application_number
int64 10.3M
15.9M
| decision
stringclasses 3
values | title
stringlengths 3
468
| abstract
stringlengths 43
4.3k
| claims
stringlengths 44
338k
| description
stringlengths 1.93k
2.86M
| background
stringlengths 0
194k
| summary
stringlengths 0
391k
| cpc_label
stringlengths 0
12
| filing_date
stringlengths 8
8
| patent_issue_date
stringclasses 691
values | date_published
stringclasses 720
values | examiner_id
stringlengths 0
7
| ipc_label
stringlengths 0
10
| npe_litigated_count
int64 0
410
| examiner_full_name
stringlengths 6
34
| invention_title
stringlengths 3
410
| small_entity_indicator
stringclasses 3
values | continuation
int64 0
1
| decision_as_of_2020
stringclasses 6
values | main_ipcr_label_subclass
stringclasses 451
values | filing_year
int64 2k
2.02k
|
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
15,627,906 | PENDING | Peroxide Gel Compositions | A dental bleaching device may include a backing material made of a polymeric wax mixture, and a dental composition in contact with the backing material. The dental composition may include a thickening agent and a peroxide bleaching agent. The dental composition may be a gelatinous compound having physical deformation properties that allow the dental composition to bend and conform to a shape of a container into which the dental composition is placed, but the dental composition will not merge into a second piece of the dental composition when placed in contact with the second piece. | 1. A dental bleaching device, comprising: a backing material made of a polymeric wax mixture; and a dental composition in contact with the backing material, wherein: the dental composition comprises a thickening agent and a peroxide bleaching agent; and the dental composition is a gelatinous compound having physical deformation properties that allow the dental composition to bend and conform to a shape of a container into which the dental composition is placed, but the dental composition will not merge into a second piece of the dental composition when placed in contact with the second piece. 2. The dental bleaching device of claim 1, wherein the polymeric wax mixture comprises a thermoplastic paraffin wax. 3. The dental bleaching device of claim 1, wherein the polymeric wax mixture comprises polyolefins and paraffin wax. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This Continuation of application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 14/710,416 titled PEROXIDE GEL COMPOSITIONS filed May 12, 2015, which is in turn a Continuation application of prior filed U.S. application Ser. No. 12/329,582 titled DENTAL TREATMENT COMPOSITIONS AND CONFORMABLE DENTAL TREATMENT TRAYS USING THE SAME filed Dec. 6, 2008, which is in turn a Continuation-in-part application of prior filed U.S. Non-provisional application Ser. No. 11/307,463 filed Feb. 8, 2006. The content of each of the aforementioned applications in incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to the field of thickeners and more particularly relates to a thickener for the development of a gel for the storage and deliver of peroxide, particularly hydrogen peroxide, for bleaching and other purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Inorganic peroxide is usually defined as hydrogen peroxide and adducts thereof. Some examples are: hydrogen peroxide, carbamide peroxide, sodium percarbonate, sodium perborate. Peroxide is used in many different applications from an antiseptic for minor wounds to bleach for teeth, hair and laundry. Solutions of varying strengths of hydrogen peroxide are readily on the market, usually in a liquid form. For targeted bleaching applications, such as tooth whitening, it can be desirable to blend the peroxide into a gel by blending the peroxide with a thickener. Blending is accomplished by mixing the thickener with the peroxide, usually also with water or an appropriate organic solvent. However, due to the volatile oxidizing nature of peroxide (which imparts the substance's bleaching ability); there are very few thickeners that can withstand a peroxide environment. Most polymers will degrade quickly in a peroxide environment and will lose their thickening properties entirely due to the powerful oxidizing effects of peroxide. These gels will degrade into thin, water-type consistencies. It is rare to find a polymer that can withstand, for prolonged periods of time, the powerful effects of peroxide. Chemists have diluted hydrogen peroxide in order to tame its instability and raw oxidizing power. Liquid hydrogen peroxide is common and is by far the most aggressive oxidizer and the most unstable. Chemists have also produced adducts of hydrogen peroxide to stabilize hydrogen peroxide in the resultant compounds. The main adducts of hydrogen peroxide that are used for bleaching are: urea hydrogen peroxide (carbamide peroxide), sodium perborate, and sodium percarbonate. However, dilution of hydrogen peroxide by any means, while increasing stability, also reduces the bleaching efficacy of resultant gels. Carbamide peroxide contains about 36% hydrogen peroxide by weight. Therefore, a bleaching gel made with about 10% carbamide peroxide (which is an industry standard), yields only about 3% hydrogen peroxide. Sodium percarbonate has an even lower concentration of hydrogen peroxide. The use of these adducts then, generates an instant upper limit to the final concentration of hydrogen peroxide in a product. Dental whitening manufacturers have predominately been using carbamide peroxide. Carbamide peroxide is docile enough to be used with many polymers that would not work with hydrogen peroxide. The most used commercial thickener, CARBOPOL, is a good example of this. CARBOPOL is a good thickener for carbamide peroxide. However, CARBOPOL does not hold up to pure hydrogen peroxide for even short amounts of time. When CARBOPOL is used in a composition containing 30% hydrogen peroxide, the composition will begin to break down and form peroxide decomposition bubbles in about two weeks. Therefore what is needed is a polymer that is capable of withstanding hydrogen peroxide compositions for moderate amounts of time. The direct application of these manufactured gels and liquids to the teeth for the purpose of bleaching does have drawbacks. Direct delivery of these gels and liquids onto the teeth can be unsuccessful as they tend to run-off the teeth by the force of gravity. They also are subject to being wiped off quickly by the cheeks and gums. To make matters worse, the saliva is also there to quickly wash and dilute any treatment fluids off of the teeth. While gels may be more resistant to these drawbacks as compared to other liquids, they still have these inherent difficulties. In order to overcome the difficulties inherent in the direct application of fluidic treatment materials various inventions have been developed. One of the early inventions involved an insoluble barrier that would hold the treatment gels and liquids against the teeth and at the same time protect it against the tongue, cheek and saliva. This resulted in the invention of the plastic dental tray. The major drawback in the concept of a tray is that the variations in teeth anatomy make it very difficult to make and design a generic one-size-fits-all tray. Therefore some of the early trays were designed to fit onto the gums and mechanically pinch the gums in order to hold the tray onto the teeth. These mechanical trays were cumbersome and painful for patient use and became obsolete in favor of the custom tray. The custom tray involves creating an impression of the teeth, followed by casting a mold of said impression. Said mold is then covered with a pre-heated semi-molten plastic sheet with a vacuum in place in order to force the plastic to adapt to the casting's surface. Finally, the post-solidified tray is usually trimmed with scissors into a custom tray for a specific individual. The drawback to the custom tray is the amount of time and resource and effort needed to create one. The biggest drawback inherent in all trays of the prior art is their accompanying use of fluidic treatment gels and liquids. Once a tray is created it must be filled with a fluidic treatment gel or liquid and, most of the time, the patient must do this. Early dental treatment products were liquids. Liquids were most especially difficult to handle, as they tend to run out of the trays and were easily spilled while filling the trays. Liquids were abandoned as the product of choice in favor of higher viscosity fluidic gels. Gels provide more control over flow characteristics than liquids. A gel can obtain higher viscosities that limit the flow of treatment products thereby allowing the treatment product to remain in the tray better. A gel also adds the benefit of some adhesion between the tray and teeth aiding in holding the tray in place once fitted. The drawback inherent to these fluidic gels and liquids is that they are messy for both patient and practitioner. When these fluidic gels and liquids spill while filling the tray or express out of the tray while fitting and wearing the tray; they are a nuisance and a complaint of patients. These are the drawbacks of fluidic treatment products and trays: a. While filling trays, any spill is messy and a nuisance to clean up. b. When fitting the filled tray onto the teeth, the teeth must displace the treatment fluids and any excess gel or liquid will be forced out of the tray and into the mouth. In the case of gels this becomes especially messy, since it cannot be easily spit or rinsed out. The current procedure calls for a toothbrush to agitate the gel and with copious amounts of dilution water, the patient will eventually work away the excess gel. c. While wearing the trays, the upper teeth constantly come in contact with the lower teeth in a natural repetitive soft biting action. This natural biting action acts as a pump that when compressed will force more messy gel or liquid material out of the tray where it must be cleaned off or drowned in saliva. When the compression ends and the trays relax back into equilibrium it will either begin to empty out the tray and fill it with saliva (so the upper portion of the teeth are not treated) or they begin mixing and dilute the active ingredients. Another invention of the prior art that is used to deliver treatment gels and liquids is the dental strip. The dental strip is an insoluble flexible plastic strip onto which the treatment fluidic gels have been applied. Liquid treatment products obviously would not work well with strips, since they would just run-off the strip. The dental strip is then applied to the teeth. Current dental strips even incorporate in their design shallow pockets into the plastic strip in order to hold fluidic treatment gels. The lack of these shallow pockets would limit the amount of treatment gel available for actual treatment after fitting the strip in place, as most of the gel would be displaced from a smooth surface during fitting. The drawbacks of these prior art dental strips are again their reliance on gels for functionality. Gels suffer from many of the same problems as trays, in that while fitting and wearing the strip any excess gel that is displaced or pumped out ends up in the mouth as a constant mess. In some respects the strips are worse than the trays, since they are not tray shaped they must hold their shape against the teeth by either the adhesiveness of the gel or the rigidity of the backing material or they tend to unfold off the teeth during use. Strips that use gels also suffer from movement on the teeth during use. The gels act as a slimy lubricant between the teeth and strip, which allows the strip to annoyingly move around while it is being worn. Patients complain when they have to constantly adjust the strip back into place. One of the biggest complaints with strips that use gels is with patients with uneven teeth, the strip tends to favor the tooth that sticks out and fails to contact adjacent teeth creating a gap between the strip and teeth that allows saliva to enter, which dilutes and washes away the gel. Other disclosed inventions include more rigid or solidified treatment compositions that are set into a tray or onto a backing material. These solidified compositions can be sufficiently rigid as to maintain itself in a tray-like configuration absent their external supports. Others disclose a strip or a tray with a two-part treatment composition that is mixed and applied to the backing material just prior to use. These 2-part prior art compositions are incapable of being combined in a pre-mixed shelf stable treatment device. When combined, the resultant compound eventually sets to a rubber-like consistency and is placed against teeth; however, this is an unstable state. Over time, the compound decomposes into a dry powder and degraded peroxide. This is why this type of prior art system must be separated into 2 parts and mixed only upon patient use. These systems require the patient or clinician to make/mix the rubber-like substance first and then somehow load this same rubber-type consistency compound onto a whitening device prior to application to the patients teeth—this is too cumbersome. These more rigid treatment compositions are an improvement over gel or liquid compositions, since they resist flow they tend to stay on the backing strip or tray when fitting and wearing the implements. So they do not pump out of the tray or displace out of the dental strip when fitting. However, they do crack and break if flexed. The odd product is the dry or wet type patches that do not have a backing strip or tray. The drawback to patches is that they do not have a barrier between the back of the patch and the mouth; therefore they are again subject to the wiping effect of adjacent oral tissues and the washing and dilution effects of saliva. Another drawback is the lack of barrier means not only the active ingredient is treating the teeth but also treating all the oral tissues on the other side. Many of these active ingredients are irritating or harmful to soft tissue; the patch is not much of an improvement over gels and liquids that are placed in strips or trays. The drawback to more rigid treatment compositions placed in trays or dental strips is that they are limited to non-toxic, active ingredient stable, water-soluble thickeners of the prior art. Many of these thickeners have physical characteristics so that when they are dried from an aqueous state, they are not ideal for a tray or a dental strip. The ideal thickener would have these characteristics: a. Adhesion in aqueous environment: that when the surface of the more rigid composition becomes wetted it becomes sticky. Many thickeners do not have sufficient stickiness to overcome the forces exhibited while fitting and wearing a tray or strip to uneven teeth. The adhesion should be great enough to hold the backing strip or tray to all varieties of teeth whether straight or crooked. b. Hygroscopic: The water-soluble thickener should be able to resist drying to a powder over long periods of storage before use. Many thickeners tend to dry out even when sealed in their packages over time leaving condensation inside the package or may even just escape the packaging altogether. A hygroscopic thickener allows you to use and keep water in the formulation during storage because hygroscopic gels will retain an aqueous equilibrium of internal water and resist drying to a powder. This amount of internal water can be adjusted as it is directly proportional to the drying temperature; therefore, drying times and temperatures can be adjusted to adjust the visco-elasticity of the final product. Thickeners that dry out are limited to formulations that contain non-volatile solvents to keep them intact. The problem with these formulations is they tend to wet more slowly reducing short-term adhesion. Many thickeners will not even create a gel without water as one of the solvents. c. Compatible with organic solvents: The ideal thickener should be able to incorporate organic solvents to manipulate and adjust various properties. These water-soluble thickeners that can also incorporate organic solvents are adjustable in their elasticity, plasticity, solubility, tackiness and viscosity by the appropriate use of various organic solvents. A water-soluble thickener that does not incorporate organic solvents is left with only water as the modifier of choice. d. Elasticity: The ideal thickener would have sufficient elasticity, without splitting or cracking during storage or while fitting the implement. Some devices of the prior art are of a composition that has a rigidity so as to maintain itself in the shape of its container even when the external support is removed. These compositions have essentially dried out and are solid and brittle. Many rigid compositions of the prior art are dried solids adjacent a strip or tray. The backing strip and tray are usually flexible yet the dried composition is brittle and tends to crack when manipulating the implement. There is a drawback to dry and brittle compositions in that they need lots of water to become hydrated to a point where the active ingredients become “active”. These dry compositions will tend to draw the water out of the initial wetted layer, thus drying out the surface into a less mobile layer. Also many active ingredients are volatile and would simply evaporate when dried; others are only stable in the presence of water and would inactivate the product if it were dried out. Finally a dried composition tends to lose its adhesiveness and become loose from the backing strip or tray and falls out. What is needed is a thickener that demonstrates all of the above characteristics that can be conjoined to a film, backing strip, backing sheet or tray in order to more efficiently deliver the active ingredients to the teeth and gums. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) is a water soluble thickener with ideal properties attuned to the creation of pre-mixed, shelf stable compositions that may take the form of gels, visco-elastic and gelatinous compositions, that are intended to release an active ingredient. These compositions can be matched to a backing material in various designs and shapes such as a tray or dental strip. The present invention represents a departure from the prior art in that the application of the present invention in peroxide gels allows for higher peroxide concentrations by providing a gel base that is surprisingly stable in a peroxide environment. The resultant gels may use pure hydrogen peroxide at concentrations where only adducts have been used in the prior art, thereby doubling or tripling the resultant concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the finished product while simultaneously providing comparable or superior gel stability. The present invention also presents the gels in a stable, gelatinous, visco-elastic form that is easily packaged and stored, and provides a delivery system for the same. When placed on a flexible backing, the gelatinous active component acts as a flexible adhesive that will adhere to a user's dental arch and have the thickness and elasticity to remain in place. The final product, then, is a conformable dental treatment tray that will shape itself to any particular irregularities of a user's dental arch. Therefore, it is truly customizable for the user, unlike prior art constructs. For purposes of this Application, the term “gelatinous” shall have the definition given first in the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, © 2006 by Houghton Mifflin Co.: “resembling gelatin, viscous.” A gelatinous compound shall be a visco-elastic compound having physical deformation properties between a solid and a fluid. A solid shall be defined as a substance that is sufficiently rigid so that it maintains its form indefinitely, independent of any structure or support. A fluid shall be defined as a substance that will conform and coalesce to the shape of a beaker into which multiple samples of the same substance are placed, within 10 minutes, with hand agitation of the container and/or hand mixing with an implement at 25° C. with an atmospheric pressure of 1 ATM. Therefore, a gelatinous compound, as the term is used in this Application, will have some degree of flex and deformation as required to fit inside a container, but will not coalesce so that a specific sample or portions thereof are still determinable. This is particularly evident if a number of discrete units of gelatinous material are placed in a container—they will bend as they contact the container but will not merge into one body. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In view of the foregoing disadvantages inherent in the known types of thickeners for peroxide gels, this invention provides an improved thickener. As such, the present invention's general purpose is to provide a new and improved thickener that is capable of maintaining a gel consistency for a peroxide gel while allowing for higher peroxide concentrations to increase efficacy. Chemical solutions and gels containing hydrogen peroxide are well known in the art. In principle, the solutions and gels are made by combining a peroxide, solvents and a thickening agent. Varying degrees of viscosity and strength are easily generated by altering the base components' proportions and identities. For the purpose of this application, the preferred embodiment will be described as a dental whitening gel, though many other applications may be easily conceived and should be deemed to be included in this Application and its claims. Such additional applications include bleaching products for hair or laundry, where viscosity may not be as important as with a dental gel, but the principles and invention described herein, namely higher viscosity and bleaching strength, are equally applicable. The novel thickening agent is Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline). It is a polymer that swells upon absorption of liquids. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) creates very viscous gels. There are many different molecular weights of Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) available commercially. These can be chosen to impart different physical properties to the gel for bleaching and other applications. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) is surprisingly a polymer that is capable of excellent compatibility with peroxide and imparts excellent thick viscous properties to the gel. Experience has shown that a 30% hydrogen peroxide gel made with Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) stays a gel during six month's storage at room temperature. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) is a superior polymer in an oxidizing peroxide environment to current thickening polymers like CARBOPOL, silica, PVP, and polyethylene glycols. One particular use of the combination of Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) and peroxide, and the focus of this application, is the creation of a formable dental treatment tray for the purpose of treating teeth. When peroxide is mixed with Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline), with a solvent in the case of powdered peroxides, and the resulting combination is appropriately dried, the resultant product is a hygroscopic, gelatinous, visco-elastic substance that is less adhesive than a gel, is well packaged, relatively inert and behaves well in product production. When water is added to the surface of the substance, the substance regains the adhesiveness lost in the drying process and may be applied directly to a user's teeth in a manner that conforms to that individual user's dental arch. The gels may be applied to a tape-like backing, such as PARAFILM, dried, cut into appropriate shapes, like a strip, and packaged for a particularly effective bleaching tray to be used in clinical or home applications. Packaging of the product must resist moisture as the hygroscopic nature of the product will tend to absorb atmospheric moisture and alter its visco-elastic qualities. The more important features of the invention have thus been outlined in order that the more detailed description that follows may be better understood and in order that the present contribution to the art may better be appreciated. Additional features of the invention will be described hereinafter and will form the subject matter of the claims that follow. Many objects of this invention will appear from the following description and appended claims. Before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangements of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein are for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. As such, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the conception, upon which this disclosure is based, may readily be utilized as a basis for the designing of other structures, methods and systems for carrying out the several purposes of the present invention. It is important, therefore, that the claims be regarded as including such equivalent constructions insofar as they do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of gel being placed on a backing to create a tray according to the present invention. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the tray of FIG. 1 being dried. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a finished tray. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the tray of FIG. 3, being hydrated. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the tray of FIG. 4, being folded prior to positioning. FIG. 6 is a perspective view of the tray of FIG. 2 being formed to a user's upper dental arch. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The preferred embodiments of the peroxide gels used to create the deformable trays according to the precepts of this invention are herein described. It should be noted that the articles “a”, “an” and “the”, as used in this specification, include plural referents unless the content clearly dictates otherwise. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) is commercially available in 50,000, 200,000 and 500,000 M.W. Varying viscosities and longevity of gels may be created based on the amount and weight of Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) used and the desired strength of peroxide. As a guide, dental gels are preferred to be a viscosity between 1000 and 200,000 centipoise. In such ranges, peroxide concentrations may reach up to 50% hydrogen peroxide using Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) as a thickener. In its preferred form, a 30% concentration may be obtained with a shelf life of six months at room temperature. The simplest preferred gel is obtained by mixing 50% strength hydrogen peroxide with 200,000 M.W. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) in a ratio of 6:4. additional strengths of peroxide gels may be obtained by utilizing additional solvents and different molecular weights of Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline). Some common solvents include: water, ethanol, polyethylene glycols, polypropylene glycols, glycerin, and propylene glycol. Any of these may be added for varying the consistency and properties of the gels created. However, each gel must be developed with the basic limitation that the strength of the peroxide in the gel makes the gel inherently more unstable. In the present invention, the resultant gels 15 are placed on preformed pieces of a backing 13, such as PARAFILM (a polymeric wax mixture), as shown in FIG. 1. The backing provides stability for the resultant substance and a surface with which the tray may be touched for manipulation. The gels 15 are then dried through conventional processes. Typical drying may be performed at temperatures of approximately 37° C. for 12 to 24 hours (FIG. 2). Drying may also take place in any other suitable environment, including those of ambient air, room temperature, lower than room temperature, higher than room temperature, or vacuums. Times and temperatures may vary for individual gel composition. When dried, the gels form a bleaching compound that will conform to a user's dental arches and form a bleaching tray 10 without cracking or breaking (FIG. 3). The resultant compound is visco-elastic, and gelatinous, having a flexibility and consistency similar to the popular confection known as gummi worms, and will deform when removed from the backing material. The resultant tray is initially planar; with a significant body of gelatinous whitening composition adhered to the backing. In use, FIGS. 4-6, a user will take a tray 10 and wet it with water 20. The gel will rehydrate and become more adhesive so that the tray will then be applied to the user's teeth (dental arch 30). The user will press and form the tray 10 around the dental arch 30 (FIG. 6), conforming it to the individual shape of the arch 30 and, ideally covering at least one, if not both, sides of the arch 30. The user may, if desired, pre-fold the tray (FIG. 5) before applying it to the teeth. The tray 10 according to the present invention is therefore totally customizable and formable, creating a buccal wall 53, a crease/bottom 56 and a lingual wall 59. These walls and floor conform exactly to the user's dental arch 30 (FIG. 6), mimicking the variations and individualities of a particular user's arch. Once treatment is completed, the user simply removes the tray. Additional water may be needed to complete removal due to the adhesiveness of the tray 10. Due to the increased peroxide content in the whitening compound, time of treatment will be less than conventional prior art whitening methods. Treatment may be accomplished in three days, rather than over the course of a week. As always, a second round of treatment may be initiated, but it is recommended that a user wait at least one day between courses of treatment due to the increased potency of the product. Longer treatment times and courses may be utilized with lower concentration peroxide gels and may extend as long as a week of consecutive treatments. By way of example, the following formulations are supplied as examples of compositions for the gel according to the present invention. A true best mode will be dependent upon the desired attributes of the gels, and eventual trays, created. However these examples of possible gels all have the required consistency and bleaching power required by the present invention. It is, of course, to be understood that the following list is only for illustration and that any variation of these and other gels will fall within the purview of this invention. Accordingly, it is to be understood that those skilled in the art will be capable of formulating an infinite number of possible gels and, as such, this list should not in any way be deemed limiting of the invention. (Composition in % by weight) Formula #1 1. 11%—Carbamide Peroxide 2. 43%—Poly(2-ethyl-2-Oxazoline) M.W. 500,000 3. 27.5%—Purified or distilled water 4. 16.7%—Ethanol 5. 1.0%—Poly acrylic acid 35% M.W. 100,000 6. 0.3%—Sucralose 7. 0.4%—Peppermint Oil USP 8. 0.1%—Potassium Hydroxide USP Formula #2 1. 17%—Carbamide Peroxide 2. 40%—Poly(2-ethyl-2-Oxazoline) M.W. 500,000 3. 25.5%—Purified or distilled water 4. 15.7%—Ethanol 5. 1.0%—Poly acrylic acid 35% M.W. 100,000 6. 0.3%—Sucralose 7. 0.4%—Peppermint Oil USP 8. 0.1%—Potassium Hydroxide USP Formula #3 1. 23%—Carbamide Peroxide 2. 37%—Poly(2-ethyl-2-Oxazoline) M.W. 500,000 3. 23.25%—Purified or distilled water 4. 14.7%—Ethanol 5. 1.0%—Poly acrylic acid 35% M.W. 100,000 6. 0.3%—Sucralose 7. 0.4%—Peppermint Oil USP 8. 0.1%—Potassium Hydroxide USP 9. 0.25%—Sodium Fluoride USP Formula #4 1. 27%—Carbamide Peroxide 2. 33%—Poly(2-ethyl-2-Oxazoline) M.W. 500,000 3. 25%—Purified or distilled water 4. 13.2%—Ethanol 5. 1.0%—Poly acrylic acid 35% M.W. 100,000 6. 0.3%—Sucralose 7. 0.4%—Peppermint Oil USP 8. 0.1%—Potassium Hydroxide USP Formula #5 1. 17%—Carbamide Peroxide 2. 50%—Poly(2-ethyl-2-Oxazoline) M.W. 200,000 3. 20.5%—Purified or distilled water 4. 10.7%—Ethanol 5. 1.0%—Citric acid 35% M.W. 100,000 6. 0.3%—Aspartame 7. 0.4%—Peppermint Oil USP 8. 0.1%—Potassium Hydroxide USP Formula #6 1. 27%—Carbamide Peroxide 2. 33%—Poly(2-ethyl-2-Oxazoline) M.W. 500,000 3. 25%—Purified or distilled water 4. 13.2%—Ethanol 5. 1.0%—Malic acid 35% M.W. 100,000 6. 0.3%—phenyl alanine 7. 0.4%—Banana Flavoring 8. 0.1%—Sodium Hydroxide USP Formula #7 1. 11%—Hydrogen Peroxide 2. 43%—Poly(2-ethyl-2-Oxazoline) M.W. 500,000 3. 27.5%—Purified or distilled water 4. 16.7%—Ethanol 5. 1.0%—Poly acrylic acid 35% M.W. 100,000 6. 0.3%—Sucralose 7. 0.4%—Peppermint Oil USP 8. 0.1%—Potassium Hydroxide USP As can be seen, other ingredients include flavorings and sweeteners, solvents, plasticizers, and other elements for desired effect. It is, of course, readily conceived that other active ingredients may be added to the composition for more desired effects, with or without peroxide. Such active ingredients may include and are not limited to fluoride, desensitizers, anti-microbials, anti-fungals, re-mineralizers, surfactants, nutraceuticals, pharmaceuticals and other medicaments. While it is not as preferred as Poly(2-ethyl-2-Oxazoline), polyvinylpyrrolidone (“PVP”) may be used in this invention with good results. Again, proportions in formulas using PVP will vary according to desired characteristics and purposes. A specific list of possible additives includes, but is not limited to: Fluorides—sodium fluoride, potassium fluoride, Stannous fluoride, sodium monofluorophosphate and alkyl fluoroamines. Desensitizers—potassium citrate, glutaraldehyde, sodium citrate, potassium nitrate, sodium nitrate and Sodium and potassium salts of EDTA, and EDTA. Anti-microbials—chlorhexidine, chlorhexidine gluconate, benzalkonium chloride, thymol, sodium chlorite, potassium chlorite, triclosan, methyl paraben, propyl paraben, sodium benzoate, benzalkonium chloride, cetyl pyridinium chloride, zinc chloride. Anti-fungals: Ketoconazole, potassium permangante, terninafine HCL, zinc chloride Re-mineralizers—potassium sucrose phosphate, sodium sucrose phosphate, sodium phosphate mono basic, sodium phosphate dibasic, sodium phosphate tri-basic, alone or in combination with one or more of the following: calcium fluoride, calcium hydroxide, calcium hydroxy apatite, sodium fluoride, potassium fluoride, sodium monofluorophosphate. Surfactants—sodium lauryl sulfate, Polysorbates, Lauryl dimethyl amine oxide, Cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, Polyethoxylated alcohols, Polyoxyethylene sorbitan Octoxynol, N, N-dimethyldodecylamine-N-oxide, Hexadecyltrimethylammonium bromide, Polyoxyl 10 lauryl ether, Polyoxyl castor oil, Nonylphenol ethoxylate, Cyclodextrins, Lecithin, Methylbenzethonium chloride. Pharmaceuticals—Amoxicillin, amoxil, biaxin, cefzil, cipro, levaquin, minocycline, penicillin, tetracycline, trimox, zithromax, astringent alums. Nutraceuticals—ascorbic acid, B-glucan, lutein, gallic acid, aloe vera, lactobacillus acidophilus, zinc, tocopherol, choline, Q-10, B-carotene, lycopene, sodium carbonate, glutathione. Sweeteners: sucrose, glucose, fructose, phenyl alanine, sucralose, sodium saccharin, xylitol. Flavors—peppermint oil, methyl salicylate, spearmint oil, cinnamon oil, artificial and natural fruit flavorings like banana flavoring, peach flavoring, and apple flavoring. Although the present invention has been described with reference to preferred embodiments, numerous modifications and variations can be made and still the result will come within the scope of the invention. Such modifications include increasing or decreasing viscosity and peroxide concentration for various purposes. No limitation with respect to the specific embodiments disclosed herein is intended or should be inferred. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Inorganic peroxide is usually defined as hydrogen peroxide and adducts thereof. Some examples are: hydrogen peroxide, carbamide peroxide, sodium percarbonate, sodium perborate. Peroxide is used in many different applications from an antiseptic for minor wounds to bleach for teeth, hair and laundry. Solutions of varying strengths of hydrogen peroxide are readily on the market, usually in a liquid form. For targeted bleaching applications, such as tooth whitening, it can be desirable to blend the peroxide into a gel by blending the peroxide with a thickener. Blending is accomplished by mixing the thickener with the peroxide, usually also with water or an appropriate organic solvent. However, due to the volatile oxidizing nature of peroxide (which imparts the substance's bleaching ability); there are very few thickeners that can withstand a peroxide environment. Most polymers will degrade quickly in a peroxide environment and will lose their thickening properties entirely due to the powerful oxidizing effects of peroxide. These gels will degrade into thin, water-type consistencies. It is rare to find a polymer that can withstand, for prolonged periods of time, the powerful effects of peroxide. Chemists have diluted hydrogen peroxide in order to tame its instability and raw oxidizing power. Liquid hydrogen peroxide is common and is by far the most aggressive oxidizer and the most unstable. Chemists have also produced adducts of hydrogen peroxide to stabilize hydrogen peroxide in the resultant compounds. The main adducts of hydrogen peroxide that are used for bleaching are: urea hydrogen peroxide (carbamide peroxide), sodium perborate, and sodium percarbonate. However, dilution of hydrogen peroxide by any means, while increasing stability, also reduces the bleaching efficacy of resultant gels. Carbamide peroxide contains about 36% hydrogen peroxide by weight. Therefore, a bleaching gel made with about 10% carbamide peroxide (which is an industry standard), yields only about 3% hydrogen peroxide. Sodium percarbonate has an even lower concentration of hydrogen peroxide. The use of these adducts then, generates an instant upper limit to the final concentration of hydrogen peroxide in a product. Dental whitening manufacturers have predominately been using carbamide peroxide. Carbamide peroxide is docile enough to be used with many polymers that would not work with hydrogen peroxide. The most used commercial thickener, CARBOPOL, is a good example of this. CARBOPOL is a good thickener for carbamide peroxide. However, CARBOPOL does not hold up to pure hydrogen peroxide for even short amounts of time. When CARBOPOL is used in a composition containing 30% hydrogen peroxide, the composition will begin to break down and form peroxide decomposition bubbles in about two weeks. Therefore what is needed is a polymer that is capable of withstanding hydrogen peroxide compositions for moderate amounts of time. The direct application of these manufactured gels and liquids to the teeth for the purpose of bleaching does have drawbacks. Direct delivery of these gels and liquids onto the teeth can be unsuccessful as they tend to run-off the teeth by the force of gravity. They also are subject to being wiped off quickly by the cheeks and gums. To make matters worse, the saliva is also there to quickly wash and dilute any treatment fluids off of the teeth. While gels may be more resistant to these drawbacks as compared to other liquids, they still have these inherent difficulties. In order to overcome the difficulties inherent in the direct application of fluidic treatment materials various inventions have been developed. One of the early inventions involved an insoluble barrier that would hold the treatment gels and liquids against the teeth and at the same time protect it against the tongue, cheek and saliva. This resulted in the invention of the plastic dental tray. The major drawback in the concept of a tray is that the variations in teeth anatomy make it very difficult to make and design a generic one-size-fits-all tray. Therefore some of the early trays were designed to fit onto the gums and mechanically pinch the gums in order to hold the tray onto the teeth. These mechanical trays were cumbersome and painful for patient use and became obsolete in favor of the custom tray. The custom tray involves creating an impression of the teeth, followed by casting a mold of said impression. Said mold is then covered with a pre-heated semi-molten plastic sheet with a vacuum in place in order to force the plastic to adapt to the casting's surface. Finally, the post-solidified tray is usually trimmed with scissors into a custom tray for a specific individual. The drawback to the custom tray is the amount of time and resource and effort needed to create one. The biggest drawback inherent in all trays of the prior art is their accompanying use of fluidic treatment gels and liquids. Once a tray is created it must be filled with a fluidic treatment gel or liquid and, most of the time, the patient must do this. Early dental treatment products were liquids. Liquids were most especially difficult to handle, as they tend to run out of the trays and were easily spilled while filling the trays. Liquids were abandoned as the product of choice in favor of higher viscosity fluidic gels. Gels provide more control over flow characteristics than liquids. A gel can obtain higher viscosities that limit the flow of treatment products thereby allowing the treatment product to remain in the tray better. A gel also adds the benefit of some adhesion between the tray and teeth aiding in holding the tray in place once fitted. The drawback inherent to these fluidic gels and liquids is that they are messy for both patient and practitioner. When these fluidic gels and liquids spill while filling the tray or express out of the tray while fitting and wearing the tray; they are a nuisance and a complaint of patients. These are the drawbacks of fluidic treatment products and trays: a. While filling trays, any spill is messy and a nuisance to clean up. b. When fitting the filled tray onto the teeth, the teeth must displace the treatment fluids and any excess gel or liquid will be forced out of the tray and into the mouth. In the case of gels this becomes especially messy, since it cannot be easily spit or rinsed out. The current procedure calls for a toothbrush to agitate the gel and with copious amounts of dilution water, the patient will eventually work away the excess gel. c. While wearing the trays, the upper teeth constantly come in contact with the lower teeth in a natural repetitive soft biting action. This natural biting action acts as a pump that when compressed will force more messy gel or liquid material out of the tray where it must be cleaned off or drowned in saliva. When the compression ends and the trays relax back into equilibrium it will either begin to empty out the tray and fill it with saliva (so the upper portion of the teeth are not treated) or they begin mixing and dilute the active ingredients. Another invention of the prior art that is used to deliver treatment gels and liquids is the dental strip. The dental strip is an insoluble flexible plastic strip onto which the treatment fluidic gels have been applied. Liquid treatment products obviously would not work well with strips, since they would just run-off the strip. The dental strip is then applied to the teeth. Current dental strips even incorporate in their design shallow pockets into the plastic strip in order to hold fluidic treatment gels. The lack of these shallow pockets would limit the amount of treatment gel available for actual treatment after fitting the strip in place, as most of the gel would be displaced from a smooth surface during fitting. The drawbacks of these prior art dental strips are again their reliance on gels for functionality. Gels suffer from many of the same problems as trays, in that while fitting and wearing the strip any excess gel that is displaced or pumped out ends up in the mouth as a constant mess. In some respects the strips are worse than the trays, since they are not tray shaped they must hold their shape against the teeth by either the adhesiveness of the gel or the rigidity of the backing material or they tend to unfold off the teeth during use. Strips that use gels also suffer from movement on the teeth during use. The gels act as a slimy lubricant between the teeth and strip, which allows the strip to annoyingly move around while it is being worn. Patients complain when they have to constantly adjust the strip back into place. One of the biggest complaints with strips that use gels is with patients with uneven teeth, the strip tends to favor the tooth that sticks out and fails to contact adjacent teeth creating a gap between the strip and teeth that allows saliva to enter, which dilutes and washes away the gel. Other disclosed inventions include more rigid or solidified treatment compositions that are set into a tray or onto a backing material. These solidified compositions can be sufficiently rigid as to maintain itself in a tray-like configuration absent their external supports. Others disclose a strip or a tray with a two-part treatment composition that is mixed and applied to the backing material just prior to use. These 2-part prior art compositions are incapable of being combined in a pre-mixed shelf stable treatment device. When combined, the resultant compound eventually sets to a rubber-like consistency and is placed against teeth; however, this is an unstable state. Over time, the compound decomposes into a dry powder and degraded peroxide. This is why this type of prior art system must be separated into 2 parts and mixed only upon patient use. These systems require the patient or clinician to make/mix the rubber-like substance first and then somehow load this same rubber-type consistency compound onto a whitening device prior to application to the patients teeth—this is too cumbersome. These more rigid treatment compositions are an improvement over gel or liquid compositions, since they resist flow they tend to stay on the backing strip or tray when fitting and wearing the implements. So they do not pump out of the tray or displace out of the dental strip when fitting. However, they do crack and break if flexed. The odd product is the dry or wet type patches that do not have a backing strip or tray. The drawback to patches is that they do not have a barrier between the back of the patch and the mouth; therefore they are again subject to the wiping effect of adjacent oral tissues and the washing and dilution effects of saliva. Another drawback is the lack of barrier means not only the active ingredient is treating the teeth but also treating all the oral tissues on the other side. Many of these active ingredients are irritating or harmful to soft tissue; the patch is not much of an improvement over gels and liquids that are placed in strips or trays. The drawback to more rigid treatment compositions placed in trays or dental strips is that they are limited to non-toxic, active ingredient stable, water-soluble thickeners of the prior art. Many of these thickeners have physical characteristics so that when they are dried from an aqueous state, they are not ideal for a tray or a dental strip. The ideal thickener would have these characteristics: a. Adhesion in aqueous environment: that when the surface of the more rigid composition becomes wetted it becomes sticky. Many thickeners do not have sufficient stickiness to overcome the forces exhibited while fitting and wearing a tray or strip to uneven teeth. The adhesion should be great enough to hold the backing strip or tray to all varieties of teeth whether straight or crooked. b. Hygroscopic: The water-soluble thickener should be able to resist drying to a powder over long periods of storage before use. Many thickeners tend to dry out even when sealed in their packages over time leaving condensation inside the package or may even just escape the packaging altogether. A hygroscopic thickener allows you to use and keep water in the formulation during storage because hygroscopic gels will retain an aqueous equilibrium of internal water and resist drying to a powder. This amount of internal water can be adjusted as it is directly proportional to the drying temperature; therefore, drying times and temperatures can be adjusted to adjust the visco-elasticity of the final product. Thickeners that dry out are limited to formulations that contain non-volatile solvents to keep them intact. The problem with these formulations is they tend to wet more slowly reducing short-term adhesion. Many thickeners will not even create a gel without water as one of the solvents. c. Compatible with organic solvents: The ideal thickener should be able to incorporate organic solvents to manipulate and adjust various properties. These water-soluble thickeners that can also incorporate organic solvents are adjustable in their elasticity, plasticity, solubility, tackiness and viscosity by the appropriate use of various organic solvents. A water-soluble thickener that does not incorporate organic solvents is left with only water as the modifier of choice. d. Elasticity: The ideal thickener would have sufficient elasticity, without splitting or cracking during storage or while fitting the implement. Some devices of the prior art are of a composition that has a rigidity so as to maintain itself in the shape of its container even when the external support is removed. These compositions have essentially dried out and are solid and brittle. Many rigid compositions of the prior art are dried solids adjacent a strip or tray. The backing strip and tray are usually flexible yet the dried composition is brittle and tends to crack when manipulating the implement. There is a drawback to dry and brittle compositions in that they need lots of water to become hydrated to a point where the active ingredients become “active”. These dry compositions will tend to draw the water out of the initial wetted layer, thus drying out the surface into a less mobile layer. Also many active ingredients are volatile and would simply evaporate when dried; others are only stable in the presence of water and would inactivate the product if it were dried out. Finally a dried composition tends to lose its adhesiveness and become loose from the backing strip or tray and falls out. What is needed is a thickener that demonstrates all of the above characteristics that can be conjoined to a film, backing strip, backing sheet or tray in order to more efficiently deliver the active ingredients to the teeth and gums. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) is a water soluble thickener with ideal properties attuned to the creation of pre-mixed, shelf stable compositions that may take the form of gels, visco-elastic and gelatinous compositions, that are intended to release an active ingredient. These compositions can be matched to a backing material in various designs and shapes such as a tray or dental strip. The present invention represents a departure from the prior art in that the application of the present invention in peroxide gels allows for higher peroxide concentrations by providing a gel base that is surprisingly stable in a peroxide environment. The resultant gels may use pure hydrogen peroxide at concentrations where only adducts have been used in the prior art, thereby doubling or tripling the resultant concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the finished product while simultaneously providing comparable or superior gel stability. The present invention also presents the gels in a stable, gelatinous, visco-elastic form that is easily packaged and stored, and provides a delivery system for the same. When placed on a flexible backing, the gelatinous active component acts as a flexible adhesive that will adhere to a user's dental arch and have the thickness and elasticity to remain in place. The final product, then, is a conformable dental treatment tray that will shape itself to any particular irregularities of a user's dental arch. Therefore, it is truly customizable for the user, unlike prior art constructs. For purposes of this Application, the term “gelatinous” shall have the definition given first in the American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, Fourth Edition, © 2006 by Houghton Mifflin Co.: “resembling gelatin, viscous.” A gelatinous compound shall be a visco-elastic compound having physical deformation properties between a solid and a fluid. A solid shall be defined as a substance that is sufficiently rigid so that it maintains its form indefinitely, independent of any structure or support. A fluid shall be defined as a substance that will conform and coalesce to the shape of a beaker into which multiple samples of the same substance are placed, within 10 minutes, with hand agitation of the container and/or hand mixing with an implement at 25° C. with an atmospheric pressure of 1 ATM. Therefore, a gelatinous compound, as the term is used in this Application, will have some degree of flex and deformation as required to fit inside a container, but will not coalesce so that a specific sample or portions thereof are still determinable. This is particularly evident if a number of discrete units of gelatinous material are placed in a container—they will bend as they contact the container but will not merge into one body. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In view of the foregoing disadvantages inherent in the known types of thickeners for peroxide gels, this invention provides an improved thickener. As such, the present invention's general purpose is to provide a new and improved thickener that is capable of maintaining a gel consistency for a peroxide gel while allowing for higher peroxide concentrations to increase efficacy. Chemical solutions and gels containing hydrogen peroxide are well known in the art. In principle, the solutions and gels are made by combining a peroxide, solvents and a thickening agent. Varying degrees of viscosity and strength are easily generated by altering the base components' proportions and identities. For the purpose of this application, the preferred embodiment will be described as a dental whitening gel, though many other applications may be easily conceived and should be deemed to be included in this Application and its claims. Such additional applications include bleaching products for hair or laundry, where viscosity may not be as important as with a dental gel, but the principles and invention described herein, namely higher viscosity and bleaching strength, are equally applicable. The novel thickening agent is Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline). It is a polymer that swells upon absorption of liquids. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) creates very viscous gels. There are many different molecular weights of Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) available commercially. These can be chosen to impart different physical properties to the gel for bleaching and other applications. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) is surprisingly a polymer that is capable of excellent compatibility with peroxide and imparts excellent thick viscous properties to the gel. Experience has shown that a 30% hydrogen peroxide gel made with Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) stays a gel during six month's storage at room temperature. Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) is a superior polymer in an oxidizing peroxide environment to current thickening polymers like CARBOPOL, silica, PVP, and polyethylene glycols. One particular use of the combination of Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline) and peroxide, and the focus of this application, is the creation of a formable dental treatment tray for the purpose of treating teeth. When peroxide is mixed with Poly(2-ethyl-2-oxazoline), with a solvent in the case of powdered peroxides, and the resulting combination is appropriately dried, the resultant product is a hygroscopic, gelatinous, visco-elastic substance that is less adhesive than a gel, is well packaged, relatively inert and behaves well in product production. When water is added to the surface of the substance, the substance regains the adhesiveness lost in the drying process and may be applied directly to a user's teeth in a manner that conforms to that individual user's dental arch. The gels may be applied to a tape-like backing, such as PARAFILM, dried, cut into appropriate shapes, like a strip, and packaged for a particularly effective bleaching tray to be used in clinical or home applications. Packaging of the product must resist moisture as the hygroscopic nature of the product will tend to absorb atmospheric moisture and alter its visco-elastic qualities. The more important features of the invention have thus been outlined in order that the more detailed description that follows may be better understood and in order that the present contribution to the art may better be appreciated. Additional features of the invention will be described hereinafter and will form the subject matter of the claims that follow. Many objects of this invention will appear from the following description and appended claims. Before explaining at least one embodiment of the invention in detail, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited in its application to the details of construction and the arrangements of the components set forth in the following description or illustrated in the drawings. The invention is capable of other embodiments and of being practiced and carried out in various ways. Also it is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein are for the purpose of description and should not be regarded as limiting. As such, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the conception, upon which this disclosure is based, may readily be utilized as a basis for the designing of other structures, methods and systems for carrying out the several purposes of the present invention. It is important, therefore, that the claims be regarded as including such equivalent constructions insofar as they do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention. | A61K822 | 20170620 | 20171005 | 97863.0 | A61K822 | 1 | ROBERTS, LEZAH | Peroxide Gel Compositions | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,627,962 | PENDING | NOVEL ANTITUMORAL USE OF CABAZITAXEL | The invention relates to a compound of formula: which may be in base form or in the form of a hydrate or a solvate, in combination with prednisone or prednisolone, for its use as a medicament in the treatment of prostate cancer, particularly metastatic prostate cancer, especially for patients who are not catered for by a taxane-based treatment. | 1.-33. (canceled) 34. A method of treatment comprising administering (i) an antihistamine, (ii) a corticoid, (iii) an H2 antagonist, and (iv) and an effective amount of cabazitaxel, or a hydrate or solvate thereof, to a patient with castration resistant, metastatic prostate cancer that has progressed during or after treatment with docetaxel, wherein said antihistamine, said corticoid, and said H2 antagonist are administered prior to said effective amount of cabazitaxel, or hydrate or solvate thereof, and wherein said cabazitaxel, or a hydrate or solvate thereof, is administered intravenously at a dose of 15 mg/m2. 35. The method according to claim 34, wherein the cabazitaxel is administered in combination with prednisone at a dose of 10 mg/day. 36. The method according to claim 35, further comprising repeating the administration of said antihistamine, said corticoid, said H2 antagonist, and said effective amount of cabazitaxel, or hydrate or solvate thereof, intravenously as a new cycle every three weeks. 37. A method of reducing the risk of a severe hypersensitivity reaction in a patient with prostate cancer beginning treatment with cabazitaxel as a new cycle every three weeks comprising administering to said patient (i) an antihistamine, (ii) a corticoid, and (iii) an H2 antagonist prior to the administration of said cabazitaxel. 38. The method according to claim 37, wherein the antihistamine, corticoid, and H2 antagonist are administered 30 minutes prior to the administration of said cabazitaxel. 39. The method according to claim 38, wherein the antihistamine is dexchlorpheniramine administered at a dose of 5 mg and the corticoid is dexamethasone administered at a dose of 8 mg. 40. The method according to claim 39, wherein the dose of said cabazitaxel is 15-25 mg/m2. 41. The method according to claim 40, wherein the dose of said cabazitaxel is 25 mg/m2. 42. The method according to claim 40, wherein the dose of said cabazitaxel is 20 mg/m2. 43. The method according to claim 40, wherein the dose of said cabazitaxel is 15 mg/m2. 44. A method of treatment comprising administering (i) an antihistamine, (ii) a corticoid, (iii) an H2 antagonist, and (iv) a clinically proven effective amount of cabazitaxel, or a hydrate or solvate thereof, to a patient with castration resistant, metastatic prostate cancer that has progressed during or after treatment with docetaxel, wherein said antihistamine, said corticoid, and said H2 antagonist are administered prior to said clinically proven effective amount of cabazitaxel. 45. The method according to claim 44, wherein said clinically proven effective amount of cabazitaxel is a dose of 20-25 mg/m2 cabazitaxel administered in combination with prednisone at a dose of 10 mg/day. 46. The method according to claim 45, wherein the cabazitaxel is administered at a dose of 25 mg/m2. 47. The method according to claim 45, wherein the cabazitaxel is administered at a dose of 20 mg/m2. 48. The method according to claim 46, wherein the cabazitaxel is administered with the intent of increasing the survival of said patient. 49. The method according to claim 47, wherein the cabazitaxel is administered with the intent of increasing the survival of said patient. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/575,566, filed Dec. 18, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/456,720, filed Apr. 26, 2012, which is a continuation of International Application No. PCT/IB2010/054866, filed Oct. 27, 2010, which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/256,160, filed Oct. 29, 2009, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/293,903, filed Jan. 11, 2010, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/355,834, filed Jun. 17, 2010, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/355,888, filed Jun. 17, 2010, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/369,929, filed Aug. 2, 2010, U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/383,933, filed Sep. 17, 2010, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/389,969, filed Oct. 5, 2010, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. The present invention relates to a novel antitumoral use of cabazitaxel in the treatment of prostate cancer, which may be metastatic, especially for patients who are not catered for by a taxane-based treatment. In particular, the present invention relates to the use of cabazitaxel in the treatment of patients with castration resistant metastatic prostate cancer, who have been previously treated with a docetaxel based regimen, an unmet medical need. BACKGROUND Prostate cancer affects a large proportion of the male population worldwide: 680 000 cases worldwide in 2002; it is predicted that there will be 900 000 new cases per year up to 2010 (CA Cancer J. Clin., 2005, 55, 74-108). It is the most frequently occurring cancer in men after lung cancer. Prostate cancer is generally treated at the start by depriving the androgenic hormones, i.e. by surgical excision of the testicles The Current State of Hormonal Therapy for Prostate Cancer CA Cancer J. Clin., May 2002; 52: 154-179, or by radiotherapy treatment External beam radiation therapy for prostate cancer CA Cancer J. Clin., November 2000; 50: 349-375. Treatments with antiandrogens or hormone manipulations are associated with responses of short duration and without any improvement in the survival time. The use of cytotoxic chemotherapy is not a routine treatment, whereas its role in alleviating the symptoms and reducing the levels of PSA (prostate-specific antigen) is established. No monotherapy has obtained a degree of response of greater than 30%; combinations with an effect on PSA levels were tested. No effect on the survival time was seen and, what is more, the toxicity of these treatments, particularly on elderly patients, is problematic since, in addition to their tumour, they are generally suffering from related health problems and have a limited reserve of bone marrow. Until recently, the chemotherapies used were limited to cyclophosphamide, anthracyclines (doxorubicin or mitoxantrone) and estramustine, and the effects of these treatments are relatively mediocre. Palliative effects were observed in patients following the administration of corticoids alone or of mitoxantrone with either prednisone or hydrocortisone. Following Phase II trials, the combination of mitoxantrone with corticoids was recognized as the reference treatment for hormone-resistant prostate cancer. More recently, treatments with docetaxel in combination with estramustine or prednisone have made it possible to treat cancers that are resistant to hormone deprivation Advances in Prostate Cancer Chemotherapy: A New Era Begins CA Cancer J. Clin., September 2005; 55: 300-318, the survival was improved by 2.4 months. It is generally accepted that the responses in advanced prostate cancers are difficult to evaluate on account of the heterogeneity of the disease and the lack of consensus regarding the treatment response criteria. Many patients with metastatic prostate cancer have no measurable disease, but have symptoms dominated by bone metastases. Measurement of the PSA level has been found to be a means for evaluating novel candidates and also the measurement of the tumour when this is possible, the measurement of bone tumours, the quality of life and the measurement of the pain. Furthermore, cancer may become resistant to the agents used, in particular to taxanes, which limits the possible treatment options. Several taxane resistance mechanisms have been described (expression of P-glycoprotein P-gp, mdr-1 gene, modified metabolism of taxane, mutation of the tubulin gene, etc.): see Drug Resistance Updates 2001, 4(1), 3-8; J. Clin. Onc. 1999, 17(3), 1061-1070. The technical problem that the invention intends to solve is that of providing a novel therapeutic option for treating prostate cancer, especially for patients who are not catered for by a taxane-based treatment, such as patients with castration resistant metastatic prostate cancer who have been previously treated with docetaxel (sold under the brand name Taxotere®) based regimen, an unmet medical need. Four clinical trials on cabazitaxel are known since April 2006. Three monotherapy tests have made it possible to determine the maximum tolerated dose and the toxicities at the limit doses: these tests were performed on breast, sarcoma and prostate tumours. Doses of 10-30 mg/m2 every three hours were used. A phase II trial was performed on patients with a breast cancer, who had previously received taxanes and anthracyclines as adjuvant (i.e. after a surgery) or as a first-line treatment. The response levels were 14.6% as adjuvant and 9.5% as second-line treatment. SUMMARY The invention relates to a novel antitumoral pharmaceutical therapeutic use comprising cabazitaxel of formula The invention also relates to methods of treating patients with prostate cancer comprising administering an effective amount of the antitumoral agent cabazitaxel to said patient. This antitumoral agent may be in the form of anhydrous base, a hydrate or a solvate, intended for treating prostate cancer, in particular for treating patients who are not catered for by a taxane-based treatment, such as patients who have been previously treated with a docetaxel-based regimen. This compound is preferably administered to a patient with advanced metastatic disease. In particular, the compound is administered to a patient with castration resistant prostate cancer. Cabazitaxel is preferably administered in combination with a corticoid chosen especially from prednisone and prednisolone. This corticoid is preferably administered at a daily dose of 10 mg orally. In some aspects of the invention, cabazitaxel is administered in combination with prednisone for its use as a medicament in the treatment of patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer who have been previously treated with docetaxel based regimen. In some aspects of the invention, cabazitaxel is administered at a dose (defined for each administration) of between 20 and 25 mg/m2. Cabazitaxel may be in the form of an acetone solvate. More particularly, the acetone solvate of cabazitaxel contains between 5% and 8% and preferably between 5% and 7% by weight of acetone. In some aspects of the invention, cabazitaxel may be administered by intravenous infusion at a dose of between 15 and 25 mg/m2, this administration cycle of the antitumour agent being repeated at an interval of 3 weeks between each cabazitaxel administration, which interval may be prolonged by 1 to 2 weeks depending on the tolerance to the preceding cabazitaxel administration. In some embodiments, the effective amount of cabazitaxel produces at least one therapeutic effect selected from the group consisting of increase in overall survival, partial response, reduction in tumor size, reduction in metastasis, complete remission, partial remission, stable disease, or complete response. The present invention also relates to a pharmaceutical composition that treats patients with prostate cancer comprising a clinically proven safe and effective amount of cabazitaxel. Further embodiments of the invention comprise methods or using, treating, promoting, and providing cabazitaxel. The present invention also relates to packages and articles of manufacture. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 displays the Kaplan-Meier curves of the overall survival in a cabazitaxel study. FIG. 2 displays the Kaplan-Meier curves of progression-free survival in a cabazitaxel study. FIG. 3 shows an intention-to-treat analysis of overall survival in subgroups of patients defined by baseline characteristics. Hazard ratios <1 favor the cabazitaxel group, while those >1 favor the mitoxantrone group. CI denotes confidence intervals. FIG. 4 graphically depicts the proportion of patients with changes in ECOG performance status from baseline during treatment (safety population). The “Improved” column represents PS2 at baseline changed to 0 or 1 during treatment. The “stable” column represents no change, and the “Worse” column represents PS2 at baseline and changed to ≥3, or 0 or 1 at baseline changed to ≥2 during treatment. FIG. 5 graphically depicts the proportion of patients with changes from baseline in the Present Pain Intensity score during treatment (ITT). The “Improved” column represents patients in which the PPI score during treatment was lower versus baseline. The “Stable” column represents no change, and the “Worse” column represents patients with >1 unit increase in PPI score during treatment versus baseline. FIG. 6 graphically presents the mean area under the curve for PPI and analgesic scores by treatment cycle. FIG. 7 graphically presents the mean AUC analgesic score. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Definitions Effective amount, as used herein, means an amount of a pharmaceutical compound, such as cabazitaxel, that produces an effect on the cancer to be treated. Clinically proven, as used herein, means clinical efficacy results that are sufficient to meet FDA approval standards. Castration resistant prostate cancer, as used herein, is synonymous with hormone-refractory prostate cancer. “Patient,” as used herein, includes both human and animals. In one embodiment, a patient is a human. Cabazitaxel belongs to the taxoid family and has the formula: The chemical name of cabazitaxel is 4α-acetoxy-2α-benzoyloxy-5,20-epoxy-1β-hydroxy-7β,10β-dimethoxy-9-oxo-11-taxen-13α-yl (2R,3S)-3-tert-butoxycarbonyl-amino-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropionate. Cabazitaxel is synonymously known as (2α,5β,7β, 10β,13α)-4-acetoxy-13-({(2R,3S)-3-[(tertbutoxycarbonyl)amino]-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropanoyl}oxy)-1-hydroxy-7,10-dimethoxy-9-oxo-5,20-epoxytax-11-en-2-yl benzoate. This compound and a preparative method thereof is described in WO 96/30355, EP 0 817 779 B1 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,847,170, which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. Cabazitaxel may be administered in base form (cf. above formula), or in the form of a hydrate. It may also be a solvate, i.e. a molecular complex characterized by the incorporation of the crystallization solvent into the crystal of the molecule of the active principle (see in this respect page 1276 of J. Pharm. Sci. 1975, 64(8), 1269-1288). In particular, it may be an acetone solvate, and, more particularly, may be the solvate described in WO 2005/02846. It may be an acetone solvate of cabazitaxel containing between 5% and 8% and preferably between 5% and 7% by weight of acetone (% means content of acetone/content of acetone+cabazitaxel×100). An average value of the acetone content is 7%, which approximately represents the acetone stoichiometry, which is 6.5% for a solvate containing one molecule of acetone. The procedure described below allows the preparation of an acetone solvate of cabazitaxel: 940 ml of purified water are added at 20±5° C. (room temperature) to a solution of 207 g of 4α-acetoxy-2α-benzoyloxy-5β,20-epoxy-1β-hydroxy-7β,10β-dimethoxy-9-oxo-11-taxen-13α-yl (2R,3S)-3-tert-butoxycarbonylamino-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropionate at about 92% by weight in about 2 litres of acetone, followed by seeding with a suspension of 2 g of 4α-acetoxy-2α-benzoyloxy-5β,20-epoxy-1β-hydroxy-7β,10β-dimethoxy-9-oxo-11-taxen-13α-yl (2R,3S)-3-tert-butoxycarbonylamino-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropionate isolated from acetone/water in a mixture of 20 ml of water and 20 ml of acetone. The resulting mixture is stirred for about 10 to 22 hours, and 1.5 litres of purified water are added over 4 to 5 hours. This mixture is stirred for 60 to 90 minutes, and the suspension is then filtered under reduced pressure. The cake is washed on the filter with a solution prepared from 450 ml of acetone and 550 ml of purified water, and then oven-dried at 55° C. under reduced pressure (0.7 kPa) for 4 hours. 197 g of 4α-acetoxy-2α-benzoyloxy-5β,20-epoxy-1β-hydroxy-7β,10β-dimethoxy-9-oxo-11-taxen-13α-yl (2R,3S)-3-tert-butoxycarbonylamino-2-hydroxy-3-phenylpropionate acetone containing 0.1% water and 7.2% acetone (theoretical amount: 6.5% for a stoichiometric solvate) are obtained. Cabazitaxel may be administered parenterally, such as via intravenous administration. A galenical form of cabazitaxel suitable for administration by intravenous infusion is that in which the cabazitaxel is dissolved in water in the presence of excipients chosen from surfactants, cosolvents, glucose or sodium chloride, etc. For example, a galenical form of cabazitaxel may be prepared by diluting a premix solution of cabazitaxel contained in a sterile vial (80 mg of cabazitaxel+2 ml of solvent+Polysorbate 80) with a sterile vial containing a solution of 6 ml of water and ethanol (13% by weight of 95% ethanol) in order to obtain 8 ml of a solution ready to be rediluted in a perfusion bag. The concentration of cabazitaxel in this ready-to-redilute solution is about 10 mg/ml. The perfusion is then prepared by injecting the appropriate amount of this ready-to-redilute solution into the perfusion bag containing water and glucose (about 5%) or sodium chloride (about 0.9%). Cabazitaxel may be administered in combination with a corticoid, such as prednisone or prednisolone, as two distinct pharmaceutical preparations. Accordingly, one aspect of the invention is a method of treating prostate cancer comprising administering to a patient in need thereof an effective amount of cabazitaxel in combination with a corticoid, such as prednisone or prednisolone. The combination is administered repeatedly according to a protocol that depends on the patient to be treated (age, weight, treatment history, etc.), which can be determined by a skilled physician. In one aspect of the invention, cabazitaxel is administered by perfusion to the patient according to an intermittent program with an interval between each administration of 3 weeks, which may be prolonged by 1 to 2 weeks depending on the tolerance to the preceding administration. The median number of cycles is 6. The prednisone or prednisolone may be administered daily, for example in the form of one dosage intake per day, throughout the duration of the treatment. Examples of doses for the two antitumoral agents are given in the “Example” section. The currently recommended dose is 25 mg/m2 of cabazitaxel administered as a on-hour infusion and 10 mg per day of prednisone or prednisolone administered orally. In some aspects of the invention, the patient to be treated has prostate cancer that is resistant to hormone therapy (i.e., hormone refractory) and has previously been treated with docetaxel. In some aspects, the patient has prostate cancer that progressed during or after treatment with docetaxel. In some aspects, the patient was previously treated with at least 225 mg/m2 cumulative dose of docetaxel. In a particular aspect, the patient showed progression of their disease in the six months following hormone therapy or during docetaxel treatment or after docetaxel treatment. In another particular aspect, the patient showed progression of their disease in the three months following hormone therapy or after docetaxel treatment. In some aspects of the invention, the patient to be treated has a measurable tumour and may show progression of the disease via a metastatic lesion of the viscera or of a soft tissue of at least 1 cm determined by MRI or by an axial tomographic scan (CT scan). In some aspects of the invention, the patient to be treated has an unmeasurable tumour and may show an increase in the PSA level with three measurements at a 1-week interval or the appearance of new lesions. In some aspects of the invention, the patient to be treated has undergone castration by orchidectomy or with LHRH agonists, elimination of the androgens or monotherapy with estramustine. In a preferred aspect, the life expectancy of the patient to be treated should be at least 2 months. In some aspects, the treatment does not include patients who have previously received mitoxantrone, or who have received less than 225 mg/m2 of docetaxel, or who have undergone a radiotherapy that has eliminated more than 40% of the marrow, who have received a treatment within the 4 weeks preceding the test, who have a neuropathy or a stomatitis, involving the brain or the meninges, who have shown severe hypersensitivity to polysorbate or to prednisone, whose blood analysis shows an appreciable decrease in neutrophils, haemoglobin or platelets, an increase in bilirubin and/or liver enzymes and creatinine, or who have heart problems or an infection requiring antibiotics. An aspect of the invention comprises increasing the survival of a patient with hormone refractory metastatic prostate cancer, comprising administering a clinically proven effective amount of cabazitaxel to the patient in combination with prednisone or prednisolone. In a particular aspect, the patient has previously been treated with a docetaxel-containing regimen. Cabazitaxel may be administered in combination with a medication to prevent or control nausea and vomiting or to prevent or control hypersensitivity to the cabazitaxel treatment. Preferably, a patient is pre-medicated with the medication, for example, at least 30 minutes prior to administering each dose of cabazitaxel. One aspect of the invention comprises a method of reducing the risk of a severe hypersensitivity reaction in a patient with prostate cancer being treated with cabazitaxel, comprising administering to the patient a medication to prevent hypersensitivity prior to the administration of cabazitaxel. Severe hypersensitivity reactions to cabazitaxel can occur and may include generalized rash/erythema, hypotension and bronchospasm. Patients should be observed closely for hypersensitivity reactions, especially during the first and second infusions. Hypersensitivity reactions may occur within a few minutes following the initiation of the infusion of cabazitaxel, thus facilities and equipment for the treatment of hypotension and bronchospasm should be available. If severe hypersensitivity reaction occurs, cabazitaxel infusion should be immediately discontinued and appropriate therapy should be administered. Examples of medications which may be used to prevent hypersensitivity to the cabazitaxel treatment include antihistamines, such as dexchloropheniramine (for example 5 mg), and diphenhydramine (for example 25 mg) or equivalent antihistamines; and corticosteroids, such as dexamethasone (for example 8 mg) or an equivalent steroid. Nevertheless, cabazitaxel should not be given to and may be contraindicated in patients who have a history of severe hypersensitivity reactions to cabazitaxel. Depending on the formulation administered, cabazitaxel may also be contraindicated in patients who have a history of hypersensitivity reactions to other drugs formulated with polysorbate 80. One aspect of the invention comprises an article of manufacture comprising: a) a packaging material; b) cabazitaxel, and c) a label or package insert contained within the packaging material indicating that severe hypersensitivity reactions can occur. Gastrointestinal symptoms, such as, for example nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea, may occur with the treatment of cabazitaxel. Mortality related to diarrhea and electrolyte imbalance has been reported. Therefore, patients may also be rehydrated and treated with anti-diarrheal or anti-emetic medications as needed. Treatment delay or dosage reduction may be necessary if patients experience Grade ≥3 diarrhea. Accordingly, the methods of the invention include administering a medication to prevent hypersensitivity or a medication to prevent or control nausea and vomiting in combination with cabazitaxel. Examples of medications which may be used to prevent or control nausea and vomiting include histamine H2 antagonists and antiemetics, such as ondansetron, granisetron and dolesetron. A possible side effect of the treatment with cabazitaxel is neutropenia, which is characterized by a reduced number of neutrophils. Unfortunately, a number of neutropenia deaths have been reported. Therefore, frequent blood counts should be obtained or performed to monitor for neutropenia. If neutropenia occurs, cabazitaxel treatment may be discontinued, and restarted when neutrophil counts recover to a level of >1,500/mm3. Cabazitaxel should not be given to a patient with a neutrophil count ≤1,500 cells/mm3. The present invention therefore also relates to a method of treating prostate cancer with cabazitaxel comprising administering cabazitaxel to the patient, monitoring blood counts in the patient, and measuring neutrophil levels. In one aspect, the method further comprises discontinuing cabazitaxel treatment if neutropenia occurs, and optionally restarting cabazitaxel treatment when neutrophil counts recover to a level of >1,500/mm3. In one aspect, the monitoring comprises taking a blood sample from the patient. Determining neutrophil counts can be performed according to procedures well know to those skilled in the art. One aspect of the invention is a method of reducing the risk of neutropenia complications comprising administering cabazitaxel in combination with an agent useful for treating neutropenia. Such a neutropenia treatment agent is, for example, a hematopoietic growth factor which regulates the production and function of neutrophils such as a human granulocyte colony stimulating factor, (G-CSF). In a particular aspect of the invention, the neutropenia is complicated neutropenia. Complicated neutropenia includes febrile neutropenia, prolonged neutropenia, or neutropenic infection. In a preferred embodiment, the neutropenia treatment agent is administered prior to the administration of cabazitaxel. A particular aspect of the invention comprises a method of reducing the risk of neutropenia complications in a patient with prostate cancer being treated with cabazitaxel, comprising monitoring blood counts in the patient at regular intervals during treatment of the patient with cabazitaxel; reducing the dose of cabazitaxel if the patient experiences febrile neutropenia or prolonged neutropenia; discontinuing cabazitaxel treatment if the patients neutrophil count is ≤1,500 cells/mm3; and optionally restarting cabazitaxel treatment when the patients neutrophil counts recover to a level ≤1,500 cells/mm3. In a particular aspect, primary prophylaxis with G-CSF should be considered in patients with high-risk clinical features (age >65 years, poor performance status, previous episodes of febrile neutropenia, extensive prior radiation ports, poor nutritional status, or other serious co-morbidities) that predispose them to increased complications from prolonged neutropenia. Therapeutic use of G-CSF and secondary prophylaxis should be considered in all patients considered to be at increased risk for neutropenia complications. In another aspect, the monitoring of complete blood counts is performed on a weekly basis during cycle 1 and before each treatment cycle thereafter so that the dose can be adjusted, if needed. Therefore, another aspect for reducing the risk of neutropenia complications comprises monitoring blood counts in the patient and adjusting the dose of cabazitaxel. An example of a dose modification is described in Example 2. One aspect of the invention comprises an article of manufacture comprising: a) a packaging material; b) cabazitaxel, and c) a label or package insert contained within the packaging material indicating that cabazitaxel should not be given to patients with neutrophil counts of s1,500 cells/mm3. Cases of renal failure should be indentified and managed aggressively, accordingly to procedures known to those skilled in the art. Renal failure may be associated with sepsis, dehydration, or obstructive uropathy. Furthermore, impaired hepatic function (e.g., total bilirubin ≥ULN, or AST and/or ALT ≥1.5×ULN) may increase cabazitaxel concentrations, and cabazitaxel should not be given to patients with hepatic impairment. Cabazitaxel may cause fetal harm when administered to a pregnant woman. Prednisone or prednisolone administered at 10 mg daily does not affect the pharmacokinetics of cabazitaxel. Cabazitaxel is primarily metabolized through CYP3A. Concomitant administration of strong CYP3A inhibitors (for example, ketoconazole, itraconazole, clarithromycin, atazanavir, indinavir, nefazodone, nelfinavir, ritonavir, saquinavir, telithromycin, voriconazole) may increase cabazitaxel concentrations. Therefore co-administration of cabazitaxel with strong CYP3A inhibitors should be avoided. Caution should be exercised with concomitant use of moderate CYP3A inhibitors. One aspect of the invention is a method of treating a patient for prostate cancer comprising determining whether the patient is undergoing treatment with a CYP3A inhibitor, discontinuing treatment with a CYP3A inhibitor, and then administering cabazitaxel to the patient. Concomitant administration of strong CYP3A inducer (e.g., phenytoin, carbamazepine, rifampin, rifabutin, rifapentin, phenobarbital) may decrease cabazitaxel concentrations. Therefore co-administration of cabazitaxel with strong CYP3A inducers should be avoided. Therefore, one aspect of the invention is a method of treating a patient for prostate cancer comprising determining whether the patient is undergoing treatment with a CYP3A inducer, discontinuing treatment with a CYP3A inducer, and administering cabazitaxel to the patient. In addition, patients should also refrain from taking St. John's Wort. In some aspects of the invention, the cabazitaxel is administered in an amount to provide an AUC of about 991 ng·h/mL (CV 34%). In some aspects of the invention, the cabazitaxel is administered in an amount to provide an Cmax of about 226 ng·h/mL (CV 107%). In some aspects of the invention, the cabazitaxel is administered in an amount to provide a plasma clearance of 48.5 L/h (CV 39%). One aspect of the invention is a package comprising cabazitaxel and a label, in a position which is visible to prospective purchasers, comprising a printed statement which informs prospective purchasers that the mean Cmax of cabazitaxel in patients with metastatic prostate cancer was 226 ng/mL (CV 107%). Another aspect of the invention is a package comprising cabazitaxel and a label, in a position which is visible to prospective purchasers, comprising a printed statement which informs prospective purchasers that the mean AUC of cabazitaxel in patients with metastatic prostate cancer was 991 ng·h/mL (CV 34%). Another aspect of the invention is a package comprising cabazitaxel and a label, in a position which is visible to prospective purchasers, comprising a printed statement which informs prospective purchasers that cabazitaxel has a plasma clearance of 48.5 L/h (CV 39%). A variety of educational materials may be employed to ensure proper prescribing, dispensing, and patient compliance according to the methods described herein. For example, a variety of literature and other materials, such as, for example, prescribing information, package inserts, medications guides, physician information sheets, healthcare professional information sheets, medical journal advertisements, and product websites may describe the risks and benefits of taking cabazitaxel. The invention also concerns a package comprising cabazitaxel and a label, said label comprising one or more messages that: a) the efficacy and safety of cabazitaxel in combination with prednisone were evaluated in patients with hormone refractory metastatic prostate cancer previously treated with a docetaxel containing regimen; or b) a total of 755 patients were randomized to receive either cabazitaxel 25 mg/m3 every 3 weeks for a maximum of 10 cycles with prednisone mg orally daily, or to receive mitoxantrone 12 mg/m2 intravenously every 3 weeks for a maximum of 10 cycles with prednisone 10 mg orally daily; or c) the median number of cycles was 6 in the cabazitaxel group and 4 in the mitoxantrone group. The invention also concerns a package comprising cabazitaxel and a label, said label comprising one or more messages that: a) neutropenic deaths have been reported; or b) frequent blood counts should be obtained to monitor for neutropenia; or c) cabazitaxel should not be given if neutrophil counts are ≤1,500 cells/mm3. The invention also concerns a method of promoting the use of cabazitaxel the method comprising the step of conveying to a recipient at least one message selected from: a) neutropenic deaths have been reported; or b) frequent blood counts should be obtained to monitor for neutropenia; or c) cabazitaxel should not be given if neutrophil counts are ≤1,500 cells/mm3; d) severe hypersensitivity can occur; or e) severe hypersensitivity can occur and may include generalized rash/erythema, hypotension and brochospasm; or f) discontinue cabazitaxel immediately if severe reactions occur; or g) discontinue cabazitaxel immediately if severe reactions occur and administer appropriate therapy; or h) cabazitaxel is contraindicated in patients with a history of severe hypersensitivity reactions to cabazitaxel or drugs formulated with polysorbate 80. The invention also concerns a method of providing cabazitaxel, wherein said cabazitaxel is provided along with information indicating that: a) neutropenic deaths have been reported; or b) frequent blood counts should be obtained to monitor for neutropenia; or c) cabazitaxel should not be given if neutrophil counts are ≤1,500 cells/mm3; d) severe hypersensitivity can occur or e) severe hypersensitivity can occur and may include generalized rash/erythema, hypotension and brochospasm; or f) discontinue cabazitaxel immediately if severe reactions occur, or g) discontinue cabazitaxel immediately if severe reactions occur and administer appropriate therapy; or h) cabazitaxel is contraindicated in patients with a history of severe hypersensitivity reactions to cabazitaxel or drugs formulated with polysorbate 80. Example 1 A clinical study was performed wherein patients received either treatment with cabazitaxel or the reference treatment based on mitoxantrone each combined with prednisone or prednisolone. More specifically, patients over 18 years of age with metastatic castration resistant metastatic prostate cancer either measurable by RECIST criteria or non-measurable disease with rising PSA levels or appearance of new lesions, ECOG (Eastem Cooperative Oncology Group) performance stage 0-2, and adequate organ function (patients had to have neutrophils >1,500 cells/mm3, platelets >100,000 cells/mm3, hemoglobin >10 g/dL, creatinine <1.5×upper limit of normal (ULN), total bilirubin <1×ULN, AST <1.5×ULN, and ALT <1.5×ULN) who had had prior hormone therapy, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, but had progressive during or after docetaxel treatment (cumulative dose ≥225 mg/m2) were randomized to 10 mg/day of prednisone with either mitoxantrone 12 mg/m2 or cabazitaxel 25 mg/m2, both administered every 3 weeks. Patients with a history of congestive heart failure, or myocardial infarction within the last 6 months, or patients with uncontrolled cardiac arrhythmias, angina pectoris, and/or hypertension were not included in the study. 720 patients were planned to be included in the clinical study: 360 in each cabazitaxel+prednisone and mitoxantrone+prednisone group. Seven hundred and fifty-five patients (755) (median age 68; 84% white) were actually enrolled, 378 in the cabazitaxel and prednisone/prednisolone group and 377 in the mitoxantrone and prednisone/prednisolone group. The maximal number of treatment cycles was 10 for cabazitaxel and 10 for mitoxantrone. The median number of treatment cycles was 6 for cabazitaxel and 4 for mitoxantrone. The median prior dose of docetaxel treatment was 576 mg/m2 for the cabazitaxel group and 529 mg/m2 for the mitoxantrone group. Median follow-up was 12.8 months. The measurements of the results are performed via the same tests as at inclusion. MRI and spiral computed tomographic (CT) scans are preferably used. The results are evaluated according to the following criteria (cf RECIST guideline): overall survival (OS): the time from inclusion to the study to the date of death complete response (CR): disappearance of the lesions partial response (PR): at least 30% reduction of the largest diameter of the lesion progression (PD): at least 20% increase in the sum of the largest diameter of the lesion or appearance of one or more new lesions stable disease (SD): reduction of the tumour insufficient to be included in PR and increase of the tumour insufficient to be included in PD. The confirmations of the measurements are made at least 4 weeks after the response criterion has been established for the first time. The progression-free survival (PFS) is the time from inclusion in the study and the date of progression or death when the progression is either an increase of the PSA, or of the tumour, or of the pain. It was found that the combination of cabazitaxel and prednisone is a well-tolerated combination with the safety profile of taxanes. At the dose investigated in this trial (LD2: 25 mg/m2 cabazitaxel+10 mg/m2/day prednisone), patients receiving cabazitaxel demonstrated statistically significant longer overall survival (OS) compared to mitoxantrone (p<0.0001). The hazard ratio was 0.70 (95% CI. 0.59, 0.83) in favor of cabazitaxel corresponding to a 30% reduction in risk of death. The median survival for patients in the cabazitaxel group was 15.1 months in comparison to 12.7 months in the mitoxantrone group. Notably, the extension of survival was observed irrespective of ECOG performance status, number of prior chemotherapy regimens and age. Benefit was also seen in the third of patients who were docetaxel-refractory and had progressed during docetaxel therapy. The data related to the treated patients are given in Table 1: TABLE 1 Efficacy analysis (intention-to-treat) CbzP MP N = 378 N = 377 Median Median (months) (months) Overall survival Median (months) 15.1 12.7 Hazard ratio (95% CI) 0.70 (0.59; 0.83) p-value1 0.0001 PFS Median (months) 2.8 1.4 Hazard ratio (95% CI) 0.74 (0.64-0.86) p-value1 0.0001 Tumor response rate 14.4% 4.4% p-value2 0.0005 Time to Tumor Median (months) 8.8 5.4 Progression p-value <0.001 PSA Response rate 39.2% 17.8% p-value2 0.0002 PSA PFS Median (months) 6.4 3.1 Hazard ratio (95% CI) 0.75 (0.63-0.90) p-value1 0.0010 Pain Response rate 9.2% 7.8% p-value2 0.6526 Pain PFS Median (months) Not 11.1 reached Hazard ratio (95% CI) 0.91 (0.69-1.19) p-value1 0.5192 1Log-rank test; 2Chi-square test CbzP: cabazitaxel with prednisone MP: mitoxantrone with prednisone Progression free survival (PFS) defined as the earliest progression in tumor, PSA or pain was also statistically significantly longer in the cabazitaxel group compared to the mitoxantrone group (p<0.0001, hazard ratio=0.74 (95% CI, 0.64, 0.86), and the median progression-free survival was 2.8 months versus 1.4 months. Response rates and PFS for PSA and tumor assessments were statistically significant in favor of cabazitaxel, while response rate and PFS for pain did not show a statistically significant difference. The most frequent Grade 3/4 toxicities were neutropenia observed with a higher frequency in the cabazitaxel group with 81.7% compared to the mitoxantrone group with 58.0%. Rates of febrile neutropenia were 7.5% in the cabazitaxel group and 1.3% in the mitoxantrone group. The most common (≥20%) grade 1-4 adverse reactions were anemia, leukopenia, neutropenia, thrombocytopenia, diarrhea, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, asthenia, and constipation. The most common (≥5%) grade 3-4 adverse reactions in patients who received cabazitaxel were neutropenia, leukopenia, anemia, febrile neutropenia, diarrhea, fatigue, and asthenia. Subgroup analyses by risk factors and a multivariate analysis showed that OS outcomes were consistent and robust in favor of cabazitaxel as shown in the herebelow table: TABLE 2 MP CbzP Median Median OS OS CbzP vs MP N (%) (mos) N (%) (mos) HR (95% CI) ITT 377 (100) 12.7 378 15.1 0.70 (0.59-0.83) (100) PD while on 103 (27) 12.0 113 14.2 0.65 (0.47-0.90) D (30) PD after last 180 (48) 10.3 158 13.9 0.70 (0.54-0.90) D dose, ≤3 (42) mos PD after last 91 (24) 17.7 103 17.5 0.78 (0.53-1.14) D dose, >3 (27) mos mos = months 0 = Docetaxel TABLE 3 Incidence of Reported Adverse Reactions1 and Hematologic Abnormalities in ≥5% of Patients Receiving cabazitaxel in Combination with Prednisone or Mitoxantrone in Combination with Prednisone Cabazitaxel 25 mg/m2 Mitoxantrone 12 mg/m2 every 3 weeks with every 3 weeks with prednisone 10 mg daily prednisone 10 mg daily n = 371 n = 371 Any Adverse Grade 1-4 Grade 3-4 Grade 1-4 Grade 3-4 Reaction n (%) n (%) n (%) n (%) Blood and Lymphatic System Disorders Neutropenia2 347 (94%) 303 (82%) 325 (87%) 215 (58%) Febrile Neutropenia 27 (7%) 27 (7%) 5 (1%) 5 (1%) Anemia2 361 (98%) 39 (11%) 302 (82%) 18 (5%) Leukopenia2 355 (96%) 253 (69%) 343 (93%) 157 (42%) Thrombocytopenia2 176 (48%) 15 (4%) 160 (43%) 6 (2%) Cardiac Disorders Arrhythmia3 18 (5%) 4 (1%) 6 (2%) 1 (<1%) Gastrointestinal Disorders Diarrhea 173 (47%) 23 (6%) 39 (11%) 1 (<1%) Nausea 127 (34%) 7 (2%) 85 (23%) 1 (<1%) Vomiting 83 (22%) 6 (2%) 38 (10%) 0 Constipation 76 (20%) 4 (1%) 57 (15%) 2 (<1%) Abdominal Pain4 64 (17%) 7 (2%) 23 (6%) 0 Dyspepsia5 36 (10%) 0 9 (2%) 0 General Disorders and Administration Site Conditions Fatigue 136 (37%) 18 (5%) 102 (27%) 11 (3%) Asthenia 76 (20%) 17 (5%) 46 (12%) 9 (2%) Pyrexia 45 (12%) 4 (1%) 23 (6%) 1 (<1%) Peripheral Edema 34 (9%) 2 (<1%) 34 (9%) 2 (<1%) Mucosal 22 (6%) 1 (<1%) 10 (3%) 1 (<1%) Inflammation Pain 20 (5%) 4 (1%) 18 (5%) 7 (2%) Infections and Infestations Urinary Tract 29 (8%) 6 (2%) 12 (3%) 4 (1%) Infection6 Pneumonia7 12 (3%) 9 (2%) 4 (1%) 3 (<1%) Investigations Weight Decreased 32 (9%) 0 28 (8%) 1 (<1%) Metabolism and Nutrition Disorders Anorexia 59 (16%) 3 (<1%) 39 (11%) 3 (<1%) Dehydration 18 (5%) 8 (2%) 10 (3%) 3 (<1%) Musculoskeletal and Connective Tissue Disorders Back Pain 60 (16%) 14 (4%) 45 (12%) 11 (3%) Arthralgia 39 (11%) 4 (1%) 31 (8%) 4 (1%) Pain in Extremity 30 (8%) 6 (2%) 27 (7%) 4 (1%) Muscle Spasms 27 (7%) 0 10 (3%) 0 Bone Pain 19 (5%) 3 (<1%) 19 (5%) 9 (2%) Musculoskeletal 18 (5%) 2 (<1%) 20 (5%) 3 (<1%) Pain Nervous System Disorders Peripheral 50 (13%) 3 (<1%) 12 (3.2%) 3 (<1%) Neuropathy8 Dysgeusia 41 (11%) 0 15 (4%) 0 Dizziness 30 (8%) 0 21 (6%) 2 (<1%) Headache 28 (8%) 0 19 (5%) 0 Renal and Urinary Tract Disorders Hematuria 62 (17%) 7 (2%) 13 (4%) 1 (<1%) Dysuria 25 (7%) 0 5 (1%) 0 Respiratory, Thoracic and Mediastinal Disorders Dyspnea 43 (12%) 4 (1%) 16 (4%) 2 (<1%) Cough 40 (11%) 0 22 (6%) 0 Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue Disorders Alopecia 37 (10%) 0 18 (5%) 0 Vascular Disorders Hypotension 20 (5%) 2 (<1%) 9 (2%) 1 (<1%) Median Duration 6 cycles 4 cycles of Treatment 1Graded using NCI CTCAE version 3 2Based on laboratory values, cabazitaxel: n = 369, mitoxantrone: n = 370. 3Includes atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, atrial tachycardia, atrioventricular block complete, bradycardia, palpitations, supraventricular tachycardia, tachyarrhythmia, and tachycardia. 4Includes abdominal discomfort, abdominal pain lower, abdominal pain upper, abdominal tenderness, and GI pain. 5Includes gastroesophageal reflux disease and reflux gastritis. 6Includes urinary tract infection enterococcal and urinary tract infection fungal. 7Includes bronchopneumonia, lobar pneumonia, and pneumonia klebsiella. 8Includes peripheral motor neuropathy and peripheral sensory neuropathy. TABLE 4 Patient Characteristics MP (n = 377) CBZP (n = 378) Age (years) Median [range] 67 [47-89] 68 [46-92] ≥65 (%) 57.0 64.9 ECOG PS (%) 0, 1 91.2 92.6 2 8.8 7.4 PSA* (ng/mL) Median [range] 127.5 [2-11220] 143.9 [2-7842] Measurability of disease (%) Measurable 54.1 53.2 Nonmeasurable 45.9 46.8 Disease site (%) Bone 87.0 80.2 Lymph node 44.8 45.0 Visceral 24.9 24.9 Pain at Baseline, no. (%) 168 (44.6) 174 (46.0) Previous Therapy, no. (%) Hormonal 375 (99.5) 375 (99.2) No. of Chemotherapy Regimens 1 268 (71.1) 260 (68.8) 2 79 (21.0) 94 (24.9) >2 30 (8.0) 24 (6.3) Radiation 222 (58.9) 232 (61.4) Surgery 205 (54.4) 198 (52.4) Biologic Agent 36 (9.5) 26 (6.9) Previous docetaxel regimens, n (%) 1 327 (86.7) 316 (83.6) 2 43 (11.4) 53 (14.0) >2 7 (1.9) 9 (2.4) Median total previous 529.2 576.6 docetaxel dose (mg/m2) Disease progression relative to docetaxel administration, n (%) During treatment 104 (27.6) 115 (30.4) <3 months from last 181 (48.0) 158 (41.8) dose ≥3 months from last 90 (23.9) 102 (27.0) dose Unknown 2 (0.5) 3 (0.8) Median time from last 0.7 0.8 docetaxel dose to disease progression (months) The primary reason for treatment discontinuation in both groups was disease progression (Table 5). The median delivered relative dose intensity was 96.1% in the cabazitaxel group and 97.3% in the mitoxantrone group. In the cabazitaxel group, >75% of patients received >90% of the planned dose intensity. Overall, 5.1% of mitoxantrone treatment courses were dose reduced compared with 9.8% of cabazitaxel treatment courses; 6.3 and 7% of all treatment courses were delayed by 9 days or less, and 1.6 and 2.3% of courses were delayed by more than 9 days for mitoxantrone and cabazitaxel respectively (See Table 5). TABLE 5 Treatment Received and Reasons for Discontinuation in the Intention-to-Treat Population.* Mitoxantrone Cabazitaxel (N = 377) (N = 378) Patients receiving study treatment, 371 (98.4) 371 (98.1) no. (%) Patients completing planned ten 46 (12.2) 105 (27.8) cycles of study treatment, no. (%) Discontinuation of study treatment, 325 (86.2) 266 (70.4) no. (%) Reasons for discontinuation of study treatment, no. (%) Disease progression 267 (70.8) 180 (47.6) Adverse event 32 (8.5) 67 (17.7) Non-compliance with protocol 0 1 (0.3) Lost to follow-up 2 (0.5) 0 Patient's request 17 (4.5) 8 (2.1) Other 7 (1.9) 10 (2.7) No. of treatment cycles, median 4 (1-10) 6 (1-10) (range)† Relative dose intensity, median % 97.3 (42.5- 96.1 (49.0- (range)† 106.0) 108.2) Treatment delays, no. of cycles (%)‡ ≤9 days 110 (6.3) 157 (7.0) >9 days 28 (1.6) 51 (2.3) Dose reductions, no. of cycles (%)‡ 88 (5.1) 221 (9.8) The results of this study are further illustrated to FIGS. 1, 2, and 3. Example 2 Table 6 illustrates an example of a dosage modification for adverse reactions in patients treated with cabazitaxel TABLE 6 Toxicity Dosage Modification Prolonged grade ≥3 neutropenia Delay treatment until neutrophil greater than 1 week) despite count is >1,500 cells/mm3, then appropriate medication including reduce dosage of cabazitaxel to 20 G-CSF mg/m2. Use G-CSF for secondary prophylaxis. Febrile neutropenia Delay treatment until improvement or resolution, and until neutrophil count is >1,500 cells/mm3, then reduce dosage of cabazitaxel to 20 mg/m2. Use G-CSF for secondary prophylaxis. Grade >3 diarrhea or persisting Delay treatment until improvement diarrhea despite appropriate or resolution, then reduce dosage of medication, fluid and electrolytes cabazitaxel to 20 mg/m2. replacement Discontinue cabazitaxel treatment if a patient continues to experience any of these reactions at 20 mg/m2. Example 3 Performance Status and Pain Scores During Treatment Methods ECOG PS, pain measures, and analgesic consumption were assessed prior to every treatment cycle and at the end of study treatment. Pain assessments: Present Pain Intensity (PPI) scale from the McGill-Melzack questionnaire (Melzack R. Pain 1975; 1:277-99). Mean Analgesic Score (AS) derived from analgesic consumption (in morphine equivalents) was calculated for the one-week period prior to each evaluation. Area under the curve (AUC) of PPI and AS was calculated by the trapezoid formula. Cumulative AUC of PPI and AS was calculated up to the last cycle of data available for each patient. Average AUC of the treatment groups was compared from Cycle 1 to Cycle 10. Results Performance status remained stable in most patients during the treatment period and was similar between groups. See FIG. 4. Overall, PPI scores were comparable; improving from baseline in 21.3% of men in the CbzP group and 18.2% in the MP group. See FIG. 5. The CbzP group had a lower mean area under the curve (AUC) of PPI, suggesting less severe pain especially during cycles 7-10. See FIG. 6. Analgesic use was comparable between the groups (lower mean AUC of AS means lower pain medication use). See FIG. 7. CONCLUSION Despite longer treatment with CbzP no worsening in ECOG PS was seen. Present Pain Intensity score improved in 21% of men in CbzP vs. 18% in MP arm. Assessment of pain scores suggested less severe pain in the CbzP group during treatment. Pain medication use was similar between groups. Example 4 A population pharmacokinetic analysis was conducted in 170 patients with solid tumors at doses ranging from 10 to 30 mg/m2 weekly or every 3 weeks. Based on the population pharmacokinetic analysis, after an intravenous dose of cabazitaxel 25 mg/m2 every 3 weeks, the mean Cmax in patients with metastatic prostate cancer was 226 ng/mL (CV 107%) and was reached at the end of the 1-hour infusion (Tmax). The mean AUC in patients with metastatic prostate cancer was 991 ng·h/mL (CV 34%). No major deviation from the dose proportionality was observed from 10 to 30 mg/m2 in patients with advanced solid tumors. The volume of distribution (Vss) was 4,864 L (2,643 L/m2 for a patient with a median BSA of 1.84 m2) at steady state. Based on the population pharmacokinetic analysis, cabazitaxel has a plasma clearance of 48.5 L/h (CV 39%; 26.4 L/h/m2 for a patient with a median BSA of 1.84 m2) in patients with metastatic prostate cancer. Following a 1-hour intravenous infusion, plasma concentrations of cabazitaxel can be described by a 3-compartment PK model with α-, β-, and γ-half-lives of 4 minutes, 2 hours, and 95 hours, respectively. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Prostate cancer affects a large proportion of the male population worldwide: 680 000 cases worldwide in 2002; it is predicted that there will be 900 000 new cases per year up to 2010 ( CA Cancer J. Clin., 2005, 55, 74-108). It is the most frequently occurring cancer in men after lung cancer. Prostate cancer is generally treated at the start by depriving the androgenic hormones, i.e. by surgical excision of the testicles The Current State of Hormonal Therapy for Prostate Cancer CA Cancer J. Clin., May 2002; 52: 154-179, or by radiotherapy treatment External beam radiation therapy for prostate cancer CA Cancer J. Clin., November 2000; 50: 349-375. Treatments with antiandrogens or hormone manipulations are associated with responses of short duration and without any improvement in the survival time. The use of cytotoxic chemotherapy is not a routine treatment, whereas its role in alleviating the symptoms and reducing the levels of PSA (prostate-specific antigen) is established. No monotherapy has obtained a degree of response of greater than 30%; combinations with an effect on PSA levels were tested. No effect on the survival time was seen and, what is more, the toxicity of these treatments, particularly on elderly patients, is problematic since, in addition to their tumour, they are generally suffering from related health problems and have a limited reserve of bone marrow. Until recently, the chemotherapies used were limited to cyclophosphamide, anthracyclines (doxorubicin or mitoxantrone) and estramustine, and the effects of these treatments are relatively mediocre. Palliative effects were observed in patients following the administration of corticoids alone or of mitoxantrone with either prednisone or hydrocortisone. Following Phase II trials, the combination of mitoxantrone with corticoids was recognized as the reference treatment for hormone-resistant prostate cancer. More recently, treatments with docetaxel in combination with estramustine or prednisone have made it possible to treat cancers that are resistant to hormone deprivation Advances in Prostate Cancer Chemotherapy: A New Era Begins CA Cancer J. Clin., September 2005; 55: 300-318, the survival was improved by 2.4 months. It is generally accepted that the responses in advanced prostate cancers are difficult to evaluate on account of the heterogeneity of the disease and the lack of consensus regarding the treatment response criteria. Many patients with metastatic prostate cancer have no measurable disease, but have symptoms dominated by bone metastases. Measurement of the PSA level has been found to be a means for evaluating novel candidates and also the measurement of the tumour when this is possible, the measurement of bone tumours, the quality of life and the measurement of the pain. Furthermore, cancer may become resistant to the agents used, in particular to taxanes, which limits the possible treatment options. Several taxane resistance mechanisms have been described (expression of P-glycoprotein P-gp, mdr-1 gene, modified metabolism of taxane, mutation of the tubulin gene, etc.): see Drug Resistance Updates 2001, 4(1), 3-8; J. Clin. Onc. 1999, 17(3), 1061-1070. The technical problem that the invention intends to solve is that of providing a novel therapeutic option for treating prostate cancer, especially for patients who are not catered for by a taxane-based treatment, such as patients with castration resistant metastatic prostate cancer who have been previously treated with docetaxel (sold under the brand name Taxotere®) based regimen, an unmet medical need. Four clinical trials on cabazitaxel are known since April 2006. Three monotherapy tests have made it possible to determine the maximum tolerated dose and the toxicities at the limit doses: these tests were performed on breast, sarcoma and prostate tumours. Doses of 10-30 mg/m 2 every three hours were used. A phase II trial was performed on patients with a breast cancer, who had previously received taxanes and anthracyclines as adjuvant (i.e. after a surgery) or as a first-line treatment. The response levels were 14.6% as adjuvant and 9.5% as second-line treatment. