eleanor, 203 Jenkins, General Albert G., 707 Jenkins, James, 287 Jenkins, Major John, 438, 456 Jenkins, John M., 203 Jenkins, Joseph, 203 Jenkins, Julia Rush Miller, 202 Jenkins, William, 203 Jennings, John, Sheriff, 428 Jennings, Solomon, 650 Jenoshawdego, 732 Jericho Hill, 861 Jersey Shore, 337, 398, 461, 555, 711 Jeskakake, 126, 841 Jesuit, 86 Jockum, Peter, 792 John, Captain, 732 John (Indian), 211 “John” (ship), 340 John, Earl of Dunmore (see Dunmore) Johnnie, Coal Oil, 592 Johnson, President Andrew, 882 Johnson, General Bradley, 520, 707 Johnson (Indian), 524 Johnson, Mr., 25 Johnson, Francis, 155 Johnson, J. B., 865 Johnson, John, 622 Johnson, Sir John, 456 Johnson, Richard, 284 Johnson, General Richard W. (Union officer), 454 Johnson, Sir William, 63, 170, 235, 303, 321, 492, 773, 781 Johnstons, The Two, 367 Johnstown, 232, 377 Jonassen, Keeles, 396 Joncaire, 321, 839 Jones, 447 Jones (Indian), 26, 792 Jones, Abel, 780 Jones, Charles, 823 Jones, Henry, 396 Jones, John P., 47, 316, 557 Jones, John Paul, 410 Jones, Peter, 820 Jones, Thomas, 558, 793 Jones, U. J. (quoted), 177, 395 Jordan, Hon. Alexander, 499 Jordan, David, 630 Jordan’s Knobs, 320 Jordan’s Meeting House, 734 “Journal,” 644 Journal, Colonel James Burd’s, 686 Juan, Story of, 477 Judd, Major William, 674 Judea, 673, 903 Jumonville, 133 Juniata County, 73, 74, 181, 208, 596, 598, 918 Juniata Crossing, 178 Juniata Falls, 393 Juniata Narrows, 255 Juniata River, 63, 73, 74, 75, 619 Juniata Valley, 73, 74, 75, 619 Junkin, Eleanor, 202 Junkin, Rev. George, 202 Junkin, Margaret, 202 Junto, Philadelphia, 435, 804 Jurian, Hans, 397 Jury, First, Story of, 791 Justice, Binns’, 435 941K Kachlein, Colonel Andrew, 60 Kaercher, George, 109 Kakowwatchy, 300 Kalb, Baron de, 77 Kalbfus, Daniel, 49 Kandt (Indian), 700 Kane, Marshall, 8, 277 Kansas, 50 Kansas Bill, 50 Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 881 Katepacomen, 42 Kaye, John, 325 Kechlin, Sheriff Peter, 560 Kedar, 464 Keen, Reynold, 308 Kelso, General Thomas, 333 Kelso’s Ferry, 110 Kemble, Charles, 251 Kegs, Battle of, 12, 13, 14 Kehoe, Jack, 559 Keith, Governor Sir William, 44, 129, 160, 407, 414, 535, 536, 805, 861 Keith, Lady Ann, 807 Keith’s School, 159 Kekelappan, 436 Kektuscung (Indian), 372 Keller, Judge William H., 88 Kelly, Edward, 47, 557 Kelly, James, 254 Kelly, James K., 254 Kelly, John, 823 Kelly, Colonel John, 211, 252, 463, 468, 469, 470, 616 Kennedy, Andrew, 877 Kennedy, Mr., 664 Kennedy, Thomas B., 520 Kennedy’s Gazette, 189 Kennet Square, 504, 628 Kensington Railroad Riots, 466 Kenton, Simon, 43 Kentucky, 736 Kephart, Judge John W., 88 Kergan, Valentine, 5 Kern, Adjutant, 759 Kern, John, 306 Kernville, 378 Kerrel, Hugh, 510 Kerrigan, James, 47, 193, 315 Kessler, Rev. John, 568 Keystone State, 460 Kidnap, Plot to, Governor Snyder, 783 Kieft, William, 124, 230 Kien, Jonas, 792 Kier, Mr., 592 Kikionga, 766 Kilborn, 439 Kildea, Patrick, 847 Killbuck, Chief, 174, 281, 655, 751 Killbuck Island, 174, 283 Kilner, James, 30 Kilpatrick, General Hugh J., 453 Kimball’s Tavern, 887 King, Rufus, 872 King, Ruth, 400 King, Sarah, 400 King, Thomas, 701 King, Thomas (Indian), 236 King, William, 400 King’s Son, 620 Kingsesse, Story, 396, 580, 667 Kingsley, Mrs. Nathan, 765 Kingston, 492 Kinsman, John, 150 Kirk, General, 743 Kirk, Moses, 516 Kirkbride, Joseph, 60 Kirkpatrick, Abraham, 688 Kishcoquillas Creek, 525 Kiskiminitas, 100, 167, 838 Kittanning, 145, 258, 310, 525, 526, 619, 911 Kittanning, Hero of, 911 Kittanning Hills, 917 Kittanning Path, 619 Kiyasuta, 586 Kline, Jacob, 190 Klinesmith, Baltzer, 344 Klinesmith, Catherine, 344 Klinesmith, Elizabeth, 344 Kling, Maus, 124, 230, 609 Knight, Dr. John, 404, 815 Knipe, Captain J. P., 277, 441 Know Nothing Party, 34, 389, 863 Knox, General John, 222, 440, 861 Knyphausen, General, 308, 348, 352, 443, 503, 504, 628 Kock, Per, 231 Konigsmark, 447 Kowatz, 618 Kreitz Valley, 820 Kremer, George, 819 Krishelm, 696 Kuhn, Captain, 442 Kuhn, Simon Adam, 798 Kurtz, Rev. John Nicholas, 757 Kuskusky, 265, 424, 722 Kuskuskee, New, 425 L Labor Reform Journal, 474 Labor Riots, 646 Lacey, John, 307 Lackawanna County, 182, 208, 596, 598, 775 Lackawanna Creek, 394, 439 Lackawanna, Navigation, 131, 367 Lackawaxen, 93, 500, 651 Lacock, General Abner, 136, 201, 262, 263 “Ladies’ Home Journal,”, 532 Laersen, Neeles, 792 Lafayette College, 202 Lafayette (Indiana), 323 Lafayette, Marquis de, 2, 83, 222, 308, 309, 352, 353, 444, 445, 504, 571, 597, 603, 641, 836, 838, 863 La Grande Maison, 893 Laincourt, Count, 894 Laird, Senator, 136 Lake Erie, Battle of, 624 Lake Shore Line, 863 Lamberton, George, 446 Lambs, Gibson’s, 486 Lame Indian, Davy, the, 375 Lamon, Ward H., 812 Lancaster, 5, 34, 58, 69, 70, 71, 72, 79, 81, 121, 135, 159, 172, 235, 237, 254, 282, 288, 289, 322, 325, 331, 332, 394, 418, 427, 482, 483, 484, 508, 509 Lancaster County, 8, 23, 25, 34, 51, 60, 62, 67, 131, 134, 159, 172, 179, 180, 181, 187, 191, 206, 207, 208, 209, 210, 216, 217, 249, 252, 254, 308, 311, 320, 332, 339, 416, 419, 463, 482, 498, 505, 508, 509, 541, 564, 582, 596, 606, 617, 678, 731, 783, 821, 853, 880, 886, 896, 916 Lancaster Workhouse, 912 Land Purchase, Great, 562 Landing Day, 734 Landis, John B., 712 Langdon, F. W. S., 48, 770, 846 Langdon, John, 872 Langlon Fencibles, 474 Lansford, 47, 557 Lapacpicton, 721 La Salle, 318, 411, 841 Last Night (Indian), 700 Latta, James W., 647 Laughlin, Captain, 587 Laurel Hill, 93, 902 Laurel Hill or Range, 162, 323 Lavoisier, M., 98 Lawlor, Anne, 482 Lawmolach, 800 942“Lawrence” (ship), 625 Lawrence County, 147, 156, 181, 185, 309, 361, 596, 597 Lawrence, John, 418 Lawrence, Thomas, 693 Lawshe’s Hotel, 878 Lawson, Alexander, 580 Lawson, James, 249 Lawunakhanna, 424, 425 Leach, Thomas, 382 Lebanon, 247, 381, 732 Lebanon County, 25, 66, 131, 181, 564, 582, 596, 837 Lebanon, Fort (see Fort Lebanon) Lebanon Valley Railroad, 242 Lebo, Mr. H., 33, 34, 35 LeBoeuf
(see Fort LeBoeuf) Lechmere’s Point, 509, 606 Ledger, Evening Public, 533 Ledger, Pennsylvania, 899 Ledger, The Public, 533 Lee, Arthur, 308, 914 Lee, Charles, 835 Lee, Eliza, 556 Lee, Fitzhugh, 442 Lee, John, 554 Lee, Mrs. John, 554, 555, 556 Lee, Rebecca, 556 Lee, Richard Henry, 419, 459, 689, 915 Lee, Robert, 555, 556 Lee, General Robert E., 203, 222, 280, 624, 707 Lee, Thomas, 555, 556 Lee’s Invasion, 40 Leet, Daniel, 164 Leffler, Jacob, 282 Legion, Wayne’s, 572 Lehigh Coal & Navigation Company, 111, 131 Lehigh County, 181, 190, 596, 598 Lehigh Water Gap, 651 Lehigh and Wilkes-Barre Coal Company, 48, 846 Lehighton, 579 Leib, Dr. Michael, 434, 783, 803, 804, 876 Leib, Duane & Company, 435 Leininger, Barbara, 722 Leininger, Rachel, 722 Leipers Stone Quarry, 838 Lemon, Thomas, 209 Leonard, Patrick, 201 LeRoy, Anna, 723 LeRoy, Marie, 722 LeRoy, Jacob, 722 Lesher, John, 485 Leslie, Andrew, 561 Letchworth Park, 246 Letitia House, 75 Le Tort, James, 415, 553, 884 “Levant” (ship), 583 Level Corner (Pennsylvania), 555 Lewis, Andrew, 655 Lewis, David, 217, 222 Lewis, Ellis, 191, 669 Lewis, Elijah, 8 Lewis, Major, 637 Lewis, Margaret Lynn, 145 Lewis, Robert, 60 Lewis Township, 614 Lewis, William, 895 Lewisburg, 9, 432, 554, 772 Lewistown, 277, 525, 630, 918 Lewistown Riot, 630 Lexington Battle, 18, 54, 60, 81, 290 Lexington, Virginia, 203 Liberator, The, 6 Liberties, 373 Liberty Bell, 81, 382, 504 Liberty Island, 324 Library, Philadelphia, 45 Lick, John, 722 Lick, Peter, 722 Lick, William, 722 “Life of Cresap,” Jacob’s, 363 Life of Zinzindorf, 866 Ligneris, M. de, 828 Ligonier, 100, 148, 309, 388, 489 Ligonier, Fort (see Fort Ligonier) Ligonier Valley, 148, 309 Lince, Dennis, 150 Lincoln, Abraham, 40, 196, 270, 301, 326, 433, 501, 740, 810, 888 Lincoln, Mordecai, 301 Lincoln University, 8 Lincoln’s Address, 810 Linden, 557 Linden, R. J., 109, 315 Lindstorm, 666 Line, Pennsylvania, 1, 2, 3 Linn, John Blair, 27, 189, 261, 445 Linn, William, 486 Linn, Judge William B., 88 Linneas, Carlolus, 212 Lititz, 159, 602 Littell, John S., 285 Little Beard, Chief, 814 Little Beard’s Town, 138, 633 Little Billy, 241 Little Britain Township, 564 Little Castle, 633 Little Conewaugh River, 377 Little, John, 515, 516 Little, Kanawha, 528 Little Meadows, 470 Little Raccoon Creek, 585 Little Schuylkill, Navigation, 232, 242 Little Tinicum, 858 Little Turtle (Indian), 766 Littlehales, William H., 48, 192, 193, 194, 846 Liverpool, 41, 721 “Liverpool” (ship), 324, 671 Livezey, Thomas, 284 Livingston, Colonel Henry, 367 Livingston, Edward, 901 Livingston, Harriet, 566 Livingston, Philip, 872 Livingston, Robert R., 459, 566 Livingston, Walter, 566 Lloyd, David, 159 Lloyd, Hugh, 60 Lloyd, Susan, 71 Lloyd, Thomas, 59, 71, 85, 128, 682, 843 Lock, 610 Lock, Carolus, 447 Lock Haven, 221, 228, 433, 473, 475, 614, 770, 911 Lockman, Rev. Dr. A., 4 Lockport Run, 415 Lochiel Hotel, 852 Lockrey, Archibald, 101, 149, 163, 164, 527, 731 Lochry Expedition, 480 Lochry’s Run, 529 Lochrey, William, 178 Lodge, Grand F. & A. M., 332 Lodge, Jonathan, 209 Lodge, No. 22, of Sunbury, 332 Lodge, Perseverance No. 21, Harrisburg, 891 Loe, Thomas, 715 Loeoch’s George, 16 Logan, Chief, 361, 721 Logan Guards, 277 Logan, Hannah, 753 Logan, James, 57, 75, 77, 160, 161, 213, 300, 338, 361, 408, 449, 500, 536, 669, 682, 748, 752, 763, 765, 806, 866, 885 Logan, James (Indian), 886 Logan, Patrick, 752 Logan, Sir Robert, 752 Loganton, 772 Logstown, 126, 321, 489, 800, 839 Loller, Robert, 380 943Lomas, William, 250 Lomison, Hamelius, 820 London, 45, 677, 829 London Company, 659 London Corresponding Society, 802 London Tower, 434, 598 “Long Finn,”, 447 Long House, 448 Long, Joseph, 623 Long Narrows, 630 Long, Peter, 750 Longnecker, Speaker, 724 Longstreet, 453, 706 “Long Talk,”, 434 Lords of Trade, 323 Lorimer, George Horace, 533 Loskiel (quoted), 885 Lossing (quoted), 363 Lost Sister of Wyoming, 765 Lotteries, 274, 285 Louis XIV., 412 Louis XVII., 892 Louisiana, 487 Lovelace, Francis, 446 Low, Captain John S., 442 Lowden, John, 508 Lowdon, John, 209, 210 Lower Counties, 92, 843 Lower Smithfield Township, 235 Lowescroft, 165 Lowrey, 70 Lowrey, Morrow B., 865 Loyalhanna, 100, 149, 827 Loyalists, Hovenden’s, 307 Loyalists, James’, 307 Loyalist Politician, 593 Loyalsock Creek, 400 Loxley, Benjamin, 292 Lucas, Robert, 530 Ludget, Joseph, 474 Ludwig, Mary, 712 Ludwig, John George, 712 Lukens, Charles, 305, 422 Lukens, Jesse, 209, 902, 908 Lukens, John, 10, 101, 385, 422, 496, 662, 908 “Lumber City,”, 472 Lumm, Mary, 355 Lurgan Township, 10 Lundy’s Lane, 334 Luzerne County, 131, 135, 180, 181, 182, 208, 216, 299, 440, 563, 564, 596, 597, 775, 854, 893 Luzerne, M. de, 426 Lycans, Andrew, 172, 173, 174 Lycans, John, 173, 174 Lycoming County, 33, 121, 180, 181, 208, 212, 366, 398, 432, 474, 587, 596, 598, 639, 673, 775, 893 Lycoming Creek Massacre, Story, 400 Lycoming Gazette, 498 Lycoming River, 618 Lyderberg, Ambassador, 666 Lykens Valley, 172, 173, 174 Lynchburg, Virginia, 146 Lyon, Lieutenant, 418 Lyon, Patrick, 860 Lyttleton, Fort, 918 M MacDonald, Jane, 10 MacDonald, John, 515, 516, 614 Macgungie, 33 Machree, Widow, 558 Mack, Rev. John Martin, 16, 17, 475, 575, 867 Mackey, Aeneas, 145, 149 Mackey, Justice, 660 Mackinet, Daniel, 283 Maclay, Major Charles, 877 Maclay, Samuel, 732 Maclay, William, 9, 82, 155, 209, 461, 496, 674, 746 MacLean, David M., 518 Maconaquah, 767 Macpherson, General William, 191 Macpherson Blues, 900 Macready, William Charles, 251 Madgeburg, 15 Madison, James, 263, 662, 708, 872 Magraw, Colonel Robert, 179, 248, 508, 908 Magaw, William, 508 Magazine, “American,” The, 116 Magazine, “American” (Dr. Smith), 117 Magazine First, 115, 116, 117 Magazine, “General,” The, 116 Magazine, “Godey’s,” The, 117 Magazine, “Graham’s,”, 117 Magazine, “Harper’s,”, 117 Magazine, North American Review, 117 Magazine, “Peterson’s,”, 117 Magazine, “Scribner’s,”, 117 Maghingue-Chahocking (Pennsylvania), 551 Magistrate’s Manual, 435 Maguire, Bartholomew, 422 Maguire, Jane, 422 Maguires, Mollie, 47, 107, 192, 314, 557, 768, 845 Mahantango Creek, 16, 684 Mahoning, 309 Mahanoy City, 48 Mahanoy Creek, 16, 23, 73, 185, 227, 267, 408, 746 Mahanoy Mountains, 16 Mahanoy Valley, 558 Maidstone Jail, 434 Major, George, 48, 768 Major, Jesse, 770 Major, William,
769 Molatton, 302 Malchaloa, 436 Malden, 44 Malibor, 436 Malloy, John, 847 Malone, Laughlin, 823 Maloney, Thomas, 473 Malvern Station, 653 Manada Gap, 173, 757 Manatawney, 300, 690 Manatawney Creek, 242 Manawhyhickon, 301 Manear, Samuel, 33, 34, 35 Man from Maine, 532 Manhattan, 112 Mann, Abraham, 341 Mann, William B., 279 Manor of Pittsburgh, 200, 489 Manor of Stoke, 102 Mansions of Bucks County as Headquarters, 861 Manual Labor Academy, 202 Marcus Hook, 334, 583 Margaret, French, 540 Maris, Mary, 212 Market House, 690 Market Street Bridge, 503 Markham, Governor William, 28, 167, 328, 340, 530, 599, 649, 755, 843 Marlborough Township, 437 Markoe, Peter, 292 Marr (attorney), 192 Marsh Creek, 244, 452 Marshall College, 624 Marshall, Edward, 536, 650 Marshall, John, 382, 688, 910 Marshall, O. H. (quoted), 412, 546 Marshall’s Mill, 264 Marshe, Witham, 639 Marshel, County Lieutenant, 164 Martin, Joseph, 510 Martin, Luther, 872 Martin, Robert, 484 944Martin, Walter, 150 Mary Ann Furnace, 483 Mary, Queen, 832 Maryland, 39, 921 Maske, Manor of, 416 Mason, Charles, 919 Mason, Rev. D., 4 Mason, David, 20, 21 Mason, John, 2, 3, 286 Mason, Richard, 860 Mason’s Leaning Tower, 286 Mason and Dixon’s Line, 50, 102, 203, 240, 385, 414, 661, 708, 821, 919 Masonic Ceremonies, 21 Masonic Inn, 139 Masonic Song, 139 Masonry, 889 Massacre, Allens’, 344 Massacre, Cherry Valley, 366 Massacre, Conocheague, 510 Massacre, Conestoga, 305 Massacre, Crooked Billet, 307 Massacre, French Jacob’s, 343 Massacre, Juanita Valley, 73, 74, 75 Massacre, Mahanoy Creek, 23, 726 Massacre, Paoli Massacre, Patterson’s, Story, 684 Massacre, Penn’s Creek, 23, 720 Massacre, Standing Stone, 421 Massacre, Sugar Loaf, 616 Massacre, Williamsport, 400 Massacre, Wyoming, 366, 456, 718 Master, 106 Matilde (ship), 383 Matlack, Timothy, 11, 60, 68, 485, 731 Matson’s Ford, 309, 352 Mattahoorn, 230 Matthews, 348 Mattson, Henrich, 231 Mattson, Margaret, 150 Mattson, Neels, 150 Mauch Chunk, 47, 111, 232, 557, 839 Maull, William M., 369 Maxwell, James, 622 Maxwell, General William, 367, 443, 503, 628, 690 Maxwell’s Light Infantry, 628 Mayer, Mr., 363 Maynard, Quincy, 299 McAllister, Abdiel, 699 McAllister, Archibald, 698, 699 McAllister, Julian, 700 McAllister, Charles, 315 McAllister, Lieutenant, 306, 315 McAllister, Matthew, 700 McAllister, Richard, 570, 697 McAllister’s Gap, 10 McBride, Hannah, 264 McCall, George A., 280 McCalmont, James, 622 McCann, Landlord, 769 McCarron, Barney, 314 McCarty, Henry J., 88 McCausland, 519, 520, 521, 624, 707 McClain, Jennie, 685 McClelland, John, 163, 220 McClenachen, Blair, 215, 693, 922 McClintock, D., 623 McClellan, General George B., 889 McClure, Alexander K., 521, 864 McClure, Mrs. A. K., 521 McConkey, Elridge, 280 McConkey’s Ferry, 909 McConnell, John, 623 McConnellsburg, 707 McCormack’s Tavern, 266 McCoy, Captain, 616 McCoy, Robert, 830 McCrea, Robert, 177 McCullom, Father, 521 McCullough, Archibald, 511 McCullough, Elizabeth, 510 McCullough, James, 510 McCullough, James, Sr., 510 McCullough, John, 153, 510 McCullough Massacre, Story, 510 McCullough, Mary, 510 McCullough, Robert, 680 McCullough, Thomas, 680 McDevitt, James H., 500 McDonald, Captain, 637 McDonald, Captain John, 188, 326, 367, 614, 814 McDonald, Captain E., 277 McDonald, James, 510 McDonald, William, 510 McDougall, General Alexander, 670, 690, 691 McDowell, John, 761 McDowell, William, 623 McDowell, William H., 520 McDowell’s Mills, 280, 319, 760, 830 McElhattan, 772 McEwensville, 515 McFadden, Jackson, 252 McFarland, Colonel, 632 McFarland, Daniel, 319, 830 McFarlane, Andrew, Story, 145, 146, 147 McFarlane, James, 145 McFarlane, Justice, 660 McFarlane, Margaret, 145 McGehan, Hugh, 193, 314, 557 McGinsey, Joseph A., 6 McGrady, Alexander, 819 McHenry, James, 189 McHenry, Thomas, 891 McHugh, Peter, 49 McIntire, Henry M., 279 McIntosh, Fort (see Fort McIntosh) McIntosh, Colonel Lachlan, 140, 226, 311, 618 McKean County, 156, 181, 182, 208, 596 McKean, Samuel, 69 McKean, General Thomas, 60, 72, 159, 182, 216, 419, 605, 803, 874, 875, 876, 895, 896 McKee, 258 McKee, Alexander, 43, 64, 224, 574 McKee, James, 64 McKee, Thomas, 16, 24, 25, 62, 63, 64, 236, 394, 798 McKee’s Half Falls, 64 McKee’s Rocks, 64, 224 McKenna, James, 47, 108, 192, 193, 194, 314, 557, 768, 845 McKenna, Patrick, 847 McKinley, John, 405 McKnight, William, 296 McKnight, Captain James, 277 McKnight, James, Capture of, 295 McKnight, Mrs. James, 296 McKnight, Dr. Charles, 602 McLane, Captain Allen, 349, 352, 693 McLaughlin, James, 732 McLaughlin, Samuel, 343 McLean, John W., 279 McLellan, William, 520 McManning, Daniel, 265 McMeen, William, 306 McMullen, Daniel, 474 McParlan, James, 47, 108, 109, 192, 193, 194, 314, 557, 768, 845 McPherson, Hon. Edward, 811 McPherson, Hon., Donald P., 811 McPherson, John, 820 McQuoid, Anthony, 510 McQuoid, James, 510 McWilliams, Hugh, 906 Meads, David, 733 Meade, General George Gordon, 451, 882 Meadville, 119, 333, 733, 834 Mease, James, 922 Meens, 287 Meginness, John F., 588 Mendenhall, Ann, 212 945Mehaffy, Andrew, 499 Mellen, Mrs. Sarah, 369 Memorials of Moravian Church, 541, 575 Meng, Christopher, 283 Mennonite, 318 Mennonite Meeting House, 691 Mercer County, 156, 181, 185, 208, 596, 597 Mercer, General Hugh, 70, 496, 607, 619, 909 Mercer, William A., 524 Mercersburg, 6, 288, 519, 623, 707 Mercersburg Academy, 624 Mercier, Chevalier, 126 Mercury, 115, 130, 386, 518, 897, 900 Mercury, Transit of, 386 Meredith, Hugh, 898 Meredith, Samuel, 292, 357, 922 Methodist Episcopal Sunday School Union, 327 Meredith, William M., 646 Merlin (ship), 672 Merricks, Hannah, 862 Merricks, Robert 861 Merricks, Samuel, 862 Merrill, Jesse, 252, 568 Merritt, Jesse, 474 Metoxen (Indian), 524 Metuchen Hills, 690 Metzger, John, 820 Mexican War, 879 Mexico (Pennsylvania), 525, 918 Mexico, 685 Mey, Cape, 589 Mey, Cornelius Jacobson, 589, 856 Meyer, E., 228 Miami College, 202 Michener, John H., 249 Michler, Representative, 854 Middleburgh, 27 Middle Creek, 26 Middletown, 130, 136, 248, 891 Middletown Zouaves, 473 Middlesworth, Honorable Ner, 568 Mieley, Henry, 26 Mieley, Martin, 26 Mieker, 50 Mifflin County, 180, 181, 208, 216, 218, 596, 597, 630 Mifflin Fort, Siege of, Story, 670 Mifflin, Samuel, 780, 922 Mifflin, General Thomas, 69, 72, 152, 191, 216, 247, 262, 268, 292, 357, 505, 597, 604, 605, 611, 612, 643, 668, 679, 689, 694, 777, 816, 817, 834, 836, 872, 895, 909, 922 Mifflinburg, 210 Mifflintown, 860 Miles, Captain, 357 Miles Family, 154 Miles, James, 326 Miles,
Nathan, 395 Miles, Colonel Samuel, 545, 570, 908, 922 Miles, William, 154 Milford, 493 Militia, 45, 59, 204, 237, 508 Mill Creek, 102, 124, 560, 799 Mill Hall, 474 Mill, Henry, 118 Millard, Thomas, 150 Miller, Henry, 570, 899 Miller, Jeremiah, 299 Miller, John, 179 Miller, Lieutenant, 273 Miller, Nicholas, 209 Miller, Peter, 463, 465 Miller, Robert, 812 Miller, Locomotive, The, 22 Miller, Thomas Craig, 853 Miller, William, 177 Millersburg, 797 Miller’s Station, 480 Millerstown, 247 Millersville State Normal, 51 Millet, Abraham, 508 Mills, Captain, 694 Mills, Samuel, 60 Mills, Stephen, 136 Millville, 378 Milroy, 707 Milton, 116, 188, 189, 202, 298, 306, 326, 327, 402, 433, 491, 499, 515, 516, 615, 673, 674, 708, 723, 860, 881 Miner, Charles (quoted), 429, 634 Mineral Point, 378 Mingo, Bottom, 175 Mingo, White, 26 Minisink, 493, 500 Minisink, Battle of, 500 Minquas-kill, 230 Minshall, Joshua, 338, 364, 823 Mint, Story, 237 Minuit, Peter, 123, 590 Mischianza, 308, 347, 352, 417 Mispillon, 230 Missouri Compromise, 389 Mitchell, Alexander, 823 Mitchell, James, 415, 823 Mitchell, John, 823 Mitcheltree, Hugh, 685 Mob, 630, 695 Mock, Alexander, 463 Moens, Hans, 792 Mogulbughtition Creek, 185 Mohawk Valley, 322 Mollie Maguires, 47, 107, 192, 314, 557, 768, 845 Monacatootha, 227, 728, 800 Monckton, Henry, 444 Monmouth, Battle of, 443, 712 Monmouth Court House, 443 Monocacy Creek, 313 Monongahela, 38, 52, 201, 517 Monongahela Navigation, 131 Monongalia County, Va., 163, 489 Monroe County, 181, 235, 448, 564, 596, 651, 710 Monroe, President James, 53, 263, 837 Monroe, Timothy, 568 Montelius, 854 Montgomery, 828 Montgomery (ship), 324, 417, 910 Montgomery, Colonel John, 908 Montgomery County, 60, 131, 180, 190, 191, 215, 307, 335, 336, 380, 596, 603, 645 Montgomery, Fort (see Fort Montgomery) Montgomery, John, 614, 615, 616 Montgomery, Thomas, 780 Montgomery Township, Franklin County, 510 Montgomery, William, 60 Montluissant, Monsieur, 348 Montour, Andrew, 227, 305, 321, 476, 597, 638, 727, 728, 868 Montour County, 118, 120, 181, 208, 432, 596, 597, 775 Montour, Henry, 597 Montour, John, 282, 638, 751 Montour, Lewis, 235, 638 Montour, Madame, 235, 553, 597, 638, 751, 868 Montour Mills, 232 Montour, Monsieur, 770 Montour, Queen Esther, 457 Montour, Robert, 638 Montour, Rowland, 638 Montoursville, 868 Montreal, 704 Montule, M. Le, 893 Moodie, Robert, 209, 674 Moore, James, 60 Moore, Jesse, 154 Moore, Philip, 922 Moore, Robert, 177 Moore, Samuel, 239 Moore, William, 708 Mooresburg, 118 946Moorehead, Samuel, 146 Morse, Samuel F. B., 431 Moravian Seminary and College for Women, 223 Moravian Mission, Story, 359 Moravian Synod, 31 Moravians, 31, 105, 223, 359, 475, 824 Moravians, Slaughter of, 824 Moravians Visit Great Island, 475 More, Doctor Nicholas, 340, 373, 756 Moreland, 342 More’s, 248 Morin, Monsieur, 840 Morgan, “Captain” William, 557, 850, 890 Morgan, Commissioner, 268 Morgan, Colonel Daniel, 352, 485, 870, 908 Morgan, George, 323 Morgan, Jacob, 484 Morgan, Dr. John, 224, 922 Morgan, Rice, 822 Morgan’s Riflemen, 352 Morgan, William, Story, 567 Morory (quoted), 811 Morrell, Isaac, 333 Morris, Agnes, 696 Morris, Major Anthony, 159, 267, 696, 871, 910 Morris, Cadwallader, 922 Morris, Gouveneur, 643 Morris, John, 484, 561 Morris, Mr., of Baltimore, 298 Morris, Robert, 18, 19, 24, 78, 80, 106, 133, 237, 308, 335, 355, 358, 409, 459, 460, 469, 483, 497, 595, 643, 693, 779, 872, 893, 915, 921, 922 Morris, Governor Robert Hunter, 59, 63, 65, 67, 72, 133, 227, 267, 268, 272, 273, 319, 320, 321, 370, 371, 393, 394, 395, 526, 619, 722, 726, 757, 758, 759, 760, 761, 762, 797, 916 Morris, Captain Samuel, 910, 922 Morris, Samuel C., 419, 693 Morris House, 358 Morristown, New Jersey, 1, 223, 848, 910 Morrisville, 143, 838, 861 Morrow, William, 680 Morton, Rev. Allan John, 846 Morton, John, 459, 611, 613, 779 Morton, Robert, 459 Mosse, Thomas, 150 Mother of Counties, 180, 500 Mott, James, 7, 8 Mott, Henry, S., 390 Mott, Lucretia, 6, 7, 8 Moulder, Joseph, 292 Mount Carbon, 242 Mount Carmel, 110 Mount Frederick School, 32, 33 Mount Joy, 217, 307 Mount Laffee, 47 Mount Washington, 201 Moylan, Stephen, 55 Mud Island, 381, 670 Muddy Run, 615 Muench, Robert L., 500 Muhlenberg, David, 215, 645 Muhlenberg, Frederick Augustus, 247, 644, 795 Muhlenberg, Henry Augustus, 889 Muhlenberg, Henry MelchiorMelchior, 513 Muhlenberg, John Peter Gabriel, 186 Muir, David, 47, 192, 845 Mulhearn, Edward, 49 Muncy, 515, 542 Muncy Creek, 673 Muncy, Fort, 515 Muncy Hill, 295, 515, 615, 911 Muncy, Manor of, 260 Municipal Council of Philadelphia, 46 Munley, Thomas, 107, 193, 316 Murdering Town, 800 Murphy, Philip, 30 Murphy, Robert S., 9 Murphy, Timothy, 634 Murray, James, 674 Murray & Kean’s Company, 270 Murray, Thomas, 820 Musemelin, 254 Musgrave, 652 Muskingum, 42, 169, 304 Muskwink, 494 Mutiny in Pennsylvania Line, 1, 709 Myers, Henry, 334 Myerstown, 679 N Nagel, George, 209, 508 Naglee, Jacob, 284 Nain, 711, 712, 781 Nantes, 914 Nanticoke Falls, 906 Nanticoke Indians, 17 Nantucket, 6 Napoleon, 893 Nash, 690 Nathaniel, 540 National Artillery, 277 Native American Party, 49, 881 Native American Riots, 466 Naugel, Frederic, 179 Navy, Pennsylvania, 324 Nazareth, 33, 110, 267, 312, 513 Nazareth, Lower Township, 312 Nazareth, Upper Township, 312 Neal, Captain, 910 Neal, Thomas, 832 Nealson, Peter, 396 Nebinger, Dr. Andrew, 369 Nebinger, Dr. George, 369 Needham, 97 Neely’s Mill, 862 Neepaheilomon, 650 Negley’s Run, 375 Negro School, 312 Neily, Samuel, 510 Nertunius, 666 Nesbitt, J. M., 922 Nescopeck, 75 Nescopeck Creek, 905 Nescopeck Falls, 299 Nescopeck Path, 577 Neshaminy, 57, 313, 437, 863 Neshaminy Lock Navigation, 131 Neversink, 494 Neville, General John, 488, 688, 728 Neville, Morgan, 518 New Amstel, 446 New Amsterdam, 446 New Bergen, 96 New Berlin, 343, 567, 568, 722 New Castle, Chief, 273 New Castle (Delaware), 30, 166, 324, 328, 919 New Castle (Pennsylvania), 147, 446, 491 Newcomer, King, 750 New Cumberland, 300 New England Magazine, The, 643 New France, 589 New Garden, 628 Newgen, 266 New Geneva, 52 New Gnadenhutten, 917 New Gottenberg, 124, 608 New Hanover Township, 31 New Hope, 863, 909 New Jersey College, 59 New Korsholm, 124 Newman, Wingate, 325 New London, 302 New Netherlands, 165 New Norway, 96 New
Olive Branch, The, 642 New Orleans, 487, 583, 838, 901 947New Orleans, Battle of, 583 New Orleans (ship), 201 Newport, C., 676 Newport, 503 Newport (Rhode Island), 113 New Philadelphia, 282 News of Revolution, 290 New Sweden, 123 Newton, 451 Newtown, 367, 664, 682 New York, 2, 53, 446, 459, 509, 530, 566, 779, 832, 833, 834, 923 New York Advertiser, The, 641 New York Central Railroad, 863 New York Historical Society, 54 New Years, 1, 81 New Wales, 166 Niagara, 704 Niagara Falls, 580 Niagara, Fort (see Fort Niagara) Niagara (ship), 625 Nickerson, 812 Nicholas (Indian), 437 Nicholas, Catherine, 73 Nicholas, Edward, 73 Nicholas, Thomas, 73 Nicholls, Colonel Richard, 446 Nichols, Anthony, 859 Nichols, General, 694 Nicholson, Adam, 74 Nicholson, Joseph, 750 Nickles, Mrs. Grace, 369 Nicole, 764 Nicolls, John, 108 Nielson, Jonas, 396 Nieu Causeland, 667 Nikes, 700 Nile, 894 Nimwha, 656 Nine Mile Run, 636 Nine Partners Boarding School, 6 Ninth, Pennsylvania, 188 Nippenose Valley, 33, 337, 772 Nisbet, Rev. Charles, 248 Nitschmann, Anna, 513, 868 Nitschmann, Bishop David, 313, 513 Nitschmann, Martin, [825] Nitschmann, Susanna, 826 Nittany Mountains, 344 Nixon, Colonel John, 292, 909, 922 Noailles, Viscount Louis Marie de, 892 Nonowland, Chief, 169, 174, 282 Norbury, Joseph, 350 Nord, Edward, [610] Norland, 521 Norris, Isaac, 77, 318, 382, 594, 657, 682, 782, 806 Norristown, 380, 602 Norriton, 380, 385 North American, The, 813 Northampton County, 11, 61, 67, 102, 103, 131, 141, 180, 181, 182, 190, 207, 208, 210, 235, 267, 312, 416, 419, 428, 429, 492, 508, 596, 606, 651, 719, 839, 854, 867, 904, 911, 916 North Branch of Susquehanna Canal, 132 Northern Central Railroad, 499 Northern Governors, 40 Northern Liberties, 242, 712 North, Lord Frederick, 328 Northumberland, 136, 298, 402, 461, 546, 553, 555, 556, 558, 633, 723, 732, 803, 876, 877, 878, 904 Northumberland County, 11, 33, 61, 63, 66, 72, 93, 137, 139, 177, 180, 181, 187, 188, 189, 202, 207, 210, 216, 252, 296, 326, 331, 332, 334, 337, 344, 416, 420, 432, 438, 445, 469, 496, 499, 500, 508, 509, 551, 556, 564, 596, 606, 614, 617, 639, 675, 686, 708, 731, 739, 775, 814, 819, 820, 892, 895, 903, 904, 905 Northumberland County Soldiers’ Monument Association, 500 Northumberland Gazette, The, 803, 878 Natchez, 487 Notes on Virginia, Jefferson’s (quoted), 361 Nutimus, King, 450, 540, 563 Nya Wasa, 667 Nyckel, Kalmer, 609 O Oakdale, 174 Oakes, James, 249 Oak Hall, 453 O'Connor’s Fields, 479 Octorora Creek, 180 Octorora Navigation, 132 Odd Fellowship, 855, 890 O'Donnell, Patrick, 827 Ogashtash, 562 Ogden, Amos, 102, 103, 428, 559, 560, 561, 673 Ogden, James, 2, 3 Ogden, Nathan, 103, 560, 673 Ogdensburg, 334, 578 Oghagradisha, 228, 394 Ogle, Governor Samuel, 364, 414 Ogle, John, 282, 822 OglethorpeOglethorpe, James Edward, 313 O'Hara, General James, 200, 901 Ohio Company, 99, 841 Ohio County, Virginia, 163, 282, 489 Oil City, 593 Oil Creek, 551, 591 Oil Creek Valley, 591 Oil, Story of, 591 Okley, John, 513 Old Fort House, 178, 221 Old Log College, 57 Old Military Plan, 200 Old Mother Northumberland, 180, 207 Old School, Oliver, 115 Old South Church, 44 Old York Road, 753 Olden, Colonel, 367 Oleona, 96 Oley, 33, 463, 512 Oliver, George S., 519 Olympic Games, 523 Omit’s Hotel, 35 Onas, 449 “One of the People,” 803 O'Neal, John, 657 Ongwaternohiat-he, 884 Onkhiswathe-tani, 884 Onondaga, 15, 16, 63, 227 Onondaga Castle, 562 “Onrust” (ship), 590 Op-den-Graeffs, 112, 696 Opden Graeff, Abraham, 696 Opden Graeff, Dirck, 696 Opekasset, 301 Orange County, New York, 492 Ord, George, 581 Organization of Counties, 179, 180, 181 Orian, William, 396, 792 Orlady, Judge George W., 88 Ormsby, John, 149, 201 Orne, Richard, 150 Ornithologist, American, 579 Orr, Robert, 527 Orrery, 385 Orrery, Earl of, 385 Ontario County, 597 Oswald, Eleazer, 641 Ostenwackin, 639 Oswegy, 775 Otsego, 323 Otto, Bodo, Doctor, 224 Otzinachson, 399, 722 “Otzinachson” (quoted), 588 Owego, 299 948Owen, Evan, 374 Oxenstierna, Axel, 229 Oxford, 46, 97, 313 Oxygen, 97, 98, 99 P “P,” 531 Packenah, 436 Pack Horses, 134 Pack Trains, 169 Packer Guards, 474 Packer, Governor William F., 498, 724 Packer’s Island, 554 Packet, 644 Packet boats, 201 Paddy Mountain, 722 Paganini, 94 Page, T., 662 Paine, Thomas, 70, 571 Paisley (Scotland), 579, 601 Palatines, 406 Palatinate, 31, 149 Palestine, 327 Palmer, Anthony, 316, 749 Pananke, Chief, 425 Pan Handle, 489 Paoli, 307, 607, 651, 668, 690, 848 Paoli Massacre, Story, 651 Paoli Tavern, 652 Papegoja, Johan, 125, 609, 667 Papegoja, Madame, 447 Paper Mill, First, 128, 129, 130, 201 Paper Money, 160 Papunhank, 359 Parade, Bloody 84th, 350 Paradise, 614 Paradise, Point, 230 Park Theatre, 251 Parker, Michael, 635 Parker’s Ford, 667 Parkinson’s Ferry, 52, 688 Parnassus, 167 Parnell’s Knob, 761 Parr, James, 209, 352, 367 Parson, Fighting, 236 Parsons, John, 150 Parsons, Major, 575 Parsons, William, 235, 917 Partsch, Brother, 825 Partsch, Sister, 825 Parvin, Benjamin, 359 Paschal, Isaac, 860 Pass & Stow, 383 Passamaquoddy, 51 Passmore, Thomas, 874 Passyunk, 323, 667 Pastorius, Francis D., 112, 113, 159, 695 Path Valley, 265, 320, 623, 761 Patosky, 894 Patriotic Order Sons of America, 712 Patterson, Colonel Robert, 503 Patterson, Fort, 918 Patterson, James, 684, 761, 821 Patterson’s Massacre, Story, 684, 918 Patterson, Mr., 298 Patterson, Robert, 853 Patterson, William, 27, 614, 684, 918 Pattison, Governor Robert E., 735 Patton, Matthew, 761 Pawling, Henry, 623 Pauling, John, 301 Paullsson, Olaf, 231 Paulus Hook, New Jersey, 566 Paxinoso, 540, 563, 575 Paxson, Henry D., 610 Paxson, Miss Nancy, 608 Paxtang, 300, 461, 498, 553, 554, 560, 587, 594, 614, 718, 726, 764, 781, 911 Paxtang Boys, 105, 187, 560, 594, 718, 781, 911 Paxtang Riot, 594 Paxton, 299 Paxton Presbyterian Church, 236, 498, 746, 911 Paxton, Samuel, 179 Payne, George F., 137 Peach Orchard, 453 Peale, Charles W., 426 Peale, Franklin, 21 Pearl (ship), 671 Pearce, Henry W., 369 Pearson, 755 Pearson, James, 385 Peart, Benjamin, 577 Peart, Thomas, 577 Pechoquealon, 300, 501 Peepy, Joe, 235, 540 Pemberton, Israel, 187, 913 Pence, Peter, 209, 210, 211 Penn Family, 489, 492 Penn, Fort, 918
Penn, Gulielma Maria, 844 Penn, Hannah Callowhill, 330 Penn, John, 75, 92, 93, 94, 101, 102, 103, 105, 106, 107, 145, 171, 177, 198, 247, 304, 305, 316, 330, 338, 391, 399, 428, 429, 482, 496, 535, 536, 559, 613, 649, 660, 661, 674, 712, 748, 774, 779, 781, 787, 903, 912, 913, 919 Penn, Marie Cox, 392 Penn, Mrs., 715 Penn, Mount, 247 Penn, Richard, 92, 105, 106, 197, 391, 414, 535, 536, 747 Penn, Springett, 414, 805 Penn, Thomas, 92, 105, 247, 330, 338, 339, 364, 391, 392, 496, 535, 536, 649, 747, 919 Penn, William, 4, 5, 28, 29, 61, 69, 75, 76, 77, 84, 100, 105, 106, 128, 130, 150, 158, 165, 179, 205, 247, 273, 293, 328, 329, 330, 336, 340, 341, 372, 373, 374, 414, 415, 416, 436, 448, 489, 492, 493, 530, 531, 534, 552, 596, 598, 648, 649, 650, 660, 682, 695, 715, 734, 752, 754, 763, 805, 821, 832, 843, 919 Penn, Sir William, 165, 391, 715 Pennamite-Yankee Wars, 103, 207, 428, 492, 673, 903, 905 Pennsborough Township, 172 Pennsbury, 530 Penn’s Creek, 73, 227, 228, 267, 318, 476, 773 Penn’s Creek Massacre, Story, 720, 757 Penn’s Valley, 221 Penn’s Woods, 649 Pennsylvania Canal, 41 Pennsylvania Chronicle and Universal Advertiser, 899 “Pennsylvania Colonial and Federal,” 189, 646 Pennsylvania Dutchmen, 803, 876 Pennsylvania Evening Post, 900 Pennsylvania German Recorder of Events, 899 Pennsylvania Hall, 7, 466 Pennsylvania Hall Riot, 466 Pennsylvania Journal and Weekly Advertiser, The, 899 Pennsylvania, The Keystone, 643 Pennsylvania Ledger, The, 899 Pennsylvania Line, 1, 849 Pennsylvania Packet, The, 899 Pennsylvania Population Company, 154 Pennsylvania Railroad, 37, 38, 48, 232, 618, 723, 863 Pennsylvania State Works, 36 Pennsylvania Training School for Feeble Minded, 881 Pennsylvania University, 45, 54 Penny, Charles, 252 Pennypack Creek, 436 Pennypacker, Samuel W., 137, 643 Pennypacker’s Mills, 690 Penobscot, 678 949Penrose, Charles B., 35, 851, 855 Penrose, W. M., 441 Pentecost, Dorsey, 163 Pequea, 764 Pequea Creek, 300 Pequea Township, 821 Pequehan, 764 “Perfect Tribute” (quoted), 811 Perkins, Samuel H., 890 Perkiomen, 849 Perseverance Lodge No. 21 F. & A. M., 891 Pershing, Honorable C. L., 193, 316 Perry, Colonel Caleb, 908 Perry County, 42, 181, 596, 597 Perry, Commodore Oliver H., 597, 624 Perry, Samuel, 510, 748 Perry’s Mills, James, 168 Peters, Hans, 397 Peter’s Mountains, 16, 254 Peters, Richard, 292, 318, 357, 657, 700, 773, 896, 919, 922 Peters Township, 171, 760 Petit, Alfred C., 735 Petroleum Oil Company, 592 Pettigrew, General James Johnston, 452 Petty, John, 886 Peyster, J. W. de, 584 Pfoutz, Conrad, 498 Philadelphia, 1, 2, 3, etc. Philadelphia City Troop, 910 Philadelphia County, 8, 31, 33, 60, 84, 131, 159, 179, 191, 207, 216, 380, 416, 419, 596, 604, 852, 853, 874, 881 Philadelphia & Columbia Railroad, 201 Philadelphia Junto, 804 Philadelphia Light Horse, 503, 409, 679 Philadelphia and Reading Coal Company, 48, 192, 193, 232, 618 Philadelphia Times, The, 521 Philippe, Louis, 894 Phillips, Thomas, 150 Phillips & Gorham, 241 Philosophical Society, 45 Phipps, Sir William, 160 Pickens, Andrew, 872 Pickering (a tailor), 694 Pickering, Timothy, 216, 438, 605 Pickett’s Charge, 455 Pieces of Eight, 325 Pierce Brothers (Indians), 524 Pierce, Edward, 373 Pigeon Creek, 687 Pigeon, Joseph, 374 Piggott, Rev. Henry, 568 Pike, Abram, 210 Pike County, 181, 448, 493, 494, 500, 501, 502, 564, 597, 651, 775 Piles, Robert, 150 Pine Creek, 398, 673 Pine Grove Furnace, 679 Pinkerton, Allan, 47, 193, 557, 769, 846 Piny Creek, 801 Pious Henry Antes, 31, 32, 33 Pipe, Captain (Indian), 281, 404, 584 Piper, Colonel James, 305, 306, 908 Pisquitomen, 380 Pitcher, Molly, 445 Pitt, Fort (see Fort Pitt) Pitt, William, 199, 635, 703 Pittsburgh, 36, 37, 38, 64, 100, 101, 102, 110, 125, 148, 279, 281, 322, 333, 375, 378, 487, 489, 490, 517, 518, 519 Pittsburgh & Connellsville Railroad, 38 Pittsburgh Gazette, The, 200 Pittsburgh Gazette-Times, The, 200, 519 Pittsburgh Manor, 489 Pittsburgh, South, 201 Pittsburgh Times, The, 519 Pittsburgh, Washington & Baltimore Railroad, 38 Plain Truth, 747 Plant, Louis, 474 Plant, Mrs. Mary, 369 Plates, French Plant Leaden, 411 Ploughed Hill, 508 Pluck, Colonel John, 350 Pluggy, Chief, 750 Pluggystown, 750 Plumstead, Mr., 859 Plumstead, Thomas, 919 Plumstead Township, 663 Plumstead, William, 270 Plunket, Elizabeth, 11 Plunket, Colonel William, 11, 61, 110, 209, 260, 297, 305, 306, 337, 673, 821, 903, 905 Plymouth, 112, 492, 563 Poak, Joseph, 344 Pocahontas, 677 Pocketgach, 824 Poe, Adam, 586 Poe, Andrew, 586 Poe, James, 623 Poetess-Laureate, 202 Point Pleasant, 167, 362 Polk, President James K., 34, 194, 289 Polk, William, 222 Pollock, Governor James, 195, 233, 389, 431, 723, 863, 881 Pollock, Oliver, 487 Police, Organ of, 45 Pomfret Castle, 684 Pomunky, King of, 677 Pontiac, 25, 42, 100, 105, 323, 345, 360, 586, 773 Poor, General Enoch, 353, 367 Poplar Run, 818 Population of Pittsburgh, 201 Poquessing Creek, 437 Port Carbon, 48 Port Deposit, 297 Porter, Governor David Rittenhouse, 850, 855 Porter, General David, 144 Porter, Thomas, 60 Porters, James, 76 Portfolio, The, 115, 580 Port Jervis, 494 Portquesott, 436 Porvey, 436 “Posse Comitatus,” 904 Post, Christian Frederic, 272, 302, 476, 827 Post Master, 45 Post Office, Pioneer, Story, 832 Potomac River, 36 Potts, James, 25 Potts, John, 308, 693 Potts, Stacy, 135 Potts, Thomas, 60, 380 Potter County, 94, 95, 96, 156, 181, 182, 208, 597 Potter, General James, 2, 61, 209, 221, 252, 264, 307, 337, 344, 463, 469, 470, 556, 597, 615, 618, 739, 741, 910 Potter, John, 760 Potter, Thomas, 264 Potterfield, 545 Pottsgrove (Montgomery County), 336, 614 Pottstown, 242, 335 Pottsville, 47, 48, 192, 277 Powder Exploit, Gibson’s, 486 Powell, Graham, 48 Powell, Joseph, 15, 513 Powell, Levi, 7 Powell, Morgan, 48, 193, 770, 845 Powell, Samuel, 513, 860, 922 Powell’s Creek, 16 Powell’s Map, 422 Powhatan, 677 Pratt, John, 119 Pratt, Major, 189 Pratt, R. H., 522 Pratt, Thomas, 284 Presbytery, Philadelphia, 57 Presque Isle, 152, 241, 318, 387, 413 950Presque Isle, Destruction of, Story, 387, 413 Press, The, 813 Presser, Martin, 826 Preston, Alderman, 682 Preston, George Junkin, 203 Preston, Herbert,
207 Preston, Margaret Junkin, 202, 203, 204 Preston, Samuel, 764, 859 Prevost, Colonel Charles M., 334 Prevost, Sir George, 144 Prevost, Lady, 625 Price, Morgan, 846 Priest, David, 823 Priestley, Dr. Joseph, 97, 98, 99, 433, 803 Priestley, Joseph, Jr., 433 Priestley Riots, 98 Prince of Wales, 117 Princeton (Town), 1, 2, 428, 909 Princeton University, 59, 386, 428, 909 Printing Press, 570 Printz, Armegot, 123, 609 Printz Hall, 608, 665 Printz, Johan, 123, 124, 125, 396, 447, 608, 609, 665 Printzhof, 124, 608 Prior, Thomas, 385 Proctor, Captain (Naval), 324 Proctor, John, 61, 149, 292 Proctor, Colonel Thomas, 101, 367, 713 Proctor, William, Jr., 178 Prospect Hill, 409, 606 Protest vs. Slavery, First, 696 Proud (quoted), 805 Providence Island, 670 Proviso, Wilmot, 194, 195, 196 Public Ledger, The, 813 Public School at Germantown, 285 Pulaski, Count Casimir, 222, 501, 692 Pullman Cars, 243 Purchase, Land, 398 Purdy, Colonel, 615 Put-in-Bay, 625 Putnam, Major General Israel, 55, 908 Pyrlaeus, John Christopher, 513, 867 Q Quadrogue, 506 Quagnant, Chief, 406 Quakake Creek, 577 Quakertown, 191 Quashy, 113 Que, Isle of, 819 Quebec, 139, 188, 461, 509, 704 Quebec Bill, 612 Queen Esther, 457 Queen Esther’s Town, 367, 619 Queen’s Rangers, 307 Quenameckquid, 437 Quick, Tom, 493 Quid Party, 434 Quigley, Mary, 259 Quiltinunk, 367 Quing Quingos, 436 Quittapahilla, 130, 818 R Racoon Creek, 175, 528 Radner Church, 850 Rae, Alexander, 770, 846 Rahn, Mr., 5 Raid, Brodhead’s, 549 Railroad, First, 201 Railroad Riots, 863 Rainhill, 21 Rall, General, 909 Rambo, Gunner, 150 Rambo, Peter, 667, 792 Randall, Josiah, 890 Randolph, James, 834 Randolph, Peyton, 611, 872 Rangers, Provincial, 547 Rankin, James, 308 Rankin, William, 586 Ransom’s Creek, 112 Rapp, Adam, 121 Rapp, Frederick, 121 Rapp, George, 120, 121, 122 Rasmussen, Frederic, 89 Raven’s Run, 107 Rawle, Dr. (quoted), 54 Rawle, William, 191, 860 *Rawdon, Lord Francis, 348 Ray, John, 623 Raystown, 177, 178, 179, 320 Raystown Branch, 138, 177 Rea, Alexander, 48, 192 Read, Adam, 23, 758 Read, Deborah, 44 Read, John M., 8 Read, Sara, 754 Reading, 130, 277, 602, 616 Reading Railroad, 242 Regiment, German, 615 Recollections, Binns’, 786 Red Clay Creek, 503 Red Hill, 650 Red Man, The, 523 Red Man and Helper, The, 523 Redman, Nancy, 348 Redman, Joseph, 216 Redman, Rebecca, 348 Red Row, Riot of, 478 Red Stone, 171, 224, 322 Red Stone Creek, 518 Redstone, Old Fort, 52 Redstone River, 100 Reed, 154, 367 Reed, Charles, 374 Reed, James, 324 Reed, General Joseph, 2, 59, 90, 309, 343, 796, 910, 921 Reed, Thomas, 326 Reed, William, 333 Reeder, Andrew H., 648 Reeder, Howard J., 88 Reemey’s, 561 Reeser, Baltus, 283 Rees’ Cyclopedia, 580 Rees, Thomas, 153 Reichel (quoted), 575, 576 Reickert, Frederick, 121 Reilly, John W., 23 Reliance, 860 Remington & Son, E., 119 Reprisal (ship), 324 Republican Argus, The, 434, 803 Republican Party, 692 Republican Society, 332 Reserve Corps, 40, 279 Revolutionary Forces Threaten Congress, 426 Rewalt, John, 173 Reynolds, General John Fulton, 400, 452 Rhea, John, 780 Rhoads, Samuel, 611, 612 Rhode Island, 19, 873 Rice, Abraham, 740 Rice Blockhouse, 741 Rice, Charles E., 88 Rice, John, 615 Rice, Owen, 513 Rice, William, 513 Richard, Poor, 45 Richards, J. C., 520 Richards, Lewis, 846 Richardson, Jacob, 206 Richmond Branch, 242 Richmond, Port, 242 Ridge Roads, 546 Ridley Creek, 858 Riegelsville, 501 951Rigby, Mr., 270 Ringgold, ArtilleryArtillery, 277 Riots, 87, 98, 251, 332, 465, 477, 630, 646, 692, 863 Riots, Erie, 863 Ripley, William, 144, 680 Rip Van Winkle, 495 Rippers, 864 Ritchie, Robert, 72 Ritner, Governor Joseph, 568, 839, 850, 853, 889 Rittenhouse, Benjamin, 731 Rittenhouse, Claus, 128, 696 Rittenhouse, David, 72, 101, 238, 240, 385, 485, 604, 662, 669, 708, 919, 921 Rittenhouse, Gerhard, 128, 696 Rittenhouse, William, 128, 129, 130, 695 Rizer, Jacob, 284 Roarty, James, 193, 314 Robber Lewis, 217, 222 Robb’s Row, Riot of, 465 Roberts, Colonel, 879 Roberts, George, 216 Roberts, John, 301 Robertson, James, 325 Robinson, Andrew, 325, 693 Robinson, Patrick, 85, 196, 341 Robinson, Robert, 661 Rochambeau, Count de, 82 Rock Creek, 454 Rocket (engine), 243 Rockford, 311, 606 Rockville, 23 Roderdeau, Daniel, 60, 292, 921 Rodes, General Robert E., 422 Roebuck (ship), 324 Rogers, Eleanor, 68 Rogers, Jonah, 210 Rogers, Morton, Company, 69 Roman, Robert, 151 Rome, New York, 774 Roosevelt, Theodore, 137 Rose, Dave, 299 Rose, Major, 404 Rosencrantz, James, 495 Ross, Anna M., 369 Ross, Catherine Van Gazel, 482 Ross, Charles, 335 Ross, Clarissa, 80 Ross, Colonel, 629 Ross, Earl of, 482 Ross, General Robert (British), 582 Ross, George, 78, 325, 409, 482, 484, 604, 611, 612, 816 Ross, James, 689, 784 Ross, John, 79, 357, 481, 482, 823 Ross, The Senator (ship), 200 Ross, William, 439 Rosse, Thomas, 284 Rossmere, 483 Rothrock, J. F., 87 Round Top, 453 Rouseville, 593 Rowland, Samuel, 794 Royal Americans, 372, 828 Royal Grenadiers, 445 Royal Society of London, 46, 97 Royce, Benjamin, 282 Ruddell’s Station, 363 Ruffians Mob Pastor, 512 Ruhl, Philip, 252 Rummerfield, 893 Rump House, 854 Runaway, Great, 253 Rush, Jacob, 784, 820 Rush, Lewis, 334 Russia, 41, 53 Rutledge, Edward, 459, 872 Rutter, George, 247 Ryon, John W., 49, 192 Rynder, T. P., 86 Rysingh, Johan Claesson, 610, 665 S Sacking and Burning Chambersburg, 519 Sadbury, 601 Sabbath School, First, 465 Sacketts Harbor, 143 Sagard (quoted), 743 Sailors Cause Riot, 682 Salem, 175, 282, 585, 673 Salem (Ohio), 282 Salter, Captain Elisha, 525, 762 Salter, Hanna, 396 “Sam,”, 389 Sample, John, 468 Sandelands, James, 396 Sanderson Guards, 474 San Domingo, 892, 894 Sandy Hook, 856 Sandusky Indians, 43 Sanford, Laura G., 153 San Francisco, 384 Sanger, Thomas, 49, 107, 193, 316, 770 Sanoy, Isaac, 792 Sarah (ship), 340 Sassafras Street, 514 Sasquesohanough, 506 Sassoonan, 301, 437 Sattelihu (Indian), 640 Saturday, Bloody, 48 Saturday Evening Post, 117, 532 Saunders, Richard, 45 Saur, Christopher, 695 Savannah, 312 Saw Dust War, 472 Saxton, Frederick, 241 Say, Esther, 744 Sayughtowa, 886 Scalps, 267, 272 Scammel, General Alexander, 311, 367 Scarouady, 66, 236, 267, 322, 658, 797 Schaeffer, Nathan C., 137 Schaeffers, Michael, 16 Schaffer, Henry, 877