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The invention relates to a novel antitumoral pharmaceutical therapeutic use comprising cabazitaxel of formula The invention also relates to methods of treating patients with prostate cancer comprising administering an effective amount of the antitumoral agent cabazitaxel to said patient. This antitumoral agent may be in the form of anhydrous base, a hydrate or a solvate, intended for treating prostate cancer, in particular for treating patients who are not catered for by a taxane-based treatment, such as patients who have been previously treated with a docetaxel-based regimen. This compound is preferably administered to a patient with advanced metastatic disease. In particular, the compound is administered to a patient with castration resistant prostate cancer. Cabazitaxel is preferably administered in combination with a corticoid chosen especially from prednisone and prednisolone. This corticoid is preferably administered at a daily dose of 10 mg orally. In some aspects of the invention, cabazitaxel is administered in combination with prednisone for its use as a medicament in the treatment of patients with hormone-refractory prostate cancer who have been previously treated with docetaxel based regimen. In some aspects of the invention, cabazitaxel is administered at a dose (defined for each administration) of between 20 and 25 mg/m 2 . Cabazitaxel may be in the form of an acetone solvate. More particularly, the acetone solvate of cabazitaxel contains between 5% and 8% and preferably between 5% and 7% by weight of acetone. In some aspects of the invention, cabazitaxel may be administered by intravenous infusion at a dose of between 15 and 25 mg/m 2 , this administration cycle of the antitumour agent being repeated at an interval of 3 weeks between each cabazitaxel administration, which interval may be prolonged by 1 to 2 weeks depending on the tolerance to the preceding cabazitaxel administration. In some embodiments, the effective amount of cabazitaxel produces at least one therapeutic effect selected from the group consisting of increase in overall survival, partial response, reduction in tumor size, reduction in metastasis, complete remission, partial remission, stable disease, or complete response. The present invention also relates to a pharmaceutical composition that treats patients with prostate cancer comprising a clinically proven safe and effective amount of cabazitaxel. Further embodiments of the invention comprise methods or using, treating, promoting, and providing cabazitaxel. The present invention also relates to packages and articles of manufacture. | A61K31337 | 20170620 | 20180510 | 83824.0 | A61K31337 | 6 | ANDERSON, JAMES D | NOVEL ANTITUMORAL USE OF CABAZITAXEL | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,629,507 | PENDING | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PROVIDING AN INK PAD | While the described ink pad can include any suitable component, in some cases it includes a lid, a base, and an absorbent material. Additionally, in some cases, the lid and the base define a cavity that houses the absorbent material and the lid and the base each comprise one or more magnets and/or magnetic materials that are configured to magnetically couple with each other to releasably couple the lid and base together. In some instances, the ink pad further includes one or more seals that are configured to extend between the base and lid to limit air movement into the cavity when the lid and base are coupled together in a closed position. Additional implementations are described herein. | 1. A ink pad, comprising: a lid having a first magnetic coupler; a base having a second magnetic coupler; and an absorbent material that is configured to receive and store an amount of a transferrable pigment, wherein the lid and the base are configured to couple together in a face to face configuration so as to define a cavity that houses the absorbent material, and wherein the first magnetic coupler and the second magnetic coupler are configured to magnetically couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and the base together in the face to face configuration. 2. The pad of claim 1, further comprising a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the pad is in the face to face configuration, and wherein the seal comprises a raised ridge that is configured to extend into a recess that is defined in a contact surface of at least one of the lid and the base. 3. The pad of claim 1, wherein the base comprises a seal that extends from a contact surface of the base and that is configured to contact a contact surface of the lid when the pad is in the face to face configuration. 4. The pad of claim 1, wherein the lid comprises a seal that extends from a contact surface of the lid and that is configured to contact a contact surface of the base when the pad is in the face to face configuration. 5. The pad of claim 1, wherein the absorbent material is coupled to the lid, wherein the pad container further comprises a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the pad is in a closed position, and wherein the seal comprises a raised ridge that is configured to extend into a recess that is defined in a contact surface of at least one of the lid and the base. 6. The pad of claim 1, wherein the absorbent material is coupled to the has wherein the pad container further comprises a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the pad is in a closed position, and wherein the seal comprises a raised ridge that is configured to extend into a recess that is defined in a contact surface of at least one of the lid and the base. 7. The pad of claim 1, wherein the lid comprises a third magnetic coupler and the base comprises a fourth magnetic coupler, and wherein the third and fourth magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and the base together in a side to side configuration. 8. The pad of claim 1, wherein the lid and the base lack a mechanical hinged connection extending between the lid and the base. 9. The pad of claim 7, wherein the first magnetic coupler comprises a magnet having a pole extending in a first direction, wherein the third magnetic coupler comprises a pole extending a second direction, and wherein the first direction and the second direction are substantially perpendicular to each other. 10. An ink pad comprising: a lid defining a first recess and comprising a first magnetic coupler; a base defining a second recess and comprising a second magnetic coupler; an absorbent material comprising an ink; and a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the lid and the base are coupled together in a face to face configuration, wherein the first and second magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and the base together in the face to face configuration such that the first and second recesses form a cavity that houses the absorbent material. 11. The ink pad of claim 10, wherein a perimeter of the lid and a perimeter of the base each define an elongated recess. 12. The ink pad of claim 10, wherein the lid and the base are further configured to magnetically and releasably couple with each other in a side to side configuration and a back to back configuration. 13. The ink pad of claim 10, wherein the lid comprises a third magnetic coupler and the base comprises a fourth magnetic coupler, and wherein the third and fourth magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and the base together in a side to side configuration. 14. The ink pad of claim 10, wherein the first agnetic coupler comprises a first magnet, wherein the lid further comprises a third magnetic coupler that comprises a second magnet, and wherein a polarity of the first magnet runs substantially perpendicular to a polarity of the second magnet in the pad. 15. An ink pad comprising: a lid defining a first recess and further comprising a first and a second magnetic coupler; a base defining a second recess and further comprising a third and a fourth magnetic coupler; an absorbent material comprising an ink, the absorbent material being coupled to, and disposed in at least one of the first recess and the second recess; and a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the ink pad is in a closed position, wherein the first and the third magnetic couplers of the lid and the base are configured to magnetically couple together such that the first and second recess define a cavity that houses the absorbent material when the ink pad is in a closed position, wherein the first and the third magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and base together in a back to back configuration, and wherein the second and fourth magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple a perimeter of the lid with a perimeter of the base when the ink pad is in an opened position. 16. The ink pad of claim 15, wherein the perimeter of the lid with the perimeter of the base each define an elongated recess. 17. The ink pad of claim 15, wherein the seal comprises a raised ridge, and wherein, when the ink pad is in the closed position, the seal is configured to extend into a recess that is defined in a contact surface of at least one of the lid and the base. 18. The ink pad of claim 15, wherein the lid and the base are configured to magnetically couple with each other in a face to face configuration, a side to side configuration, and a back to back configuration. 19. The ink pad of claim 15, wherein a polarity of the first magnetic coupler and a polarity of the second magnetic coupler run substantially perpendicular to each other 20. The ink pad of claim 15, wherein the lid comprises an interior component and an exterior component that couple together to form the lid. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/354,085 (Attorney Docket No. 7687.223), filed Jun. 23, 2016, and entitled SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PROVIDING A FEMORAL COMPONENT, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to ink pads. In particular, the present invention relates to systems and methods for providing an ink pad that is easily opened and sealed shut. In some implementations, the described ink pad comprises a lid and a base that are configured to couple with each other via one or more magnets and/or other coupling mechanisms. Background and Related Art Stamp pads generally comprise a quantity of ink that can be applied to a first surface (such as a stamp, fingertip, and/or any other suitable surface) by contacting the first surface with a portion of the stamp pad that comprises the ink. Once ink has been applied to the first surface, the first surface can then be pressed against a second surface such that a portion of the ink transfers from the first surface to the second surface. In this regard, stamp pads can be useful in a wide variety of applications in which ink is to be transferred from one surface with a particular pattern a stamp) to a second surface such that the pattern from the first surface is transferred to the second surface. Some non-limiting examples of stamp pad uses include creating stamped designs, date stamping, capturing fingerprints, and a wide variety of other uses that include applying ink to a desired surface. While conventional stamp pads may be useful for containing and storing ink, such pads are not necessarily without their shortcomings. Indeed, some such pads can be relatively difficult to open, can be relatively difficult to close, can function in a non-intuitive manner, can allow the ink to dry out relatively rapidly, can readily allow ink to spread undesirably from the stamp pad to cause unwanted messes, and can otherwise be difficult to use. Thus, while techniques currently exist that are used to provide stamp pads, challenges still exist, including those listed above. Accordingly, it would be an improvement in the art to augment or even replace current techniques with other techniques. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to ink pads. In particular, the present invention relates to systems and methods for providing an ink pad that is easily opened and sealed shut. In some implementations, the described ink pad comprises a lid and a base that are configured to couple with each other via one or more magnets and/or other coupling mechanisms. The described ink pad (or pigment container) can comprise any suitable component or characteristic that allows it to contain and store a pigment (or ink) in a manner that a stamp, fingertip, and/or other transfer substrate is able to receive pigment from the pad and to deposit such pigment on another desired substrate. In some implementations, however, the ink pad comprises one or more lids, bases, absorbent materials, coupling mechanisms, seals, and/or gripping surfaces. In accordance with some implementations, the pad, ink pad, and/or pigment pad (where such terms may be used interchangeably herein) has: a lid having a first magnetic coupler; a base having a second magnetic coupler; and an absorbent material that is configured to receive and store an amount of pigment, ink, and/or another suitable material. Additionally, in some such implementations, the lid and the base are configured to couple together in a face to face configuration so as to define a cavity that houses the absorbent material, and the first magnetic coupler and the second magnetic coupler are configured to magnetically couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and the base together in the face to face configuration. In accordance with some other implementations, the described ink pad includes: a lid defining a first recess and comprising a first magnetic coupler; a base defining a second recess and comprising a second magnetic coupler; an absorbent material comprising an ink (or other pigment); and a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the lid and the base are coupled together in a face to face configuration. In some such implementations, the first and second magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and the base together in the face to face configuration such that the first and second recesses form a cavity that houses the absorbent material. In still other implementations, the ink pad includes: a lid defining a first recess and further comprising a first and a second magnetic coupler; a base defining a second recess and further comprising a third and a fourth magnetic coupler; an absorbent material comprising an ink (or other pigment), the absorbent material being coupled to, and disposed in, at least one of the first recess and the second recess; and a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the ink pad is in a closed position. Moreover, in some such implementations, the lid and base are configured to magnetically couple together such that the first and second recesses define a cavity that houses the absorbent material when the ink pad is in a closed position. Furthermore, in some implementations, the first and the third magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and base together at least one of face to face and back to back, and the second and fourth magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple a perimeter of the lid with a perimeter of the base when the ink pad is in an opened position. While the described ink pad can be particularly useful in the area of containing and/or storing ink or another pigment for application to another surface via a die, block, seal, stamp, fingertip, and/or other transfer substrate, the described ink pad can be used to contain and store any other suitable material or materials, including, without limitation, one or more paints, pigments, dyes, pigment refills, inkless printing solutions (e.g., for fingerprinting and/or any other suitable purpose), balms, lotions, moisturizers, cosmetics, makeups, foundations (e.g., facial or otherwise), chalks, mirrors, combs, brushes, applicators, pictures, and/or other suitable materials and/or objects. These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be set forth or will become more fully apparent in the description that follows and in the appended claims. The features and advantages may be realized and obtained by means of the instruments and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. Furthermore, the features and advantages of the invention may be learned by the practice of the invention or will be obvious from the description, as set forth hereinafter. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In order that the manner in which the above recited and other features and advantages of the present invention are obtained, a more particular description of the invention will be rendered by reference to specific embodiments thereof, which are illustrated in the appended drawings. Understanding that the drawings depict only representative embodiments of the present invention and are not, therefore, to be considered as limiting the scope of the invention, the present invention will be described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a perspective view of a representative embodiment of an ink pad in a closed position; FIG. 2 illustrates a plan view of the ink pad in an open configuration, showing a face of a lid and a face of a base, in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 3 illustrates a perspective view of the ink pad in an open configuration, showing the face of the lid and the base, in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 4 illustrates a perspective view of the ink pad in a partially disassembled configuration in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 5 illustrates an exploded perspective view of the ink pad in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 6A illustrates a back side view of an interior component of the lid or the base of the ink pad in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 6B illustrates a cross-sectional view of the interior component of FIG. 6A, taken along line C-C; FIG. 6C illustrates a cross-sectional view of the interior component of FIG. 6A, taken along line B-B; FIG. 6D illustrates a cross-sectional view of the interior component of FIG. 6A, taken along line D-D; FIG. 6E illustrates a side view of the interior component of FIG. 6A; FIG. 6F illustrates an end view of the interior component of FIG. 6A; FIG. 6G illustrates a front side or face view of the face of the interior component of FIG. 6A; FIG. 6H illustrates a cross-sectional view of the interior component illustrated in FIG. 6G and taken along line A-A; FIG. 7A illustrates a front side or internal view of an exterior component of the lid or the base of the ink pad in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 7B illustrates a cross-sectional view of the exterior component of FIG. 7A, taken along line C-C; FIG. 7C illustrates a cross-sectional view of the exterior component of FIG. 7A, taken along line A-A; FIG. 7D illustrates a side view of the exterior component of FIG. 7A; FIG. 7E illustrates a back side view of the exterior component of FIG. 7E; FIG. 7F illustrates an end or perimeter view of the exterior component of FIG. 7E; FIG. 7G illustrates a cross-sectional view of the exterior component of FIG. 7E, taken along line B-B; FIG. 7H illustrates a side or perimeter view of the exterior component of FIG. 7E; FIG. 8A illustrates a front side or face view of the interior component of the lid or the base of the ink pad in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 8B illustrates a cross-sectional view of the interior component of FIG. 8A, taken along line A-A; FIG. 8C illustrates an end or perimeter view of the interior component of FIG. 8A; FIG. 8D illustrates a side view of the interior component of FIG. 8A; FIG. 8E illustrates a back side view of the interior component of FIG. 8A; FIG. 8F illustrates a cross-sectional view of the interior component of FIG. 8E, taken along line B-B; FIG. 9A illustrates a perspective view of interior surfaces of the exterior component of the lid and the base in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 9B illustrates a perspective view of the faces of the interior component of the lid and the base in accordance with some embodiments; FIG. 10 illustrates a perspective view of the lid and the base magnetically coupled side by side, or perimeter to perimeter, in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 11 illustrates a perspective view of the lid and the base magnetically coupled together in a back to back configuration in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIG. 12 illustrates a perspective view of multiple ink pads that are magnetically coupled together in accordance with a representative embodiment; FIGS. 13A-14 each illustrate a different view of one or more portions of the ink pad in accordance with some embodiments; and FIGS. 15-18 illustrate additional views of some embodiments of the ink pad. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to ink pads. In particular, the present invention relates to systems and methods for providing an ink pad that is easily opened and sealed shut. In some implementations, the described ink pad comprises a lid and a base that are configured to couple with each other via one or more magnets and/or other coupling mechanisms. In general, the described systems and methods relate to an ink pad that is configured to contain and store one or more materials, such as one or more inks, paints, pigments, dyes, coloring agents, pigment refills, balms, lotions, moisturizers, cosmetics, makeups, foundations (e.g., facial or otherwise), chalks, mirrors, combs, brushes, applicators, pictures, writing utensils, and/or other suitable materials and/or objects. In some embodiments, however, the described ink pad comprises one or more pigments or inks, which can include, but are not limited to, one or more dye inks, inks, dyes, pigments, coloring agents, water-based dye inks, distress inks, waterproof dye inks, pigment inks, graphite inks, semi-inkless printing/stamp solutions, inkless printing/stamp solutions, solutions that cause a substrate (e.g., paper and/or any other suitable substrate) to change color in places that are contacted by such solutions, hybrid inks, solvent inks, chalk inks, watermark inks, resist inks, sticky inks, specialty inks, permanent inks, opaque inks, translucent inks, invisible inks, embossing inks, alcohol inks, reflective inks, glow in the dark inks, and/or other suitable materials comprising one or more pigments, dyes, coloring agents, and/or other inks that are configured to be absorbed into (or otherwise releasably retained at) an absorbent material in the ink pad, and then to be transferred from the absorbent material to another substrate by a stamp and/or another transfer substrate. In this regard, the terms ink, transferrable pigment, and pigment may be used to refer to any of the foregoing materials. While the described ink pad can comprise any suitable component or characteristic that allows it function as intended, FIGS. 1-4 show some representative embodiments in which the ink pad 10 comprises one or more lids 15, bases 20, coupling mechanisms 25, absorbent materials 30, seals 35, and/or gripping surfaces 40. With respect to the lid 15 and base 20, the lid and base can each comprise any suitable component or characteristic that allows them to couple together to form a cavity in which the absorbent material 30 and/or any other suitable material (e.g., ink) is stored. In some embodiments, at least one of the lid and the base are configured to hold the absorbent material. In this regard, the lid and/or base can comprise a one or more recesses, flat surfaces, and/or other contact surfaces on which the absorbent material is configured to be placed. By way of illustration, FIGS. 2-3 show some embodiments in which a face of the lid 15 and the face of base 20 each comprise a recess 22 that is configured to receive the absorbent material 30. In some other embodiments, the lid or the base comprises a recess that is configured to receive the absorbent material. Indeed, in some such embodiments in which the lid comprises a recess and the absorbent material is disposed in the lid, when the ink pad 10 is in a closed position and the ink pad is positioned such that the lid comprising the absorbent material is facing down, gravity pulls the ink to the surface of the absorbent material 30, helping to ensure the ink is readily usable. While in some embodiments, one of the lid 15 or the base 20 individually defines the complete depth of the cavity or recess 22 (with the other comprising a substantially flat internal or face or surface that is configured to cap the cavity), in some other embodiments, each of the lid and the base define a portion of the cavity, or in other words, each of the lid and the base comprise a recess 22 on an internal surface. While, in some embodiments, such recesses are more or less pronounced in either the base or the lid, in other embodiments (e.g., as shown in FIG. 3), the recesses 22 extend approximately to the same depth within an inner surface 24 of a face of the lid 15 and a face of the base 20. Although in some embodiments; the lid 15 and the base 20 each comprises a discrete monolithic component, in some other embodiments, the lid and/or the base each comprise multiple components that couple together to form the lid or the base. In this regard, the lid and the base may each comprise any suitable number of components that allow the ink pad 10 to function as described herein. By way of non-limiting illustration, FIGS. 4-9B show some embodiments in which the lid 15 and the base 20 each comprise an interior component 45 and an exterior component 50. In such embodiments, the interior and exterior components can couple with each other in any suitable manner, including, without limitation, via one or more frictional engagements, mechanical engagements, adhesives, fasteners (e.g., one or more screws, rivets, bolts, and/or other fasteners), and/or in any other suitable manner. Indeed, in some embodiments, the interior and exterior components couple together via an adhesive and/or one or more frictional engagements (e.g., via frictional engagements 52, as shown in FIGS. 4-5). With respect to the coupling mechanism 25, the ink pad 10 can comprise any suitable coupling mechanism that allows the lid 15 and the base 20 to selectively couple to and decouple from each other relatively easily. In this regard, the coupling mechanism can allow the lid and base to couple to each other in any suitable manner, including, without limitation, by coupling with each other face to face (e.g., as shown in FIG. 1), by coupling with each other end to end (which term may be used interchangeably with the terms edge to edge, perimeter to perimeter, and side to side; e.g., as shown in FIG. 10), by coupling with each other back to back (e.g., as shown in FIGS. 11-12), by stackably coupling multiple ink pads (or portions of multiple ink pads) together e.g., as shown in FIG. 12), by coupling multiple ink pads (e.g., the lids and/or bases from multiple ink pads) together edge to edge (or perimeter to perimeter, side to side, end to end, etc.), by coupling one portion of the ink pad (e.g., the lid or base) at angle to another portion of the ink pad (e.g., the lid or base), and/or by coupling one or more portions of one or more ink pads together in any other suitable manner. Some examples of suitable coupling mechanisms 25 comprise one or more magnetic couplers, snaps, hook-and-loop fasteners, clasps, catches, mechanical engagements, frictional engagements, adhesive engagements, and/or other suitable engagements that are configured to selectively couple the lid 15 and the base 20 together in a manner that allows them to be coupled and decoupled relatively easily. In some embodiments, however, the coupling mechanism comprises one or more magnetic couplers. Where the coupling mechanism 25 comprises one or more magnetic couplers, the magnetic couplers can comprise any suitable type of magnets and/or corresponding magnetic materials (e.g., ferromagnetic materials, paramagnetic materials, and/or any other suitable materials that are attracted to a magnet used in a magnetic coupler and that are suitable for use in the ink pad 10). Some non-limiting examples of such magnets comprise any suitable type of magnets, including, without limitation, one or more magnets comprising neodymium-iron boron, samarium-cobalt, one or more ceramics, one or more ferrites, one or more sintered composites comprising powdered iron oxide and barium/strontium carbonate ceramic, alnico, magnetite, lodestone, cobalt, nickel, iron, gadolinium, dysprosium, one or more iron alloys, one or more types of steel, one or more rare earth metals, and/or any other suitable type of material or materials that have magnetic properties and are attracted to one or more magnetic materials (as discussed below). Additionally, where the magnetic couplers comprise one or more magnetic materials, such materials can comprise any suitable material, including, without limitation, iron, nickel, cobalt, and/or any other suitable ferromagnetic, paramagnetic, and/or other material that is attracted to a magnet in a magnetic coupler and that is suitable for use in the ink pad 10. Where the ink pad 10 comprises a set of magnetic couplers (with each set comprising at least two magnets or at least one magnet and a corresponding magnetic material), the magnetic couplers can be configured in any suitable manner that allows the lid 15 and base 20 to couple with each other as described herein. In some embodiments, the lid and the base each comprise a portion of a set of magnetic couplers. Indeed, in some embodiments, one of the base and the lid comprises a first magnet and the other of the base and the lid comprises a second magnet that is disposed in a position that corresponds to a position of the first magnet such that the base and the lid can be magnetically and releasably coupled together via the first and second magnets. In some other embodiments, one of the base and the lid comprises a first magnet and the other of the base and the lid comprises a first magnetic material (e.g., a piece of metal) that is disposed in a position that corresponds to a position of the first magnet such that the base and the lid can be magnetically and releasably coupled together via the first magnet and the first magnetic material. Although some embodiments of the ink pad 10 comprise a single set of magnetic couplers (e.g., a two corresponding magnets or one magnet and a corresponding magnetic material), in some other embodiments, the ink pad comprises 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, or any other suitable number of sets of magnetic couplers. Indeed, in some non-limiting embodiments (e.g., as illustrated in FIGS. 9A, and 13A-13C), the ink pad comprises 6 sets of magnetic couplers 26 (e.g., with 6 magnets and/or magnetic materials in the lid 15 and 6 corresponding magnets and/or magnetic materials in the base 20). Additionally, FIGS. 13A-13B show some embodiments in which the lid 15 and base 20 each comprise at least two magnets 60 in their interior component 45, and at least four magnets 65 and/or magnetic materials in their exterior component 50. Although in some embodiments, the interior component comprises 4 or more magnets 60 or magnetic materials, FIG. 13C illustrates an embodiment in which the interior component comprises two magnets 60. In some embodiments in which the ink pad 10 comprises more than one set of magnetic couplers 26, the ink pad comprises (1) at least one set of magnetic couplers that is configured to couple the base 20 and lid 15 in a face to face configuration (or a closed configuration; e.g., as shown in FIG. 1), a back to back configuration (e.g., as shown in FIG. 11), and/or in any other suitable configuration; and (2) at least one set of magnetic couplers that is configured to couple the base and lid in a side to side or perimeter to perimeter configuration as shown in FIGS. 10 and 14) and/or in any other suitable configuration. While this can be accomplished in any suitable manner, FIG. 13A shows an embodiment in which a first set of magnetic couplers (e.g., magnets 65) is aligned with the magnets' poles in a first plane (or orientation) to connect the lid 15 and base 20 together in a side to side configuration, while FIG. 13B shows another embodiment in which a second set of magnetic couplers (e.g., magnets 60) have their poles in a different position (or orientation) than the poles of the first set of magnetic couplers. In this regard, while the first and second sets of magnetic couplers can have any suitable orientation with respect to each other (e.g., being substantially perpendicular to, orthogonal to, parallel with, at an angle to, and/or in any other suitable configuration with respect to each other), FIGS. 13A and 13B show that, in some embodiments, the two sets of magnetic couplers are oriented substantially perpendicular to each other (e.g., to hold the lid and base together in a face to face, back to back, and perimeter to perimeter configuration). Additionally, while the magnetic couplers 26 can be disposed in any suitable location on the ink pad 10, FIGS. 13A-13B illustrate some embodiments in which magnets 65 from the first set of magnetic couplers are coupled in the ink pad 10 with a pole facing a side of the lid 15 or the base 20 and in which magnets 60 of the second set of magnetic couplers have a pole facing a face and/or back of the lid 15 and/or the base 20. Moreover, while FIG. 13B shows an embodiment in which two magnets 60 are disposed in opposite corners of the interior component 45, in some embodiments shown), one or more magnets and/or pieces of metal (e.g., any suitable metal or other magnetic material that is attracted to the magnets) is disposed in the other corners (and/or any other suitable portion) of the interior comport (and/or any other suitable portion of the ink pad). With respect now to the absorbent material 30, the ink pad 10 can comprise any suitable number of pads (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more), of any suitable shape (e.g., substantially rectangular, square, triangular, circular, polygonal, and/or any other suitable shape), and in any configuration (e.g., one absorbent material per ink pad, a plurality of ink pads organized as a palette in the ink pad, and/or any other suitable configuration). By way of non-limiting illustration, FIG. 15 shows an embodiment in which the ink pad 10 comprises a single absorbent material 30 that is substantially rectangular with rounded corners. The absorbent material 30 can comprise any suitable material that is configured to absorb, store, and/or otherwise retain one or more inks, pigments, and/or other suitable substances that are desirably transferred from the absorbent material to another surface (e.g., via a stamp, finger, roller, and/or other transfer substrate) to create a desired pattern. In this regard some non-limiting examples of suitable absorbent materials include one or more pieces of felt, cloth, sponge, polychloroprene, cotton, foam, sponge foam, foamed rubber, foam, fabric, paper, plastic, a substrate (e.g., for an inkless pigment or otherwise), porous materials, spongy materials, and/or any other suitable material. For instance, FIG. 15 shows an embodiment in which the absorbent material 30 comprises a sponge foam. Turning now to the seals 35, the ink pad 10 optionally comprises one or more seals that help limit air flow into and/or out of the ink pad when the pad is in the closed position. In this regard, the ink pad can comprise any suitable seal that is capable of limiting air flow into and/or from the pad when the pad is in the closed position. Indeed, in some embodiments, the lid 15 and/or the base 20 comprise one or more ridges, protrusions, and/or other seals that extend from the internal face (e.g., of the interior component 45 and/or the exterior component 50). While, in some embodiments, such seals contact a flat surface on the opposing lid or base, in some other embodiments, one or more seals extending from the lid and/or base are configured to extend into one or more corresponding recesses in the other of the lid and/or base when the ink pad is in the closed position. By way of non-limiting illustration, FIGS. 2-4, 6G, 8A, and 18 each illustrate that, in some embodiments in which the lid 15 or the base 20 comprises one or more seals 35 that comprises one or more raised ridges, the other corresponding component (e.g., the lid or base) comprises one or more corresponding recesses 36 that are configured to receive the seals. With respect now to the gripping surfaces 40, the lid 15 and/or base 20 can comprise any suitable gripping surfaces that allow a user to easily grab both the lid and the base and to separate to the two components. Some examples of suitable gripping surfaces comprise one or more ridges, processes, bumps, knurled surfaces, roughened surfaces, recesses, depressions, finger holds, tacky areas, and/or other features that make it relatively easy for a user to grab and separate the lid and the base. By way of non-limiting illustration, FIGS. 1, 3, and 15 show some embodiments in which both the lid 15 and the base 20 comprise an elongated recess 42 that functions as the gripping surface 40. The described ink pad 10 can be any suitable shape. Indeed, in some embodiments, the ink pad is substantially square, rectangular, triangular, hexagonal, octagonal, pentagonal, polygonal, circular, elliptical, cuboidal, prism shaped (e.g., rectangular prism, triangular prism, square prism, and/or any other suitable prism shape), symmetrical, asymmetrical, regular shaped, irregularly shaped, and/or any other suitable shape. By way of non-limiting illustration, FIG. 1 shows an embodiment in which the ink pad 10 is substantially rectangular in shape (e.g., a rectangular prism, having rounded edges and corners). The described ink pad 10 can be any suitable size that allows it to function as described herein. In some embodiments, however, the length and width of the ink pad are each between about 0.5 cm and about 46 cm, or any subrange thereof. Indeed, in some embodiments, the length and width are between about 4 cm and about 20 cm (e.g., between about 6 cm and about 16 cm). Additionally, as some embodiments of the ink pad are not square, the length and width of the ink pad need not be equal. For instance, some embodiments of the ink pad have a width that is between about 6 cm and about 10 cm and a length that is between about 9 cm and about 15 cm (each falling in the aforementioned range of between about 0.5 cm and about 46 cm). Indeed, in some embodiments, the ink pad has a length of about 12.5 cm and a width of about 8.5 cm. The ink pad 10 can further have any suitable thickness. Indeed, in some embodiments, when the ink pad is in a closed position (e.g., as shown in FIG. 1), the ink pad has a thickness that is between about 0.3 cm and about 5 cm (or any subrange thereof). For instance, some embodiments of the ink pad are between about 0.8 cm and about 3 cm thick (e.g., between about 1 cm and about 2 cm thick). In addition to the aforementioned components, the described ink pad 10 can comprise any other suitable component. Some examples of such components include, but are not limited to, one or more brushes; applicators; lights; electronic devices; wipes; cleaners; mirrors; stamps; glues; dividers (e.g., to separate one or more pieces of absorbent materials comprising ink (or other pigments) from one or more other pieces of absorbent materials comprising one or more other inks (or other pigments); and/or other suitable objects or materials. By way of non-limiting illustration, FIG. 17 shows some embodiments in which the pad 10 is used as a palette for applying paint, ink, and/or any other suitable transferrable medium to a desired substrate. Additionally, the described ink pad 10 can have any other suitable characteristic that allows it to operate as intended. Indeed, in some embodiments, the ink pad is ergonomically shaped to be more comfortable and easy to use than some conventional ink pads. Additionally, although some embodiments of the lid 15 and/or the base 20 are opaque, in some other embodiments, the lid and/or the base comprise a translucent and/or transparent object, or an object having a translucent and/or transparent portion. In some such embodiments, a user is able to attach a stamp to an outer surface of the ink pad (e.g., the lid or the base), and is then able to see through the lid or base to properly position the stamp. Additionally, while some embodiments of the described ink pad comprise a lid 15 and base 20 that are hingedly coupled together and further comprise one or more magnetic (or other suitable) coupling mechanisms, in some other embodiments, however, (as shown the figures) the lid 15 and the base 20 each comprise discrete objects that are not coupled together with a hinge. Thus, as discussed herein, some embodiments of the present invention relate to ink pads. In particular, some embodiments of the present invention relate to systems and methods for providing an ink pad that is easily opened and sealed shut. In some implementations, the described ink pad comprises a lid and a base that are configured to couple with each other via one or more magnets and/or other coupling mechanisms. The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or essential characteristics. The described embodiments, examples, implementations, and illustrations are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes that come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. In addition, as the terms on, disposed on, attached to, connected to, coupled to, etc. are used herein, one object (e.g., a material, element, structure, member, etc. can be on, disposed on, attached to, connected to, or coupled to another object—regardless of whether the one object is directly on, attached, connected, or coupled to the other object, or whether there are one or more intervening objects between the one object and the other object. Also, directions (e.g., horizontal, vertical, front back, on top of, below, above, top, bottom, side, up, down, under, over, upper, lower, lateral, etc.), if provided, are relative and provided solely by way of example and for ease of illustration and discussion and not by way of limitation. Where reference is made to a list of elements e.g., elements a, b, c), such reference is intended to include any one of the listed elements by itself, any combination of less than all of the listed elements, and/or a combination of all of the listed elements. Furthermore, as used herein, the terms “a,” “an,” and “one” may each be interchangeable with the terms at least one and one or more. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to ink pads. In particular, the present invention relates to systems and methods for providing an ink pad that is easily opened and sealed shut. In some implementations, the described ink pad comprises a lid and a base that are configured to couple with each other via one or more magnets and/or other coupling mechanisms. The described ink pad (or pigment container) can comprise any suitable component or characteristic that allows it to contain and store a pigment (or ink) in a manner that a stamp, fingertip, and/or other transfer substrate is able to receive pigment from the pad and to deposit such pigment on another desired substrate. In some implementations, however, the ink pad comprises one or more lids, bases, absorbent materials, coupling mechanisms, seals, and/or gripping surfaces. In accordance with some implementations, the pad, ink pad, and/or pigment pad (where such terms may be used interchangeably herein) has: a lid having a first magnetic coupler; a base having a second magnetic coupler; and an absorbent material that is configured to receive and store an amount of pigment, ink, and/or another suitable material. Additionally, in some such implementations, the lid and the base are configured to couple together in a face to face configuration so as to define a cavity that houses the absorbent material, and the first magnetic coupler and the second magnetic coupler are configured to magnetically couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and the base together in the face to face configuration. In accordance with some other implementations, the described ink pad includes: a lid defining a first recess and comprising a first magnetic coupler; a base defining a second recess and comprising a second magnetic coupler; an absorbent material comprising an ink (or other pigment); and a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the lid and the base are coupled together in a face to face configuration. In some such implementations, the first and second magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and the base together in the face to face configuration such that the first and second recesses form a cavity that houses the absorbent material. In still other implementations, the ink pad includes: a lid defining a first recess and further comprising a first and a second magnetic coupler; a base defining a second recess and further comprising a third and a fourth magnetic coupler; an absorbent material comprising an ink (or other pigment), the absorbent material being coupled to, and disposed in, at least one of the first recess and the second recess; and a seal that is configured to be disposed between a face of the lid and a face of the base when the ink pad is in a closed position. Moreover, in some such implementations, the lid and base are configured to magnetically couple together such that the first and second recesses define a cavity that houses the absorbent material when the ink pad is in a closed position. Furthermore, in some implementations, the first and the third magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple the lid and base together at least one of face to face and back to back, and the second and fourth magnetic couplers are configured to magnetically and releasably couple with each other to magnetically and releasably couple a perimeter of the lid with a perimeter of the base when the ink pad is in an opened position. While the described ink pad can be particularly useful in the area of containing and/or storing ink or another pigment for application to another surface via a die, block, seal, stamp, fingertip, and/or other transfer substrate, the described ink pad can be used to contain and store any other suitable material or materials, including, without limitation, one or more paints, pigments, dyes, pigment refills, inkless printing solutions (e.g., for fingerprinting and/or any other suitable purpose), balms, lotions, moisturizers, cosmetics, makeups, foundations (e.g., facial or otherwise), chalks, mirrors, combs, brushes, applicators, pictures, and/or other suitable materials and/or objects. These and other features and advantages of the present invention will be set forth or will become more fully apparent in the description that follows and in the appended claims. The features and advantages may be realized and obtained by means of the instruments and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. Furthermore, the features and advantages of the invention may be learned by the practice of the invention or will be obvious from the description, as set forth hereinafter. | B41K154 | 20170621 | 20171228 | 74063.0 | B41K154 | 0 | FERGUSON SAMRETH, MARISSA LIANA | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR PROVIDING AN INK PAD | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | B41K | 2,017 |
|