Schenley, Mrs. Mary E., 200 Schneider, Daniel, 66 Schmidt, Anthony, 18 Schmick, Rev. John Jacob, 360 Schofield, General John McAllister, 648 Schoenbrun, 176, 585 Schoharie County, 463 School, High Dutch, 283 Schute, 665, 667 Schuyler, Gertrude, 601 Schuyler, General Philip, 222, 601 Schuylkill, 11 Schuylkill County, 33, 47, 131, 181, 192, 193, 208, 242, 314, 474, 564, 582, 597, 598, 846 Schuylkill Ferries, 504 Schuylkill Fishing Company, 593 Schuylkill Navigation Company, 130, 131 Schuylkill & Susquehanna Navigation Company, 131 Schweigert, 826 Schwenckfelders, 318 Scioto, 163 Scotch Irish, 623 Scotland (Pa.), 624 Scotosh, 585 Scott, Adam, 578 Scott, Samuel, 823 Scott, Thomas A., 38 Scott, General Winfield, 51, 144, 334 Scranton, 648 Scull, John, 517, 518 Scull, John I., 518 Scull, Map, 63 Scull, Nicholas, 449 Scull, William, 209, 305, 905 Sea Congregation, 302 Secane, 436 Second Presbyterian Church, 68 Secord (quoted), 579 952Sedgwick, General John, 453 Seiler, Captain G. A. C., 279 Seimens, Jan, 696 Selheimer, Captain John B., 277 Selina, Countess Huntingdon, 422 Selinsgrove, 783, 860 Sellers, John, 385 Seminary Ridge, 452, 454 Seneca, 42 Seneca Mission Church, 246 Seneca Oil, 591 Senseman, Anna Catherine, 826 Senseman, Brother, 825 Separatists, 120 Sergeant, Jonathan Dickinson, 669 Sergeant, Thomas, 69 Settlement, Swede, 608 Seventh Day Baptists, 463 Seventh United States Infantry, 277 Seventy-ninth New York Highlanders, 498 Seward, William, 312 Sewickley Creek, 163, 371 “Shades of Death,” 458 Shaffer, George, 819 Shaffer, John, 819 Shakhappoh, 436 Shamokin Borough, 110 Shamokin Indians Creek, 336 Shamokin (Sunbury), 15, 16, 17, 62, 63, 65, 73, 110, 111, 209, 227, 235, 236, 254, 255, 266, 302, 303, 361, 371, 393, 423, 429, 449, 450, 474, 475, 563, 746, 748, 770, 824, 885, 886 Shamokin Trader, 62 Shanghai, 864 Shangom, Conne, 732 Shannon, John, 748 Shannon, Captain Samuel, 527 Shannon, Timothy, 474 Shannopino, 801 Sharp, Captain, 587 Sharp, J. McDowell, 520 Sharp’s Run, 244 Shaver’s Creek, 422 Shaw, David, 479 Shaw, John, 663 Shawnee, 42, 918 Shawnee Murder, Conestoga, 300 Shear, Joseph, 474 Shed, 890 Shea, John G. (quoted), 742 Shee, John, 292, 908 Shekoneko, 824 Shellpot, 334 Shenandoah, 48 Shenandoah Herald, 49, 109 Shenandoah Valley, 490 Shenandoah (Va.), 805 Sheninger, 246 Shepherd, David, 282, 488 Shepoconah, 767 Sherloe, William, 373 Sherman, General William T., 454, 883 Sherman, Roger, 460, 872 Sherman’s Creek, 172 Sheshequanink, 360 Sheshequin, 458 Shikellamy, 16, 63, 227, 235, 254, 255, 256, 301, 302, 361, 407, 449, 540, 554, 640, 721, 748, 752, 867, 868, 884 Shikellamy, John, 63, 267, 380, 886 Shikellamy, Logan, Story, 361, 721 Shiloh, 521 Shingas, 619, 800 Shipbuilding at Pittsburgh, 201 Shipman, Captain Henry, 289 Shippen, Story, 601 Shippen, Edward, 24, 63, 75, 89, 159, 237, 394, 541, 622, 763, 754, 874, 919 Shippen, Joseph, 178, 385, 910 Shippen, Mary, 348 Shippen, Peggy, 89, 90, 91, 348, 418, 709, 754 Shippen, Sarah, 348 Shippen, Dr. William, 223, 224 Shippensburg, 622, 760 Shirley, Fort, 918 Shively, Christopher, 343 Shockalawlin (Indian), 554 Shoenberger, Dr. Peter, 219 Shoemaker, Henry W., 26, 391 Shoemaker, Samuel, 308 Shoholy, 93 Sholes, Christopher L., 118, 119, 120 Shott, Colonel, 367 Shreeve, Colonel, 367 Shriver, Lewis, 122 Shulze, Governor John Andrew, 34, 837 Shunk, Governor Francis Rawn, 6, 37, 38, 233, 879, 890 Shutt, Ludwig, 173 Sickles, General Daniel E., 453 Sideling Hill, 170, 265, 320, 830 Sievers, E. R., 49 Sign of the Boat Inn, 504 Sikals, 436 Silliman, Professor Benjamin, 592 Silver Spring, 210 Simcoe’s Rangers, 307 Simes, John, 30 Simmons, Seneca G., 277 Simpson, Adam M., 369 Simpson, John, 509 Simpson, General Michael, 509, 680 Simpson, William, 509 Sinclair, Catherine, 251 Sinclair, John, 251 Siney, John, 474 Single Brethren’s House, 223 Singleton, Captain John, 205 Sinking Spring Valley, 257 Sinneamahoning, 138, 221 Sitgreave (Attorney), 191 Sitgreaves, Samuel, 605 Six, Deitrick, 65, 797, 918 Skinners, 681 Skinner, James, 865 Skippack, 31, 312 Skippack Creek, 669 Sladen, James, 474 Slavery, Negro, 112, 113, 114, 696 Slifer, Eli, 279 Slocum, Benjamin, 765 Slocum, Ebenezer, 766 Slocum, Frances, 765 Slocum, General Henry Warner, 454 Slocum, Jonathan, 765 Slocum, Joseph, 767 Slocum, Judith, 766 Slocum, Mary, 766 Slocum, William, 765 Sloper, Lieutenant, 348 Slough, Mathias, 331 Sloughter, 175 Sluman, Joseph, 674 Small, William F., 864 Smallpox, 236 Smallwood, General William, 652, 690 Smilie, John, 198, 216 Smiley, Captain, 442 Smiley, Robert, 688 Smith, 362 Smith, Charles, 895 Smith, Devereux, 145, 149 Smith, Frederick, 758 Smith, George K., 48, 846 Smith, George Nelson, 725 Smith, James, 101, 169, 178, 309, 484, 604, 617, 828, 921 Smith, Colonel James (York), 569, 669 Smith, John, 112, 320 Smith, Captain John, 227, 328, 505, 588, 676, 741, 829 Smith, John (Indian), 301 Smith, Colonel John B., 419 Smith, Jonathan B., 669, 921 953Smith, Justice, 660 Smith, Matthew, 187, 508, 708, 913 Smith, Obadiah, 112 Smith, Peter, 261, 400, 467, 500, 542 Smith, Richard, 784 Smith, Robert, 187 Smith, Samuel, 221, 320, 823 Smith, Thomas, 179, 484, 874 Smith, Timothy, 650 Smith, “Uncle Billy,” 592 Smith, Widow, Story of, 467 Smith, Wilhelmina, 348 Smith, William, 170, 224, 292, 320, 385, 422, 829 Smith Mountain, 264 Smith’s Beneficial Hall Riots, 466 Smith’s Laws (quoted), 398, 895 Smith’s Mill Destroyed, 467 Smoky Island, 174, 283 Smyth, Albert, 533 Snodgrass, 400 Snowden, Colonel A. Loudon, 883 Snyder County, 26, 73, 75, 181, 208, 318, 596, 684, 722, 726, 773, 774 Snyder, Daniel, 798 Snyder, Frederick, 216 Snyder, George A., 568 Snyder, Henry W., 568 Snyder, Governor Simon, 33, 69, 136, 333, 435, 546, 582, 783, 803, 876, 895 Snyder, William P., 137 Society of Free Traders, 179, 372 Society Hill, 270, 373 Soldiers Orphan School, Scotland, 624 Soldiers and Sailors Home, 882 Solomon (Indian), 424 Somerset, Pa., 329, 860 Somerset County, 177, 181, 596, 775 Somerset, New Jersey, 3 Somerset (ship), 671 Sommer, Lausen, 696 Soule, Samuel W., 118 Southby, William, 159 South Carolina, 39, 51 South Fork, 378 South Fork Hunting and Fishing Club, 378 South Fork Lake, 377 South River, 123 Southwark Theatre, 270 Sower, Christopher, 283, 695, 899 Sower, Christopher, Jr., 899 Spackman, Mr., 852, 890 Spalding, Captain, 458 Spangenberg, Bishop, 32,
514, 575 Spangler, Baltzer, 571 Spanglers Spring, 454 Spaulding, Colonel, 367 Speaker, The, 682 Spear, George G., 250 Speer, Eliza, 288 Spencer, Colonel, 367 Spickers, Benjamin, 757, 798 Spring, Big, 422 Spring Brook, 249 Spring, Cornelius, 449 Spring Forge III, 483 Springett, Gulielma Maria, 716 Springett, Sir William, 716 Springettsbury Manor, 805 Springhouse, Montgomery County, 191 Sprogel, John H., 336 Sproul, Rev. William T., 890 Spulong, James, 474 Squaw Campaign, 309 St. Augustine, Fla., 522 St. Clair (Pittsburgh), 201 St. Clair, Arthur, 2, 43, 100, 101, 148, 149, 179, 479, 488, 490, 572, 604, 817, 849, 896 St. Clair, Sir John, 134, 319 St. Clair’s Defeat, 488 St. James Church, Lancaster, 483 St. John’s, 571 St. Joseph’s River, 849 St. Mary’s, 437 St. Mary’s River, 849 St. Petersburg, 53 St. Peter’s Church, 384 St. Philip de Neri Church, 467 St. Pierre, M. de, 800 St. Pierre, Legardier de, 841 Staecket, Moens, 396 Stamp Act, 778, 887, 898 Standard Oil Co., 593 Standing Stone, 258, 367, 421, 473, 617 Stanley, Captain James, 473 Stanwix, Fort, 773 Stanwix, John, 236, 245 Stapleton, Rev. A. A., 9 Stark, General John, 311, 607 Starkweather, S. W., 473 Starr, Moses, 16 Starratt, John, 823 Star Spangled Banner, 410 Stars and Stripes, 624 State House, 4, 93 State Library, 165 State Sanitarium, Mt. Alto, 624 Staunton, Va., 145, 490, 660 Stead, Captain A. H., 473 Steamboat, 297, 564 Steele, Rev. John, 760 Steele, Robert, 663 Stein, Ensign A., 306 Stenton, 213, 669, 753 Stenton, John, 719 Stephen, General, 504, 691, 909 Stephenson, George, 21, 483 Sterritt, 631 Sterling, Lord Thomas, 222, 504, 629, 669, 690, 909 Stevens, Thaddeus, 159, 569, 850, 855, 889 Steuben, Baron Frederick William von, 186, 307, 417, 571 Stewart, Charles, 102, 560, 583 Stewart, John, 735 Stewart, Lazarus, 187, 560, 561, 711, 906, 911 Stewart, Lieutenant, 306 Stewart, Mr., 630 Stewart, Robert E., 477 Stewart, Samuel, 434, 803, 876 Stewart, Walter, 3, 545 Still, Isaac, 380 Stille, Axel, 231 Stille, Olaf, 231, 667 Stiver, John, 30 Stiver, Sarah, 30 Stock Family Murder, 211 Stoke, Manor of, 102, 560 Stokeley, Captain Thomas, 527 Stone, General Charles Pomeroy, 452 Stone, Governor William A., 137 Stoner, David, 622 Stoner, Kitty, 554 Stony Batter, 288 Stony Creek, 178, 377 Stony Point, 849 Story & Humphreys Pennsylvania Mercury, 900 Story of Singed Cat, 532 Story, Thomas, 754 Stoucksburg, 757 Stoughton, F., 252 Stover, Catherine, 888 Straus, Wijk, 667 Strawbridge, Thomas, 820 Stroh, John, 211 Strong, Caleb, 872 Strong, Captain Martin, 154 Stroud, Jacob, 61, 484 Stroudsburg, 458, 491, 917, 918 Strouse (Attorney), 192 Stuart, General J. E. B., 453, 624, 706, 860 Stuart’s Raid, 860 Stumbaugh, Colonel, 521 954Stump, Frederick, 25, 26, 27, 686 Stump’s Run, 27 Stumpstown, 25, 26, 27 Sturdevant, 854 Stuyvesant, Peter, 125, 665 Sturgis (lad), 825 Sugar Cabins, 320 Sugar Loaf Massacre, 616 Sugar Run, 360 Sullivan County, 181, 195, 208, 432, 596, 597, 775, 893 Sullivan, General John, 260, 311, 366, 504, 514, 629, 690, 861 Summit Hill, 48, 111, 315, 557, 846 Sunbury, 65, 209, 286, 331, 332, 393, 461, 496, 499, 553, 563, 615, 675, 723, 741, 746, 748, 818, 820, 877, 903, 908 Sunbury & Erie Railroad, 234, 723 Sunbury, Manor of, 560 “Sunday Indians,” 424 Sunday School Union and Tract Society, 327 Sunday Times, The, 279 Surphlit, Robert, 225 Susquehanna Company, 102, 207, 491 Susquehanna County, 181, 194, 195, 208, 596, 598, 775 Susquehanna Navigation Company, 274 Susquehanna River Exploration, 741 Susquehanna (steamboat), 297 Susquehanna Trail, 23, 41, 515 Swamp Creek, 31 Swampes, 437 Swanendael, 230, 590, 856 “Swannocks,” 424 Swans, Valley of, 590 Swartz, Fort, 616 Swataney, 884 Swatara, 16, 130, 172 Swatara Creek, 757, 797 Swatara, Fort, 757, 918 Swatara Gap, 758 Swedes Church, Old, 581 Swedes Ford, 353 Swedes Mill, 448 Swedes Road, 652 Sweeney, Edward, 732 Swen, Ole, 792 Swensson, Maus, 231 Swithes Fording, 555 Swope, Michael, 570, 908 Sykes, General, 451 Sylvania, 166 Symcock, John, 151, 373 Syng, Philip, 860 T Taasquah, 71 Tacony, 832 Tadame, 450 Taggart, Captain John H., 279 Tahgahjute, 361, 886 Takeghsatu, 700, 701 Talbot, Jeremiah, 623 Talbot, Major, 673 Talihaio Gap, 65 Talleyrand, Prince, 790, 894 Talmadge Family, 154 Talon, Marquis Antoine Omer, 892 Tamaqua, 193, 242, 557, 579 Taminy, 437 Tammany Society, 434 Tamment, King, 437 Tanacharison, 126, 841 Tangorus, 437 Tannehill, General Adamson, 323 Tanner, Michael, 823 Tapescawen, 540 Tarentum, 592 Tariff 1842, 432 Tarlton, Major Banastre, 348 Tate, Alem, 473 Tawandarweuk, 360 Tawena, 415 Tawenne, Chief, 301 Taylor, Bayard, 733 Taylor, Christopher, 150 Taylor, George, 61, 484 Taylor Guards, 473 Taylorsville, 909 Tedyuskung, 235, 236, 237, 271, 303, 491, 539, 574, 588, 700, 704, 719, 720, 824 Tedyuskung, Eliza, wife of, 575 Telner, Jacob, 695 Temperanceville, 201 Ten-Mile Run, 561 Tennent, Gilbert, 57, 188 Tennent, Rev. William, 57, 313, 782 Tesinigh, 506 Test Act, 99 Texel, 590, 856 Thatcher, Judge, 239 Thatcher (quoted), 388 Tharachiawakon, 407 Thayer, Major, 672 Theatrical Performances, Story, 269 Thespians, 270 Thirteenth Virginia Regiment, 140, 405 Thirty Years War, 123, 608 Thistle (ship), 325 Thoman, Jacob W., 250 Thomas, David, 233 Thomas, Governor Sir George, 63, 197, 316, 449, 536, 683, 747 Thomas, John, 536 Thomas, Richard, 60 Thomas, William M., 558 Thompson (Pa.), 550 Thompson, Charles, 779 Thompson, James, 344, 864 Thompson, John, 73 Thompson, Dr. Robert, 601 Thompson, Thomas McKean, 69 Thompson, General William, 60, 188, 483, 507, 570, 606, 694, 831 Thompson’s, 320 Thompson’s Battalion Riflemen, 188, 570 Thompsontown, 73 Thomson, Charles, 385, 540 Thorpe, James, 523 Thorpe, Samuel C., 95 Three Counties on Delaware, 166 Three Islands, 528 Three Mile Run, 670 Three Rivers, 713 Thunder Bay, 744 Tiadaghton, 398 Ticonderoga, 703, 848 Tiger (ship), 589 Tilehausey, 300 Tilghman, James, 68, 101, 144, 186, 661, 774 Till, William, 683 Times, The Philadelphia, 533 Tinicum, 124, 608 Tinicum Island, 608, 665 Tioga, 458, 619 Tioga County, 156, 181, 194, 208, 596, 598 Tioga Flats, 367 Tioga Point, 227, 556 Titusville, 591 Toanchain, 744 Toby’s Creek, 111 Tockwogh River, 505 Tod, Honorable John, 179 Todd, Mr., 4 Todkahdohs, 362
Tohickon, 664 Tolkeo, 757 Tomlinson, Isaac, 111 Tomlinson’s Run, 586 “Tommy,” British, 533 Tonnant, La (ship), 894 Tony, 113 955Tories, 93, 224, 257 Torkillus, Rev. Reorus, 609 Torpedo, Fulton’s, 565 Tour, Grant’s, 882 Towanah, 71 Towanda, 49, 194, 360 Towanda Creek, 360, 775 Tower, John Mason’s, 287 Tower of London, 802 Traders, Era of Indian, 552 Traders, King of, 321 Trappe, 880 Treat, Captain, 672 Treat, Dr. Malichi, 602 Treaty, 607 Treaty of Ghent, 53, 583 Treaty of Peace, 5 Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle, 318, 412, 839 Treaty of Ryswick, 412 Treaty of St. Marys, 437 Treaty of Utrecht, 412 Treaty of Versailles, 427 Treasurer, State, 6 “Tree of Life,”, 518 Trent, William, 77, 125, 126, 127, 322, 748 Trenton, 3, 55 Trenton, Battle of, 908 Tresse, Thomas, 128 Trexler, Frank M., 88 T Rails, 232 Triangle, Erie, 156, 240 Trimble, Alexander, 68 Trimble, James, 68, 69, 70 Trimble’s Ford, 628 Trindlespring Road, 441 Trinity Church, 71 Trinity College, 182 Triumph (vessel), 426 Troop, Philadelphia City, 355, 607 Troy, Michael, 674, 907 Trumbull, Governor Jonathan, 103, 903 Tulliallan, 391, 392 Tully, Pat, 49 Tulpehocken, 16, 28, 66, 267, 408, 463, 563, 587, 798, 818, 886 Tulpehocken Creek, 130 Tuneam, Joe, 650 Tuneam, Tom, 650 Tunkhannock, 367, 439, 542 Turbutt Township, 208 Turk, John, 299 Turtle Creek, 287, 537, 802, 828 Turkey’s Foot, 320 Turkey Point, 627 Turner, John, 526 Turner, Nathaniel, 446 Turner, Robert, 85 Turner, Susan, 369 Tuscany, Grand Duke of, 915 Tuscarawas, 140 Tuskegee Institute, 8 Tusten, Colonel, 501 Tutelo, 563 Twelfth Regiment Continental Line, 260, 332 Twenty-fifth Emergency Regiment, 452 Twightwee, 657 Twilight (ship), 883 Type Foundry, First, 695 Typewriter, Story, 118, 119, 120 U Ulster, 360 Underwood, 299, 348 Ungaza, Don Louis de, 487 Unhappy Jake (Indian), 886 Union, 201 Union Canal, 131, 274, 830 Union County, 9, 11, 181, 208, 210, 252, 296, 343, 344, 432, 461, 467, 554, 568, 596, 673, 775, 854 Union County Historical Society, 9 Union Fire Company, 860 Union Iron Works, 107 Union League Club, 882 Union Saloon, 368 Uniontown, 38 Unitarian Church, 99 United States Gazette (quoted), 351, 837 United States Bank, 923 Universal Instructor, etc., 898 University of Pennsylvania, 45, 99, 422 Updegraffs, 112 Upland, 124, 328, 530, 599, 754, 792 Upland County, 396 Upper Sandusky, 739 Upper Wakefield Township, 861 Uren, William, 49, 107, 193, 316, 770 Utchowig, 506 V Vale, Captain Joseph G., 715 Valley Forge, 224, 307, 353, 836, 848 Valley of the Swans, 856 Van Bibber, 336 Vanbraam, Jacob, 800 Van Buren, President Martin, 184, 194, 289, 854 Van Buskirk, Samuel, 473 Van Campen, Cornelius, 210 Van Campen, Moses, 210 Vandemark, 493 Vanderslips Farm, 367 Van Dyck, Sheriff, 667 Vandyke, Henry, 468 Van Gundy, Christian, 468 Van Horn, Rev. William, 484 Vanness, Jerome, 543 Vansdale, Mrs. Catherine, 369 Vansdale, Mrs. Elizabeth, 369 Van Swearingen, Captain, 168 Van Syckel, Samuel, 593 Vanuxenn, James, 900 Varkens Kill, 123 Vaudreuil, Philippe de Rigaud, 639 Vaughn, Captain Robert V., 473 Vaux, Richard, 389 Venango, 413, 800 Venango County, 156, 181, 185, 208, 591, 596, 598, 718 Venus, Transit of, Story, 384 Vergennes, 914 Vernon, Nathaniel, 308 Versailles, 318 Veterans, F. & I. War Organize, Story, 304 Victoria, Queen, 883 Village Record, 837 Villeminot, Alexandrienne Felice, 95 Villier, M. de, 133 Vincent, Benjamin, 326 Vincent, Bethuel, 327, 516 Vincent, Cornelius, 326, 516, 674 Vincent, Daniel, 327, 516 Vincent, George Edgar, 328 Vincent, Isaac, 326 Vincent, John, 326, 516, 674, 903 Vincent, John Heyl, 326 Vincent, Peter, 326, 674 Vincent Island, 402 Vindicia Hibernicæ, 642 Virginia, 37, 51 Virginia Boundary Dispute, 659 Virginia Military Institute, 203 Virgorus, Arnold, 830 Von Blume, 335 W Wade, J. B., 369 Wade, Jennie, 453 Wade, Robert, 150 Waddells, 861 Wagenseller, G., 33, 34, 35 956Wagons, 134 Wagner, 852 Waldy, Henry, 832 Wales, Prince of, 883 Walhalla, 96 Walhonding River, 585 Walker (quoted), 526 Walker, Captain Andrew, 543 Walker, Captain, 296 Walker, Colonel, 631 Walker, John, 554 Walker, Honorable Jonathan, 179, 646, 865 Walker, Honorable T. H., 193, 316 Walking Purchase, 273, 448, 648 Wallace, Robert, 175 Wallace, Mrs. Robert, 175 Walnut Street Prison, 785 Walrus (ship), 590, 856 Walthour, Christopher, 375 Walton, George, 70 Wangomen, 424 Warboss, Brother, 825 Ward, Captain, 526 Ward, Ensign Edward, 125, 132, 199 Warley, Francis, 415 Warren, 840 Warren County, 156, 181, 185, 208, 596, 597 Warren, General John, 223, 597 Warren, Maria, 392 Warner, Edward, 382 Warner, Isaiah, 897 Warner, Manson, 143 Warrington Academy, 97 Warrior Branch, 920 Warrior Run, 188, 296, 327, 868 Warrior’s Path, 559 *Wurtemberg, 22 Warwick, 57, 58 Warwick Furnace, 651 Washington Artillery, 277 Washington County, 131, 147, 174, 175, 180, 181, 262, 282, 329, 596, 597, 687, 775, 851 Washington College, 202 Washington, George, 36, 52, 55, 67, 70, 72, 77, 78, 79, 81, 82, 90, 110, 126, 132, 133, 139, 140, 146, 162, 178, 222, 238, 241, 272, 307, 311, 322, 356, 357, 358, 366, 402, 406, 408, 409, 416, 417, 418, 426, 440, 443, 444, 445, 470, 471, 483, 497, 503, 504, 507, 509, 514, 542, 550, 551, 570, 571, 597, 601, 602, 603, 606, 607, 617, 627, 628, 629, 636, 638, 643, 651, 652, 660, 668, 669, 670, 678, 687, 690, 691, 698, 699, 704, 710, 729, 731, 739, 741, 759, 791, 799, 809, 816, 827, 828, 834, 839, 848, 849, 861, 868, 869, 870, 871, 873, 886, 887, 901, 908, 909, 910 Washington and Lee University, 202 Washington Union, 35 Washingtonville, 515 Washington Zouaves, 473 Wasp (ship), 324 Watson, Captain, 348 Watson, Mrs. (Captain), 369 Watson Flats, 591 Watson, Tames, 520 Watson, John Fanning, 450, 807, 900 Watson, Luke, 793 Watson, General Nathan, 335, 583 Watson, Thomas, 900 Watson, William, 900 Watsontown, 306 Watchman, The Danville, 299 Waterford, 126, 413, 840 Waterville (Pa.), 556 Watteville, Baron John de, 824 Watts, John, 255, 908 “Watty & Meg,” 579 Waverly, N. Y., 17 Wayman, Elizabeth, 31 Wayne, General Anthony, 1, 2, 3, 44, 138, 210, 241, 307, 444, 445, 504, 571, 572, 597, 603, 617, 629, 652, 653, 668, 690, 709, 848,
901 Wayne County, 181, 194, 564, 596, 597, 775 Wayne Guards, 279 Wayne, Isaac, 450 Wayne Junction, 754 Waynesboro, 623, 707 Weaver, Ethan Allen, 204 Weaver’s Riots, Kensington, 466 Webb, William, 79 Webbe, John, 116 Webster, Pelatiah, 18, 284 Weheequeckhon, 437 Weidrich, 454 Weiser, Benjamin, 209 Weiser, Conrad, 65, 66, 67, 155, 172, 227, 235, 255, 272, 273, 302, 322, 326, 406, 421, 449, 540, 541, 552, 562, 563, 640, 658, 700, 721, 722, 726, 748, 757, 758, 759, 773, 797, 798, 867, 868, 884, 885, 886 Weiser, Samuel, 209 Weiss, Colonel Jacob, 111 Weissport, 65, 111, 388, 577, 824, 918 Weitzel, John, 209, 907 Welcome (ship), 167, 531, 596 Weletawash, 766 Welsh’s Tavern, 628 Weltner, Colonel, 616 Wesley, Charles, 313 Wesley, John, 313 West, Benjamin, 565 West, Robert, 206 West Augusta (Va.), 489 West Branch Battle, 586 West Branch Canal, 132 West Chester, 183, 504, 837, 920 West Findlay (Pa.), 328 West, Milton, 772 Westminster, 673 Westmoreland County, 61, 72, 87, 93, 100, 101, 131, 145, 146, 147, 163, 164, 167, 168, 177, 180, 181, 198, 216, 225, 309, 402, 404, 416, 420, 479, 489, 527, 551, 596, 660, 775, 880, 895 Westmoreland County (Conn.), 493 Westmoreland Township (Conn.), 493 West Newton, 528 West Pittsburgh, 201 West Point, 91, 138, 280 West Point Military Academy, 280 West River, 328 Weston, John, 257 Weston, Richard, 257 Wetherald, 719 Wharton, Anne Hollingsworth, 613, 692, 744 Wharton, Joseph, 71 Wharton Mansion, 347, 352 Wharton, Richard, 71 Wharton, Samuel, 780 Wharton, Thomas, 71, 284, 347, 699 Wharton, Governor Thomas, Jr., 71, 485, 604 Wheatfield, 453 Wheatland, 289 Wheelock, James (Indian), 523 Wheeling, W. Va., 37, 38, 167, 362, 488, 740 Wheeling Creek, 412 Whigs, 34, 93 Whitacre, James, 586 White, John H., 473 White, Miss N., 348 White, Samuel, 5 White, Bishop William, 265, 304, 642 White Deer, 772 White Deer Creek, 467, 503, 614, 772 White Deer Valley, 468 White Eyes, 226, 281, 654, 749 White Horse, 651 White Horse Inn, 504 White Marsh, 31, 307, 352, 869 White Plains, 607 White Thunder, 841 White Woman of Genesee, 244, 813 Whitefield, George, 32, 57, 312, 336 957Whitehill, Robert, 216, 248, 485, 896 Whiteman, Benjamin, 150 Whitemarsh, Heber, 299 Whiteman, Adam, 808 Whitten, O. J., 473, 474 Whittier, John Greenleaf, 6, 886 Whiskey (dog), 190 Whisky, “Monongahela,” 687 Whisky Insurrection, 52, 56, 199, 678, 687 Whistling Johnnie, 350 Wicacoa, 667 Wichetunk, 710, 781, 912 Wickam, J. J., 88 Wickersham, State Superintendent, 160 Wickes, Captain, 324 Wiconisco Valley, 173 Wiegner, Christopher, 32 Wiggans, Dr. Thomas, 306 Wilakinko, 71 Wilcox, Crandall, 111 Wilcox, John, 73, 292, 693 Wilkins, Robert, 623 Wilkins, Honorable William, 179, 552 Wilkes Barre, 70, 71, 103, 111, 132, 194, 359, 439, 440, 451, 457, 458, 491, 492, 556 Wilkinson, General James, 144, 331, 571, 607 Wilkinson, Mr., 97 Will, Edward C., 379 Wills Creek, 125, 470, 800, 841 Wills, David, 810 Willard, 375 Willard, Edward N., 88 Willard, Mrs. Mary, 376 Willets, Frank P., 89 William, 763 William and Mary, 843 Williams, Rev. A. S., 280 Williams, Dunk, 792 Williams, Captain E. C., 277 Williams, Ellis, 297 Williams, J. T., 369 Williams, J. Henry, 88 Williams, Timothy, 326 Williams Valley, 172 Williams, Young, 109 Williamsburg, 126, 661, 799, 802, 842 Williamson, Colonel David, 174, 402 Williamson, Henry, 846 Williamson, Dr. Hugh, 385 Williamsport, 49, 95, 287, 398, 400, 434, 472, 498, 542, 723, 877 Willing, Charles, 80 Willing, Thomas, 80, 106, 292, 459, 613, 780, 919 Willing & Morris, 80 Willitts, Deborah, 7 Willits, Isaiah, 820 Willoughby Run, 452 Willston, Honorable Horace, 195 Wilmington, 503, 627 Wilmot, Dr. Aquila, 224 Wilmot, David, 49, 194, 195, 196, 432 Wilmot Proviso, 432 Wilson, Alexander, 214, 579 Wilson, Judge A. S., 445 Wilson, Clarissa, 80 Wilson College, 624 Wilson Fort, Story, 692 Wilson, George, 146, 149, 178, 631 Wilson, Honorable James, 60, 90, 216, 459, 605, 749, 872 Wilson, Lieutenant, 418 Wilson, Mr., 80 Wilson, William, 139, 443, 631, 749, 820 Wilson’s Hall, Matthew, 852 Winchester, 707 Winchester, Mr., 298 Windham, 491 Winfield, 554, 677, 772 Wingebone, 436 Winter, Colonel, 400 Wintermoot’s Fort, 456 Winyard, Lieutenant, 348 Wissahickon, 31 Witchcraft, Story, 150, 151, 152 Wohlheiter Family, 343 Wolf, Charles S., 735 Wolf, Governor George, 182, 276, 569, 839, 889, 890, 891 Wolf, Jacob, 474 Wolf Run, 261 Wolfe, General James, 149, 704 Wolverton, Simon Peter, 192, 496 Womelsdorf, 247, 407, 757 Wood, Mrs. Rhoda, 250 Woodmancy, William, 396 Woods, George, 200 Woods, Jean, 179 Woods, John, 510 Woodside, Mr., 299 Woodvale, 378 Woodward, George W., 31 Woolman, John, 359 Work, Andrew, 172 World’s Fair, Chicago, 384 World’s Tour, Grant, 882 Wren, Captain, 277 Wright, James, 320 Wright, John, 300, 821, 822 Wright, John, Jr., 823 Wright’s Ferry, 571, 680, 818, 822 Wrightstown, 862 Wrightsville, 135, 451, 650 Wrightsville Meeting House, 650 Wunderlich & Nead, 706 Wyalusing, 359, 423, 458 Wyalusing Falls, 17 Wyckoff, Cornelius, 402 Wyckoff, Peter, 402 Wyngenim, Chief, 404 Wynksop, Colonel, 879 Wyoming, 17, 70, 71, 75, 102, 103, 104, 111, 229, 254, 274, 366, 367, 368, 430, 438, 450, 456, 460, 462, 468, 491, 492, 493, 496, 507, 514, 540, 541, 559, 562, 563, 575, 588, 617, 634, 673, 675, 711, 718, 765, 775, 868, 903, 905, 911 Wyoming County, 181, 208, 596, 598, 775 Wyoming Fort, 560 Wyoming Massacre, 228, 468, 618, 456, 911 Wythe, George, 872 Y Yadkin River Valley, 736 Yaqueekhon, 437 Yale, 46, 328 Yankee-Pennamite War Story, 559 Yardleys, 909 Yarnell, Lieutenant, 626 Yattman, John, 150 Yeager, Captain, 277 Yeates, Catherine, 606 Yeates, James, 650 Yeates, Jasper, 372, 483, 606, 689, 874 Yeates, Sara, 606 Yellow Breeches Creek, 248, 300 Yellow Creek, 361 Yellow Fever, 355, 775, 789 “Yellow Jack,” 847 Yellow Springs, 224, 602 Yohogania County, Va., 163, 489 York, 11, 81, 258, 329, 415, 418, 569, 582, 616, 680, 735, 836 York, Burning of, 582 York County, 33, 60, 131, 134, 135, 180, 181, 206, 207, 210, 221, 264, 308, 320, 364, 414, 416, 419, 483, 508, 569, 582, 596, 606, 617, 678, 697, 698,
699, 731 York, Duke of, 165, 755 York Haven, 298 York Road, Old, 689 York town, 849 York, Va., 661 958Yost, B. F., 193, 314, 847 Yost, Mr., 119 Yost, Mrs. B. F., 315, 557 Yost’s Mill, 719 Youghiogheny River, 43, 148, 319 Youghiogheny Valley, 38 Young Bear (Indian), 767 Young, Commissary James, 25, 759 Young, Robert K., 137 Z Zaccheus, 235 Zacharias, 540 Zahner, Mr., 846 Zane, Ebenezer, 740 Zeisburger, Rev. David, 16, 359, 42, 475, 563, 584, 826, 867, 886 Ziegler, George, 136 Zimmerman, Christian, 558 Zinzindorf, Benigna, 513, 868 Zinzindorf, Count Nicholas Ludwig, 15, 16, 32, 512, 513, 514, 639, 866, 888 Zion, 464 Zion, Mount, 464 Zion Reformed Church, 81, 384 Zuydt River, 123, 589, 856 ix.14 Fr[ei/ie]tchie, Barbara Transposed. xii.24 Tulliall[e/a]n Replaced. 19.45 belonging to the Britis[t/h] fleet Replaced. 24.42 Governor Morris advised Colonel Clap[man/ham] Replaced. 45.33 Every interest in London was again[st] him. Added. 49.29 Gover[n]or Packer Inserted. 63.20 “One Thomas [McGee] Sic: McKee 66.10 [“]The> first Party Added. 80.17 on account of conscientious scruples.[”] Added. 80.30 who was a [seafearing] man sic: seafaring? 82.8 Count [D/d]e Rochambeau Replaced. 82.20 and driven by o[v/x]en Replaced. 89.41 which would alone hav[e] established Added. 92.1 John Penn, Last Propriet[o/a]ry Governor Replaced. 94.27 Ole Bornemann Bull was [born] in Bergen Missing. 99.24 a colossal statu[t]e of the man Removed. 99.30 Jail at Hannastown Stormed Febru[ru]ary Removed. 109.39 murder in the first degree.[’/”] Replaced. 121.16 The Government interfer[r]ed with their plans Removed. 125.5 through the negotia[it/ti]on of Transposed. 126.15 destined to bec[a/o]me Replaced. 151.23 Annakey Coolin[g/’]s attestation Replaced. 128.29 Robert Turner and Thomas Tre[e/s]se were interested Replaced. 149.20 a Scotch and Calv[a/i]nistic settlement. Replaced. 156.4 after the title of 1768 was ex[t]inguished Inserted. 194.20 from the Twel[f]th District Inserted. 196.14 was chosen to succee[e]d him Removed. 199.38 with the ad[d]ition> of ninety-five officers Inserted. 201.15 was built in Ap[p]ollo Removed. 201.18 and the Alleghen[e]y portage railroads Removed. 204.24 published a volum[n/e] Replaced. 205.27 and [“]other grain.” Added (likely). 211.17 we find Pence en[e]gaged Removed. 227.35 son of the great vice[-]gerent Removed. 235.11 The Governor sent Con[ar/ra]d Weiser Transposed. 243.18 One of these early engines, the Rocket[t] Removed. 259.36 Li[ue/eu]tenant Colonels Transposed. 260.38 to subdue the Indian atrocit[i]es Inserted. 263.25 he entered heart[i]ly into the scheme Inserted. 263.29 for the contemplated i[n/m]provements Replaced. 277.3 in procuring accom[m]odations Inserted. 282.26 These troops rendez[v]oused at Fort Henry Inserted. 288.2 it was entirely obli[b/t]erated many years ago Replaced. 291.42 receive [the] Continental Congress sic: missing? 295.33 had taken two or three [familys] prisoners sic 298.37 built by the Balt[i]more promoters Inserted. 301.26 did not leave all to di[s]plomacy Removed. 303.21 invited the sur[r]ounding tribes Inserted. 307.12 in Mon[t]gomery County Inserted. 308.32 the Supreme Ex[e]cutive Council Inserted. 309.40 These [maurauders] were pursued sic 317.25 much cunning di[s]plomacy Removed. 322.46 did not reach his des[t]ination Inserted. 325.12 for poultry and fresh p[r]ovisions. Inserted. 327.17 Beth[eu/ue]l died at his home Transposed. 327.19 Beth[eu/ue]l Vincent, born June 3, 1762 Transposed. 330.29 an agreement of s[e]ttlement Inserted. 332.28 becoming his sur[i/e]ties Replaced. 338.8 oppose the preten[t/s]ions of Lord Baltimore Replaced. 347.3 not[h]withstanding all their endeavors Removed. 351.14 Dem[o/a]gogues have been using commissions Replaced. 358.26 that Washington had died[,] bells were muffled Added. 361.5 Zeisberger left Fr[ei/ie]denhutten Transposed. 368.24 and temporary hospital accom[m]odations Inserted. 368.31 commis[s]erating Removed. 390.36 over Bair, Know No[r]thing Removed. 412.4 the reign of Loui[x/s] XIV Replaced. 414.30 as the propriet[o/a]ry’s one-tenth Replaced. 421.40 contained many h[ei/ie]roglyphics Transposed. 428.6 dissati[s]fied with the indisposition Inserted. 430.29 They were on the[re/ir] way Replaced. 431.34 by its ac[c]omplishment Inserted. 445.37 possession of de[s]cendants of Captain Wilson Inserted. 447.45 Peter Alrick[s] Added. 460.5 Not[h]withstandin his overcautiousness Removed. 469.34 as tenant of Claypool[e] Added. 470.38 Beauje[a]u’s command was reinforced Removed. 471.28 A[t] this point the supply Added. 501.45 by a stra[get/teg]ic movement Transposed. 512.27 dis[tin]guished visitor. Inserted. 513.23 and rough[t]ly handled him Removed. 513.33 Henry Melch[oi/io]r Muhlenberg Transposed. 518.21 Lawyer Br[e/a]ckenridge, in 1799, left Replaced. 518.24 Br[e/a]ckenridge and some of his adherents Replaced. 518.25 the “Tree of [Life].” sic Liberty 535.10 and allot[t]ing ten thousand acres Inserted. 539.35 at the hands of Canass[atego/etoga] Replaced. 544.17 the great Oneida vice[-]gerent Removed. 544.29 He and William Hayes had volunte[e]red Inserted. 548.6 abandoned the s[ei/ie]ge on this fort Transposed. 548.31 the valley of the Musking[ha/u]m Replaced. 553.17 [Allegany] on the branch of Ohio sic 553.26 they would pass the [Susquehannah] sic 634.39 some seen carried off[)] Added (likely). 637.9 under the preten[t/s]ion of fears Replaced. 643.19 that a convention [h/b]e called Replaced. 652.8 the artillery in cas[t/e] of defeat. Replaced. 667.8 John Paul Ja[e/c]quet Replaced. 669.43 he stayed in Philade[l]phia Inserted. 679.15 I arrived about 11 o’clock. o’clock.[”] Added. 687.20 any person who had [ac-]accepted or might accept Removed. 697.19 to start a school here in Germantown.[”] Added. 720.30 one of promise for the Engli[g/s]h Replaced. 731.34 S[abastai/ebastia]n Graff and John Haldeman Replaced. 741.36 was propelled with sail and oar[,/.] Replaced. 761.6 The Rev. Mr. Stee[e]l Removed. 764.8 became odi[o]us to the people of Philadelphia Inserted. 770.20 in great force to bes[ei/ie]ge> the fort Transposed. 781.22 Early in 1764 e[tx/xt]ensive measures Transposed. 783.28 Prey of Kidnap[p]ers Inserted. 785.32 on hor[es/se]back Transposed. 789.15 a sense of the i[n/m]portance Replaced. 790.5 On March 5, 1798[,] President Adams[,] informed Congress Added/Removed. 791.16 circular letter to milit[i]a officers Inserted. 793.29 and when they was [goeing] to put him sic 796.39 the situation was entirely changed[.] Added. 797.5 the vicinity of D[ie/ei]trick Six’s Transposed. 802.3 reaching a trading[-/ ]post Replaced. 813.22 old age and decrep[t]itude Removed. 819.8 Joe heard the foo[t]steps Inserted. 842.1 Saint[ /-]Pierre replied Replaced. 850.21 [“]Bury me at the foot Added. 852.13 and carried Spac[h/k]man off Replaced. 864.7 one of the m[a/o]st disgraceful local conflicts Replaced. 878.30 after some conversation[;/,] stepped eight paces Replaced. 888.1 was the prou[n]d proprietor Removed. 910.15 General Cadwal[l]ader’s Removed. 900.29 His parents were of Engli[g/s]h origin Replaced. 902.4 “Annals of Philadelphia[,]” Removed. 918.15 that plan into operation.[”] Added. But see note. 935.25 *Fo[u]ntainbleau, 704 Removed. 919.38 ascertaining the lat[t]itude Removed.
946.70 Muhlenberg, Henry Melch[oi/io]r, 513 Transposed. 947.27 Ogleth[ro/or]pe, James Edward, 313 Transposed. 951.2 Ringgold, [Arthur Artillery], 277 Replaced.
Cover FINDING YOUTH FINDING YOUTH A Human Experience BY Nelson Andrews decoration THE ATLANTIC MONTHLY PRESS BOSTON Copyright 1921, 1922 by FRED G. ANDREWS Santa Barbara California The reader of these pages need scarcely be told that there is truth in them, and a deeper truth in the lesson that they teach. For this chronicle, in its essentials, might have been written of many a life other than his whose simple story is here set down. [Pg 1] FINDING YOUTH I This story is told because others need to know it. They need to know it now, when all the world is making a blind struggle to find youth-a new creative spirit. It is the experience of just a common, everyday man-myself. But thousands of others have gone through my same experience. They are not finding the help, though, that I found. It is because I found this help-found something that man has always been seeking-that I feel impelled to tell my story. My name is Harvey Allen. I was born in New York City and had lived there all my life. When the Big Thing happened, I was sixty years old. My wife and I had two sons, both married. We had six grandchildren. We had lived in the same Harlem apartment for twenty years-with front[Pg 2] windows looking out on the street, side air-shafts, and a rear view of clotheslines and fire-escapes. I never see a clothesline now that I don’t think of that day in October. The neighborhood had changed since our coming. The Ghetto had expanded and taken us in. The color-line was drawn just a block away, in the next street. But the place was home, and we had stuck there. One of our sons, Walter, lived in Yonkers. The younger son, George, lived over in Brooklyn. We didn’t see either of them often. They both worked hard to support their families. Evenings and Sundays they had their different family interests; and their wives had their own relatives to visit. My wife, however, made frequent trips to their homes. She helped our daughters-in-law by doing most of the sewing for the grandchildren. But she always returned in time to have my dinner ready at night, when I got home tired from my day’s work. She has[Pg 3] never neglected me. Our youthful love affair was a good deal romantic, and we have always been real pals. She is a descendant of one of the old New York families of the best American pioneer blood. Sometimes of an evening we went to a picture-show. But we had dropped into the habit of spending most of our evenings at home. Occasionally some old friend would call; or Miss Marsh, who had a small room in the apartment across the hall, would drop in for a few minutes. But I usually read aloud, and my wife sewed. We both have always been great book-lovers. I have never lost my youthful satisfaction in just being with my wife. I liked to look and see her seated there by the table, her white head bent above her sewing, and the rays from the droplight falling across her hands. Her slight figure always carried an air about it; and her hands were shapely and delicate, in spite of all the hard work she had done. Her hair still kept its girlish curl, and she[Pg 4] wore it in a loose Grecian knot at the back of her head. She wore her cheap clothes, too, with the distinction of a New Yorker. Whenever she felt my gaze, she would lift her eyes and smile at me across the table. I waited for this smile. A certain light in her soft brown eyes has never failed to fascinate me. Whenever Miss Marsh dropped in, I would let my wife entertain her. I would smoke my pipe and read to myself. Miss Marsh got on my nerves. She was from the South; had seen better days, but was now clerking in a dry-goods store on One Hundred and Twenty-Fifth Street. She was a thin, little old maid, who tried to be girlish. She laughed and gushed a good deal, and dyed her hair and painted her face. But my wife, who is kind to everyone, always defended her. “Poor little thing! If she didn’t try to keep up her spirits and look as young as possible, she’d lose her position in the store. And she does say some sharp,[Pg 5] bright things. She leads a lonely life. And I don’t believe she has enough to eat.” I can tell these things now about Miss Marsh; for later she and I came to understand each other better. I worked in a downtown printing-plant. It was an old established concern, and I had worked there for years. I had been foreman in one of the departments until they put in a younger man. When the old proprietor died, and his son stepped into the father’s shoes, a good many changes were made. The son was a modern efficiency man. It cut pretty deeply into my pride to be shifted around from one job to another-each a little inferior to the former and commanding less pay-and then being always finally misplaced by a younger man. But I swallowed it all and stayed on. I knew that jobs were not lying around loose for men of my years. My long experience mended a good many blunders made by the younger chaps in the plant. They acknowledged it, too,[Pg 6] whenever I jokingly told them. But at the same time they smiled indulgence of “old Pop,” as they all called me. I took this title goodnaturedly, but something in me always shrank from it a little. It was from the patronage of youth that I shrank-a patronage just tinged with contempt for my years. But I shrank more from their pity the day that I finally got my discharge. And they did pity me, for they all liked me.
I know that my sense of humor made me popular with them. The discharge came unexpectedly, though I had been fearing and dreading it for a long time. This fear and dread had begun to look out of my eyes. I caught it sometimes in the mirror, and felt a pride of resentment against it, as something that hurt my self-respect. But what hurt me worse was the knowledge that my wife saw it, too. I shrank sensitively from any depreciation of myself in her feelings. My masculine pride wanted to keep her always impressed with my strength. [Pg 7] She never said anything; but at times I could feel her anxiously watching me. There was a sympathetic encouragement in her smile, and in the press of her hand on my arm after she had kissed me good-bye when I was starting to work in the morning. I always met this smile with one of whimsical reassurance. But we both had the feeling of bluffing some menacing calamity. And when I walked away, my shoulders drooped under this cringing new self-consciousness, and my feet shuffled heavily. I had always walked upright and with a spring. I realized these changes in myself and resented them. But somehow I didn’t seem to have the power to throw them off. The boss who discharged me hated to do it, and was as kind about it as he possibly could be. He assured me that it was not because I wasn’t doing my work well. Then, realizing that this was an unnecessary thing to say, he cleared his throat, embarrassed. They all knew there was no part of a printer’s work that I didn’t understand and couldn’t do.[Pg 8] But the new management’s policy was for young men. My only fault was accumulated years. “You’ve done your share of work, anyhow, Pop,” he said; “now it’s up to your two boys to take care of you. You worked hard for ’em, and fitted ’em with the best kind of training to make their own way.” That’s the conventional balm always put on this kind of hurt. Guess I smiled a little ironically. My two boys were having a pretty hard struggle to take care of the responsibilities they already had. George had had a good deal of sickness in his family, and Walter was supporting his wife’s parents. I had been letting them both have money. It wouldn’t have been quite so hard if they had waited until Saturday night to discharge me. But they didn’t. It was Tuesday morning. And they were going to give me a full week’s pay because of my long service. They meant to be kind, of course, in their way-trying to let me down easy. But the offer of the full[Pg 9] week’s pay added to my humiliation and stirred in me a lot of bitterness. My head went hot for a minute and the blood drummed in my ears. But I managed to speak quietly, and smiled when I said,- “I only want what’s owing me. I’ve always worked for all I got.” In going over this scene so many times since, I know that I felt something deeper than just my own bitter resentment. I had a vague sort of feeling that it was up to me to stand for the justice due to other men of my years, in my same fix. These fraternal bonds are in our blood. The boss tried to expostulate. I stood firm. And they finally made out my time. I took what was due me, and the boss and I shook hands. I could feel him watching me until I got out of the office. I knew the kind of look that was in his face, but I didn’t turn around to see. [Pg 10] II Leaving the plant that day was the hardest thing I have ever done. My first impulse was to get my coat and hat and just slip away. But my pride would not let me do that. So I braced and went back to the room where I had been working. I told some of the fellows with whom I was the best acquainted that I had been fired; and shook hands with them in farewell. There was a pretty tight feeling in my throat. But they helped me to try and carry the thing off as something of a joke. I could see the pity, though, in their eyes. It was raining-a cold, drizzling, late-October rain. But I did not notice it. I took the same old route I had taken for years, to the Sixth Avenue Elevated station. I did not remember, however, until I started up the station steps, that it was[Pg 11] forenoon and not my usual time for going home. Then I halted and moved back again to the sidewalk, and stood there in the rain. I understood later why I had done this. I had been suddenly jerked out of a deep rut of habit, and was dazed at finding myself in new conditions. Then, too, I was weighted, groggy, with the aching depression that I was done for, out of the game-old. I dreaded to go home and tell my wife. If I had been a drinking man, I should have gone off on a drunk. People jostled by me on their way up the stairs to the Elevated. Dripping umbrellas swished against me. My overcoat was wet, and the rain trickled from my hat-brim. But I stood there lost, dead-like one just sent out of life. Then my gaze was suddenly caught by an old chap who sold newspapers in this district. I often bought my evening paper from him. He was a little old fellow, with watery eyes, a stubby beard, and straight gray hair that grew a little long. He had one incongruous feature,[Pg 12] though-good teeth that were kept clean. I had always noticed them. My vague interest in him had tabulated him a
boozer. But to-day I watched him with a new and curious fascination. He had halted in a doorway, and stood there, hunched up, with his newspapers under his arm. He still wore a summer’s stained and battered straw hat, and a dirty bandana handkerchief was tied about his neck. He was wet and pinched with the cold. He had turned up the collar of his old coat, and stood with one hand in his trousers pocket, as with the effort to coax a little warmth. For the minute, he had forgotten everything but his own discomfort. The hopeless misery of the man looked out of his watery eyes. A dull sympathy of understanding stirred in me. The next instant I resented this feeling. I resented it because it put me in this old chap’s class. Then the man’s necessity to live pushed him on again to work. He started in my direction, calling out his papers in a cracked and wheezy voice. [Pg 13] I bought a paper from him and started across the street. I had the feeling of hurrying away from something that was clutching at me-as a man, using his last spurt of strength to swim for his own life, tries to keep away from the reach of another who is drowning. But I couldn’t get away from this old fellow. The picture of him filled my inner vision. The feeling of him pulsed through my blood. We truly were in the same class-both old, and both on the edge of life making our struggle. It was noon. I went into a Child’s restaurant and bought a cup of coffee. That brought me back nearer to normal. I decided to look for another job. Having secured that, I could face my wife with more of encouragement. All that afternoon I went from one printing-office to another. But they all turned me down. Of course, my rain-soaked appearance did not inspire much confidence. Had I waited, and gone the rounds looking a little less down-and-out, I might have met with success. But[Pg 14] later experience has made me feel that it would have made small difference. After each refusal I grew a few years older. I tried to make my sense of humor work a little. But it wouldn’t. That and every other part of my being was caught in the grip of a shrinking fear. By the time I turned into the doorway of my own Harlem apartment house I was a shuffling old man. The halls of the house, as usual, were filled with the odors of Kosher cooking. I dragged up the one flight of stairs and fumbled the key into the lock of my own door. Downstairs the front door opened and closed. Someone had come in. A quick panic seized me that it might be Miss Marsh. I hurried into my own apartment to escape her. I was feeling now a new shrinking from Miss Marsh. My wife was not at home. I remembered that she had said at breakfast that she was going over to Brooklyn to see the two grandchildren who had been sick. She might have been held up in the subway.[Pg 15] But I was home more than an hour earlier than my usual time. My first feeling was one of relief, not to find her there. It gave me the chance to change my wet clothing before she came. The rooms smelled of the newly generated steam hissing up in the pipes. The heat felt good. I took off my wet clothes and hung them on two chairs by the front-room radiator. When I had finished dressing, my wife had not yet come. I filled the teakettle and put it on the gas-range in the kitchen. Then I turned on the light in the dining-room, and sat down by the table to read the want advertisements in the evening paper. But my thoughts were not on the advertisements: they were seething with other things. Here, in the seclusion and comfort of my own home, they began to work more clearly. I finally threw the newspaper on the table, rose, dropped into the old rocker by the window, and let myself think. I have always been something of a philosopher; and I faced[Pg 16] my situation now with more of that spirit. I, Harvey Allen, was sound and well, with fair intelligence, and a thorough knowledge of my work, gained by long experience. I had never been a drinking man, but had worked steadily, and had always been reliable. Yet, because I was sixty years of age, I was being thrown on the dump-heap. My father had lived to be eighty-four. In all probability I should live to be as old. That would mean twenty-four years on the dump-heap. Twenty-four years!-over a fourth of my existence. It was not good social business. Something was wrong. We don’t allow that waste with a horse or cow. I had worked steadily for wages ever since I was seventeen years old. Most folks would say that I ought to have laid up enough to take care of myself and wife during our old age. Perhaps I ought. But I hadn’t. My present bank-account was about a hundred dollars. During the twenty years in which we[Pg 17] had lived in this little dark New York apartment I had paid between ten and eleven thousand dollars in rent. Then there had been the expense of educating our two boys. It had been a big expense. For both my wife and I had wanted them to have the best. We had given them both technical educations at Cornell. Of course, they themselves had helped some. Then they had married young. Babies had come fast. I had had to help tide them over some financial rocks. And of late years my wages had been steadily decreasing. Perhaps I had not been as provident as I should. But we had never spent money very wildly. I sent
a look around the apartment. Everything we had was old. No new thing had been bought in the home for years. The only real extravagance had been the piano. But that had seemed almost a necessity to my wife, who loved music, and tried to keep up a little in her playing. And I had paid my debts; had always taken pride in never owing any man a cent. In fact,[Pg 18] nothing had ever worried me more than indebtedness. But now-I cringed. The boss had said that it was up to my two boys to take care of me. Why should it be? They had their children to care for and educate, just as I had had mine. Their first duty was that of fathers. Besides, even though they could, I didn’t want them to take care of me. All I asked was the opportunity to work and take care of myself and my wife, who was dependent upon me. Then my gaze turned out of the window. It was still raining. The woman in the apartment up above had left some washing hanging on the line-some suits of men’s underwear. The lights from the back windows shone upon them. They flopped about weakly in the drizzling storm. Somehow they brought back to my mind the picture of the old chap standing that morning in the downtown doorway, his newspapers tucked under his arm, a helpless victim of the storm. It stirred, too, a vague, uneasy sense of affinity in me. [Pg 19] The clock struck. I roused from my thoughts and began to feel a little anxious about my wife. It was most unusual for her to be as late as this. I decided to telephone over to George’s and learn if she had started. I was just taking down the receiver, when I heard her key scrape in the lock. I went quickly and opened the door for her. She came in breathless from having hurried. I followed her into the dining-room, and saw that she was looking white and anxious. George was sick. Had pneumonia. He had been sitting up nights with his sick children, was all worn out, and had taken cold. George, who is the younger, has always been the less robust of our two boys. “I should have gone over and relieved him of the care of the children,” my wife said, with the pain of self-censure in her face. “But I’m going back now to take care of him. I’ve come home to get some things that I need.” “Why didn’t you telephone,” I reprimanded, “and have me bring over what[Pg 20] you wanted, instead of making this long trip in the rain?” But she had thought that I wouldn’t know where to find the things. And she wanted to see, too, that I was fixed all right, as she might be gone for several days. “You must have something to eat,” I said, “then I’ll go back with you.” I carried her wet umbrella into the kitchen, and she went into the bedroom to gather up her things. I decided not to add to her worry by telling her now about my day’s experience. But she herself made the discovery. I have never been able to conceal anything from her for long. She went into the front room, and saw my wet clothes hanging on the chair by the radiator. Then she came out to the kitchen, where I was making a clumsy effort to brew her a cup of tea. “How did you happen to get so wet to-day?” she asked. The question took me unawares, and I hesitated before making the excuse that[Pg 21] I had had no umbrella. She did not speak again, but stood there watching me. My hands trembled so that I spilled the hot water when I tried to pour it into the teapot. Finally, I turned and met her gaze. Then there was no need of further words between us. When her eyes looked into mine, she seemed to know the whole story as fully as if I had told it to her. I could never describe the look that came into her face. It was something like the mother-look that I had seen there when she was nursing one of her babies. But it was intensified. She moved toward me, put her arms around my neck, and gazed up into my face. “Don’t worry, Harve; you’ll find something else soon.” I think it was the fine instinct of the thoroughbred in my wife that made her now call me “Harve.” It had been a long time since she had called me that. We had grown to be to each other just “Dad” and “Mother.” But the “Harve” brought with it a certain reassurance[Pg 22] of youth-an encouragement to the personality that was mine irrespective of my fatherhood; to the me who had been her lover, husband, pal. It sent a thrill through me that braced my spine. I put my arms around her, drew her to me, and laid my face down against hers. Since then I have learned that the lover always is young. From this time on my wife and I fell back into the old habit of calling each other “Harve” and “Mattie.” During the days that followed I missed her more than I could ever tell. But we were both a good deal worried about George, who was pretty sick. I went over to Brooklyn each evening, to see how he was, and to do what things I could to help. The days I put in looking for work. George’s sickness, which was going to be a big expense, added to my feeling that I must find an immediate job. It happened that Walter was not at home just at this time. He is an electrical[Pg 23] engineer, and his company had sent him out in the state to do some work. I trailed around to printing-offices, little and
big. As yet I had made no attempt to find work outside of my own trade, in which I had had a lifetime of training. But nothing offered. A good many printers happened to be looking for jobs at this same time; and the younger man was always given the preference. I had two or three promises from bosses-men whom I had known. But these promises all turned out disappointments. Then, one night, I was going home after having traveled the rounds all day in Harlem. I was tired and pretty well discouraged. After having paid my next month’s rent and some other small bills, and taken money over to Brooklyn to help out with the expenses of George’s sickness, I had only about ten dollars left in the bank. By this time I had come to understand that I must look for some kind of work aside from a printing-office. So[Pg 24] this day I had made the try for a job in several stores, and other places. But with no success. They had no jobs for men of my years. If I had been a cook, I might have got a place in a Third Avenue restaurant. There seemed to be more demands for cooks than for any other kind of labor. As I walked along now, I saw a “Janitor Wanted” sign on the area railing of an apartment house. I halted and looked at it. After having lived all my life in New York apartments, I knew what a janitor’s job was like. It would mean taking my wife to live in a dark garbage-smelling basement. But I had come to a state of desperation-of almost panic. I hesitated, then swallowed my pride, braced myself, and went down the area-steps to the basement. This janitor’s job might tide over until I could find something else. The wiry little Yiddish superintendent of the building was there, just inside the basement door, talking to two other applicants-a big negro and an Italian.[Pg 25] When I arrived, the superintendent turned to me. “How about this janitor’s job?” I asked; and my manner might have shown a little something of patronage. He looked me over critically. The negro and Italian watched anxiously. Then the superintendent gave a Jew shrug, shook his head, and dismissed me with a belittling smile. “I vant a man dat could lif’ de garbage cans und big tings. You vas too old.” The last drop of gall was added to the bitterness of my humiliation. I was too old to be the janitor of even a third-rate Harlem apartment house. As I stumbled back up the area-steps, I heard him hire the big negro for the job. Every atom of me tingled so with humiliation that I forgot to take a street car, but walked the rest of the long distance home. By the time I reached there, I was trembling and pretty well all in. [Pg 26] III And then came the happening which led to the final big experience of my life. I had halted in the lower hall, to rest a minute before climbing the stairs to my own apartment. I stood with my foot on the lower step, leaning heavily against the banisters. The outside door opened and Miss Marsh came in. I was too tired to try and escape her. She stopped beside me and asked anxiously:- “What’s the matter, Mr. Allen?” “Nothing. Just a little tired,” I answered, and started on up the stairs. She followed. In the hall above I stopped at the door of my apartment, and she moved on toward hers. Then she turned suddenly, and came back to me. “I sure would like to do something for you if I could, Mr. Allen,” she said, in her Southern way of speaking. I turned and looked at her. In her[Pg 27] face was an expression different from any that I had ever seen there-more sincere and earnest. It commanded a respect that I had never felt for her. I mumbled something or other in the way of thanks, to which she paid no attention, but went on to say:- “I know it must be mighty hard to have to look for a new job after you have worked for so many years in the same place.” I cringed, and I think I must have scowled. For I was wondering how she had found out that I was looking for another job. I thought that I had kept the fact pretty carefully concealed. But I guess the most of us are ostriches, stretching our heads down in the sands of our own secret conceits. While I stood there, wondering, she kept on talking. The next thing that I caught was:- “Don’t reckon you’ll want to take any advice from me, but you can’t afford to let yourself grow old like this, Mr. Allen. Nobody wants us if we’re old.” [Pg 28] I tried to laugh. It was a sickly attempt. What she had said hit me in so many sore spots that I squirmed to get away. But inside my own apartment, the thing that she had said repeated itself in my thoughts. “You can’t afford to let yourself grow old.” I smiled satirically. How folks can fool themselves. That little old maid, with her dyed hair and painted face, thinking that she was hiding the fact of her age! But still the thing kept repeating itself-“You mustn’t let yourself grow old.” “Let! Let! Let!” That word finally got to hammering itself in my tired brain. I tried to get away from it, but I couldn’t. There was something accusing about it, like the gesture of a pointed finger. It seemed to put the blame of all my failure up to me-some wrong understanding in myself. And then came my first experience with the Voice! [Pg 29] I call it the Voice, for I don’t know what else to call it. But I know that some Power outside
a man’s own being can speak to him in the time of his need; when his ego is weakened by the discouragement of defeat. When he listens, he learns and is helped. For this Voice teaches Life! Our schools and churches have taught us systems and creeds. I had pulled up a chair to the kitchen table, on which I had set out a scrambled sort of supper. I was going over to Brooklyn as soon as I had finished eating. The “Let! Let! Let!” was still pounding away in my thoughts. Finally I halted in my supper, set down my coffee-cup and asked:- “Have I let myself grow old?” And the Voice replied quickly:- “Yes. You should be now right in your prime, knowing how to use and enjoy life. If you are thrown on the dump-heap, it is because you have put your own self there.” You may laugh. You may say that I was tired and a little woozy in the head.[Pg 30] But I know the Voice did speak. It spoke to my inner consciousness, but the thoughts were not my own. I even winced from some of the things it said. It makes no difference whether or not you believe in the Voice, you must be impressed by the results of its teachings as applied in my own life. For I followed its teachings and learned the Great Lesson. This first night only the glimmering light of a new understanding came to me. But that light grew. I saw that, up to now, I had been putting upon others all the blame for my own weaknesses-and thought of myself as a helpless victim of an unenlightened social order. I was slumping into a slough of self-pity. Worst of all, I was losing my sense of humor. I know that this is the big calamity. As long as a man can laugh humorously-laugh with his mind as well as with his mouth-he has the vitality to create new brain-cells. And, after this first talk with the Voice, I smiled at myself!-a thing of[Pg 31] big encouragement! One has caught at a strong life-saver when he can rise above the swamping power of self-pity long enough to laugh at his own weaknesses. When I was putting on my overcoat, getting ready to go over to Brooklyn, I took a critical survey of myself in the bedroom mirror. I had been considered a pretty good-looking man-was tall and broad-shouldered, and had been quite athletic in my day. But I could see now that in many ways I had let myself grow old. There was no necessity for me to be so stooped, with such a caved-in chest and protruding abdomen. I pulled myself up and saw that I could stand straight. And I realized at once more command of myself when I stood right, with my chest up and my abdomen pulled in. Yes, I could stand straight when I made the effort. Then, in quick response to this thought, the Voice again spoke:- “When you make the effort! It is the you inside that must make the effort.” [Pg 32] And I finally came into this understanding. I want to impress the fact that I did not learn at once all the things I am now telling. This knowledge grew. But I’m going to state some things before I go on to tell of how I found my life’s big opportunity. I gained the understanding that old age is a matter of the ignorance of Life. New laws of Nature are continually being discovered. In the last century science discovered electricity. This century will see the discovery of Life. Man has both the mental and physical power to keep young, if he will use that power. Instead of being a thing on the dump-heap, man may grow in power as he grows in years. His body is made by food, drink, air, and thoughts. Its cells are constantly rebuilding. By understanding his own power, he can direct this rebuilding to an increased Life-capacity. His power to do so has been limited by his own ignorance. Once men said that[Pg 33] there could never be a steam-engine. Later they scoffed at the possibility of building a flying machine. In his discovery of new laws, man is learning that he has hindered his own growth through his lack of understanding. A man can never grow old. He may stop growing, and stagnate. That is what I had done. The first lesson that I had to learn was the difference between youth and old age. Both are really matters of the spirit, rather than of years. One may be aged at twenty, and a youth at eighty. The spirit of youth has courage, is venturesome, progressive, optimistic, creative. The spirit of old age is afraid, reactionary, pessimistic, and stagnant. Youth laughs. Old age sighs. Youth is eager to discover new paths. Old age wants to stay in the prison of habit and travel the same old ruts. I had been traveling in ruts. And I had worn them deep. For twenty years I had let myself live in the same old dark apartment, and take the same old route to the same old printing-plant. And I[Pg 34] had wanted to cling to the same old ways of doing work. The time came when I realized that I must have been something of a proposition to the printing-plant’s young management. For I had stubbornly opposed the new efficiency system. Because I felt tired at night, I had let my wife give up all other associations to keep me company. I had let myself lose interest in my old friends, and I had shunned making new ones. I selfishly clung to just my own immediate family. That meant heart-stagnation. The man is old who has let himself lose his heart-interest in people. The man who loves most, lives most. Youth loves. I had let myself drop out of touch with all the
big public issues. I felt no interest in any country but the United States, and that meant very little to me outside of New York City. And here in New York, where every opportunity offered, I never went to a lecture, or to a concert. I had stopped going to see the new[Pg 35] plays; I talked about the superior old days of the theatre, when Daly’s was in its prime. I didn’t even read the new books, but prided myself on sticking to the old ones. All of which made for brain-stagnation. I had grown afraid of adventure. This revelation came to me suddenly, the next day after my first experience with the Voice. It sent a tingle of protest through me, and I cringed with something like shame. But I halted on the sidewalk and faced the fact squarely. Then I rebelliously pulled myself together, quit my hunt for a job, forgot my poverty-stricken bank-account, and went for a trip through Central Park and the Metropolitan Museum. I had not been there for years. It all seemed like a new world to me. It stirred my stagnant emotions and filled me with new interests. We are continually losing these life-building values that lie right at our elbow. A man will travel the same old route day after day to his business. If, once in a while, he would go even a block out[Pg 36] of his way, he might have the feeling of new adventure-get a new view, or some experience to stimulate new cell-activity in his stagnating heart and brain. When I got home that night, I was several years younger. [Pg 37] IV Having conquered my fears and tasted adventure, I was hungry now for more. My wife felt the change in me when I saw her that evening in Brooklyn. In fact, she has always declared that it was the influence which I brought into the house that night-the feeling of new vigor and of new hope-that made George take a turn for the better and get well. As usual, on my Brooklyn subway trip, I read the want advertisements in the evening papers. An office over in a small New Jersey town was advertising for a printer! I read it two or three times. But if I had not taken that Central Park adventure trip, I don’t believe I should have answered this advertisement. I had never thought of going to New Jersey to look for a job. I felt all the self-centred New Yorker’s prejudices against New Jersey. But I did go.[Pg 38] I was up and on my way early the next morning. And that was how I happened to meet Ben Hutchins and find my life’s big opportunity. The first time I saw Ben Hutchins, I laughed. I knew at once that he was a crank. He was an old-school printer, like myself. For years he had run this little job office and published a weekly newspaper. Afterwards, I learned that he had plenty of money-was, in fact, rich-and that the only reason he kept on publishing his paper was that he didn’t quite know how to get out of the habit. His little old one-story building stood off by itself, in the business section of this small New Jersey town. To get to it, you had to cross a bridge and follow a narrow dirt path. The path this morning was muddy, after a short flurry of wet snow. The paint was worn off the building. One of the old-fashioned shutters was loose and flapped in the November wind. On the roof was a rooster[Pg 39] weather-vane that looked as if it might have been crowing into the teeth of a half-century of storms. I opened the door and went in. It was one large room-a typical, old-fashioned, country-newspaper office. Its assortment of junk looked as if it might have been accumulating there since the American Revolution. An antiquated roll-topped desk stood in the corner, by one of the front windows. A tipsy old swivel-chair stood in front of it. Near it, a lop-sided old waste-basket spilled its overload of newspapers on the floor. In the centre of the room a rusty base-burner stove glowed with a red-hot coal fire. Ben Hutchins, in his shirt-sleeves, and wearing a printer’s dirty apron, stood in front of one of the cases, setting type. He was a stockily built man of about seventy, with a belligerent shock of gray hair that stood up straight on his head. When I entered, he waited to space out a line before recognizing my presence. Then he turned and glowered at me over[Pg 40] his glasses, which hung on the tip of his bulbous nose. “Well-?” he said, finally, after a critical sniff. Then, as I said, I laughed-a laugh born of my feeling of new confidence, gained from the teachings of the Voice. It caught Ben Hutchins’s interest and made him take a liking to me from the start. I have learned that he is very quick and very decided in his likes and dislikes. In fact, he never does anything half-way. He is either stubbornly for a thing or against it. No argument can ever convince him either way. And down under all his surface peculiarities he has a keen and most original sense of humor. It was the liking that he conceived for me from the start which made him let me do the things that I have done. He gave me again the once-over; then he, too, indulged in a faint grin. “I’ve come for that job,” I informed him, with all my new courage of adventure. “And I’m just the man you’re looking for.” [Pg 41] “Oh, are you?” and he gave another of his critical sniffs, which I soon discovered to be habitual. “Well, come and sit down, and we’ll see. I may not be of your opinion.” With his composing-stick still in his hand, he led the way to the
corner where stood the ancient roll-top desk. He seated himself heavily in the creaking swivel-chair, and I pulled up another old chair that stood near. All this time he was studying me closely over his glasses. “I’ve got the reputation,” he told me, after I was seated, “of never keeping a man very long.” He waited to see if this was going to discourage me any. But it didn’t, and so he went on to say:- “But the ones that come out here for a job are generally no good. Or, if they are, they get discouraged and don’t want to stay.” “Well, I’m going to stay,” I said, “you can’t get rid of me. And I’m all to the good.” Again he met my laughing gaze, and[Pg 42] again he grinned. Then after studying me once more, he came to a decision. He rheumatically pulled himself to his feet and said:- “Well, take off your coat and go to work.” And that ended our conference. We made no sort of bargain, said nothing whatever about the pay I was to get, or what I was expected to do. It was like Ben Hutchins-that snap sort of conclusion. But once he has made up his mind, you may be sure that he will carry his part of the bargain to the end. Of course, I had to learn this about him. I thought then that he was just going to try me out, give me a chance to make good if I could. I took off my overcoat and other coat, and hung them up with my hat. Then I found another printer’s dirty apron, and started in to work. It may be hard to understand how a man, after having been employed for years in one of New York’s big printing-plants, should have finally found his[Pg 43] life’s opportunity in that little country junk-shop of a printing-office. But that is what I did. I could not have done so, however, without having had the experience of the previous few days, as well as the new lessons I was learning all the time from the Voice. It was because I was finding youth that I found my opportunity. Youth, which is courageous, venturesome, progressive, optimistic, and creative! Cowardly old age, pessimistic, stagnant, and traveling in ruts, never finds a big life-opportunity. [Pg 44] V I had been at my new job two weeks. We had issued two editions of the weekly paper. I had done the work of editor, reporter, compositor, proof-reader, pressman, and mailing clerk. Every day I was growing more and more in love with my job. I whistled again like a boy, at my work-this, in spite of the fact that I was taking that long trip each night and morning to and from New York. It is not work-the kind that is made creative-but stagnation, which wearies. New demands were stirring every part of my being into new activities. My faculties were all alert. So were my emotions, my imaginations, and my sense of humor. Values were being aroused in me that, for lack of something to call them into use, had all my life been lying dormant. I had never known that I could do some of the things which I now did. I had begun to take an interest in[Pg 45] national and world affairs, about which I had to furnish copy. I also had begun to take more interest in people. For years, when making my daily trips on the Elevated, I had most of the time kept my eyes glued to the latest criminal sensation in the newspapers. When I was not reading a newspaper, my thoughts were occupied with my own small interests. The thing always of big importance was that I should beat someone else to a seat in the car. But now I began to watch and study that mass of humanity packed into the car with me. The mass resolved itself into individual beings. I picked out those having the old-age spirit from the ones who had the spirit of youth. By far the larger number-regardless of the years they had lived-were caught in the grip of the old-age fear, and were traveling in the old-age ruts. A good many, like little Miss Marsh, were trying to camouflage their old age by artificial means. A new sympathy began to warm in[Pg 46] my heart for mankind-so pitiably ignorant of Life and of the ways to gain its real joys. My New Yorker’s reserve began to relax, and I let myself do little helpful things for my fellow travelers. One night I helped an old East-Side Jew struggling under a load of second-hand clothing. The poor old chap’s surprised smile of appreciation brought a quick lump into my throat; and a kindlier feeling for the whole Jewish race warmed in my heart. I was growing tensely interested, too, in all the doings of our little New Jersey town. Each day I was making new friends. All of which meant a vitalizing of my heart’s stagnation. My son George was well again, and had gone back to his work. Mattie-my wife-had come home. I had rented a small house not far from the printing-office, and we were getting ready to move to New Jersey. Then, after I had been working for him two weeks, Ben Hutchins was seized with a bad attack of lumbago, and was laid up at home for a month. At the end[Pg 47] of that time his daughter had persuaded him to go to California and spend the rest of the winter. When he reached a final decision relative to this California trip, he sent for me to come and see him. I had been several times, during his sickness, to the big, old-fashioned house, where he lived with his widowed daughter. His wife was dead. When I went now we had another of our brief talks. He was going to leave the printing-plant entirely up
to me. “Run it as well as you can, and keep me posted how you’re coming on.” He gave no further instructions. But by this time I had learned that he liked to be met in his own brief way of doing business-never wanted any fuss of words; when he felt justified in trusting a man, he trusted him absolutely. And I knew now that he felt this trust in me. When, on leaving, I shook hands with him, I gave him a tight grip of appreciation, and we exchanged a look of mutual understanding. [Pg 48] I had already hired another printer. And Mattie, now that we had moved over to our new home, came every day to the office and helped. I made a number of changes in the old plant. I even put into operation some of the modern efficiency methods which I had scorned in the New York plant. Our job printing was growing; and we were getting new subscribers and more advertising for the newspaper. One day a peculiar thing happened. I had run over to New York, to get some new parts for our old press. This errand took me down town, in the neighborhood of the Sixth Avenue Elevated station, which had been a part of my daily rut for so many years. The sight of it now took me back to the day when I got my discharge. I smiled when I thought of how helpless I had stood there in the rain. It made me realize how far from the old rut I had traveled. Then I thought of the old chap who had sold newspapers, and wondered if he was still working on his beat. I[Pg 49] looked about for him and, sure enough, there he was, wearing the same ancient discolored straw hat. I followed and spoke to him. I had lost all fear now of being submerged in his old-age class. It was noon, and I asked him to go to lunch with me. He gazed in a daze of questioning surprise, then accepted the invitation. I took him to a quiet little place, where we might have a table to ourselves. During the meal I learned more about him. His name was James Shaw, and he was alone in the world. He talked well-used good English. I had always felt that there must be something of intelligence back of his good clean teeth. And he, too, was an old printer. Probably that was why he had drifted naturally to the selling of newspapers. It is hard for a printer to keep away from the smell of printer’s ink. Well, the upshot of it was that I hired Jimmy Shaw, and took him back with me to New Jersey. And Jimmy has made good. After he was barbered and had[Pg 50] put on a new suit of clothes, and had his first lessons in Finding Youth, he was as spry and dudish as anything on Broadway. Then, the final Big Adventure was brought about by my articles in our weekly newspaper. I had been running a series of articles on my Finding-Youth revelations. Some of them were copied in other newspapers. Ben Hutchins, out in California, read them in our own paper, which we sent him each week. Afterwards, his daughter told me that he showed them to the different guests in the hotel where they were stopping. Then I wrote an article on the old-age problem. I headed it, “Why the Dump-Heap?” Among other things, I said that one of the biggest social wastes was the waste of the latter years of the lives of men and women. Instead of being a waste product at eighty, a man should be a Life masterpiece-still creative. But we cling-theoretically, at least-to the savage belief that man possesses[Pg 51] no other creative power than the sex-function; and that, after they have passed the age of race-propagation, men and women are of no further social use. Savages, not knowing what else to do with their people of years, kill them. We let them stagnate. By this time we should have learned that Life here, and always, is a thing creative. We are incidentally parents. We are creators always. For if God made us in His own image, then He made us all creators. As creators, we grow. And growth is the law of life. Stagnation is decay and death. We must have new educational methods. We must have new ideals-a new heaven. And this new heaven will be a place filled with creators, instead of with stagnant resters. Then I went on to suggest that society might organize Youthland colonies, instead of relegating each year so many thousands of men and women to the fate of dependence and stagnation. These colonies might be made centres of big[Pg 52] usefulness, of broad education and creative growth. I outlined my scheme of a Youthland colony. It should be a place of individual homes, with certain coöperative community buildings-an auditorium and recreation centre, a hotel and laundry, and other things, to make living easier and cheaper. The members of the colony themselves would support all these institutions. For there would be different light industries for the ones who wished to work and earn their own living. There would be lectures, music, dancing, and classes in science, sociology, politics, psychology, literature, languages, and the arts. Everyone would be given the chance and encouraged to take up any kind of creative work in which he might feel himself capable of qualifying. Well, Ben Hutchins read this article, and it struck instant fire in him. He didn’t even wait to write. Instead he telegraphed:- “Youthland colony good scheme. California right place to start one. Am[Pg 53] writing my lawyer to sell printing-plant. You come out here.” I laughed. Of course I had no idea that he really meant this. I had believed everything that I had written about my colony, but I had painted it with my
own imagination. Then I worried. He might be taking this way of selling his plant and letting me out. I lay awake nights, trying to figure some scheme whereby I myself might make a small payment and get hold of the plant. I had a proposition all framed, when I received a letter from Hutchins. It was-for him-a long letter, dictated to a stenographer. In it he gave me to understand that he was in earnest about the Youthland colony scheme. Indeed, he had already bought a tract of land and was setting to work on the project. He wrote a lot of instructions: informed me that, if he could not sell the newspaper to advantage, he meant to have the plant shipped to California. It would be a necessary adjunct to the colony. He was enthusiastic. His health had greatly[Pg 54] improved; he was in love with California, and both he and his daughter wanted to stay there. But he must have something with which to busy himself; and this colony scheme had made a big hit with him. Well, that is how our California Youthland Colony came into existence. It is another story, but I must tell you a few things about it. It is located in a beautiful spot-where “the ocean and the mountains meet.” We are now a group of five hundred, all owning our own homes. Some of these homes are larger and more pretentious than others; for some of our colony members have good big incomes. Others are poor. But we are all inspired by the same ideals. The poorer ones are given the opportunity to pay for their homes on easy monthly installments. We have a small canning factory; and we make a fine grade of candied California fruits. We do some rug-weaving and pottery work. We have a dairy and[Pg 55] poultry yards. All of these industries are coöperative in character-owned in common. The same is true of our small inn and laundry. They give employment to the ones who want to make their living. But we have no drones. Every Youthlander works. He also plays. Some devote themselves to raising small-fruits and English walnuts on their individual land tracts. Some teach in our school. We have all kinds of classes in our school. We have expert instruction in diet, exercise, rest, and the things which make for the best physical condition. It is my intention to incorporate some of these lessons in another book-the methods which we have worked out to our own advantage. We have almost no sickness. Our members are a vigorous, useful, busy lot of folks. They live out-of-door lives twelve months of the year. They are filled with all sorts of progressive interests. They think right thoughts. In connection with our physical work, we have dancing classes, also a hiking club that makes interesting trips. [Pg 56] An ex-college president has charge of our educational work. A retired manufacturer is general director of our industries. And these two men are not using any back-number methods. Both are inspired by the spirit of youth. They combine with the modern the best values brought out of their long experience. Some of our members have been encouraged to write. A number are studying music. Mattie, my wife, is enjoying that privilege. One woman of seventy, who never before had the time or chance to study the piano, has displayed considerable musical ability. In a good-sized French class, no member is under sixty. And there are two art classes. Ben Hutchins is the colony’s shrewd buyer. He drives his own car out through the country, and contracts for the fruit that is put up in our cannery. They made me the first colony president, and each year have insisted on reëlecting me. Next year I am going to decline. I don’t want to get into the presidential rut. Jimmy Shaw is foreman of the job department[Pg 57] in our printery. Jimmy has had a romance which he has given me permission to tell some time. My son George and his family are with us. This year we are expecting Walter and his family for a visit. I was able also to bring Miss Marsh out to our colony. I feel that I owe her a very big debt. Miss Marsh has let her hair grow gray; and the color now in her cheeks has been put there by the Californian sunshine. But she looks years younger than when she was trying to live an artificial youth. She is, in fact, quite radiant. For she is satisfying a big heart-hunger. My wife always contended that she was a lonely little creature. But even Mattie was surprised to discover that Miss Marsh’s loneliness was due to a craving motherhood. She is now one of the nurses who have the care of the colony’s children. For we have about thirty children-orphans who would have been sent to state institutions. We have adopted them, and are bringing them up and educating them. We father and mother, uncle[Pg 58] and aunt, and grandfather and grandmother them. Happy little Miss Marsh is seldom seen without one of our colony babies in her arms. [Pg 59] VI It is Christmas Eve. I have seated myself by my typewriter in my cozy study, to write the last lines of this story. Mattie is down at the Auditorium, helping to trim the Christmas tree for the children. I just came up from there. Our picturesque little vine-covered bungalow is on the hill. The Christmas tree had so many helpers that I was not needed. Miss Marsh is joyously superintending the whole thing. Our different members are coming and going. Each brings an armful of presents. I stood a while and watched their beaming, happy faces. Most of them have known a good many Christmas Eves. One-a hearty old Pacific sea-captain of eighty-showed me some toy ships he had whittled out with his knife. He called my attention to all the
proper nautical detail. No builder of big ocean liners could have felt more pride[Pg 60] in his accomplishment. I watched him carefully place the toy ships with the other presents underneath the Christmas tree; and the fact was impressed upon me that he had caught the real Christmas spirit. He had created something, which would carry his own creative joy into the lives of others. And is not this-the carrying of one’s own creative joy into the lives of others-the very essence of the thing which we vaguely call “service”? When I reached the brow of the hill on my way home from the Auditorium, I halted and looked back at our little Youthland Colony, lying there in the moonlight. Out beyond, the moonbeams made a glistening pathway to it across the dusky waters of the old Pacific. At the back, rose the dim shapes of the mountains. The sweet odor of orange-blossoms filled the air. In this beautiful spot our little group was trying to realize the creative life-the life of continued growth and usefulness. Deep emotion stirred within me. My gaze traveled out over the moonlighted[Pg 61] ocean, and I thought of the many peoples of the globe celebrating this Christmas Eve. Gratitude for my own wonderful opportunity made me want to help these others. For I knew that nations, like individuals, were suffering in the grip of the old-age spirit-that effort of fear to strangle growth and progress. If only mankind might learn that the value of a nation depends upon the usefulness of all of its men and women, upon the youth-spirit, which is courageous, venturesome, and optimistic enough to make the whole human race one great world-family. Off in the distance the old mission bell began to ring. It was sending out its mediæval understanding of the Christmas message, which the Voice spoke to the Shepherds of old. But we, in our Youthland Colony, have learned that the Voice, all down through the years, has been trying to make man understand that he must follow the guiding star and find the tidings of great joy in the birth of his own creative self-the God Power[Pg 62] within his own being. When a man gains this interpretation of the Voice’s message he becomes an influence for growth and progress in the Great Life-Adventure- HE FINDS YOUTH!