15,630,979 | PENDING | RECLOSABLE POUCH WITH AN ELONGATE CLOSURE MECHANISM | A reclosable pouch in combination with an elongate closure mechanism. The elongate closure mechanism includes a first base member disposed along a first sidewall. A pair of interlocking members extends from a first surface of the first base member, and are parallel to each other with a space therebetween. A plurality of partial indentations is disposed along a second surface of the first base member, extending longitudinally between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism, and being visible between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism. The pair of interlocking members extending from the first base member occlude and deocclude with a pair of interlocking members extending from the second base member, in order to resealably close the mouth. The plurality of partial indentations remains visible during the occluding and deoccluding. | 1. A reclosable pouch in combination with an elongate closure mechanism, the reclosable pouch comprising: (A) first and second sidewalls each having a first surface and a second surface, the first and second sidewalls being connected together in order to define an interior space of the pouch between the first and second sidewalls, and a mouth defining an opening into the interior space; and (B) an elongate closure mechanism disposed along the first and second sidewalls for resealably closing the mouth, the elongate closure mechanism extending longitudinally from one end of the mouth to an opposite end of the mouth, the elongate closure mechanism comprising: (a) a pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall, the pair of interlocking members being parallel to each other with a space therebetween; (b) a plurality of partial indentations being disposed along one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall, the plurality of partial indentations (i) partially extending into the one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall, (ii) extending longitudinally between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism in the space between the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall, and (iii) being visible between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism; and (c) a pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, the pair of interlocking members being parallel to each other with a space therebetween, wherein the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall is configured to occlude and to deocclude with the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, in order to resealably close the mouth, and wherein the plurality of partial indentations remains visible during occluding and deoccluding of the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall with the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, to provide a tactile guide path to facilitate a user in the occluding of the respective pairs of interlocking members. 2. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein the plurality of partial indentations is disposed along the second surface of the first sidewall at positions that are opposite to the space between the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall. 3. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, further comprising a plurality of partial indentations disposed along one of the first surface and the second surface of the second sidewall. 4. The reclosable pouch of claim 3, wherein the plurality of partial indentions disposed along the one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall is aligned with the plurality of partial indentations disposed along the one of the first surface and the second surface of the second sidewall. 5. The reclosable pouch of claim 3, wherein the plurality of partial indentations disposed along the one of the first surface and the second surface of the second sidewall partially extend into the one of the first surface and the second surface of the second sidewall. 6. The reclosable pouch of claim 3, wherein the plurality of partial indentations disposed along the one of the first surface and the second surface of the second sidewall extends longitudinally between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism in the space between the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall. 7. The reclosable pouch of claim 3, wherein the plurality of partial indentations is disposed along the second surface of the second sidewall at positions that are opposite to the space between the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall. 8. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein the plurality of partial indentations comprises a plurality of longitudinally spaced apart partial indentations. 9. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, further including a second plurality of partial indentations disposed along one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall at positions below the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall. 10. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein the plurality of partial indentations comprises a linear pattern of interlocking diamond shapes. 11. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein the plurality of partial indentations comprises a plurality of interlocking partial indentations. 12. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein each partial indentation of the plurality of partial indentations has at least one of (i) a circular shape, (ii) an X-shape, and (iii) a diamond shape. 13. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein the plurality of partial indentations is arranged in a generally curvilinear pattern along the one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall. 14. The reclosable pouch of claim 13, wherein at least some of the partial indentations is generally diamond shaped. 15. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein the plurality of partial indentations is created by at least one of cutting and embossing. 16. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, the elongate closure mechanism further comprising: (d) an additional interlocking member extending from the first surface of the first sidewall, the additional interlocking member being (i) parallel to the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall and (ii) disposed in the space between the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall; and (e) an additional interlocking member extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, the additional interlocking member being (i) parallel to the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall and (ii) disposed in the space between the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, wherein the additional interlocking member extending from the first surface of the first sidewall is configured to occlude and to deocclude with the additional interlocking member extending from the first surface of the second sidewall. 17. The reclosable pouch of claim 16, wherein the plurality of partial indentations is disposed along the second surface of the first sidewall at positions overlying the additional interlocking member extending from the first surface of the first sidewall. 18. The reclosable pouch of claim 17, further comprising a plurality of partial indentations disposed along the second surface of the second sidewall at positions overlying the additional interlocking member extending from the first surface of the second sidewall. 19. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein at least one of the interlocking members of the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall has a substantially constant profile between opposite ends of the respective interlocking member. 20. The reclosable pouch of claim 1, wherein at least one of the interlocking members of the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall has a substantially constant profile between opposite ends of the respective interlocking member. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation application of copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/809,297, filed Jul. 27, 2015, which is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/040,905, filed Sep. 30, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,139,340, issued Sep. 22, 2015, which is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/455,205, filed May 29, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,578,572, issued Nov. 12, 2013. REFERENCE REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not applicable. SEQUENTIAL LISTING Not applicable. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a reclosable thermoplastic pouch with an elongate closure mechanism and a method of closing such a pouch. BACKGROUND A thermoplastic pouch having a resealable closure mechanism applied longitudinally across a mouth thereof to allow repeated opening and closing of the pouch is known in the art. The closure mechanism can include multiple pairs of interlocking closure profiles, which can be difficult to seal and/or can cause consternation in a user in not knowing whether the multiple pairs of interlocking closure profiles have been properly sealed. It is, therefore, desirable to provide a reclosable closure mechanism for a thermoplastic pouch that includes a tactile guide path for a user's fingers, to assure proper sealing of the closure mechanism. In the past, there have been attempts to provide a tactile guide for a closure mechanism on a pouch, for various reasons. For example, one thermoplastic pouch has front and rear walls and a single pair of mutually interlocking opposing rib and groove closure elements disposed across a mouth of the pouch. Outer surfaces of the walls are roughened coextensive with and over the rib and groove elements, to provide a series of ridges with valleys therebetween that inhibit easy sliding of a user's fingers along the ridges and valleys, in order to facilitate a user's application of force tangential to the outer surfaces, in order to open the bag by displacing the opposing rib and groove elements tangentially past one another. Another thermoplastic pouch has a powder-resistant flexible zipper, wherein the flexible zipper includes a line of longitudinally spaced apart apertures that extend completely through first and second base members of the zipper. The apertures are disposed between spaced apart pairs of interlocking hood members in order to allow powder trapped between the interlocking members to pass through the base member. In allowing powder to pass through the zipper, however, the apertures may diminish the sealing integrity of the zipper, especially if the pair of interlocking members interior to the apertures should inadvertently open. A further thermoplastic pouch has a double profile closure mechanism disposed across a mouth of the pouch. External ridges are disposed on the pouch running parallel to and between the double profiles. Alternatively, or in addition to the external guide ridges, one or more internal ridges is disposed on the pouch running parallel to the double profiles. The internal and/or external guide ridges assist in alignment of the closure mechanism to facilitate closing thereof. The ridges disposed on the pouch require the addition of extra material to the pouch, which may add to the cost to manufacture the pouch. The tactile guide path disclosed herein may overcome some of the drawbacks with the known tactile guide arrangements by providing a guide path for a user's fingers on a multiple zipper closure mechanism, without sacrificing the sealing integrity of the closure mechanism. Further, the tactile guide path may be manufactured in a post-production process without the addition of extra material to the pouch. SUMMARY The present invention provides reclosable pouch in combination with an elongate closure mechanism. The reclosable pouch includes first and second sidewalls each having a first surface and a second surface, the first and second sidewalls being connected together in order to define an interior space of the pouch between the first and second sidewalls, and a mouth defining an opening into the interior space, and an elongate closure mechanism disposed along the first and second sidewalls for resealably closing the mouth, the elongate closure mechanism extending longitudinally from one end of the mouth to an opposite end of the mouth. The elongate closure mechanism includes (a) a pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall, the pair of interlocking members being parallel to each other with a space therebetween, (b) a plurality of partial indentations being disposed along one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall, the plurality of partial indentations (i) partially extending into the one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall, (ii) extending longitudinally between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism in the space between the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall, and (iii) being visible between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism, and (c) a pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, the pair of interlocking members being parallel to each other with a space therebetween. The pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall is configured to occlude and to deocclude with the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, in order to resealably close the mouth. The plurality of partial indentations remains visible during occluding and deoccluding of the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall with the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, to provide a tactile guide path to facilitate a user in the occluding of the respective pairs of interlocking members. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an isometric view of a pouch including a closure mechanism according to one aspect of the invention; FIG. 2A is a partial cross-sectional isometric view of a first aspect of the closure mechanism of FIG. 1, taken generally along the lines 2-2 of FIG. 1; FIG. 2B is a partial cross-sectional isometric view of a second aspect of the closure mechanism of FIG. 1, taken generally along the lines 2-2 of FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is an enlarged exterior partial side view of the closure mechanism of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is an isometric partial cross-sectional view of a closure mechanism according to another aspect of the invention, taken generally along the lines 2-2 of FIG. 1; and FIG. 5 is an isometric partial cross-sectional view of a user's fingers engaging the closure mechanism of FIG. 1 in one possible method of using the pouch of the present invention. Other aspects and advantages of the present disclosure will become apparent upon consideration of the following detailed description, wherein similar structures have similar reference numbers. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 illustrates a reclosable pouch 50 having a first sidewall 52 and a second sidewall 54 that are connected by, for example, folding, heat sealing, and/or an adhesive, along three peripheral edges 56, 58, 60 to define an interior space 62 between the first and second sidewalls 52, 54, and a mouth 64 along a top edge 66 where the first and second sidewalls 52, 54 are not connected, so as to allow access to the interior space 62. An elongate closure mechanism 68 is disposed along the first and second sidewalls 52, 54 across the mouth 64, extending longitudinally between the peripheral edge 56 and the peripheral edge 60 of the pouch 50, to allow the mouth 64 to be repeatedly occluded and deoccluded, thereby respectively sealing and unsealing the mouth 64. The closure mechanism 68, in one aspect, include a first base member 70 and a second base member 72 as illustrated, for example, in FIGS. 2A and 2B. A first pair 74 of opposing interlocking members 74a and 74b project from opposing interior surfaces 76 and 78 of the base members 70 and 72, respectively. Similarly, a second pair 80 of opposing interlocking members 80a and 80b project from the opposing interior surfaces 76 and 78 of the base members 70 and 72, respectively. The second pair 80 of opposing interlocking members is parallel to and spaced on an exterior side from the first pair 74. Each pair of the opposing interlocking members 74a and 74b, and 80a and 80b includes elongate generally constant profiles disposed across the mouth 64 of the pouch 50. Each pair 74, 80 of opposing interlocking members is illustrated in FIGS. 2A and 2B as having a single male and a female profile. However, each of the pairs 74, 80 of opposing interlocking members may include one or more sets of elongate profiles, as desired, that form a seal across the mouth 64 of the pouch 50, for example, as illustrated in Pawloski et al. U.S. Pat. No. 7,137,736, Pawloski U.S. Pat. No. 7,410,298, and Dais et al. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,070,584, 5,478,228, and 6,021,557. Further, the first and second base members 70, 72 may be integral with or separate and attached to the respective first and second sidewalls 52, 54. In a preferred embodiment, the sidewalls 52, 54 and the closure mechanism 68 are made of thermoplastic, which may be formed by known thermoplastic extrusion and bag forming techniques, such as, disclosed in Dais et al. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,070,584, 5,478,228, and 6,021,557, Geiger et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,755,248, Zieke et al. U.S. Pat. No. 4,741,789, and Porchia et al. U.S. Pat. No. 5,012,461. Other materials and formation techniques sufficient to form structures as described herein are also within the general purview of the present invention. Referring to FIGS. 1-3, a first plurality 82 of partial indentations 84 is disposed along an exterior surface 86 of the first base member 70, wherein the first plurality of partial indentations extends longitudinally along the closure mechanism 68 between the first and second pairs 74, 80 of opposing interlocking members. A second plurality 88 of partial indentations 90 may optionally be disposed along an exterior surface 92 of the second base member 72, wherein the second plurality of partial indentations also extends longitudinally along the closure mechanism between the first and second pairs 74, 80 of opposing interlocking members. In one aspect, each plurality 82, 88 of partial indentations is arranged in a generally linear pattern extending completely from the peripheral edge 56 to the peripheral edge 60, as illustrated for the pluralities 82 and 88 of partial indentations in FIG. 1. However, each plurality 82, 88 of partial indentations may extend partially across the sidewalls 52, 54 or may be broken up into regions including indentations and regions lacking indentations (not shown). Further, each plurality 82, 88 of partial indentations may be arranged in a curvilinear pattern between the peripheral edges 56, 60, as illustrated for the plurality 88 of partial indentations in FIG. 3, or may be alternatively arranged as a mix of generally linear and curvilinear patterns. The partial indentations 84, 90 that make up the first and second pluralities 82 and 88, respectively, may be generally linear, generally curvilinear, or may have shapes having generally linear and/or curvilinear perimeters. The partial indentations 84, 90 may be manufactured, in one preferred method, for example, using a double roller mechanism applied to create the partial indentations 84, 90, wherein the double roller mechanism includes a first roller wheel with cutting and/or embossing surfaces applied to the exterior surfaces 86, 92 and a second roller wheel with a smooth surface of a rubber or hard metal, such as steel, applied opposite to the first roller wheel. In another method, a double roller having complimentary opposing male and female embossing surfaces may be used to create the partial indentations 84, 90. Alternatively, the double roller mechanism may be applied such that the embossing surfaces thereon are applied to interior surfaces of the first and second base members 70, 72. The partial indentations 84, 90 do not extend completely through the respective first and second base members 70 and 72. Rather, each of the partial indentations 84, 90 extends only part way through the corresponding base member, thereby not allowing any leakage therethrough. The partial indentations 84, 90 may touch each other, as shown, for example, in FIG. 1 as overlapping offset zigzag or interlocking diamond shapes, which according to one preferred aspect, is used for the indentations 84, 90 of one or more of the pluralities of indentations 82, 88. Alternatively, the partial indentations 84, 90 may be spaced apart from each other longitudinally, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 2 and 4, such that spacing between longitudinally spaced partial indentations 84, 90 may be constant or variable along the first and/or second pluralities 82, 88, respectively. The partial indentations 84, 90 may include longitudinally spaced apart transverse linear indentations and/or may include indicia, such as words, logos, or other informational patterns, and may be selected for aesthetics of the pattern or to enhance the tactile sensation imparted to a user's fingers. FIG. 3 illustrates some other exemplary possible patterns that may be utilized for the partial indentations 84, 90, such as wavy lines, and longitudinally spaced sets of transversely aligned circles. In one embodiment, illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2A, the exterior surfaces 86, 92 of the respective first and second base members 70, 72 do not have indentations and are, therefore, smooth in regions that are directly opposite to or coextensive with the pairs of opposing interlocking members 74, 80. Thus, a transverse space is formed between each of the pluralities 82, 88 of the longitudinally spaced partial indentations 84, 90, respectively, and each adjacent interlocking member. In another embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 2B, regions that are directly opposite to or coextensive with the pairs of interlocking members 74, 80 are adjacent to or may slightly overlap with uppermost and lowermost extremes of the pluralities 82, 88 of the longitudinally spaced partial indentations 84, 90, respectively. In another aspect, a closure mechanism 68a optionally includes a third pair 94 of opposing interlocking members 94a and 94b projecting from the opposing interior surfaces 76 and 78 of the base members 70 and 72, respectively, as shown in FIG. 4. The third pair 94 of the opposing interlocking members is parallel to and spaced from the second pair 80 on an opposite side thereof from the first pair 74 of opposing interlocking members. In this aspect, the first and second pluralities 82, 88 of partial indentations 84, 90, respectively, are disposed along the respective exterior surfaces 86, 92 of the respective first and second base members 70, 72 coincident with the second pair 80 of opposing interlocking members and transversely spaced between the first pair 74 and the third pair 94 of interlocking members. It is contemplated that further aspects may include more than three pairs of opposing interlocking members, as desired. It is contemplated that a third plurality 96 of partial indentations 98 may be disposed along an exterior surface 86 of the first base member 70, wherein the third plurality 96 of partial indentations 98 extends longitudinally along the closure mechanism 68 below the lowermost pair of opposing interlocking members, for example, the first pair 74 of opposing interlocking members. Similarly, a fourth plurality 100 of partial indentations 102 may be disposed along an exterior surface 92 of the second base member 72, wherein the fourth plurality 100 of partial indentations 102 extends longitudinally along the closure mechanism 68 below the lowermost pair of opposing interlocking members, for example, the first pair 74 of opposing interlocking members. Similar to the first and second pluralities 82, 88, the third and fourth pluralities 96, 100 of partial indentations 98, 102, respectively, may be longitudinally continuous or longitudinally spaced. In one embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 2A, the third plurality 96 of partial indentations 98 is transversely spaced from a bottom edge of the first pair 74 of opposing interlocking members. In another embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 2B, a top edge of the third plurality 96 of partial indentations 98 is adjacent to or may slightly overlap with a bottom edge of the first pair 74 of opposing interlocking members. In use, each of the first and second pluralities 82, 88 of the partial indentations 84, 90, respectively, can provide a tactile guide path for a user's finger to facilitate proper occlusion of the closure mechanism 68. Referring to FIGS. 2A, 2B and 5, to occlude the closure mechanism 68 that includes the first plurality 82 of the partial indentations 84, a user grasps the closure mechanism 68, for example, between a first finger 104 and a second finger 106. The user locates the first finger 104 between the first and second spaced apart pairs 74, 80 of opposing interlocking members by feeling whether the first finger 104 is engaged against the first plurality 82 of the partial indentations 84. The second finger 106 is located on the exterior surface 92 of the second base 72 opposite to the first finger 104. Thus grasped, the user forces the first and second opposing fingers 104, 106, together as indicated by the arrows 108 shown in FIG. 5, to locally occlude the first and second spaced apart pairs 74, 80 of opposing interlocking members that are disposed on either side of the user's fingers. The user slides the first and second opposing fingers 104, 106 along the closure mechanism 68, as illustrated by the arrow 110 shown in FIG. 5, with the first and second fingers 104, 106 forced together, such that the first finger 104 is guided by the first plurality 82 of the partial indentations 84. The user maintains the first finger 104 between the first and second spaced apart pairs 74, 80 of opposing interlocking members, while sliding the first and second fingers 104, 106 by feeling the first plurality 82 of the partial indentations 84 with the first finger 104, whereby the first and second spaced apart pairs 74, 80 of opposing interlocking members are occluded along their entire length, and the mouth 64 is sealed. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY A closure mechanism has been presented that may be used on reclosable thermoplastic pouches and that includes a tactile guide path. The tactile guide path may facilitate proper occlusion of the closure mechanism by guiding one or more of a user's fingers along a preferred path along the length of the closure mechanism. It is also contemplated that regions adjacent to and between the pairs of opposing interlocking members 74, 80 may be thicker than, and, therefore, stiffer than, the pouch sidewalls 52, 54 or other portions of the closure mechanism 68. Without being bound by theory, it is believed that embossing and/or creation of the partial indentations in the above-noted regions may increase the pliability of the above-noted regions over a base that does not have such partial indentations, which can feel better to a user and can make the opposing interlocking members 74, 80 easier to occlude. Numerous modifications to the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of the foregoing description. Accordingly, this description is to be construed as being illustrative only and is presented for the purpose of enabling those skilled in the art to make and use the invention, and to teach the best mode of carrying out the same. The exclusive right to all modifications within the scope of the impending claims is expressly reserved. All patents, patent publications and applications, and other references cited herein are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>A thermoplastic pouch having a resealable closure mechanism applied longitudinally across a mouth thereof to allow repeated opening and closing of the pouch is known in the art. The closure mechanism can include multiple pairs of interlocking closure profiles, which can be difficult to seal and/or can cause consternation in a user in not knowing whether the multiple pairs of interlocking closure profiles have been properly sealed. It is, therefore, desirable to provide a reclosable closure mechanism for a thermoplastic pouch that includes a tactile guide path for a user's fingers, to assure proper sealing of the closure mechanism. In the past, there have been attempts to provide a tactile guide for a closure mechanism on a pouch, for various reasons. For example, one thermoplastic pouch has front and rear walls and a single pair of mutually interlocking opposing rib and groove closure elements disposed across a mouth of the pouch. Outer surfaces of the walls are roughened coextensive with and over the rib and groove elements, to provide a series of ridges with valleys therebetween that inhibit easy sliding of a user's fingers along the ridges and valleys, in order to facilitate a user's application of force tangential to the outer surfaces, in order to open the bag by displacing the opposing rib and groove elements tangentially past one another. Another thermoplastic pouch has a powder-resistant flexible zipper, wherein the flexible zipper includes a line of longitudinally spaced apart apertures that extend completely through first and second base members of the zipper. The apertures are disposed between spaced apart pairs of interlocking hood members in order to allow powder trapped between the interlocking members to pass through the base member. In allowing powder to pass through the zipper, however, the apertures may diminish the sealing integrity of the zipper, especially if the pair of interlocking members interior to the apertures should inadvertently open. A further thermoplastic pouch has a double profile closure mechanism disposed across a mouth of the pouch. External ridges are disposed on the pouch running parallel to and between the double profiles. Alternatively, or in addition to the external guide ridges, one or more internal ridges is disposed on the pouch running parallel to the double profiles. The internal and/or external guide ridges assist in alignment of the closure mechanism to facilitate closing thereof. The ridges disposed on the pouch require the addition of extra material to the pouch, which may add to the cost to manufacture the pouch. The tactile guide path disclosed herein may overcome some of the drawbacks with the known tactile guide arrangements by providing a guide path for a user's fingers on a multiple zipper closure mechanism, without sacrificing the sealing integrity of the closure mechanism. Further, the tactile guide path may be manufactured in a post-production process without the addition of extra material to the pouch. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention provides reclosable pouch in combination with an elongate closure mechanism. The reclosable pouch includes first and second sidewalls each having a first surface and a second surface, the first and second sidewalls being connected together in order to define an interior space of the pouch between the first and second sidewalls, and a mouth defining an opening into the interior space, and an elongate closure mechanism disposed along the first and second sidewalls for resealably closing the mouth, the elongate closure mechanism extending longitudinally from one end of the mouth to an opposite end of the mouth. The elongate closure mechanism includes (a) a pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall, the pair of interlocking members being parallel to each other with a space therebetween, (b) a plurality of partial indentations being disposed along one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall, the plurality of partial indentations (i) partially extending into the one of the first surface and the second surface of the first sidewall, (ii) extending longitudinally between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism in the space between the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall, and (iii) being visible between the opposite ends of the elongate closure mechanism, and (c) a pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, the pair of interlocking members being parallel to each other with a space therebetween. The pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall is configured to occlude and to deocclude with the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, in order to resealably close the mouth. The plurality of partial indentations remains visible during occluding and deoccluding of the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the first sidewall with the pair of interlocking members extending from the first surface of the second sidewall, to provide a tactile guide path to facilitate a user in the occluding of the respective pairs of interlocking members. | B65D33255 | 20170623 | 20171005 | 90391.0 | B65D3325 | 0 | PASCUA, JES F | RECLOSABLE POUCH WITH AN ELONGATE CLOSURE MECHANISM | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B65D | 2,017 |
|
15,631,515 | PENDING | COSMETIC COMPOSITION FOR USE ON HAIR AND CONTAINING AN ACYL BASIC AMINO ACID DERIVATIVE | The present invention provides a composition containing component (A): a compound represented by the formula (1) wherein each symbol is as described in the DESCRIPTION, or a salt thereof and component (B): a cationic surfactant, which is superior in the usability during rinsing, which makes the hair surface after treatment smooth and free of dry feeling, provides a uniform touch feeling from the root of the hair to the tip thereof, and can be utilized as an aqueous cosmetic. | 1. A composition, comprising” (A) at least one compound represented by formula (1): wherein R1 and R2 are each independently an alkyl group having 5 to 21 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 5 to21 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each independently a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group having 1 to 22 carbon atoms, or an alkenyl group having 2 to 22 carbon atoms, z is an integer of not less than 0, x and y are each independently an integer of 2 to 4, or a salt thereof: and B) at least one cationic surfactant. 2. The composition according to claim 1, wherein in said formula (1) z is an integer of 0 to 10. 3. The composition according to claim 1, wherein in said formula (1) z is 7 or 8. 4. The composition according to claim 1, wherein in said formula (1) x and y are each 4, or a salt thereof. 5. The composition according to claim 1, wherein in said formula (1) R1 and R2 are each independently a straight-chain alkyl group having 5 to 15 carbon atoms. 6. The composition according to claim 1, wherein in said formula (1) R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom. 7. The composition according to claim 1, wherein in said formula (1) R1 and R2 are each independently a straight-chain alkyl group having 5 to 15 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom, z is an integer of 0 to 10, and x and y are each 4. 8. The composition according to claim 1, wherein in said formula (1) R1 and R2 are each independently a straight-chain alkyl group having 5 to 15 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom, z is 7 or 8, and x and y are each 4. 9. The composition according to claim 1, wherein said (A) is at least one compound selected from the group consisting of bis(Nε-lauroyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide, a salt of bis(Nε-lauroyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide, bis(Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide, and a salt of bis(Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide. 10. The composition according to claim 1, wherein said (B) is at least one kind of cationic surfactant selected from the group consisting of a quaternary ammonium salt and a tertiary amine. 11. The composition according to claim 10, wherein said quaternary ammonium salt is at least one kind selected from the group consisting of cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, stearyltrimethylammonium chloride, behenyltrimethylammonium chloride, and quaternium-87. 12. The composition according to claim 10, wherein said tertiary amine is at least one kind selected from the group consisting of stearamidopropyl dimethylamine and behenamidopropyl dimethylamine. 13. The composition according to claim 1, further comprising: (C) at least one higher alcohol. 14. The composition according to claim 1, wherein said (A) is present in a proportion of 0.005 to 20 wt % relative to the total weight of said composition. 15. The composition according to claim 1, wherein said (B) is present in a proportion of 0.005 to 10 wt % relative to the total weight of said composition. 16. A hair cosmetic, comprising a composition according to claim 1. | CROSS REFERENCES TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of International Patent Application No. PCT/JP2015/086214, filed on Dec. 25, 2015, and claims priority to Japanese Patent Application No. 2014-262711, filed on Dec. 25, 2014, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a composition containing (A): an acyl basic amino acid derivative, and (B): a cationic surfactant, which is used as, for example, a cosmetic for hair. Discussion of the Background Repeated chemical treatments and heat treatments on the hair cause accumulation of damage particularly at hair tips. Accordingly, there is a problem that the touch feeling is different between the root with a small degree of damage and hair tips with a great damage. Therefore, a hair cosmetic that makes hair tips closer to those of healthy hair and provides a uniform touch feeling from the root of the hair to the tip thereof is desired. N-long chain acyl lysine is used for cosmetics and the like since it shows properties of good slipperiness and good spreadability on hair, less irritation to the skin, good attachability to the skin, reduction of “greasiness” and “stickiness” derived from oil agent and moisturizer and the like (patent documents 1-4 etc.). A hair cosmetic containing N-long chain acyl lysine and a surfactant has been reported to have an antistatic effect and an effect superior in combing property (patent document 5). On the other hand, it has been reported that the hair treated with a cosmetic containing Nε-lauroyllysine as N-long chain acyl lysine, diester as a dibasic acid, and a cationic surfactant is inferior in uniform smoothness and slip feeling (patent document 6). Moreover, N-long chain acyl lysine has problems in that 1) it is poorly soluble in water and oil, which limits its use to a solid (powder), 2) since it has high water-repellency, affinity to water is poor, which in turn causes difficulty in being stably blended in an aqueous cosmetic, 3) since it coagulates in the obtained aqueous cosmetic, the cosmetic loses smoothness, and 4) friction radically increases when it is contacted with an oil agent component in cosmetics, and frictional feeling becomes strong (patent documents 3, 7 etc.). It has been reported that a compound represented by the following formula: wherein Ra and Rb are each a hydrogen atom or an alkyl group, and n is an integer of 0 to 12, or a salt thereof (hereinafter to be also referred to as “lauroyl amino acid derivative”) is useful for gelation or solidifying water and a liquid organic medium (patent document 8, non-patent document 1 and non-patent document 2 etc.). However, a hair composition containing a lauroyl amino acid derivative and cationic surfactant, and a cosmetic containing the composition have not been reported heretofore. DOCUMENT LIST Patent Documents patent document 1: WO 01/014317 patent document 2: JP-A-61-137812 patent document 3: JP-A-60-67406 patent document 4: JP-A-3-74312 patent document 5: JP-A-1-242517 patent document 6: JP-A-2010-184905 patent document 7: JP-A-2003-105221 patent document 8: JP-A-2004-323505 Non-Patent Document non-patent document 1: Org. Biomol. Chem., 2003, 1, 4124-4131 non-patent document 2: New J. Chem., 2005, 29, 1439-1444 SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Problems to be Solved by the Invention An object of the present invention is to provide a composition superior in usability during rinsing, which makes hair surface after treatment smooth and free of dry feeling, provides a uniform touch feeling from the root of the hair to the tip thereof, and can be utilized as an aqueous cosmetic. Means of Solving the Problems The present inventors have conducted intensive studies in an attempt to achieve the above-mentioned object and found that a composition containing component (A): a compound represented by the following formula (1) (hereinafter sometimes to be also referred to as “compound (1)”) or a salt thereof, and component (B): a cationic surfactant can be utilized as an aqueous cosmetic, is free of sliminess during rinsing, can be rinsed off soon, and that the hair surface after a treatment with the above-mentioned composition is smooth and without a dry feeling, and the composition provides a uniform touch feeling from the root of the hair to the tip thereof and is superior gathering of hair tips, which resulted in the completion of the present invention. Therefore, the present invention provides the following. [1] A composition comprising component (A): a compound represented by the formula (1) wherein R1 and R2 are each independently an alkyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each independently a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group having 1-22 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 2-22 carbon atoms, z is an integer of not less than 0, x and y are each independently an integer of 2-4, or a salt thereof, and component (B): a cationic surfactant. [2] The composition of [1], wherein component (A) is a compound of the aforementioned formula (1) wherein z is an integer of 0-10, or a salt thereof. [3] The composition of [1] or [2], wherein component (A) is a compound of the aforementioned formula (1) wherein z is 7 or 8, or a salt thereof. [4] The composition of any of [1]-[3], wherein component (A) is a compound of the aforementioned formula (1) wherein x and y are each 4, or a salt thereof. [5] The composition of any of [1]-[4], wherein component (A) is a compound of the aforementioned formula (1) wherein R1 and R2 are each independently a straight-chain alkyl group having 5-15 carbon atoms, or a salt thereof. [6] The composition of any of [1]-[5], wherein component (A) is a compound of the aforementioned formula (1) wherein R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom, or a salt thereof. [7] The composition of any of [1]-[5], wherein component (A) is a compound of the aforementioned formula (1) wherein R1 and R2 are each independently a straight-chain alkyl group having 5-15 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom, z is an integer of 0-10, and x and y are each 4, or a salt thereof. [8] The composition of any of [1]-[5], wherein component (A) is a compound of the aforementioned formula (1) wherein R1 and R2 are each a straight-chain alkyl group having 5-15 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom, z is 7 or 8, and x and y are each 4, or a salt thereof. [9] The composition of any of [1]-[5], wherein component (A) is a compound selected from bis(Nε-lauroyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide, and bis(Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide, or a salt thereof. [10] The composition of any of [1]-[9], wherein component (B) is at least one kind of cationic surfactant selected from the group consisting of quaternary ammonium salt and tertiary amine. [11] The composition of [10], wherein the quaternary ammonium salt is at least one kind selected from the group consisting of cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, stearyltrimethylammonium chloride, behenyltrimethylammonium chloride and quaternium-87. [12] The composition of [10], wherein the tertiary amine is at least one kind selected from the group consisting of stearamidopropyl dimethylamine and behenamidopropyl dimethylamine. [13] The composition of any of [1]-[12], further comprising component (C): a higher alcohol. [14] The composition of any of [1]-[13], wherein component (A) is contained in a proportion of 0.005-20 wt % relative to the total amount of the composition. [15] The composition of any of [1]-[14], wherein component (B) is contained in a proportion of 0.005-10 wt % relative to the total amount of the composition. [16] A hair cosmetic comprising the composition of any of [1]-[15]. Effect of the Invention According to the present invention, a composition superior in the usability during rinsing, which makes the hair surface after treatment smooth and free of dry feeling, provides a uniform touch feeling from the root of the hair to the tip thereof, and can be utilized as an aqueous cosmetic, can be provided. According to the present invention, a hair cosmetic which increases hydrophobicity of the hair, decreases cuticle damage and can lead to healthy hair can be provided. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The composition of the present invention is characterized in that it is a composition containing component (A): a compound represented by the formula (1) wherein R1 and R2 are each independently an alkyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each independently a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group having 1-22 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 2-22 carbon atoms, z is an integer of not less than 0, x and y are each independently an integer of 2-4, or a salt thereof, and component (B): a cationic surfactant. In addition, the composition of the present invention is characterized in that it is a composition further containing component (C): a higher alcohol, in addition to component (A), and component (B). The embodiment of the present invention is described in detail in the following. 1. Component (A): A Compound Represented by the Formula (1) (Compound (1)) or a Salt Thereof R1 and R2 are each independently an alkyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms. The alkyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms means a straight-chain or branched-chain alkyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms. Specific examples thereof include pentyl group, isopentyl group, neopentyl group, a hexyl group, isohexyl group, neohexyl group, heptyl group, isoheptyl group, neoheptyl group, octyl group, isooctyl group, nonyl group, isononyl group, decyl group, isodecyl group, undecyl group, dodecyl group, tridecyl group, tetradecyl group, pentadecyl group, hexadecyl group, heptadecyl group, octadecyl group, nonadecyl group, icosyl group and the like. The alkenyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms means a straight-chain or branched-chain alkenyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms. Specific examples thereof include pentenyl group, hexenyl group, heptenyl group, octenyl group, nonenyl group, decenyl group, undecenyl group, dodecenyl group, tridecenyl group, tetradecenyl group, pentadecenyl group, hexadecenyl group, heptadecenyl group, octadecenyl group, nonadecenyl group, icosenyl group and the like. An alkyl group having 5-15 carbon atoms means a straight-chain or branched-chain alkyl group having 5-15 carbon atoms. Specific examples thereof include pentyl group, a hexyl group, heptyl group, octyl group, nonyl group, decyl group, undecyl group, dodecyl group, tridecyl group, tetradecyl group, pentadecyl group and the like. An alkyl group having 7-11 carbon atoms means a straight-chain or branched-chain alkyl group having 7-11 carbon atoms. Specific examples thereof include heptyl group, octyl group, nonyl group, decyl group, undecyl group and the like. R1 and R2 are preferably each independently an alkyl group having 5-15 carbon atoms, more preferably each independently an alkyl group having 7-11 carbon atoms. Preferably, R1 and R2 are each a straight chain alkyl group. Furthermore, R1 and R2 are preferably the same. R3 and R4 are each independently a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group having 1-22 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 2-22 carbon atoms. An alkyl group having 1-22 carbon atoms means a straight-chain or branched-chain alkyl group having 1-22 carbon atoms. Specific examples thereof include methyl group, an ethyl group, a propyl group, an isopropyl group, a butyl group, an isobutyl group, a sec-butyl group, a tert-butyl group, a pentyl group, isopentyl group, neopentyl group, a hexyl group, isohexyl group, neohexyl group, heptyl group, isoheptyl group, neoheptyl group, octyl group, isooctyl group, nonyl group, isononyl group, decyl group, isodecyl group, undecyl group, dodecyl group, tridecyl group, tetradecyl group, pentadecyl group, hexadecyl group, heptadecyl group, octadecyl group, nonadecyl group, icosyl group and the like. An alkenyl group having 2-22 carbon atoms means a straight-chain or branched-chain alkenyl group having 2-22 carbon atoms. Specific examples thereof include ethenyl group, 1-propenyl group, 2-propenyl group, 1-butenyl group, 2-butenyl group, 3-butenyl group, pentenyl group, hexenyl group, heptenyl group, octenyl group, nonenyl group, decenyl group, undecenyl group, dodecenyl group, tridecenyl group, tetradecenyl group, pentadecenyl group, hexadecenyl group, heptadecenyl group, octadecenyl group, nonadecenyl group, icosenyl group and the like. Preferably, both R3 and R4 are hydrogen atoms. z is an integer of not less than 0. z is preferably an integer of 0-10, more preferably 7 or 8. x and y are each independently an integer of 2-4. x and y are each preferably 4. As a compound represented by the formula (1), the following compounds can be preferably recited. (Compound A) A compound wherein R1 and R2 are each independently a straight-chain alkyl group having 5-15 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom, z is an integer of 0-10, and x and y are each 4. (Compound B) A compound wherein R1 and R2 are each a straight chain alkyl group having 5-15 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom, z is 7 or 8, and x and y are each 4. (Compound C) A compound wherein R1 and R2 are each a straight chain alkyl group having 7-11 carbon atoms, R3 and R4 are each a hydrogen atom, z is 7 or 8, and x and y are each 4. Specific examples of the compound represented by the formula (1) include bis(Nε-lauroyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide, bis(Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide, and a salt thereof. The salt of the compound represented by the formula (1) is not particularly limited. Examples thereof include alkali metal salts such as sodium salt, potassium salt and the like, alkaline earth metal salts such as calcium salt, magnesium salt and the like, inorganic salts such as aluminum salt, salt with zinc and the like, and organic salts such as organic amine salts such as ammonium salt, monoethanolamine salt, diethanolamine salt, triethanolamine salt and the like, basic amino acid salts such as arginine salt, lysine salt and the like, and the like. One kind of these may be used, or two or more kinds selected from the above-mentioned group may be used in a mixture. From the aspects of easy availability, handling property and the like, alkali metal salt, organic amine salt, or basic amino acid salt is preferable, and sodium salt and potassium salt are particularly preferable. Compound (1) can be produced by a method known per se or a method analogous thereto (JP-A-2004-323505, Org. Biomol. Chem., 2003, 1, 4124-4131, New J. Chem., 2005, 29, 1439-1444 etc.). For example, as shown in the following formula, of compounds (1), symmetrical compound (1′) can be produced by reacting Nω-acyl amino acid (2) and dicarboxylic acid dichloride (3) in an appropriate solvent. wherein R1′ is an alkyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms, R3′ is a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group having 1-22 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 2-22 carbon atoms, z′ is an integer of not less than 0, and x′ is an integer of 2-4. Examples of the Nω-acyl amino acid (2) include Nε-acyl lysine (e.g., Nε-hexanoyl-L-lysine, Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine etc.), Nδ-acyl ornithine (e.g., Nδ-hexanoyl-L-ornithine etc.), Nγ-acyl-α,γ-diaminobutyric acid and the like. Examples of the dicarboxylic acid dichloride (3) include oxalyl chloride, malonyl chloride, succinyl chloride, glutaryl chloride, adipoyl chloride, pimeloyl chloride, suberoyl chloride, azelaoyl chloride, sebacoyl chloride, dodecanedioyl chloride and the like. The amount of dicarboxylic acid dichloride (3) to be used is generally 0.4-0.6 equivalent relative to Nω-acyl amino acid (2). While the solvent is not particularly limited as long as it is inert to the reaction, examples thereof include ethers such as diethyl ether, tetrahydrofuran and the like. In addition, of compounds (1), asymmetric compound (1″) can be produced as follows. First, Nω-acyl amino acid (2) and dicarboxylic acid monochloride monoester (4) are reacted in an appropriate solvent to give compound (5) (step 1). Then, the primary ester moiety of the obtained compound (5) is hydrolyzed in the presence of a base such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and the like, the carboxylic acid moiety is chlorinated with a chlorinating agent such as thionyl chloride and the like, and the compound is reacted with Nω-acyl amino acid (2′) which is different from Nω-acyl amino acid (2) used in the aforementioned step 1 (step 2), whereby derivative (1″) can be produced. wherein R1′, R3′, z′ and x′ are as defined above, R2′ is an alkyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 5-21 carbon atoms, R4′ is a hydrogen atom, an alkyl group having 1-22 carbon atoms or an alkenyl group having 2-22 carbon atoms, R5 is an alkyl group such as a methyl group, an ethyl group and the like, and y′ is an integer of 2-4. As Nω-acyl amino acids (2) and (2′), Nω-acyl amino acids similar to those mentioned above can be used. As dicarboxylic acid monochloride monoester (4), a commercially available product can be used as is when it is commercially available, or one produced by a method known per se or a method analogous thereto can also be used. Compound (1) obtained by the aforementioned method can be converted to a salt of compound (1) by a reaction with alkali metal hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide and the like, alkali earth metal hydroxide such as calcium hydroxide and the like, organic amine base, or the like. The content of component (A): compound (1) or a salt thereof in the composition of the present invention is generally 0.005-20 wt %, preferably 0.01-10 wt %, more preferably 0.01-5.0 wt %, further preferably 0.02-2.5 wt %, relative to the total amount of the composition. 2. Component (B): Cationic Surfactant Examples of the “cationic surfactant” in the present specification include quaternary ammonium salt, tertiary amine and the like. Specific examples of the quaternary ammonium salt include monoalkyl quaternary ammonium salts (e.g., lauryltrimethylammonium chloride, cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, stearyltrimethylammonium chloride (steartrimonium chloride), behenyltrimethylammonium chloride (behentrimonium chloride), cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, stearyltrimethylammonium bromide, dipolyoxyethylene oleylmethylammonium chloride, polyoxyethylene behenyltrimethylammonium chloride, methylsulfuric acid behenyltrimethylammonium, stearylhydroxypropyl trimethylammonium, dipolyoxyethylene oleylmethylammonium chloride, cetrimonium saccharinate, stearyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride, quaternium-33 etc.), monoalkoxy quaternary ammonium salts (e.g., octadecyoxy propyl trimethylammonium chloride etc.), dialkyl type quaternary ammonium salts (e.g., distearyldimethylammonium chloride, dicocoyldimethylammonium chloride, dialkyl(C12-C18)dimethylammonium chloride, dioleyldimethylammonium chloride, lanolin fatty acid aminopropyl ethyldimethyl ammonium ethyl sulfate, distearoylethylhydroxyethylammonium methylsulfate, dicocoyldimethylammonium chloride, coconut oil alkyl PG dimonium chloride acid, linoleamidopropyl PG dimonium chloride phosphate, etc.), cyclic quaternary ammonium salts (e.g., alkyldimethylbenzylammonium chloride, lauryl pyridinium chloride, alkyldimethyl(ethylbenzyl)ammonium chloride, quaternium-87 etc.) and the like can be mentioned. Preferable examples of the quaternary ammonium salt include cetyltrimethylammonium chloride, stearyltrimethylammonium chloride, behenyltrimethylammonium chloride, quaternium-87 and the like. Specific examples of the tertiary amine include alkylamideamine tertiary amines (e.g., stearamido propyl dimethylamine, behenamidopropyl dimethylamine, stearamidopropyldiethylamine etc.), alkylamine tertiary amines (e.g., dimethylstearamide, behenyl dimethylamine, POE coconut oil alkylamine, POE oleyl amine, POE stearylamine etc.), alkylalkanolamine tertiary amines (e.g., polypropylene glycol/polyethylene glycol stearylamine etc.) and the like. Preferable examples of the tertiary amine include stearamidopropyl dimethylamine, behenamidopropyl dimethylamine and the like. The cationic surfactant may be used alone or two or more kinds thereof may be used in a mixture. The content of component (B): cationic surfactant in the composition of the present invention is generally 0.005-10 wt %, preferably 0.05-8.0 wt %, relative to the total amount of the composition. 3. Component (C): Higher Alcohol The “higher alcohol” in the present specification is preferably a straight-chain alcohol having 12-22 carbon atoms or branched-chain alcohol having 12-30 carbon atoms. Specific examples of the “higher alcohol” include straight chain alcohol having 12-22 carbon atoms (e.g., lauryl alcohol, myristyl alcohol, cetanol, stearyl alcohol, behenyl alcohol, oleyl alcohol, cetostearyl alcohol, hydrogenated rapeseed oil alcohol etc.), branched-chain alcohol having 12-30 carbon atoms (e.g., monostearyl glycerol ether(batyl alcohol), 2-decyltetradecynol, lanolin alcohol, cholesterol, phytosterol, hexyldodecanol, hexyldecanol, isostearyl alcohol, octyldodecanol etc.). Preferable examples of the “higher alcohol” include a straight-chain alcohol having 12-22 carbon atoms, and stearyl alcohol, behenyl alcohol, oleyl alcohol, cetostearyl alcohol, cetanol and the like are more preferable. The content of component (C): higher alcohol in the composition of the present invention is generally 0.01-20 wt %, preferably 0.1-15 wt %, relative to the total amount of the composition. The present invention also relates to a hair cosmetic containing the aforementioned composition of the present invention. While the hair cosmetic of the present invention is not particularly limited, specifically, permanent agent, hair dyeing agent, hair-growth medicine, hair-growth drug, hair cream, hair lotion, hair toner, hair milky lotion, hair ointment, hair treatment, conditioner, shampoo, rinse and the like can be mentioned. The hair cosmetic of the present invention may contain components that can be generally added to a cosmetic for hair, as long as the effect of the present invention is not inhibited. Specific examples include oil, chelating agent, amino acids, polyvalent alcohol, polyamino acid and salt thereof, water-soluble polymer, sugar alcohol and alkylene oxide adduct thereof, lower alcohol, animal and plant extract, nucleic acid, vitamin, enzyme, anti-inflammatory agent, antimicrobial agent, preservative, antioxidant, ultraviolet absorber, adiaphoretic, pigment, dye, oxidation dye, pH adjuster, pearly sheen agent, wetting agent and the like. The composition of the present invention, and a hair cosmetic containing the composition can be produced according to a conventional method. Other features of the invention will become apparent in the course of the following descriptions of exemplary embodiments which are given for illustration of the invention and are not intended to be limiting thereof. EXAMPLES The present invention is concretely explained in the following by referring to Production Example and Examples. The present invention is not limited by the following Production Example and Examples. Unless particularly indicated, “%” means “wt %”. Production Example 1 Synthesis of bis(Nε-lauroyl-L-lysine)sebacoylamide disodium salt Nε-lauroyl-L-lysine (8.2 g, 25 mmol) was dissolved in water (70 g) and 25% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (10 g), and diethyl ether (80 g) was added. Sebacoyl chloride (3.3 g, 14 mmol) was slowly added to the ether layer. The two-layer solution was stirred for about 1 hr while maintaining at 0° C., and then at room temperature for 23 hr. Then, 75% sulfuric acid was added dropwise to adjust to pH 2, the obtained white precipitate was collected by filtration, washed well with water and dried. The obtained compound was dissolved in an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution to give a 10% aqueous bis(Nε-lauroyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide disodium salt solution. Production Example 2 Synthesis of bis(Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine)sebacoylamide disodium salt Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine (6.8 g, 25 mmol) was dissolved in water (70 g) and 25% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (10 g), and diethyl ether (80 g) was added. Sebacoyl chloride (3.3 g, 14 mmol) was slowly added to the ether layer. The two-layer solution was stirred for about 1 hr while maintaining at 0° C., and then at room temperature for 23 hr. Then, 75% sulfuric acid was added dropwise to adjust to pH 2, the obtained white precipitate was collected by filtration, washed well with water and dried. The obtained compound was dissolved in an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution to give a 10% aqueous bis(Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide disodium salt solution. 1H-NMR of bis(Nε-octanoyl-L-lysine)sebacoyl amide (free form) 1H-NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6, TMS, 25° C.): δ0.85 (t, J=6.8 Hz, 6H), 1.20-1.29 (m, 28H), 1.32-1.38 (m, 4H), 1.45-1.50 (m, 8H), 1.54-1.59 (m, 4H), 2.02 (t, J=7.4 Hz, 4H), 2.09 (t, J=7.4 Hz, 4H), 2.99 (q, J=6.5 Hz, 4H), 4.08-4.47 (m, 2H), 7.73 (t, J=5.6 Hz, 2H), 7.97 (d, J=8.0 Hz, 2H). [Examples 1-7] [Comparative Examples 1-4] Preparation and Evaluation of Hair Cosmetic Preparation of Hair Cosmetics of Examples 1-7 and Comparative Examples 1, 2 The components of (I) described in the following Table 1 were mixed, heated to 80-85° C. and dissolved by stirring. This mixture was mixed with the components of (II) described in the following Table 1, which had been heated to 80-85° C. and dissolved by stirring in advance, and the mixture was emulsified by a homomixer at 80° C., and cooled with stirring. Thereafter, the mixture was adjusted to pH 3.9±0.1 in Examples 1-4 and Comparative Example 1 and adjusted to pH 5.3 by using an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution as necessary in Examples 5-7 and Comparative Example 2. The prepared hair cosmetics were preserved at room temperature. Preparation of Hair Cosmetics of Comparative Examples 3, 4 The components of (II) described in the following Table 1 were mixed, heated to 80-85° C. and dissolved by stirring. To this mixture was added a mixture of the components of (III) described in the following Table 1 and an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution, which had been dissolved by stirring in advance, and the precipitated Nε-lauroyllysine was dispersed. Furthermore, this mixture was mixed with the components of (I) described in the following Table 1, which had been heated to 80-85° C. and dissolved by stirring in advance, and the mixture was emulsified by a homomixer at 80° C., and cooled with stirring. Thereafter, the mixture was adjusted to pH 3.9±0.1 in Comparative Example 3 and adjusted to pH 5.3 by using citric acid and an aqueous sodium hydroxide solution as necessary in Comparative Example 4. The prepared hair cosmetics were preserved at room temperature. For the evaluation of the sense of use and texture in the following evaluations 1-6, a plurality of bundles of natural hair (European Medium Brown Hair, De Meo Brothers/NY, length 30 cm, weight 10 g) were prepared, and five test subjects performed treatment and evaluation by the following methods. Evaluations 1, 2: Absence of Sliminess During Rinsing and Fast Rinsing Off The above-mentioned hair bundles were washed twice with 15% sodium laureth sulfate (SLES), and a hair cosmetic (2 g) prepared as mentioned above was applied thereon. After the cosmetic was sufficiently applied on the whole hair, it was rinsed off with tap water at 35-40° C., and the sense of use was evaluated. The test subjects were made to recognize the sense of use during rinsing in Comparative Examples 1 and 2, and evaluated Examples 1-4 and Comparative Example 3 with Comparative Example 1 as the standard and Examples 5-7 and Comparative Example 4 with Comparative Example 2 as the standard, and according to the following criteria. 6 points: very good 5 points: good 4 points: a little good 3 points: normal, not different from standard 2 points: a little bad 1 point: bad 0 point: very bad The average of the test subjects was calculated and evaluated according to the following criteria. ⊙: average not less than 5.0 ◯: average not less than 4.0 and less than 5.0 Δ: average not less than 3.0 and less than 4.0 ×: average less than 3.0 Evaluations 3-6: Evaluation of Smoothness, Absence of Dryness, Uniform Touch Feeling, Less Kinkiness (Gathering of Hair Tips) of Hair Surface After Drying The above-mentioned hair bundles were washed twice with 15% sodium laureth sulfate (SLES), and a hair cosmetic (2 g) prepared as mentioned above was applied thereon. After the cosmetic was sufficiently applied on the whole hair, it was rinsed off with tap water at 35-40° C. for 30 sec. Water was drained and the hair was dried with towel. The hair was air dried as it was, and the hair after drying was evaluated. For evaluation, the hair was compared with the hair bundle before treatment with the hair cosmetic, and scored according to the following criteria. 6 points: very good 5 points: good 4 points: a little good 3 points: normal, not different from standard 2 points: a little bad 1 point: bad 0 point: very bad The average of the test subjects was calculated and evaluated according to the following criteria. ⊙: average not less than 5.0 ◯: average not less than 4.0 and less than 5.0 Δ: average not less than 3.0 and less than 4.0 ×: average less than 3.0 For the physical property evaluation in the following evaluations 7 and 8, a plurality of hair bundles (length 15 cm, weight 1 g) were prepared and used. The hair cosmetics of Examples 2 and 4 and Comparative Examples 1 and 3 (each 0.5 g) prepared as mentioned above were applied to the hair bundle, thereafter rinsed off by immersing in tap water (100 mL) at 35-40° C. The hair bundle was repeatedly washed 5 times, water was drained and the hair was air dried as it was, and the following evaluation was performed the next day. Evaluation 7: Hydrophobicity of Hair (Contact Angle Measurement) For evaluation of the hydrophobicity of hair, the contact angle was measured as follows. Water (1.2 μL) was set within 8 cm from the hair tip of the above-mentioned hair bundle, and water drop was photographed 20 sec later by a microscope. With an average of the right and left angles of water drop and hair as values of one time, the measurement was performed 6 times, and the average thereof was determined to be a contact angle value. From the contact angle before treatment with the hair cosmetic and the contact angle after the hair cosmetic treatment, the change rate (%) was calculated according to the following formula. The larger the change rate of the contact angle is, the higher the hydrophobicity of the hair is, which indicates that the hair tip ends which had great damage became close to those of healthy hair by the hair cosmetic. contact angle change rate (%)=100×(1−contact angle after treatment/contact angle before treatment) The contact angle change rate was evaluated by the following criteria. ⊙: contact angle change rate of not less than 20% ◯: contact angle change rate of not less than 15% and less than 20% Δ: contact angle change rate of not less than 10% and less than 15% ×: contact angle change rate of less than 10% Evaluation 8: Slipperiness Test (MIU Rate) The above-mentioned hair bundles were fixed on the main body of a friction tester (manufactured by Kato tech, KES-SE(STP)) in a constant-temperature and humidity chamber (23° C., 40% R.H.), a load of 25 g was applied, and the average frictional coefficient (MIU) was measured using a fingerprint-type silicone resin as a friction block. The friction tester was moved to the hair tip direction of the hair bundle at a rate of 0.1 cm/sec and MIU was obtained. The measurement was performed twice, and the average was taken as MIU of the hair after hair cosmetic treatment. From the MIU before treatment with the hair cosmetic and the MIU after the hair cosmetic treatment, the MIU rate (%) was calculated according to the following formula. The larger the MIU rate is, the more improved the slip property of the hair surface is, which indicates that the dryness are reduced. MIU rate (%)=100×(1−MIU after treatment/MIU before treatment) The MIU rate was evaluated by the following criteria. ⊙: MIU rate of not less than 40% ◯: MIU rate of not less than 35% and less than 40% Δ: MIU rate of not less than 30% and less than 35% ×: MIU rate of less than 30% The results are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Example Comparative Example 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 1 2 3 4 compo- compo- Production Example 1 0.50 3.00 10.00 — 0.50 3.00 — — — nent (A) nent (II) (as 10% solution) Production Example 2 — — — 3.00 — — 3.00 — — — (as 10% solution) compo- Nε-lauroyllysine — — — — — — — — — 0.30 0.05 nent (III) compo- compo- steartrimonium — — — — 2.00 2.00 2.00 — 2.00 — 2.00 nent (B) nent (I) chloride behentrimonium 1.30 1.30 1.30 1.30 — — — 1.30 — 1.30 — chloride compo- Stearamidopropyl 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 — — — 0.20 — 0.20 — nent (II) dimethylamine compo- compo- cetanol 6.00 6.00 6.00 6.00 — — — 6.00 — 6.00 — nent (C) nent (I) cetostearyl alcohol — — — — 4.00 4.00 4.00 — 4.00 — 4.00 compo- water bal- bal- bal- bal- bal- bal- bal- bal- bal- bal- bal- nent (II) ance ance ance ance ance ance ance ance ance ance ance preser- sodium benzoate 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 vative methylparaben 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 pH glutamic acid 1.10 1.10 1.10 1.10 — — — 1.10 — 1.10 — adjuster lactic acid — — — — 0.10 0.10 0.10 — 0.10 — 0.10 citric acid — — — — — — — — — q.s. q.s. sodium hydroxide — — — — q.s. — — — q.s. q.s. q.s. Evaluation 1 absence of sliminess ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ standard standard X X Evaluation 2 fast rinsing off ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ◯ ◯ ◯ ◯ standard standard X X Evaluation 3 smoothness of surface ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ X X Δ Δ Evaluation 4 absence of dryness ⊙ ⊙ ◯ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ X X X X Evaluation 5 uniform touch feeling ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ X X Δ X Evaluation 6 less kinky (gathering ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ ◯ ⊙ ⊙ ⊙ X X ◯ X of hair tips) Evaluation 7 hydrophobicity of — ⊙ — ⊙ — — — X — X — hair (contact angle measurement) Evaluation 8 slipperiness test — ⊙ — — — — — Δ — Δ — (MIU rate) The cosmetics of Examples 1-7 of the present invention added with component (A) showed no sliminess during rinsing and was rinsed off rapidly, as compared to the hair cosmetics of Comparative Examples 1, 2 without addition of component (A). The hair treated with the cosmetics of Examples 1-7 of the present invention had a smooth surface, was free of dry feeling, had a uniform touch feeling up to the hair tip, was less kinky hair fiber in appearance, and was superior in the gathering of hair tips, as compared to the hair treated with the cosmetics of Comparative Examples 1, 2 without addition of component (A) or the cosmetics of Comparative Examples 3, 4 added with Nε-lauroyllysine instead of component (A). In addition, the high MIU rate shown by the cosmetic of Example 2 of the present invention supported the results of function evaluation that the smoothness and slipperiness were improved, and dryness were reduced, as compared to the hair before treatment. Furthermore, the cosmetics of Examples 2 and 4 of the present invention increased the hydrophobicity of the hair tips, which indicates that the hair tips became closer to those of healthy hair. This means that the difference between the root with a small damage and the hair tips with a large damage became small, and supported the function evaluation of “uniform touch feeling”. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The present invention can provide a composition superior in the usability during rinsing, which makes the hair surface after treatment smooth and free of dry feeling, provides a uniform touch feeling from the root of the hair to the tip thereof, and can be utilized as an aqueous cosmetic. Where a numerical limit or range is stated herein, the endpoints are included. Also, all values and subranges within a numerical limit or range are specifically included as if explicitly written out. As used herein the words “a” and “an” and the like carry the meaning of “one or more.” Obviously, numerous modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that, within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein. All patents and other references mentioned above are incorporated in full herein by this reference, the same as if set forth at length. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | A61K842 | 20170623 | 20171005 | 90264.0 | A61K842 | 0 | HELM, CARALYNNE E | COSMETIC COMPOSITION FOR USE ON HAIR AND CONTAINING AN ACYL BASIC AMINO ACID DERIVATIVE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,631,564 | PENDING | LARGE BORE PLUG VALVE | A plug valve including a valve body defining an internal cavity, a first passage, and a second passage, a plug defining a third passage and being rotatable within the internal cavity, and an insert extending within the internal cavity between the valve body and the plug. The insert defines an interior surface and an opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body. The insert may also define a sealing surface extending around the opening and standing in relief against the interior surface to sealingly engage the plug. In addition to, or instead of, the sealing surface, the insert may define a projection at least partially defining the interior surface. In addition, a boot may be connected to the valve body and interlocked with the projection to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the internal cavity. | 1. An apparatus, comprising: a valve body defining an internal cavity, a first passage, and a second passage; a plug defining a third passage and being rotatable within the internal cavity to selectively permit communication of a fluid between the first and second passages via the third passage; and an insert extending within the internal cavity between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining a first opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, a first interior surface, and a first sealing surface extending around the first opening and standing in relief against the first interior surface to sealingly engage the plug; wherein migration of the fluid into an annular region between the insert and the plug is prevented, or at least reduced, by the sealing engagement of the first sealing surface with the plug. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the insert comprises a first segment including the first interior surface, the first opening, and the first sealing surface. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the insert further defines a second opening aligned with the second passage of the valve body, a second interior surface, and a second sealing surface extending around the second opening and standing in relief against the second interior surface to sealingly engage the plug. 4. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein migration of the fluid into the annular region between the insert and the plug is prevented, or at least reduced, by the respective sealing engagements of the first and second sealing surfaces with the plug. 5. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein the insert comprises a first segment including the first interior surface, the first opening, and the first sealing surface, and a second segment including the second interior surface, the second opening, and the second sealing surface. 6. The apparatus of claim 5, wherein the insert further comprises third and fourth segments interconnecting the first and second segments so that, in combination, the first, second, third, and fourth segments surround the plug. 7. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising: a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section comprising one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; wherein the valve body is connected to the flow iron section so that the plug is rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the third passage. 8. An apparatus, comprising: a valve body defining an internal cavity, a first passage, and a second passage; a plug defining a third passage and being rotatable within the internal cavity to selectively permit communication of a fluid between the first and second passages via the third passage; an insert extending within the internal cavity between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining a first opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, a first interior surface, and a first projection at least partially defining the first interior surface; and a boot connected to the valve body and interlocked with the first projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the internal cavity. 9. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein the first projection includes first and second side surfaces, and the boot includes first and second edge portions extending adjacent the first and second side surfaces, respectively, of the first projection. 10. The apparatus of claim 9, wherein the boot further includes a third edge portion extending between the first and second edge portions and adjacent the first interior surface of the insert. 11. The apparatus of claim 8, wherein: the insert further defines a second opening aligned with the second passage of the valve body, a second interior surface, and a second projection at least partially defining the second interior surface; and the boot is interlocked with the second projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the internal cavity. 12. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein: the first projection includes first and second side surfaces, and the boot includes first and second edge portions extending adjacent the first and second side surfaces, respectively, of the first projection; and the second projection includes third and fourth side surfaces, and the boot includes third and fourth edge portions extending adjacent the third and fourth side surfaces, respectively, of the second projection. 13. The apparatus of claim 12, wherein the boot further includes: a fifth edge portion extending between the first and second edge portions and adjacent the first interior surface of the insert; and a sixth edge portion extending between the third and fourth edge portions and adjacent the second interior surface of the insert. 14. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the insert comprises a first segment including the first interior surface, the first projection, and the first opening, and a second segment including the second interior surface, the second projection, and the second opening. 15. The apparatus of claim 14, wherein the insert further comprises third and fourth segments interconnecting the first and second segments so that, in combination, the first, second, third, and fourth segments surround the plug. 16. The apparatus of claim 8, further comprising: a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section comprising one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; and wherein the valve body is connected to the flow iron section so that the plug is rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the third passage. 17. An apparatus, comprising: a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section comprising one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; and a plug valve connected to the flow iron section, the plug valve comprising a valve body and a plug, the plug defining a first passage and being rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the first passage, the first passage having an inner diameter that is equal to, or greater than, about 5⅛ inches. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the valve body further defines second and third passages configured to communicate with one another via the first passage of the plug when communication of the hydraulic fracturing fluid is selectively permitted from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the first passage. 19. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein the plug valve further comprises an insert extending between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining an opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, an interior surface, and a sealing surface extending around the opening and standing in relief against the interior surface to sealingly engage the plug. 20. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein the plug valve further comprises: an insert extending within the valve body between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining an opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, an interior surface, and a projection at least partially defining the interior surface; and a boot connected to the valve body and interlocked with the projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the valve body. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of the filing date of, and priority to, U.S. Application No. 62/354,101, filed Jun. 23, 2016, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. This application also claims the benefit of the filing date of, and priority to, U.S. Application No. 62/393,990, filed Sep. 13, 2016, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. This application also claims the benefit of the filing date of, and priority to, U.S. Application No. 62/412,230, filed Oct. 24, 2016, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. This application also claims the benefit of the filing date of, and priority to, U.S. Application No. 62/421,019, filed Nov. 11, 2016, the entire disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates in general to valves and, in particular, to a “large bore” plug valve used in oil or gas operations. BACKGROUND In oil or gas operations, one or more plug valves may be used to control fluid flow; one such plug valve generally includes a valve body defining a pair of fluid passages intersecting an internal cavity. The internal cavity of the valve body accommodates a plug and an insert, which insert extends within an annular space between the plug and the valve body. The plug and the insert include fluid passages that are adapted to be substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body. The plug is adapted to rotate relative to the insert and the valve body to selectively permit fluid flow through the respective fluid passages of the valve body, the insert, and the plug. During operation, the insert is meant to seal against the plug and the valve body to thereby prevent migration of the fluid flow into the annular region between the plug and the valve body. To establish a suitable seal between the insert and the plug, contact pressure between the insert and the plug must be maintained above a threshold level. During rotation of the plug, friction between the plug and the insert can cause the insert to shift, turn, or rotate relative to the valve body. The shifting, turning, or rotation of the insert relative to the valve body causes misalignment between the fluid passages of the insert, the valve body, and the plug. This misalignment typically causes wear, erosion, or complete wash-out of the insert, the valve body, and/or the plug. In addition, the force required to maintain the contact pressure between the insert and the plug above the threshold level often increases the amount of friction between the insert and the plug, thereby exacerbating the issue(s) described above. Indeed, in some instances, excessive friction between the insert and the plug can make rotation of the plug relative to the insert difficult or impossible. These issues, among others, are particularly acute for “large bore” plug valves in which the fluid passage of the plug has a relatively large diameter (e.g., about 5⅛ inches, greater than about 5⅛ inches, etc.). Therefore, to make possible the manufacture of an effective and reliable “large bore” plug valve, what is needed is an apparatus, system, or method to address one or more of the foregoing issues, and/or one or more other issues. SUMMARY In a first aspect, the present disclosure introduces an apparatus, including a valve body defining an internal cavity, a first passage, and a second passage; a plug defining a third passage and being rotatable within the internal cavity to selectively permit communication of a fluid between the first and second passages via the third passage; and an insert extending within the internal cavity between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining a first opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, a first interior surface, and a first sealing surface extending around the first opening and standing in relief against the first interior surface to sealingly engage the plug; wherein migration of the fluid into an annular region between the insert and the plug is prevented, or at least reduced, by the sealing engagement of the first sealing surface with the plug. In an embodiment, the insert includes a first segment including the first interior surface, the first opening, and the first sealing surface. In another embodiment, the insert further defines a second opening aligned with the second passage of the valve body, a second interior surface, and a second sealing surface extending around the second opening and standing in relief against the second interior surface to sealingly engage the plug. In yet another embodiment, migration of the fluid into the annular region between the insert and the plug is prevented, or at least reduced, by the respective sealing engagements of the first and second sealing surfaces with the plug. In certain embodiments, the insert includes a first segment including the first interior surface, the first opening, and the first sealing surface, and a second segment including the second interior surface, the second opening, and the second sealing surface. In an embodiment, the insert further includes third and fourth segments interconnecting the first and second segments so that, in combination, the first, second, third, and fourth segments surround the plug. In another embodiment, the apparatus further comprises a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section including one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; wherein the valve body is connected to the flow iron section so that the plug is rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the third passage. In a second aspect, the present disclosure introduces an apparatus, including a valve body defining an internal cavity, a first passage, and a second passage; a plug defining a third passage and being rotatable within the internal cavity to selectively permit communication of a fluid between the first and second passages via the third passage; an insert extending within the internal cavity between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining a first opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, a first interior surface, and a first projection at least partially defining the first interior surface; and a boot connected to the valve body and interlocked with the first projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the internal cavity. In an embodiment, the first projection includes first and second side surfaces, and the boot includes first and second edge portions extending adjacent the first and second side surfaces, respectively, of the first projection. In another embodiment, the boot further includes a third edge portion extending between the first and second edge portions and adjacent the first interior surface of the insert. In yet another embodiment, the insert further defines a second opening aligned with the second passage of the valve body, a second interior surface, and a second projection at least partially defining the second interior surface; and the boot is interlocked with the second projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the internal cavity. In certain embodiments, the first projection includes first and second side surfaces, and the boot includes first and second edge portions extending adjacent the first and second side surfaces, respectively, of the first projection; and the second projection includes third and fourth side surfaces, and the boot includes third and fourth edge portions extending adjacent the third and fourth side surfaces, respectively, of the second projection. In an embodiment, the boot further includes a fifth edge portion extending between the first and second edge portions and adjacent the first interior surface of the insert; and a sixth edge portion extending between the third and fourth edge portions and adjacent the second interior surface of the insert. In another embodiment, the insert includes a first segment including the first interior surface, the first projection, and the first opening, and a second segment including the second interior surface, the second projection, and the second opening. In yet another embodiment, the insert further includes third and fourth segments interconnecting the first and second segments so that, in combination, the first, second, third, and fourth segments surround the plug. In certain embodiments, the apparatus further comprises a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section including one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; and wherein the valve body is connected to the flow iron section so that the plug is rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the third passage. In a third aspect, the present disclosure introduces an apparatus, including a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section including one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; and a plug valve connected to the flow iron section, the plug valve including a valve body and a plug, the plug defining a first passage and being rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the first passage, the first passage having an inner diameter that is equal to, or greater than, about 5⅛ inches. In an embodiment, the valve body further defines second and third passages configured to communicate with one another via the first passage of the plug when communication of the hydraulic fracturing fluid is selectively permitted from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the first passage. In another embodiment, the plug valve further includes an insert extending between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining an opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, an interior surface, and a sealing surface extending around the opening and standing in relief against the interior surface to sealingly engage the plug. In yet another embodiment, the plug valve further includes an insert extending within the valve body between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining an opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, an interior surface, and a projection at least partially defining the interior surface; and a boot connected to the valve body and interlocked with the projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the valve body. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a perspective view illustrating a plug valve, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 1B is an exploded perspective view illustrating internal components of the plug valve of FIG. 1A, including, inter alia, a plug, an inlet segment, an outlet segment, and a boot, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of the plug valve of FIG. 1A, including the plug, the inlet segment, the outlet segment, and the boot, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 3 is an enlarged view of the plug valve of FIG. 2, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 4 is another enlarged view of the plug valve of FIG. 2, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIGS. 5-8 are rear perspective, front perspective, top plan, and bottom plan views, respectively, of the inlet segment of FIGS. 1B and 2, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIGS. 9 and 10 are perspective views illustrating the plug, the inlet segment, and the outlet segment in different stages of assembly, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 11 is a perspective view of the boot of FIGS. 1A and 2, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 12 is an enlarged cross-sectional view of the plug valve of FIG. 2 in a first operational configuration, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 13 is a sectional view of the plug valve taken along the line 13-13 of FIG. 12, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 14 is a sectional view of the plug valve taken along the line 14-14 of FIG. 12, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 15 is an enlarged view of the plug valve similar to that shown in FIG. 12, except that the plug valve is in a second operational configuration, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 16 is a sectional view of the plug valve taken along the line 16-16 of FIG. 15, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 17 is a schematic illustration of a hydraulic fracturing system, the hydraulic fracturing system including a hydraulic fracturing pump, a flow iron section, and a wellhead, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 18 is an elevational view of the plug valve of FIGS. 1-16 connected between a pair of flow-line components, which flow-line components are part of the flow iron section of FIG. 17, according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Turning initially to FIGS. 1A and 1B, an example embodiment of a plug valve, generally referred to by the reference numeral 10, is illustrated. As shown in FIG. 1A, the plug valve 10 includes a valve body 12, an actuator 14, an actuator plate 16, and a cover plate 18. The actuator 14 is connected to the actuator plate 16 via a plurality of fasteners 20, and the actuator plate 16 is connected to the valve body 12. The cover plate 18 is connected to the valve body 12 via a plurality of fasteners 22, opposite the actuator plate 16. In some embodiments, the cover plate 18 is considered part of the valve body 12. The plug valve 10 includes one or more lubrication fittings 24 connected to the valve body 12 to facilitate lubrication of internal component(s) of the plug valve 10. The actuator 14 is adapted to actuate the plug valve 10 between an open configuration in which fluid flow is permitted through the plug valve 10 and a closed configuration in which fluid flow through the plug valve 10 is prevented, or at least reduced. The valve body 12, the actuator 14, the actuator plate 16, and the cover plate 18 are omitted from view in FIG. 1B to more clearly illustrate the internal components of the plug valve 10. Turning to FIG. 1B, the plug valve 10 further includes a plug 26 and an insert 28, which plug 26 defines an exterior surface 30 and a fluid passage 32 extending transversely therethrough. The insert 28 is adapted to extend about and sealingly engage the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26. The insert 28 includes an inlet segment 34, an outlet segment 36, and side segments 38a and 38b. The inlet segment 34 includes an inlet opening 40 and is adapted to accommodate an inlet seal 42 around the inlet opening 40. The inlet seal 42 is adapted to engage the valve body 12. The outlet segment 36 includes an outlet opening 44 and is adapted to accommodate an outlet seal 46 around the outlet opening 44. The outlet seal 46 is adapted to engage the valve body 12. The side segments 38a and 38b are adapted to connect the inlet segment 34 to the outlet segment 36 to thereby place a compressive load on the plug 26. The plug valve 10 includes alignment dowels 48a and 48b to facilitate the alignment of the inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 within the valve body 12. The plug valve 10 also includes a drive gear 50 and an adapter 52 via which the actuator 14 is adapted to be operably coupled to the plug 26. The adapter 52 is adapted to be supported within the valve body 12 via a bearing 54 and a spacer 56. The spacer 56 is adapted to accommodate an outer seal 58 and an outer backup ring 60 so that the outer seal 58 engages the spacer 56 and the valve body 12. The spacer 56 is further adapted to accommodate an inner seal 62 and an inner backup ring 64 so that the inner seal 62 engages the spacer 56 and the adapter 52. The valve body 12 is adapted to accommodate a wiper seal 66 so that the wiper seal 66 engages the adapter 52 and the valve body 12 to prevent drainage of fluid (e.g., lubricating fluid) from the actuator 14 into the valve body 12. The cover plate 18 is adapted to accommodate a seal 68 and a backup ring 70 so that the seal 68 engages the cover plate 18 and the valve body 12. The plug valve 10 includes a boot 72 adapted to be connected to the cover plate 18 via a plurality of fasteners 74. Thus, the boot 72 is adapted to be connected to the valve body 12 in those embodiments in which the cover plate 18 is considered part of the valve body 12. The boot 72 is adapted to interlock with the insert 28 to thereby prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert 28 relative to the valve body 12 when the plug 26 rotated. Turning to FIG. 2, with continuing reference to FIGS. 1A and 1B, it can be seen that the valve body 12 defines an internal cavity 76, an inlet passage 78, an outlet passage 80, an actuator bore 82, and an access port 84. The inlet passage 78 permits fluid communication between the valve body 12 and an adjacent flow-line component such as, for example, the flow-line component 134 shown in FIGS. 18A and 18B, which will be discussed in further detail below. The valve body 12 includes a flange 86 around the inlet passage 78 to facilitate connection of the valve body 12 to the adjacent flow-line component. The flange 86 includes a through-hole pattern (visible in FIG. 1A; or a threaded-hole pattern). The outlet passage 80 permits fluid communication between the valve body 12 and another adjacent flow-line component such as, for example, the flow-line component 136 shown in FIGS. 18A and 18B, which will be discussed in further detail below. The valve body 12 includes a flange 88 around the outlet passage 80 to facilitate connection of the plug valve 10 to the another adjacent flow-line component. The flange 88 includes a through-hole pattern (visible in FIG. 1A; or a threaded-hole pattern). In some embodiments, one or both of the flanges 86 and 88 are omitted and replaced with another type of fluid-line connector such as, for example, the male half of a hammer union, the female half of a hammer union, a hammerless union, another fluid-line connector, or any combination thereof. The plug 26 extends within the internal cavity 76 of the valve body 12 and is coupled to the actuator 14 via the drive gear 50 and the adapter 52. The adapter 52 is supported within the actuator bore 82 via the bearing 54 and the spacer 56. The wiper seal 66 seals against the adapter 52 and the valve body 12 to thereby prevent drainage of fluid (e.g., lubricating fluid) from the actuator 14 into the valve body 12. The insert 28 extends about and seals against the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26. The inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 are aligned with the inlet and outlet passages 78 and 80, respectively, of the valve body 12. The actuator 14 is operable to rotate the drive gear 50, the adapter 52, and the plug 26 relative to the valve body 12 to thereby actuate the plug 26 between the open configuration and the closed configuration. As shown in FIG. 2, the fluid passage 32 of the plug 26 is adapted to be aligned with the inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 of the insert 28 and the inlet and outlet passages 78 and 80 of the valve body 12 when the plug valve 10 is in the open configuration. In some embodiments, the fluid passage 32 has an inner diameter of about 5⅛ inches, of about 7 1/16 inches, or ranging from about 5⅛ inches to about 7 1/16 inches. Turning to FIG. 3, with continuing reference to FIG. 2, it can be seen that the inlet segment 34 accommodates the inlet seal 42 around the inlet opening 40 in a manner that seals the inlet seal 42 against the valve body 12 around the inlet passage 78. Likewise, the outlet segment 36 accommodates the outlet seal 46 around the outlet opening 44 in a manner that seals the outlet seal 46 against the valve body 12 around the outlet passage 80 (visible in FIG. 2). The cover plate 18 extends into the access port 84 and accommodates the seal 68 and the backup ring 70 so that the seal 68 seals against the valve body 12. The boot 72 is connected to the cover plate 18 via the plurality of fasteners 74 in a manner that permits interlocking of the insert 28 with the boot 72. Thus, the boot 72 is connected to the valve body 12 in those embodiments in which the cover plate 18 is considered part of the valve body 12. Alternatively, although described herein as being connected to the cover plate 18, the boot 72 may instead be connected directly to the valve body 12. Turning to FIG. 4, with continuing reference to FIG. 2, the spacer 56 accommodates the outer seal 58 and the outer backup ring 60 so that the outer seal 58 seals against the valve body 12. The spacer 56 also accommodates the inner seal 62 and the inner backup ring 64 so that the inner seal 62 seals against the adapter 52. The outlet segment 36 is substantially identical to the inlet segment 34 and, therefore, in connection with FIGS. 5-8, only the inlet segment 34 will be described in detail below; however, the description below also applies to the outlet segment 36. Turning to FIGS. 5-8, the inlet segment 34 includes a concave interior surface 90 and a convex exterior surface 92. The inlet opening 40 extends through the concave interior surface 90 and the convex exterior surface 92. The inlet segment 34 includes a concave sealing surface 94 formed around the inlet opening 40. The concave sealing surface 94 stands in relief against the concave interior surface 90 to seal against the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26. The inlet segment 34 includes a sealing groove 96 formed in the convex exterior surface 92 and around the inlet opening 40. The sealing groove 96 accommodates the inlet seal 42. The convex exterior surface 92 also includes longitudinally-extending grooves 98a and 98b formed therein to facilitate connection of the inlet segment 34 to the side segments 38a and 38b, respectively. The inlet segment 34 includes an alignment notch 100 to accommodate the dowel 92a when the plug valve 10 is assembled. The inlet segment 34 also includes a projection 102 opposite the alignment notch 100. The projection 102 includes side surfaces 104a and 104b. In some embodiments, the side surfaces 104a and 104b are spaced in a parallel relation. The projection 102 is adapted to interlock with the boot 72 to thereby prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert 28 relative to the valve body 12 when the plug 26 is actuated between the open configuration and the closed configuration, as will be discussed in further detail below. Turning to FIGS. 9 and 10, with continuing reference to FIGS. 5-8, an example embodiment of the manner in which the compressive load is placed on the plug 26 by the insert 28 is illustrated. To begin with, the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 are engaged with the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26. Subsequently, the side segment 38a is adapted to be connected to the longitudinally-extending groove 98a of the inlet segment 34 and a longitudinally-extending groove of the outlet segment 36 (which is analogous to the longitudinally-extending groove 98b of the inlet segment 34). Moreover, the side segment 38b is adapted to be connected to the longitudinally-extending groove 98b of the inlet segment 34 and a longitudinally-extending groove of the outlet segment 36 (which is analogous to the longitudinally-extending groove 98a of the inlet segment 34). The connection of the side segments 38a and 38b with the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 is adapted to place the side segments 38a and 38b in tension between the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 so that the compressive load is placed on the plug 26 by the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36. The tensioning of the side segments 38a and 38b between the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 is adapted to seal the concave sealing surface 94 of the inlet segment 34 against the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26, and to seal a concave sealing surface of the outlet segment 36 (which is analogous to the concave sealing surface 94 of the inlet segment 34) against the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26, opposite the inlet segment 34. During operation, the sealing of the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 against the plug 26 is aided by a lubricating fluid (not shown) provided at the interface between the plug 26 and the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 via, for example, the lubrication fitting(s) 24 (FIG. 1A). The side segments 38a and 38b are spaced apart from the plug 26 when the side segments 38a and 38b are tensioned between the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 (i.e., such that the side segments 38a and 38b do not contact the plug 26). Although the side segments 38a and 38b have been described herein as being connected to the inlet segment 34's longitudinally-extending grooves 98a and 98b and the outlet segment 36's longitudinally-extending grooves (which are analogous to the inlet segment 34's longitudinally-extending grooves 98a and 98b), the side segments 38a and 38b may be connected to the side segments 38a and 38b in another suitable manner. Moreover, although the compressive load applied to the plug 26 by the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 has been described herein as being provided by tensioning of the side segments 38a and 38b between the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36, the side segments 38a and 38b may alternatively be omitted and the compressive load applied to the plug 26 by the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 may be provided by another suitable structure or mechanism. Turning to FIG. 11, with continuing reference to FIGS. 5-10, an example embodiment of the boot 72 is illustrated. The boot 72 includes edge portions 106a and 106b and edge portions 108a-d. In some embodiments, the edge portions 106a and 106b are convex. In some embodiments, the edge portions 108a-d are straight. In some embodiments, the edge portions 106a and 106b are convex and the edge portions 108a-d are straight. The boot 72 includes a through-hole pattern 110 (e.g., including countersunk through-holes) to facilitate connection of the boot 72 to the cover plate 18. The edge portions 108a and 108b of the boot 72 are adapted to extend adjacent the side surfaces 104a and 104b, respectively, of the inlet segment 34. In some embodiments, the edge portions 108a and 108b are spaced in a parallel relation. Moreover, the edge portion 106a is adapted to extend adjacent the concave interior surface 90 of the inlet segment 34 when the edge portions 108a and 108b of the boot 72 extend adjacent the side surfaces 104a and 104b, respectively, of the inlet segment 34. In this manner, the boot 72 is adapted to interlock with the projection 102 of the inlet segment 34. The edge portions 108c and 108d of the boot 72 are adapted to extend adjacent surfaces, respectively, of the outlet segment 36. In some embodiments, the edge portions 108c and 108d are spaced in a parallel relation. The surfaces of the outlet segment 36 with which the edge portions 108c and 108d of the boot 72 are adapted to extend adjacent are analogous to the side surfaces 104a and 104b of the inlet segment 34. Moreover, the edge portion 106b of the boot 72 is adapted to extend adjacent a concave interior surface of the outlet segment 36 when the edge portions 108c and 108d extend adjacent the surfaces of the outlet segment 36. The concave interior surface of the outlet segment 36 with which the edge portion 106b of the boot 72 is adapted to extend adjacent is analogous to the concave interior surface 90 of the inlet segment 34. In this manner, the boot 72 is adapted to interlock with a projection of the outlet segment 36 that is analogous to the projection 102 of the inlet segment 34. Turning to FIGS. 12-16, in operation, the plug valve 10 is actuable between the open configuration (shown in FIGS. 12-14) and the closed configuration (shown in FIGS. 15 and 16). Turning to FIGS. 12 and 13, in the open configuration, the fluid passage 32 of the plug 26 is aligned with the inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 of the insert 28 and the inlet and outlet passages 78 and 80 of the valve body 12 so that fluid flow is permitted through the plug valve 10, as indicated by arrow(s) 112. The inlet seal 42 engages the valve body 12 around the inlet passage 78 to thereby prevent migration of the fluid 112 into an annular region between the insert 28 and the valve body 12 as the fluid 112 enters the fluid passage 32 via the inlet passage 78 and the inlet opening 40. To prevent migration of the fluid 112 into an annular region between the insert 28 and the plug 26, the concave sealing surface 94 of the inlet segment 34 seals against the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26 around the fluid passage 32. In addition, the outlet seal 46 engages the valve body 12 around the outlet passage 80 to thereby prevent migration of the fluid 112 into the annular region between the insert 28 and the valve body 12 as the fluid 112 exits the fluid passage 32 via the outlet opening 44 and the outlet passage 80. To prevent migration of the fluid 112 into the annular region between the insert 28 and the plug 26, the concave sealing surface of the outlet segment 36 (which is analogous to the concave sealing surface 94 of the inlet segment 34) seals against the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26 around the fluid passage 32. The sealing of the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 against the plug 26 is aided by the lubricating fluid (not shown) provided at the interface between the plug 26 and the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 via, for example, the lubrication fitting(s) 24 (FIG. 1A). Turning to FIG. 14, it can be seen that the projection 102 of the inlet segment 34 and the projection of the outlet segment 36 (which is analogous to the projection 102 of the inlet segment 34) each interlock with the boot 72 to thereby prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert 28 relative to the valve body 12. More particularly, the edge portions 108a and 108b of the boot 72 extend adjacent the side surfaces 104a and 104b, respectively, of the inlet segment 34, and the edge portion 106a of the boot 72 extends adjacent the concave interior surface 90 of the inlet segment 34. In this manner, the boot 72 interlocks with the projection 102 of the inlet segment 34. In addition, the edge portions 108c and 108d of the boot 72 extend adjacent the surfaces, respectively, of the outlet segment 36 (which are analogous to the side surfaces 104a and 104b of the inlet segment 34), and the edge portion 106b of the boot 72 extends adjacent the concave interior surface of the outlet segment 36 (which is analogous to the concave interior surface 90 of the inlet segment 34). In this manner, the boot 72 interlocks with the projection of the outlet segment 36 (which is analogous to the projection 102 of the inlet segment 34) to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert 28 relative to the valve body 12. As a result, the substantial alignment between the inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 of the insert 28 and the inlet and outlet passages 78 and 80, respectively, of the valve body 12 is maintained during the actuation of the plug valve 10 between the open and closed configurations. Turning to FIGS. 15 and 16, in the closed configuration, the plug 26 is rotated to prevent, or at least reduce, communication of the fluid 112 from the inlet passage 78 to the outlet passage 80 of the valve body 12. To actuate the plug 26 from the open configuration to the closed configuration, the actuator 14 rotates the plug 26 (via the drive gear 50 and the adapter 52) so that the fluid passage 32 of the plug 26 is no longer aligned with the inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 of the insert 28 or the inlet and outlet passages 78 and 80 of the valve body 12. Instead, the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26 is substantially aligned with the inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 of the insert 28 and the inlet and outlet passages 78 and 80 of the valve body 12 to thereby block communication of the fluid 112 from the inlet passage 78 to the outlet passage 80 of the valve body 12. The fluid 112 within the inlet passage 78 and the inlet opening 40 is prevented from migrating into the annular region between the insert 28 and the valve body 12 by the sealing engagement of the inlet seal 42 against the valve body 12 around the inlet passage 78. More particularly, to prevent migration of the fluid 112 into the annular region between the insert 28 and the plug 26, the concave sealing surface 94 of the inlet segment 34 seals against the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26. The lubricating fluid (not shown) provided at the interface between the plug 26 and the inlet segment 34 (via, for example, the lubrication fitting(s) 24 (FIG. 1A)) aids with the sealing engagement of the inlet segment 34 against the plug 26. The tensioning of the side segments 38a and 38b between the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 prevents the fluid 112 in the inlet passage 78 from unsealing the concave sealing surface 94 of the inlet segment 34 from the exterior surface 30 of the plug 26. The manner in which the concave sealing surface 94 stands in relief against the concave interior surface 90 of the inlet segment 34 reduces the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26. Similarly, the manner in which the outlet segment 36's concave sealing surface (which is analogous to the concave sealing surface 94 of the inlet segment 34) stands in relief against the concave interior surface (which is analogous to the concave interior surface 90 of the inlet segment 34) reduces the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26. In addition, the spacing apart of the side segments 38a and 38b from the plug 26 when the side segments 38a and 38b are tensioned between the inlet and outlet segments 34 and 36 reduces the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26. In some embodiments, reducing the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 increases the contact pressure between the insert 28 and the plug 26. In some embodiments, reducing the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 decreases the amount of force required to maintain the contact pressure between the insert 28 and the plug 26 above the minimum threshold required to establish a suitable seal with the plug 26. In some embodiments, reducing the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 enables the side segments 38a and 38b (or another suitable structure or mechanism) to maintain the contact pressure between the insert 28 and the plug 26 above the minimum threshold required to establish a suitable seal with the plug 26. In some embodiments, reducing the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 decreases the amount of friction between the plug 26 and the insert 28. In some embodiments, reducing the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 mitigates any shifting, turning, or rotation of the insert 28 relative to the valve body 12. In some embodiments, reducing the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 prevents, or at least reduces, misalignment between the inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 of the insert 28 and the inlet and outlet passages 78 and 80 of the valve body 12. In some embodiments, reducing the contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 prevents, or at least reduces, wear, erosion, or complete wash-out of the plug 26, the insert 28, and/or the valve body 12. In some embodiments, the reduced contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 makes possible the manufacture of an effective and reliable “large bore” plug valve 10 in which the fluid passage 32 of the plug 26 has an inner diameter of: about 5⅛ inches, greater than about 5⅛ inches, ranging from about 5⅛ inches to about 7 1/16 inches, about 7 1/16 inches, or greater than about 7 1/16 inches. In some embodiments, the reduced contact area between the insert 28 and the plug 26 permits relaxed tolerances during the manufacture of the insert 28 while maintaining the insert 28's capability to matingly engage the plug 26 so that an effective seal is maintained therebetween. In some embodiments, the engagement of the boot 72 with the inlet segment 34's projection 102 and/or the outlet segment 36's projection (which is analogous to the projection 102) mitigates any shifting, turning, or rotation of the insert 28 relative to the valve body 12. In some embodiments, the engagement of the boot 72 with the inlet segment 34's projection 102 and/or the outlet segment 36's