Cover By Jonathan Thayer Lincoln THE FACTORY. THE CITY OF THE DINNER-PAIL. HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY Boston and New York THE FACTORY THE FACTORY BY JONATHAN THAYER LINCOLN decoration BOSTON AND NEW YORK HOUGHTON MIFFLIN COMPANY The Riverside Press Cambridge 1912 COPYRIGHT, 1912, BY JONATHAN THAYER LINCOLN ALL RIGHTS RESERVED Published January 1912 TO MY FATHER NOTE This essay is based upon a course of lectures delivered before the Amos Tuck School of Administration and Finance associated with Dartmouth College. These lectures were subsequently printed in The Mediator, a magazine published in Cleveland, Ohio, and devoted to establishing a better social understanding between the man who buys and the man who sells labor. [Pg ix] BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE In preparing the historical part of this essay I have consulted many authorities, and in particular I have made free use of the following works. DEFOE, Daniel A plan for the English Commerce, London, 1728. BAINES, Edward History of the Cotton Manufacture in Great Britain. London, 1835. GUEST, Richard A Compendious History of the Cotton Manufacture. Manchester, 1823. The Theory and Practice of Cotton Spinning. Glasgow, 1833. URE, Andrew, M.D. The Philosophy of Manufactures. London, 1835. BABBAGE, Charles On the Economy of Machinery and Manufactures. London, 1822. CARLYLE, Thomas Essay on Chartism. [Pg x] TAYLOR, Richard Whately Cooke- The Modern Factory System. London, 1891. ABRAM, Annie Social England in the Fifteenth Century. London, 1909. Among the many articles printed in the periodical press the following from the Quarterly Review are especially helpful. Vol. XLI, 1829. Condition of the English Peasantry. Vol. LVII, 1836. The Factory System. Vol. LXVII, 1841. Infant Labour. [Pg xi] CONTENTS I. The Industrial Revolution 3 II. Sir Richard Arkwright 16 III. Mechanical Inventions 30 IV. The Factory System 46 V. The Factory Towns 64 VI. Chartism 85 VII. The Factory and Social Progress 99 [Pg xii] [Pg xiii] INTRODUCTION As you approach the City of the Dinner Pail from the west, the blue waters of the harbor lie between you and the towering factories which line the opposite shore. By day the factories are not attractive to the eye, their massive granite walls, prison-like and unlovely, suggest only the sordid side of toil,—the long day’s confinement of twenty-seven thousand men and women amidst the monotonous roar of grinding wheels. But should you thus approach the city late on a winter afternoon the scene is marvelously changed; the myriad lights of the factories shine through the early darkness, transforming prison-walls into fairy palaces, castles of enchantment reflected with mysterious beauty in the deep waters of the bay. There is no suggestion now of sordid toil, the factory walls have[Pg xiv] become ramparts of light and speak of some romantic story. Realism and romance lie very near together, and we shall find the factory, when we come to study the history of it, something more than granite walls and grinding machinery; the factory, indeed, has been an important instrument in the upward progress of mankind. There is an ugly side to the story, especially in the beginning, for when the craftsmen of the world were transformed into factory operatives, thousands suffered a degree of poverty never known before, and many perished in the transition to the new system of manufacturing; but in the end that system revolutionized the whole social order, gave to toil its rightful dignity, and, creating a new loyalty to the cause of labor, became an element in the development of modern democracy. It is this brighter side of the story that we have now to consider. [Pg xv] [Pg 3] THE FACTORY THE FACTORY I THE INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION In the fifteenth century the wealth of England, which until then had been made up chiefly of raw products, was greatly increased by the introduction of manufactures, the most important being the making of cloth. Previous to this first extension of industry, it had been impossible for the toiler to rise out of his class except by becoming a priest or a soldier; but with the increase of manufactures wealth became a means of social advancement, and thus industry not only tended to break down the feudal order by tempting serfs away from their masters, but the wealth created[Pg 4] by manufactures became an important element in the creation of the middle class. The sudden and extensive introduction of machinery at the close of the eighteenth century drove hand labor out of employment, and, for a time, caused great suffering among the masses; but in the end it created an ever increasing demand for labor—a new labor more skillful than the old. Moreover, it concentrated the laboring population in great centres of industry, thus creating a class consciousness which demanded that attention should be given to the rights of labor, created a new ideal of the dignity of toil and gave to the world that vision of the inclusive cause of labor which was destined to advance in a marvelous way to the social progress of mankind. Slavery had been abolished in England long before the Industrial Revolution, and yet, in the first quarter of the last century men in chains worked in the British coal-mines[Pg 5] and were bought and sold when the property changed hands. For generations before the Industrial Revolution, the lord of the manor had ceased to demand the labor of the villein as his due, but while serfdom had been abolished, the traditions of it still remained; and it was not until the establishment of the factory that labor became free in fact as for generations it had been in name. The historical event, that great movement which led in our generation to a complete reconstruction of the social order, we call the “Industrial Revolution of the Eighteenth Century.” It was an extremely complex event, originating in economic, political, and social conditions; but while it was the consequence of many causes, it derived its chief influence in the beginning from a series of remarkable inventions in the art of making textile fabrics. This art is
as old as civilization, originating[Pg 6] when men, advancing from barbarism, put aside the skins of beasts for raiment of their own making; but from the days of the first rude distaff and the simple bamboo loom until the time so recently past when, by a series of the most brilliant inventions known to any craft, the art was revolutionized, the implements remained unchanged. Up to the year 1769 the machines in use in the manufacture of cotton cloth in England were practically the same as those which for centuries had been employed in India. There were no factories as there are to-day: the cotton was spun and woven into cloth by hand, and both the spinning and the weaving were done in the cottages of the craftsmen. The first of these inventions was a simple one, but it made necessary all that followed. From the beginning of the art, one man could weave into cloth all the yarn that several spinners could produce. Indeed, it was seldom that a weaver’s[Pg 7] family, his wife and children all working at the spinning wheel, could supply sufficient weft for his loom; and this difficulty was increased by the invention of the fly-shuttle in the year 1738. This invention, made by John Kay, consisted in giving motion to the shuttle by a mechanical device which saved time and exertion to the weaver and nearly doubled the daily product of his loom. The increased demand for yarn led to many experiments, and at last a machine was produced upon which many threads could be spun by a single pair of hands: the water frame commonly attributed to Richard Arkwright. With this important invention came many others in the same field, making famous the names of Hargreaves, Crompton, and Cartwright. The moment it became possible to accomplish by machinery what formerly had been done entirely by hand, the first effect was to increase the productive power of[Pg 8] the workman and thus to add vastly to the wealth of the nation, and secondly, to gather into the factories the craftsmen who had formerly worked in their homes. In the beginning of the eighteenth century the textile manufacturing of England was carried on by craftsmen dwelling in the rural districts, the master clothiers living in the greater towns, sending out wool to be spun into yarn which, returned to them prepared for the loom, was re-distributed among other hand workers in other cottages. The Lancashire weaver worked in his cottage surrounded by a bit of land, and generally combined small farming with domestic manufacturing. Sometimes a single family performed all the labor, the wife and daughters working at carding and spinning, the father operating the loom; sometimes other craftsmen joined the household and worked as members of one family. The extent of mercantile establishments and the modes of doing business[Pg 9] were very different from what they were soon to become. It is quite true that a limited number of individuals had, in previous ages, made fortunes by trade, but until the very end of the seventeenth century the capital in the hands of British merchants was small. Because of the bad condition of the roads and the lack of inland navigation, goods were conveyed by pack horses with which the Manchester chapmen traveled through the principal towns, selling their goods to the shopkeepers, or at the public fairs, and bringing back sheep’s wool to be sold to the clothiers of the manufacturing districts. In the writings of modern socialists we find the domestic system held up for admiration as the ideal method of production. The dreamers look back regretfully to the days when manufactures were combined with farming, and they quote from Goldsmith’s Deserted Village. Let us, however, turn to a more prosaic but more trustworthy[Pg 10] account, which is to be found in Daniel Defoe’s Plan of the English Commerce. The author is writing enthusiastically in praise of English manufactures, and, having pointed out how in the unemployed counties women and children are seen idle and out of business, the women sitting at their doors, the children playing in the street, he continues: “Whereas, in the manufacturing counties, you see the wheel going almost at every door, the wool and yarn hanging up at every window; the looms, the winders, the combers, the carders, the dyers, the dressers all busy; and the very children as well as the women constantly employed ... indeed there is not a poor child in the town above the age of four but can earn his own bread.” When we come to study the brutalizing social conditions which obtained in the manufacturing towns following the establishment of the factory, we shall do well to keep in mind these words written by an[Pg 11] eighteenth century student in praise of the domestic system; when we hear the socialists declare that the factory created wage slavery, let us remember this earlier and more monstrous slavery. Richard Arkwright, the inventor of the spinning-frame, was a man of great genius. Endowed with the inventive faculty, and even more with the ability to perfect the inventions of others, he possessed as well extraordinary executive ability, and having brought his spinning machinery to the point of practical efficiency, he organized the modern factory system as the means of obtaining the highest results from the new mechanisms. The spinning frame was too cumbersome to be operated in the cottage, and, moreover, it required a greater power to operate it than that of the human hand, so Arkwright built his first factory which was run by horse power, and from this beginning was evolved the factory as we know it to-day. But important as were the inventions[Pg 12] in cotton manufacture, the factory would never have become the mighty power that it is, except for the steam engine; and it is interesting to note that in the same year in which Arkwright took out his patent for spinning by rollers, Watt invented his device for lessening
the consumption of fuel in fire engines, that epoch-making invention by means of which the factory system as perfected by Arkwright was to become the material basis of modern life. Like the Renaissance, the Industrial Revolution was a movement destined to change the very course of human thought. Mechanical invention contributed to the force of the earlier movement—the invention of printing and of the mariner’s compass—so that side by side with the scholars restoring to the world its lost heritage of learning, craftsmen and sailors played their parts in printing the books by which the learning was disseminated, and in manning[Pg 13] the ships that discovered new continents. The Renaissance, however, was essentially an intellectual movement to which mechanical invention was merely an aid, while the Industrial Revolution was due in an important measure to machinery. The movement began in the cotton industry, but soon a similar expansion occurred in all other manufactures. Machinery made possible a vast production; and the steam engine, first applied to manufacture, later became the means of distributing the commodities. The Industrial Revolution, thus springing from the sudden growth in the use of machinery, occasioned not only economic but political and social results. On the economic side, the effect was to extend old industries and to create new ones, as well as to revolutionize the methods of the production and distribution of wealth. On the social side it created new classes of men, breaking down the barriers of ancient feudalism, and[Pg 14] on the political side it led to the enfranchisement of the working classes. The Industrial Revolution accomplished for England what the political revolution did for France, but by more peaceful means. Yet not alone in France was the event achieved in blood—for the Factory as well as the Terror had its victims. The history of the factory is no dry summary of patent rights and inventions, inventories of cotton and cotton goods, abstracts of ledgers, journals, cash-books, and pay-rolls,—it is a human story,—laissez-faire, over-production, enlightened selfishness, were no abstract terms, but vital human problems. Because the Industrial Revolution profoundly influenced the social and political life of England, and later of the whole world, the history of the factory, which contributed so much to its influence, becomes of vast importance. The first chapter relates to brilliant achievements in the field of mechanical invention. Then follows[Pg 15] the dismal story of how a multitude of craftsmen were transformed into factory operatives—the untold suffering of oppressed workingmen. Later we see the English yeoman replaced by the master manufacturer who soon became a force in the political life of the nation, finding his way into Parliament and even into the Peerage. For the common people the revolution began with great suffering, but ended in opening new avenues for their social and political advancement. Antagonistic in the beginning to the welfare of the masses, it aided powerfully, in the end, the fulfillment of those ideals of liberty, equality, and fraternity which at that moment had taken such a mighty hold upon the thoughts of men. [Pg 16] II SIR RICHARD ARKWRIGHT The Shaving of Shagpat, that remarkable allegory with the writing of which George Meredith commenced his literary career, has been given several interpretations; without seriously venturing another, it has seemed to me that this fanciful story deals with the chief events in the Industrial Revolution. “So there was feasting in the hall and in the city, and over earth”: we read towards the end of the tale, “great pledging the sovereign of Barbers, who had mastered an event and become the benefactor of his craft and of his kind. ’Tis sure the race of Bagarags endured for many centuries, and his seed were the rulers of men, and the seal of their empire stamped on mighty wax the Tackle of Barbers.” [Pg 17] Shibli Bagarag,—could he not well have been Richard Arkwright, the barber, inventor of the spinning-frame, master of an event? In Shagpat the Clothier, we discover the smug and comfortable British aristocracy; in the Identical, that magic hair in Shagpat’s beard which gave him a position of power greater even than the King, we observe Feudal Privilege; the sword of Aklis, with the steel of which the Identical was cut, may well stand for the factory, a weapon gained after many trials by Arkwright, so that of him it might be written as it was of Shibli Bagarag: “Thou, even thou will be master of the event, so named in anecdotes, and histories, and records, to all succeeding generations.” Richard Arkwright, who first saw the light of day at Preston on the 23d of December, 1732, was the youngest of thirteen children born to humble parents, and he grew to manhood without education, being barely able to read and write. At an[Pg 18] early age he was apprenticed to a Preston barber and when he became a journeyman he established himself in the same business. Fate was in a jesting mood when she decreed that the chief actor in that remarkable social drama, the Industrial Revolution, should be a penny barber; and we may wonder if the governing classes appreciated the irony, when twenty years later, in recognition of his genius, the barber was raised to the honor of knighthood and his lady privileged to walk before the wives of the untitled gentry. Richard Arkwright, at the age of twenty-eight, was not content day after day to shave the stolid faces of lower class Englishmen, but, having gained a knowledge of a chemical process for dyeing human hair, he commenced to make wigs for upper class Englishmen—wigs dyed to suit any complexion. This occupation took him away from the barber’s chair and sent him traveling about the country. On such[Pg 19] a tour in 1761, he met a lady in the city of Leigh,—Margaret Biggins was her name,—and he married her; and in the same city at a somewhat later date he heard of certain experiments which had been made by a man named High
in constructing a machine for spinning yarn. He gained this secret from a clock-maker named Kay, with whom he afterwards formed a partnership, by getting Kay—so the gossips said—loquaciously drunk at a public-house. Concerning his wife, history has little to say except that she quarreled with him because of the interest he took in High’s machine; and commencing to make experiments on his own account he became so absorbed in his workshop that his lady, fearing that they might be thrown upon the parish for support, begged him to return to his razor, and because he refused smashed the first model of the spinning-machine and thus precipitated a tremendous family row. [Pg 20] Arkwright is commonly credited with the invention of spinning by rollers, but while to him is undoubtedly due the success of that invention he did not originate it. The inventor of that ingenious process was neither Arkwright nor High, but John Wyatt of Birmingham, who in 1738 took out a patent in the name of Lewis Paul. In 1741 or 1742 these two men set up in Birmingham a mill “turned by two asses walking around an axis,” and in which ten girls were employed; while later a larger mill containing two hundred and fifty spindles and giving employment to twenty-five operatives was built. Wyatt wrote a pamphlet entitled, A Systematic Essay on the Business of Spinning, in which he showed the great profits which would attend the establishment of a plant of three hundred spindles. Wyatt’s factory, however, did not prosper and it seems probable that his machinery also passed into the hands of Arkwright. [Pg 21] It was in the year 1767 that Hargreaves invented the spinning-jenny, and two years later Arkwright took out his patent claiming that he had “by great study and long application invented a new piece of machinery, never before found out, practiced or used, for the making of weft or yarn from cotton, flax, and wool; which would be of great utility to a great many manufacturers, as well as to His Majesty’s subjects in general, by employing a great number of poor people in working the said machinery and in making the said weft or yarn much superior in quality to any heretofore manufactured or made.” However lacking in originality this famous invention may have been, however great may have been the debt which Arkwright owed to Wyatt and Paul, to John Kay and to High, nevertheless, to him belongs all the credit of the first successful introduction of spinning by machinery. Having obtained this patent, Arkwright[Pg 22] found himself without the capital necessary for carrying out his plans; and he returned to his native city of Preston and there applied to a friend, Mr. John Smalley, a liquor merchant, for assistance. So reduced were his circumstances at this time that going to vote at a contested election, which occurred during his visit to Preston, his wardrobe was in so tattered a condition that a number of his friends advanced the money to purchase decent clothes in which he might appear in the poll-room; and once during this period he having applied for pecuniary aid to a Mr. Atherton, that gentleman refused to entertain Arkwright’s plan because of the rags in which the inventor was dressed. It was in Preston, then, that Arkwright first fitted up his perfected spinning machine, in the parlor of a house belonging to the free grammar school. Here Arkwright successfully demonstrated the utility of his invention and first received financial support.[Pg 23] In consequence of the riots which had taken place in the neighborhood of Blackburn on the invention of Hargreaves’s spinning-jenny, by which many of the machines were destroyed and the inventor driven from his native county to Nottingham, Arkwright and Smalley, fearing similar outrages, also went to Nottingham accompanied by John Kay, the loquacious clock-maker; so that Nottingham became the cradle of the two great inventions in cotton spinning. Here, Arkwright also applied for aid to the Messrs. Wright, Bankers, who made advances on the condition that they should share in the profits of the invention; but as the machine was not perfected as soon as they had hoped they withdrew their support and he turned to Mr. Samuel Need, a partner of Jedidiah Strutt, the inventor of the stocking frame. Strutt examined Arkwright’s mechanism, declared it to be an admirable invention, and the two men of wealth agreed to a[Pg 24] partnership with the Preston barber; and a mill was erected at Nottingham. It was an unpretentious establishment, that first little cotton mill; it gave employment to not more than a dozen operatives, and the machinery was turned not by a great steam engine, but by a pair of patient horses harnessed to a treadmill,—yet it contained the germ of the modern factory and the modern factory system. Later, Arkwright built another and larger factory at Cromford in Derbyshire, driven by water power—from which circumstance his spinning-machine came to be called the water-frame. The cotton industry of England which Arkwright established developed slowly; in the five years, ending with 1775, the annual import of cotton into Great Britain was only four times the average import at the beginning of the century. But when in the year 1785 Arkwright’s patent was finally set aside and his spinning machinery[Pg 25] became public property, a great extension of cotton manufacture followed, accompanied by a marvelous national prosperity. Arkwright, although deprived of his monopoly, was by this time so firmly established in the industry that he remained the dominant figure in the yarn market, fixing the price of the commodity for all other spinners; and thus he accumulated a great fortune. While Arkwright was without doubt perfectly familiar with the experiments of both Wyatt and High, nevertheless it was the Preston barber and not the original inventors who first produced yarn fit for weaving. It is proverbial that inventors seldom reap the harvest of wealth which they sow; they are the dreamers and their reward
is in beholding a perfected mechanism—their work of art. So it was with Wyatt and High. They dreamed of spindles turned by power and saw their spindles turn; but Arkwright dreamed of[Pg 26] a nation made rich and powerful by these same inventions, and he, too, lived to see his dream come true. Sir Richard Arkwright possessed all the qualities essential to success—tireless energy, enthusiasm, perseverance, and self-confidence. He believed in himself and so he compelled others to believe in him. His usual working day began at five o’clock in the morning and did not end until nine at night; when he was fifty years of age he lengthened this day by two hours, which he devoted to acquiring the education denied him in his youth. He had unbounded confidence in the success of his adventures and was accustomed to say that he would pay the national debt—an interesting circumstance, for surely by his genius the national debt was paid many times over. In the year 1786 he was appointed high sheriff of Derbyshire, and when about that time the King narrowly escaped assassination at the hands of Margaret[Pg 27] Nicholson, Arkwright, having presented an address of congratulation from his county to the King, received the honor of knighthood. He died on the 3d of August, 1792, at the age of sixty. The Annual Register recording that event says not so much as a single word concerning Arkwright’s masterful genius which even then had set in motion a mighty social revolution. It mentions only the great fortune which he had acquired as a manufacturer of cotton yarn,—so difficult it is for the critic to place a true value on the life work of a contemporary. As you approach the City of the Dinner Pail from the west and gaze across the blue waters of the harbor, the eye rests upon the towering factories which line the opposite shore. Within those walls twenty-seven thousand men and women living in a degree of comfort never known before to the spinners and weavers of the world, earn their daily bread.[Pg 28] Those towering factories are, every one, monuments to the genius of Richard Arkwright, the penny barber of Preston. If he appropriated the inventions of others, he perfected these inventions and made them of permanent value to mankind; and moreover, he arranged the machinery into series, organized the factory system, and revolutionized industry. Says Carlyle: “Richard Arkwright, it would seem, was not a beautiful man; no romance hero with haughty eyes, Apollo lip, and gesture like the herald Mercury; a plain, almost gross, bag-cheeked, pot-bellied Lancashire man, with an air of painful reflection, yet also of copious free digestion;—a man stationed by the community to shave certain dusty beards in the northern parts of England at halfpenny each.... Nevertheless, in strapping razors, in lathering of dusty beards, and the contradictions and confusions attendant thereon the man had notions in that[Pg 29] rough head of his; spindles, shuttles, wheels and contrivances plying ideally within the same, rather hopeless looking, which, however, he did at last bring to bear. Not without great difficulty! his townsfolk rose in mob against him, for threatening to shorten labor, to shorten wages; so that he had to fly, with broken wash pots, scattered household, and seek refuge elsewhere. Nay, his wife, too, rebelled; burned his wooden model of his spinning wheel; resolute that he should stick to his razors, rather;—for which, however, he decisively, as thou wilt rejoice to understand, packed her out of doors. Oh! reader, what a Historical Phenomenon is that bag-cheeked, pot-bellied, much-enduring, much-inventing barber! French revolutions were a-brewing, to resist the same in any measure, Imperial Kaisers were impotent without the cotton and cloth of England; and it was this man who gave to England the power of cotton.” [Pg 30] III MECHANICAL INVENTIONS A distinction should be made between the factory and the factory system. The latter was not new to England, having been employed during the Roman occupation; and with the introduction of the woolen industry under Edward III, we again find the factory system established on an extensive scale. John Winchcombe, commonly called Jack of Newbury, who died about the year 1520, made use of the factory system on a very extensive scale. In Fuller’s Worthies you may read how he “was the most considerable clothier without fancy or fiction England ever beheld,” and how “his looms were his lands, whereof he kept one hundred in[Pg 31] his house, each managed by a man and a boy.” Jack of Newbury was celebrated in a metrical romance, and the following lines taken from it contain an interesting description of his famous industrial establishment. “Within one room, being large and long, There stood two hundred looms full strong: Two hundred men the truth is so, Wrought in these looms all in a row; By every one a pretty boy Sat making quills with mickle joy. And in another place hard by A hundred women merily Were carding hard with joyful cheer Who, singing sat with voices clear; And in a chamber close beside Two hundred maidens did abide, These pretty maids did never lin But in their place all day did spin: Then to another room came they Where children were in poor array, And every one sat picking wool, The finest from the coarse to cull:[Pg 32] The number was seven score and ten The children of poor silly men, Within another place likewise Full fifty proper men he spied, And these were sheer men every one, Whose skill and cunning there was shown: A dyehouse likewise he had then Wherein he kept full forty men: And also in his fulling mill, Full twenty persons kept he still.” Here, indeed, we have the factory system—in which the division of labor is a conspicuous feature—employed with all its modern details; but not the steam-driven factory, building great cities and changing the whole social life of the kingdom. The original mode of converting cotton into
yarn was by the use of distaff and spindle, a method still employed in the remote parts of India. The distaff is a wooden rod to which a bundle of cotton is tied loosely at one end, and which the spinner holds between the left arm and the body while with[Pg 33] his right hand he draws out and twists the cotton into a thread. This simple process is the basis of all the complicated spinning machinery in use at the present time. In a modern cotton factory there are three departments of labor, carding, spinning, and weaving; and we have now to consider briefly these three processes. The purpose of carding is to clean the cotton and lay the fibres in a uniform direction. This was at first accomplished by hand, the implement employed being little different from an ordinary comb; later an improved device was used consisting of a pair of large wire brushes. This, we must observe, was a primitive operation, and the amount of cotton which one person could thus prepare for spinning was very small. We have already seen that the invention of the fly-shuttle so increased the demand for yarn that ingenious men were induced to make mechanical experiments for the purpose of supplying this demand—experiments[Pg 34] which, in the end, led to the invention of the spinning-frame. The spinning-frame, in turn, increased the demand for carded cotton and skillful mechanics again set about to meet this new requirement, and the result was the building of the carding-engine. This invention was not made at once, nor by any particular individual; but was the result of a number of improvements made at different times and by different persons. One of these men was Thomas High, the inventor of the spinning-jenny; another was James Hargreaves who so improved the jenny that he is commonly called the inventor of it; and finally, Richard Arkwright himself took the crude machine devised by these men and perfected it. Thus it came about that the modern carding-engine as well as the spinning-frame, was made of practical value by this much-enduring, much-inventing barber. The invention of the fly-shuttle, as we have seen, led to an increased demand for[Pg 35] yarn, and this demand was further augmented about the year 1760 when the Manchester merchants began to export cotton goods in considerable quantities to Italy, Germany, and the North American colonies. It was then no uncommon thing for a weaver to walk three or four miles in the morning, and call on five or six spinners, before he could collect yarn enough to serve him for the remainder of the day. Ingenious mechanics set about the task of producing more yarn. The first of these was Thomas High, a reed maker, residing in the town of Leigh, who engaged one Kay, a clock-maker, and this is the same Kay who was afterwards employed by Arkwright to make the wheels and other apparatus for a spinning-machine. This machine was set up in the garret of High’s house. Now, Thomas High had a daughter who watched with keen interest the progress of his experiments—her name was Jane—and in honor of her he called the machine[Pg 36] the spinning-jenny. It is commonly stated—even in so authoritative a history as Baines’s we find the error—that the credit for the original invention of the spinning-jenny is due to Hargreaves, he having made the first machine in 1767. But Guest has shown quite conclusively by the sworn statement of one Thomas Leather, a neighbor of High, that the latter completed a similar machine in 1764. However this may be, James Hargreaves, a weaver of Stand-Hill, near Blackburn, perfected the original jenny and made it a practical working machine so that history has quite justly named him the author. From the first Hargreaves was aware of the value of his invention, but not having the ambition to obtain a patent he kept the machine as secret as possible, using it only to spin yarn for his own weaving. An unprotected invention of such importance, however, could not remain long the private property of a single weaver, and soon[Pg 37] a knowledge of his achievement spread throughout the neighborhood; but instead of gaining admiration and gratitude for Hargreaves, the spinners raised the cry that the invention would throw multitudes out of employment and a mob broke into his house and destroyed his jenny. After this, Hargreaves moved to Nottingham, where, with a Mr. Thomas James, he raised sufficient capital to erect a small mill; here he took out a patent in 1770,—one year after Arkwright had patented the water-frame. Before leaving Lancashire, Hargreaves made and sold to other weavers a number of jennies; and in spite of all opposition the importance of the invention led to its general use. A desperate effort was made in 1779, during a period of distress, to put down the machine. A mob scoured the country for miles around Blackburn demolishing jennies and with them all carding-engines, water-frames, and other machinery; but[Pg 38] the rioters spared the jennies which had only twenty spindles, as these were by this time admitted to be useful to the craftsmen. Not only the working classes, but the middle and even the upper classes entertained at this time a profound dread of machinery. The result of these riots was to drive spinners and other capitalists from the neighborhood of Blackburn to Manchester, increasing the importance of that rapidly growing town which was destined to become the world centre of the cotton industry. The story of this early opposition to the introduction of machinery deserves attention not only as an interesting episode in the history of the factory, but because even to-day a similar opposition comes to the surface with each new improvement in the method of manufacture. It is also an interesting fact that Lord Byron made his maiden speech in the House of Lords in opposition to the Nottingham Riot Bills, introduced into Parliament for the protection[Pg 39] of
owners of machinery. There were two of these bills, one “for the more exemplary punishment of persons destroying or injurying any stocking- or lace-frames, or other machines or engines used in the frame-work knitting manufactory, or any articles or goods in such frames or machines”; the other “for the more effectual preservation of the peace within the county of Nottingham.” These two bills were the result of rioting among the lacemakers of this county and their object was to increase the penalty for breaking machinery, from transportation to death, to permit the appointment of special constables in times of disturbance, and to establish watch and ward throughout the disturbed parts. These bills and the debates upon them throw a strong light upon the extent of the disturbances, and indicate the attitude of the government, at that time, toward the laboring poor. [Pg 40] The important inventions in carding and spinning led to a rapid advance in cotton manufacture; the new machines not only turned off a greater quantity of yarn than had been produced by hand, but the yarn was also of a superior quality. The water-frame spun a hard, firm yarn, well adapted for warps, while the jenny produced a soft yarn suitable for spinning weft; but the yarn produced on neither of these machines could be advantageously used for making the finer qualities of goods. This defect in the spinning-machinery was remedied by still another device called the mule jenny, but now termed simply the mule, so named because it combined the principles of both Arkwright’s water-frame and Hargreaves’ jenny. The mule was invented by Samuel Crompton, a weaver living at Hall-in-the-Wood near Bolton. He commenced his experiments in 1774, but it was five years before he completed the machine. Crompton took[Pg 41] out no patent and only regretted that public curiosity would not allow him to keep his little invention for himself. The mule was first known as the Hall-in-the-Wood wheel, then as the muslin wheel because it made yarn sufficiently fine for weaving that fabric, and finally by its present name. As the inventor made no effort to secure a patent, the mule became public property, and was generally adopted by manufacturers, but Crompton himself received no other reward than a grant of five thousand pounds voted him by Parliament in 1812. Although his means were small, he was always in easy circumstances, until the latter part of his life, when, being no longer able to work, he was reduced to poverty. Certain manufacturers who had profited by his invention then subscribed for the purchase of a life annuity, to which fund foreign as well as English spinners contributed. Crompton died on January 26, 1827. [Pg 42] Having considered the inventions in the art of spinning, we now turn to the power loom built in 1785 by the Reverend Edmund Cartwright, of Hollander House, Kent. A loom moved by water power had been contrived as early as the seventeenth century by one De Gennes, and described as “a new engine to make linen cloth without the help of an artificer.” But the machine never came into general use; and in about the middle of the eighteenth century there is record of another power loom, also a French invention, which suffered a similar fate. Describing his own loom Cartwright says that in the summer of 1784 he fell in company with some gentlemen of Manchester who were discussing Arkwright’s spinning-machinery. One of the company observed that, as soon as Arkwright’s patents expired, so many mills would be erected and so much cotton spun that hands could not be found to weave it. [Pg 43] To this observation the ingenious clergyman replied that Arkwright should set his wits to work to invent a weaving-mill. But the Manchester gentlemen unanimously agreed that the thing was impractical. Cartwright argued, however, that, having seen exhibited in London an automaton figure which played at chess, he did not believe it more difficult to construct a machine which would weave. He kept this conversation in mind and later employed a carpenter and a blacksmith to carry his ideas into effect. Thus he built a loom which, to his own delight, produced a piece of cloth. The machine, however, required two powerful men to work it, but Cartwright, who was entirely unfamiliar with the art of weaving, believed that he had accomplished all that was required, and on the 4th of April, 1785, he secured a patent. It was only then that he commenced to study the method by which the craftsmen wove cloth, and he[Pg 44] was astonished when he compared the easy working of the hand loom with his own ponderous engine. Profiting by his study, however, he produced a loom which in its general principles is precisely the same as the looms used to-day. Thus was invented the machinery of the cotton mill; but there remains to be considered the one other contrivance without which the vast extension of manufactures would have been impossible and the manufacturing towns, which we are about to consider, would never have attained the size and importance which enabled them to become factors in the political life of England. I refer to the steam engine. In 1763, James Watt was employed in repairing a model of Newcomen’s steam engine, and, noting certain basic defects, undertook to remedy them. He perceived the vast possibilities of a properly constructed engine and, after years of patient[Pg 45] labor he gave to the world the mighty power of steam. Previous to this time, and indeed until the year 1782, the steam engine had been used almost exclusively to pump water out of mines, but with Watt’s improvements it became possible for the engine to give rotary motion to machinery. The first cotton mill to install a steam engine made by Boulton and Watt was the one owned by the Messrs. Robinson in Nottinghamshire—this was about the year 1785. Two years earlier, Arkwright had made use of an atmospheric engine in
his Manchester factory, but it was not until 1789 that an improved steam engine was set up in that city and it was a year later when Arkwright adopted the device. The invention of spinning-machinery created the cotton manufacture of England, but the industry would never have reached the proportions which it presently did except for the genius of Watt. [Pg 46] IV THE FACTORY SYSTEM When the cotton manufacture was in its infancy, all the operations, from dressing the raw material to folding the finished fabric, were completed under the roof of the weaver’s cottage. With Arkwright’s invention it became the custom to spin the yarn in factories and weave it by hand in cottages. With the invention of the power loom, it again became the practice to perform all the processes in a single building. The weaver’s cottage, then, with its rude apparatus of peg warping, hand cards, spinning-wheels, and wooden looms, was the steam factory in miniature; but the amount of labor performed in a single factory was as great as that which formerly gave occupation[Pg 47] to the inhabitants of an entire district. A good hand-loom weaver could produce two pieces of shirtings each week; by 1823, a power-loom weaver produced seven such pieces in the same time. A factory containing two hundred looms was operated by one hundred persons who wove seven hundred pieces a week, and it was estimated that under the domestic system at least eight hundred and seventy-five looms would have been required to weave this amount of cloth, because the women of the household had their home duties to perform while the men were required to devote a considerable portion of their time to farming. It was therefore further estimated that the work done in a steam factory containing two hundred looms would, if performed by hand, give employment and support to a population of more than two thousand persons. It is interesting here to note, that, whereas a hand-loom weaver could produce two pieces of shirtings[Pg 48] a week, an ordinary weaver is now able to turn off eight or ten pieces of equal length every ten hours; so that a modern weave room containing two hundred power looms operated by twenty-five weavers represents the labor of a community of sixty thousand craftsmen, their wives and their children. A population of thirty million would be required to perform by hand the work now produced by the Fall River factories alone. “Watt,” said a celebrated French engineer, “improves the steam engine, and this single improvement causes the industry of England to make an immense stride. This machine, at the present time [about 1830], represents the power of three hundred thousand horses or of two million men, strong and well fitted for labor, who should work night and day without an interruption and without repose.... A hairdresser invents, or at least brings into action, a machine for spinning cotton; this[Pg 49] alone gives the British industry immense superiority. Fifty years only, after this great discovery, more than one million of the inhabitants of England are employed in those operations which depend, directly or indirectly, on the action of this machine. Lastly, England exports cotton, spun and woven by an admirable system of machinery, to the value of four hundred million francs yearly.... The British navigator travels in quest of the cotton of India, brings it from a distance of four thousand leagues, commits it to an operation of the machines of Arkwright, carries back their products to the East, making them again to travel four thousand leagues, and in spite of the loss of time—in spite of the enormous expense incurred by this voyage of eight thousand leagues, the cotton manufactured by the machinery of England becomes less costly than the cotton of India, spun and woven by hand near the field that produced it, and sold at the nearest[Pg 50] market. So great is the power of the progress of machinery.” Two distinct systems of production preceded the factory. First, the system of isolated handicraft labor, and second, the system of cottage industry, which we have already considered and in which the several members of a family participated,—this, too, was handicraft. The craftsman, as we have seen, worked with his family in his own cottage; he owned his loom and the other simple machinery necessary for the production of cloth, and either he owned his raw material or received it from the master manufacturer to be returned in the form of finished fabric. But in either case, the craftsman was his own master and sold cloth not labor. With the establishment of the factory, these conditions were completely changed. The master manufacturer not only owned the factory building and the machinery, but he owned the raw material. Moreover[Pg 51] to him the operative sold his labor which thereby became a commodity quite as completely as the cotton he wove into cloth. This latter circumstance is important because it became the source of the vast social discontent which, in the end, aided powerfully in revolutionizing the structure of British society. To the consideration of this event we shall soon return. For the moment we must consider briefly the most characteristic distinction in the process of manufacture under the new system—the extension of the principle of division of labor. The principle itself was in no wise new, for the first application of it was made in a very early stage in the evolution of society. At the very dawn of civilization it must have become apparent that more comforts and conveniences could be acquired by one man restricting his occupation to a single craft—and the development of independent arts was in itself a division of[Pg 52] labor. The same principle was then carried into the different trades, and at last we find it fully developed in the cottage system of industry. Thus we find carding, spinning, and weaving carried on by separate members of the family. Carding and spinning, which required less bodily
strength, was performed by the women, while the more laborious work of weaving was given over to the men. With the establishment of the factory and the introduction of machinery, means were supplied by which this system could attain its highest development. The advantages resulting from the division of labor are evident. When the whole work in any art is executed by one person, that person must possess sufficient skill to perform the most difficult, and sufficient strength to perform the most laborious, of the processes; but by employing a division of labor several persons may be kept at work executing that part of the whole for which he is best fitted. [Pg 53] The further advantages may be most briefly stated in the familiar words of Adam Smith: “The great increase in the quantity of work, which, in consequence of the division of labor, the same number of people are capable of performing, is owing to three different circumstances: first, to the increase of dexterity in every particular workingman; secondly, to the saving of time, which is commonly lost in passing from one species of work to another, and, lastly, to the invention of a great number of machines which facilitate and abridge labor and enable one man to do the work of many.” It should be noted that the factory was, in the beginning, not the creation of capital, but of labor. The early master manufacturers were risen workingmen. Sir Richard Arkwright, the creator of the factory, the man who dominated industrial activities in the first great period of expansion, was a penny barber; but he died a Knight Bachelor with an income greater than that[Pg 54] of many a prince. The process of social elevation by means of trade began back in the fifteenth century with the first extension of manufactures. By the beginning of the eighteenth century it was possible to name five hundred great estates within a hundred miles of London, which, at no remote time, had been possessions of the ancient English gentry, but had later been bought up by tradesmen and manufacturers. The ancestors of these new landed proprietors had been, less than three hundred years before, not soldiers, but serfs. Moreover, generations before the establishment of the factory, important towns had been raised by manufactures—towns of which Manchester and Birmingham were examples, in which there were few or no families of the gentry, yet which were full of families richer by far than many a noble house. And side by side with this process of tradesmen rising to the gentry had gone the other process of declining gentry[Pg 55] placing their sons in trade. So, as Defoe pithily said, “Tradesmen became gentlemen by gentlemen becoming tradesmen.” The successful artisan under the domestic system became in time master clothier, and when the factory became the means of further increase to their fortunes the capital which this class had already amassed was utilized in building mills and machinery. To this class belonged the grandfather of Sir Robert Peel, a resident of Blackburn, who supported himself from the profits of a farm in the neighborhood and devoted his spare time to mechanical experiments. From this he came to operate a print-works, and later commenced the manufacture of cloth. His son, the first Sir Robert,—the father of the Prime Minister,—was apprenticed to the trade and came to manhood at the time when the impulse given to manufactures in England, through the introduction of machinery, led to a more rapid[Pg 56] accumulation of wealth than had been known in any previous period of history. It is said that in his youth Robert Peel entertained a presentiment that he would become the founder of a family. By means of the factory, he amassed a fortune, was raised to the honor of knighthood, and realized his presentiment—for in the next generation no name is more famous in the annals of government than that of Sir Robert Peel, the grandson of a domestic manufacturer. As the number of factories increased it became possible for operatives to rise, first to positions of trust within the factory, and later to the rank of master manufacturer—so that many a bobbin boy became a cotton lord. Within the factory the effect was to intensify that spirit of discontent which presently arose among the workers—for risen workingmen are apt to prove the hardest task masters. A graphic picture of this aspect of factory life as it existed in[Pg 57] Manchester in the first half of the last century, when discontent had become articulate and the great Chartist movement reached its height is to be found in Dickens’s Hard Times. In that story Josiah Bounderby of Coketown is typical of this class of risen workingmen—the early employers of labor under the factory system; Josiah Bounderby, who learnt his letters from the outside of shops and was first able to tell time from studying the steeple clock at St. Giles’s Church, London; Josiah Bounderby, vagabond, errand boy, laborer, porter, clerk, chief manager, small partner, merchant, banker, manufacturer. There was very little in the training of Josiah Bounderby, or any of his class to make them humane employers of labor—and among the several causes which made the early relation of employer and employee under the factory system one of bitter strife, this cause, so strictly social in its origin, is one of the most important. [Pg 58] The establishment of the factory altered completely the relation between employer and employee. Indeed in the modern sense these relations were then first established. Labor became a commodity which the master manufacturer, who was also the capitalist, bought and which the workingman sold. When in the year 1785 Arkwright’s patents were set aside and the use of his perfected spinning machinery became free to all manufacturers, a great extension of the cotton industry followed. Factories were built throughout Lancashire and about these factories important cities sprang up in which the modern problem of the relation of employer and employee had its
beginning. The factory produced cloth more cheaply and in far greater quantity than was possible under the domestic system. Hand workers sought employment in the factories. Vast numbers of purely agricultural laborers left the rural districts for the manufacturing[Pg 59] towns. And, augmenting this great supply of labor, came thousands of children—for an eight-year-old child was capable of operating a spinning-frame, in which, for this very reason, the spindles were set near to the floor. With an unlimited supply of labor, the cotton masters had only the cost of production to consider, and so it came about that they thought only of their profits and forgot the human hands which operated the machinery. England had fallen under the sway of a book—Adam Smith’s Wealth of Nations, which, as Southey said, “considers man as a manufacturing animal, estimating his importance not by the goodness and knowledge he possesses, not by his virtues and charities, not by the happiness of which he may be the source and centre, not by the duties to which he is called, not by the immortal destinies for which he is created, but by the gain that may be extracted from him or of which he may be made the instrument.” [Pg 60] The crowding of this vast laboring population into great industrial centres, however, gave rise to a class-consciousness which demanded that attention should be paid to the human element which distinguished labor from all other commodities, demanded that the cotton masters should no longer regard the workingman as a slave, or as merely a part of the machine, but as a free man, and which demanded further that this free man should be recognized as a citizen and given the right of suffrage. It would be interesting for us to follow the history of the factory where we now leave it, firmly established as the cornerstone of Great Britain’s wealth, down to the present time, and trace its development not only in England and America but throughout the civilized world. It is a surprising story of industrial progress, an important chapter in the social progress of mankind. But enough has already been said[Pg 61] to prepare us for the consideration of the way in which the establishment of the factory affected England’s laboring poor. The actual development of the cotton industry surpasses any dream that even the barber of Preston could have imagined when he exclaimed that he, unaided, would pay the national debt. Less than a century and a half ago, Richard Arkwright built his first little mill at Nottingham which gave employment to a dozen operatives. To-day there are one hundred great cotton factories in the city of Fall River alone, operating three and one half million spindles, nearly one hundred thousand looms, and giving employment to twenty-seven thousand operatives. There are more than twenty-five million spindles in daily operation in the United States, and even a greater number on the continent of Europe, while Great Britain contains over fifty million; and when to these we add the spindles of India, Japan, and China, we[Pg 62] have a total of one hundred and twenty million spindles giving employment to an army of workers as great as the entire population of England when Arkwright took out his patents for spinning by rollers. Nor is this all. The factory system first applied to the cotton industry has been applied to all manufactures as well as to agriculture and has become the central fact in modern industrial life. We are now to take up the question of how the establishment of the factory affected England’s laboring poor, and to study a little more in detail the social effects of the Industrial Revolution. In preparing the way for this discussion we should remember that the factory was not the sole cause of the Industrial Revolution, although it was a very important one. Other elements besides the introduction of machinery had gradually made possible production on a large scale. Chief among these was the decline of state[Pg 63] regulation of industry, the development of rationalism quickening the scientific spirit, the growth of the empire and prestige of England which opened great export markets for the goods of British manufacture, the extension of banking facilities, and the construction of roads and canals. All these were elements in producing the Industrial Revolution. But what gave the movement force to revolutionize the social life of the common people was the factory, which gathered great masses of the population into industrial centres in which became possible the development of class consciousness. [Pg 64] V THE FACTORY TOWNS The dictionary contains the history of the race, if you search deep into its mysteries; every word tells its own story and bears its present meaning because men, at different times, thought precisely as they did and not otherwise. Servius Tullius made six divisions of the citizens of Rome for the purposes of taxation and these divisions were called classes. A seventh included the mass of the population, those who were not possessed of any taxable property—that is to say the laboring poor. It is from this circumstance that our word “class” derives its peculiar meaning. Now it is significant that before the great extension of manufactures occasioned by the factory, we find no reference[Pg 65] in our language to the working classes. The laboring poor belonged to no class; but when great cities grew up about the factories, populated by toilers whose interests in life were identical, the masses suddenly became conscious of their common life, their common needs, their common hopes. Blindly at first, and then more surely, they struggled for recognition as a class, and at last the struggle found expression in the language of their time. The arousing of this class consciousness amongst the workers I take to be the chief contribution of the factory to the social progress of mankind; and for this reason the rise of the manufacturing towns becomes a subject of great importance. In the town hall
at Manchester there is a fresco by Ford Maddox Brown which bears the title of “The Establishment of Flemish Weavers in Manchester,” and shows Queen Philippa visiting the colony which she founded in 1363. Mr. George[Pg 66] Saintsbury, in his history of Manchester, questions the historical accuracy of the event portrayed; “but,” he adds, “Queen Philippa did many things which we should all be sorry to give up as art and literature and which, yet, are somewhat dubious history.” No one knows when Manchester first became a manufacturing town, and the introduction of Flemish artificers in the reign of Edward III is rather a probable than a certain starting-point. Nothing is distinctly known of the progress of woolen manufacture, until the reign of Henry VIII, at which time it had evidently grown into considerable importance. In the statute of the thirty-third year of his reign it appears that the inhabitants of Manchester carried on a considerable manufacture both of linens and woolens by which they were acquiring great wealth; but no mention has yet been found of cotton manufacture in that city earlier than the year 1641. By this time, however, it had become well established. [Pg 67] The labor was entirely handicraft; and it was not until the establishment of the factory by Arkwright that Manchester and the other manufacturing towns of England came into prominence in the political life of the nation; indeed it was not until the nineteenth century was well advanced that the inhabitants of these cities were represented in Parliament. It has been held that the factory is an episode, not an element, in modern sociological development, and in a strict sense this is true. But because the factory led to the growth of great manufacturing towns and caused the migration thither of a vast population from the agricultural districts, and because it was among this population that the social discontent, which for a long period had existed in the lower classes, first became articulate, the factory directly contributed to the development of modern democracy. The factory transformed not only craftsmen[Pg 68] into operatives, but agricultural laborers as well, the latter becoming for the first time free to dispose of their own labor; for while serfdom had been declared illegal long before the establishment of the factory, yet the peasant remained dependent, in a large measure, upon the good will of his employer and he was bound by custom if not by law to the soil he tilled. The migration of this vast laboring population from the fields to the towns led to far-reaching social results. “Meanwhile, at social Industry’s command How quick and fast an increase! From the germ Of some poor hamlet, rapidly produced, Here a large town, continuous and compact, Hiding the face of earth for leagues—and there, Where not a habitation stood before, Abodes of men irregularly massed Like trees in forests—spread through spacious tracts, O’er which the smoke of unremitting fires Hangs permanent, and plentiful as wreaths Of vapor glittering in the morning sun.” [Pg 69] Thus Wordsworth in The Excursion describes the rise of the manufacturing towns. Our first concern is with the social conditions existing in these great manufacturing cities. The factory system was first applied to the spinning of yarn; but weaving continued, for a time, as a handicraft. This period was one of great prosperity to the hand-loom weavers. Before the invention of spinning-machinery, several spinners were required to furnish one loom with yarn; and one half of the weaver’s time was spent in waiting for work. This time was employed in farming. But with the establishment of the spinning-mills the situation was reversed, and the weaver, plentifully supplied with yarn, ceased to cultivate the soil and devoted his whole time to the loom, a far more profitable occupation. Villages of hand-loom weavers sprang up throughout the country adjacent to the[Pg 70] manufacturing towns, and hither the master spinners sent their yarn and received back the finished cloth; while sometimes the weaving was done in “dandy” shops containing eight or ten and often as many as twenty looms. These little factories were usually owned by a single weaver who hired others to assist him in his work; but whatever the method, the profits from the business were always great. “One of the happiest sights in Lancashire life at this time,” writes a contemporary historian, “was the home of a family of weavers.... There could be heard the merry song to the tune of the clacking shuttles and the bumping of the lathes; the cottage surrounded with a garden filled with flowers and situated in the midst of green fields where the larks sang and the throstles whistled their morning adoration to the rising sun. The weaving thus carried on at home, where several persons of the same family and[Pg 71] apprentices were employed, made them prosperous small manufacturers and a proud lot of people.” This was about 1800. “The trade of muslin weaver,” says a Bolton manufacturer of the same period, “was that of a gentleman. The weavers brought home their work in top boots and ruffled shirts; they had a cane and took a coach in some instances, and appeared as well as military officers of the first degree. They used to walk about the streets with a five-pound Bank of England note spread out under their hat-bands; they would smoke none but long churchwarden pipes, and objected to the intrusion of any other craftsman into the particular rooms of the public-houses which they frequented.” This abnormal prosperity, however, preceded their downfall. Two events were preparing it,—the invention of the power loom and the application of steam power to all the processes of manufacture. Before considering the condition of the[Pg 72] laboring population after the establishment of factories for weaving as well as for spinning, we should glance backward into the previous history of the laboring poor. During the prevalence of the feudal system the population of England was purely agricultural. The chief landed proprietors
possessed a certain number of slaves who were employed generally in domestic service, but who also manufactured the wearing apparel and household furniture. “Priests are set apart for prayer,” says an ancient chronicle, “but it is fit that noble chevaliers should enjoy all ease, and taste all pleasures, while the laborer toils, in order that they may be nourished in abundance—they, and their horse, and their dogs.” This class of laborers, however, was never very large. The great body of the peasantry was composed, first, of persons who rented small farms, and who paid their rent either in kind or in agricultural labor; and secondly,[Pg 73] of cottagers, each of whom had a small parcel of land attached to his dwelling, and the privilege of turning out a cow, or pigs, or a few sheep into the woods, commons and wastes of the manor. During this whole period the entire population derived its subsistence immediately from the land. The mechanics of each village, not having time to cultivate a sufficient quantity of land to yield them a sustenance, received a fixed annual allowance of produce from each tenant. The peasantry worked hard and fared scantily enough, but still there was never an absolute want of food; the whole body was poor, but it contained no paupers. During the fourteenth century the demand for wool not only to supply the markets of the Netherlands, but also the newly established manufacture of England, rapidly increased and the owners of the land found sheep-feeding more profitable than husbandry; and the sudden extension[Pg 74] of manufacture in the fifteenth century greatly increased the demand. This circumstance led to an important change in the distribution of the population and the peasants previously employed in tillage were turned adrift upon the world. The allotments of arable land which had formerly afforded them the means of subsistence were converted into sheep walks and this policy greatly accelerated a social revolution which had already commenced. It eventually led to a complete severance between the English peasantry and the English soil; and with the exception of those employed in domestic manufacture, the little farmers and cottiers of the country were converted into day laborers depending entirely upon wages for their subsistence. Thus when we come to consider the pitiable condition of the working classes, following the establishment of the factory, we must remember this underlying cause of[Pg 75] the poverty and suffering, holding in mind the fact that from the beginning the increase of English poor rates kept pace visibly with the progress of the enclosure of the common land. Complaints against vagrancy and idleness, and the difficulty of providing for the poor increased proportionately with the progress of the system of consolidating farms, and abstracting from the English cottager his crofts and rights to the common lands. Upon the factory has fallen the blame for social conditions which had their source in causes long antedating its establishment—but the factory has sufficient misery for which to answer. Arkwright’s inventions, as we have seen, took manufactures out of the cottages and farm houses of England and assembled them in factories. Thousands of hands were suddenly required especially in Lancashire, which until then was comparatively thinly populated. A great migration[Pg 76] of population from the rural districts to the manufacturing towns was set in motion, thousands of families leaving the quiet life of the country for the intenser life of the city, but still the new demand for labor was unsatisfied. The custom sprang up of procuring apprentices from the parish workhouses of London, Birmingham, and elsewhere; and many thousand children between the ages of seven and fourteen years were thus sent to swell the numbers of the laboring population. Beside the factories stood apprentice houses in which the children were lodged and fed; and it was also the custom for the master manufacturer to furnish the apprentice with clothes. The work required of the children was exacting. The pay of the overseers was fixed in proportion to the work produced, a circumstance which bore hard on the apprentices. The greatest cruelties were practiced to spur the children to excessive[Pg 77] labor; they were flogged, fettered, and in many cases they were starved and some were driven to commit suicide. We have it on the authority of Mr. John Fielding, himself, a master manufacturer and member of Parliament for Oldham, that the happiest moments in the lives of many of these children were those passed in the workhouse. The profits of manufacturing were enormous and so was the greed of the newborn manufacturing aristocracy. Night work was begun, the day shift going to sleep in the same beds that the night shift had just quitted, so that it was a common saying in Lancashire that the beds never got cold. Although the master manufacturers were unmoved by the dictates of humanity, they were not proof against the malignant fevers which broke out in the congested districts and spread their ravages throughout the manufacturing towns. Public opinion was soon aroused which[Pg 78] led to the institution in Manchester of a board of health which in the year 1796 made an interesting report. It appeared that the children and others working in the cotton factories were peculiarly disposed to the contagion of fever; and that large factories were generally injurious to those employed in them even when no particular disease prevailed, not only on account of the close confinement and the debilitating effect of the hot and impure air, but on account of the untimely labor of the night and the protracted hours of the working day. These conditions with respect to the children not only tended to diminish the sum of life by destroying the health and thus affecting the vital stamina of the rising generation; but it also encouraged idleness and profligacy in the parents, who, in many instances, lived upon the labor of their children. It further appeared that the children employed in factories were debarred[Pg 79] from all opportunities
of education as well as from moral and religious instruction. The investigation produced this report and nothing more—“when the dangers of infection were removed the precautions of mercy were forgotten.” Later, in the Parliamentary debate of 1815, Mr. Horner, one of the early factory reformers, graphically described the practices of the apprentice system. He told how, with a bankrupt’s effects, a gang of workhouse children were put up for sale and publicly advertised as a part of the property; how a number of boys apprenticed by a parish in London to one manufacturer, had been transferred to another and in the process were left in a starving condition; how an agreement had been made between a London parish and a Lancashire manufacturer by which it was stipulated that with every twenty sound children one idiot should be taken. Among the master manufacturers who[Pg 80] had been incredulous concerning these conditions until the alarm of contagion arose, was the first Sir Robert Peel. He made a personal investigation and saw the abominations of the system; he declared his convictions and introduced into Parliament the first legislative measure for the protection of children. This was in the year 1802, and after many reverses he ultimately obtained the act known as the 42d Geo. III, “for the preservation of the Health and Morals of Apprentices and others, employed in Cotton and other mills.” This act is chiefly interesting because it established the principle of factory legislation, a principle which later in the century was greatly to promote the welfare of the masses. His first bill, however, referred only to apprentices and after its enactment children instead of being imported from the workhouses as formerly were nevertheless hired from their parents. Their services were dignified by the name of free labor,[Pg 81] but because they were not accorded the protection given to apprentices their condition was little better than that of actual slavery. The next step in the progress of factory legislation was to extend the protection to young persons engaged in manual employment whether apprentices or not. Time does not permit us to follow the interesting history of factory legislation, under the devoted leadership of Mr. Horner, Sir John Hobhouse (afterwards Lord Broughton), Mr. Saddler, and Lord Astley (afterwards the Earl of Shaftesbury). But the evidences of the social condition of the toilers brought out by the Parliamentary debates of 1816, 1818, 1819, and 1832, are all of the same nature and reveal a state of human misery without a parallel in history. We turn now from child labor to the sanitary conditions of the manufacturing towns. The report printed by Doctor Kay[Pg 82] in 1832, is an astounding document; it shows that out of six hundred and eighty-seven streets inspected, more than one half contained heaps of refuse or stagnant pools; and of nearly seven thousand houses inspected, more than one third were out of repair, damp, or ill-ventilated, and an equally large proportion lacked all sanitary conveniences, even of the most primitive kind. The population lived on the simplest diet. Breakfast consisted of tea or coffee with a little bread, while sometimes the men had oatmeal porridge; dinner consisted generally of boiled potatoes heaped into one large dish over which melted lard was poured and sometimes a few pieces of fried fat bacon were added. Those who obtained higher wages or families whose aggregate income was large added a greater portion of animal food to this meal at least three times a week, but the quantity of meat consumed by the laboring population was not large. [Pg 83] The typical family sat around the table, plunging their spoons into the common dish and with animal eagerness satisfied the cravings of their appetite. The evening meal consisted of tea, often mingled with spirits and accompanied by a little bread. The population thus scantily nourished was crowded in one dense mass in cottages, separated by narrow, unpaved streets, in an atmosphere loaded with smoke. Engaged in an employment which unremittingly exhausted their physical energies, these men and women lacked every moral and intellectual stimulus; living in squalid wretchedness and on meagre food it was small wonder that their superfluous gains were spent in debauchery. With domestic economy neglected, domestic comfort unknown, home had no other relation to the factory operative than that of a shelter. At this period the number of operatives above the age of forty was incredibly small. In a pamphlet printed during a great[Pg 84] turnout in 1831, we find certain very interesting statistics concerning 1665 persons whose ages ranged between fifteen and sixty. Of these 1584 were under forty-five years of age, only fifty-one between forty-five and fifty were counted as fit for work, while only three had lived to be sixty years old. Such figures make it evident that large numbers of workers, prematurely unfitted for labor, came to live upon the toil of their own children. Nor was this all, for “puny and sickly parents gave birth to puny and sickly children, and thus the mischief continued its progress, one generation transmitting its accumulated evils to the next.” [Pg 85] VI CHARTISM Such was the condition of the manufacturing population of England in the early days of the factory system. It is evident that these conditions must inevitably give rise to a deep social discontent which sooner or later must become articulate, and we find from the very beginning of the factory system the records of innumerable riots. The history of these disturbances begins with the opposition to the introduction of new machinery. Rebellious craftsmen bound themselves by fearful oaths into secret organizations, the members of which were known as Luddites, from the name of their legendary leader—Ben Ludd. His[Pg 86] name was the password to their secret meetings, at which plans were made for the destruction of property, plans afterwards carried out with open violence. Then followed innumerable riots arising from that growing social discontent which led in the beginning to factory legislation, and later to
Parliamentary reform. It must not be thought that only the factory folk were discontented. The unrest was general throughout the lower classes; it was felt, moreover, in the ranks of the rapidly growing middle class, and the justice of the demand for better conditions was admitted now and then by individuals in the governing class—men of the broader vision. I have in my possession an interesting pamphlet containing the proceedings in the trial of indictment against Thomas Walker, a merchant of Manchester, and others, for a conspiracy to overthrow the constitution and government and to assist the French, the King’s enemies, should they invade[Pg 87] the Kingdom. The case was tried at the Assizes at Lancaster, in 1794, and the account throws light upon the true state of the public mind in Manchester at that time. Thomas Walker, so it appeared to his accusers, was a pernicious, seditious, and ill-disposed person, greatly disaffected to the King, and who did in the hearing of divers liege subjects utter the words: “What are kings! Damn the King!” Moreover, Mr. Thomas Walker was a member of the Manchester Reformation Society, a body composed chiefly of working people. They met at a public house—the Old Boar’s Head, where the works of Tom Paine were read aloud over innumerable pots of ale; and a correspondence was carried on with the Society of the Friends of the People in London and with other more questionable organizations. The publican, warned by the magistrates that he must no longer give entertainment to this society, turned[Pg 88] the reformers into the streets, whereupon they sought shelter in the warehouse of Mr. Walker. Here it was alleged they were trained in the use of firearms; and here one night they were attacked by members of the Church and King Club, and a riot ensued. The Reformation Society, however, maintained that the sole object of their meetings was to obtain, by constitutional means, an adequate representation of the people in Parliament. Discontent continues rife in Manchester, increasing with each year, and at last we come to an event which typifies to all time this upward struggle of toiling humanity—the massacre on St. Peter’s Field which occurred on the 16th of August, 1819. Throughout the whole preceding summer, on account of the distressed condition of trade, discontent had been rife in the manufacturing towns; agitation was at white heat; and the voice of the demagogue was heard with that of the conscientious reformer.[Pg 89] It was proposed to hold at Manchester on the 9th of August an immense meeting to consider the election by the unrepresented inhabitants of Manchester of a Parliamentary delegate; but the purpose of this meeting was declared illegal and it was prohibited by the authorities. Then another meeting was advertised to take place on the 16th of August, the stated object being to consider the most legal and effectual means of obtaining Parliamentary reform. It was said that this meeting was attended by over one hundred thousand persons. Several of the divisions that composed the assembly came upon the field in regular military formations, accompanied by bands of music and preceded by banners bearing such mottoes as “Equal Representation or Death.” Many of the marchers were armed with bludgeons. Most of the columns, however, marched in silence; and except for the loud shouts of defiance on the appearance of the yeomen cavalry, sent[Pg 90] to disperse the meeting, there was no disturbance on the part of the populace. The assembly was in charge of Henry Hunt, the famous radical, who, mounting the platform which had been erected upon a cart had just commenced his opening speech when the civil authorities attempted to arrest him. This the mob resisted, whereupon the yeoman cavalry shouting, “Have down with their banners!” charged upon the field, put the crowds to flight, and in the disorder which followed, a number were killed and many were wounded. Says Carlyle: “Who shall compute the waste and loss, the obstruction of every sort, that was produced in the Manchester region by Peterloo alone. Some thirteen unarmed men and women cut down—the number of the slain and maimed is very countable; but the treasury of rage, burning hidden or visible in all hearts ever since, is of unknown extent. ‘How ye came among us, in your cruel armed blindness, ye unspeakable[Pg 91] County Yeomanry, sabres flourishing, hoofs prancing, and slashed us down at your brute pleasure; deaf, blind to all our claims, and woes and wrongs; of quick sight and sense to your own claims only. There lie poor sallow, workworn weavers, and complain no more now; women themselves are slashed and sabred, howling terror fills the air; and ye ride prosperous, very victorious,—ye unspeakable: Give us sabres too and then come on a little!’” The treasury of rage burning hidden became visible to all. Chartism—the demand of the people for equal political rights—sprang into being; the outward and visible sign of inward suppressed discontent filled the manufacturing towns with unrestrained murmurings, and government felt the castle of privilege trembling at its foundation. Some days later Sidmouth, writing from Whitehall, congratulated the yeomanry in the name of the Prince Regent for their effective services in[Pg 92] preserving public tranquillity. Public tranquillity indeed! The cries of those stricken weavers shall yet shake the empire of Britain. Peterloo was typical of the discontent which had spread throughout the laboring population of England. Parliament was assembled in special session to consider the state of the country and to enact measures for the suppression of disorder. Lord Grenfell in a brilliant speech discussed sedition, declaring that the whole nation was inundated with inflammatory publications intended to stimulate the multitude to acts of savage violence against all who were eminent for birth or rank, for talent or virtue. Mr. Canning placed the blame entirely upon discontented radicals, underrating the wide-spread demand for parliamentary reform, and advocated the acts which were passed prohibiting meetings like the one held in Manchester, and in other
ways restricting the liberties of the[Pg 93] masses in discussing social conditions. All of these acts tended to increase the discontent and hasten forward that reform which alone could save England from revolution. All famous Englishmen, however, did not view Peterloo with the eyes of Lord Grenfell or Mr. Canning. Writing to Thomas Love Peacock, Shelley said: “Many thanks for your attention in sending the papers which contained the terrible and important news of Manchester. These are, as it were, the distant thunders of the terrible storm which is approaching. The tyrants here, as in the French Revolution, have first shed blood. May their execrable lessons not be learnt with equal docility.” Inspired by the Manchester massacre, Shelley wrote “The Masque of Anarchy,” the spirit of which is summed up in these stanzas:— “Men of England, heirs of Glory, Heroes of unwritten story,[Pg 94] Nurselings of one mighty Mother, Hopes of her, and one another; “Rise like Lions after slumber In unvanquishable number, Shake your chains to earth like dew Which in sleep has fallen on you— Ye are many—they are few.” And in the same year he wrote:— “Men of England, wherefore plough For the Lords who lay ye low? Wherefore weave with toil and care The rich robes your tyrants wear? “Wherefore feed, and clothe, and save, From the cradle to the grave, Those ungrateful drones who would Drain your sweat—nay, drink your blood? “The seed ye sow, another reaps; The wealth ye find, another keeps; The robes ye weave, another wears; The arms ye forge, another bears. “Sow seed,—but let no tyrant reap; Find wealth,—let no impostor heap; Weave robes,—let not the idle wear; Forge arms,—in your defense to bear.” [Pg 95] Fortunately the appeal to arms was unnecessary. The working classes of England were destined to exemplify Shelley’s lesson,—but by peaceful means,—were destined to teach the world the great truth that the many, if accordant and resolute, can always control the few. And this peaceful conquest is recorded in the history of Chartism. I have known many labor agitators living in the City of the Dinner Pail, and almost without exception these men were the sons of English Chartists. From them I had learned to honor the early British labor agitator, and to give to the name of pothouse politician something more than a contemptuous meaning. At the Old Boar’s Head, in Manchester, and at many another less famous public house in the manufacturing cities, groups of workingmen gathered, evening after evening to discuss their wrongs; and over many a pot of ale, and through many a cloud of tobacco smoke,[Pg 96] there emerged at last certain definite demands for reform. Workingmen and radicals joined hands; liberal leaders combined with working-class leaders, and presently there was issued the famous Charter with its six points,—manhood suffrage, annual parliaments, the ballot, abolition of property qualifications, payment of members, and equality of electoral districts. A very sober programme this, but popular leaders like Fergus O’Connor and Ernest Jones with incendiary oratory gave it a revolutionary aspect. So the discontent grew year by year, and year by year it gathered force. Events in France and elsewhere on the continent excited the imagination of the governing classes, and every meeting place of workingmen appeared to be bristling with firearms, but still the movement grew, and at last the workingmen were ready with their petition to Parliament. When, on the morning of the 10th of April, 1848, bands of[Pg 97] Chartists began to gather on Kennington Common, carrying red banners and tricolors, all London was astir with excitement. Government had taken precaution for its defense; the guns of the Tower were manned and loaded; the employees of the post-office were supplied with two thousand rifles; the bank was surrounded with artillery; and behind sand-bags piled upon its roof stood a regiment of infantry. The bridges and approaches to Westminster were defended by an army of ten thousand horse, foot, and artillery, while the six thousand police of London lined the streets, supported by an army of special constables. And in command of this elaborate defense of the city against four thousand unarmed workingmen assembled on Kennington Common to bear a petition to Parliament, was none other than the Iron Duke himself—Wellington. Surely the voice of the pothouse politicians had been heard throughout England; it had penetrated the halls of government—what[Pg 98] need had the reformers for powder and shot? And must we not believe that when five years later the great reform was enacted, credit for that event was in some measure due to the resolute and accordant factory folk? Yes, the wheels and spindles of which Arkwright dreamed brought something more than material wealth to England; his vision made the nation rich and powerful and his vision likewise gave to the masses equal political rights. [Pg 99] VII THE FACTORY AND SOCIAL PROGRESS We have now traced the history of the factory, from its beginning with the inventions of Arkwright down to its permanent establishment in the first half of the last century, and we have noted its influence upon the social life of England. We have seen how, as early as the fifteenth century, the introduction of manufactures assisted in breaking down the feudal system, and how, by making possible the accumulation of wealth by men of humble birth, it contributed to the rise of the middle class. We have further seen that at the close of the eighteenth century the introduction of machinery intensified these[Pg 100] tendencies and exerted a powerful influence on the development of our modern democracy. We have, however, confined our attention to a single industry as it developed in a particular nation,—we have taken the cotton factory as typical of all factories and its growth in England as typical of its growth throughout the Western world. But the factory has developed differently in each industry and its social influence has never been quite alike in any two nations. When, for instance, Samuel Slater introduced cotton
manufacturing into America, he set up in Rhode Island an exact counterpart of the English factory. When, later, other factories were built in New England there took place the same transition of a vast laboring population from the rural districts to the manufacturing towns;—but this population was very unlike the manufacturing population of England. The American factories were[Pg 101] operated by the sons and daughters of Yankee farmers, reared in the atmosphere of democracy and springing from a race unaffected by the traditions of feudalism; for them political equality had been already won, yet even in America the factory became an instrument for social progress. In the rapidly growing manufacturing towns these country folk found a new life of opportunity for social advancement; they did not remain operatives long, but advanced to higher callings; and to take the places which they left, thousands of workers came from Lancashire here to enjoy that civic freedom for which their brothers in the Old World were still contending. To-day in our Southern States we see a similar process at work,—another race of men advancing in the social scale by means of the factory; from the mountains of the Carolinas thousands of young men and women, reared in a civilization almost unbelievably primitive, are flocking to the manufacturing[Pg 102] towns, there to enjoy the advantages of modern life. But however varied have been the phases of the development of the factory in different parts of the world there has always been this common phenomenon—the concentration of the laboring population in manufacturing cities and the development of social discontent leading to social progress. The nineteenth century was the age of Power Discovered; mechanical inventions, the concentration of industry, the extension of the factory system, new means of transportation destroyed the last vestige of the feudal world and left the democratic ideal triumphant but unfulfilled: a new century dawns,—the age of Power Humanized. The industrial world in which we live, with all its peculiar characteristics, has been built upon the ruins of the feudal order, and in due time will give place to a newer and better civilization. Radicals of to-day see visions of to-morrow; reformers[Pg 103] fired by the visions seek to make them real; while conservatives, clinging to the traditions of a dead past, strive to stay the inevitable progress of mankind. Truth never changes, but the knowledge of truth grows deeper with each age; no political institution, no social institution is sacred unless it is founded upon some eternal truth, and all human institutions must change with the increasing knowledge of mankind. Everywhere in the Western world the condition of the laboring population is vastly better to-day than when, a century and a half ago, the factory was established; vastly better than when, sixty years ago, the governments of Europe trembled before a working-class revolt,—when British Chartism triumphed in reform; when Karl Marx, exiled from Prussia, called upon the workingmen of the world to unite; when Mazzini, another exile in London, preached to the toilers of Italy the gospel of God and humanity,[Pg 104] of progress through education. But the evolution is incomplete, and the discontent of the laboring population still remains a vital force in the upward progress of mankind. To-day we in America are confronted by the amazing spread of Socialism; Socialism which the radicals preach, the reformers seek to establish, and the conservatives fear. We cannot evade its issues, for Socialism is something more than a political creed,—it is the modern expression of that same spirit of human progress which destroyed slavery in the ancient world, serfdom in the middle ages and, creating modern democracy, cannot rest until it has guaranteed to all men not only equal political rights but equal social rights. Two men, smoke-room companions of mine during a Pacific voyage, stand for the contending ideals of the feudal and the modern world. One was a noble earl, the other a British tea merchant; both were[Pg 105] men of wealth,—the one of large but unproductive estates, the other of a great business giving employment to thousands of men. Of the two, the tea merchant, though lacking in fine manners, was the more important person; yet he would not have exchanged those hours of familiar gossip with the noble earl for more chests of tea than would fill the hold of the ship. And there was a reason for this feeling, because the Groom of the Bedchamber stood for that aristocracy of culture and good manners which has an important value in any society. Under the militant structure of society this value belonged to the few; in our present democracy it has become increasingly the privilege of the many. Public education, public libraries, public art galleries, the perfected art of printing have opened the highest culture to children of the humblest birth. May we not, then, look forward to the time when “the best that has anywhere been in the[Pg 106] world shall be the lot of every man born into it”—that is to say, the lot of every man who desires the best? Every thinking man must admit that there is something wrong in our present industrial régime. The progress of avowed Socialism and the more rapid progress of particular socialistic ideas indicate quite clearly that we Americans are alive to the unequal social conditions which now exist and are anxious to find a remedy. But whatever may be the utopian dreams of the reformers, all immediate progress must be made in the industrial world as we find it to-day; the industrial state of the Socialist is too remote in time,—our task is with social conditions as they now exist. The splendid machinery of production created during the last century must not be destroyed, but utilized for the benefit of mankind. The question which we have now to ask ourselves is this: What is the ultimate purpose for which the business[Pg 107] of the world is conducted, what the real purpose of all this planting and reaping, this
mining and manufacturing, this exchanging of commodities? Is it not, primarily, to furnish each human creature with food, shelter, and clothing,—the means of supporting life? Men require something more than the mere means of subsistence; but before the individual can cultivate his mind and soul his body must be made comfortable, and this, after all, is the whole end of our complex commercial régime. The test of right and wrong conduct in business refers to this fundamental purpose,—that conduct only is praiseworthy which advances the time when every man capable of industry shall be rewarded for his labor, not only with a loaf of bread, but with hours of fruitful leisure. Captains of Industry! that was a noble title Carlyle gave to the prosaic business man, when gazing beyond the squalid[Pg 108] turmoil of his day with its dominant industrialism, triumphant mercantilism, doctrines of laissez-faire, overproduction, surplus population, he with clear vision foresaw the future freedom of the masses won through their own strength and the ability of their leaders. Until Richard Arkwright was born, the leaders of men in their progress towards human freedom had been soldiers; henceforward they were to be men of affairs. Great soldiers won their victory by the loyalty they inspired in their followers; no adventurer seeking personal glory ever won a lasting victory, but only those heroes, forgetful of themselves who consecrated their service to the cause of freedom. In such wise must Captains of Industry win their victories; the adventurer can but for a time prevail; fame is secure only to those leaders who see in wealth accumulated a treasure held in trust from which they are to feed and clothe the armies that they lead to peaceful[Pg 109] conquests. Social reformers of sentimental temper have deemed the comparison between the modern employer of labor and the feudal lord as ill-chosen, but history seems to justify it. Yet we have, indeed, gone far since the Middle Ages. When the feudal lord demanded loyalty from his retainers the demand was alone sufficient, but the Captain of Industry, in order to obtain the loyalty of the toilers, must not only demand but deserve it; he too must be loyal to the great cause he serves—the eternal cause of human freedom. THE END [Pg 110] The Riverside Press CAMBRIDGE · MASSACHUSETTS U · S · A
Cover YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT decoration YOUR VOTE and HOW TO USE IT BY MRS. RAYMOND BROWN Chairman of Organization of the New York State Woman Suffrage Party With a Foreword by MRS. CARRIE CHAPMAN CATT President of the National American Woman Suffrage Association decoration HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERS NEW YORK AND LONDON Your Vote and How to Use It Copyright, 1918, by Harper & Brothers Printed in the United States of America Published February, 1918 To the Many Good Citizens who have helped and advised in the preparation of this book it is gratefully dedicated THIS BOOK IS OFFICIALLY ENDORSED BY THE NEW YORK STATE WOMAN SUFFRAGE PARTY CONTENTS PAGE Foreword xv Preface xvii Chapter I. Politics and Woman’s Interests 1 The Duties of Government—The Relation of Government to the Home—Duties and Obligations of Citizenship. Chapter II. Town and County Government 8 The Town Meeting—Officials, Duties, the Kind of Men Needed—When and How Elected—Political Honesty—The Relation of Country to City, State, and Nation. Chapter III. The Incorporated Village and City Government 24 Classes, Charters—Officials, Duties—When Elected—Wards and Election Districts—Franchise Rights—Commission Form of Government—City Manager. Chapter IV. Greater New York 37 Mayor, Comptroller, President of the Board of Aldermen, Presidents of the Boroughs—The Aldermen, Presidents of the Boroughs—The Board of Aldermen—The Board of Estimate and Apportionment—Corporation Counsel—City Chamberlain—Taxes and Assessments—Board of Education—Board of Elections—Local Improvement Boards—County Government—Courts—Charities—Civil Service—The Budget. Chapter V. State Government 50 The Constitution, Constitutional Amendments—The Legislature, Senate and Assembly—How to Get a Law Passed—The Governor and Other Officials—Appointive Offices—Public Service, Health, Excise, Conservation, Civil Service, and Other Commissions—State Employees. Chapter VI. National Government 62 The National Constitution—Congress, Its Powers—How Constituted—Sessions of Congress—Congressional Committees—The President, How Elected, His Powers—The Cabinet—Centralized Government. Chapter VII. Who Can Vote 72 Citizens—Aliens—How an Alien May Become a Citizen—Naturalization Laws—A Married Woman, an Unmarried Woman—Qualifications for Voting—Who May Not Vote—The 14th and 15th Amendments—The Woman Suffrage Amendment. Chapter VIII. Political Parties 80 Republican, Democratic, Progressive, Prohibition, and Socialist Platforms—Party Organization, National, State, County, and City Committees, Election District Captains—Party Funds—The Use and Abuse of Party—The Independent Vote. Chapter IX. How Candidates Are Nominated 91 President and Vice-President—Enrolment of Voters—Direct Primaries—Objections to Direct Primaries—Nomination by Party Convention—Objections to the Party Convention—Importance of the Primary—Nomination by Petition. Chapter X. Elections 98 Registration of Voters—Time of Elections—Election Officials—How to Mark the Ballot—How Ballots Are Counted—The Australian Ballot—The Short Ballot—Corrupt Practices Act—Voting-machines—School-houses for Polling-places—Cost of Elections. Chapter XI. Taxation 108 Direct and Indirect—Village and School Taxes—Town, County, City, and State Taxes—Tax Districts—How Taxes Are Assessed—County Board of Equalization—The Collection of Taxes—State Taxes: Corporation Tax, Inheritance Tax, Other State Taxes—State Board of Equalization—Federal Taxes: Custom Duties, Internal Revenue and Excise Taxes, the Income Tax—Public Debt, Bonds—Sinking Funds—The Budget—The Pork-barrel. Chapter XII. Public Highways 121 State Roads, Their Cost and Maintenance—Town and County Highways—Bond Issues—City Streets—Street Cleaning—Parks—City Planning—The Value of Beauty. Chapter XIII. Courts 130 Criminal and Civil Cases—Justices’ Courts—Police and Magistrates’ Courts—County Courts—Surrogates’ Courts—Court of Claims—Supreme Courts, Appellate Divisions—Court of Appeals—Courts of Record—Federal Courts: United States District Courts, United States Court of Claims, United States Circuit Court of Appeals, United States Supreme Court—Constitutionality of Laws—Injunctions. Chapter XIV. The Punishment of Crime 141 The Grand Jury—Trial by Jury—Jury Service—Women Jurors—The Police—Prison Reform:—The Indeterminate Sentence, Probation—Jails and Prisons—City Farms—The Prevention of Crime. Chapter XV. Women Offenders and the Law 150 Drunkenness—Prostitution—Night Courts—Fines—Delinquent Girls—Girl Victims—Houses of Detention—Women Judges—Policewomen. Chapter XVI. Public Education 161 The School District—The Township Board of Education—The Annual School Meeting—The School Budget—The Supervisory District—The District Superintendent—The Union Free School District—Physical Training—School Money—Normal Schools—University of the State of New York—Board of Regents—National Commissioner of Education—Agricultural Colleges—Farmers’ Institutes—Vocational Training—State Scholarships—Domestic Training—Schools as Community Centers—Health—Co-operation. Chapter XVII. Health and Recreation 174 Housing—Tenement House Inspection—Dance-halls—Playgrounds—Vacation Schools—Recreation Centers—Municipal Dance-halls—Municipal Bathing Beaches—The Movies—Causes of Juvenile Crime—Rural Needs. Chapter XVIII. The Care of Dependent and Delinquent Children 185 By County, City, and State—Institutional versus Family Care—Lack of Definite Authority—Boarding Out—Boards of Child Welfare—Widowed Mothers’ Pensions—The Delinquent Child—Children’s Courts—Feeble-minded Children. Chapter XIX. Child Wage-earners 197 The Federal Child Labor Law—New York State Child Labor Laws—Child Workers and Delinquency—Street Trades—Night-messenger Service—Rural Child Workers—War and Children. Chapter XX. Public Charities 209 State and Private Control of Charitable Institutions—State Board of Charities, Duties, Powers—Proposed Changes in the Reorganization of the Board—County and City Institutions—Department of State and Alien Poor—Local Boards of Managers—State Department of Inspection—Provision for the Feeble-minded—Recommendations of the State Board—State Commission in Lunacy—State Prison Commission. Chapter XXI. The Protection of Working-women 221 Conditions Before the War—Number of Women Wage-earners—Clothing Manufacturers, Laundries, Restaurant Workers, Textile Operators—War and Woman’s Work—The Eight-hour Day, New Occupations, Messenger Service, Wages—Minimum Wage—Protection Needed. Chapter XXII. Americanization 232 The Need of a United Country—The Immigrant a National Asset—Housing Conditions—A Common Language—Night Schools—Neighborhood Classes for Women—Home Teaching of Women—Naturalization—Uniform Laws for Naturalization—Ignorance of Laws—The Study of Citizenship. Chapter XXIII. Patriotism and Citizenship 243 Appendix 253 Some Definitions: Habeas Corpus—The Initiative and Referendum—The Recall—Injunction and Abatement Act—The Tin Plate Ordinance—Prohibition, High License, Local Option, the Guttenburg Method of Controlling the Liquor Traffic—The Single Tax—The House of Governors—Proportional Representation—Workmen’s Compensation Laws. Chart of Officials for Whom You Can Vote 261 When Elections Are Held. [Pg xv] FOREWORD It is one thing for women to win the vote and a totally different one for them to know how to use that vote so that it will count to the greatest good of the state. The keynote of woman’s long struggle for the ballot has been her ardent desire for service. Now that she has been given the vote, she is eager to learn how she can best render that service. Citizenship has been very lightly regarded by our country in the past. It has been given to the immigrant without any ceremony, in the midst of the sordid surroundings of a local court-room; it has come to the boy of twenty-one without any special preparation on his part; it has often been bought and sold. It remains now for women to treat it with a new dignity and to give it the importance it deserves.
Civics should be taught in every school in the land. The ballot should be regarded as a sacred trust. Every man and woman who grows up under the protection of our flag[Pg xvi] should feel the obligation to give of his and her best to make our democracy a better expression of our ideals. I hope that this book will help to start some new citizens in the right way. Carrie Chapman Catt. [Pg xvii] PREFACE There never seems to be just the right book on a topic that one has very much at heart. When the vote for New York women was an accomplished fact there came a sudden and pressing need for a book on government that would give the busy housewife or the overworked woman in the factory the simple outline of her government and the officials for whom she was going to vote, with the duties and requirements of their positions; but that was not all. There are certain problems of government to-day and certain departments of politics which have to do with things which are of special interest to women. The protection and care of human life has always been woman’s great business in life. So a book on civics for women must include an outline of what the state is doing for its children, for its poor, for working-women, for public health and recreation; in short, for the same things in government[Pg xviii] with which she is concerned in her individual capacity as a woman. These are also the departments of government which seem to need her attention the most. It is natural that men should have given the greater care in government to business and material affairs. To counterbalance this, woman’s work and votes are needed for the human side. To be an intelligent voter some knowledge of the structure of government is needed. Also one must know the duties of an office in order to judge of the qualifications of would-be candidates, so Chapters II to VII give an outline of the different divisions of government, beginning with the local offices, for which women will cast their first votes, and going through the State to the National Government. Chapters VII to X, inclusive, deal with the actual casting of the ballot in the elections, the organization of political parties, and the management of elections. The major part of the book is then given to those departments of political affairs in which women are undoubtedly most deeply concerned. The substance of some of these chapters has been used as a correspondence course in citizenship by the New York State Woman[Pg xix] Suffrage Party, and is published by special arrangement with them. Through four years of continuous intensive educational work in the State the Woman Suffrage Party has come closely in touch with many thousands of women; it has learned to know their idealism, their fervent belief in democracy, and their desire to make democracy more effective. It knows also that there are many other women who have never thought about voting, but who are equally conscientious and are now eager to learn. It knows the problems of women as does probably no other organization of women. It also has a deep feeling of responsibility. It feels its obligation to furnish all the help possible to the new women voters to meet their new duties wisely. It hopes to bring home to women the human side of government, to arouse a desire for further study, and especially to encourage them to regard their vote as a trust to be used not to advance partisan politics, but to further human welfare. This is a book for amateur citizens written by an amateur citizen. It may be found to differ from the others in that it deals with the subject of civics from the standpoint of the woman voter. Gertrude Foster Brown. [Pg 1] YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT YOUR VOTE AND HOW TO USE IT I POLITICS AND WOMAN’S INTERESTS The average woman has never thought of politics as having an intimate relation to her daily life. She has not realized that government has a direct effect on the comfort and happiness of the family in the home, on the successful upbringing of children, and on the health and safety of men and women workers. She has known vaguely that government controls the fundamental question of war or peace; that it has to do with taxation; that it handles the mail, but that it also plays a large part in domestic and social life is a fact that she has only recently been learning. [Pg 2] With the rapid extension of the vote to women, especially the recent granting of suffrage to the women of New York State, there is a new and wide-spread interest in how government works, and a realization of the importance of good government and the dire peril of bad government. Women are conscientious; they are accepting their new responsibilities with much seriousness. They are eager to learn how to be good citizens. The war also has made everybody think. It has made government seem a more personal affair. WHAT IS GOVERNMENT? Government is the management of those common affairs of a people which can be handled in a more effective and more economical way by a community acting together than by each individual acting for himself. In a sparsely settled community government is less apparent than in a city. Its functions are simple. Sometimes it does not seem very important. But as people congregate closer together it becomes more complicated and comes in closer and closer touch with the individual and family life. For example, a man living in the country may rely on himself to protect his home and[Pg 3] property; but in the city life and property are better protected by a police force than if each individual citizen had to provide his own protection. A woman in a pioneer country may bring up her child
as she pleases. She may teach him when and how she chooses. But as population increases and government is established, a large part of the child’s training is dictated by it. He must go to school at a certain age; he must stay there so many hours a day; he must study certain things in a certain way. He cannot be put to work until he has reached a certain age. If he contracts a contagious disease the city takes control of the case. Directly and indirectly the government in a city affects a woman’s life and interests in innumerable ways. She is dependent on it for the light and sunshine that comes into her home. Laws concerning housing and building and tenement departments of government are very important to the health, comfort, and even decency of the family. She is dependent on government for the safety of the milk she has to feed her baby. The health of the family depends as much on the city department of health as on the mother’s care. It is of the utmost importance to the city mother that[Pg 4] the streets be kept clean, because they are usually the only place that her children have in which to play. The street cleaning department, therefore, touches her closely. It is of vital moment to her that the streets be kept free of criminal influence, therefore the management of the police department is of great importance to her. If the town is run “wide open” it may mean that her husband’s wages may be dissipated. The way in which the excise law and the laws against gambling are enforced is a matter which deeply concerns her. If she lives in the country the relation of government to her life is not so varied, but she is still dependent on it for the education of her child, for the socializing influences of the community, and for much of the business prosperity of the farm. Are telephone connections cheap, are the roads passable at all seasons, are good market facilities provided? These are all questions that greatly affect her welfare, and they depend largely on the government. It is the business of government to maintain peace and to provide for the common defense. This is a function of government so fundamental as to need little comment. It is the[Pg 5] first essential to the safe existence of the home. It is the business of government to assure justice and equality of treatment to all citizens. This becomes more difficult as population increases and life grows more complicated. Nearly every human being to-day is dependent on the work of other people for most of the necessities, as well as the comforts and conveniences, of life. The food that we eat, the cotton and wool in the garments we wear, the coal that heats our houses, we owe to the toil of other people who in return may be dependent on us for something that they use. It is a matter that concerns every one of us that in producing these things that we use human life shall be safeguarded, that living wages shall be paid, and that standards of civilization shall be maintained and advanced. As individuals we cannot control conditions even for ourselves, as individuals we cannot control them for other people; but all of us working together in government can secure these fundamental necessities for every one of us. Since government in a democracy is made by the people themselves, it is a responsibility[Pg 6] that every one should share to help secure these common needs. It is also a function of modern government to raise the standard of health, education, and living. Plato said, “Only that state is healthy and can thrive which unceasingly endeavors to improve the individuals who constitute it.” Society must be protected from vicious and destructive influence; the intelligence and knowledge of all the people are needed for the common good. As human beings have become dependent on one another, the well-being or the degradation of one individual or family does not stop there. It strongly influences the welfare of other individuals and families. For their own protection people have not only the right, but the obligation to make a government that shall foster and advance the common welfare. The basis of good government is the golden rule. To help secure for others the protection that you demand for yourself is part of the obligation of good citizenship. The honesty and efficiency of government in a republic like the United States depend on the voters; on their sense of responsibility, and on the intelligence with which they use[Pg 7] their power. The feeling of responsibility of each individual, for the public welfare, cannot be too highly developed. Democracy can only be a success in the degree that the people who make that democracy are determined that it shall deal with justice, and that it shall offer opportunity to every one within its borders. They must also be vigilant to see that it shall deal wisely with their common problems as they develop. To be a citizen of such a democracy and to have the power to help it grow along these lines, to be able to serve one’s country loyally in the full efficiency of citizenship, are great privileges. [Pg 8] II TOWN AND COUNTY GOVERNMENT The United States is both a Democracy and a Republic. A Democracy means, literally, a government by the people. A Republic is a democracy in which the people elect representatives to carry on the government for them. The United States is a federation of forty-eight States. For convenience of government each State is subdivided into smaller units. In every political division of the State there are three distinct departments: The Legislative, the part that makes the law. The Administrative, the part that administers the law. The Judicial, the part that interprets the law. Even in a sparsely settled community people have certain interests in
common. Roads have to be made, schools established, the[Pg 9] poor cared for, and taxes levied. Who does these things? If a cow breaks into a neighbor’s cornfield, or if there is an epidemic, whose business is it to look after it? THE TOWN GOVERNMENT With the exception of the school district, which has to do only with the public schools, the town[1] or township is the smallest division of the State for purposes of government. The government of the town is the nearest approach we have to a direct government by the people themselves. The Town Meeting brings people together to discuss their local affairs, to elect officers, and to appropriate the money necessary to carry out their plans. It is held in New York State every other year, some time between February 1st and May 1st. The business of the town meeting includes the disposal of town property, the care of bridges and roads, the care of the poor, the number of constables, matters concerning public health, and the care of stray animals. Any citizen has a right to bring up any suggestion he pleases for the people to consider[Pg 10] and debate in open meeting, and then to take whatever action they choose. In a matter of taxation or incurring a town debt, only taxpaying citizens can vote. Where it exists at its best, the town meeting has an admirable effect in stimulating interest in local affairs and in developing public spirit. A special town meeting can be called by a petition of twenty-five taxpayers, or at the request of certain officials. The town meeting is a form of government particularly adapted to a small community. With the increase in population it has been given up in many counties, and the election of town officers now usually takes place at the regular fall election. Town Officers: The Supervisor is the chief executive officer of the town, and is elected for two years. He receives and pays out all money except that raised for public roads and the care of the town poor. If the town roads are in bad condition or if the poor are not properly cared for, he is responsible. The honesty and efficiency of the administration of town affairs are in his hands. He represents the town on the county board of supervisors. The Town Board consists of the supervisor, town clerk, and at least two justices of[Pg 11] the peace. It meets regularly twice a year. It is the business of the board to receive the accounts of the town officers and examine them, to hear and decide claims against the town. An appeal may be taken from their decision to the county board of supervisors. They may also frame propositions to be submitted to the voters, and may borrow money to meet appropriations made at the town meeting. They may appoint a physician to aid as health officer for the town. The Town Clerk is the general secretary and bookkeeper for the town. He records births, marriages, and deaths, chattel mortgages and property notes. He keeps the records of the town meetings. He posts election notices. He issues marriage licenses, permissions for burial, hunting licenses, etc. The Superintendent of Roads has charge of building and maintaining the town highways, bridges, and culverts outside of the incorporated villages. He is paid by the day, and may hire machines and horses or purchase tools and material for road making. The opportunities for dishonest money in this office have sometimes made it sought after. A contract may contain a “rake-off,” bills may be padded, and materials accepted which are different from specifications. [Pg 12] Three Assessors and a Collector: The assessors determine the value of taxable property in the town, and divide the amount of taxes to be raised among the owners of the property. If a property-owner is dissatisfied with his assessment he may appear in August before the assessors and “swear off” what he considers an exorbitant amount. Assessment rolls are made out, and it is the duty of the collector to collect the money. Town collectors are paid 1 per cent. on taxes collected within thirty days after due, with increasing fees for collecting taxes after that time. This is an encouragement to the collector to be dilatory in his collections, and is a disadvantage to the town. It has been suggested that penalties for delinquent taxes should go to the town and not to the collector. The Town Constables have the duty of keeping the peace and carrying out the orders of the justice of the peace. They may arrest people accused or suspected of crime. There may not be more than five in a town. The Overseers of the Poor are charged with the duty of looking after persons who are destitute and have no relative to support them. They may assist such persons in their own homes or send them to the county[Pg 13] poorhouse. This office often conflicts with that of county superintendent of the poor, and it has been recommended that it be abolished. The Justice of the Peace is the judicial officer of the town. Each town has four such officers, each elected for four years. The justice of the peace may hear civil cases where the sum involved is not over two hundred dollars. He may try petty offenses of all kinds, breaches of the peace, drunkenness, and petty larceny. He may issue warrants and may hold persons suspected of serious crime to await action by the grand jury. Terms of Town Officials: Each official is elected for two years, except the justices of the peace and sometimes one or two assessors, who are elected for four years. Pay of Town Officials: Most of these officers are paid from two to four dollars for every day of actual service. The town clerk, justices of the peace, and constables are paid certain fees. THE COUNTY The county comprises a number of townships. It is a political
division created by the State to administer certain local affairs, to act as agent for the State, to collect State[Pg 14] taxes, and to enforce State law. The county owns the court-house and jail; it can sue or be sued. In most of New York State the county has become more important in administering local affairs than the town. New York State has sixty-two counties, of which five are in Greater New York. They vary in size from Richmond County (Staten Island), which has only 59 square miles, to St. Lawrence County, which has 2,880 square miles. They vary also in population from Hamilton County, with 2,000 people, to New York County with two million. Elected Officials: The Board of Supervisors is the legislative body of the county. This board is composed of the supervisors elected by each township, and also one member from each ward of a city in the county. They elect their own chairman. The board of supervisors have the custody and control of the court-house, jail, poorhouse, and all county property; they receive and decide claims against the county; they direct the raising of money by taxation to meet the expenses of the county and the county’s share in State taxes; they fix salaries for county officials; borrow money for county needs; they regulate laws for the[Pg 15] protection of fish and game; they open county highways, erect bridges, and may provide hospitals for tuberculosis. They also act as a board of canvassers to canvass the returns after an election. The Sheriff, the executive officer of the county, is elected to enforce the law. On him rests the security of life and property. He must preserve the peace, arrest offenders against the law, and hold them in custody. He must not allow fear or sympathy to interfere with his enforcement of the law. He summons jurors and witnesses for county lawsuits and executes the orders of the court. Until recently the fees which he received made the sheriff’s office one much sought after. These now go to the treasurer in many counties, and the sheriff is paid a salary. He cannot serve two consecutive terms. He may appoint an under-sheriff and deputy sheriffs. The District Attorney is the public prosecutor for the county, and brings suit “in the name of the people of the State.” He is also the legal adviser for county affairs. It is his business to protect the public against crime of all kinds. If corruption exists in any department, it is his duty to bring it to light. The good order of the community[Pg 16] and the efficiency of government in the county depend much on him. He determines what cases shall come before the grand jury. The County Clerk keeps all the important records for the county, including deeds, mortgages, and maps, and makes out the election certificates. Public documents must always be open for public inspection. In some counties there is a recorder of deeds. The clerk also acts as clerk of the county court. His office has an income from fees which used to go to the clerk and made this office very lucrative. In most counties the fees now go to the county treasurer, and the clerk is paid a salary. The County Treasurer receives and disburses all public moneys for the county. He receives money from the town supervisor, collected for county and State taxes, the latter of which he pays to the State treasurer. He receives from the State money for the public schools, which he in turn passes on to the towns. He must give a bond for the safe-keeping of these public funds. He also chooses the bank in which public funds are kept, and ought to give a careful accounting of the interest which must go into the county treasury. [Pg 17] The Superintendent of the Poor disburses the money raised to care for the poor of the county. The superintendents of all the public charities in the county make their reports to him, and he is responsible for them to the board of supervisors. He also makes an annual report to the State Board of Charities. Coroners: From one to four coroners may be elected in each county, except those in Greater New York. Their duty is to investigate sudden and suspicious deaths, and sometimes the cause of a suspicious fire. They are often practising physicians or they may employ physicians to conduct inquests or autopsies. The County Superintendent of Highways is appointed by the board of supervisors for four years. The County Judge presides over the county court. His salary varies and is fixed by State law, although paid by the county. This office should be most carefully filled. The county judge is not only important because of his decisions, but he is one of the most powerful men politically in the county. Only a man of strict probity should be elected to this office. The Surrogate administers estates of persons deceased, controls the probate of wills,[Pg 18] and appoints guardians for the property of minors. His term is six years. In counties with small populations the county judge acts as surrogate. The term of office for county officials is three years, except that of the supervisors elected by the towns for two years, and the judges elected for six years. Political Honesty: The question is often asked, are these local offices honestly managed? Are there possible loopholes for corruption? The following answer to these questions was given recently by one in a position to know: “The impelling motive of most politicians is the enjoyment of a sense of power and influence. The day laborer who loafs through his political job and the salaried higher officer who neglects his work and engages in private business are examples of the most usual and formidable class of political grafters. The heads of departments and higher elected officers are apt to do their work as well as they can, in order to qualify themselves
for re-election. The days when a man could dishonestly make a fortune in one political term are past in this country, and waste, favoritism, and stupidity are the only dangerous elements which we must look for. [Pg 19] “The greatest waste in expenditure of moneys by boards of supervisors is usually on county roads and highways, where in some years hundreds of thousands of dollars are lost by unscientific building and upkeep. This also is an easy way for a dishonest supervisor to reward political supporters by paying them for work on the road which they do not do. The same things obtain in the matter of purchase of supplies and the county printing. The cure for this is to have all expenditures beyond a nominal amount made on public bids. “Another opportunity of abuse is the payment of supervisors in fees. Many counties still adhere to the old rule of fees: $4 per day for attending board meetings; 8 cents per mile for going and returning; $4 per day while actually engaged in any investigation or any other lawful duty. For copying the assessment roll and extending taxes on the tax roll supervisors receive commissions which, in some counties, run into thousands of dollars. The remedy for the numberless evils which accompany the fee system is to put the supervisors on a salary basis. “The sheriff has charge of the prisoners in the jail. Therein lies his opportunity for[Pg 20] dishonesty and extortion. Sheriffs should receive salaries and not fees, and every county should have a well-organized board of women visitors to inspect the jails and lockups at least every two weeks. “The district attorney has an opportunity for dishonesty in the expenditure of the contingent fund, which is always provided for him, and which he can pay out with little or no check. Fortunately, however, most men elected to the office of district attorney are of high enough caliber to make the percentage of dishonesty almost nil. “If the county clerk is paid by fees it is difficult to expect an absolute, ethical fulfilment of his duty, and probable that he will be working for himself rather than the county. “The duties of the county superintendent of the poor are in continual conflict with those of the overseers of the poor. The opportunity to waste and misappropriate county funds without detection is not as great as it used to be, because of the close supervision of the State Board of Charities; but the county superintendent has wide discretion in giving alms and caring for the county poor, and the office is, therefore, usually sought by a minor political leader, who, by virtue of his office,[Pg 21] can provide for his dependent supporters, which he usually does in the sincere belief that he is properly dispensing charity. In no case, however, is any great amount wasted, and on the whole the work is fairly well done. “Justices of the peace and constables and town clerks usually receive fees. They should be put on a salary basis. “Overseers of the poor have opportunities for fees and misappropriation of small amounts because they are allowed liberal discretion in selecting objects of the town’s bounty. The office should be wiped out, the distinction between town and county poor abolished; all the work should be done through the county superintendent of the poor, who should be responsible to the State Board of Charities.” The Relation of Country to City, State, and Nation: While the problems of government in rural districts are simple and few, the close relations of city and country have made the wise management of country affairs of great importance to those who live in cities. On the other hand, the handling of the more complex and difficult city problems are of equally grave importance to country dwellers. Comfortable, prosperous life in a[Pg 22] rural community is dependent not only on local conditions, but also on State and National government. Good roads are equally important to city and country, and they depend largely on the State. The kind of education that the village or country school gives will determine the intelligence and earning capacity of many of the coming generations of city dwellers, and this instruction is determined both by the State and by the local school boards. Low telephone rates and good interurban car lines will put the woman on the farm in close touch with her neighbors, and so will stimulate her interest in outside affairs. Healthy community life and rural amusements will keep the young people content at home and help prevent the drift toward the city. The farmer’s produce is handled by city shops and markets, and the manufactured articles of city factories go into the homes of every rural district. Not only are city and country dependent on each other, but also one part of the country is dependent on some other part, far distant, for some of the necessities of life. Our cotton comes from the South, wheat comes from the West, sugar may come from Colorado or Cuba. The whole country is[Pg 23] linked together in trade relationship, and freight rates and interstate commerce are controlled by the Federal government. The good citizen, then, has a vital interest not only in his supervisor and local affairs, but in both State and National government. When he realizes that the size of his income, the comfort of his family life, the welfare of his children, and their getting on in life, depend to an appreciable degree on government, he and she will begin to take a livelier interest in politics. The discussion of these affairs in the home will serve to stimulate the interest of the entire family in what is, after all, an important part of their business. A small community has one problem all its own. If there is some offense against the public welfare, no one wants to complain. It may be something merely disagreeable, or it may be a serious menace to
public health; but every one is slow to make a fuss about it because he cannot hide his identity, and he is afraid he might become unpopular. This fear is usually groundless because it is likely that most of his neighbors agree with him in wanting to have the condition changed. A country community needs fearless, public-spirited citizens. [Pg 24] FOOTNOTES: [1] The word town as used in New York does not mean a village or city, but a political division. III THE INCORPORATED VILLAGE AND CITY GOVERNMENT As population grows government needs increase. When people establish their homes close together and form a populous community within a limited area, it becomes necessary to have streets opened up, sidewalks made, the streets lighted, protection from fire, and other things that the township does not provide. A territory of not over one square mile, having a population of at least two hundred people, may be incorporated as a village. On a petition of the taxpayers they may vote on the proposition, whether or not they shall become an incorporated village, and have a government of their own distinct from that of the town. Even if they incorporate they still remain a part of the town, and take the same part in town government as before. There Are Four Classes of Villages: First class, those with a population of 5,000 or[Pg 25] over; second class, with a population between 3,000 and 5,000; third class, with a population of between 1,000 and 3,000; fourth class, with a population of less than 1,000. In many Western States a village of one or two thousand inhabitants usually becomes a city. In New York State there are villages of more than 15,000 population. The Village President, who serves one year, is the chief executive, and serves without pay. He is the head of the village board of trustees, and in small villages is the head of the police. Local order, peace, health, and sanitation depend on him. The Board of Trustees consists of from two to four men in villages of the third and fourth class; from two to six men in villages of the second class, and from two to eight men in villages of the first class, elected for two years, half of them elected each year. They serve without pay. They make ordinances for the government of the village and administer its affairs. They decide where sidewalks shall be built, whether streets shall be paved, how garbage shall be handled; they provide light and a water-supply; they provide for the raising of money by taxes; if a sewerage system is needed it must be done under the supervision of the State[Pg 26] Board of Health. Propositions relating to the large expenditure of funds must be submitted to the taxpayers. Questions of police, water-supply, fire protection, lights, sewers, are sometimes handled by the board of trustees, or if the village is large enough there may be separate boards or commissioners established for some of these things. A Fire Department, with fire house, hose and wagon, exists in most villages, voluntary in small places, and a paid force in the larger villages. The fire company is a popular department of public service, because of the social pleasure involved and because firemen are exempt from jury duty. A Treasurer, Assessors, a Collector, and a Village Clerk, are usually elected and sometimes a Street Commissioner. Not infrequently the latter office is considered a sinecure, and streets littered with waste paper and other refuse are common in the average village. The commissioner should be held up to his duty by all the voters. A Board of Health of from three to seven members must be appointed by the trustees to work in connection with the State Board of Health. This board elects a health officer, who must be a physician. The business of[Pg 27] the board is to watch over drains, cesspools, to prevent nuisances and contagion from disease. Health officers should be vigilant and morally courageous, otherwise the community will pay in illness. A Police Justice, elected for four years, handles cases involving violations of village ordinances. The board of trustees may appoint a village attorney to represent them in case of lawsuits. The Annual Village Election usually takes place the third Tuesday in March. A special village election, similar to a town meeting, may be called for taxpaying citizens to vote on special questions, such as the removal of garbage at public expense, or the purchase of water or lighting plants. A water-supply is usually furnished by a village of any size. An abundant supply is necessary, not only for homes, but for fire protection and for any sewerage system. New York villages and cities are very well lighted. Whether there should be public or private ownership of public utilities is a question which is much discussed. While the water-supply is usually owned by the municipality, the lighting system more often belongs to a private company. Sewage disposal is a matter which has to[Pg 28] be taken up sooner or later by a village as it grows in population. For too long our villages have polluted the convenient stream. They have been slow to study the question, and to dispose of sewage and garbage in a way that is both satisfactory and economical. Foreign cities often make a profit out of the disposal of their refuse, whereas it usually costs us money. These questions need more intelligent consideration than is usually given them. As a community grows larger it outgrows the simple form of village government and needs one more adapted to its complex and growing needs. The growth of cities in the past hundred years is phenomenal. In 1820, 83 per cent. of the people of the United States lived on farms; in 1910 only 32 per cent. The problems that a city government has to meet are many and difficult, especially in the cities of New York State, where a large proportion of the
people are foreign-born, and where there is often a large floating population without civic pride or interest. In smaller communities, where every one is known, the fear of public opinion acts as a restraining influence which is not felt in a city where the individual identity is often submerged. [Pg 29] A CITY GOVERNMENT works under a charter granted by the State, which limits its powers. These charters used to be made out separately for each city, and the legislature interfered with the management of the local affairs of a city in a way that caused a demand for “Home rule” for cities. This has been partially granted, and cities in New York State now have large power to provide public works and to control public education, health, safety, recreation, and charities, although they are still occasionally interfered with by the State legislature. The city is a direct agent of the State, and does not work as the village does, through the town and county. Three Classes of Cities: First-class cities have a population of 175,000 or over. Second-class cities have a population of 50,000 to 175,000; third-class cities are all those with a population of less than 50,000. The object of this division is to enable the State to legislate for the needs of groups of cities instead of individual ones. The mayor of a city may veto a measure passed by the legislature, but if approved by the legislature and signed by the governor, it may become law in spite of his veto. [Pg 30] The needs of government in a city are those of the village multiplied in size; they include police protection, care of the public health, a pure water-supply, inspection of food-supplies, supervision of weights and measures, adequate housing inspection, economic and satisfactory garbage and sewage disposal, fire protection, gas and electric lighting, good paving, clean streets, the care of dependents, maintenance of hospitals and libraries, good educational facilities, transportation, and many other activities. The general plan of government for cities is the same in all the classes. Cities of the first class are New York City, Buffalo, and Rochester (see Greater New York). Cities of the Second Class: The Mayor, who is elected for two years, is the chief executive officer. He has as important and responsible a position as any man at the head of a big corporation. The management of the city is in his hands. The health and welfare of its dwellers depend on him. While the city council legislates for the city, it is his business to see that laws and ordinances are enforced. He may veto an ordinance passed by the city council, although they may pass it over his veto by a two-thirds vote. The mayor has the power of appointing the[Pg 31] heads of most of the important departments of the city’s business. Sometimes the city council has to confirm an appointment, and an official can only be removed for good cause, and he must be given a hearing and an opportunity to answer charges. To elect to the position of mayor and to put the entire responsibility of all the complex problems of city government on a man of no training or fitness for the position, is to invite extravagance, incompetence, and corruption. For purposes of convenience in government a city is divided into subdivisions called wards, and for elections, into certain voting precincts called election districts. The Board of Aldermen or The Common Council consists of one alderman chosen from each ward and a president of the board. They are elected for two years, and are to the city about the same that the board of trustees are to the village. Their powers are limited by the city charter. In general, they may pass ordinances relating to streets, sewers, parks, public buildings, amusements, grant franchises, regulate traffic, levy taxes, and borrow money under certain restrictions for the use of the city. An alderman has power over many local interests in his district. It is an important position[Pg 32] which in the main has been disregarded; it should be filled by a man chosen for fitness as a local representative and not as a reward for party service. No man should be elected to this board whom you would not trust as the custodian of your own property or the guardian of your children, because in a public sense that is what he is. The Board of Estimate and Apportionment is one of the most important departments of city government. It has large control over the city’s finances, and determines its policies in all financial matters, franchises, privileges and permits, and makes the city budget. It consists of the mayor, comptroller, corporation counsel, president of the common council, and the city engineer. The Department of Contract and Supply lets contracts for material and work required by the city. With the constant growth of city departments and city business, in which supplies and materials of many kinds are needed, this is also an important committee. Other elected officers are comptroller, treasurer, president of the common council, and assessors. The department of finance is managed by the comptroller and the treasurer. The department of assessment and taxation,[Pg 33] which makes the assessment rolls, consists of four assessors, elected two at a time, for four years each. The department of law is presided over by a corporation counsel, appointed by the mayor. The mayor also appoints the city engineer and the heads of the following departments: The department of public works, which controls the water-supply, streets, sewers, buildings, and public markets; the department of public safety, which includes the bureaus of gas and electricity; departments of police, health, charities and correction, and the board of education. Cities of the third class are not uniform in their government, but the general outline is the same as for cities of the second class. City Elections are held in the odd-numbered years. State officials are elected in the even-numbered years. The purpose
of setting a different time for these elections is to keep city politics independent of State political machines. Party issues have little to do with the problems of a city. It is evident that the government of a large city is a very important and complicated business. There are several offices which demand as great executive ability as would be required of a[Pg 34] man at the head of a large business corporation. But city offices are usually given to men not for fitness, but because of party affiliation. Public sentiment is beginning to ask why high standards of competence and efficiency should not be as much demanded in public as in private business. The Budget: The heads of the various departments decide how much money will be required to run each department for the ensuing year. The Board of Estimate and Apportionment considers these requests and fixes the tax-rate necessary to raise the money needed (see Chapters IV and XI). Franchise Rights: A city has many sources of revenue of its own. Public utilities which furnish such necessities as transportation, water, gas, and electric light, earn enormous profits. In some places some of these things are owned by the city and the revenues go to the city. In others, the right to build and operate such a public business is given to a private corporation through a franchise. It is evident that these franchise rights are extremely valuable and should not be given away without adequate compensation to the city, as well as the insuring of good service. The rates that are charged, and the service rendered, are matters of vast importance to[Pg 35] the people of a city. Municipal ownership of such utilities has never been as extensive in this country as abroad, but the sentiment in favor of it is growing. Franchise rights used to be given for long terms, even in perpetuity, but public sentiment now demands that they be subject to revision at reasonable intervals. Most cities to-day own their own water-supply, and some of them have their own lighting plants. Commission Form of Government: So many officials are needed to manage the complex affairs of a city that even if well qualified men are put up for office, with so many candidates to be elected, it is impossible for the voters to know the merit of them all. City government has been the weakest spot in our political life. In an effort to meet its defects, a number of cities have adopted the policy of doing away entirely with the form of government as outlined, and electing on a non-partisan ticket several commissioners (sometimes headed by a mayor), each one of whom is put in charge of a division of the city’s administration, and made responsible for the work of this department. The fact is being recognized that skill and expert training are needed in public officials; that the power should be given to a few men,[Pg 36] and that they should be held responsible for the success of their work. Buffalo now has a commission form of government. The City Manager Plan gives the management of a city to one man, who is engaged by the city, and held responsible for the conduct of city affairs, in the same way that a large business enterprise would engage a manager. A city manager should be a man who has made a study and profession of city government. [Pg 37] IV GREATER NEW YORK The city of New York includes five counties: New York, Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond. In one hundred years, the population of New York City grew from 50,000 to 4,000,000 people. It now has a population of nearly 6,000,000, which is about one-half the population of the State, and it is the second city in size in the world. The government of the city is strictly prescribed by its charter; for any improvement that it desires outside of the provisions of that charter, the city must go for permission to the State Legislature. For convenience in government the city is divided into five boroughs: Manhattan, Bronx, Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond (Staten Island). The Mayor is the chief executive of the city. He is elected for four years and has a salary of $15,000. He has powers of appointment[Pg 38] and removal over a vast number of important positions, including the heads of the big city departments. Like the Governor of the State and the President of the United States, he initiates legislation by sending once a year a message to the Board of Aldermen containing a general statement of the government and financial condition of the city, and recommending such measures as he deems advisable. He may ask for special legislation at any time. All ordinances and by-laws passed by the Board of Aldermen go to the Mayor for approval. If he vetoes a measure, the Board of Aldermen may pass it over his veto by a two-thirds or three-fourths vote, with the exception of the granting of franchise rights, where his veto is absolute. The Comptroller is at the head of the financial affairs of the city. His term of office is four years, and salary $15,000. He may appoint three deputies at $7,500 each, an assistant deputy at $3,000, besides other heads of the various divisions of the finance department; but the minor positions are under the Civil Service. The President of the Board of Aldermen is elected for the same term as the Mayor, and receives a salary of $7,500. He takes[Pg 39] the Mayor’s place in case of absence or death. The Presidents of Manhattan, Bronx, and Brooklyn Boroughs receive $7,500 a year; of Queens and Richmond Boroughs, $5,000. They are elected for four years, and each president has general oversight over streets, bridges, sewers, and buildings in his borough. He may appoint a commissioner of public works, and a superintendent of buildings for his borough, and local school boards. In Queens and Richmond the borough presidents
have charge of street-cleaning. The Board of Aldermen is the legislative body of the city. It consists of seventy-three men elected from Aldermanic districts. They serve for a term of two years, and receive a salary of $2,000 each. This board makes the ordinances for the government of the city. It makes and enforces police, fire, building, health, and park regulations; it makes by-laws for the regulation of public markets, streets, public buildings, docks; for inspection of weights and measures; regulating places of amusement, height of buildings; licensing cabs, truckmen, and pawnbrokers, and regulations for the suppression of vice. A city clerk and a clerk of the board at a $7,000 salary each, are appointed by the board. [Pg 40] The Board of Estimate and Apportionment is the most important of the city boards. It frames the city budget, which has to be adopted by the Board of Aldermen. It also passes on bills granting franchise rights. It represents the whole city, and consists of the Mayor, Comptroller, President of the Board of Aldermen, each with three votes; Presidents of Manhattan and Brooklyn Boroughs, with two votes each; and Presidents of Bronx, Richmond, and Queens Boroughs, with one vote each. Among the important appointive positions of the city which are in the hands of the Mayor are the following: The Corporation Counsel, with a salary of $15,000 a year, is the head of the law department of the city, and is the city’s legal adviser. He has over fifty assistant counsels to appoint, with salaries ranging from $3,000 to $10,000 a year, and a host of deputy and junior assistants. The City Chamberlain receives and pays out all moneys for the city—salary $12,000. He may appoint a deputy at $5,000 a year. The abolishment of the office of Chamberlain as being unnecessary was recommended by a recent incumbent; but it is too large a plum to be lightly discarded. [Pg 41] The President of the Department of Taxes and Assessments receives $8,000 a year. Six other tax commissioners are appointed with salaries of $7,000 each, two of whom must be of the opposing party. The Commissioners of Accounts, of Correction, of Docks and Ferries, and of Health, the Fire Commissioner, Police Commissioner, Commissioner of Licenses, of Plants and Structures, of Public Charities, the Street-cleaning and Tenement House Commissioners, Commissioner of Water Supply, Gas and Electricity, and the chairman of the Parole Commission, all receive $7,500 a year; the Commissioner of Weights and Measures, $5,000 a year. There is a new Commissioner of Public Markets, and a Supervisor of the City Record, a city publication which must print all ordinances which involve the spending of city money, granting a franchise, or making a specific improvement, before they are passed by the Board of Aldermen. There are many other less important offices to be filled, and the Borough Presidents have still further appointments. The Board of Education has been reduced from forty-six to seven members, of whom two are now women. In addition there are[Pg 42] forty-six local school boards in the various school districts, each consisting of five members appointed by the Borough President and the District Superintendent of the local school district. These have now been divided among the seven members of the new School Board. The Board of Elections consists of four commissioners, two Republicans and two Democrats, appointed by the Board of Aldermen for two years, with a salary of $5,000 each. This board determines the election-district boundaries, chooses about 2,000 polling-places, and appoints about 17,000 election officials. Since 1915 the city has allowed school-houses and other public buildings to be used as polling-places, and at the last election nearly 1,000 districts were supplied in this way. Local Improvement Boards: The city is divided into twenty-five districts, in each of which there is a Local Improvement Board, consisting of the Borough President and the Aldermen of the Aldermanic districts included in the local improvement district. County Government Within the City: Each county included in the city of New York has a separate county government, independent of the city, with its sheriff, county[Pg 43] clerk, district attorney, and its county court in every county but New York. The office of Sheriff in New York County has been one of the highest paid offices in the State, because of its fees. These have amounted to from $80,000 to $100,000 or more a year, and the county and Sheriff have divided them. The county now receives all the fees, and the Sheriff a salary of $12,000 a year; but he cannot be re-elected, and the term of office has been increased from two to four years. Courts—Supreme Courts: The first judicial department, and the first judicial district of the State are formed by New York and Bronx Counties. Brooklyn, Queens, and Richmond form the second. The Special and Trial terms of the Supreme Court try both criminal and civil cases with and without a jury, as in other counties. County Courts are held in Kings, Queens, Bronx, and Richmond Counties, and each of them except Richmond has a Surrogate’s Court. New York County elects two Surrogates, for a term of fourteen years each, at a salary of $15,000 a year. In place of the County Court, New York County has a City Court, which tries civil suits and is a naturalization court, and a Court of General Sessions, which tries criminal cases. The Court of[Pg 44] Special Sessions, with a chief justice and fifteen assistant justices appointed by the Mayor, tries cases of misdemeanors, and offenders sent to them by the City Magistrates. One division of this court is the Children’s Court, with one presiding justice and five associate justices, with a court in each borough. These justices hold office for a term of ten years. Magistrates’ Courts are held by a large number of magistrates, appointed by the Mayor, and a chief magistrate who has general supervision of them. Municipal Courts are held in various parts of the city to
try small civil suits. There are forty-five Municipal Court districts, in each of which there is a judge elected by the people of the district for a term of ten years. There are separate Night Courts for both men and women, a Domestic Relations Court, which deals with cases of non-support of wives and children, and poor relations, and a Traffic Court, which deals solely with violations of the traffic laws. To even mention the various institutions in the city of New York which are engaged in improving the health and social welfare of the people would take many pages. There[Pg 45] is great need among them of a more clean-cut division of activities, and less overlapping of authority. The Commissioner of Public Charities, appointed by the Mayor, is responsible for the care of the city’s dependents. In 1915, 350,362 free lodgings were given to dispossessed families and needy men and women. There are 329 institutions receiving money from the city for the care of dependent children, and 22,753 children were in their charge on January 1, 1916. The care which these children have received has been severely criticized. The conflicting authority of the State Board of Charities and the City Board of Inspection of Charitable Institutions, is said to be responsible for this. In the future, the city is to conduct its own inspections. Widows’ pensions are administered for all of Greater New York by one Child Welfare Board of nine members appointed by the Mayor, of whom two must be women. They serve for a term of eight years without salary. The Tenement House Department looks after the 103,882 tenement buildings of the city, and has a force of 193 inspectors, of whom eight are women. There are still about 9,000 dark rooms in the old tenements, built before the law was passed requiring a certain[Pg 46] amount of light and air, which have not been made over to meet the new requirements. The Street-cleaning Department employs regularly about 5,400 men at salaries ranging from $720 to $860 a year. The Board of Inebriety was organized to take charge of persons who are chronic addicts to alcohol or drugs, to treat them as victims of disease, and send them to a farm where treatment looking toward a cure is combined with farm work, truck gardening, etc. The great needs of this work cannot be met until further accommodations are made for patients. The Municipal Civil Service Commission, consisting of three members appointed by the Mayor, maintains a regular staff of examiners of applicants for city positions. The regular payroll of the city includes nearly 85,000 persons, of whom about 30,000 are not under the jurisdiction of the Civil Service. There are also about 20,000 others who are employed part of the time. There is a free public employment bureau which is growing steadily and is placing over two thousand applicants a month, and a Commissioner of Weights and Measures. The management of each one of the large departments of city government requires[Pg 47] special and technical training. A corporation manager would search the country for the best man to be found for each particular department. School-teachers and school superintendents are chosen because of their training and experience. Minor city employees are appointed from Civil Service lists; but the custom of American cities is to appoint men at the heads of city departments who have distinguished themselves for party service. The Budget for Greater New York is made up, beginning in June, and being adopted November 1st. Estimates of the needs of each department for the coming year are submitted to the Board of Estimate and Apportionment, and are studied by sub-committees who conduct public hearings, when the representatives of each department and the official examiners report on their estimates and each item may be examined and discussed. A tentative budget is printed for public use and the last week in October public hearings are held. By November 1st the budget must be adopted by the Board of Estimate and Apportionment and sent to the Board of Aldermen for their approval. [Pg 48] “Pay as you go” was a financial policy adopted in 1914 to relieve the tremendous piling up of future indebtedness of the city for permanent improvements of the non-revenue producing class. During the years 1914-1918 an annually increasing proportion of the cost of these improvements was to be included in the tax budget, and by 1918 the entire cost was to be met by taxation, and thereafter no bonds were to be issued for this class of improvement. Every dollar borrowed at 4½ per cent. interest on a fifty-year bond costs $1.69 in interest charges. While taxes are higher for a time under the pay-as-you-go plan, the actual cost of improvements to the city is much less. The Mayor of New York City is the head of a corporation whose budget of expenditure, in 1916, was $212,000,000. Before the war the general expenses of the United States Steel Corporation were about $34,000,000 a year. The salary of the president of the Steel Corporation, or of any one of the largest business corporations of the country, would be from $50,000 to $100,000 a year. The Mayor of New York City receives $15,000 a year. But a business corporation would insist on having for president a man whose training and business experience had made[Pg 49] him peculiarly fitted for the job, while our practice in choosing a man for mayor is to give little consideration to special training and experience in the work of city administration. [Pg 50] V STATE GOVERNMENT The State has such large powers over its people, and over all political divisions within it, that it is often called the “Sovereign State.” The State regulates the ownership and transfer of property; it punishes murder and other crimes; it regulates business relations; it prescribes the form of marriage and the reasons for divorce; it authorizes the levying of taxes; it makes its own election laws and
provides for education; until recently it has controlled railroads operating within its borders. The State Constitution, adopted by a majority of the voters of the State, is the fundamental law of the State. It can only be changed by a constitutional convention or by the adoption of a constitutional amendment, which is done with considerable difficulty. A constitutional convention is an assemblage[Pg 51] of men chosen by the voters to revise the constitution. The result of their deliberation is then submitted to the voters, who can accept or reject it. The last revision took place in 1915 and was overwhelmingly defeated at the polls. The law now provides for a revision every twenty years if the voters desire it. An amendment to the constitution can be proposed in the Legislature. It has to pass both houses of the Legislature during two different but successive sessions (a new session of the Legislature comes only every other year, when a new Senate is elected), and must then be submitted to the voters of the State for their approval. A majority vote makes it a law. The Legislature has authority under the State constitution to make laws for the State. It meets every year on the first Wednesday in January at the Capitol in Albany, and remains in session until its business is completed, usually about April 1st. It is composed of two divisions or “houses,” the Assembly and the Senate. Every ten years, in a year ending with the figure five, a census is taken of the people of the State, and on this basis there is a new apportionment of Senators and Assemblymen. [Pg 52] The Senate at present is composed of fifty-two members, elected from certain divisions of the State known as Senatorial Districts. In general, each fiftieth of the population of the State is entitled to one Senator. (This rule is not followed mathematically, for a county may not be divided except to form two or more districts within it; no one county may have more than one-third of all the Senators, and no two counties may have more than one-half of the total number. This is intended as a check to a congested district having an undue representation.) If a county which already has three or more Senators shows a sufficient increase in population to entitle it to another one, the additional Senator adds one more to the fifty Senators already provided for. The Assembly is composed of one hundred and fifty members, and, roughly speaking, every one hundred and fiftieth part of the population of the State is entitled to one Assemblyman. In practice the rural county of small or medium size which does not contain a large city is one Assembly District. Chautauqua, Dutchess, Schenectady, Niagara, Orange, Rensselaer, St. Lawrence, Steuben, Richmond, Suffolk, and Broome have[Pg 53] each two Assembly Districts. Albany, Oneida, and Onondaga have three each; Queens has six; Westchester and Monroe, five; Bronx and Erie, eight; Kings and New York, twenty-three each; Hamilton and Fulton counties have only one between them. Nassau County has recently been divided into two Assembly Districts. This division is made by the County Board of Supervisors. The presiding officer of the Senate is the Lieutenant Governor. The presiding officer of the Assembly is elected by its members, and is called the Speaker. He appoints the standing committees, and has much control over legislation. He usually belongs to the political party which is in the majority in the Assembly. This party also elects a majority leader to control legislation on the floor. The choice of the other party is called the leader of the minority, and he is recognized as the leader of this party in the Legislature. The Senate also has majority and minority leaders. Assemblymen are elected for one year, and Senators for two years. Both receive $1,500 salary and an allowance of ten cents a mile traveling expenses once during the session. [Pg 54] How to Get a Law Passed by the Legislature: A bill may be introduced by any member, beginning, “The People of the State of New York, represented in Senate and Assembly, do enact,” etc. It may be introduced into either the Senate or the Assembly, or it can be introduced in both houses simultaneously. It has a first reading and is referred to a committee. The committee may pigeonhole it and never report, or it may report it too late in the session for action by the Legislature, or it may report it favorably, or with a recommendation that it be rejected. If it is reported favorably it is put on the calendar to await its turn for consideration. It then comes up for a second reading, when it may be amended and sent back to the committee; after a third reading a vote is taken. If it is passed in one house it then goes to the other house, where it goes through the same procedure. If it is passed by the second house, it then goes to the Governor for his signature. If it is a bill concerning the government of a city it goes to the mayor of the city for his approval. If either house changes the bill it has to go back to the first house for action in its amended form. The Governor has the power[Pg 55] to veto a bill, but it can be repassed over his veto by a two-thirds vote. The Governor is the chief executive officer of the State. It is his business to enforce the laws, through his appointive officers. He has control of the military forces of the State, which must consist of not less than twenty thousand men, of whom two thousand must be a naval militia. He has the power to grant pardons. He is elected for two years, and receives a salary of $10,000 and the use of the Executive Mansion. He may also initiate legislation. At every regular session of the Legislature his duty is to
send a “message,” telling the Legislature about the condition of public affairs and recommending measures for their consideration. He may also, at any time, ask for special legislation, and may call the Legislature together in an extra session. He has the power of many important appointments to State positions, but subject to the approval of the Senate. The Lieutenant Governor, with a salary of $5,000 a year, takes the Governor’s place in case of need. He presides over the Senate. The Secretary of State has charge of all public documents and records. He grants certificates of incorporation, and has charge[Pg 56] of elections and the taking of the census. His salary is $6,000 a year. The Comptroller must sign every warrant for payment of State funds. He acts as auditor for the State, reports to the Legislature concerning State funds, and superintends the collection of State taxes. He designates the banks in which State money shall be deposited. His salary is $8,000 a year. The State Treasurer is the custodian of State funds, and pays them out only on order of the Comptroller. His salary is $6,000 a year. The Attorney-General is the general legal adviser of the State. He prosecutes and defends all actions in which the State is interested. His salary is $10,000. The State Engineer and Surveyor must be a practical engineer. He has charge of the canals, and the surveying and mapping of all the public lands of the State. Appointive Offices: Among these are two Public Service Commissions, each with five members. The first has jurisdiction over Greater New York, and the second over the rest of the State. In general, they have power to regulate railroads and street-cars, to establish rates, and to compel adequate service. They also control express companies, gas and[Pg 57] electrical companies, telephone and telegraph lines. No company can raise its rates without their consent. Their business is to see that the needs of the public are adequately served, and also to protect the companies from unjust treatment. These commissions are considered so important that the salary of each commissioner was made $15,000 a year. The State Tax Commissioners have general supervision of the methods of raising taxes throughout the State. There are three of them appointed for three years, and they must visit every county in the State at least once in two years. Their salary is $6,000 a year each. The State Board of Equalization, which consists of the tax commissioners and commissioners of the land office, has to equalize the assessments in each county, and fix the amount on which the State tax is to be levied. The Superintendent of Banks controls the banks, trust companies, building and loan associations, which make reports to him quarterly, from which he in turn makes a report to the Legislature annually. His salary is $10,000, and his term three years. The Superintendent of Insurance has control[Pg 58] over all the insurance companies and reports annually to the Legislature. His salary is $10,000, and term three years. The Commissioner of Health must be a physician. He has general oversight of the health of the State, and supervises the registration of births, marriages, and deaths in the towns and cities. His salary is $8,000, and he has a four-year term. The Commissioner of Excise issues tax certificates for the sale of liquor and collects the excise tax, of which the State gets one-half, and the city or town in which the liquor is sold gets one-half. His salary is $7,000, term five years. The Commissioner of Agriculture appoints the directors of farmers’ institutes, watches over the sale of food products that might be injurious to health, and has general care of the agricultural needs of the State. His salary is $8,000, term three years. The Commissioner of Highways, who is in charge of State roads and improvements, serves for two years with a salary of $12,000 a year. The Department of Labor, which is a very important branch of the State government, works to improve the conditions of labor. There are five commissioners who serve six[Pg 59] years, each with a salary of $8,000. In this department are several bureaus: viz., Inspection, Employment, Workmen’s Compensation, Mediation and Arbitration, Statistics and Information, Industries, and Immigration. The Conservation Commissioner controls departments for preserving and propagating fish and game, for protecting lands and forests, and the control of inland waters. He appoints a head for each division. (Forests owned by the State must be kept wild. They may not be loaned, sold, or exchanged, and no wood may be cut.) He serves six years, with a salary of $8,000 a year. The Civil Service Commission consists of three commissioners who have the duty of determining the rules with which to test the fitness of applicants for employment under the civil service laws. The civil service is intended to prevent the appointment of men to government positions through partisan politics or personal “pull.” Positions are classified, competitive examinations are held, and appointments made in order of merit. The custom has usually been to have separate lists made out of men and women, and it has been complained that preference has been given to the men’s lists. [Pg 60] There is a Superintendent of Public Works, with a salary of $8,000; a Superintendent of Prisons, salary of $6,000, and a State Commission of Prisons of seven members who get $10 a day each for each day of service; a State Board of Charities; a State Hospital Commission in Lunacy of three members, the president of which is paid $7,000, and other members $5,000. There is also a State Food Commission of three members who serve without pay, appointed only for the period of the war, and a recently created Farms and Markets Council. While most of the heads of the administrative departments of the State government are appointed by the Governor, the terms of office of many of them are longer than the term of the Governor