projection (which is analogous to the projection 102) prevents, or at least reduces, misalignment between the inlet and outlet openings 40 and 44 of the insert 28 and the inlet and outlet passages 78 and 80 of the valve body 12. In some embodiments, the engagement of the boot 72 with the inlet segment 34's projection 102 and/or the outlet segment 36's projection (which is analogous to the projection 102) prevents, or at least reduces, wear, erosion, or complete wash-out of the plug 26, the insert 28, and/or the valve body 12. In some embodiments, the engagement of the boot 72 with the inlet segment 34's projection 102 and/or the outlet segment 36's projection (which is analogous to the projection 102) makes possible the manufacture of an effective and reliable “large bore” plug valve 10 in which the fluid passage 32 of the plug 26 has an inner diameter of: about 5⅛ inches, greater than about 5⅛ inches, ranging from about 5⅛ inches to about 7 1/16 inches, about 7 1/16 inches, or greater than about 7 1/16 inches. Turning to FIG. 17, with continuing reference to FIGS. 1-16, a hydraulic fracturing system, generally referred to by the reference numeral 114, is illustrated. The hydraulic fracturing system 114 includes a flow iron section 116 positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump 118 and a wellhead 120. The flow iron section 116 includes one or more of: a pressurization manifold 122 connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump 118, a hydraulic fracturing tree 124 connected to the wellhead 120, and a distribution manifold 126 connected between the pressurization manifold 122 and the hydraulic fracturing tree 124. The pressurization manifold 122 includes a low pressure section 128 connected between a fluid source 130 and the hydraulic fracturing pump 118, and a high pressure section 132 connected between the hydraulic fracturing pump 118 and the distribution manifold 126. In addition to, or instead of, the hydraulic fracturing pump 118, the hydraulic fracturing system 114 may include other hydraulic fracturing pump(s) (not shown) to facilitate pressurization of the hydraulic fracturing fluid from the low pressure section 128 and communication of the pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid to the high pressure section 132. The wellhead 120 is located at the top or head of an oil and gas wellbore (not shown), which penetrates one or more subterranean formations (not shown). In addition to, or instead of the, wellhead to which the fracturing tree is connected, the hydraulic fracturing system 114 may also include one or more wellheads (not shown) to which fracturing trees (not shown) are connected; the distribution manifold 126 facilitates communication of the pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid to such wellhead(s) via the corresponding fracturing tree(s). In operation, the hydraulic fracturing fluid is communicated from the hydraulic fracturing pump 118 to the wellhead 120 via at least the flow iron section 116 to thereby facilitate hydraulic fracturing of the subterranean formation(s). More particularly, the hydraulic fracturing fluid is communicated from the fluid source 130 to the low pressure section 128 of the pressurization manifold 122. The hydraulic fracturing pump 118 receives the hydraulic fracturing fluid from the low pressure section 128, pressurizes the hydraulic fracturing fluid, and communicates the pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid to the high pressure section 132. The high pressure section 132 communicates the pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump 118 to the distribution manifold 126. The distribution manifold 126 communicates the pressurized hydraulic fracturing fluid from the high pressure section 132 of the pressurization manifold 122 to the hydraulic fracturing tree 124 connected to the wellhead 120. Turning to FIG. 18, with continuing reference to FIG. 17, it can be seen that the flange 86 of the valve body 12 is connected to the flow-line component 134, and the flange 88 of the valve body 12 is connected to the flow-line component 136. The flow-line component 134 is connected to, or part of, the flow iron section 116, including one or more of the pressurization manifold 122 connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump 118, the hydraulic fracturing tree 124 connected to the wellhead 120, and the distribution manifold 126 connected between the pressurization manifold 122 and the hydraulic fracturing tree 124. Likewise, the flow-line component 134 is connected to, or part of, the flow iron section 116, including one or more of the pressurization manifold 122, the hydraulic fracturing tree 124, and the distribution manifold 126. The connection of the valve body 12 between the flow-line components 134 and 136 incorporates the plug valve 10 into the hydraulic fracturing system 114 so that, during the operation of the hydraulic fracturing system 114 to facilitate hydraulic fracturing of the subterranean formation(s), the plug 26 is rotatable within the valve body 12 to selectively permit communication of the hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump 118 to the wellhead 120 via at least the flow iron section 116 and the fluid passage 32 of the plug 26. The flow-line components 134 and 136 to which the plug valve 10 is connected are illustrated in FIG. 18 as a pair of spools; however, the flow-line components 134 and 136 may each be, include, or be part of, a variety of flow-line components including, but not limited to, a valve, a spool, a flow block, a swivel block, another flow-line component, or any combination thereof. In addition, depending upon the particular characteristics of the flow iron section 116 to which the plug valve 10 is connected, the flow-line components 134 and 136 and the plug valve 10 may be oriented differently than the orientation illustrated in FIG. 18 (i.e., horizontally, vertically, diagonally, etc.). It is understood that variations may be made in the foregoing without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the elements and teachings of the various embodiments may be combined in whole or in part in some or all of the embodiments. In addition, one or more of the elements and teachings of the various embodiments may be omitted, at least in part, and/or combined, at least in part, with one or more of the other elements and teachings of the various embodiments. In some embodiments, while different steps, processes, and procedures are described as appearing as distinct acts, one or more of the steps, one or more of the processes, and/or one or more of the procedures may also be performed in different orders, simultaneously and/or sequentially. In some embodiments, the steps, processes and/or procedures may be merged into one or more steps, processes and/or procedures. In some embodiments, one or more of the operational steps in each embodiment may be omitted. Moreover, in some instances, some features of the present disclosure may be employed without a corresponding use of the other features. Moreover, one or more of the above-described embodiments and/or variations may be combined in whole or in part with any one or more of the other above-described embodiments and/or variations. In the foregoing description of certain embodiments, specific terminology has been resorted to for the sake of clarity. However, the disclosure is not intended to be limited to the specific terms so selected, and it is to be understood that each specific term includes other technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar technical purpose. Terms such as “left” and right”, “front” and “rear”, “above” and “below” and the like are used as words of convenience to provide reference points and are not to be construed as limiting terms. In this specification, the word “comprising” is to be understood in its “open” sense, that is, in the sense of “including”, and thus not limited to its “closed” sense, that is the sense of “consisting only of”. A corresponding meaning is to be attributed to the corresponding words “comprise”, “comprised” and “comprises” where they appear. Although some embodiments have been described in detail above, the embodiments described are illustrative only and are not limiting, and those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that many other modifications, changes and/or substitutions are possible in the embodiments without materially departing from the novel teachings and advantages of the present disclosure. Accordingly, all such modifications, changes, and/or substitutions are intended to be included within the scope of this disclosure as defined in the following claims. In the claims, any means-plus-function clauses are intended to cover the structures described herein as performing the recited function and not only structural equivalents, but also equivalent structures. Moreover, it is the express intention of the applicant not to invoke 35 U.S.C. §112, paragraph 6 for any limitations of any of the claims herein, except for those in which the claim expressly uses the word “means” together with an associated function. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In oil or gas operations, one or more plug valves may be used to control fluid flow; one such plug valve generally includes a valve body defining a pair of fluid passages intersecting an internal cavity. The internal cavity of the valve body accommodates a plug and an insert, which insert extends within an annular space between the plug and the valve body. The plug and the insert include fluid passages that are adapted to be substantially aligned with the fluid passages of the valve body. The plug is adapted to rotate relative to the insert and the valve body to selectively permit fluid flow through the respective fluid passages of the valve body, the insert, and the plug. During operation, the insert is meant to seal against the plug and the valve body to thereby prevent migration of the fluid flow into the annular region between the plug and the valve body. To establish a suitable seal between the insert and the plug, contact pressure between the insert and the plug must be maintained above a threshold level. During rotation of the plug, friction between the plug and the insert can cause the insert to shift, turn, or rotate relative to the valve body. The shifting, turning, or rotation of the insert relative to the valve body causes misalignment between the fluid passages of the insert, the valve body, and the plug. This misalignment typically causes wear, erosion, or complete wash-out of the insert, the valve body, and/or the plug. In addition, the force required to maintain the contact pressure between the insert and the plug above the threshold level often increases the amount of friction between the insert and the plug, thereby exacerbating the issue(s) described above. Indeed, in some instances, excessive friction between the insert and the plug can make rotation of the plug relative to the insert difficult or impossible. These issues, among others, are particularly acute for “large bore” plug valves in which the fluid passage of the plug has a relatively large diameter (e.g., about 5⅛ inches, greater than about 5⅛ inches, etc.). Therefore, to make possible the manufacture of an effective and reliable “large bore” plug valve, what is needed is an apparatus, system, or method to address one or more of the foregoing issues, and/or one or more other issues. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In a first aspect, the present disclosure introduces an apparatus, including a valve body defining an internal cavity, a first passage, and a second passage; a plug defining a third passage and being rotatable within the internal cavity to selectively permit communication of a fluid between the first and second passages via the third passage; and an insert extending within the internal cavity between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining a first opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, a first interior surface, and a first sealing surface extending around the first opening and standing in relief against the first interior surface to sealingly engage the plug; wherein migration of the fluid into an annular region between the insert and the plug is prevented, or at least reduced, by the sealing engagement of the first sealing surface with the plug. In an embodiment, the insert includes a first segment including the first interior surface, the first opening, and the first sealing surface. In another embodiment, the insert further defines a second opening aligned with the second passage of the valve body, a second interior surface, and a second sealing surface extending around the second opening and standing in relief against the second interior surface to sealingly engage the plug. In yet another embodiment, migration of the fluid into the annular region between the insert and the plug is prevented, or at least reduced, by the respective sealing engagements of the first and second sealing surfaces with the plug. In certain embodiments, the insert includes a first segment including the first interior surface, the first opening, and the first sealing surface, and a second segment including the second interior surface, the second opening, and the second sealing surface. In an embodiment, the insert further includes third and fourth segments interconnecting the first and second segments so that, in combination, the first, second, third, and fourth segments surround the plug. In another embodiment, the apparatus further comprises a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section including one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; wherein the valve body is connected to the flow iron section so that the plug is rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the third passage. In a second aspect, the present disclosure introduces an apparatus, including a valve body defining an internal cavity, a first passage, and a second passage; a plug defining a third passage and being rotatable within the internal cavity to selectively permit communication of a fluid between the first and second passages via the third passage; an insert extending within the internal cavity between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining a first opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, a first interior surface, and a first projection at least partially defining the first interior surface; and a boot connected to the valve body and interlocked with the first projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the internal cavity. In an embodiment, the first projection includes first and second side surfaces, and the boot includes first and second edge portions extending adjacent the first and second side surfaces, respectively, of the first projection. In another embodiment, the boot further includes a third edge portion extending between the first and second edge portions and adjacent the first interior surface of the insert. In yet another embodiment, the insert further defines a second opening aligned with the second passage of the valve body, a second interior surface, and a second projection at least partially defining the second interior surface; and the boot is interlocked with the second projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the internal cavity. In certain embodiments, the first projection includes first and second side surfaces, and the boot includes first and second edge portions extending adjacent the first and second side surfaces, respectively, of the first projection; and the second projection includes third and fourth side surfaces, and the boot includes third and fourth edge portions extending adjacent the third and fourth side surfaces, respectively, of the second projection. In an embodiment, the boot further includes a fifth edge portion extending between the first and second edge portions and adjacent the first interior surface of the insert; and a sixth edge portion extending between the third and fourth edge portions and adjacent the second interior surface of the insert. In another embodiment, the insert includes a first segment including the first interior surface, the first projection, and the first opening, and a second segment including the second interior surface, the second projection, and the second opening. In yet another embodiment, the insert further includes third and fourth segments interconnecting the first and second segments so that, in combination, the first, second, third, and fourth segments surround the plug. In certain embodiments, the apparatus further comprises a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section including one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; and wherein the valve body is connected to the flow iron section so that the plug is rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the third passage. In a third aspect, the present disclosure introduces an apparatus, including a flow iron section adapted to be positioned between a hydraulic fracturing pump and a wellhead, the flow iron section including one or more of a pressurization manifold connected to the hydraulic fracturing pump, a hydraulic fracturing tree connected to the wellhead, and a distribution manifold connected between the pressurization manifold and the hydraulic fracturing tree; and a plug valve connected to the flow iron section, the plug valve including a valve body and a plug, the plug defining a first passage and being rotatable within the valve body to selectively permit communication of a hydraulic fracturing fluid from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the first passage, the first passage having an inner diameter that is equal to, or greater than, about 5⅛ inches. In an embodiment, the valve body further defines second and third passages configured to communicate with one another via the first passage of the plug when communication of the hydraulic fracturing fluid is selectively permitted from the hydraulic fracturing pump to the wellhead via at least the flow iron section and the first passage. In another embodiment, the plug valve further includes an insert extending between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining an opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, an interior surface, and a sealing surface extending around the opening and standing in relief against the interior surface to sealingly engage the plug. In yet another embodiment, the plug valve further includes an insert extending within the valve body between the valve body and the plug, the insert defining an opening aligned with the first passage of the valve body, an interior surface, and a projection at least partially defining the interior surface; and a boot connected to the valve body and interlocked with the projection of the insert to prevent, or at least reduce, rotation of the insert relative to the valve body when the plug rotates within the valve body. | F16K504 | 20170623 | 20171228 | 96625.0 | F16K504 | 0 | FOX, JOHN C | LARGE BORE PLUG VALVE | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | REJECTED | F16K | 2,017 |
|
15,631,737 | ACCEPTED | BULK MATERIAL SHIPPING CONTAINER | A bulk material shipping container including a pallet, a compartment mounted on the pallet, a material unloading assembly, and a material loading assembly. | 1. A material shipping container comprising: a pallet including: (i) a first bottom corner leg, (ii) a second bottom corner leg, (iii) a third bottom corner leg, (iv) a fourth bottom corner leg, wherein the first bottom corner leg, the second bottom corner leg, the third bottom corner leg, and the fourth bottom corner leg have a first footprint, (v) a front connection member connected to the first bottom corner leg and the second bottom corner leg, (vi) a back connection member connected to the third bottom corner leg and the fourth bottom corner leg, (vii) a first side connection member connected to the second bottom corner leg and the third bottom corner leg, and (viii) a second side connection member connected to the first bottom corner leg and the fourth bottom corner leg, wherein the front connection member, the back connection member, the first side connection member, and the second side connection member have a second footprint, and wherein the first footprint is greater than the second footprint; a compartment mounted on the pallet, the compartment having a first top corner, a second top corner, a third top corner, and a fourth top corner, the compartment including: (a) a top wall, (b) a front exterior wall, (c) a back exterior wall, (d) a first exterior side wall, (e) a second exterior side wall, (f) at least one front exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the front exterior wall, (g) at least one back exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the back exterior wall, (h) at least one first side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the first exterior side wall, (i) at least one second side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the second exterior side wall, (j) an interior bottom wall including: (i) a front downwardly angled section, (ii) a back downwardly angled section, (iii) a first side downwardly angled section, and (iv) a second side downwardly angled section, (k) a front wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the front downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the front downwardly angled section, (l) a back wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the back downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the back downwardly angled section, (m) a first side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the first side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the first side downwardly angled section, (n) a second side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the second side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the second side downwardly angled section, (o) a material release opening defined at the bottom of the compartment, (p) a first nesting support positioned at the first top corner of the compartment, the first nesting support defining an opening extending through the first nesting support, (q) a second nesting support positioned at the second top corner of the compartment, the second nesting support defining an opening extending through the second nesting support, (r) a third nesting support positioned at the third top corner of the compartment, the third nesting support defining an opening extending through the third nesting support, and (s) a fourth nesting support positioned at the fourth top corner of the compartment, the fourth nesting support defining an opening extending through the fourth nesting support, the first, second, third, and fourth nesting supports configured to at least partially support a pallet of another same material shipping container; a material unloading assembly positioned at the bottom of the compartment, the material unloading assembly including: (i) spaced apart guide rails, and (ii) a slidable gate including a closure member and an engagable member extending in an area lower than the closure member and attached to and supported by the closure member, the closure member at least partially supported by the spaced apart guide rails, the engagable member movable in a first direction to cause the closure member to open the material release opening and movable in a second different direction to cause the closure member to close the material release opening; and a material loading assembly attached to the top wall of the compartment, the material loading assembly including a cover hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment and rotatable from a closed position to an open position, the cover remaining hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment in the open position. 2. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein: (i) the front downwardly angled section is attached to the front exterior wall, (ii) the back downwardly angled section is attached to the back exterior wall, (iii) the first side downwardly angled section is attached to the first exterior side wall, and (iv) the second side downwardly angled section is attached to the second exterior side wall. 3. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein: (i) the front downwardly angled section has a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (ii) the back downwardly angled section has a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (iii) the first side downwardly angled section has a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, and (iv) the second side downwardly angled section has a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment. 4. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein the compartment includes at least one interior rigid structural support. 5. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein: (a) the front exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped first corner section, (b) the front exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped second corner section, (c) the back exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped third corner section, and (d) the back exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped fourth corner section. 6. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein the compartment is entirely supported by the pallet. 7. A material shipping container comprising: a pallet including: (i) a first bottom corner leg, (ii) a second bottom corner leg, (iii) a third bottom corner leg, (iv) a fourth bottom corner leg, wherein the first bottom corner leg, the second bottom corner leg, the third bottom corner leg, and the fourth bottom corner leg have a first footprint, (v) a front connection member connected to the first bottom corner leg and the second bottom corner leg, (vi) a back connection member connected to the third bottom corner leg and the fourth bottom corner leg, (vii) a first side connection member connected to the second bottom corner leg and the third bottom corner leg, and (viii) a second side connection member connected to the first bottom corner leg and the fourth bottom corner leg, wherein the front connection member, the back connection member, the first side connection member, and the second side connection member have a second footprint, and wherein the first footprint is greater than the second footprint; a compartment mounted on the pallet, the compartment having a first top corner, a second top corner, a third top corner, and a fourth top corner, the compartment including: (a) a steel top wall, (b) a steel front exterior wall, (c) a steel back exterior wall, (d) a steel first exterior side wall, (e) a steel second exterior side wall, (f) at least one steel front exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the front exterior wall, (g) at least one steel back exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the back exterior wall, (h) at least one steel first side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the first exterior side wall, (i) at least one steel second side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the second exterior side wall, (j) an interior bottom wall including: (i) a steel front downwardly angled section, (ii) a steel back downwardly angled section, (iii) a steel first side downwardly angled section, and (iv) a steel second side downwardly angled section, (k) a steel front wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the front downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the front downwardly angled section, (l) a steel back wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the back downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the back downwardly angled section, (m) a steel first side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the first side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the first side downwardly angled section, (n) a steel second side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the second side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the second side downwardly angled section, (o) a material release opening defined at the bottom of the compartment, (p) a steel first nesting support positioned at the first top corner of the compartment, the first nesting support defining an opening extending through the first nesting support, (q) a steel second nesting support positioned at the second top corner of the compartment, the second nesting support defining an opening extending through the second nesting support, (r) a steel third nesting support positioned at the third top corner of the compartment, the third nesting support defining an opening extending through the third nesting support, and (s) a steel fourth nesting support positioned at the fourth top corner of the compartment, the fourth nesting support defining an opening extending through the fourth nesting support, the first, second, third, and fourth nesting supports configured to at least partially support a pallet of another same material shipping container; a material unloading assembly positioned at the bottom of the compartment, the material unloading assembly including: (i) steel spaced apart guide rails, and (ii) a steel slidable gate including a closure member and an engagable member extending in an area lower than the closure member and attached to and supported by the closure member, the closure member at least partially supported by the spaced apart guide rails, the engagable member movable in a first direction to cause the closure member to open the material release opening and movable in a second different direction to cause the closure member to close the material release opening; and a material loading assembly attached to the top wall of the compartment, the material loading assembly including a steel cover hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment and rotatable from a closed position to an open position, the cover remaining hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment in the open position. 8. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein: (i) the front downwardly angled section is attached to the front exterior wall, (ii) the back downwardly angled section is attached to the back exterior wall, (iii) the first side downwardly angled section is attached to the first exterior side wall, and (iv) the second side downwardly angled section is attached to the second exterior side wall. 9. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein: (i) the front downwardly angled section has a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (ii) the back downwardly angled section has a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (iii) the first side downwardly angled section has a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, and (iv) the second side downwardly angled section has a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment. 10. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein the compartment includes at least one interior rigid structural support. 11. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein: (a) the front exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped first corner section, (b) the front exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped second corner section, (c) the back exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped third corner section, and (d) the back exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped fourth corner section. 12. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein the compartment is entirely supported by the pallet. | PRIORITY CLAIM This application is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to, and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/471,896, filed Mar. 28, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/516,292, filed Oct. 16, 2014, which issued on Apr. 11, 2017 as U.S. Pat. No. 9,617,065, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/249,688, filed Sep. 30, 2011, which issued on Nov. 18, 2014 as U.S. Pat. No. 8,887,914, which is a continuation-in-part patent application of, claims priority to, and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/914,075, filed Oct. 28, 2010, which issued on Dec. 31, 2013, as U.S. Pat. No. 8,616,370, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND Various bulk material shipping containers are known. Such known material bulk shipping containers, sometimes referred to herein for brevity as known containers or as known bulk containers, are used to transport a wide range of products, parts, components, items, and materials such as, but not limited to, seeds, shavings, fasteners, and granular materials. These are sometimes called loose materials. There are various disadvantages with such known bulk material shipping containers. For example, one known and widely commercially used known bulk container for shipping materials (such as shipping seeds to farms) is sold by Buckhorn Industries. This known bulk container is made from plastic, weighs about 338 pounds (151.9 kilograms), and holds a maximum of 58.3 cubic feet of material. This known container has a bottom section, a top section, and a cover. To use this known container, loaders at a bulk material supplier must remove the cover, remove the top section from the bottom section, flip the top section upside down, place the flipped top section on the bottom section, fill the container, and then place the cover on the flipped top section. This process requires at least two people and a relatively significant amount of time when filling a large quantity of these containers. In certain instances, specifically configured forklift attachments are required to fill and handle this known container. After this known container is shipped to its ultimate destination (such as a farm), the bulk material (such as seed) is unloaded from the container, and the empty container must be shipped back to the material supplier. However, prior to and for shipping back to the supplier, the cover is removed, the flipped top section is removed from the bottom section, the flipped top section is then flipped back over and placed on the bottom section, and the cover is then placed on the top section and fastened with zip ties. This process also requires at least two people and is relatively time consuming especially for a large quantity of such containers. Another disadvantage of this known container is that this container is made from plastic and if one of the three sections (i.e., the bottom, the top, or the cover) is damaged or cracked, that entire section typically must be replaced (instead of being repaired). This adds additional cost, time out of service for the damaged container, and additional material and energy waste. Another disadvantage of this known container is that when disassembled (for shipping empty), only two of these containers can be stacked on top of each other and still fit in a conventional shipping container or truck. This tends to leave wasted space in such shipping containers and trucks, and thus increases the overall cost of shipping (including related fuel costs) and energy waste. Additional disadvantages of this known container are that: (a) the cover can be easily lost or misplaced; (b) the cover can be easily damaged; (c) this known container is less weather resistant because the cover is readily removable and only attached by zip ties; (d) the insides and outside surfaces are difficult to clean; and (e) a material holding bag is not readily usable with this container, such that this container cannot be used for certain types of loose materials. For purposes of brevity, (a) the people who assemble and/or put a container in the position for receiving materials for transport and who load the material in a container are sometimes referred to herein as the “loaders,” and (b) the people who remove the materials from a container and who disassemble and/or put a container in the position for sending back to the supplier are sometimes referred to herein as the “unloaders.” Accordingly, there is a need for better bulk material shipping containers which overcome these disadvantages. SUMMARY Various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a bulk material shipping container which overcomes the above described disadvantages with previously known commercially available bulk shipping containers. One embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment and movable from a retracted position relative to the bottom compartment (for efficient shipping when not holding materials or holding a relatively small amount of materials) to an expanded position relative to the bottom compartment (for holding extra materials during shipping); (d) a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; (f) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment; and (g) an extension assembly attached to the top compartment which enables a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. The shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive a suitable plastic bag which holds the materials in the container. It should thus be appreciated that the expandable and retractable bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. It should also be appreciated that when a plastic bag is used to hold the materials in the container, the material unloading assembly includes a knife which cuts the bottom of the bag open for unloading of the materials. The bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is sometimes referred herein for brevity as the container or as the shipping container. One embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is primarily made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, except for the pallet which is made from wood. If one of the sections of this embodiment of the container is damaged or cracked, that section can typically be repaired which reduces: (a) cost; (b) time out of service for the container; and (c) additional material and/or energy waste. In alternative embodiments, the pallet of the bulk material shipping container, or certain parts thereof, can be made from a suitably strong plastic material such as a composite material or a fiber glass material. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure can also be stacked three high (when empty) for shipping in conventional transport containers or trucks. This reduces wasted space in such transport containers and trucks and decreases shipping cost and fuel consumption, and thus energy waste. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure holds 72 cubic feet of material and up to about 3125 pounds (1417.5 kilograms). This embodiment of the shipping container has several advantages over the above described known bulk container. Specifically, this embodiment of the bulk container is approximately 65 pounds (29.49 kilograms) lighter, holds approximately 14 cubic feet of additional materials which is approximately 25% more material (such as seeds), is readily repairable, can be stacked three high for more efficient transport to the supplier, and can be moved from the transport or retracted position to the loading or expanded position by one person. To load the presently disclosed container, the loaders do not need to remove a cover, remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment, flip the top compartment over, place the flipped top compartment on the bottom compartment, or place any cover on the flipped top compartment. Additionally, the unloaders do not need to remove the cover, remove the flipped top compartment, flip the top compartment, place the top compartment on the bottom compartment, and then place the cover on the top compartment for returning the empty container. In another embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment, and thus this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the single compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the single compartment. In this embodiment, since there is a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to a top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed in the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, the pallet supports the compartments, but does not directly support the material unloading assembly. In further embodiments, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is configured without the top wall to provide an open top end. It is therefore an advantage of the present disclosure to provide a new and improved bulk material shipping container. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments and the figures. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of one embodiment of the present disclosure, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 2 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the retracted or collapsed position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 3 is a bottom perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and illustrating the legs of the pallet, the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet, and pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 4 is a front view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 5 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 6 is a top view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container in the closed position and the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. FIG. 7 is a bottom view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the legs of the pallet, the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet, and illustrating the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly in the closed position, and the knife attached to the bottom of the chute door or gate. FIG. 8 is an exploded perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with certain of the smaller components such as the tether removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 9 is an enlarged exploded perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9A is an enlarged exploded top perspective view of the sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9B is an enlarged top perspective view of the attached sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9C is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 9D is a further enlarged fragmentary bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 9E is an enlarged top perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with the front and left exterior side walls of the bottom compartment removed to illustrate the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment, the support gussets of the bottom compartment, and the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment. FIG. 9F is an enlarged top perspective view of the bottom compartment and the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with the front and left exterior side walls of the bottom compartment removed to illustrate the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment, the support gussets of the bottom compartment, and the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment. FIG. 10 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container. FIG. 10A is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 11 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container, and illustrating the certain of the legs of the pallet in phantom, certain portions of the fork lift tine receiving channels of the pallet in phantom, and certain portions of the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet in phantom. FIG. 12 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and flipped upside down, and illustrating the certain of the legs of the pallet, certain portions of the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet in phantom, and the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 13 is an enlarged bottom view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating certain of the legs of the pallet, and the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 14 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container, and illustrating the position of the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in the closed position, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 15 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in a partially open position with the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 16 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in a fully open position with the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 17 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position and the blade of the knife in the fully closed and non-extended position. FIG. 17A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position and the blade of the knife in the fully closed and non-extended position. FIG. 18 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position and the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate. FIG. 18A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position and the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate. FIG. 19 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position and the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate. FIG. 19A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position and the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate. FIG. 20A is an enlarged perspective view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20B is an enlarged top plan view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20C is an enlarged side view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20D is an enlarged side view of the gate and knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 21 is an enlarged rear perspective view of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 22 is an enlarged right side view of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the of the shipping container of FIG. 1 FIG. 23 is an enlarged end view of the cutting edge of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 24 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin and the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 25 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 26 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 27A is an enlarged fragmentary exploded perspective view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners before being attached. FIG. 27B is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners after being attached. FIG. 27C is and enlarged fragmentary top plan view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners after being attached. FIG. 28 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the locking pin of the assembly inserted in the pin receipt in a corner of the bottom compartment, the pin holder attached to a corner of the top compartment, and a tether connecting the locking pin to the pin holder. FIG. 29 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the locking pin holders of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment of the container. FIG. 30 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the locking pins and tethers of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 31 is an enlarged fragmentary partially cut away view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 32 is an enlarged fragmentary view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 33 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the fork lift receiving tines or lifting brackets of the extension assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 34 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and the cover of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 35 is a top perspective view of the top wall of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating the opening in the top wall and the lip of the material loading assembly extending from the top wall and which is configured to be securely engaged by the cover of the material loading assembly. FIG. 36 is a top perspective view of the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating in phantom the channel of the cover which is configured to receive the lip of the of the material loading assembly attached to the top compartment for secure engagement by the cover. FIG. 37 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the locking assembly of the material loading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown in the closed position. FIG. 38 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the nesting or stacking guides of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating the bag end holders defined by the nesting or stacking guides. FIG. 39 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 1 and a portion of the pallet and lower compartment of a second shipping container of FIG. 1 shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 40 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 1 and a pallet of a second shipping container of FIG. 1 shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 41 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag positioned over the stacking guides, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 42 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag positioned with its ends extending through the stacking guides, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 43 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag holder of one embodiment of the present disclosure which is configured to hold a roll of bags. FIG. 44 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and the bag holder of FIG. 43, and illustrating how the bag holder of FIG. 41 holds one of the bags over the shipping container during the material loading process, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 45 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and another embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure. FIG. 46 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and the bag holder of FIG. 45, and illustrating how the bag holder of FIG. 43 holds one of the bags over the shipping container during the material loading process, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 47 is a perspective view of another example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 48 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the retracted or collapsed position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 49 is a bottom perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and illustrating the pallet of this embodiment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 50 is a front view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 51 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 52 is a top view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container in the closed position and the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. FIG. 53 is a bottom view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the pallet, and further illustrating the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly in the closed position. FIG. 54 is an exploded perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47 with certain of the smaller components removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 55 is an enlarged exploded perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 56 is an enlarged exploded top perspective view of the sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 57 is an enlarged top perspective view of the attached sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 58 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 59 is a further enlarged fragmentary bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 60 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in their position relative to the pallet. FIG. 61 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in their position relative to the pallet. FIG. 62 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container, and illustrating certain portions of the pallet in phantom. FIG. 63 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and flipped upside down, and illustrating the certain portions of the pallet in phantom. FIG. 64 is an enlarged bottom view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container. FIG. 65 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container, and illustrating the position of the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in the closed position. FIG. 66 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in a partially open position. FIG. 67 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in a fully open position. FIG. 68 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position. FIG. 69 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position. FIG. 70 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position. FIG. 71 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position. FIG. 72 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position. FIG. 73 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position. FIG. 74 is an enlarged perspective view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 75 is an enlarged top view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 76 is an enlarged side view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 77 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin and the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 78 is an enlarged fragmentary front perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 79 is an enlarged fragmentary rear perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 80 is an enlarged fragmentary exploded perspective view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the sections of the corner before being attached. FIG. 81 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating sections of the corner after being attached. FIG. 82 is an enlarged fragmentary top view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the sections of the corner after being attached. FIG. 83 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of part of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the assembly inserted in the pin receipt in a corner of the bottom compartment. FIG. 84 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the combined support bracket and pin holders of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the top compartment of the container. FIG. 85 is an enlarged fragmentary partially cut away side view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 86 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 87 is a perspective view of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment and with a sleeve attached to the interior surfaces of the top compartment. FIG. 88 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the nesting or stacking guides of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the top compartment. FIG. 89 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of one of the corners of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the nesting or stacking guide and the nesting supports attached at that corner. FIG. 90 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 47 and a portion of the pallet and bottom compartment of a second shipping container of FIG. 47, where the portion of the pallet is shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 91 is a further enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 47 and a portion of the pallet of a second shipping container of FIG. 47, where the portion of the pallet is shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 92 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47 resting on a corner of pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the top compartment of the shipping container is in the retracted or collapsed position and the shipping container is empty. FIG. 93 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner of the bottom compartment of the first shipping container of FIG. 47 resting on a corner of pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the top 19 compartment of the shipping container is in the retracted or collapsed position and the shipping container is empty. FIG. 94 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner and side wall of the bottom compartment, a corner and side wall of the top compartment, and a side wall of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full, and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 95A is a fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is empty. FIG. 95B is a fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 96A is an enlarged fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is empty. FIG. 96B is an enlarged fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 97 is a fragmentary perspective view of another example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, FIGS. 1 to 40 illustrate one example embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. This shipping container, which is generally indicated by numeral 50, has an expanded position for holding materials during shipping and a retracted position for efficient shipping when the container is not holding materials or when the container is holding a smaller amount of materials. More specifically, FIG. 2 illustrates the shipping container 50 in the retracted position, and FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 34 illustrate the shipping container 50 in the expanded position. It should thus be appreciated that in the retracted position (as shown in FIG. 2), the shipping container 50 can be used for efficient transport as further described below, and that this provides substantial savings in shipping cost and energy use. Generally, as shown in FIGS. 1 to 9B, this illustrated embodiment of the shipping container 50 includes: (a) a pallet 100 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 9F, and as best shown in FIGS. 10, 10A, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 24, 25, and 26) configured for supporting the container 50 and to facilitate movement and of the container 50 as well as the stacking of multiple containers; (b) a bottom compartment 200 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, and 34) mounted on the pallet 100 and configured to hold materials; (c) a top compartment 300 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 34) mounted on the bottom compartment 200 and configured to hold materials; (d) a plurality of top compartment support assemblies 400 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, and as best shown in FIGS. 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32) configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment and configured to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly 500 (as partially shown in FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 8, 9E, and 9F and as best shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 10, 10A, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26) attached to the bottom compartment and supported by the pallet 100 and configured to facilitate the unloading of materials from the top and bottom compartments; (f) a material loading assembly 600 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2 4, 5, 6, and 8, and as best shown in FIGS. 34, 35, 36, and 37) mounted on the top compartment and configured to facilitate the loading of material into the top and the bottom compartments; and (g) a top compartment extension assembly 700 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 33, and 34) attached to the top compartment 300 and configured to enable a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. It should also be appreciated that generally the container includes a front side or face, a back side or face opposite the front side, a right side or face, and a left side or face as further discussed below. In this illustrated embodiment, (a) the pallet 100 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 6 inches (15.24 centimeters); (b) the bottom compartment 200 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters); and (c) the top compartment 300 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters). When the container is in the retracted position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 35 inches (88.90 centimeters). When the container is in the expanded position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 62 inches (157.48 centimeters). However, it should be appreciated that the container and the components thereof may be other suitable sizes. This embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive and hold a large plastic bag which holds the materials in the interior areas defined by bottom and top compartments. In one embodiment, the bag: (a) is approximately 60 inches (15.40 centimeters) by approximately 55 inches (139.70 centimeters) by approximately 110 inches (279.40 centimeters); (b) has a flat bottom with no bottom seal and hermetic side seals; (c) is FDA compliant; (d) has an approximately 2 millimeter thickness; (e) is clear; and (f) is made from a low density recyclable polyethylene plastic. In one alternative embodiment, the bag is also or alternatively bio-degradable. It should be appreciated that each of the bags is thus suited to hold one load of materials. However, it should be appreciated that the plastic bag may be of any suitable size, configuration, and material, provided that it fits inside of the top and bottom compartments of the container and that the bottom of the bag is able to be readily opened for unloading of the materials. It should be appreciated that the bag will be appropriately folded so that when the bag is placed above and partially in the container for filling the bag (and the container) with the materials, that the bag will properly unfold and be suitably seated in the top and bottom compartments of the container. The filling and un-filling of the bag is further discussed below. More specifically, as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E, and 9F, the bottom compartment 200 includes: (a) a lower exterior bottom wall or panel 202 defining a material release opening or chute 204; (b) an upper interior bottom wall 210 defined by four attached downwardly angled sections or chute ramps 212, 214, 216, and 218; (c) four wedge shaped interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228; (d) spaced apart first and second or front and back exterior walls 232 and 236; and (e) spaced apart third and fourth or left and right exterior side walls 234 and 238. The four sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 234 and 238 define a bottom compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly toward and to the material release opening or chute 204. In this illustrated embodiment, the lower exterior bottom wall 202, the upper interior bottom wall 210, the interior bottom wall supports 222, 224, 226, and 228, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 234 and 238 are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. The exterior bottom wall 202 of the bottom compartment 200 is suitably attached to the pallet 100 of the container 50 by suitable fasteners; however, it should be appreciated that the exterior bottom wall can be attached in other suitable manners. More specifically, the lower exterior bottom wall 202 includes: (a) a rectangular substantially flat base 206 which defines the centrally located rectangular material release opening or chute 204; and (b) an upwardly extending lip 208 extending upwardly from each of outer edges of the base 206. This material release opening or chute 204 enables materials in the top and bottom compartments (or in a bag therein) to flow out of bottom compartment 200 when the chute door or gate 510 of the material unloading assembly for the opening or chute 204 (and the bag therein) is opened as further discussed below. The opening 204 in this illustrated embodiment is approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) by approximately 11 inches (27.94 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. This size of the opening relative to the size of the bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of unloading of the material from the top and bottom compartments (or in a bag therein) without sacrificing structure or strength of the bottom compartment. The interior bottom wall supports 222, 224, 226, and 228 are attached in spaced apart locations to the top of the base 206 by fasteners, although they can also or alternatively be attached by welding. Each of the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228 are of a wedge shape such that they are configured to be engaged by and support a respective one of the downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210. The gusset 222 is wider than the other gussets 224, 226, and 228 in this illustrated embodiment to distribute the weight of the materials supported by gusset 222 to the pallet 100 at further spaced apart locations which are not directly over the gate 510 of the material unloading assembly 500 (which is further described below). The upper interior bottom wall 210, and specifically the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 are respectively attached to the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228 by welding, although they can also or alternatively be attached by fasteners. The interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222 and 226 are some what shorter (as best seen in FIGS. 8, 9, 9E, 9F, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, and 19A) than the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 224 and 288 to prevent too much weight from being placed on the material unloading assembly 500 and particularly on the gate 510. The four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 each have a lower edge such that when such sections are attached, such sections form an opening 211 adjacent to and substantially aligned with the opening 204 of the base wall 206. In particular, the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 extend downwardly approximately adjacent to the material release opening or chute 204 of the base 206 of the bottom compartment. The lower edges of one or more of these four downwardly angled sections are each configured to be supported by the pallet adjacent to the top shelf of the pallet. In other words, this construction enables the central area of the pallet to provided support for part of the weight of the materials held in the top and bottom compartments. The upper interior bottom wall 210, and specifically upper portions of the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 are also respectively attached to and supported by the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 of the bottom compartment 200 is supported at multiple locations including multiple points of support by the various different portions of the pallet 100. More specifically, the sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210 are supported: (a) at their top ends by the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 200; (b) centrally by interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228; (c) by attachment to each other; and (d) by the central portion of the pallet 100. The exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 200 also each includes a skirt that extends downwardly along a respective side of the pallet 100. Suitable fasteners such as screws are used to attach each skirt to the respective side of the pallet 100 to support these exterior walls. Thus, it should be appreciated that this attachment to the side walls of the pallet 100 provides another set of support points for the bottom compartment 200. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 is suitably angled and supported to hold the materials without deforming and to facilitate unloading of the bulk material from the material holding area of the bottom compartment. Each of the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 210 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of an adjacent exterior wall as generally shown in FIGS. 27A, 27B, and 27C. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall: (a) are preferably connected by welding; (b) add structural rigidity to the bottom compartment; and (c) in conjunction with the top compartment support assemblies 400 provide support the support of the top compartment in the expanded position as further described below. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 27A, 27B, and 27C, exterior side wall 232 includes panel 252 and corner 262 which includes corner sections 262a and 262b, and exterior side wall 234 includes panel 254 and corner 264 which includes corner sections 264a and 264b. Corner sections 264a is mated with and attached to corner section 262a, and corner section 264b is mated with and attached to corner section 262b to form this corner of the bottom compartment 200. It should be appreciated that each corner of the bottom compartment is configured in a similar manner; however, it should be appreciated that one or more of the corners can be differently configured. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the bottom compartment and to minimize interference with movement of the top compartment 300 relative to the bottom compartment 200. The top compartment 300 of the container 50, as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, and 35, includes an exterior top wall 302, spaced apart exterior front and back side walls 312 and 316, spaced apart exterior side walls 316 and 318, and exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 respectively attached to the exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318. In this illustrated embodiment, the exterior top wall 302, exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318, and exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 are also all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected in any suitable manner. The upper interior base wall 306 and the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 define a top compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly to the bottom compartment material holding area or cavity. The exterior top wall 302 includes a rectangular substantially flat base 306 which defines the centrally located rectangular material receipt or loading opening or chute 304. This material receipt or loading opening or chute 304 enables materials to flow into the top and bottom compartments when the cover of the material loading assembly is opened as further discussed below. The opening 304 in this illustrated embodiment is 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) by 18 inches (45.72 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. This size opening relative to this size bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of loading of the material into the top and bottom compartments without sacrificing structure or strength of the top compartment 300. The upper interior base wall 306 is suitably attached to the upper portions of the exterior walls 312,314,316, and 318 by welding. The exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 are respectively attached to the exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 by welding, although they can be attached by rivets or other suitable fasteners. It should be appreciated that for embodiments of the container which will employ a bag, it is preferable to maximize the amount of welding for connecting or attaching components to reduce possible spots or points for snagging or cutting the bag. It should also be appreciated that for a container that will not employ a bag, more rivets or other fasteners can be employed. Similar to the configuration of the bottom compartment, each of the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of the adjacent exterior wall similar to the bottom compartment. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall of the top compartment are preferably connected by welding and add structural rigidity to the top compartment. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the top compartment can include one or more interior walls. These interior walls in certain embodiment are used to protect the exterior walls, and to add further structural rigidly to the top compartment. The pallet 100 of this illustrated embodiment of the shipping container 50 of the present disclosure is specifically configured to take in account that various different lifting and moving vehicles or equipment may be used to lift and move the container 50: (a) when the container is manufactured; (b) when the container is transported to a material loading facility; (c) when the container is at a material loading facility; (d) when the container is moved and positioned in a transport vehicle at the material loading facility after loading materials in the container; (e) when the container is removed from a transport vehicle at a material unloading facility; (f) when the container is at an unloading facility; and (g) when the container is moved and positioned in a transport vehicle at the material unloading facility after unloading the materials from the container. More specifically, these facilities will typically have either a conventional pallet jack and/or a conventional fork lift. One widely commercially used conventional pallet jack has spaced apart non-movable tines or forks, where each fork is approximately 7.75 inches (19.69 centimeters) wide and the space between the tines is approximately 8.50 inches (21.59 centimeters). One widely commercially used conventional fork lift has adjustably spaced apart tines or forks, where each fork is approximately 5 inches (12.70 centimeters) wide, and the space between that tines is adjustable from approximately 4 inches (10.16 centimeters) to approximately 24 inches (60.96 centimeters). As further described below, the container 50 and specifically the pallet 100 of the container 50 is configured to account for the use of such fork lifts which can: (a) lift the containers off of the ground; (b) move the containers; (c) stack the containers on top of each other; and (d) un-stack stacked containers from each other. As also further described below, the container 50 and specifically the pallet 100 of the container 50 is also configured to account for the use of such pallet jacks which can: (a) lift the containers off of the ground; and (b) move the containers, but can not stack or unstack stacked containers. More specifically, turning now to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 10A, 11, 12, and 13, the pallet 100 of this illustrated embodiment of the container 50 of the present disclosure includes: (a) a rectangular body 102 having an upper surface 104, a lower surface 106, a front edge 112, a back edge 116, and opposite side edges 114 and 118; and (b) a plurality of legs 122, 124, 126, and 128 extending downwardly from the body 102. The legs 122 and 126 each respectively extend the entire width of the body 102 of the pallet 100 in this illustrated embodiment. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments the legs 122 and 126 do not need to extend the entire width of the body and that each of these legs can be separated into multiple legs. The legs or islands 124 and 128 extend downwardly from the central portions of the side ends of the body 102. In this illustrated embodiment, the body and the legs of the pallet are all formed from one piece of a suitable wood to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; and (b) minimize overall weight of the container. In this illustrated embodiment, the wood pallet is one piece of wood which is suitably formed by suitable cutting, milling and/or routing processes. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the pallet can be made from multiple components which are suitably attached and that one or more of these components can be made from other suitably strong materials such as composite or fiber glass materials. It should also be appreciated that different parts of the pallet may be made from different materials. For instance, the shelves may be made from a plastic, composite or fiber glass inlay part. The pallet 100 includes or defines: (a) a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a in the legs 122 and 126, respectively; (b) a second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b in the legs 122 and 126, respectively; (c) a first pallet jack tine receiving channel 140 extending from side to side; and (d) a second pallet jack tine receiving channel 142 extending from side to side. The first set of fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a and the second set of fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels of the pallet 100 of the container 50 which is stacked on top of another container, the tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should thus be appreciated that the pallet 100 is configured to enable a fork lift to move these containers when one container is stacked on another container without damaging the lower container, and particularly the cover or the extension assembly. The first pallet jack tine receiving channel 140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 142 are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a pallet jack are inserted into these channels defined by the pallet 100 of the container 50, they can lift and move the container. It should be appreciated that a typical pallet jack does not operate like a fork lift so that the pallet jack will only be used when the container is on the floor or ground and not with stacked containers. Therefore, the tines or forks of a pallet jack will not be in a position to engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of stacked containers or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of stacked containers. It should be appreciated that the first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a and the second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b are not configured to receive the forks or tines of a pallet jack because they are spaced apart further then the tines on a conventional pallet jack (as described above). Specifically, they are spaced apart approximately 34 inches (86.36 centimeters) in this illustrated embodiment. It should further be appreciated that although not preferred, a fork lift with adjustable forks or tines can be inserted into the first pallet jack tine receiving channels 140 and 142 to lift and move the container 50. The pallet 50 and the channels 140 and 142 are also configured to take this into account, and specifically to account for this situation when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels 140 and 142 of the pallet 100 of a container stacked on another container, these tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should further be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment, the legs 124 and 128 of the pallet 100 are also configured to direct the tines or forks of the pallet jack through the channels 140 and 142 if they are inserted at an angle with respect to these channels. Specifically, leg 124 includes four angled tine directing surfaces 154a, 154b, 154c, and 154d, and leg 128 includes four angled tine directing surfaces 158a, 158b, 158c, and 158d. It should further be appreciated that the legs 124 and 128 do not block the fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a or the fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the pallet can include indicator which direct a user on how to insert the tines of a fork lift into the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142. It should also be appreciated, that although not shown, the pallet can include hinged or pivoting flaps in the ends of the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142 to further direct a user on how to insert the tines of a fork lift into the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142. It should also be appreciated that the shape of the legs of the pallet, which rest on the ground, and particularly the flat surfaces of the pallet, prevent the build-up of contaminants on the pallet. Specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the bottom of the pallet does not include a series of cavities in which contaminants such as mud or dirt can build up. Therefore, the pallet provides a less contaminable bulk material container while still being relatively strong and light weight. Turning now to FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 10A, 11, 12, and 13, as mentioned above, the body 102 of the pallet 100 also functions: (a) to support the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment 200; and (b) to support the material unloading assembly 500. More specifically, the body 102 of the pallet 100 defines multi-level shelves including a first or bottom shelf 150 and a second or top shelf 160, and an opening or chute 170. The first or bottom shelf 150 includes front shoulder 152, left side shoulder 154, and right side shoulder 158. These shoulders 152, 154, and 158 are sized and configured to support a bottom portion of each of the guide rails and the door or gate of the material unloading assembly which is further described below. The door or gate includes a closure member or portion and the handle member or portion (as further discussed below). The shoulders 152, 154, 32 and 158 support the guide rails (attached to the bottom compartment as described below) which in turn support the side edges of the closure member as well as the handle portion of the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly. The shoulders 152, 154, and 158 are positioned at the same level to co-act to support the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly such that the chute door or gate moves or slides relative to the bottom shelf 150 from a closed position to an open position for respectively closing and opening the chute 202 in the exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment 100 as well as the opening or chute 170 in the pallet 100 as further discussed below. The second or top shelf of the pallet 100 includes left side shoulder 164, rear shoulder 166, and right side shoulder 168 which are configured at the same level to co-act to also support a top portion of each of the guide rails and the door or gate of the material unloading assembly which is further described below. It should also be appreciated that this configuration enables the pallet to support the bottom compartment and the material unloading assembly and specifically the chute door or gate. This support reduces the amount of weight placed on the gate from the materials held in the top and bottom compartments (or the bag therein). In the illustrated embodiment, and as particularly illustrated in FIGS. 9C and 9D, the container 50 and in particular the material unloading assembly 500 includes a plurality of guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171. Guide rail 163 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the front portions of shoulders 154 and 164. Guide rail 165 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the central and rear portions of the shoulders 154 and 164. Guide rail 167 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the rear shoulders 156 and 166. Guide rail 169 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the central and rear portions of shoulders 158 and 168. Guide rail 171 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the front portions of the shoulders 158 and 168. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 10A, 14, 15, and 16 illustrate these guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171 detached from or without the exterior bottom wall 206 and in the positions where they rest on and are supported by these shoulders of the pallet 100. It should also be appreciated that these guide rails function in multiple ways. The guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171 support and guide the movement of closure portion and the handle portion of the chute door or gate 510 of the material unloading assembly 500. The gate slides or moves on or above these guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171, and these guide rails prevent the downward movement of the chute door or gate and also prevent loose materials being held in the top and bottom compartments from accumulating on or adjacent to the chute door or gate or the shoulders. The guide rails 165, 167, and 169 also rest on the shoulders to provide additional support for the bottom compartment. The body 102 of the pallet 100 also includes defines a handle chamber 180 and a stopping wall 182 for the handle of the material unloading assembly (as described below). The handle chamber 180 and the stopping wall 182 of the pallet 100 are further discussed below in conjunction with the discussion of the material unloading assembly 500. Turning now to FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, the material unloading assembly 500 of the container 50 is supported by both bottom wall 206 of the bottom compartment 200 and the body 102 of the pallet 100 under and adjacent to the opening or chute 204 in the bottom compartment 200 and above the opening or chute 170 in the pallet 100. The material unloading assembly 500 includes a chute door or gate 510 slidably positioned on the guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171, and partially supported by the shoulders 152, 154, and 158 defined by the body 102 of the pallet 100 as discussed above. The gate 510 includes a handle member or portion 512 and a closure member or portion 516 extending from the handle member or portion 512. The gate 510 is movable or slidable from a closed position as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 14, 17, and 17A to a plurality of different partially open positions (such as the partially open position shown in FIGS. 15, 18 and 18A), and then to a fully open position shown in FIGS. 16, 19, and 19A. It should also be appreciated that the body 102 of the pallet 100 defines a plurality of stopping walls that prevent the gate 510 from moving too far outwardly and also keeps the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 relatively close to the pallet 100. In this embodiment, the gate and the guide rails are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; (b) facilitate ease of cleaning; (c) facilitate ease of repair; (d) prevent rusting; (e) minimize overall weight of the container; and (f) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the gate and the guide rails can be made from other suitable materials. The material unloading assembly 500 further includes a knife 520 attached to the bottom surface of the gate 510. Specifically, the knife 520 includes a biasing member in the form of a leaf spring 522 having an attachment end 524 attached to the bottom surface of the gate 510 and a fin shaped blade 530 attached to the top side of the opposite or free end 526 of leaf spring 522. As best shown in FIGS. 17A, 18A, 19A, 21, 22, and 23, the fin shaped blade 530 includes: (a) an attachment base 532 attached to the top of the free end 526 of the leaf spring 522; and (b) a cutting member 534 attached to and extending from the attachment base 532. The cutting member 534 includes an accurate shaped cutting edge 536 and back edge 538 opposite the cutting edge 536. The leaf spring 522 biases the blade 530 upwardly such that the blade 530 is biased upwardly and the cutting member 534 and extends through a vertically extending slot 518 (see FIGS. 20A and 20B) in the closure portion 516 of the gate 510 toward a fully expanded position. In this illustrated embodiment, the knife is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) facilitate ease of cleaning; (c) facilitate ease of repair; (d) prevent rusting; (e) minimize overall weight of the container; and (f) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the knife can be made from other suitable materials. In this illustrated embodiment, the leaf spring is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel; however, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the leaf spring can be made from other suitable materials and in other configurations. The knife 520 (including the leaf spring 522 and the blade 530) moves as the gate 510 moves, and specifically is configured to move from a retracted position as shown in FIGS. 14, 17, 17A, and 20D to a plurality of different extended positions such as the partially extended position shown in FIGS. 15, 18, and 18A and to a fully extended position shown in FIGS. 16, 19, and 19A. The gate 510 is configured to be opened by an unloader such that pulling the handle portion 512 of the gate (and particularly the handle 513) from the closed position to an open position, causes the blade 530 of the cutting member 534 of the knife 520 to extend through the slot 518 and to engage the bottom of the bag (not shown) in the container 50 which holds the material, and to cut a hole in the bottom of the bag to release the material in the bag. When the gate 510 is in the fully closed position, the cutting member 534 of the blade 530 rests below the guide rail 167 as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 17, and 17A. When the gate 510 is in the fully open position, the cutting member 534 of the blade 530 is adjacent to the front section 212 of the interior bottom wall 210 as shown in FIGS. 19 and 19A. It should further be appreciated that as the gate 510 is moved from the fully open position to the closed position, the knife 520 (including the leaf spring 522 and the blade 530) moves with the gate 510 from the fully extended position to a partially retracted position to a fully retracted position. More specifically, the back edge 538 of the cutting member 534 is configured such that when the back edge 538 of the cutting member 534 contacts the bottom of the guide rail 167, the entire blade 520 and the free end 526 of the leaf spring 522 is forced downwardly against the upward bias of the leaf spring 522 and back into the retracted position as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 17, and 17A. It should also be appreciated that the knife 520 does not interfere with the opening of the gate in the embodiments where a bag is not employed to hold the materials in the container. The material unloading assembly 500 also includes a locking assembly 550 configured to enable a user to lock the gate 510, and specifically the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 to the stopping wall 182 of the pallet 510 to prevent the handle portion 512 and the gate 510 from being accidentally opened at undesired points in time such as: (a) during loading of the container 50; (b) during transit of the container 50; or (c) at any other point in time prior to an unloader opening the gate 510. More specifically, as best seen in FIGS. 10A, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 24, 25, and 26, the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 includes a downwardly extending handle 513 which is configured to be gripped by a user to open and close the gate 510. The downwardly extending handle 513 defines a centrally located opening 514 (as best shown in FIG. 20A). The material unloading assembly 500 also includes a stopping plate 560 attached to the outside surface of the stopping wall 182. The stopping plate 560 includes an opening 561 aligned with the centrally located opening 514 of the handle 513 of the handle portion 512 of the gate 510. The stopping wall 182 also includes a hole which is larger than the hole 561 in the stopping plate 560 and is configured to receive a locking pin 590. More specifically, the material unloading assembly 500 further includes a locking pin 590 configured to be inserted through: (a) the centrally located opening 514 of the handle 513 of the handle portion 512 of the gate 510; (b) the opening 561 in the stopping plate 560; and (c) an opening 183 in the stopping wall 182, when the gate 510 is in the closed position. This locking pin 590 engages the rear surface of the stopping plate 560 to prevent unwanted opening of the gate 510. When the user desires to open the gate 510, the user activates the locking pin 590 and fully or partially removes the locking pin 590 from the stopping wall 182 and the stopping plate 560. It should be appreciated that as shown in the various figures, the locking pin 590 can be left in the handle 513 of the gate 510. It should also be appreciated that the locking pin can be placed in a different hole in the handle of the gate 510. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the material unloading assembly can further include one or more guides for holding the locking pin 590 level or otherwise in position for easy re-insertion when the gate 510 is in a fully open or partially open position. It should be appreciated that the locking pin can be commercially obtained from MCMASTER-CARR, and that any other suitable locking pin may be employed. It should also be appreciated that by pushing the handle back toward the closed position, the chute can be closed or partially closed. It should also be appreciated that placing the handle in a partially open or partially closed positioned enables the user to control the rate of emptying the materials from the container 50. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32, the top compartment 300 is supported by a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d which are each configured to support a different one of the corners of the top compartment 300 and to hold the top compartment 300 in the expanded position. In the illustrated embodiment, each top compartment support assembly 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these support assemblies may be different. Support assembly 400a is discussed herein as an example. Support assembly 400a includes a support pin 410a configured to be inserted through a pin receipt or pin receipt hole 450a (at least shown in FIGS. 8 and -27B) in the corner of the bottom compartment 200 and into a tubular support pin receiver or sleeve 412a of the support assembly 400a which is suitably attached (such as by welding) to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment 200 as best illustrated in FIG. 31. It should be appreciated that the configuration and size of the support pin receiver can vary in accordance with the present disclosure. For example, the support pin receiver can be in the form of a flat plate (not shown) attached to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment. The support assembly 400a further includes a support pin holder 430a and a tether 460a attaching the support pin 420a to the support pin holder 430a. It should be appreciated that the support pin holder 430a and the tether 460a are employed to prevent the support pin 410a from being lost and to hold the support pin 410a out of the way of the bottom compartment 200 when the support pin 410a is not in use, and that in alternative embodiments, the shipping container of the present disclosure does not employ the support pin holders or the tethers. It should also be appreciated that FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 34, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, and 46 either have a line representing the tether or that the tether is removed from these figures for ease of illustration. More specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the support pin holder 430a includes an L-shaped body having a mounting member 432a attached to the corner of the top compartment 300 and a pin holder 434a connected to the mounting member 432a. The pin holder 464a defines a first hole 436a for attachment of the one end of the tether 430a and a second hole 438a for removably holding the support pin 410a when the support pin 410a is not in use. This support pin holder 430a is made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, and welded to the corner of the top compartment 300. It should be appreciated that the pin holder 434a could be made from other suitable materials, could be suitably attached to the top compartment in other suitable manners or locations and could be alternatively configured. In this illustrated embodiment, the pin holder is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of this part by welding and/or suitable fasteners to the top compartment; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the pin holder can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected to the top compartment in other suitable manners The tether 460a includes two end loops 462a and 464a. End loop 462a is attached to the support pin holder 430a and end loop 464b is attached to the support pin 410a. The tether 460a may be any suitable length and made from any suitable material such as steel or a high strength plastic. The support pin 410a in the illustrated embodiment includes a handle 413a, a tubular body 414a attached to the handle 412a, and a locking mechanism 416a extending through the handle 413a and tubular body 414a. The locking mechanism 416a includes a release button 418a in and extending from the handle 413a, an actuation shaft (not shown) connected to the release button 418a, and a plurality of locking balls 422a and 422b extending transversely from the from the tubular body 414a adjacent to the end of the tubular body 414a opposite the handle 413a. The locking mechanism 416a is configured such that the locking balls 422a and 422b are normally biased by a spring (not shown) toward the outwardly extending locked position as shown in FIG. 31, and such that when the release button 418a is pressed, the locking balls 422a and 422b are allowed to recede inwardly into the tubular member 414a and specifically into cavities (not shown) in the actuation shaft 420a to enable the support pin 410a to be removed. The locking balls 422a and 422b are configured to engage the inner surface of the tubular support pin receiver 412a of the support assembly 400a to prevent the support pin 410a in the locked position from being easily removed or removed without actuation of the locking mechanism 416a and specifically the release button 418a. Pins of this type are readily commercially available such as from MCMASTER-CARR. It should be appreciated that other suitable support pins may be employed with the container in accordance with the present disclosure. The container 50 includes an extension assembly 700 which enables a user or loader to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position to enable insertion of these support pins as further described below. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 33, the extension assembly 700 of the container 50 includes a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 702 and 704 and a second set of aligned forklift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 706 and 708. Each of the lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 702, 704, 706, and 708 are identical in this illustrated embodiment, but it should be appreciated that these components can be different. FIG. 33 illustrate example fork lift tine receiving loop or lifting bracket 702, which includes a crossbar 720a, end bars 722a and 724a attached to the opposite ends of the crossbar 720a and mounting bars 726a and 728a respectively attached to the opposite ends of the end bars 722a and 724a. In this embodiment, these loops or lifting brackets are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel and the mounting bars are each suitably welded to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300. The loops or lifting brackets are suitably aligned to form two slots configured to receive forklift forks or tines. These loops enable a loader operating a fork lift to insert the forks of the forklift through the loops and to lift the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. These aligned slots enable a forklift to lift the top compartment of the container from either the front or back. It should be appreciated that the outside surfaces of the container can include suitable markings to indicate to the loader the appropriate expanded position of the top compartment. As mentioned above, in this illustrated embodiment, these loop are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these loops can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. As further described below, when the operator lifts the top compartment upwardly from the retracted position to the expanded position, the locking assemblies described above can then be employed to support and lock the top compartment in the expanded position and to prevent the top compartment from moving back into the retracted position. More specifically, when a user such as a loader of the shipping container 50 desires to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position, the user uses a fork lift or other lifting apparatus to engage the extension assembly 700 to lift the top compartment 300 such that the bottom corners of the top compartment 300 are above the pin receipt holes in the four corners of the bottom compartment 200. The user then sequentially takes each support pin out of the respective pin holder, presses the button on the support pin and inserts the support pin in the respective pin receipt hole. It should be appreciated that this is easily and quickly performed by a single person. Thus, it should be appreciated that: (a) a single loader can move the top compartment into the expanded position by lifting the top compartment (using a fork lift); (b) the single loader can engage the support pins of the top compartment supporting assemblies to lock the top compartment in the expanded position; and (c) that prior to unloading the materials, a single un loader can disengage the support pins from the bottom compartment to un-lock the top compartment from the expanded position and release the top compartment from the expanded position, which enables the top compartment to slowly move to the retracted position as the materials empties from the top and bottom compartments. This also prevents the top compartment from rapidly dropping if the support pins are released when no materials are in the compartments. It should further be appreciated that enabling a single person to perform this operation provide a significant advantage in terms of time and cost over certain prior known bulk material shipping containers. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, 35, 36, and 37, the material loading assembly 600 is generally attached to the top compartment 300 and generally includes: (a) an upwardly extending lip 602 attached to and extending from the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300; (b) a cover 610 configured to securely engage the upwardly extending lip 602 and pivotally attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300 by a plurality of hinges 630, 632, and 634; (c) a lock assembly 650 including a first portion 652 attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300 and a second portion or lid latch 654 pivotally attached to the cover 610; (d) and a gasket (not shown) mounted in the cover 610 to seal out contaminants. The cover 610 defines a channel 612 configured to receive the lip 602. The gasket is mounted in the channel 612 to facilitate the seal between the cover 610 and the lip 602. It should be appreciated that although the illustrated lip 602 is shown in sections with spaces there between, additional material is preferably welded to the illustrated sections of the lip 602 to form a continuous lip. The locking assembly 650 includes a suitable lock (not shown) which is used to lock the cover 610 in the closed position, and specifically to lock the second portion or lid latch 654 attached to the cover to the first portion 652 attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300. It should be appreciated that any suitable lock may be employed and that alternative configurations for the locking assembly may be employed in accordance with the present disclosure. In this illustrated embodiment, these components (except the gasket and the lock) are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. It should further be appreciated that the shape of the cover may vary in accordance with the present disclosure. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, 38, 39, and 40, the container 50 includes a plurality of nesting or stacking or guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d which are configured to facilitate secure stacking of the containers of the present disclosure as well as stacking of other known bulk material containers. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these stacking guides may be different. As generally shown in FIGS. 39 and 40, the stacking guides assist in positioning one container of the present disclosure on top of another container of the present disclosure. More specifically, stacking guide 800a is discussed herein as an example stacking guide. As best shown in FIG. 38, stacking guide 800a include mounting walls 802a and 804a configured to be attached to the corner of the top compartment 300 and guide wall 812a and 814a respectively attached to and extend from the mounting walls 802a and 804a. In this illustrated embodiment, the guide wall 812a and 814a each respectively define bag holding slots 820a and 822a. These slots are configured to receive and hold a top section of a bag during the filling process to secure the bag in the desired position as the loader fills the bag and the container with materials to the desired height (as generally illustrated in FIG. 42 and as further described below). In this illustrated embodiment, the stacking guides are all made of stainless steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts to the top compartment by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these stacking guides can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. It should be appreciated that the container 50 and the nesting or stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d of the container 50 are configured to receive or be stacked with known bulk material containers such as the known bulk material container described in the background section of this document. It should be appreciated that as shown in FIGS. 39 and 40, the container of the present disclosure is configured such that a fork lift can be employed to place one container on top of another container and to lift one container from another container without damaging the material loading assembly attached to the top compartment of the lower container, and without damaging the extension assembly attached to the top compartment of the lower container. Turning now to FIG. 41, the container 50 is illustrated with a bag 850 shown draped over the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 850 during the loading process. It should be appreciated that the center of the bag 852 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should also be appreciated that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIG. 42, the container 50 is illustrated with a bag 850 shown with each end respectively extending through the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 850 during the loading process. Again, in this FIG. 42, the center of the bag 852 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIGS. 43 and 44, one example embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure is generally illustrated and indicated by numeral 1000. The bag holder 1000 is configured to hold a supply roll of bags 900 and to sequentially provide each of the bags from the supply roll 900 for positioning over the shipping container during the material loading processes. The first bag 860 of the supply roll of bags 900 is shown draped over the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 860 during the loading process. The center 862 of the bag 860 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. The bag holder 1000 in this embodiment includes a pallet jack 1010, a bag guide 1020 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010, and a supply roll support holder 1030 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010. The bag guide 1020 is sized and configured to hold a bag over the container 50 during the loading process and to prevent the bag from engaging the various components of the container and thus prevent the bag from catching on or ripping from contact with the components of the container. In FIG. 44, the bag holder 1000 holds the bag 860 over the container 50 with the center of the bag 862 positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated with respect to FIG. 44 that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIGS. 45 and 46, another example embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure is generally illustrated and indicated by numeral 1100. The bag holder 1100 is similar to the bag holder 1000 in that it is configured to hold a bag over the shipping container 50 during the material loading process. However, unlike bag holder 1000, bag holder 1100 is not configured to hold a roll of bags and does not include a supply roll support holder. The bag holder 1100 in this embodiment includes a pallet jack 1010 and a bag guide 1120 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010. The bag guide 1120 is sized and configured to hold a bag over the container 50 during the loading process and to prevent the bag from engaging the various components of the container and thus prevent the bag from catching on or ripping from contact with the components of the container. In FIG. 46, the bag holder 1000 holds the bag 870 over the container 50 with the center of the bag 872 positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated with respect to FIG. 46 that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. It should be appreciated that in both of these bag holder embodiments, the pallet jack 1010 is configured to be positioned underneath the container 50, and specifically that the forks are positioned in the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. It should also be appreciated that the bag holder could alternatively include a fork lift instead of a pallet jack and that in such embodiments, the forks are preferably positioned in the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. It should further be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the bag guides and supply roll support holder can be alternatively supported and positionable. It should be appreciated that the bag guide and supply roll support holder are made from any suitable materials. It should also be appreciated that the present disclosure contemplates alternative embodiments (not shown) where the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a top compartment securely mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment. This embodiment does not include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment (not shown) where the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. It should be appreciated that suitable instructional marking or labels may be placed on or attached to the container of the present disclosure to instruct the users on how to load, unload, move, retract, and/or expand the container. It should also be appreciated that suitable reflective tape strips can be attached to the container. It should further be appreciated that the container of the present disclosure can be suitably coated such as by painting with a clear or colored protective coating. It should be appreciated that such coating may include a UV protective agent. It should also be appreciated that one or more sections of the container may be reinforced with a suitable plating to provide additional protection and strength. It should further be appreciated that the attachment of the various components of the container can be performed in any suitable way such as by welding (including but not limited to laser welding) and by suitable fasteners (such as but not limited to rivets). FIGS. 47 to 96B illustrate another example embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. Similar to the example container 50 described above, this illustrated example shipping container, which is generally indicated by numeral 2050, has an expanded position for holding materials during shipping and a retracted position for efficient shipping when the container 2050 is not holding materials or when the container 2050 is holding a smaller amount of materials. More specifically, FIG. 48 generally illustrates the shipping container 2050 in the retracted or collapsed position, and FIGS. 47, 49, 50, and 51 generally illustrate the shipping container 2050 in the expanded position. In this illustrated embodiment, the shipping container 2050 generally includes: (a) a pallet 2100 which is different than pallet 100 as further described below; (b) a bottom compartment 2200 which is different than bottom compartment 200 as further described below; (c) a top compartment 2300 which is different than top compartment 300 as further described below; (d) a plurality of top compartment support assemblies 2400a, 2400b, 2400c (not shown), and 2400d which are different than top compartment support assemblies 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d as further described below; (e) a material unloading assembly 2500 which is different than material unloading assembly 500 as further described below; (f) a material loading assembly 2600 which is substantially similar to material loading assembly 600 described above; and (g) a top compartment extension assembly 2700 which is substantially similar to top compartment extension assembly 700 described above. It should be appreciated that the following description of the shipping container 2050 will primarily focus on these respective differences. In this illustrated embodiment: (a) the pallet 2100 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 6 inches (15.24 centimeters); (b) the bottom compartment 2200 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters); and (c) the top compartment 2300 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters). In this illustrated embodiment, when the container 2050 is in the retracted position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 35 inches (88.90 centimeters). In this illustrated embodiment, when the container 2050 is in the expanded position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 62 inches (157.48 centimeters). It should be appreciated that this alternative container of the present disclosure can be made in other suitable dimensions. More specifically, turning now to FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 90, 91, 92, and 93, the pallet 2100 of this illustrated embodiment of the container 2050 of the present disclosure includes: (a) a rectangular body 2102 having an upper surface 2104, a lower surface 2106, a front edge 2112, a back edge 2116, and opposite side edges 2114 and 2118; (b) a plurality of legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 attached to and extending downwardly from the body 2102; (c) a footing 2101 attached to and extending downwardly from each of the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128, and having an upper surface 2103, a lower surface 2105, a front edge 2111, a back edge 2115, and opposite side edges 2113 and 2117; (d) a gate head 2150 formed at the front of the body 2102; and (e) a plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d respectively attached to the corners of the upper surface 2104 of the body 2102. As further described below, the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 functions to directly support the bottom compartment 2200 and indirectly the top compartment 2300. In this illustrated embodiment, the body, legs, and footing of the pallet are each formed from multiple pieces of a suitable wood to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; and (b) minimize the overall weight of the pallet and the container. More specifically, in this illustrated embodiment: (a) the rectangular body 2102 is constructed from several individual pieces of wood (such as 2x4s in this example illustrated embodiment); (b) the legs 2121,2122,2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 are each an individual piece of wood (such as 4×45 and 4×6s in this example illustrated embodiment); and (c) the footing 2101 is constructed from several individual pieces of wood (such as 2×2s in this example illustrated embodiment). In this example illustrated embodiment, these individual pieces of wood are suitably attached by fastening mechanisms such as adhesive, nails, and screws. It should be appreciated that these parts may alternatively be formed from more or less pieces, may be formed from other materials, and may be otherwise suitably attached. It should also be appreciated that the pallet may be painted or otherwise protected by other suitable coatings. The gate head 2150 is formed at the front of the body 2102. In this illustrated example embodiment, the front portion of the body 2102 is formed from three pieces of wood including a bottom piece with a cut-out and two spaced-apart top pieces such that the cut-out and the space between the two pieces provide room for the handle of the gate and which limit movement of the gate as further discussed below and as best seen in FIGS. 