who appoints them. As a consequence, a Governor may be in office, and important departments like the Excise Commission, the Public Health and Public Service, and Industrial Commissions, may be in the hands of appointees of a preceding Governor. They can be removed from office only by preferring charges and after a hearing. Also certain other important State officials, including the Comptroller and the Secretary of State, are elected by the people, and may differ radically from[Pg 61] the Governor on questions of public policy. They may even belong to a different political party. It is by some considered a weakness in the management of the affairs of the State, that the conduct of some of the most important departments of an administration may be out of the control of the Governor who is responsible for them. The business of the State requires about 17,500 regular employees, and the payroll is about $22,250,000. It is probable that some of these public officials in the service of the State might be dispensed with if they were required to work as many hours a day and as many days a year as they would be obliged to do in any private business. [Pg 62] VI NATIONAL GOVERNMENT The sovereign power of the United States is vested in the National government, the federal union of all the States, each self-governing, but all uniting for certain purposes. The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the land. The National government, like that of the State and municipality, has three distinct divisions: the legislative, the executive, and the judicial. The legislative power rests with Congress, which is composed of the House of Representatives and the Senate. The House of Representatives is elected every two years by the voters of the States. After the census, which is taken every ten years, Congress determines what the total number of Representatives shall be. These are then apportioned among the States according to population. After the census of 1910 the House of Representatives was increased[Pg 63] to 435 members, which gave one member for every 211,877 inhabitants. New York has 43 Representatives, the largest number from any State in the Union. Every State is entitled to at least one Representative, although it may not have the requisite population. The Congressional District from which a member is elected is determined by the State Legislature. Greater New York has 23 Congressmen. Qualifications for Representatives to Congress: A man must be twenty-five years old and have been a citizen of the United States for at least seven years, and be a resident of the State from which he is chosen. The salary is $7,500 a year, with an allowance for a clerk, for stationery, and for traveling expenses. The Senate is composed of ninety-six members, two members from every State in the Union, elected for a term of six years. In order that there shall always be experienced men in the Senate, only one-third of that body is elected at a time. The Senate is divided into three classes, and the men belonging to one of the three classes are elected every two years. A Senator may be re-elected as many times as a State chooses, and many Senators have[Pg 64] served twenty years or more. This makes the Upper House of Congress a very conservative, stable body of men. Senators, as well as Representatives, receive a salary of $7,500 a year. The Vice-President of the United States is the presiding officer of the Senate. The election of Senators was formerly a prerogative of the State Legislature. The Seventeenth Amendment to the National Constitution, passed in 1913, provides that they shall be elected by direct voice of the voters of the States. Qualifications of Senators: A candidate for the Senate must be thirty years old and have been a citizen for at least nine years. Sessions of Congress: A new Congress comes into existence on the fourth day of March every odd year, although it does not meet in regular session until the following winter. The long session begins the first Monday in December in the odd-numbered year, and usually lasts until spring or summer. The short session begins the same time in the even-numbered year and lasts until the following March 4th, when the new Congress, elected the previous November, comes into existence, although it does not meet until the following December, unless the President calls an extraordinary session. A Congressman,[Pg 65] therefore, is elected more than a year before he takes his seat. The Sixty-fifth Congress will end March 4, 1919. The members of the Lower House of the Sixty-sixth Congress will be elected in November, 1918. Congressional Committees: The work of Congress is largely done through committees. The House of Representatives, as constituted to-day, is an unwieldy body. It is obvious that four hundred and thirty-five men is too large a number to work effectively as a whole. Every bill, even a recommendation from the President, is referred to an appropriate committee. It is only because of these many committees that it is possible to transact the very large amount of business that comes before Congress every year. How a Bill Is Passed: The procedure in Congress is similar to that in the State Legislature. A bill may be introduced by any member in either house, and must pass through both houses. Powers of Congress: Congress has absolute power to levy and collect taxes. Revenue bills must originate in the House of Representatives. Congress has the exclusive power to declare war, to raise and support an army and navy, and to regulate commerce. It controls naturalization laws and immigration;[Pg 66] it establishes post-offices; grants patents and copyrights. It has the power to coin and to borrow money. It also governs the District of Columbia and the Territories. An Amendment to the Constitution of the United States must be passed by a majority of two-thirds of the votes cast in both houses of Congress. It is then
submitted to the States for ratification by the State Legislatures. When the Legislatures of three-fourths of the forty-eight States have ratified such an amendment by a majority vote of their members it becomes law. The Executive: The President of the United States has greater powers than have the heads of many other nations. He is the Commander-in-chief of the Army and Navy; he conducts official business with foreign nations and makes treaties with them, subject to the approval of the Senate; he appoints, with the consent of the Senate, ambassadors, ministers, high officials of Army and Navy, justices of the Supreme Court, and a vast number of other officers. He may veto measures passed by Congress, but they can be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote. The President has power to initiate legislation by sending a message to Congress,[Pg 67] giving them information about important affairs and recommending legislative measures for their consideration. The degree to which he can force legislation through Congress depends both on the strength of the party in Congress to which he belongs, and on the personal power and prestige of the President himself. President Wilson is the first President, for more than a century, to appear in person before a joint session of Congress and read his message. Election of the President: The President is chosen by presidential electors, elected by the voters of the various States, the number of electors for each State being the same as the total number of Representatives and Senators in Congress from that State. The electors of a State meet at the State Capitol on the second Monday of January following the election, to cast their votes for President. The electors are merely machines to register the vote of the State, and usually the entire electoral vote of a State goes to one candidate, although the majority of the popular vote for him may have been small. This system makes the presidential election virtually an election by States. A State “goes” Republican or Democratic. The struggle is concentrated in a few doubtful States. To[Pg 68] win or lose them may mean to win or lose the election. It has happened that one candidate has actually received a larger popular vote than his opponent, and yet has not been elected, because the number of votes in the electoral college from the States that gave him a majority was smaller than the number of electoral votes from the other States. There is a movement toward the abolition of the electoral college and direct nomination and direct election of the President by the voters. The Vice-President must be eligible to the office of President. He is elected for the same term, and his salary is $12,000 a year. His only duty is to preside over the Senate and to succeed the President in case of need. The Cabinet consists of ten officials appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate to conduct for him certain departments of public business. The salary of a Cabinet member is $12,000. Cabinet members have no vote in either House of Congress, and are not responsible to it in any way. Like the President himself, they may belong to the party which is in the minority in Congress. The Cabinet is an advisory body to the President, but its members have no legal standing in that way,[Pg 69] and he may ignore them if he chooses. Each Cabinet officer is the administrative head of his department. The Secretary of State heads the Department of State, and is responsible for all official negotiations and relations with foreign governments. He is the medium of communication between the President and the Governors of the States. The Secretary of the Treasury manages national finances, administers revenue, currency, and national banking laws. The Secretary of War has charge of all matters of national defense, river and harbor improvements, and is responsible for the maintenance of the Army. The Attorney-General is the legal adviser of the President and the National government. The Postmaster-General conducts the affairs of the United States Post-Office Department and the transportation of the mail. The Secretary of the Navy has charge of the Navy and its equipment, yards, and docks. The Secretary of the Interior and his department have charge of public lands and Indian affairs. He has the granting of pensions and patents. [Pg 70] The Secretary of Agriculture has for his business the improvement of agriculture in the United States. He also has charge of the Weather Bureau, animal and plant industry, and the forest service. The Secretary of Commerce must aid and develop the commercial interests of the country, including mining and transportation. He takes the census every ten years. The Secretary of Labor and the Department of Labor are designed to protect the welfare of the wage earners. To this department belong the Bureau of Immigration and the Children’s Bureau. The tendency of the past few years has been to enlarge the powers of the National government. With the rapid increase of means of transportation distant parts of the country have been brought close together. Sectionalism is diminishing. To “States’ rights” is being added a national pride. In the administration of the business of the nation, State boundaries can often no longer be considered without a distinct loss of economy and efficiency. To give one example: the State control of railroads resulted in obstructive and entirely different requirements being made by neighboring States, on the same railroad passing through several of[Pg 71] them. The power of separate States to control, independent of each other, such things as marriage and divorce laws, has resulted in the deplorable situation that a couple may be legally married in one State and the marriage may not be recognized in another. It is evident that with the growth in influence and importance of the United States, the National government is gradually assuming many functions which formerly were left to the separate States. [Pg 72] VII WHO
CAN VOTE There is one way in which the government of a republic like the United States differs from other forms of government—viz., in a republic the source of all power rests with the people. They choose the men to whom they give the right to speak for them and to represent them. The right to vote for the man who is to represent you, who is to make the law for you and to enforce that law, is the most sacred right of a free country. The success or failure of government in the United States, and in every political division of the State, rests with the men and women who have the power of the vote. One of the great dangers of a democracy is the carelessness and indifference of the voter. If a government “by the people” is to be a success, the people themselves must[Pg 73] see to it that honest, responsible, and efficient officials are chosen. Every Person in the State Is Either a Citizen or an Alien. Citizenship Is Conferred by the National Government and the State Has No Power to Confer or Withhold It. A Citizen is defined in the Constitution of the United States: “All persons born or naturalized in the United States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State in which they reside.” Native-born Indians who have had land allotted them and have given up their tribal life are citizens. All persons born out of the country of citizen parents are also citizens, except where the father has never resided in the United States. Naturalization: Congress makes uniform laws of naturalization for all the States. An Alien is a person born in a foreign country who lives here but is still a subject of some other country. An Alien May Become a Citizen of the United States, and thus of New York State, after he has lived in the country five years continuously, and in the State one year. He must be able to write his own language, to read and speak English, and be of moral character. His first step is to go to a Federal[Pg 74] court, or a court of record, and swear that it is his intention to become a citizen and renounce his allegiance to any foreign power. He is then given his “first papers.” Not less than two years, or more than seven years later, he must appear again with two witnesses to swear to his good character and loyalty, and file a petition. After ninety days his application is heard by the court and he is examined by the judge and renews his oath of allegiance. If the judge is satisfied he is given his certificate of naturalization which makes him a citizen. Fees amounting to five dollars are now charged. Only White Persons and Negroes May Become Naturalized: Chinese, Japanese and East Indians cannot become citizens unless born in the United States. Polygamists are excluded. An Unmarried Woman can take out papers of naturalization and become a citizen in the same way as does a man. A Married Woman is only a citizen if her husband is a citizen. Under the present law, she cannot become naturalized by herself. Also, under a strict interpretation of the law, she has the residence of her husband and must vote from the same place. A Woman Born in the United States who[Pg 75] marries an alien, although she may never leave her own country, ceases to be an American citizen and becomes a subject of the country to which her husband belongs. Therefore, the wife of a man not a citizen of the United States cannot vote in this country.[2] If a resident of the United States, she resumes her citizenship at the death of her husband, or if she is divorced. A foreign-born woman who marries a citizen becomes a citizen. Children under age become citizens with their parents. An American-born man may live abroad many years and not lose his citizenship. A naturalized citizen is considered as losing his citizenship if he returns to his native country and resides there two years. A citizen has the right to withdraw from the United States, renounce his allegiance, and acquire citizenship in another country. An alien enjoys the same protection of the law as does the citizen. The government extends its protection to the native-born and the naturalized citizen alike. A naturalized[Pg 76] citizen is protected while abroad, even in his native country, by our government in exactly the same degree as a native-born citizen would be. A naturalized citizen may fill any office in the land with the exception of that of President. A Citizen Is Not Always a Voter: Women were citizens of New York State before they were given the right to vote, if (1) they were born in the United States, (2) were married to citizens, or (3) if, unmarried, they had taken out their own naturalization papers. The State Confers the Right to Vote and Fixes the Qualifications for Voters. Who May Vote: “Every citizen of the age of twenty-one years who shall have been a citizen for ninety days, an inhabitant of the State for one year, and a resident of the county for four months, and a resident of the election district for thirty days, has a right to vote” (Act II, Sec. I, Constitution of New York State). Foreign-born women whose husbands are citizens must live in the country five years before they can vote. In time of war soldiers and sailors may vote wherever they are, and their ballots are counted in their home districts. It is reasonable that a certain length of residence should be required before a person[Pg 77] is permitted to vote, in order that he may have a chance to become familiar with the interests of a community, and acquainted with the qualifications of the candidates. Who May Not Vote: A naturalized citizen who
has not been naturalized for at least ninety days before election; a person whose name and address is not registered with election officials at least ten days before an election; a person convicted of bribery or an infamous crime; a deserter from the Army or Navy. A person who bets on an election is disqualified for voting at that election. The Governor may restore citizenship to a person who has lost it. The State Cannot Interfere with the Rights of Citizens: While the State prescribes the qualifications for suffrage for its own citizens, by the Fourteenth and Fifteenth Amendments to the National Constitution, the Federal government prohibits any State from abridging the privileges and immunities of citizens of the United States, and declares that the State in making the qualifications for the suffrage cannot discriminate because of color or race. The Fourteenth Amendment further provides that when the right to vote is denied to any of the male citizens of a State, its[Pg 78] basis of representation shall be reduced in proportion. Several of the Southern States have restricted the suffrage by educational and property qualifications, but have excluded from these qualifications those who were voters in 1867 (before the negroes were enfranchised) and their descendants. This discrimination of the so-called “grandfather” clause was held unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1915, but the reduction in representation has never been enforced. Massachusetts has an educational qualification and Pennsylvania a tax qualification, which also exclude many male citizens; but the Fourteenth Amendment has never been seriously enforced in either case. The National Amendment for Woman Suffrage: An amendment to the Federal Constitution is pending which provides that the right to vote shall not be denied on account of sex. While New York State has given the vote to its women, this permission does not extend beyond its borders. New York women lose their vote if they go to Pennsylvania, New Jersey, or any adjoining State. Twelve States have given women full suffrage, and[Pg 79] nineteen States have given them the right to vote for President. The Woman Suffrage Amendment, when passed by Congress and ratified by three-fourths of all the States, will secure the right to vote to all the women of the United States. [Pg 80] FOOTNOTES: [2] A bill is now before Congress to change this law and make it possible for a married woman to choose her country for herself, as a man does, and to require that she be obliged to go through the same process of naturalization that a man does, including the oath of allegiance. It is only through a Federal law that this change can be made. VIII POLITICAL PARTIES A political party is a group of voters organized for the purpose of putting certain policies into effect, to elect certain men to office, and to control the machinery of government. Under a popular government, where public officials are chosen by the people and political policies are formulated by them, political parties have seemed the most expedient device as yet discovered to accomplish these ends. The political party was not originally a part of the government; but as the country developed and government needs and opportunities multiplied, party machinery grew more complex, and its powers increased to such a dangerous degree that for the sake of its own integrity, the State was forced to regulate it. Party conventions, primaries, and much of the party machinery are now controlled by law. [Pg 81] Two Parties: The United States has always had two principal parties. They have had different names, and under the same name they have advocated different principles. The first parties were the Federalists, who believed in a strong central government that should exercise all the powers that the Constitution could be interpreted to permit, and the Anti-Federalists, who believed in limiting the functions of the Federal government and reserving as much power as possible to the States. The Republican and Democratic Parties: It is difficult to define the difference between the present principal parties. The Republican party is the successor of the Federalists. It was formed shortly before the Civil War to prevent the extension of slavery. In general it has believed in a liberal interpretation of the Federal Constitution, and has wished to see the powers of the National government extended. The Democratic party has advocated “States’ rights,” the right of the individual States to settle their own affairs. It has held to a strict interpretation of the Constitution, and has believed in limiting the power of the National government. Besides the doctrine of States’ rights, the principal difference between the Republican and Democratic parties[Pg 82] has been the tariff. The Republican party has advocated a high tariff, and the Democratic party a tariff “for revenue only.” While these have been the two issues most discussed between the two parties, even on these questions the lines have often been confused. Democratic members of Congress have advocated measures which distinctly contradicted the principles of States’ rights, and the Republican party as often has adopted them for its own purposes. The Democratic party has not always stood on its low-tariff platform, and Republicans have often been against protection. Even before the present war old party lines had begun to fade. With the dangers threatening the country, which war has brought, these lines have been almost obliterated. What they will be when the war is over no one can predict with certainty. The Republican party came into power in 1860, when it elected Abraham Lincoln President, and until 1913 it controlled the National government, except for two terms of four years each when Grover Cleveland was President. In general the Southern States are Democratic, preserving a “solid South.” The Northern States are apt to be Republican. [Pg 83] The Progressive Party was organized in 1912 as the result of a split in the Republican ranks, by men who wanted more progressive measures than those advocated by either the Republican or Democratic
party. It advocated public ownership of mines, forests, and water power; a larger measure of justice for the working-classes and suffrage for women. It has disintegrated, but it had a large effect in liberalizing both the older parties, and many of its policies have been adopted by them. The Prohibition Party was organized in 1872 to bring about complete prohibition of alcoholic drinks. It has elected candidates to the Legislature and has secured an ever larger measure of local option and even State-wide prohibition. The Socialist Party, organized in 1900, advocates government ownership of land, railroads, telegraph and telephones, mines, and all vital industries. It has become largely the party of the industrial workers. Minor parties have come and gone, but they have usually left a lasting effect on the dominant parties. In New York State, any organization is considered “a party” which polled at least 10,000 votes for Governor at the last election. [Pg 84] Party Organization: The individual voter, or group of voters, is helpless to change conditions or to elect a man. It is only through the organization of many men who want the same thing that they become effective. Political parties are organized for National, State, and local campaigns. The great work of the political parties is the nomination and election of a President every four years. For this purpose there must be a national party organization. The National Committee of each party is composed of one member from each State. It organizes the National Convention of the party, which is held early in the summer before the presidential election, and at which party policies are formulated, and candidates for President and Vice-President are nominated. In the spring the chairman of the National Committee calls a meeting of this committee to decide where and when the convention shall meet. Besides nominating candidates for President and Vice-President, the convention adopts a “platform” in which is set forth the principles which the party holds and its attitude on important public questions. A new National Committee is appointed to[Pg 85] carry on the campaign and to act until the next convention. The platform adopted by the party at its National convention is an expression of the principles for which the party stands. A “plank” may be put in simply to catch votes; on some question the plank may not be explicit, but may “straddle” the issue. While in the main the National platform sets forth the principles to which the party is committed and its proposals for future action, the speech or letter of acceptance of the candidate for the presidency usually contains a more reliable statement of the policies which he would advocate if elected. The State Committee is the party organization in control of the party in the State. It is composed of one man from each of the one hundred and fifty Assembly Districts in the State, who are elected by the enrolled members of the party in each district. The chairman is elected by the committee to serve for two years. Party members are all those who at the last registration, or last general election, enrolled in the party. State platforms count for little. They usually “point with pride” to things the party has done, and denounce the acts of the[Pg 86] opposing party. Most voters pay little attention to them. The County Committee consists of one man from every election district in the county; the City Committee, one from each ward or election district in the city. (New York County has its own organization, different from the others.) The chairman of each of these committees is elected at the party primaries. He is usually an experienced politician, and each committee is the party authority locally. The Election District: The election district captain, or county committeeman, is the man who comes in direct personal touch with the voter. His business is to deliver the vote of his election district to his party. He must know every voter in his district, find out how each one is going to vote, and keep track of new voters, especially the first voter who has yet to choose his party. He is an inspector at elections; he selects poll clerks and watchers, and handles the money sent by his party to his district. The Assembly District leader or County Chairman distributes the patronage and the election district captain may recommend men to him. The more offices that can be filled, and the greater the number of “the faithful” who[Pg 87] can be provided for, the stronger the party at the next election. The one quality necessary for the election district captain is complete loyalty to his chairman and party. If ordinary party members pay no attention to the organization locally it is bound to fall into the hands of those who make their living out of politics. Party Funds are contributed by members of the party, subscriptions from interested men, from party candidates and interests which expect to be benefited if a certain party comes into power. It is a crime to levy on the salary of any public official for campaign expenses, but such contributions are often still expected. If a party elects its candidate, he has many officials to appoint, and these offices are often unfortunately regarded as rewards for party loyalty and work. The civil service was created to take offices away from party control and prevent the “spoils system.” The Use and Abuse of Party: The political party has a very definite place in popular government. In the conduct of a campaign organization is indispensable. The danger lies in the difficulty of sufficiently safeguarding the interests of the public from the spoilsmen of either party. It is through the party[Pg 88] that citizens must work for political measures, but it is also through the party machine that anti-social forces are able to successfully carry out their plans. There is tremendous power for a party in its control of the government of a city or a
State. A multitude of offices have to be filled, franchises to be granted, valuable contracts let, and there are a thousand opportunities for public plunder and private enrichment. The party in power nationally, has untold possibilities in the control of the fabulous resources of the country. In order that a party may come into power in the National government, it is necessary for it to be in control in the State, and to control the State it tries to hold minor political divisions. To gain control locally it partitions out the offices where they will do the most good; it gains support from every quarter through any means; it seeks to have men in positions of authority who can be so controlled that they will subordinate everything to the party welfare. The average voter not infrequently supports his party at all elections, without regard for the merits of the candidates. He is often a Republican or a Democrat, without any clear idea of the different principles of[Pg 89] the two parties. Or he may have become a Republican or a Democrat because he agreed with the party in regard to some National question. So he follows it blindly in State and city elections, which have nothing to do with National questions. It is seldom that important issues of party principles are involved in a local election; but the tradition of party support is strong and the temptation to hold party allegiance even at the expense of the public is almost irresistible. The Independent Voter: Undoubtedly the number of independent voters is growing. Whenever for any reason a group of non-partisan voters abstain from party allegiance, are alert to the sincerity of party promises, and are watchful of the qualifications of candidates, both parties begin to clean house and put up as candidates the best men available, in order to bid for the independent vote. Such a body of non-partisan voters may be the decisive factor in an election, especially if the two parties are about evenly divided. The independent voter is not popular with the machine politician. The larger the number of non-partisan voters the more difficult it is for him to perform his duties, and to control and deliver the vote. [Pg 90] In city and village elections, party issues have no place, and there is a growing feeling that qualification for office should be the only consideration. It all comes back to the voting citizen. Politics and political parties are what the people make them. [Pg 91] IX HOW CANDIDATES ARE NOMINATED While any man’s name can be put in nomination for any office, he has little chance of being elected in most elections without being the candidate of a political party. For a long time parties were allowed to nominate candidates as they chose, and party bosses dictated nominations without regard for the wishes of the rest of the party or for the interests of the public. For some time past the State has regulated the methods of nominations. Candidates for all offices are nominated in one of three ways: (1) At a party convention; (2) by direct primaries; (3) by petition. Candidates for President and Vice-President are nominated at National conventions, which are the most spectacular events of our political life. Delegates to the National convention are elected at special party[Pg 92] primaries held the first Tuesday in April of the presidential year. Every State is allowed double as many delegates as it has Senators and Representatives in Congress. The four men corresponding to the representation of the State in the Senate are delegates-at-large; the others are district delegates. The National convention is, therefore, composed of about one thousand delegates, and its meetings draw other thousands of spectators. There are few auditoriums in the country big enough to house the convention. There are usually several candidates, each one of whom is the choice of a group of men in the party. The name of each candidate is presented to the convention by a carefully selected orator, under circumstances planned to arouse enthusiasm, and, if possible, to stampede the convention. A majority vote is sufficient to nominate the candidate in the Republican convention, but the Democratic party requires a two-thirds vote. Sometimes not one of the candidates presented is able to secure a majority. Days may be consumed in discussion and bargaining, and in the end an unexpected candidate, a “dark horse,” may be nominated. The members of the National Committee who are to serve during the next four years are elected[Pg 93] in the convention, one member from each State. How Candidates for Office in New York State Are Nominated: The direct primary is the method now used in New York State by which candidates for all offices except those in towns and villages are nominated, and the conduct of these “official primaries,” as they are called to distinguish them from the unofficial primaries of the party, is carefully prescribed by State law. A primary election is held thirty days before the general election, and is conducted on the same plan and in the same general way as the election. Candidates of each party for all the elected offices are nominated by the enrolled party members. At the same time leaders for the district of each political party are elected. The ballots for each party are printed by the State and differ in color. The candidates whose names are printed on the primary ballot are designated by party committees, and other persons may have their names added by petition. Who May Vote at the Official Primaries—Enrolment of Voters: Only those who have enrolled themselves as members of the party are permitted to vote at the official primaries. At the time of the registration[Pg 94] of voters in the cities, or at the last general election in the country, voters are given a party enrolment blank to fill out. These enrolments are placed in sealed envelopes and opened a week after the regular election, when enrolment lists
of each party are made out. Such enrolment is not compulsory, but unless a voter enrolls he is not able to take part in the nomination of candidates. By enrolling he does not pledge himself to vote the party ticket at the election (except in the case of the Socialist party); but he is allowed to vote at the primary for candidates of the party in which he enrolls. Objections to Direct Primaries are made that few voters take the trouble to vote at them, and that the choice of candidates is very limited and is still controlled by party leaders. They are also very expensive for a candidate, especially if he is not backed by these leaders. To stand any chance of nomination a candidate has to canvass the voters and make himself known to them. A poor man cannot afford to enter a contest in a direct primary unless funds are supplied him or unless he expects to recoup himself later at the public expense. Also, as that candidate wins the primary election who receives the largest number of votes, the[Pg 95] successful candidate may be one who has had the votes of only a small proportion of the party which is expected to support him later at the polls. So far in New York State the primaries, even in city elections, are largely party affairs. The suggestion has been advanced that city primaries should be strictly non-partisan, and that party emblems should be eliminated from the primary ballots. Nomination by a Convention is a method still used in some States, and until it was superseded by the direct primary it used to be the manner of nominating candidates in New York. An official party convention is made up of delegates elected by members of the party from the different parts of the State. Names of possible candidates are presented to the members in open convention, who express their choice by ballot. Objections to the Convention System are based on the fact that the regular party convention is usually controlled by a few leaders who decide beforehand every detail of the business of the convention and make up the slate. They may trade with another group and concede part of the ticket to them in return for certain concessions which they may obtain for themselves. The delegates[Pg 96] are often there simply to follow orders and to nominate the men agreed upon by the party bosses. The “slate” is the list of candidates for the various offices to be filled. Nominations for these positions are usually influenced not so much by the qualifications of the men proposed for office, as by the ability of the proposed candidates to get out the vote and to add strength to the ticket, also by geographical considerations, that each part of the State or district may be represented on the ticket. Unofficial State conventions are still held by the leading parties in New York. Their principal business is to frame a platform. This convention also appoints the central committee. The Primary Is Important to Every Voter because it is there that policies are determined and party leaders elected, as well as candidates nominated for offices. Unless the members of the party take the trouble to vote at the primary, the choice of candidates is left to the few leaders who make a business of politics. This leaves the field clear for “the boss” to put up candidates whom he can control after election. The vote at the primary election is always[Pg 97] small. The proportion of voters who vote for the nomination of candidates is often as low as 18 or 20 per cent. of the vote cast at the election. The reason for this is not difficult to understand. The primary election comes at a time when little public interest has yet been aroused in the coming election. By election-time the voters have been circularized and canvassed and the newspapers have devoted much space to the subject. Also much more effort is made by the party to get out the vote at election-time than at the primary. Party leaders can count on the faithful coming to the primary election without urging, and they are the ones who often choose the candidates. Nomination by Petition: Most candidates on the ballot are nominated by a party, but a man may also be nominated by a petition of independent voters. The petition must contain the title of the office to be filled, the name and address of the candidate, and be signed by a certain number of voters. [Pg 98] X ELECTIONS Laws concerning the holding of elections have grown much more stringent in the last few years. Every detail of the casting of a ballot is now prescribed by law and every precaution taken to insure honesty of elections. The precautions apply more to cities than to rural communities, with the result that more corruption may sometimes be found to-day in country elections than in those in cities. Registration of Voters: In large places or densely populated districts it is impossible for the election officials to know every voter, therefore the law requires that in cities and villages of over five thousand inhabitants every voter shall appear every year before the board of registration and have his name put on the registration list. He is required to answer certain questions as to his age, his exact residence, his business, and where his[Pg 99] last vote was cast, and to sign his own name for purposes of identification and to prevent fraud. In smaller places and in rural districts, the signature is not required, and after a man’s name is once registered it remains on the book as long as the voter remains in the district. In practice it remains on the book until some one takes it off; and the names of men who have died or moved away are frequently found in a rural registration book. Time of Elections: The general elections
take place in the fall, on the first Tuesday after the first Monday in November. National elections for President and Vice-President take place every four years, in the year that ends with the figure four or its multiple. Elections for representatives to Congress and State elections are held the same day every two years, in the even-numbered years. City elections are held the same day in the odd-numbered years. City elections are held separate from State elections in order to keep National and State issues from intruding in the election of municipal officers. Local elections usually take place the same day, with the exception of the spring village election and town meeting. [Pg 100] The Election District: For convenience every county or city is divided into election districts, each with one polling-place. The average number of voters to an election district in New York State is from two hundred and fifty to four hundred. When a district grows to five hundred voters it is usually divided. In Chicago, since women were given the vote, an election district contains from five to six hundred voters. It has been found that the women vote at the hours when men are busy, and that the same election officials can handle many more votes than is customary in New York. Election Officers: Boards of elections, appointed by the county board of supervisors, are in general charge of the elections in the county, and there is a State Superintendent of Elections appointed by the Governor. At each polling-place on Election Day there is an election board consisting of four election inspectors, two ballot clerks, and two poll clerks. The law provides that election boards and boards of registration shall consist of equal representatives from the two political parties that cast the highest number of votes at the last election. This does not apply to town and village elections. Each party also is allowed two watchers.[Pg 101] A railing shuts in the voting-booths and tables, and no one but the election board and the official watchers is allowed under the law to be inside this railing. The polls are open from six o’clock in the morning until five o’clock in the afternoon. Before voting begins the ballot-boxes are opened and inspected to see that they are empty. The official watchers have a right to see everything that is done. Electioneering is forbidden within one hundred feet of the polls. The voting-booths are constructed so as to insure privacy while the voter is marking his ballot, and the ballot is folded so that no one but the voter himself knows how he has voted. The Election: When the voter appears to cast his ballot, he gives his name and address, and the registration book is consulted to see that he is registered, the number of the ballot given to him is called out by the ballot clerk, and his name and the number of his ballot are entered in the poll-book. Official ballots are provided for every polling-place, twice as many as there are registered voters in the district. All the candidates for one office are grouped together on the ballot, each name with a[Pg 102] blank square beside it. To vote for a candidate the voter must make a cross with a lead-pencil (not ink) inside of the box beside the name of the candidate: X in box. If the cross extends beyond the box, or if the word “yes” is written, if the ballot is erased or in any way defaced, it will be thrown out at the count as void. If a voter spoils a ballot he should ask for another one. An illiterate person is allowed assistance in marking his ballot. When the voter comes out of the booth, where he has marked his ballot in secret and folded it so it cannot be read, he gives the ballot to an election official, who announces the name of the voter and the number of his ballot, tears off the stub, and drops the ballot unopened into the box. A person’s vote may be challenged by an inspector or watcher, or at the written request of any voter. If, under oath, he is questioned and swears that he is eligible, his vote is recorded, but is marked challenged. The Count: At five o’clock the polls are closed and the ballots are counted. They must not be handled by any one but the election officials, although the watchers may see every ballot and watch the count. The count for each office to be filled is made[Pg 103] separately, and if there are many candidates it may take many hours to complete the count and know the result. Official tally sheets are provided. The result is filed with the County Clerk. The board of supervisors meet as a board of canvassers to canvass the result, and the returns are sent to the State board of canvassers. The Australian Ballot is the only one used in New York State elections. It has on one ballot the names of all candidates of all parties for all the offices to be voted for. The names are grouped by offices, and the first name in each group is the candidate of the party that cast the largest vote at the last election. The only ballots shown before Election Day are sample ballots printed on pink paper, while the ballots used at the election are white. They are all numbered, and every one must be accounted for. Until recently the ballot was printed with a column for each party, so that the easiest thing the voter could do was to put a cross within a circle at the head of the column, and thus vote for every candidate of that party—what is called a “straight ticket.” The ballot used at present requires a separate cross for every separate candidate, and so encourages independence and intelligence on[Pg 104] the part of the voter. There are blank places so the voter may write
in any name he wishes for any office. Short Ballot: It is evident from the brief outline of the structure of government contained in the earlier chapters, that there are a great many officers to be elected. It is impossible for even the most intelligent and most interested voter to know the merits of as many candidates as often appear on one ballot. In some elections ballots are used which can be measured only in feet, and sometimes even in yards. To remedy this evil there is a strong movement toward a short ballot. This would mean cutting down the number of elective offices. The tendency of government to-day is to concentrate the responsibility on one man or a few men, to let them make appointments, and to hold them accountable for results. Corrupt Practices Act: The cost of campaigns and elections to the political parties and to many candidates is great. While there are many legitimate expenses connected with an election, the uncontrolled use of large funds leads to grave corruption and has brought about careful regulation by the State of money used at election-time. Contributions from corporations are prohibited. [Pg 105] A public statement of campaign funds must be made by every candidate and every organization taking part in a campaign, of all money received for campaign purposes and how it has been expended. This statement must be filed with the Secretary of State within twenty days after the election, and be open to public inspection. Even these precautions, while more severe than those found in most States, have not succeeded in putting an end to the corrupt use of money in elections. It has been proposed recently that an addition to the Corrupt Practices Act should be made to require all candidates and campaign managers to file, five days before election, instead of twenty days after, a list of receipts and expenditures, so that voters might know before the election the sources of political contributions and the use to which the money is put. A second proposal has been made in regard to the personnel of the election officers, that instead of these boards being party appointees they should be appointed from the civil service lists. It is argued that with civil service appointees handling the count of ballots there would be less likelihood of mistakes or deliberate fraud. [Pg 106] Oregon has adopted the plan of having a pamphlet printed by the State for both the primaries and the elections, in which is set forth the claims of candidates of all parties, and both sides of all public questions to be voted on. This pamphlet is sent at public expense to every voter in that State. Voting-machines are expensive, but they do away with the necessity for voting-booths, and require fewer election officials. Perhaps that is one reason they have not been more popular. They register the number of votes cast for each candidate, and the result of the election is known as soon as the polls are closed, and does not have to await the long, tedious, and often incorrect count by hand. The Use of School-houses and other public buildings for registration- and polling-places is growing more common. It not only saves the large rent usually charged for the use of other buildings for polling-places, but it also gives more room and more convenient surroundings than are afforded by the kind of place often rented for use on Election Day. Unless provision is made by a city charter or some special permission school-houses may be used in this way only by a vote of the people of the district. The Cost of Elections in proportion to[Pg 107] other expenses of government is small. In the budget for New York City it figures less than 1 per cent. of the total budget. At the same time it could undoubtedly be lowered by economy. High rent is paid for polling-places, double the number of ballots necessary and liberal supplies are given to each district. It was found in Chicago, when women became voters, that the cost of elections was increased very little. The supplies furnished, and the same number of election officials, were found to be able to care for a large increase in the number of voters. [Pg 108] XI TAXATION It is evident that to carry on the necessary business of a city, a county, the State, or the nation requires money. Also, since everybody shares in the benefits of government, every one should help pay the bill. One of the most difficult problems of government is to devise a system of taxation that cannot be evaded, that will raise sufficient money for expenses, and that will treat every one with equal justice. Taxation may be divided into two general classes, direct and indirect. Direct taxes are those imposed directly upon property or persons; such as taxes imposed upon land, personal property, or income. The term indirect tax is applied to taxes upon activities such as carrying on some business or upon buying, selling, manufacturing, or importing certain articles. A direct tax, as a rule, cannot be evaded[Pg 109] or shifted to some other person. Indirect taxes can be evaded by abstaining from the activity that is taxed. They can usually also be shifted to others, and are generally paid by the consumer, or user of the article that is taxed. In general, direct taxes are levied by the State and municipal governments, while the National government derives its revenue (with the exception of the income tax) mainly from indirect taxes. Taxes for local purposes are levied largely on houses and land, on what is called real property. Personal property, which is movable property, such as mortgages, live stock, furniture, etc., is also subject to taxation, but it is assessed only upon the balance of its value in excess of the indebtedness of the person taxed. It is a more difficult tax to collect than the tax on real property, and is evaded to
such a large extent that many economists believe that it should be abolished, and some tax substituted more possible to impose equally and to collect. Village and school taxes are usually collected independently by village and school officials.[A] Town, county, State, and city taxes are assessed and collected at the same time. Tax Districts: The State is divided into[Pg 110] tax districts which have usually the boundaries of the township or city, and there are three tax assessors in each tax district elected by the people in the town, and usually appointed in the city. How Taxes Are Assessed: The State Legislature decides the amount needed for carrying on the government of the State. The largest part of these expenses are met by special indirect State taxes. The remainder of the amount to be raised is apportioned among the counties according to the value of taxable property in each (see State Board of Equalization). The county board of supervisors decides how much is needed for county affairs. The town meetings, or the town boards and the voters through voting on propositions submitted by the town boards, decide how much money is needed for the business of the towns. This sum is added to the total amount of taxes necessary for the county government, and to the county’s share of taxes for the State government, and the combined sum is the amount that must be levied on the property in that county. The amount needed to carry on the government of a city in the county is reported to the county board of supervisors and to this sum is added in the[Pg 111] same way the proportion of county and State taxes which the city must pay. Assessing the amount each taxpayer shall pay is the duty of the assessors. They make up an Assessment roll which must contain the name of every person in the district who owns property, and the assessed value of his property. The way the assessors do this work varies largely. The policy governing assessments in rural districts is to place as low a valuation on property as possible, in order that the total assessed valuation for the county shall be kept down, so that the apportionment given to the county for State taxes shall be low, and the larger burden of taxation shall fall on the cities. When the assessment roll is completed the assessors notify the public that it is open for inspection, and a time and place are fixed for a hearing, when any one who thinks he has been unfairly treated may complain. If such a person is not satisfied with the decision of the local assessors he may appear before the County Board of Equalization with his complaint. The County Board of Equalization is the county board of supervisors. They have power to equalize the assessed value of the real property in any tax district in the county.[Pg 112] They apportion the amount of State and county tax due from each town or city, add the town or city tax, then ascertain the amount each person shall pay according to the assessed valuation of his property. This sum is noted on the assessment roll opposite each person’s name and the roll then becomes the tax roll of the district. A practical example: Suppose X owns a house and lot which the assessors value at $5,000. The county board of equalization finds that the city where X lives must raise $100,000 in taxes; $90,000 is required for the city government; $9,000 is the sum the city is required to contribute to the expenses of the county, and $1,000 is the share the city has to pay toward the government of the State. The value of taxable property in the city is $5,000,000. Every dollar of assessed property in the city must therefore pay two cents in taxes, and X’s taxes will be $100, of which $90 will go to the city, $9 to the county, and $1 to the State. A mortgage on the property does not decrease the amount to be paid. Collecting Taxes:[3] If a person fails to pay[Pg 113] his real-estate taxes the county treasurer is authorized to sell his property for the unpaid taxes. The property may be redeemed by the former owner on payment of back taxes with interest due and the cost and expenses of the tax sale. Public buildings, religious and charitable institutions, are usually free from taxation; they are for the benefit of the entire community. State Taxes: The ordinary expenses of the State government are met by revenues derived from special indirect State taxes, so that for years there was no direct State tax. State revenues are provided through taxes on stock transfers, mortgage taxes, inheritance taxes, excise, franchise, and corporation taxes. One-half the amount derived from the excise tax goes to the State and one-half to the community from which it comes. Every stock company incorporated under any law of the State must pay a tax upon the amount of its capital stock and upon any subsequent increase. The earnings of corporations doing business in the State are also taxed. [Pg 114] An Inheritance Tax is a tax imposed on the transfer of property at death by will, or by operation of law in case of intestacy. The rate of this tax varies according to the value of the property or share of the recipient and his kinship to decedent. A higher rate is levied on a large bequest or share than on a small one, and a larger percentage is levied when the bequest or share goes to distant kin or to a stranger than when it goes to a close relative. The direct property tax is now used to pay off the interest and gradually the principal of the State debt. The estimated resources and revenues, not including the direct tax, for the State for 1918 are: Cash balance, July 1st $11,084,423 Stenographers’ tax 431,607 Excise tax 5,750,000 Corporation tax
20,000,000 Incorporation tax 1,400,000 Inheritance tax 14,000,000 Stock transfer tax 6,100,000 Investment tax 2,500,000 Mortgage tax 1,180,000 Motor Vehicle tax 2,375,000 Canal maintenance receipts 150,000 Other revenues 4,554,150 Total $69,525,180 [Pg 115] The Board of Equalization meets in Albany once a year to examine the reports from the different counties of the value of their taxable property, and to equalize the amount of their taxation. The State tax commissioners, who must personally visit the counties and examine the local rolls, and the land office commissioners form this board. Federal Taxes: The United States government even before the war required an enormous amount of money with which to conduct its business. In the past its chief sources of revenue have been custom duties and internal-revenue taxes. Custom Duties are taxes levied on the importation of articles into the United States from foreign countries. The tariff, which fixes the rates of the impost taxes, has been a constant subject for dispute between the major political parties. Whether the tariff should be imposed “for revenue only,” or whether it should be “a protective tariff” to protect American industries and American labor from the cheap labor of other countries, has been the chief point of difference between Republicans and Democrats at National elections. Impost taxes are indirect taxes which eventually come out of the pockets of the people in increased prices[Pg 116] of the articles imported, and incidentally they raise the prices of similar articles of domestic manufacture. Internal Revenue or Excise Taxes are taxes imposed on business or on the manufacture and sale of articles in the United States. The most important taxes of this character are those on the manufacture and sale of liquor and tobacco. The manufacture and sale of cosmetics, perfumes, oleomargarine, and playing-cards are also subject to internal-revenue taxes. In many cases these taxes are paid by the sale of stamps to the manufacturer, who has to affix them to the article before it is sold. As with many other kinds of taxation, the public, the ultimate consumer, pays this tax. The Income Tax is a tax on the income of a person. Many who do not own land or other tangible property enjoy an income. As a farmer has to pay a tax on his farm, so a lawyer who has a lucrative practice, but does not own land or stocks, and the man who has an income from investments, are all required to pay their share of government expenses. The income-tax law of 1916 taxes all incomes of married couples in excess of $4,000, and all incomes of unmarried persons in[Pg 117] excess of $3,000. To provide further war revenue, an additional tax was imposed in 1917 on the income of every unmarried person in excess of $1,000 a year, and of every married couple in excess of $2,000 a year. The rate of these taxes increases with the size of the income. The combined income taxes may amount to as much as 67 per cent. in case of the largest incomes. Public Debt; Bonds: If the government needs more money than it wishes to raise by taxation, it can borrow it by issuing bonds. A bond is a promise to pay a certain definite sum of money at a certain time with a fixed rate of interest. United States government bonds are the safest investment in the world. The State and municipalities may also issue bonds, although the amount a city may borrow may be limited by the value of its assessed property. The interest on bonds and the payment of the principal must be met by taxation. Bonds should not be issued to pay for the running expenses of government, because that is putting on future generations the unjust burden of paying for something for which they receive no return. Their legitimate use is to meet the cost of some improvement which will continue to benefit those who go on paying for it. [Pg 118] When bonds are issued provision should be made for the redemption of their principal. This is done in New York State by raising annually by direct taxation a fixed sum to be invested and kept as a separate fund called a “sinking fund,” to be used only for this purpose. A sinking fund for the payment of the interest and for the redemption of the debt of the State is required by the State constitution. The Budget: Before undertaking an enterprise a wise man considers how much it is going to cost, and where the money is coming from. A budget is a summary of the estimated expenses for the following year of the different departments of the government. It is a business-like method of determining the amount of money which should be raised by a State or municipality to meet its necessary expenses. The budget for New York State is made by the Legislature from an estimate furnished by each of the administrative departments of the State. It includes in detail the amount of salaries, traveling expenses, and maintenance of each department. The making of a budget for a city is of the greatest importance to the taxpayers. Public hearings are held on it, when taxpayers[Pg 119] may be heard for or against the use of the money in the designated way, and when they may ask for additional appropriations for some city activity. Public servants in this, as in every other department of service, work best under supervision. The taxpayer owes it to himself to maintain adequate representation at these hearings. It is on the basis of the budget as finally adopted that taxes are adjusted for the following year. (See Chapter IV on Greater New York.) The National government has not yet adopted the budget plan, and the President has not the power to veto any item of an appropriation bill unless he vetoes the entire measure. This is a limitation which is greatly deplored, as it prevents him from cutting out any provision in the bill
which he may think unwarranted or extravagant, or which has come out of the “pork-barrel.” This is a term applied to appropriations given by Congress to certain local communities for some Federal building or for the development of some local resource which is not of advantage to the National government, and which is given not because there is any need for it, but because the representative from[Pg 120] that district in Congress wants to make himself popular with his constituents by getting for them some public plunder. Every Dollar That Is Spent in Any Department of Government Comes Out of the Pockets of the People: It is not easy for the public to realize this. The Congressman who gets an extra appropriation for a post-office or other public building that is not needed, in order to please his home people, may get more votes, but he is adding to the public burden. In return for a vote for his post-office he may have to give his vote to a fellow-Congressman for an unnecessary expenditure in another State. The chain so formed is practically endless, and its inevitable effect is to raise the cost of government unwarrantably. Every such expenditure, every unnecessary public salary, every dishonest public official, every tax-dodger, every incompetent piece of public work, adds to the burden of taxation which the people have to pay. [Pg 121] FOOTNOTES: [3] In some counties local arrangements make it difficult for absent owners of property to know when and where taxes are due. Every tax-collector should be obliged to follow the usage of any good business house and mail a bill for taxes. XII PUBLIC HIGHWAYS Road-making has been a function of government since the early ages. The old Roman roads still exist as evidence of the labor and care that were put into them. Ease of communication, which permits people to journey from home and see what the rest of the world is doing, is a great factor in binding people together, and tends to promote progress. Good roads are important to every citizen, not only because of the increased use of the automobile, but because they are a vital part of the business life of the country. The farmer needs them to move his crops to market. Without them he may be unable to sell his produce at the time it is most needed and when he could get the best prices for it. The merchant needs them to receive supplies and make deliveries; the manufacturer needs them for the moving of his[Pg 122] raw material; the city-dweller needs them so that food may come into city markets. Public highways are the connecting arteries between city and country. New York State has recognized the need of good roads, and has spent an immense amount of money to secure them. Some years ago a bond issue of $50,000,000 was authorized in the belief that such a large sum of money would put the roads in a condition to meet all requirements for many years. In 1907 the Legislature approved contracts for 8,300 miles of county highways, believing that the money available would be sufficient. The following year it approved contracts for 3,600 miles of State highways and another bond issue of $50,000,000 was found necessary. Not only had the cost of labor and material greatly increased, but in addition the use of motor-trucks and motor-buses was beginning to put a strain on roads and road-beds which had not been anticipated. Old roads began to go to pieces rapidly and needed constant repair and often replacing. Even the new roads, where the road-beds were of stone only six inches deep, soon spread and disintegrated under trucks weighing from one to fifteen tons. This use of[Pg 123] motor-trucks is increasing, and is necessary for the traffic requirements of the State, but highways are being subject to a strain hitherto unknown, and this strain will increase in both quantity and severity. How to meet the requirements and maintain and repair roads built for light traffic which are giving way under the new demands, and how to build new roads strong enough to stand up under the strain, are problems the State finds it difficult to meet. New road-beds are now required of stone from nine to twelve inches deep. Some roads are built by the State, some by the county, and some by the town. In many cases the cost of the work is divided between county and town, or between county and State. The State may help a town build a road, but it can only contribute the same amount or less than the town appropriates. All material that is used in road-building must be tested in the laboratories maintained by the State Highway Department, and constant experiments are being made to test materials and specifications to find out what will stand the hardest wear. All roads must be built and repaired under the direction of the State Highway Commissioner,[Pg 124] but whether these instructions are carried out often depends on local officials. The public believes that there has been no part of government in New York State more honeycombed with fraud than the one of road-building and maintaining; that specifications have been skimped or ignored, different materials have been substituted from those prescribed, cheaper construction of every kind passed by inspectors, and that the result has been that many roads of the State have cost vast sums of money for which the State is in debt and have not lasted even a few years. In 1916 the State had a total of 4,027 miles of macadam roads and 5,836 miles of gravel town roads, and more than half of all the improved roads in the State had been constructed within five years. There were 728 patrolmen employed looking after repairs. The entire cost of bridges is met by the towns with occasional aid from the county. If a State road goes through a village, the same amount is allowed as for
the rest of the construction, and if the village wants another kind of a paving or a wider road it must pay the difference in cost. The State Highway Department gives as averages of cost: for macadam roads $10,000 a mile;[Pg 125] first-class concrete, $15,000 a mile; and brick paving, $25,000 a mile. The State highway law provides that all construction must be done by contract. Prison labor is not employed on State and county roads as in some States, but it has been used on roads built by towns. In spite of the huge appropriations, the State roads are far from complete as planned. Nearly $750,000 will be available in 1918 from the National government as part of New York State’s share in the Federal appropriation for roads. “Working out” a road tax was never a method which contributed to good roads. The earth roads on which the taxpayer puts his unskilled labor are usually impassable many months of the year. City Streets: The local government decides where a road or street is needed, and with the consent of a sufficient proportion of the property-owners may purchase or condemn the necessary property. If the owner is not satisfied with the payment offered, appraisers must be appointed to decide the amount that should be paid. City streets must be maintained by the city government. If a person is injured by the failure of the government to keep sidewalks[Pg 126] in repair he has a right to sue the government for damages. The municipal government, on the other hand, may require property-owners to keep their sidewalks in good condition. Street-cleaning: Since many thousands of children have no playground but the street, the condition in which city streets are kept is of great importance to their health and general welfare. Disease germs are heavy and are most numerous near the ground. If playgrounds could be arranged on the roofs of high buildings the children would be the gainers from the pure air. Unfortunately, the streets in which they play are not usually the ones which are cleaned most frequently by the street-cleaning department. Old and young are disorderly—newspapers, cigarette-butts, and fruit-skins are thrown down anywhere. Streets littered with papers, with dust-laden pieces blowing back and forth, increase the dangers from disease. Carelessness on the part of the public in throwing things into the streets adds many thousands of dollars to the cost of street-cleaning departments. Every time that a person throws a paper or any object into the street eventually some one else must be paid to pick it up. [Pg 127] Most municipalities have ordinances against littering the streets, but they are often dead letters. The cleanliness and good order of city streets pay in dollars and cents, in public comfort and convenience, and in a lowered death-rate. Parks: With the congestion of population that is not confined to New York City or any one part of the State, parks large and small have become a necessity not only for pleasure and beauty, but for the health of the community. In the country people can be out of doors as much as they please, but when families are obliged to live close together, “breathing-places” are of actual physical benefit, especially if they can be green with grass and trees. Communities often awaken to the need of parks too late, after all available places are occupied, when in order to provide the necessary oasis property has to be condemned and often enormous sums of money paid for it. City Planning: Most of our cities have grown up haphazard without any definite plan of development. As new industries have come in they have brought in large numbers of employees, who have had to be provided with living-places, and a new[Pg 128] section of the city has been started. Or a real-estate boom, fostered by some private enterprise, will develop another quarter without consideration for the welfare of the incoming population. As land values advance, in order to squeeze all the profit possible out of this increase, high crowded buildings spring up, planned to house as many people as possible in a restricted area. New York City and many other places are continuing to create new tenement districts in outlying quarters of the city where land is still plentiful. It is not easy to change congested areas built up in the past, but it is a wrong to coming generations to continue to allow considerations of health and decency to be ignored in the future growth of cities. Haphazard growth has cost the public dearly in actual money values. Unrestricted crowded living conditions have cost still more dearly in the moral and physical vitality of the people who have had to put up with them. These mistakes of the past cannot be remedied, but cities and villages are still growing, and the wise community is now developing a plan in advance for its future growth, which will safeguard public health and welfare, and the convenience as well as the beauty of the city. [Pg 129] The Value of Beauty: Streets and roads do not need to be bare and ugly. Some attention paid to appearance costs very little and is a distinct benefit to the public. Weeds are usually cut down along the roadside, but so, too often, are the trees. When one thinks of the many years it takes for a tree to attain a fine growth, one wonders at the carelessness with which they are sacrificed. A well-shaded road bordered by trees, or a shaded city street, testifies to the intelligence and thrift of the people responsible for them. Such care is apt to be repaid by increased property values. [Pg 130] XIII COURTS In the United States there are two classes of courts—State courts and United States or Federal courts. The State courts of each State derive their jurisdiction and powers from the constitution and laws of the State. The United States courts derive their jurisdiction and powers from the Constitution
and laws of the United States. The functions of the courts are to hear and decide criminal and civil cases. Criminal Cases are prosecutions or proceedings by the State or Federal government to enforce the laws made for the preservation of peace, law, and order in the community, by the imposition of fines, or imprisonment, or the punishment of death, in case of their violation. Civil Cases are suits or proceedings brought for the enforcement or protection of personal or property rights; as, for example, suits to[Pg 131] recover compensation or damages for personal injuries, or the destruction of property, or for breaches of contract, or to recover property wrongfully taken, or to restrain by injunction threatened wrongful acts for which a suit for money damages would not be an adequate remedy. At the trial of a criminal or civil case, the judge supervises and directs the proceedings, and decides any question of law which may arise. Questions of fact, arising in criminal cases, and in most civil cases, are decided by a jury of twelve qualified citizens drawn from a panel or list; but in certain classes of civil cases the judge decides questions of fact as well as questions of law. Civil as well as criminal cases must be commenced and carried on in a manner prescribed by law or by rules of the courts. In New York the laws of procedure are commonly believed to be unnecessarily complicated and technical. Innumerable controversies have arisen as to their meaning and effect. They have been amended and supplemented by many statutes, and there is a strong movement among lawyers to secure the adoption of a simpler and more workable system of procedure. [Pg 132] In New York State the courts are of the following classes: Justices of the Peace, or Justices’ Courts, try petty criminal cases involving small thefts, drunkenness, disorderly conduct, and breach of the peace, and certain ordinary civil suits involving sums of not over $200. A person accused of serious crime before a justice of the peace may be held to await action of a grand jury. In New York City, and in various other cities of the State, the functions of the justices’ courts are performed by courts called Municipal Courts, City Courts, Magistrates or Police Courts, the latter having jurisdiction only over petty criminal cases. The powers and duties, as well as the names of these lower courts, vary in the different cities. It is most important that honest, sympathetic men should preside over these lower courts, for in them are tried the small offenses which may be due to ignorance of law, and a large number of people come in contact with government in no other way. Most arrests are for minor offenses such as drunkenness, disorderly conduct, etc. They are tried here, and many of them bring first offenders into court, where the treatment received by the person accused may[Pg 133] determine whether he will become a habitual offender or whether he will be set straight. Many foreigners come into these courts, and receive in them their first impression of justice as administered in this country. Oftentimes the offense is committed through ignorance or stupidity. A kind word or a helping hand may make all the difference between a future good citizen or a crook. In these courts, as in the justices courts of the town or village, there is great need of a careful choice of magistrates. County Courts: In every county except New York there is a county court presided over by the elected county judge. In these county courts may be tried civil suits in which the sum involved is not over $2,000 and all crimes except those punishable by death. They also hear appeals from the justices’ courts. The county courts in Queens, Bronx, Richmond, Kings, Ulster, and Albany counties may try cases involving the death penalty. Surrogates’ Courts: In each county there is a surrogate court, held by a judge called “the Surrogate,” who is elected by the voters of the county for a term of six years (except in the county of New York). In this court wills are probated, the estates of persons[Pg 134] deceased are settled, and guardians for minors and executors or administrators for estates of decedents are appointed. It is evident that a county surrogate should be a man of strictest probity as well as good business sense. Court of Claims: Any one who has a claim against the State may take it to the Court of Claims, which consists of three judges appointed by the governor with the approval of the Senate. Appeals from its decisions may be taken to the Appellate Division of the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court: Above the county courts are the Supreme Courts, which, however, are not really supreme, as their decisions are subject to review, and may be reversed upon appeal by the Appellate Division or the Court of Appeals. The Supreme Courts may try any civil or criminal cases, including prosecutions for murder. There are more than one hundred Supreme Court justices in the State, elected by the voters of the various districts, and the entire State is divided into nine judicial districts, in which certain of these Supreme Court justices sit. In every county, at a certain time, a Supreme Court justice holds a trial court, where both civil and criminal cases are heard before a[Pg 135] trial jury. He also holds a special term, where he hears and decides motions and civil cases in which no jury trial is required. Appellate Divisions of the Supreme Court: As judges are human and may make mistakes, the law provides a right of appeal from the court in which a case is tried. The whole State is divided into four judicial departments, in each of which there is an Appellate Division of the Supreme Court. From the Supreme Court justices the governor chooses the justices for the Appellate Divisions. These Appellate Divisions hear appeals from
decisions of the county courts and of the Supreme Courts, and they may sit wherever the public interest demands. They do not try cases originally, but only hear appeals. The Court of Appeals is composed of a chief judge and nine associate judges, but only seven judges sit at one time. This court is the State court of last resort, and it may reverse a decision of an Appellate Division of the Supreme Court. In most cases no appeal lies to the Court of Appeals from a decision of a question of fact by a lower court, but only questions of law can be reviewed; but in criminal cases[Pg 136] where the sentence is death the entire case may be reviewed. Courts of Record are those courts that have an official seal and keep an official record of all proceedings. The Surrogate’s Court, the County Court, the Supreme Court and its appellate divisions, and the Court of Appeals are courts of record. Justices’ Courts and Magistrates’ Courts are not courts of record. Federal Courts: The jurisdiction of the United States or Federal courts extends to all cases in law and equity arising under the Constitution and laws of the United States, to all cases affecting ambassadors and other public ministers and consuls, to admiralty and maritime cases, and to controversies between States or between citizens of different States. Federal courts are organized in a similar way to State courts. The United States District Courts hear, in the first instance, all classes of cases over which the United States courts have jurisdiction, except the cases mentioned below. The entire country is divided into ninety judicial districts, and each State has at least one district. The United States Court of Claims, which is located in Washington, has jurisdiction[Pg 137] over claims against the United States government. The Circuit Court of Appeals is an appellate court by which decisions of the United States district courts may be reviewed. The United States Supreme Court is the highest tribunal in the land. In cases affecting ambassadors and consuls, and those to which the State is a party, the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction. Other cases can come before it only upon an appeal, or writ of error, to review a decision of a lower United States court or a decision of the highest State court involving a question of Federal law. There is a chief justice and eight associate justices of the Supreme Court, who are appointed for life. To be a justice of the Supreme Court of the United States is considered one of the highest honors in the land. The judges of all the Federal courts are appointed by the President with the consent of the Senate. Constitutionality of the Law: One important power which the courts have is to interpret the meaning of the Constitution and laws, but they have no power to do so except so far as necessary to the disposal of cases before them. [Pg 138] The constitution of the State is its fundamental law, as that of the United States (together with the laws made by Congress under it and treaties made by the United States) is the supreme law of the entire United States. A question may arise as to the precise meaning and scope of a constitutional provision. In this case the court may interpret its meaning, and may declare void a law because in violation of the constitution. An Injunction is an order or decree issued by a court, restraining some person or persons or corporation from performing certain acts, on the ground that such acts would cause an injury or loss, for which a suit to recover money damages would not furnish adequate redress. A temporary injunction, or restraining order, may be issued upon affidavits, in advance of the final trial of a case, when it may either be dissolved or be made permanent. An injunction may also command the performance of some act. In such cases it is called a mandatory injunction. If an injunction is violated, the person disobeying can be arrested and sent to jail or fined “for contempt of court” without trial by jury. Many efforts have been made to limit this power of the courts. In Oklahoma,[Pg 139] the law provides for jury trial in case of contempt of court for violation of an injunction. Judges are elected for a longer term of years than are other public officials. County judges have a six-year term. Supreme Court justices and judges of the Court of Appeals are elected for a term of fourteen years. The reason for the longer term of service is that the increased experience is supposed to make a judge more valuable to the State; also, on account of the long term, he is supposed to be less affected by political considerations. Whether judges should be appointed or elected has been a matter of considerable controversy. It is argued that if they are appointed, the appointment may be a reward for political service instead of because of fitness for the position. On the other hand, if judges are elected, it is objected that they must take part in political contests, and are apt to give decisions more with regard to popular favor than to actual justice. Many persons think that in practice better judges are obtained by appointment than by popular election. State judges are usually elected, but the Federal judges are appointed. The election of proper men for the position[Pg 140] of judge is one of the most important duties of an electorate. Whether the process of the law insures justice and increases public security depends often more on the judge than on the letter of the law. Decisions involving the happiness, rights, and lives of countless people go through the courts of the State. These decisions should not be in the hands of men to whom the office has been given as a reward for party service, or who have been put in the position
by prejudiced interests. A wise, intelligent, public-spirited judge has enormous opportunity to add to the sum of public welfare. [Pg 141] XIV THE PUNISHMENT OF CRIME A crime is an offense against the people of the State. Also every action that is brought before a court costs the State money and adds to the burden of taxation borne by the people. A free government carefully guards the rights of an accused person. He must be told of the charges against him and be given every chance to answer them. He is presumed by the law to be innocent until he is proved guilty, and is not obliged to answer any questions that may incriminate himself. He may be examined at once by a magistrate, or, if he prefers, may be committed to jail to await a future examination. If held for any except the most serious crime he may be allowed his liberty by some one “giving bail”—that is, giving a pledge of money or property to insure his appearance in court at a certain date. If he “jumps his[Pg 142] bail” the money is forfeited to the State, although that does not protect him if he can be found. If the charge of which he is accused is a serious one, it must come before a grand jury. The Grand Jury is a body of men chosen from the taxpayers of a county to inquire into alleged crimes during a particular term of court. The supervisors or the commissioner of jurors makes out a list of three hundred names of men of integrity and sound judgment, from which the names of twenty-four men are drawn by lot.[B] From sixteen to twenty-three of these men sit in secret session, and hear the presentment of a case, and decide by a vote of at least twelve members whether the evidence is sufficient to warrant holding the accused for trial. The necessity of a case coming before the grand jury often causes much delay in a trial, as the jury can only be called when court is in session, and there are often long periods of time between courts. On the other hand, the fact that the grand jury is made up of a man’s neighbors and friends, who would be disposed to give him fair treatment, is a safeguard to his interests. If “a true bill” is found, the accused person comes before the court and the charge against him[Pg 143] is read to him. If he pleads guilty the judge imposes a sentence. If he pleads “not guilty” the trial proceeds. If the accused has no lawyer, the court must appoint one for him. While a man so appointed must defend the case, the best lawyers are not secured in this way. There has been considerable demand for the creation of the office of public defender for accused persons. The State employs public prosecutors, and it is argued that it should be as much interested in proving a man’s innocence as in proving his guilt. Trial by Jury is a right guaranteed by the constitutions of both the State and the nation. A trial jury is composed of twelve men chosen from a list of qualified men in the county where the crime is committed, or is being tried. After the evidence in the case has been presented and the judge makes his charge as to the law applicable to the case, the jury retires to a secret session, where they are kept in confinement until they reach a unanimous verdict. In England it requires only a majority of the jury to render a verdict. Jury Service is one of the important duties of a citizen. It is not required of certain classes of men—viz., clergymen, physicians, druggists, lawyers, and newspaper-men,[Pg 144] among others—and judges have the power to excuse men on whom jury service would entail special hardship. Jurors are paid a small sum by the day, and to many men jury service means serious inconvenience and financial loss. But to leave the settlement of cases which involve the serious welfare of both individuals and the public, to professional jurors, the hangers-on of a court-room, is a great wrong to the community. Women Jurors[C] have not yet been permitted in New York State, although in some Western States they have served with much success. There are certain cases involving young girls and children where it would seem that only women should be allowed on the jury. Cases of murder committed by a woman might be treated with more impartial justice if women served on such juries. Sentimental considerations would not influence them as they do some men in such cases. The Police: Much of the public welfare and safety of a city depends on its police force. A modern police is organized on a military basis. The men hold their positions for life or during good behavior. Promotions are based on merit, and pensions are paid men who have served a certain term of years. This plan has improved conditions by taking[Pg 145] the police out of politics to a large degree. The policy of the head of the department is of the greatest importance to the public. The temptations for graft and corruption in a police department are enormous, but the assurance of a square deal all up and down the line, strict orders to uphold the law, and a well-defined policy against graft of every description, will do wonders to keep a department honest and efficient. In recent years the plan has been developed of making the police helpful in many ways in the life of the city. The uniformed officer has many opportunities to help and direct children, especially the boys on the streets, to prevent violations of the city’s ordinances, the littering of the streets, and in many ways to prevent before the act, rather than to arrest after it has been committed. This helpful spirit has been adopted by the police of New York
City, to the great good of the city. It is exemplified in the Christmas trees in the station-houses for the poorer children of a neighborhood at Christmas-time. Prison Reform: Modern government is learning not to avenge itself on a criminal, but to impose a sentence which will tend to reform him. Instead of sentencing a person[Pg 146] to a definite term of imprisonment, an indeterminate sentence may be given him, the length of which will be determined by his behavior, and by the promise he may show of leading a better life if set free. If he is released he may be put on probation. This means that he is required to report at regular intervals to the court, or to a probation officer, to show that his conduct is law-abiding. If he goes wrong again, he is remanded to serve out his sentence. Men and women, wherever confined, must be given employment. Idleness is bad for even an educated person. Imposed on one who has no resources within himself, it becomes a source of demoralization scarcely to be measured. The old custom was to hire prisoners out to contractors at low wages. This brought goods manufactured by prison labor into unfair competition with honest labor. The modern idea is to teach the prisoner a useful occupation and to pay the wages to his family. It is not common-sense to support a man in prison at the expense of the State, and to allow his family to suffer from having his support taken away from them. Probation: First offenders, or persons committing minor offenses, are often put at once[Pg 147] on probation, with the sentence suspended during good behavior. This has proved of great value in saving many from a criminal career. It is far less costly to the State than keeping them in prison, and often leads to the establishment of an honest life.[4] Jails and Prisons: Every community has some kind of jail for the detention of offenders. Those who come in contact with the law are often the poor and the friendless who cannot get bail. Even innocent persons may be held some time awaiting trial, or the action of the grand jury. Young girls are often detained, sometimes as witnesses, sometimes pending investigation of their own cases, sometimes as runaways from home. In such a case there is no place of detention but the local jail. These jails are often filthy[Pg 148] and unsanitary, unfit for human habitation. Their surroundings, and the character of the sheriff or constable, and jail officials, must inevitably have an effect on the prisoners, especially on the younger women. It is most important to the community that a woman shall not be sent out from jail a more hardened criminal because of her confinement there. It is a wrong, the responsibility for which every woman in the neighborhood must share, that there is no better place of detention for young girls. Women matrons in all prisons where women are held and women probation officers are now recognized as essential. It is unintelligent to allow a man to leave jail penniless far from his home and friends, to become a tramp or to be tempted to a new offense to get money. The modern ideal of criminology is that his stay in prison should teach a man an honest way of earning his living; also that he should be given some supervision after he has left the prison doors, to help him to lead an honest life. City Farms for the detention of offenders are a great improvement on indoor prisons, and the open-air occupation both saves the State money and is beneficial to the prisoner. The Prevention of Crime: If as much[Pg 149] money and organized effort could be put on the prevention of crime as is given to its punishment, the need of jails and prisons would be greatly lessened. The chief causes of crime are drunkenness, feeble-mindedness, overcrowded living conditions, low wages, and insufficient education and recreation. Drunkenness is now known to be a disease; feeble-minded persons should not be allowed freedom of action; the State may prevent congested living, it may establish a living wage, and it has the power to provide proper vocational training and sufficient facilities for healthful recreation. It tries to separate the young offenders from the older ones, and the first offenders from the hardened ones. It has not succeeded very well in preventing inequalities before the law. The rich man has the advantage of being able to employ the most skilful lawyers and to appeal his case to court after court and drag it out over a number of years. When a fine is imposed he can pay it and so sometimes escape punishment. The poor man may have to go to jail because he cannot pay his fine and he is often unable to fight a suit. To lessen the hardships and secure equality of treatment for all alike should be the endeavor of the State. [Pg 150] FOOTNOTES: [4] The last report of the New York State Probation Commission shows that on September 30, 1916, there were 13,433 persons on probation, and that the number of inmates of the penal and reformatory institutions in the State was decreasing. Probation officers had themselves collected $139,000 for cases of non-support, and had caused to be paid another sum of $206,000 for these cases. They had assisted men to pay, in instalments, fines amounting to $30,000, which meant that these men were kept out of jail and at work, and had helped men who had stolen something or had done material damage to some one to repay those they had injured the sum of $39,000. It is evident that there is a saving of hard cash to the State in this work as well as much of social value. XV WOMEN OFFENDERS AND THE LAW The Constitution of the United States guarantees to a person accused of crime a trial by an impartial jury,
or by a jury of one’s peers. The handling of cases against women offenders has little regard for that guarantee. Discriminations against women who have come in contact with the law are the custom. If any one is inclined to doubt this, let him imagine the case reversed and applied to himself. Suppose a man accused of an offense against the law should be accused by a woman, arrested by a woman, held in jail by a woman, tried in a court-room filled with women, before a jury composed only of women, and sentenced by a woman judge. Would such a man feel that he was getting impartial justice given him by his peers? Also in the treatment of cases involving sex, the penalty of the law rests heavily on[Pg 151] the woman and the man usually goes free. Sex immorality is a crime for a woman, but the man, the partner in the crime, is rarely touched by the law. Until recently in New York State, even pandering, or living off the earnings of a prostitute, was classed, as it still is in some other States, as disorderly conduct, in the same class of offenses as selling a street-car transfer. In some States adultery is still a misdemeanor. It did not become a criminal offense in New York until 1907, and it is still almost impossible to obtain a conviction unless there are some unusually revolting circumstances. Many cases have come into the courts of the State where women have been arrested in a raid on a disorderly house, and where the men found with them have been released, and the women held. The large majority of the arrests of women are for the two offenses of intoxication, and prostitution or street-walking. The usual sentence for both of these offenses is commitment to the workhouse for from eleven to sixty days. Nearly half the cases of intoxication are of old offenders who are sentenced over and over again. Some years ago the Legislature passed a measure making provision for a State farm where these women[Pg 152] could be sent for care and treatment, and where they could have useful occupation; but it has not yet been established. Prostitution: The same sentence to the workhouse for varying periods of from five to ninety days, or even six months, is the common one for prostitution. It is doubtful if a sentence of this kind has ever been of the slightest benefit to any woman so sentenced. The usual court procedure is a mill through which this class of unhappy beings goes, without either their reformation being accomplished, or their danger being lessened to the community. When it is realized also, that a considerable percentage of these women are feeble-minded or at least sub-normal, the necessity of facilities for examination and classification and proper segregation are apparent. The entire process of dealing with the problem of public prostitution in New York City is one that is revolting from a woman’s viewpoint. To rid the streets of street-walkers and to keep them “clean,” a force of police in plain clothes patrols the streets. These police are usually the new men on the force selected for their youth and good looks. Promotion often rests on the number of arrests that they make. A smile or a nod, and[Pg 153] a girl may respond. If she speaks, an arrest can and often does follow. This kind of training for the young men of the police force is degrading to them. Also, the fact that arrests in nine cases out of ten are those of women of the street, does not preclude the possibility of the arrest of a silly, ignorant, but innocent girl. Brought into court, the presumption is that she is guilty. There is always a first arrest for any offender against the law. The records of the magistrates’ courts show that nearly one-third of the women’s cases brought into court are first offenders. Called for the first time before a judge in an open court-room, incoherent with fright, the girl is often unable to say a word for herself. If she is fined, or sentenced to the workhouse, or held in detention pending investigation, and is kept in association with other women of degraded lives, the chances of her being reclaimed are practically gone. The law holds an accused person innocent until proved guilty, but a woman accused of a crime against morality has to prove that she is innocent. Under the usual court procedure, a prostitute is outside the protection of the law and her word has no value in the court. [Pg 154] Night Courts have been established in order that offenders arrested at night, after the day courts have closed, may come immediately before a magistrate, without having to spend the night in jail awaiting trial. There are separate night courts for women in New York City, and all arrests for prostitution or loitering are tried in these courts. The motive behind the establishment of the Women’s Night Court is humanitarian, but it is there that one sees the discrimination against women as the fundamental of the proceedings. Women are sentenced to terms in prison for offenses far less serious than those for which men are discharged. The discrimination against women, and in favor of men, even extends to the cadet, who pursues the most shameful business in the world, that of exploiting unfortunate women. Until a few years ago the maximum penalty for such a man was six months in the workhouse. The law now permits a sentence of from two to twenty years, but convictions are rare. Nearly every prostitute is exploited by some man who takes her earnings, and on whom she relies to protect her from the police. If these cadets and procurers could be eliminated it would greatly diminish professional[Pg 155] prostitution, but they are most difficult to reach. The women they exploit will often perjure themselves to save these men from the vengeance of
the law. Also, the fact that no conviction can be had on the testimony of the woman unless supported by corroborative evidence, makes her afraid to testify against one of them. The Penalty of Fines: Imposing a fine as a punishment for prostitution should be absolutely prohibited. It does not act as a restraint, and simply means that the woman must go out on the street to earn her fine, and it makes the State a partner to her crime. It has been abolished in practice by some judges; but it is still the custom in some courts in New York State, and is even imposed by some judges in New York City. A bill to abolish fines throughout the State was introduced in the Legislature of 1916, but failed to pass. Young Girls: Girls between the ages of sixteen and eighteen are in the most dangerous period of life. Figures show that the great majority of girls who become prostitutes are ruined before they reach seventeen years of age. A girl of sixteen in New York State is too old for the Children’s Court. She may[Pg 156] therefore be held in jail with the hardened street-walker and the habitual drinker. If she is without the protection of home or family, she may be left alone, for the State makes no provision for a guardian for her unless she has property, when the State is required to provide one for her. Delinquency, thefts, and misdemeanors on the part of young girls are often the results of natural instincts gone wrong. Love of pleasure, a desire for pretty things, and a wish to be attractive is common to all girls. A false step, a yielding to temptation, followed by an arrest and a trial in an open court-room, often mean an ordeal which leaves an indelible mark on the girl’s soul, and a disgrace which it is almost impossible for her to live down. Girl Victims: The most pitiful cases are those of very young girls brought into court as the victims of crime. It is difficult to get conviction in these cases, as corroborative evidence is necessary. The shock to the sensibilities of such a girl at having to tell her story to men and having to answer questions in an open court-room can scarcely be exaggerated. The need of women in places of authority, to help in cases of such crimes, is great. Women probation officers are only[Pg 157] the first step in the right direction, but there are too few of them, and whenever a movement is made toward economy, they are the first to be dismissed. Houses of Detention: A great need of New York City, and a need shared by every city in the State, is a proper place of detention for women. As delinquent children are now separated from older offenders, so delinquent girls, first offenders and old offenders, and other classes of women who are held awaiting trial, or for investigation, or as witnesses, should not be obliged to associate indiscriminately with one another while awaiting the disposition of their cases. The need of a building large enough to provide for the separate detention of the various classes of women who are in the care of the court has been recognized, but so far little provision has been made to meet it. In other places in the State, wherever there is a court, there is need of a place of detention for women where they will be safe from degrading influences, and where they will be under the care of other women. Women Judges or Judges’ Assistants: The system which has been instituted in Chicago since women were given the vote, of a quiet talk with a woman assistant in the Court[Pg 158] of Special Sessions, in her own private office, instead of an open trial, has resulted in saving many a girl who otherwise would have become an outcast. In certain intimate matters it is a woman’s task to question girls. Contrast the picture of an open court-room: the judge on the bench, the jury, if there is one, composed of men, the room filled with men of all descriptions, and the frightened, trembling child, with this private room with the young offender telling her story alone to an experienced woman. Which offers the best chance for saving the girl from a ruined life? Frequently the girl comes from a family where crowded living conditions make decent living almost impossible. Instead of her first offense coming up for inevitable punishment, it is treated with the sole object of prevention and cure. Judges in New York State cannot appoint women assistants without authority from the Legislature, and that authority the Legislature has always refused to give. Policewomen, or Women Protective Officers, are now recognized as a necessary part of the correctional work of a city. The work of the woman protective officer is very different from that of the policeman. The[Pg 159] policewoman protects and controls, rather than arrests. In protecting children, in caring for lost children, in acting as mother to the motherless, in watching over young girls, in getting evidence against cadets, she does an invaluable work. The disorderly saloon, the dance-hall, and the moving-picture theater are all hunting-grounds for the white-slaver. In getting evidence in this sort of crime she is more effective than the policeman. There are policewomen now in fifty cities of the United States. That the whole subject of prostitution and the law is a most difficult one to deal with, there can be no question. It needs the combined intelligence of both men and women engaged not only in theorizing over the problem, but in actual efforts to grapple with it. Until public opinion supports the single standard of morality, the courts will continue to discriminate against women. Unfortunately, women of all ages, even very young girls, are arrested. Sometimes they are guilty, sometimes innocent, sometimes sinned against, sometimes only the victims of circumstances, but always unfortunate.
Their misfortune and its results on their lives are more terrible than they need[Pg 160] be, because they are usually deprived of the help of women in places of authority. In the Chicago Court of Morals women are welcome, and there are women court officers, women police, and women probation officers who create an atmosphere entirely different from the usual court-room. There is also no division of sex; when it is a question of morality, the man and woman are both held. A physical examination is made by a woman physician. When a woman is found to be diseased she is sent to a hospital to be cured. Some of the most progressive magistrates and judges are endeavoring to improve the methods of handling cases of women offenders, but it would seem that wherever the welfare and disposition of women are involved other women should be part of the machinery which deals with them. This is not so much because of sentimental considerations, for in some cases women would be less influenced by sentiment than men, but there are certain peculiarities, tendencies, and experiences common to each sex which only those of that sex can understand. In all cases of women offenders against the law other women must be concerned, and should be equally responsible with men for their handling and disposition. [Pg 161] XVI PUBLIC EDUCATION The best foundation for a democracy rests on free educational facilities for all the people. An ideal school system is one that reaches out to every child and prepares him for a useful occupation, that is also available for the further development of every member of the State, and that will give every individual the knowledge necessary for him to do his part in government. A self-governing people cannot afford a class too ignorant to vote. In New York State, school attendance is compulsory for children between the ages of seven and sixteen years. An exception is made of children between fourteen and sixteen, who have completed the first six years of school, and have been to school 130 days since their fourteenth birthday. Such children may be employed if they have a duly signed work certificate. In cities of the first[Pg 162] and second classes, boys between fourteen and sixteen who are employed during the day, who do not hold certain certificates, must attend night school sixteen weeks in the year. Truant officers must be appointed in every city, town, and village to enforce the law. Parents who fail to send their children to school are guilty of a misdemeanor. The School District is the smallest division of the State, and must maintain a free common school at least thirty-six weeks in the year. In 1917, an amendment to the school law was passed which abolished the old school-district system, that dated from 1795, and which makes it possible for the children of the rural districts to have some of the facilities for modern education which have heretofore been confined to larger communities. In place of the former school trustees for the separate school districts, there is now one board of education for each town, and this board has charge of all the schools in the town. There are 4,000 schools in the State which have less than ten pupils each. The value of taxable property in many of these school districts is very small. The school tax has been the only State tax which has been[Pg 163] assessed in such small units. The needs of each school district had to be met by the taxation of that one district. For all other State expenses the county is the unit of taxation and taxes are assessed equally all over the county, and the apportionment made according to the needs of each district. Under the present law, by treating the town as a unit for school taxes, all property in the town is assessed equally, and the money raised is used for the benefit of all the town. In this way the rich and poor districts share more equally in school facilities. The initial expenses of making the change have increased school taxes in some places for the first year, but the change will undoubtedly work to the great benefit of the children of the State, and is along the lines adopted some years ago by most of the other States. Villages of over 1,500 people are outside the provision of the new town law. If the people of two or more school districts wish to combine, they may vote to consolidate and establish a central school.[D] The Town Board of Education consists of from three to five members who are elected for a term of three years each and who appoint their own clerk and treasurer. They have larger power than was given to[Pg 164] the former school trustee. They have charge of all school property; they determine the kind of schools that are needed; they may establish high schools, vocational, industrial, agricultural, and night schools; they determine the number of teachers to be employed, and their salaries; they may employ medical inspectors and nurses, and may provide transportation for children attending school. The Annual School Meeting to elect the Board of Education is held the first Tuesday in May. Qualifications for Voters: At this meeting any one living in the district can vote who is a citizen twenty-one years old, a resident in the district for thirty days, who owns or rents or has under contract of purchase taxable property in the district; or has had a child, either his own or residing with him, in school for at least eight weeks during the year preceding; or who owns personal property exceeding $50 which was assessed on the last assessment roll. Candidates for the board of education may be nominated on petition of twenty-five voters. Men and women who are duly qualified electors are eligible to the board. Annual School Budget: The board of[Pg 165] education must prepare an itemized budget
of the amount necessary to be raised for school purposes, and must publish it in July for public consideration. Additional money may only be raised by a vote of the school district indorsed by the district superintendent. The building of a school, or repairs costing over $5,000, must be submitted to a vote of the school electors. A board of school directors is elected in each town, consisting of two men, each with a term of five years, but elected in different years. The Supervisory District: Each county, except those in Greater New York, is divided into from one to eight supervisory districts. (Villages and cities of over 5,000 people are not included, as they make their own provisions. Each of these has a board of education.) The District Superintendent is the director of a supervisory district. He is chosen by the board of school directors and is engaged for a term of five years and paid $1,200 a year by the State, with an additional allowance of $300 for traveling expenses. The supervisors of the towns in his district may vote to increase his salary, the increase to come out of the taxes raised in the towns in the district. [Pg 166] A man or a woman twenty-one years of age, and a citizen and resident of the State, is eligible for the office, provided he or she has a State teacher’s certificate and can pass an examination in the teaching of agriculture. The District Superintendent has the general supervision of the schools in his district. He is responsible for the instruction given in them and the discipline that is maintained. He examines candidates for teachers’ positions, under the direction of the State Commissioner of Education. Union Free School Districts have been permitted under State law for many years in cities and villages. Some years ago this law was extended to include rural districts, and during the past few years about 500 rural school districts have been discontinued and consolidated with adjoining districts. Many of the discontinued schools had only a handful of pupils, the buildings and equipment were primitive and inadequate, and the small amount of money available made it impossible for the school to offer any advantages. The union of school districts has given better educational facilities to the rural districts. The children have been taken to school by wagons provided for their transportation, and have had the advantages of a larger school,[Pg 167] a higher grade of teachers, and better facilities of all kinds for modern education. The new educational law provides still greater development in this direction. Physical Training is compulsory in all schools, public and private, for children over eight years of age for at least twenty minutes a day. The State gives financial aid in the training. Military training is compulsory for boys between the ages of sixteen and nineteen in public and private secondary schools and colleges. The name “military” is misleading, for the law provides that the development of “correct bearing, mental and physical alertness, disciplined initiative, sense of duty, self-control, and a spirit of co-operation under leadership” is to be given special attention. School Money: For many years it has been recognized that sufficient educational facilities could not be provided for every part of the State through local taxation. Besides the money raised by the school districts, the State contributes large sums of money for the support of public schools. Part of this money is the income from certain educational funds belonging to the State which cannot be used for any other purpose, and part is money appropriated by the State[Pg 168] Legislature. This money is distributed by the State Commissioner of Education according to the needs of the school districts. City schools are subject to the same general supervision of the State Commissioner of Education, but are under the direction of local boards of education, and local superintendents of schools. Normal Schools for training teachers are maintained by the State out of school funds, and teachers’ meetings are held in the supervisory districts to help and improve teachers. The University of the State of New York, which is at the head of the entire educational system of the State, is not a university in the ordinary sense of the word. It is a combination of all of the colleges and secondary schools of the State. It is governed by a Board of Regents, twelve men elected by the State Legislature for twelve years each, but whose terms begin in different years, who have large powers of control over all the higher institutions in the State, universities, colleges, technical and professional schools. They have the management of the State Library and Museum. They prepare Regents’ examinations and grant Regents’ certificates, and supervise the granting of degrees. [Pg 169] The president of the University of the State of New York is elected by the Regents. He is also the State Commissioner of Education, and as such is the head of the State Department of Education which supervises the free public schools and normal schools of the State and apportions the State school funds. The National Commissioner of Education is at the head of the National Bureau of Education in Washington. The work of this bureau is largely to collect and publish information about educational conditions and progress in the United States. Agricultural Help: There are four free agricultural schools besides the State College of Agriculture in Ithaca. Much assistance is given by the government to the agricultural needs of the State. Special courses are provided at many colleges for the various departments of agricultural work. Short courses are arranged for those who can only attend a few weeks, and at times in the year when farm work is slack. Farmers’ Institutes are organized, at which experts discuss the best way of doing the varied work of the farm, especially how to increase production and to make the farm more profitable. [Pg 170] Vocational Training:[5] If the public school is going to
prepare young people for their work in the world, some guidance in the selection of an occupation, and some practical training in a trade or profession, must be included in their school work. The great majority of children leave school at an early age to go to work. Without specialized training they have little chance for advancement, but fill the ranks of untrained labor, to the great loss of the world and their own disadvantage. State Scholarships: Each of the 150 Assembly districts of the State has five free scholarships valued at $400 each. The scholarships are awarded by the Commissioner of Education and the holder may attend any college in the State, and receive $100 for each of the four years he or she attends. Domestic Training: The majority of girls, even though they are wage-earners for a time, sooner or later marry, and have children and a household to take care of. In the olden days, when the home was a workshop, girls[Pg 171] were taught cooking at home; they learned to care for babies through taking care of the little ones in the family. Now they often leave school to go to the factory, and only leave the factory when they marry. They have no knowledge of cooking, housekeeping, or the care of children. Unless domestic economy of the most practical kind is taught in the school-room, there is no way they can be prepared for the important business of housekeeper and mother. If every girl were taught to cook and were trained in the proper care of an infant, it would add immeasurably to the sum total of the comfort and health of family life. It would be an advantage to every boy, likewise, if he were taught to use his hands in carpentering or other manual work. Whatever comes in later life, hands that have been trained to be useful are a great asset to any man or woman. Schools as Community Centers: Education does not stop at any age. Public free lectures, mothers’ meetings, and the use of schools for community recreation are helping to make the school-house 100 per cent. efficient as an educational center. The school plant that is closed when school is not in session is an extravagance which no community can afford. [Pg 172] The demand for the use of the school-house for political meetings, and as polling-places at election-time, is growing. Outside of New York City school-buildings may only be so used by special permission of the voters. Since one of the purposes of education is to train people in citizenship, the use of the school-house as the center of everything that pertains to the people’s part in government seems legitimate. Health: Compulsory education is futile unless at the same time the health of children is maintained. It is as much the duty of government to watch over the proper development of the body as of the mind, yet more attention is often given to decoration of schoolrooms than to matters of health. An appallingly large number of children have defective teeth, poor eyes, or obstructed breathing. Neglected teeth mean an undernourished body and are a common source of disease. Periodic medical examinations are required by State law, and school nurses may be engaged as part of the regular school force. The value of the law depends on the way it is enforced by local school authorities, and this is often far from satisfactory. These provisions are found to repay their cost in the[Pg 173] added strength and productive powers that they give to the community. Co-operation: The greatest of all needs in connection with our schools is a lively interest in them on the part of women. The woman who cares about the future of her child must be interested in school meetings and the election of school-boards, who should be carefully chosen. Frequent visits to the school in city and country are a help and inspiration to both teachers and parents. [Pg 174] FOOTNOTES: [5] Under a provision of a recent Federal law, a certain sum of money is available for use in any State for the teaching of home economics, industrial training, or for any vocational work, provided that the State appropriates an equal amount for the purpose, which New York State has done. XVII HEALTH AND RECREATION The great majority of men and women, and even many children, have to work for a living. To keep healthy they need time and opportunity for wholesome recreation. Recreation is as much a necessary part of normal life as food or drink; a fact that has been partially lost sight of in this economic age, but throughout the world’s history there have been frequent examples of governments which made careful provision to supply necessary amusements for their citizens. In Greece great stadiums were erected for games and contests; in medieval times the knights held tournaments, even the churches celebrated their saints’ days with gay street processions. The need for recreation is particularly great to-day because the congestion of population of our cities has left few open spaces[Pg 175] for leisure time, and crowded living and small, dark rooms where all the work of the household must be done, preclude any social life in the homes of many families. Many young girls who crave companionship and social intercourse with friends have to go outside their homes to find it. Crowded tenements without light or air, dirty streets with no provision for wholesome recreation, are proofs of poor government and inefficient democracy, no matter how prosperous and contented a city may look in its richer quarters. People who are obliged to live in the crowded districts have a lowered vitality and a lessened value to the world; and the same natural impulses which, rightly directed, lead to an orderly, useful, contented life, may be the causes of delinquency if stunted or misdirected. The slum is an economic crime, condoned by a public which pays the penalty in contamination and contagion
thrust back upon itself. Housing: Air and sunshine are the first requisites of healthy life. The government recognizes a certain responsibility in insuring these necessities, and prescribes by law regulations for the construction and inspection of living accommodations. Many families[Pg 176] cannot choose their homes, but are obliged to live in the kind of buildings that are to be found near their work. Inside rooms without windows, rooms into which a ray of sunshine has never penetrated, are common in every city in the State. The law prohibits, in cities of the first class, the building of new tenements with inside rooms without windows, but many old ones are in existence, and two-family houses may still be built with inside rooms. In other cities there are practically no restrictions, except by occasional ineffectual city ordinances. Sanitary arrangements, and the water-supply in many tenement-houses, are insufficient for health or even decency. Tenement-house inspection is a part of city government in which women are particularly fitted to serve. In New York City, there are 103,688 tenement-houses and 193 inspectors. Only eight of these are women. The war has greatly intensified the housing problem. With the tremendous increase in certain industries which has brought thousands of people to work in new factories, there is a corresponding demand for living accommodations near their work. These factories may not be permanent, and so private capital hesitates to build houses near them.[Pg 177] The result is a terrible crowding of people in unsanitary and unfit buildings. The consequences of such overcrowding is seen in the increase of child delinquency, immorality and disease, an increased death-rate, and the inevitable unrest from such unhappiness which results in strikes and labor troubles. Recreation: The modern city so far has made little provision for the natural irresistible desire of youth for play. This is all the more dangerous because young men and women are being drawn in great numbers from the protection of the home, for work in factories and shops. They have a freedom from restraint such as they have never had before. They have money which they have earned; they are eager for amusement. When they come to the end of a day of exhausting work their love of pleasure will not be denied. If they are not given the right kind of amusement, they will take the wrong kind. Instead of recognizing this natural instinct for play, and providing safe channels for its expression, all provisions for recreation are usually left to commercial interests, to be used for their own gain, without supervision or control. Vice is often deliberately disguised as pleasure, and the most normal and[Pg 178] healthy impulses of young men and women, that, properly directed, lead to happy married life, are frequently used as a means to their downfall. Loneliness also plays a part. Many a young man or girl comes to the city to find work. Where can they find the social intercourse and companionship necessary to normal life? The homeless boy often stands around the edge of the dance-hall, vainly hoping to make the acquaintance of some “nice girl.” The lonely girl, living in a cheerless hall bedroom, turns to the dance-hall as a place to find companionship. Proper provision for public recreation, well supervised, would help to bring this boy and girl together in decent, wholesome surroundings. The Dance: In young girls, the social instinct, the desire to meet and know other people, and especially those of the opposite sex, becomes a dominant factor between the ages of fifteen and twenty. The most natural expression of youthful spirits is the dance. To allow it to become a snare to spoil the lives of young people is one of the great deficiencies of city life. In every city dance-halls, ranging from the back room of a saloon to the casino or “gin-palace,” hold out temptations to young people. [Pg 179] In New York City there are over five hundred licensed dance-halls. This means, at a moderate estimate, one-quarter of a million young people every night in these public dance-halls, most of which are run in connection with the liquor trade. The obligation to regulate places of public amusement, and to provide good amusement in place of bad, rests with the community. The minute you begin to regulate the dance-hall you are interfering with many kinds of business; first and foremost the liquor trade and all the interests it involves; then, with the business of those whose livelihood depends upon the vile trade that is stimulated by the usual dance-hall; and behind these groups, an unknown number of perfectly respectable businesses whose trade is increased by the conditions which characterize a “wide open” town. All these manifold interests are rooted deep in the fabric of the government of most of our American cities, and, because their connections are in so many instances seemingly innocent, are all the more difficult to defeat and dislodge. Playgrounds: The need of organized recreation facilities for children has become pressing, as congestion of population has left[Pg 180] no place, not even the streets, in which they can play. There are many blocks in New York City where the population is greater than in any other place of like area in the world. Where can the great throng of children go to find innocent amusement? Where shall they go out of school hours? In 1915 it was estimated that there were 734,000 children between five and fourteen years of age who had to play away from home. To provide for them, the city furnished school and park playgrounds for from 100,000 to 185,000, leaving at least half a million children with no provision of any kind for play, except the already crowded city streets. Vacation Schools: Keeping the schools and playgrounds open during the summer months takes the children away from the hot, crowded streets, at least part of the time. Like public playgrounds, the number of vacation schools is always dependent on appropriations. The makers of the city
budget find a greater pressure exerted from the multitude of business interests that want consideration, than they do in support of appropriations for public health and comfort. It will be necessary for women to be as alive[Pg 181] in supporting such measures, as men are in demanding that their interests shall be considered. Also facts must be given to prove that the cost of such appropriations is saved in the increased productive powers of a healthier people. It has been stated that a healthy laborer increases the wealth of the country by some $30,000 during a normal lifetime. If this is true, it should be merely intelligent business on the part of the commonwealth to expend a reasonable pro rata of this sum, when necessary, to insure that a child when full grown is healthy. Recreation Centers have been established in some of the Western cities. Chicago has a series of small parks in various parts of the city, with outdoor playgrounds, and in each one a large building where there is a gymnasium, swimming-pool, and assembly-rooms, large and small. On a Saturday or Sunday afternoon, these places show many happy pictures of thousands of families, with both the old and young spending their leisure in a way that increases their own happiness, and their value to the world. Municipal Dance-halls have also been tried. In the recreation centers of Chicago there are dance-halls under careful supervision. But whether the city provides municipal[Pg 182] dance-halls or not, public dance-halls should be divorced from the liquor business, and there should be careful policing and supervision of private halls, and for this work women police officials are necessary. Municipal Bathing Beaches are also possible for any community with a water-front. They are one of the great attractions of Chicago, where a large part of the lakefront draws hundreds of thousands of men, women, and children, who may easily reach these public beaches from any part of the city. The New York State law makes the construction of free baths obligatory in cities of 50,000 or more population. The “Movies”: Millions of children attend moving-picture theaters every day of the year. In New York City alone, the daily attendance of children is estimated at 200,000. The pictures impress the minds of children like scenes in real life. For good or for evil, moving pictures are the great teachers of the youth of to-day. Many of the lessons taught on the screen are not suitable for children. They give intimate views of the underworld, of assault and infidelity, and barroom brawls. They show fair heroines and gallant heroes committing crimes, and being pardoned and[Pg 183] living happily ever after. They show picture after picture that tends to destroy moral standards that home and school have tried to teach. Causes for Juvenile Crime: The natural craving for excitement and love of adventure, with no provision for its legitimate expression, is responsible for much of the crime of our cities. Some years ago, it was estimated that of the 15,000 young people under twenty years of age who were arrested in Chicago during a year, most of them had broken the law in their blundering efforts to find adventure. It is said that the machinery of the grand juries and criminal courts is maintained, in a large measure, for the benefit of youths between the ages of thirteen and twenty-five. The so-called “gangs” of our cities are an expression of the recklessness and bravado, common to boys, which, well-directed, is of great service to the world, and, misdirected, is responsible for much misery. The Use of School-buildings as Social Centers meets a very real problem. Halls for dancing and for entertainments, lectures and debates, rooms for games, even gymnasiums, could easily be brought within the reach of most of the people. Grown-ups, as[Pg 184] well as young people, would find them of value. This use of the schools, outside of the regular school hours, has greatly increased in the West, and the school plant has become an increased factor for good in the life of the community. Rural Needs: Some of our indifference in regard to proper provisions for recreation may be due to the fact that we were so long a rural nation. The boy who lived on a farm or in a village, who had the swimming-hole in summer, the farm with its hay-loft, and in winter sledding and skating, was able to satisfy his love of adventure. To-day, even rural conditions have changed, and there is as much need of decent and wholesome recreation in the country and small villages as in cities. Churches are open only on Sunday, schools are closed two days in the week, the only meeting-place is the corner store, or the saloons, and the streets. The use of the school-building and grounds when school is not in session and on Saturdays and Sundays, would take many boys off the streets. [Pg 185] XVIII THE CARE OF DEPENDENT AND DELINQUENT CHILDREN The State of New York has the largest actual number of dependent children, and the largest number in proportion to population, of any State in the Union. In the early days it was the women who cared for the neglected children of a neighborhood, and children left homeless were usually taken into some one’s home. This care has gradually gone into the hands of the town, the county, or the State, and has become a department of government. There are two ways of caring for homeless children: one is to place them in institutions, the other is to place them in private families. In both cases the State usually has to pay for their support. If the right kind of a home can be found for a child it seems to have a much better chance for a healthy, happy childhood, and for a useful future[Pg 186] when placed with a family, than when placed in an institution. The custom in New York State has been to place
children in institutions. It is the business of each local official, town overseer of the poor, county superintendent of the poor, and city commissioner of charities, to provide for destitute children. In the early days he used to provide for them by giving what was called “outdoor relief” to the parent, if either parent was living; if the child was homeless it was sent to the almshouse. For many years past, children between the ages of three and sixteen have not been allowed in almshouses, but have been committed to institutions. Besides this public care, private charitable agencies began to establish orphan asylums, and homes for friendless children. These institutions often developed from small beginnings into large establishments, and began to draw on the public funds for at least a part of the maintenance of their inmates, and sometimes for their entire support. It was argued that if the State did not pay for the support of the children in the orphan asylum it would have to take care of them elsewhere. No Definite Authority: For many years[Pg 187] the authority between State and local governing boards has been divided. As a consequence, inspection of children’s institutions has amounted to very little, or has been, at least, ineffectual. This inadequate inspection, in addition to divided authority, encouraged neglect and abuse. The report of conditions in private institutions in New York City, made in 1916 as the result of an official investigation, showed that dirt, insufficient food, vermin, disease, and lack of common sanitary precautions were common. Education was so much below the standard of the public school, with little or no vocational training, that children were discharged with no preparation for earning a living. There was not only an utter absence of home atmosphere, but methods and restrictions were used like a prison or reformatory. So little care was given when the children left the institution, that they often went out entirely friendless, with no one to call upon for council or advice, and utterly unprepared for independent life. These conditions were allowed to exist, partly because of the divided authority and responsibility, largely because those in authority were not deeply interested. As the[Pg 188] report said, “the committing authorities have not looked upon the problem as of sufficient moment to make it any part of their business to formulate and promulgate any competent standard to govern the service maintained in children’s institutions.” New York City has tried the experiment of “boarding out” all dependent children between two and seven years of age, taking care to place Catholic children in Catholic homes, Jewish children in Jewish homes, and so forth. In some respects, this is a better method than committing children to institutions, but it is only successful if the child is carefully placed, and its welfare watched by appointed visitors. In New York State, 1900-1913, the average infant mortality-rate of children under two years of age was 86.4 per 1,000, while the death-rate in eleven large infant asylums was 422.5 per 1,000. That is, under the care of the mother, even including the ignorant mother, only one-fifth as many babies died as when the children were cared for by the State. Experience shows that children are not only safer and healthier with their own mothers than in institutions, but that they have a better chance with foster mothers[Pg 189] than in asylums. In 1914, the New York City Health Department, as an experiment, placed seventy-five infants to board with foster mothers, with the result that the infant death-rate dropped forty-eight per cent. Boards of Child Welfare: In 1915, the Legislature authorized the appointment of boards of child welfare in each county. These boards were to investigate needy cases and had the power to grant an allowance to a destitute mother for the care of her children.[6] This work is dependent on the appropriations granted by the county. County authorities are slow to act in matters that require appropriations. At the end of the first year, fifty-seven counties had organized boards, but only thirty-four had made appropriations; 6,014 children had been kept from asylums and 1,969 homes had been saved from being broken up. In New York City, the number of children in institutions has decreased 3,000 since the Child Welfare Board began its work. In 1917 New York City appropriated $1,250,000 for widowed mothers. The average monthly allowance, the first year of the Welfare Board’s work, for[Pg 190] each child under sixteen, was $7.99, which is $3 less than it would have cost to keep the child in an institution. It is now admitted that everything possible should be done to prevent a home from being broken up by poverty; that if the mother is living, and is a fit person to bring up her children, it should be made possible for her to keep them. That the mother is usually a fit person to bring up her child, is proved by the experience of the Board of Child Welfare of New York City, which examined four thousand cases of mothers who applied for pensions, and found only in fourteen cases that the mother was not to be so trusted. In many of the Western States the widowed mothers’ compensation, or pension laws, have been extended to cover children of delinquent, injured, or crippled fathers, and sometimes even of fathers imprisoned in penal institutions. Some States also have other provisions which reduce the number of dependent children. In Washington a man who deserts his family is put to work and his wages are paid to his wife and children. This seems more sensible than the law which imprisons the man, and lets the State support him, while his wife has to support herself and children.[Pg 191] In Kansas, the wages of a prisoner are given to his family. In California and Illinois, the father must help support the illegitimate child. The care of dependent children is work for which women are especially fitted by both training and inclination. In
Colorado, the State Home for Dependent Children must have two women on its board of five members. In the State Industrial Home for Girls, three of the five members of the board must be women. The Problem of the Delinquent Child is one that needs the greatest care and expert attention. If the dependent child is an appealing figure, the delinquent child is an indictment of a community. He is usually the product of neglect, of overcrowding, of bad living conditions, and of defects in the educational system. To treat the child offender as if he were grown up and responsible, and to punish him in the same way as an adult, is to make a criminal of him. The manner in which his first offense against the law is handled, often determines the future of such a child. Children’s Courts: It used to be common for children of all ages to be detained with older, hardened criminals indiscriminately,[Pg 192] exposed to contamination and disease, and to try them in an open court-room with all other cases. The modern policy is to try all cases against children, with the exception of murder, in special courts. The entire policy of a children’s court is based on prevention instead of punishment, to make friends with a delinquent child, to show him the danger ahead of him, to watch over him like an older, wiser friend, and to help him to keep straight. The terror and disgrace of an open court-room are replaced by a quiet, friendly talk in the judge’s room. A large number of all children who are arrested are ungovernable or disorderly, children who have run away from home, or who are associating with dissolute or vicious persons. Another large class comes into the courts because of improper guardianship; neglected children, or those exposed to physical or moral danger. These cases are not classed technically as delinquents, but are tried by what are known as special proceedings. The total number of children arraigned in the children’s courts of New York City in 1916 for delinquency was: boys, 5,929; girls, 150; in special proceedings, boys, 3,893; girls, 2,972, a total of 12,944. The[Pg 193] largest percentage of cases for any offense for boys was petty larceny, and for girls was sex offenses and incorrigibility. In 1916 the Police Department of New York City made in its report an analysis of juvenile arrests, showing the nature of the offense, the age, sex, nativity, occupation, and employment of the child. The largest number of arrests were for offenses against property. Practically half of all the delinquents were native-born children of foreign-born parents. The attitude of the police force of New York City during the last few years has been helpful in handling the problem of juvenile delinquency. The police are now instructed to try to prevent small infringements of the law by children, and many trivial offenses are adjusted out of court. A considerable proportion of the children who come repeatedly into the children’s courts are feeble-minded. During 1917, the children’s court of New York City, for the first time, had a clinic attached to the court, where children suspected of being mentally deficient could be examined. There is still, however, no place where they can be committed temporarily for observation, and there is great need of a graded institution that will[Pg 194] provide for the treatment and care of the different classes of mentally deficient children. The system of probation for child offenders is of the greatest possible assistance in reclaiming the child; it also decreases the number of children who are committed to institutions, thus saving the State money. To make probation effective, children must be visited frequently in their homes, and be kept on probation long enough to make probable a complete reformation. Women, and not men, should be appointed as probation officers for delinquent girls, but, as the appointments are often political, men are given the preference, and are even put in charge of girls. The present Children’s Court in Greater New York dates from 1915, and under the presiding justice of the court has been brought to a high state of intelligent and sympathetic handling. The city of Buffalo also makes special provision for delinquent children. In most of the cities of the State, the judges of the court of special sessions set certain days for children’s cases. Among the improvements needed in the New York State law is a provision to give the children’s court jurisdiction over children[Pg 195] of sixteen and seventeen years of age. This is especially needed in cases of wayward girls. In Colorado the juvenile court handles cases of offenders under eighteen. Also, it is a criminal offense in Colorado to contribute to the delinquency of a child, and the children’s court has jurisdiction over adults contributing to such delinquency. This is a provision needed in the New York State law. Colorado also has a law prohibiting the publication of the name or picture of a girl under eighteen in a case of delinquency. This is important, as procurers and other men who have been the cause of a girl’s delinquency often go free, because the girl and her family wish to avoid publicity. The children’s courts in New York State should also have the power to appoint legal guardians for children in case of need. To be a judge of a juvenile court requires exceptional qualifications: quick sympathy, and intelligent understanding of the many causes which contribute to child delinquency. A large part of the problem comes back to the environment of the child, to crowded living conditions, deficient education, lack of vocational training, and absence of opportunities for recreation. The pitiful striving of children for pleasure and play, and the[Pg 196] inadequate provisions of our cities to meet this need, are often responsible for the first delinquent step. Many improvements in this direction, as well as improvements in the law, are needed to bring the protection that New York State gives
its children up to the level of the best found in other States. [Pg 197] FOOTNOTES: [6] Unfortunately, the law expressly excludes in its provisions for relief families with alien fathers. XIX CHILD WAGE-EARNERS Children are the most important assets of a nation. While every one, individually, would admit this statement, it is not easy to persuade the government that the protection and development of child life cannot be left safely to private initiative, any more than can animal or plant life; that, in addition to the protection of the individual family, children need the fostering care of the organized government. For many years, the government, both State and National, has dealt generously with the agricultural interests of the country. When disease has broken out among either animals or plants, it has had its experts ready to send out at a moment’s notice to any part of the country. It has spent vast sums of money to investigate and eradicate boll-weevil in cotton, and hoof-and-mouth disease among cattle, and[Pg 198] to develop a better strain in many animals and plants, but it is only very recently that it has been willing to investigate the needs of the children of the nation. The appropriations of the Federal government for animal life, in 1915, were over $5,000,000; for child life, $164,000. In 1917, an additional appropriation of $150,000 was made for the enforcement of the Federal Child Labor Law. Federal Child Labor Law: For fourteen years, the National Child Labor Committee has tried to get laws passed which would limit the hours of work for children, the kind of work they might do, and the age at which they might be put to work. Discouraged by the State by State method, the committee inaugurated a campaign for a Federal child labor law, and after three years of effort succeeded in getting it passed. Men have an eight-hour day in many States. Women have an eight-hour day in a few States. Until the Federal bill was passed, children of tender years in a number of States could be employed almost unlimited hours and all night. At the time the bill was passed three States permitted children under fourteen to work ten and eleven hours a day, and two[Pg 199] States permitted them to work at night. Nineteen mining States permitted children under sixteen to work in mines. Nine States permitted children under sixteen to do night work. In three Southern States, one-fifth of all the cotton-mill workers, in 1913, were children less than sixteen years of age. The Federal Child Labor Bill, which went into effect September 1, 1917, was declared unconstitutional by a United States District Court in North Carolina, and is now before the Supreme Court of the United States. This law prohibits the interstate commerce of articles which children have helped to make. It does not control the labor of children in local occupations. Street trades, messenger service, agricultural work, and housework are not touched by it. This law is a great step in advance for the protection of children, but there are still 1,859,000 children, from ten to sixteen years old, at work in the United States whom the Federal law does not touch. New York State Laws: For many years New York State has been building up a code of protection for the children of the State. Children under sixteen years of age are not permitted to work unless they have[Pg 200] a special permit, and they must have completed the sixth grade in school. A physical examination of the child is required to see that he is able to stand the strain of the industry in which he is about to engage, and proof of age is required. To sell newspapers, boys from twelve to fourteen must have a permit and a badge. Boys of fourteen and fifteen are required to have badges if they have a prescribed route for the delivery of newspapers, but not if they are selling for themselves. Children under sixteen are not allowed to work more than eight hours a day. To enforce these laws adequately, many inspectors are needed and unceasing vigilance on the part of the public. While the provisions of the law concerning newsboys are very clear, and are generally obeyed in New York City, they are seldom enforced elsewhere in the State. To allow children to enter the industrial world at an early age, without preparation, and with no guidance as to the sort of work for which they are best fitted, is unfair to them. The boy or girl who gets a job at fourteen, without any vocational training, is apt to remain an unskilled worker all his or her life. The range of occupations open to such children is small. The largest number[Pg 201] of boys who go to work at an early age become delivery boys, errand or wagon boys, or newsboys. There is little chance among these employments for real training or for any future advancement. A careful study, by the National Child Labor Committee, of certain cases brought into the Children’s Court, has established the fact that a large proportion of the boys and girls who come into the court come from the ranks of child workers. This investigation has also proved the need of adequate vocational guidance. The present school course gives little help in this direction to children who are leaving school at fourteen or fifteen, and parents are often as ignorant of industrial conditions as the children. After a few years in an occupation that offers no opportunity for development, the boy or girl who went to work so young is often left stranded, not only untrained, but demoralized. There is need also of making parents understand that better opportunities are open to children who have had education beyond the elementary grades. Street Trades of all kinds are regarded by social experts as unsafe for children. Some authorities recommend the absolute prohibition[Pg 202] of all street trading for boys under
seventeen. These trades, including selling newspapers, appeal to boys because they like the excitement of street life, and the spending-money which they give them. A judge of the Detroit Juvenile Court says, “At least fifty per cent. of the boys brought into the juvenile court are newsboys.” An old newsboy, when asked what night work on the streets had done for him, said: “When I was a kid, it wasn’t like it is now. They didn’t have no midnight edition—I always had to be home by eight o’clock. When I got to selling at night I started in high school, but when it came time for the first examination, I said, ‘Oh, I’ll just quit. I’d rather be out on the streets, anyway.’” In Baltimore it is estimated that 45 per cent. of all the children in the near-by reform school have been street workers. Investigations have proved the theory is false that a child is usually put to work “to support a widowed mother.” More often the child in a street trade is found to come from a home where there is no need of his work, and in these trades the earnings of children are very small. In a recent investigation, in Seattle, the earnings of newsboys were found in 46 per cent. of the cases[Pg 203] of the elementary school paper-sellers to be less than $5 a month. The night messenger service is known to be a demoralizing occupation, unfit for any small boy, and in New York it is prohibited to all boys under twenty-one. The same protection of the law is now needed for girls. Many parents do not realize the serious results of letting their children go to work too young, or the bad effects of over-work on them. The tendency of over-fatigue is to break down the moral resistance. The release from supervision which is brought about by their wage-earning, and the danger of their having money of their own to spend, added to the interruption of their education, cannot help but have a demoralizing effect on them. Rural Child Workers are quite as common as city workers, but they are not so often wage-earners. Their labor is usually taken by parents as a matter of course, and they are not paid. Farming and housework are two occupations which engage many children, and there is almost a complete absence of laws regulating them. A distinction should be made between the farmer lad who does “chores” night and morning, and the boy who is kept out of[Pg 204] school most of the year to be a farm-hand; and between the girl who helps her mother out of school hours, and the girl who is kept at work in a canning-factory, and goes from one to another as fruits and vegetables ripen; but neither the chores nor the housework should be allowed to interfere with the regularity of school attendance. The boy who is kept at farm labor, without education, and the girl who is kept at work in the canning industry at the expense of her schooling, are as much in the ranks of child laborers as the cotton-mill workers, and they suffer in the same way from lack of training for a useful future. Experiments have been made in combining the work that the boy does night and morning on the farm, with the school work. Under proper guidance, the chores that the boy has to do at home can be made a means of education. For example: a pupil who assists at home in the milking might be required to keep a daily record of each cow, with the fluctuations in the yield of milk, due to weather and food. This combining of the necessary home work with the instruction of the school has been made a success in some of the Western States, where county superintendents supervise the home-school work and[Pg 205] make it of the greatest possible educational value. Rural school terms are usually shorter than city terms, and irregular attendance is more frequent. Only 68 per cent. of the pupils enrolled in rural schools attend daily, while in cities the percentage is 80. The absences of girls are caused largely by housework. The results of child labor in the country are seen in the high percentage of rejections from military service on account of physical defects in men from rural districts, and the larger percentage of illiteracy in country communities compared with that in cities. Better and more adequate education for the thousands of children on the farms of the State is one of our immediate needs. It is the right of every child to be given enough education to give him a good start in life. The child-labor problem is largely a school problem. Keep the children in school, and there will be no child labor. War and Children: The war has brought a new demand for the labor of children, and new evidence of the serious consequences of using this labor. In England and France, juvenile delinquency due to the breaking down of educational facilities, and the exploitation of children in shops and factories,[Pg 206] has increased to a point where both nations are aroused by a new national danger. To meet the sudden great need for munitions, and the speeding up of all industry, children of all ages, and women of all classes, went into the factories. In England, it is estimated that 200,000 children from eleven to thirteen years of age left school to go to work. Abnormally high wages were paid them. With fathers at the front and mothers away from home in munition factories, these children roamed the streets after their work was done, with pockets filled with money to spend, and no one to exercise a restraining hand. Streets are unlighted, the police force has been decreased, churches, schools, and settlement work are interrupted. Is it any wonder that since the war began juvenile delinquency has increased 46 per cent. in Edinburgh,
56 per cent. in Manchester, and thefts 50 per cent.? The same demand for child labor has begun to be manifest in this country. The United States is being called on to feed the world, and to make supplies of all kinds for our allies, besides the tremendous need of supplies for our own armies. Millions of men are being drawn from the ranks of producers,[Pg 207] and have become consumers. The world is consuming and destroying on a scale never known before in history. The demand for more and more labor is becoming ever more insistent. In spite of the warnings which have come to us from England and France, of the necessity of guarding against the exploitation of our children during the war, New York State was one of the first to try to break down the restrictions built up during many years of the past with such infinite labor. The Brown bills, which passed the Legislature last winter, were a frank attempt to utilize the labor of children. They made it possible, at the discretion of the State Labor Commission, to abrogate every law that has been passed in New York State to safeguard its children. One bill would have made it possible to utilize the labor of children unlimited hours, seven days in the week, including night labor. This was vetoed by the Governor. The other, which makes possible the suspension of the compulsory education law, in order that children may work on the farms, has become a law. Other attempts will undoubtedly be made to exploit children. It will require unceasing vigilance on the[Pg 208] part of the people of the State to see that measures detrimental to children shall not be successful. Attempts are being made to remove the limit of hours, and to abolish the requirement that children between fourteen and sixteen shall have working papers. Such measures mean that the physical examination now required would not be made, and that the necessity of furnishing proof of the age of the applicant would be eliminated. The first would permit weak, sickly children to go to work in the factories, and the second would encourage the employment of children under fourteen. The need for increased labor is a real one, and as long as the war lasts it will continue to grow. But the nation that exploits its children while at war is bleeding at both ends. It is the province of women to watch over and guard all children. Now that they have the vote, the responsibility has been put directly on them, and they have the power to meet it. Because of the tremendous cost of war in human life itself, it becomes doubly important to safeguard human life at its source, and that is our job. Note.—The material used in this chapter is largely taken from publications of the National Child Labor Committee. [Pg 209] XX PUBLIC CHARITIES The public institutions of the State are grouped under three heads: the State Commission in Lunacy, the Prison Commission, and the State Board of Charities. The State Board of Charities, which has general supervision of the charitable institutions of the State, consists of twelve members, of whom nine must be appointed as commissioners from the nine judicial districts of the State, and three from New York City. The law prescribes otherwise no qualifications for membership on this board. (A recent innovation has been made in the appointment of a woman on the board.) The commissioners serve without salary, but each one is paid his expenses and $10 for each day’s attendance at meetings, not to exceed $500 a year. Partly State, Partly Private: Some charitable institutions in the State are wholly[Pg 210] controlled by the State or one of its subdivisions; others are controlled by private corporations, but are maintained either wholly, or in part, by State funds. There are over six hundred and forty charitable institutions which receive money from the State. There are still other institutions which are entirely supported by private funds. The State Board of Charities has not the authority at present to inspect organized charities which do not receive public money, so there are many institutions which are without the protection of State inspection, and the total amount of dependency in the State is not known officially. Duties of the Board: Besides its duties of inspection and general supervision of charitable institutions, the board has the control of the incorporation of charitable institutions, and must approve of an application for a certificate of incorporation before it can be granted. It also issues licenses for medical dispensaries, and makes rules and regulations under which they must work. The Powers of the Board Are Limited, as the carrying out of its recommendations often depends on action by the State Legislature, and especially on the amount of the appropriations granted for the work. The[Pg 211] powers originally given the board have also been greatly impaired by the action of the Legislature from time to time in creating other agencies, which have resulted in a duplication of work and an overlapping of authority. There is much complaint of institutions being overrun by official visitors, and inspectors with conflicting authority, who are said to interfere with the work of the institutions without accomplishing adequate results. The powers of the board have been especially curtailed since the office of Fiscal Supervisor of State Charities was created in 1902. When decisions are to be made concerning appropriations for State charities, in making up the legislative budget, the Fiscal Supervisor is consulted to the exclusion of the State Board. In reality the Fiscal Supervisor has far greater powers than the State Board of Charities, as no appropriations can be made unless approved by him. His effort is to keep down appropriations wherever possible, and he does not come in direct personal touch with the needs of the work. The power to fix salaries and establish positions has been given to the Salary Classification Commission, and to
locate new buildings[Pg 212] to the Commission on Sites, Grounds, and Buildings. The general dissatisfaction with the confused and conflicting authority, which had come with different legislative enactments, led to the appointment in 1916, of a commissioner to investigate State charities and to report to the Governor, with recommendations of changes he deemed advisable. Among the changes recommended were: (1) That instead of an unpaid board of twelve members, appointed from the judicial districts, there should be a board of nine, of whom one should be a woman; three members should be paid and should give all their time to the work, one of the three to be president of the board, one the chairman of a bureau for mental deficiency, and the third, chairman of a bureau for dependent children; the six unpaid members were to be specialists in the special classes of work which is supervised by the board. The present State Board of Charities objects to this change on the ground that a board so organized would become political. They also feel that the appointments should continue to be made from the judicial districts, in order that every part of the State should have a resident member of the State Board. [Pg 213] The report further recommended: (2) Prompt provision for defective delinquents; (3) a careful revision of the State charities and poor law; (4) that power should be given the State Board to inspect private charitable institutions; (5) the creation of a new bureau for dependent children; (6) the abolition of the office of Fiscal Supervisor of Charities, in order that recommendations for appropriations should come directly from the State Board of Charities; (7) the abolition of other conflicting authorities, and restoring the authority of the State Board. None of these recommendations have been acted upon as yet. The State institutions that are under the State are the following: State Agricultural and Industrial School, Industry; Syracuse State Institution for Feeble-minded Children, Syracuse; New York State School for the Blind, Batavia; Thomas Indian School, Iroquois; State Custodial Asylum for Feeble-minded Women, Newark; New York State Soldiers’ and Sailors’ Home, Bath; New York State Training School for Girls, Hudson; Western House of Refuge for Women, Albion; New York State Reformatory for Women, Bedford Hills; Rome Custodial State Asylum, Rome; Craig Colony for[Pg 214] Epileptics, Sonyea; New York State Woman’s Relief Corps Home, Oxford; New York State Hospital for the Care of Crippled and Deformed Children, West Haverstraw; New York State Hospital for the Treatment of Incipient Pulmonary Tuberculosis, Raybrook; New York State Training School for Boys, established by law in 1904, not yet ready to receive inmates; Letchworth Village for Feeble-minded, Rockland County; and authorized in 1911-12, but not yet open: The State Industrial Farm Colony, Green Haven; and the State Reformatory for Misdemeanants. Private institutions supported mainly by State appropriations are: New York Institution for the Instruction of Deaf and Dumb; New York Society for the Reformation of Juvenile Delinquents in the City of New York; New York Institute for the Education of the Blind; Institutions for Deaf Mutes in New York City, Buffalo, Westchester, Rome, Rochester; Malone and Albany Home Schools for the Oral Instruction of the Deaf. County and City Institutions: County and city almshouses are under the supervision of the State Board of Charities, and also the recently established county sanatoria[Pg 215] for tuberculosis, of which there are about thirty. The small number of patients in these county hospitals for tuberculosis makes it impossible for some of them to give as expert and efficient care as a larger and better equipped hospital might offer.[7] The Department of State and Alien Poor, of the State Board of Charities, has the supervision of the State poor, and of alien and Indian dependents. It also has the power to transfer aliens, or non-residents, who have become public charges, to their home county or State, or, in co-operation with the United States Immigration authorities, to return them to their home countries. This department has saved the State large sums of money. In 1916, 810 persons were returned to their homes in other States or countries, by this department, of whom 250 were alien poor. Local Boards of Managers: Each State charitable and reformatory institution is administered and controlled by a board of local managers, appointed by the Governor and confirmed by the Senate. These boards usually consist of seven persons who serve[Pg 216] without pay, for their expenses only. There are some women on these local boards, but not nearly as many as there might be, considering the number of institutions which have women in their charge. The superintendents of State institutions are all carefully selected from the civil service lists. The employees of these institutions form a difficult problem. The old conception of an attendant for a public institution was exceedingly low; the standard is still far from good. The salaries paid are insufficient to attract intelligent service. The Department of Inspection: There are over six hundred institutions in the State which come under the Department of Inspection. To handle them there are eight inspectors, and one superintendent of inspection. Almshouses are inspected and graded in three classes. Of the counties that were reported in 1917 as first class in both administration and plant are: Allegany, Chautauqua, Genesee, Jefferson, Lewis, Monroe, Niagara, Saratoga, Schenectady, and Wayne counties. Those second class in both administration and plant were: Dutchess, Herkimer, Madison, Rockland, Schoharie, and Ulster counties.[Pg 217] The only one third class in both plant and administration was in Sullivan County. Provision for the Feeble-minded is the greatest present need of the charities of the State. Mental defectives are at large all over the State, and they are found in all institutions. They are a source of trouble in the public schools, and are a constant danger to the State. It is estimated that there are not less than 30,000 of these unfortunates. The State institutions have room for about 5,700, but they are actually caring for 6,700. For
years efforts have been made to get the Legislature to make adequate provision for their segregation. The report of one institution for feeble-minded women says, “nine of the women admitted were married and had given birth to thirty-seven children; twenty-six of those admitted had borne forty-three illegitimate children; making a total of eighty children born to those unfortunate women.” Letchworth Village, in Rockland County, a plot of 2,000 acres, was planned to provide for 2,500 to 3,000 feeble-minded. It was established in 1907, and in 1916 still had a capacity of only 330. [Pg 218] The failure of the State to complete a project it had undertaken is shown also in the New York State Training School for Boys at Yorktown Heights. This was planned to be a reformatory of the modern cottage type to take the place of the very old one on Randall’s Island, and was greatly needed for delinquent boys. After twelve years of delay, and after $800,000 had been appropriated by the State and most of it expended, this project has been abandoned. The reason given for the final decision to abandon the site, was the possible contamination of the Croton water supply by the institution. With modern methods of sewage disposal it seems as if it would have been possible to guard against this danger. It would have been easier to insure proper treatment of the sewage from such an institution than from the towns and villages which exist in the Croton watershed. The State Board of Charities recommends now an appropriation of $150,000 for a new site and plans. Recommendations of the State Board: Intelligent handling of the problem of dependency must deal with causes. Probably the major part could be done away with if the State would adopt adequate preventive[Pg 219] measures. The board recommends as an aid to this end: (1) Industrial insurance; (2) better housing, including the destruction of the worst congested areas in cities, and the prevention of further congestion; (3) vocational training for children; (4) improved labor laws, restricting the hours of labor, and compensation for accidents to employees; (5) adequate pensions to widowed mothers. They also recommend: That further provision be made for tuberculosis, which the records of the State Health Department show is increasing; that the office of County Superintendent of the Poor should be appointive and be included in the Civil Service. The frequent changing of poor-law officials, and their lack of knowledge of the subject, are drawbacks in the discharge of their duties. The State Commission in Lunacy has charge of the hospitals for the insane. All the insane come under the direct charge of the State. This is a salaried commission consisting of three members. There are local boards of managers for these insane asylums as for the other charitable institutions, and a majority of the members of these local boards are required to visit the[Pg 220] hospitals at least once a month for inspection.[8] The State Prison Commission, like the State Board of Charities, is an unpaid board, but the Superintendent of Prisons is a State official with a salary. There has been for years a provision of the State law which gives one scale of salaries for men employed in these institutions and a lower one for women. Pay of Stenographers (male) $70-80 a month ” ” (female) 50-68 ” Chief Supervisors (male) 55-68 ” ” ” (female) 50-62 ” Since women have been given the vote, it is probable that this law will be changed and equal pay given for equal work. [Pg 221] FOOTNOTES: [7] It is hoped that when the Boards of Managers for these county tuberculosis hospitals are appointed, local women will be placed on them. [8] The number of insane in the State is increasing far more rapidly than the provision which is being made for them. The last report of the State Hospital Commission shows that in hospitals for the insane, planned to accommodate 27,890 patients, there were in June, 1916, 33,873 patients, an overcrowding of 21.5 per cent. The State Hospital Commission urgently requests a bond issue to provide immediately for the construction of new buildings. XXI THE PROTECTION OF WORKING-WOMEN The war has brought a revolution in woman’s work. Because of the increased demand for labor, trades and all kinds of employment that have been considered exclusively the province of men, have been opened to women. The universal verdict is that they have everywhere made good. Work that demands the greatest exactness and care, specialized technical operations that have been supposed to require a man’s brain, have been done by them quite as well as by men. But their employment in many of the new industries has brought new industrial problems, and they have gone into many new occupations which are not included in the protection extended by existing labor laws. Even before the war New York State was the greatest industrial State in the Union. More women were at work here than in any[Pg 222] other State, and more women were at work in New York City than in any entire State except Pennsylvania. There were 248 separate manufacturing industries in this State, and women worked in all trades in which over 1,000 workers were employed, except in the manufacture of bricks, tiles, fertilizers, and ice. They were doing everything, from making cores in foundries, sausages in packing-houses, pickles and candies, to working in human hair, chemicals, and rags. Women have always done their share of the world’s work, but in the past their labor was in the home. During the early years of our nation there were very few women who did not work or supervise work, but they did this in their homes for their homes, and they were not paid in money. When the cotton-gin was invented and the use of steam was discovered, it was the dream of the inventors that their machines should be really labor-saving, and that people would have leisure for the development of the wider
and deeper things of life. This became true for some people, and to-day there are many women of comparative leisure who can do as they please with their time. But on the other hand, undreamed-of evils and dangers[Pg 223] have come to women who toil, and necessity compels women by the millions to seek work in the industrial world. In spite of the fact that the wages of women have been appallingly low, the woman who must earn money in order to live has had to find work outside of her own home. Number of Women Wage-earners: In 1910, according to the census, there were in New York State 3,291,714 women over fifteen years of age; only 1,793,558 were married, and 1,498,156 were unmarried or widowed; 983,686 of these had to work in order to live, or to support some members of their families. This number did not include the great mass of women who work in their homes. Clothing Manufacturers: Before the United States entered the war, 184,691 women were working in New York State making every conceivable garment for people to wear. The work is subdivided so that one worker does one thing all day long. There are sixty-five operations in the making of trousers. Twenty to sixty different operations take place in the making of men’s shirts. Women tuck or hem materials for women’s wear hour by hour, driven by the juggernaut electric machine which knows no fatigue and needs no rest. [Pg 224] Laundries: Ten thousand women worked in laundries in this State, where the washing and ironing are done usually by machines. They stand and push down a treadle of the ironing-machine with their feet, making as many as sixty-three to eighty-one foot pressures a minute. In this action a bad twist of the body is necessary, which may result in permanent injury. Clouds of steam rise from the mangles, and when no exhaust hoods are used, the room is filled with steam. Tuberculosis is a common disease among laundry workers. Unprotected machinery is a constant danger. Restaurant Workers: There were fifteen thousand restaurant workers, waitresses, cooks, kitchen girls, and pantry hands. Until 1917, they were without any protection by law. They worked any number of hours, and seven days a week. They now come under the fifty-four-hour law, in first and second class cities, but the law is difficult to enforce. They often walk five miles a day carrying heavy trays; and varicose veins, flat feet, and pelvic disorders are common. Textile Operators: In New York State 35,168 women worked in textile-mills making silks, woolens, cottons, carpets, knit underwear, etc. The din of machinery is deafening[Pg 225] in many of these factories, and often the machinery is so closely placed that there is difficulty in passing without danger of skirts catching. The whole development of machinery in industry has been worked out for the purpose of extending trade and output, without consideration of the human factor involved. Machines have been watched so they did not wear out or break, and they have been carefully repaired. Girls and women, the human factor, have been discarded if they wore out; they are of less worth to the employer and can be easily replaced without cost to him. But the cost to the State has been heavy in the toll of hospitals, insane asylums, and homes for destitutes and delinquents. There is hardly a trade which has not some elements of danger or unhealthfulness in it. Women working in meat-packing plants in sausage-making rooms stand all day at their work on water- and slime-soaked floors. Women work in industries where industrial poisons are used or where they are generated in the process of manufacturing. The pressure of piece-work, the monotony of one single operation, are nerve-racking and nerve-exhausting. [Pg 226] The health of women who spend hours a day in factories depends largely upon factory laws and sanitary codes. Light, air, sanitation, overcrowding in factories, mills, and shops, all vitally affect the health of the workers. No one can measure the cost of industry in the life of women. The strength and vitality taken from them will show in the lowered vitality of their children. A low birth-rate, a high death-rate, and an impaired second generation are the inevitable results. Infant mortality where the mothers work in factories is notoriously high.[9] War and Woman’s Work: With the insistent demand for increased production occasioned by the war, women have been brought into many new positions formerly held only by men. They have gone into the steel-mills; they are employed in large numbers in the munition-factories; they are working on the railroads, in railroad yards, and inspecting tracks, as well as in the ticket-offices and baggage-rooms. The Pennsylvania Railroad has 2,300 women employed as car-cleaners, track-walkers, upholsterers, locomotive despatchers, and machine-hands.[Pg 227] Some are operating trains. They are engaged as conductors on street-cars and subways, and as elevator operators. These new industries are not included in the provisions for women of the State labor laws. New York State has a nine-hour day for women working in factories and mercantile occupations, and night work is prohibited in these industries; but this protection does not extend into other occupations. An eight-hour working-day has been given to men in many States and in many occupations, but in only a few of the Western States has it been given to women. After three or four years in most industries, young women begin to wear out, the speeding up and the strain put on their youth begin to tell, their capacity lessens, and their output diminishes. Although the effect of long hours and monotonous occupation is harder on them than it is on men, the protection of the law has been extended to them to a far less extent. In these new industries there is none. Women may work in them twelve hours a day and all night. The demand of some of the street railways is for a twelve-hour night for women conductors
(with two hours off for supper). Elevator operators[Pg 228] work twelve hours a day, in day and night shifts, and girls employed all night are subject to insult if not actual danger. Since boys have been difficult to get, girls, including some under sixteen, have been delivering letters and packages in messenger service. The State law prohibits boys under twenty-one being employed as messengers at night, because of the dangers of contamination from the night life of a city. Under present conditions a girl employed as messenger has no protection, and may even be sent to houses of doubtful character. The new industries for women also include manual work that has heretofore been considered too heavy for them. The high wages paid them, while lower than would have to be paid now to men for the same work, are still high enough to attract women from other occupations where wages have not had the same advance. While there is an increasing demand that women shall be paid the same wages as a man would be paid for exactly the same work, the idea still prevails that it is only fair to pay men more than women because they have families to support, while women support only themselves. This is not true. On the backs of many women rests the[Pg 229] sole support of aged parents, or of younger brothers and sisters. A large proportion of them give up all their earnings to the family needs. It is no longer a question of the ability of women to do many kinds of work formerly held to be the exclusive province of men; but of the effect of her so doing on the future health and welfare of the race. Women, like men, must work in order to live, but society and the State owe it to themselves, as a vital matter of self-protection, to safeguard that work, so that future generations shall not suffer from its effects. The whir of machinery, the noise, the constant standing or the close bending over work, the meager wages, have been the conditions woman has had to meet for years in her struggle for a livelihood; to them are now added the dangers and excessive hours of these new occupations, with their further call on her strength and endurance. These new industries for women should be included in the laws regulating the hours and condition of women’s work. Public messenger service is too dangerous for young girls to be employed in it. If the eight-hour working-day is right for men, it is even more needed by women.[Pg 230] Laws regulating factory conditions are of little value unless there is sufficient inspection to enforce them, and the number of inspectors employed is always inadequate. Women inspectors are needed for factories in which women are employed; but there are only four women factory inspectors in the entire State. Several years ago the New York State Factory Investigating Commission made an exhaustive investigation of women’s wages, and found that women and girls were so underpaid as to endanger their health and productiveness. Since then the cost of living has advanced prodigiously, with no corresponding increase in wages, especially among young unorganized women. A minimum wage bill, similar to the one in force in Oregon, which has been declared constitutional by the United States Supreme Court, is now before the Legislature, drawn on the recommendation of the State Factory Investigating Commission. If the war continues, the demand, not for more protection, but for the suspension of existing labor laws, will become more insistent. The needs of the country for increased production will be irresistible and will not be satisfied for many years. [Pg 231] The test which the government should insist shall be applied to every occupation in which women engage is this: What effect will it have on the one business in life which is especially theirs, the production and conservation of human life? How can it be safeguarded so it shall not exact too great a toll from their health and vitality? Every consideration that individuals and the State can give must be engaged in the study of this question. With the vote in her hands, the woman in industry will be able to protect herself better than before, but the responsibility for her welfare rests not on herself alone, but on other women, especially on those who are free from the grinding struggle themselves, and can do as they choose with their time. It is part of their responsibility to see that the most conscientious and careful consideration be given to this question. [Pg 232] FOOTNOTES: [9] Thanks are due Miss Mary Dreier, a member of the recent New York State Factory Investigating Commission, for this picture of the work which women are doing. XXII AMERICANIZATION The United States is still a medley of foreign nationalities, representing all the races of the world, with their social characteristics, customs, prejudices, and even language unchanged. No one need be disconcerted by this fact, for the people who came over in the Mayflower were foreign-born, the founders of the city of New York were of foreign birth, and so were the first families of Virginia. In New York State only 35 per cent. of the population is of native birth and descent. Almost one-third is foreign-born; one-third of the children born here have one or both parents of foreign birth. Even with all the resources at our command it would have been a giant task to have assimilated such huge numbers of such divergent races. The United States was established as a nation where justice, freedom, and opportunity[Pg 233] were to be assured to all the people. For over a century it has been a refuge for men and women of foreign lands, who have been oppressed and have longed for freedom, and who have sought wider opportunity for themselves and their children. Native-born Americans have accepted their privileges as a matter of course, and without feeling the obligations
they imply. They have demanded justice and opportunity for themselves, but they have not felt the responsibility of seeing that it was extended in equal measure to those who come to our shores. They have not realized that it is the obligation of every one enjoying the privileges and benefits of a democracy to see that these are shared and safeguarded by all the people. The war has brought home to the nation the stern necessity of a united country. For the safety of the nation our ideals of freedom, justice, and opportunity must be put into practice for all the people of the nation. The “square deal” that we stand for must be given at home, the opportunity for better living and the development of character must not be denied any of our people. Only in this way shall we have loyal American citizens who value their allegiance[Pg 234] and who feel the obligation to uphold our national ideals. The Immigrant Is a Great National Asset: The country has been built up largely by his work. The railroads, the mines, the great buildings, the subways, waterworks, steel-mills, sugar-refining, clothes, cigars, furniture, most of the products of our factories, are made by immigrants. The great industries of the country would stop without the millions of hands that they supply. The immigrant often comes here with high hopes of improving his condition, and he finds himself looked down on with contempt by the native American, exploited at every turn, and every advantage taken of his ignorance. After an alien is once admitted, there has been relatively little attempt made to protect him, to see that he is helped to settle where his skill can best be utilized, or even to aid him in learning our language and customs. Many foreigners were skilled farmers before they came to this country, but although there is great need for such labor on the farms here, little provision is made to use their skill in that way. The immigrant often has to pay to get a chance to earn his living. When he gets a job his labor is exploited;[Pg 235] he has to accept lower wages than an American would take; the living-quarters provided for him may not be fit for human habitation. Here is a recent picture of a suburb of New York City, a community of 16,000 foreign-born workers: The married workman pays from fifteen to twenty dollars a month rent for a three- or four-room flat, the rooms about ten feet square, with no light but kerosene-lamps. The average family has four children, and each family takes from two to six boarders to help pay the rent. The only running water is on the first floor, and there is one out-of-door toilet. Is it any wonder that the children, the younger generation, are both sickly and lawless? The factory buildings are large and well lighted, but in many communities of foreign-born unskilled workmen the housing provisions allow for no privacy and are a detriment to family life and morality. Such conditions are particularly bad for the immigrant woman whose work confines her indoors. It is natural that the foreigner should settle with others of his own nationality, so almost every city and village in the State has a colony “across the track.” In the native section there will be police protection, paved[Pg 236] streets, running water, sewage and garbage disposal, but this protection often does not extend “across the track.” There, disorder and filth abound and the death-rate is much higher. Every injustice to the immigrant reacts on us as a people. He must be given a square deal before he can be made into a loyal American. A common language is the first essential of a united nation. There are solid blocks in New York and other cities where not a word of English is spoken or understood. It is hopeless to try to make Americans of persons who do not understand our language. Speaking English is the first step in citizenship, and the public schools are the logical centers in which to make loyal Americans of our alien population. Night Schools are sometimes provided, but there are many localities still without them; and, after all, it is difficult for a man who has been at manual labor all day to study at night. They are most successful when they are made interesting with stories and games. Experiments have been made with classes held from five to seven o’clock in the afternoon in the factory buildings, and employers often welcome them. [Pg 237] Neighborhood Classes for Women are being held in the afternoon in some localities. In this case the babies must be included. Provision is made for them in a separate room with a nurse or kindergartner to take charge of them. The best lessons for the mothers are not found in books, but are based on the interests connected with their daily lives and their domestic duties. Paper patterns and a lesson in how to make garments for her baby will chain her attention, and the English names of articles used will be learned unconsciously. “Playing store” with the articles she depends on to feed her family will fascinate her and teach her more practical English. The immigrant woman is often keen to learn American ways and customs. She is eager to know how to take better care of her family. When the public schools of New York City give away pamphlets about economical cooking, the call for them from the mothers of the pupils is so great that the supply is soon exhausted. The need for some special help for the foreign woman was never as great as it is to-day. There are about four hundred thousand of them in New York State who have become citizens because their husbands are[Pg 238] citizens. They are going to vote. Many of them cannot speak English. In the course of time the law providing that a woman shall take
the citizenship of her husband without qualifying for it herself, may be changed, but meanwhile these women are voters. They need help and education, and for the protection of the State the community must give it to them. Home Teaching of women in the tenements as part of the regular school system is being tried in California. Teachers are sent into the homes to show by practical demonstration economical cooking, how to improve sanitary conditions, and to teach the mother how to care for her children. Naturalization would do more to arouse a sense of responsibility in the alien if it were conferred with a ceremony which would appeal to the imagination. Many of the people who come to our shores come from countries where beauty and ceremonial are part of the national life. The process of naturalization, as conducted in many courts, is usually perfunctory and often sordid. If the courts are crowded, an applicant may have to come six or eight times with his witnesses, losing not only time, but being in danger of losing his job. He is often ignorant[Pg 239] of the whole subject of government; he may know nothing of the questions involved in an election, but there is rarely an effort made to teach him anything of American ideals. The political club that wants his vote is the only thing connected with government that pays any attention to him, or offers him help. Often he finds that his vote has a market value. So the ballot, the symbol of freedom and self-government, becomes to him only a bit of graft. Definite standards of citizenship that apply to all alike, better tests of their knowledge of English and of our government, would help to impress on aliens the meaning of the oath of allegiance. Uniform Naturalization Laws: In New York State an alien has to wait five years to become a citizen with a vote. In Nebraska, a Turk or a Greek or an Armenian who landed six months before, if he has taken out his citizenship papers, is permitted to vote, although he may have no educational qualifications of any kind, and know no English nor anything about our government. In seven other States a man can vote simply by declaring his intention of becoming a citizen. Ignorance of Laws: Besides the lack of[Pg 240] provision for learning the duties of citizenship, there is little opportunity for the immigrant either to become familiar with our laws or to learn respect for the law. He gets his knowledge of the vote from the ward boss, and he learns contempt for the law when he sees the curtains of the saloons pulled down in front, and the back door open. As he sees the constant disregard for law all around him, liberty becomes license in his mind. Then as he prospers and grows well-to-do, building laws, factory inspection, fire protection, and other attempts at government regulations, often seem to him restrictions which are to be evaded as much as possible. Sweatshops and the padrone system are to his mind part of the American system for getting rich. In taking advantage of them for his own profit he feels that he is only following the custom of the country. A contempt for law and opposition to any attempt of the law to interfere with what he considers his rights are the natural results. The study of civics[10] in the public schools[Pg 241] should begin not in the high schools and colleges, but in the lower grades. A majority of children leave school before they reach the grammar school. A practical course in government may be made simple and interesting even for them. The idea has been seriously advanced that the oath of allegiance, accompanied by a dignified and beautiful ceremony, might be administered to groups of boys and girls as they reach twenty-one years of age, in a manner to impress on the public mind the value of citizenship. The “citizen receptions” which have been given monthly in Cleveland and Los Angeles, to the new citizens of that period, have done this. After a patriotic program, with the judge of the court presiding, each successful applicant is very proud when he receives his naturalization papers like a diploma, awarded before[Pg 242] his family and friends. Such a ceremonial cannot fail to carry home the conviction of the value of the citizenship so conferred, and the importance of living up to the responsibility imposed by it. [Pg 243] FOOTNOTES: [10] The study of citizenship in the public schools may be made a vigorous aid to Americanization. Many foreign parents depend on their children for their knowledge of the customs of the new country. What the children learn in the public schools has its influence on the life of the family at home. If the children are taught orderliness, consideration for others, and respect for authority, they carry those qualities home. If they are undisciplined, they take home disregard for parental authority, and a lack of consideration for the rights of others, that will stand in the way of their comprehending the first principles of good citizenship. XXIII PATRIOTISM AND CITIZENSHIP From the beginning of history there have always been individuals who have chosen death rather than slavery. As intelligence has grown and has displaced ignorance, their number has increased, but it is only within the last century and a half that people have demanded liberty in sufficient numbers to make it the fundamental principle in the forming of great nations. We, in the United States, are the inheritors of the most courageous and forward thinking of the men and women of all nations who cared enough for human liberty to break all ties of home and country in order that they might “establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defense, and secure the blessings of liberty” for themselves and for us. These phrases from the Constitution of the United States have usually been only words[Pg 244]
to us. We have been safe, our homes have been secure, our loved ones have been protected. Most of us have not personally been conscious of any overwhelming injustices, and those that we have heard of have been far enough away not to be disturbing. We have come and gone as we chose; we have thought and spoken as we pleased; we have worshiped as we would; our property has been safe; we have damned the government or any man in any public office without thought of danger to ourselves; we have feared no man. Why should we have talked about liberty or human freedom—it has been secure enough. So the call to defend liberty to some has fallen on dull ears, and the demand for an awakened patriotism in some places has gone unheeded. As a people, we have forgotten about the long centuries of fighting for freedom, the tremendous cost that has been paid, and the blood that has been shed. Think what those words, “safety, defense, tranquillity, justice,” must have meant throughout the centuries when no man’s life was safe, when not only his welfare, but that of his family, was subject to the whim of the government, when he could be thrown into prison without knowing the reason[Pg 245] why, when the honor of his wife or daughter could be taken without his being able to protest. Read your history again, of the middle ages, of England in the seventeenth century, of France before the Revolution, of Germany in the eighteenth century. Then read of the early struggles in America. It was nature and the Indians that man was fighting then. For personal safety he fought to make war and raiding unprofitable; he had to meet brute force with brute force, to prove his mastery over nature and savagery, and to gain peace and safety for himself and his home. It is the untold sacrifices of countless men and women that have made liberty possible. That it shall be maintained, and that the world shall not be allowed to slip back, is a debt that every man and woman owes to the past. Those who inherit the fruits of this age-long struggle must be ready to pay their part, for themselves and for the sake of those they love, for the sake of those who won it for them, and for those who shall come after them. The duty which rests on them is as great as the duty that was on the men of the Revolution, and on those who won the Magna Charta. If they do not,[Pg 246] they are weakening the forces of civilization. For liberty is not yet complete. There may be as great a struggle ahead of the world as lies in the past. Before the tremendous upheaval of the war, we took it for granted that the liberties we possess were common, more or less, in most of the civilized world. Since then the horrors, the unbelievable human suffering, the suspension of all human rights, in the region of the great struggle, we have laid to the war, and have not realized that in many parts of civilized Europe, before the war, human freedom as we know it did not exist, and that the denial of certain rights which we claim as fundamental, was common. At the foundation of our national existence has been that belief in the principles of liberty, justice, and opportunity which the Constitution expresses. The rights given us by the founders of our nation have been the ideals which other democratic governments have sought to follow. They have been sufficiently elastic to meet the growth of the world’s belief in democracy, and to provide for all new developments in the ideals of human liberty. If these ideals have been denied to any of our people, it has been the[Pg 247] fault of us as citizens. The degree in which they are maintained depends on us. Instead of denying the liberties that we actually enjoy, would we not do better to advance them and add to them? In place of tearing down the great structure already erected, is it not wiser to help to correct its imperfections and to continue to build on it? There is an intelligent part of the public that desires good government and will help to maintain our ideals of justice, but they are in the minority. There is also a part that sees in government only their own selfish profit, but they are also a minority. The great mass of people are indifferent until something arouses them. They would rather be left alone by bad government than be bothered by good government. That is the great problem of democracy—to arouse all the people to a realization of the necessity of their active interest in and support of that democracy, to increase their sense of individual responsibility; and that is the reason for universal suffrage—to put yeast into a people and to ferment their dormant interest. Democracy is not static. It exists only as it is upheld. We hear about the denials of justice and the failures of democracy more than we do[Pg 248] about its blessings. Our sense of perspective is often wrong. We talk about an act of lawlessness in the United States, even if it is being prosecuted with energy by the government, and class it with a deliberate attempt by a government to crush a people. We make no distinction between a State with deficient labor laws and a country where the laboring classes have no right to make themselves heard. We see no difference between a suppression of disloyal utterances in time of war and a people that is never allowed to speak freely, or a censoring of papers in war-time and a press that never prints anything but what it is told to print. We are apt to magnify the evils of democracy at home, and to forget the magnificent heritage of liberty that belongs to us.
What are the special privileges which we enjoy? First.—Personal Security, the right to live our daily lives without fear of personal danger, the right of being secure from unwarrantable seizure of person. This right has been ours so long that we do not know how precious a right it is. It is difficult even to conjure up in imagination an idea of what it would mean to be in daily fear of one’s safety. Second.—Personal Liberty: Freedom of[Pg 249] Thought and Speech. Life would be unthinkable to us without this liberty. To stifle one’s thought, to be afraid to let a suspicion of it leak out would mean to make life unbearable. Freedom of the Press is a right that we enjoy more than any other nation. Freedom of Worship has so long been unquestioned that we forget that it has been little more than a short century since it was established. Freedom of Assembly is a right which we accept without question. The Right of Petition was won by a bitter struggle. We can scarcely imagine that there was ever a time when it was denied. Third.—Equality before the Law is a right that is guaranteed by the Constitution of the United States, the right to a fair trial by jury, of habeas corpus, and due process of the law. Fourth.—Security of Property is guaranteed by our Constitution. Private property may not be taken even by the government without a fair price being paid for it. Fifth.—Political Rights are guaranteed to our people, universal suffrage, complete political liberty. This is the most valuable of all rights, because it is the right that secures all other rights.[11] [Pg 250] These rights are not absolute; they are dependent on public opinion as well as on the law. They are imperfectly administered. To the extent that they are denied, we must each one of us accept part of the blame, because liberty of action is ours. In time of war public safety may demand their suspension, and the people may give permission that this may be done temporarily. The privilege of citizenship brings with it the obligation to defend the government of which that citizenship is a part. The right to vote is a right which might well be dependent on the loyalty of the citizen, and on his willingness to defend and maintain his country. Men say even to-day that the vote has no value, that they do not care about it. Let them live for a time in a country where they would not be allowed to vote, where the people are governed by an autocratic power, and how long before they would be willing to sacrifice anything, even life itself, for political liberty? The citizen of a democracy has not only the duty to defend his country, but is bound to transmit to future generations something[Pg 251] better than he inherited from the past. As it is his part in time of war to defend the liberties that he enjoys, so it is his duty in time of peace to do his best to develop and strengthen liberty and justice. That is a task even more difficult than to fight in time of war. The discouragements, the disappointments, are many. Women are bound to meet these disappointments. The vote for which they have worked so hard and so long will not accomplish what they wish. Often it will seem to accomplish very little. The machinery of democracy is cumbersome and very imperfect. It is often heartbreaking to try to move it. It does not easily register the popular will. But in spite of the imperfections, and the discouragements, and the downright corruption, the foundation on which it is built is the best that the world has yet found. There are many labor-saving devices still to be invented for the bettering of the machinery of government—protective measures to be found against political corruption and to safeguard the interests of the people. Side by side with the improvement in the mechanism of government must come a quickening of the public conscience. The yeast of universal suffrage is already working[Pg 252] toward that end. The golden rule as the standard of action in government will make few mistakes. The prospect for an improved democracy in New York State is bright. The war has swept away many prejudices and has clarified many problems. Men and women are working together as never before, whole-heartedly, for the benefit of the State. To adapt the words of President Wilson, “the climax of the culminating and final war for human liberty has come, and we must be ready to put our own strength, our own highest purpose, our own integrity and devotion to the test,” and we must do this not only now in time of war, but also after peace has come, in the dedication of ourselves to the service of justice, freedom, and opportunity for all in our nation. [Pg 253] FOOTNOTES: [11] Universal suffrage has meant in the past only manhood suffrage. With the ratification of the woman suffrage amendment to the National Constitution, universal suffrage will become for the first time a fact. APPENDIX SOME DEFINITIONS Habeas Corpus: Both the Federal and State constitutions guarantee to the people the right to the writ of habeas corpus, “unless where in cases of rebellion or invasion, public safety may require its suspension.” This is an order that may be obtained from a certain judge commanding that a prisoner shall be brought into court without delay. This writ secures to any person imprisoned for any cause the right to be heard immediately, in order that the purpose of his detention may be made known, the facts be examined, and the prisoner either released or remanded for trial. This is one of our most highly prized rights, and is based on a promise contained in the Magna Charta. The Initiative and Referendum give to the voters the power to initiate legislation, and the right to compel a

Subsets and Splits

No community queries yet

The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.