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 77, 78, and 79. More specifically, the gate head 2150 of the pallet 2100 includes a handle chamber 2180 and a stopping wall 2182 for the handle 2513 of the gate 2510 material unloading assembly 2500. The handle chamber 2180 and the stopping wall 2182 of the pallet 2100 are further discussed below in more detail in conjunction with the discussion of the material unloading assembly 2500. The pallet 2100 further includes or defines: (a) a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 2132a and 2136a, respectively; (b) a second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 2132b and 2136b, respectively; (c) a first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 extending across the pallet 2500 from side to side; and (d) a second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142 extending across the pallet 2500 from side to side. Similar to the pallet 100 described above, the first set of fork lift tine receiving channels 2132a and 2136a and the second set of fork lift tine receiving channels 2132b and 2136b are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels of the pallet 2100 of the container 2050 which is stacked on top of another container, the tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should thus be appreciated that the pallet 2100 is configured to enable a fork lift to move these containers when one container is stacked on another container without damaging the lower container, and particularly the cover or the extension assembly of the lower container. Also, similar to the pallet 100 described above, the first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142 are positioned such that when the forks or tines of a pallet jack are inserted into these channels defined by the pallet 2100 of the container 2050, they can lift and move the container. As mentioned above, a typical pallet jack does not operate like a fork lift so that the pallet jack will only be used when the container is on the floor or ground and not with stacked containers. Therefore, the tines or forks of a pallet jack will not be in a position to engage the material loading assembly or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of a set of stacked containers. It should also be appreciated that this illustrated embodiment does not include any legs between the first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142, but that alternative embodiments could include one or more legs or separators between these two channels. It should further be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment the footing 2101 has a smaller rectangular footprint than the body 2102 and the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 to enable the pallet 2100, and specifically legs 2121, 2124, 2125, and 2128 of the pallet 2100, to sit on another container, and specifically to respectively sit on the nesting supports 2840a, 2842a, 2840b, 2842b, 2840c, 2842c, 2840d, and 2842d of the top compartment 2300 of another container as best illustrated in FIGS. 89, 90, and 91 and as further described in detail below. The plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d are attached to the respective corners of the body 2102 and are each formed from a suitable stainless steel in this illustrated embodiment. It should be appreciated that the compression guards or plates may alternatively be formed from other suitable materials and in other suitable sizes and configurations. The plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d prevent the corners of the bottom compartment 2200 from digging into the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 as best illustrated in FIGS. 92 and 93. It should also be appreciated that this configuration of the pallet enables the pallet (and thus the entire container) to sit on top of known commercially available containers such as the one or more of commercially available Buckhorn containers which are generally described above. The bottom compartment 2200 of this example illustrated embodiment includes: (a) a lower exterior bottom wall or panel 2202 defining a material release opening or chute 2204; (b) an upper interior bottom wall 2210 defined by four attached downwardly angled sections or chute ramps 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218; (c) four wedge shaped interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228; (d) spaced apart first and second or front and back exterior walls 2232 and 2236; and (e) spaced apart third and fourth or left and right exterior side walls 2234 and 2238, as generally illustrated in FIGS. 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59. The four sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 2234 and 2238 define a bottom compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly toward and to the material release opening or chute 2204. In this illustrated embodiment, the lower exterior bottom wall 2202, the upper interior bottom wall 2210, the interior bottom wall supports 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228, the front and back exterior walls 2232 and 2236, and the exterior side walls 2234 and 2238 are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel, and are attached by rivets. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. The exterior bottom wall 2202 of the bottom compartment 2200 is suitably attached to the pallet 2100 of the container 2050 by suitable fasteners as further described below; however, it should be appreciated that the exterior bottom wall can be attached in other suitable manners. More specifically, the lower exterior bottom wall 2202 includes: (a) a rectangular substantially flat base 2206 which defines the centrally located rectangular material release opening or chute 2204; and (b) an upwardly extending lip 2208 extending upwardly from each of outer edges of the base 2206. The material release opening or chute 2204 enables materials in the top and bottom compartments to flow out of bottom compartment 2200 when the chute door or gate 2510 of the material unloading assembly for the opening or chute 2204 is opened as further discussed below. The opening 2204 in this illustrated embodiment is approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) by approximately 11 inches (27.94 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. The opening has four corners which each may have a suitable radius or curve. This size of the opening relative to the size of the bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of unloading of the material from the top and bottom compartments without sacrificing structure or strength of the bottom compartment. The interior bottom wall supports 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 are attached in spaced apart locations to the top of the base 2206 by rivets, although they can also or alternatively be otherwise attached. Each of the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 are of a wedge shape such that they are configured to be engaged by and support a respective one of the downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 2210. The gusset 2222 is wider than the other gussets 2224, 2226, and 2228 in this illustrated embodiment to distribute the weight of the materials supported by gusset 2222 to the pallet 2100 at further spaced apart locations which are not directly over the gate 2510 of the material unloading assembly 2500 (which is further described below). The upper interior bottom wall 2210, and specifically the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 are respectively attached to the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 by rivets, although they can also or alternatively be otherwise attached. The interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222 and 2226 are some what shorter than the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2224 and 2288 to prevent too much weight from being placed on the material unloading assembly 500 and particularly on the gate 2510. The four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 each have a lower edge such that when such sections are attached, such sections form an opening 2211 adjacent to and slightly smaller than but generally substantially aligned with the opening 2204 of the base wall 2206. In particular, the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 extend downwardly slightly further than the material release opening or chute 2204 of the base wall 2206 of the bottom compartment 2200. FIGS. 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, and 73 best illustrate that the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 define a slightly smaller opening than the opening 2204 defined by the base wall 2206. This prevents materials stored in the container from getting trapped or positioned between the upper bottom wall and the lower bottom wall. The upper interior bottom wall 2210, and specifically upper portions of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 are also respectively attached to and supported by the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 of the bottom compartment 2200 is supported at multiple locations including multiple points of support by the various different portions of the pallet 2100. More specifically, the sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 2210 are supported: (a) at their top ends by the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2200; (b) centrally by interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228; (c) by attachment to each other; and (d) overall by the pallet 2100. As seen in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 77, and 90, and as best seen in FIGS. 92 and 93, the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2200 also each includes a skirt that extends downwardly along a respective different side of the pallet 2100. Each skirt includes a plurality of fastener slots or oval screw holes which are configured to facilitate movement of each exterior wall and particularly the skirt relative to the fasteners. More specifically, as seen in FIGS. 92 and 93, suitable fasteners such as screws are used to attach each skirt to the respective side of the pallet 2100 and particularly the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 to support these exterior walls. In FIG. 92, the container 2050 is collapsed and is empty and the skirt is positioned such that the screws are respectively at the bottom of the slots. In FIG. 93, the container 2050 is collapsed and is filled and the skirt has moved downwardly relative to the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 and is positioned such that the screws are at the top of the slots. The skirts of the exterior walls, and thus the entire the exterior walls of the bottom container have moved downwardly relative to the pallet and particularly relative to the body 2102 of the pallet 2100. It should be appreciated that the bottom compartment is thus configured to move relative to the pallet when filled. It should also be appreciated that the slots may be of different sizes such that in these positions, the screws are adjacent to but not at the tops or bottoms of the slots. As generally illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 and as best illustrated in FIGS. 80, 81, 82, 83, 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, each of the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2210 each include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the rectangular panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of an adjacent exterior wall. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall: (a) are preferably connected rivets; (b) add structural rigidity to the bottom compartment; and (c) in conjunction with the top compartment support assemblies (discussed below) provide support for the top compartment when the top compartment is in the expanded position as further described below. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 80, 81, 82, 83, 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, exterior side wall 2232 includes panel 2252 and corner 2262 which includes corner sections 2262a and 2262b, and exterior side wall 2234 includes panel 2254 and corner 2264 which includes corner sections 2264a and 2264b. Corner sections 2264a is mated with and attached to corner section 2262a, and corner section 2264b is mated with and attached to corner section 2262b to form this corner of the bottom compartment 2200. It should be appreciated that each corner of the bottom compartment is preferably configured in a similar manner. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the bottom compartment and to minimize interference with movement of the top compartment 2300 relative to the bottom compartment 2200. These corners and the top compartment support assemblies are further described below. Turning now to FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, and 54, the top compartment 2300 of the container 2050 includes an exterior top wall 2302, spaced apart exterior front and back side walls 2312 and 2316, spaced apart exterior side walls 2316 and 2318, and exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 respectively attached to the exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318. In this illustrated embodiment, the exterior top wall 2302, exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318, and exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 are also all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel. The upper interior base wall 2306 is suitably attached to the upper portions of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 by rivets. The exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 are respectively attached to the exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 by rivets. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected in any suitable manner. The upper interior base wall 2306 and the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 define a top compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly to the bottom compartment material holding area or cavity. As with container 50, the exterior top wall 2302 of container 2050 includes a rectangular substantially flat base which defines the centrally located rectangular material receipt or loading opening or chute (not shown in FIGS. 47 to 96B). This material receipt or loading opening or chute enables materials to flow into the top and bottom compartments when the cover of the material loading assembly is opened. The opening in this embodiment is 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) by 18 inches (45.72 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. As best illustrated in FIGS. 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, similar to the configuration of the bottom compartment, each of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 of the top compartment 2300 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of the adjacent exterior wall similar to the bottom compartment. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall of the top compartment are preferably connected by welding and add structural rigidity to the top compartment. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, exterior side wall 2312 includes panel 2352 and corner 2362 which includes corner sections 2362a and 2362b, and exterior side wall 2314 includes panel 2354 and corner 2364 which includes corner sections 2364a and 2364b. Corner sections 2364a is mated with and attached to corner section 2362a, and corner section 2364b is mated with and attached to corner section 2362b to form this corner of the top compartment 2300. It should be appreciated that each corner of the top compartment is preferably configured in a similar manner. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 of the bottom compartment 2210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the top compartment 2300. FIGS. 95A and 96A illustrate the position of these walls and corners of the top and bottom compartments when the container is empty and the container is in the expanded position. It should be appreciated that the exact amount of the space between the corners of the top and bottom compartments can vary in accordance with the present disclosure and in accordance with manufacturing tolerances. The figures illustrate that when the container 2050 is empty, the corner of the top compartment can relatively easily move vertically relative to the corner of the bottom compartment. FIGS. 95B and 96B illustrate the position of these walls and corners of the top and bottom compartments when the container is full and the container is in the expanded position. These figures illustrate that when the container 2050 is full, the wall panels of the top and bottom compartment are configured to bow outwardly as very generally illustrated in FIG. 94 and that an engagement is created or formed between the sections of the corners of the top and bottom compartments as generally illustrated in FIGS. 95B and 96B. This engagement of the corners causes the corners of the top compartment to engage and grip the corners of the bottom compartment, which holds the relative position of the top compartment to the bottom compartment (in addition to the support provided by the top compartment support assemblies as further discussed below.) It should also be appreciated that this top corner to bottom corner engagement may happen at one corner, more than one corner, or all of the corners of the container. It should also be appreciated that this corner engagement may occur in the embodiment of FIGS. 1 to 46 described above. Turing now to FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66,67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, and 79, the material unloading assembly 2500 of the container 2050 is supported by the bottom wall 2206 of the bottom compartment 2200 adjacent to the opening or chute 2204 in the bottom compartment 2200 and above the opening 2170 in the pallet 2100. The material unloading assembly 2500 generally includes a chute door or gate 2510 slidably positioned on the guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169. In this illustrated embodiment, the gate 2510 and the guide rails are 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the gate and the guide rails can be made from other suitable materials. The guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 are each respectively attached to the bottom exterior surface of the bottom wall 2206. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 60, 61, 65, 66, and 67 illustrate these guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 detached from or without the exterior bottom wall 2206 to show how they are positioned with respect to the pallet 2100 and the opening 2170 defined by the pallet 2100. The guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169, support and guide the movement of closure portion 2516 and the handle portion 2512 of the chute door or gate 2510. The gate 2510 slides or moves above and on these guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169, and these guide rails prevent the downward movement of the chute door or gate when the container is full and also prevent loose materials being held in the top and bottom compartments from accumulating on or adjacent to the chute door or gate. The guide rails 2165 and 2169 include stops or stopping members which prevent the gate from moving outwardly too far and are generally illustrated in FIGS. 65, 66, and 67. The gate 2510 includes a handle member or portion 2512 and a closure member or portion 2516 extending from the handle member or portion 2512 as best illustrated in FIGS. 74, 75, and 76. The gate 2510 is movable or slidable from a closed position as shown in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 68, and 69, to a plurality of different partially open positions (such as the partially open position shown in FIGS. 66, 70, and 71), and then to a fully open position shown in FIGS. 67, 72, and 73. It should be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment, the gate does not rest on the pallet, but that in other embodiments, the gate or portions of the gate may rest on portions of the pallet. It should also be appreciated that the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 also defines a plurality of stopping walls (as best seen in FIGS. 65, 66 and 67) that would prevent the gate 2510 from moving too far outwardly and which also secondarily keep the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 relatively close to the pallet 2100. It should further be appreciated that the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 also provides a stopping walls 2182 that prevents the gate 2510 from moving too far inwardly. It should be appreciated that this illustrated example embodiment of the material unloading assembly 2500 does not include a knife as in the embodiments described above. However, it should be appreciated that an alternative of this embodiment could alternatively include one or more knives. The material unloading assembly 2500 also includes a locking assembly 2550 configured to enable a user to lock the gate 2510, and specifically the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 to the stopping wall 2182 of the pallet 2510 to prevent the handle portion 2512 and the gate 2510 from being accidentally opened at undesired points in time such as: (a) during loading of the container 2050; (b) during transit of the container 2050; or (c) at any other point in time prior to an unloader opening the gate 2510. More specifically, as seen in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 76, 77, 78 and 79, the 60 handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 includes a downwardly extending handle 2513 which is configured to be gripped by a user to open and close the gate 2510. The downwardly extending handle 2513 defines a locking pin slot or opening 2514 (best seen in FIGS. 59, 67, and 77) configured such the locking pin 2590 can extend through the locking pin opening or slot 2514. The material unloading assembly 2500 also includes a stopping bracket 2560 attached to the bottom surface of the stopping wall 2182 as best seen in FIGS. 68, 70 and 72. The stopping bracket 2560 includes an opening aligned with the opening 2514 of the handle 2513 of the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510. More specifically, the material unloading assembly 2500 further includes a locking pin 2590 configured to be inserted through: (a) the locking pin slot or opening 2514 of the handle 2513 of the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510; and (b) the opening in the stopping bracket 2560 when the gate 2510 is in the closed position. This locking pin 2590 engages the stopping bracket 2560 to prevent unwanted opening of the gate 2510. When the user desires to open the gate 2510, the user activates the locking pin 590 and removes the locking pin 2590 from the stopping bracket 2560. It should be appreciated that although not shown, the locking pin 2590 can be tethered to the handle 2513 of the gate 2510 by a suitable tether (not shown). It should also be appreciated that the locking pin can be placed in a different hole in the handle of the gate 2510. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the material unloading assembly can further include one or more guides for holding the locking pin 2590 level or otherwise in position for easy re-insertion when the gate 2510 is in a fully open or partially open position. It should be appreciated that the locking pin can be any suitable locking pin. It should also be appreciated, that although not shown a suitable tether can be employed to maintain the locking pin attached to the gate or container. It should also be appreciated that by pushing the handle back toward the closed position, the chute can be closed or partially closed. It should also be appreciated that placing the handle in a partially open or partially closed positioned enables the user to control the rate of emptying the materials from the container 2050. It should also be appreciated that the pallet or bottom container can include a loop or hole that corresponds to a hole in the handle 2513 for receiving a tamper identification seal or lock. As mentioned above, the top compartment 2300 is supported by a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies 2400a, 2400b, 2400c (not shown), and 2400d which are each configured to support a different one of the corners of the top compartment 2300 and to hold the top compartment 2300 in the expanded position as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 49, 50, 51, 83, 84, 85, 86, and 84. In the illustrated embodiment, each top compartment support assembly 2400a, 2400b, 2400c, and 2400d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these support assemblies may be different. Support assembly 2400a is discussed herein as an example. Support assembly 2400a includes a support pin 2410a configured to be inserted through a pin receipt or pin receipt hole (not shown) in the respective corner of the bottom compartment 2200 and into a tubular support pin receiver or sleeve 2412a of the support assembly 2400a which is attached to a support bracket 2413a which is suitably attached (such as by welding) to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment 2200 as best illustrated in FIG. 85. The illustrated support pin 2410a includes a head, a collar attached to the head and a body extending from the collar, and a locking mechanism with a push button disposed in the head. The bottom edges of the corners of the top compartment are configured to rest on the bodies of these support pins. However, it should be appreciated that other support pins may be employed in accordance with the present disclosure. The support assembly 2400a further includes a combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a and a tether 2460a (shown in FIG. 94) attaching the pin 2420a to the combined support bracket and holder 2430a. It should be appreciated that the combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a and the tether 2460a are partially employed to prevent the support pin 2410a from being lost and to hold the support pin 2410a out of the way of the bottom compartment 2200 when the support pin 2410a is not in use. More specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a is substantially more robust than the support pin holder 430a of container 50 described above. Combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a includes two mounting members 2432a and 2433a suitably attached to the corner of the top compartment 2300 and a pin holder 2434a connected to the mounting members 2432a and 2433a. The pin holder 2434a defines a first hole for attachment of the one end of the tether and a second hole for removably holding the support pin when the support pin is not in use. The combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a is made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, and riveted to the corner of the top compartment 2300. It should be appreciated that the combined support bracket and holder could be made from other suitable materials, could be suitably attached to the top compartment in other suitable manners and could be alternatively configured. It should also be appreciated that each combined support bracket and pin holder is configured to provide additional support for the top compartment when the top compartment rest on the support pins. Similar to tether 460a described above, tether 2460a includes one end loop is attached to the combined support bracket and holder 2430a and another end loop is attached to the support pin. Each tether may be any suitable length and made from any suitable material such as steel or a high strength plastic. The support pin 2410a in the illustrated embodiment is similar to the pin described above. It should be appreciated that other suitable support pins may be employed with the container in accordance with the present disclosure. As mentioned above, the container 2050 includes an extension assembly 2700 which enables a user or loader to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position to enable insertion of the support pins. The extension assembly 2700 of the container 2050 is identical to the extension assembly 700 of the container 50, and thus will only generally be described. Generally, as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 52, and 54, the extension assembly 2700 includes a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2702 and 2704 and a second set of aligned forklift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2706 and 2708. Each of the lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2702, 2704, 2706, and 2708 are identical in this illustrated embodiment, but it should be appreciated that these components can be different. In this embodiment, these loops or lifting brackets are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel and the mounting bars are each suitably riveted to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300. The loops or lifting brackets are suitably aligned to form two slots configured to receive forklift forks or tines. It should be appreciated that these brackets can be made of other suitable materials and attached in other suitable manners. The material loading assembly 2600 is similar to the material loading assembly 600 of container 50 and thus will only be generally described. FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, and 54, generally illustrate that the material loading assembly 2600 is attached to the top compartment 2300 and generally includes: (a) an upwardly extending lip (not shown) attached to and extending from the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300; (b) a cover 2610 configured to securely engage the upwardly extending lip and pivotally attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300 by hinge 2630; (c) a lock assembly 2650 including a first portion attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300 and a second portion or lid latch pivotally attached to the cover 2610; (d) and a gasket (not shown) mounted in the cover 2610 to seal out contaminants. The locking assembly 2650 includes a suitable lock (not shown) which is used to lock the cover 2610 in the closed position, and specifically to lock the second portion or lid latch attached to the cover to the first portion attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300. As mentioned above, the container 2050 and specifically the top compartment 2300 includes a plurality of nesting or stacking or guides 2800a, 2800b, 2800c, and 2800d which are configured to facilitate secure stacking of the containers of the present disclosure as well as stacking of other known bulk material containers as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 88, 89, 90, and 91. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the stacking guides 2800a, 2800b, 2800c, and 2800d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these stacking guides may be different. More specifically, stacking guide 2800a is discussed herein as an example stacking guide. As best shown in FIG. 88, stacking guide 2800a includes mounting walls 2802a and 2804a configured to be attached to the corner of the top compartment 2300 and guide wall 2812a and 2814a respectively attached to and extend from the mounting walls 2802a and 2804a. In this illustrated embodiment, the guide wall 2812a and 2814a each respectively define openings 2820a and 2822a. As generally shown in FIGS. 90 and 91, the stacking guides assist in positioning one container of the present disclosure on top of another container of the present disclosure. FIG. 89 illustrates one corner of the top compartment 2300 of the container 2050 with a nesting guide 2800a and two nesting supports 2840a and 2842a adjacent to and attached to the nesting guide 2800a. In this illustrated example, the nesting supports 2840a and 2842a are each made from a steel tubular material and are attached by rivets to the nesting guide 2800a. It should be appreciated that the nesting supports can be made from other suitably strong materials and can be attached to the nesting guide in other suitable manners such as by welding. When a second container sits on a first container as generally illustrated in FIGS. 90 and 91, the pallet of the second or top container rests on the nesting supports 2840a and 2842a of the first or bottom container which are configured to support the pallet and specifically the legs of the pallet of the second container. The nesting supports direct the weight of the second or top container that sits on those nesting supports to the corners of the first or bottom container rather than the entire side walls or edges of the first or bottom container. This prevents the weight of the second or top container from damaging the walls of the top compartment of the first or bottom container and provides for a better nesting of compatible containers. FIG. 91 shows the leg 2124 of the pallet 2100 sitting on the nesting supports 2842a and 2840a adjacent to the nesting guide 2800a. FIG. 91 also shows a small gap under the footing 2101 attached to the bottom of the legs of the pallet 2100 and that the footing does not rest on the nesting supports and does not rest on the top wall of the top compartment. This configuration prevents too much weight from the second or top pallet from being placed on the top wall of the top compartment of the first or bottom pallet. This example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive and hold a large plastic bag or a sleeve which holds the materials in the interior areas defined by bottom and top compartments. In one embodiment, the same bag as the bag described above can be employed. When a bag is employed with this container 2050, it is expected that a knife will also be employed in the material unloading assembly. In other embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed as generally illustrated in FIG. 87. In one such embodiment, the sleeve includes four connected walls where each wall is approximately 45 inches (114.30 centimeters) by approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters). In one embodiment, the sleeve has no bottom or top walls. In one embodiment, the sleeve: (a) is FDA compliant; (b) has an approximately 2 millimeter thickness; (e) is opaque or gray; and (f) is made from a low density recyclable polyethylene plastic. In one alternative embodiment, the sleeve is also or alternatively bio-degradable. It should be appreciated that in various embodiments the sleeve will be appropriately folded so that the sleeve can be unfolded and positioned in the top and bottom compartments of the container. FIG. 87 shows the top compartment 2300 removed from the bottom compartment and the generally rectangular sleeve 2900 extending downwardly from the top compartment 2300. This sleeve 2900 includes double-sided tape (not shown) on the outside walls of its top end for attachment of the sleeve to the inner surfaces of the walls of the top compartment. In practice, to install a sleeve, an operator would: (a) remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment; (b) clean the interior walls of both top and bottom compartments if necessary; (c) unfold the sleeve, and attach the sleeve to the inner wall surfaces of the top compartment; (d) move the top compartment with the sleeve hanging down over the bottom compartment; and (e) lower the sleeve into the bottom compartment and reconnect the top compartment to the bottom compartment such the sleeve is in the bottom and top compartments. In another embodiment (not shown), the bulk material shipping container is similar to container 2050 but is not expandable or retractable. This example shipping container includes: (a) a pallet similar to pallet 2100; (b) a single compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and similar to material unloading assembly 2500; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the top of the compartment similar to material loading assembly 2600. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag, with a sleeve, or without a bag or sleeve. In another embodiment partially shown in FIG. 97, the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable and does not include a top wall. In this embodiment, the shipping container 3050 includes: (a) a pallet (not shown) similar to pallet 2100; (b) a single compartment 3300 mounted on the pallet; and (c) a material unloading assembly (not shown) supported by the bottom compartment and similar to material loading assembly 2500. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag, with a sleeve, or without a bag or a sleeve. Additionally, in this illustrated embodiment, the compartment is formed without a top wall. End caps or channels 3352, 3354, 3356, and 3358 are respectively positioned over the top edges of the side walls 3312, 3314, 3316, and 3318 to protect and strengthen the top edges of the compartment. The nesting guides 3800a (not shown), 3800b, 3800c, and 3800d are configured to provide additional engagements with the corners of the top of the compartment to sufficiently support the nesting supports. In this embodiment, multiple containers with open top ends can be stacked on each other and unloaded together when the material unloading assemblies are all opened with the containers stacked on each other. It should be appreciated that the present disclosure contemplates the elimination or reduction of sharp edges in the compartment and that any sharp edges can be curved or formed with a suitable radius. It should be understood that modifications and variations may be effected without departing from the scope of the novel concepts of the present disclosure, and it should be understood that this application is to be limited only by the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Various bulk material shipping containers are known. Such known material bulk shipping containers, sometimes referred to herein for brevity as known containers or as known bulk containers, are used to transport a wide range of products, parts, components, items, and materials such as, but not limited to, seeds, shavings, fasteners, and granular materials. These are sometimes called loose materials. There are various disadvantages with such known bulk material shipping containers. For example, one known and widely commercially used known bulk container for shipping materials (such as shipping seeds to farms) is sold by Buckhorn Industries. This known bulk container is made from plastic, weighs about 338 pounds (151.9 kilograms), and holds a maximum of 58.3 cubic feet of material. This known container has a bottom section, a top section, and a cover. To use this known container, loaders at a bulk material supplier must remove the cover, remove the top section from the bottom section, flip the top section upside down, place the flipped top section on the bottom section, fill the container, and then place the cover on the flipped top section. This process requires at least two people and a relatively significant amount of time when filling a large quantity of these containers. In certain instances, specifically configured forklift attachments are required to fill and handle this known container. After this known container is shipped to its ultimate destination (such as a farm), the bulk material (such as seed) is unloaded from the container, and the empty container must be shipped back to the material supplier. However, prior to and for shipping back to the supplier, the cover is removed, the flipped top section is removed from the bottom section, the flipped top section is then flipped back over and placed on the bottom section, and the cover is then placed on the top section and fastened with zip ties. This process also requires at least two people and is relatively time consuming especially for a large quantity of such containers. Another disadvantage of this known container is that this container is made from plastic and if one of the three sections (i.e., the bottom, the top, or the cover) is damaged or cracked, that entire section typically must be replaced (instead of being repaired). This adds additional cost, time out of service for the damaged container, and additional material and energy waste. Another disadvantage of this known container is that when disassembled (for shipping empty), only two of these containers can be stacked on top of each other and still fit in a conventional shipping container or truck. This tends to leave wasted space in such shipping containers and trucks, and thus increases the overall cost of shipping (including related fuel costs) and energy waste. Additional disadvantages of this known container are that: (a) the cover can be easily lost or misplaced; (b) the cover can be easily damaged; (c) this known container is less weather resistant because the cover is readily removable and only attached by zip ties; (d) the insides and outside surfaces are difficult to clean; and (e) a material holding bag is not readily usable with this container, such that this container cannot be used for certain types of loose materials. For purposes of brevity, (a) the people who assemble and/or put a container in the position for receiving materials for transport and who load the material in a container are sometimes referred to herein as the “loaders,” and (b) the people who remove the materials from a container and who disassemble and/or put a container in the position for sending back to the supplier are sometimes referred to herein as the “unloaders.” Accordingly, there is a need for better bulk material shipping containers which overcome these disadvantages. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a bulk material shipping container which overcomes the above described disadvantages with previously known commercially available bulk shipping containers. One embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment and movable from a retracted position relative to the bottom compartment (for efficient shipping when not holding materials or holding a relatively small amount of materials) to an expanded position relative to the bottom compartment (for holding extra materials during shipping); (d) a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; (f) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment; and (g) an extension assembly attached to the top compartment which enables a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. The shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive a suitable plastic bag which holds the materials in the container. It should thus be appreciated that the expandable and retractable bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. It should also be appreciated that when a plastic bag is used to hold the materials in the container, the material unloading assembly includes a knife which cuts the bottom of the bag open for unloading of the materials. The bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is sometimes referred herein for brevity as the container or as the shipping container. One embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is primarily made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, except for the pallet which is made from wood. If one of the sections of this embodiment of the container is damaged or cracked, that section can typically be repaired which reduces: (a) cost; (b) time out of service for the container; and (c) additional material and/or energy waste. In alternative embodiments, the pallet of the bulk material shipping container, or certain parts thereof, can be made from a suitably strong plastic material such as a composite material or a fiber glass material. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure can also be stacked three high (when empty) for shipping in conventional transport containers or trucks. This reduces wasted space in such transport containers and trucks and decreases shipping cost and fuel consumption, and thus energy waste. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure holds 72 cubic feet of material and up to about 3125 pounds (1417.5 kilograms). This embodiment of the shipping container has several advantages over the above described known bulk container. Specifically, this embodiment of the bulk container is approximately 65 pounds (29.49 kilograms) lighter, holds approximately 14 cubic feet of additional materials which is approximately 25% more material (such as seeds), is readily repairable, can be stacked three high for more efficient transport to the supplier, and can be moved from the transport or retracted position to the loading or expanded position by one person. To load the presently disclosed container, the loaders do not need to remove a cover, remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment, flip the top compartment over, place the flipped top compartment on the bottom compartment, or place any cover on the flipped top compartment. Additionally, the unloaders do not need to remove the cover, remove the flipped top compartment, flip the top compartment, place the top compartment on the bottom compartment, and then place the cover on the top compartment for returning the empty container. In another embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment, and thus this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the single compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the single compartment. In this embodiment, since there is a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to a top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed in the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, the pallet supports the compartments, but does not directly support the material unloading assembly. In further embodiments, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is configured without the top wall to provide an open top end. It is therefore an advantage of the present disclosure to provide a new and improved bulk material shipping container. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments and the figures. | B65D1906 | 20170623 | 20170912 | 20171005 | 58071.0 | B65D1906 | 1 | ORTIZ, RAFAEL ALFREDO | BULK MATERIAL SHIPPING CONTAINER | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B65D | 2,017 |
15,631,815 | PENDING | EYE-MOUNTABLE DEVICE TO PROVIDE AUTOMATIC ACCOMMODATION AND METHOD OF MAKING SAME | An eye-mountable device (EMD) includes a lens enclosure, liquid crystal material, first and second electrodes, a substrate, and a controller. The lens enclosure includes a first encapsulation layer and a second encapsulation layer sealed to the first encapsulation layer. The liquid crystal material is disposed across a central region of the lens enclosure. The first electrode is disposed within the lens enclosure between the first encapsulation layer and the liquid crystal material. The second electrode is disposed within the lens enclosure between the second encapsulation layer and the liquid crystal material. The substrate is disposed within the lens enclosure between the first and second encapsulation layers. The controller is disposed on the substrate and electrically coupled to the first and second electrodes to apply a voltage across the liquid crystal material. | 1. An eye-mountable device (EMD) comprising: a lens enclosure including a first encapsulation layer and a second encapsulation layer sealed to the first encapsulation layer, wherein the second encapsulation layer is configured to be removeably mounted over an eye surface; a liquid crystal material disposed across a central region of the lens enclosure; a first electrode disposed within the lens enclosure between the first encapsulation layer and the liquid crystal material; a second electrode disposed within the lens enclosure between the second encapsulation layer and the liquid crystal material; a substrate disposed within the lens enclosure between the first and second encapsulation layers; and a controller disposed on the substrate and electrically coupled to the first and second electrodes to apply a voltage across the liquid crystal material. 2. The EMD of claim 1, wherein the substrate is disposed in a peripheral region that extends around at least a portion of the liquid crystal material in the central region. 3. The EMD of claim 2, further comprising: a pinch-off region defining a perimeter of the central region where a portion of the first encapsulation layer physically contacts a portion of the second encapsulation layer, wherein the pinch-off region seals the liquid crystal material in the central region. 4. The EMD of claim 3, wherein the pinch-off region comprises a recess disposed in one of the first or second encapsulation layers that forms physical contact between the first and second encapsulation layers to seal the liquid crystal material in the central region. 5. The EMD of claim 4, wherein at least one of the first or second encapsulation layer adjacent to the recess forms a taper of the central region that extends in a direction toward the pinch-off region. 6. The EMD of claim 4, wherein at least one of the first or second encapsulation layer adjacent to the recess forms a taper of the peripheral region that extends in a direction toward the pinch-off region. 7. The EMD of claim 3, wherein the pinch-off region separates the liquid crystal material in the central region from the substrate in the peripheral region. 8. The EMD of claim 7, wherein respective edges of the first and second encapsulation layers are sealed together around a perimeter edge of the peripheral region to seal the substrate. 9. The EMD of claim 3, wherein the first electrode includes a first main body portion and a first connection tab that extends from the first main body portion and through the pinch-off region, wherein the second electrode includes a second main body portion and a second connection tab that extends from the second main body portion and through the pinch-off region, wherein the controller is coupled to the first and second connection tabs. 10. The EMD of claim 9, wherein the first connection tab and the second connection tab are rotationally offset from each other. 11. The EMD of claim 9, further comprising: a first contact disposed on a first side of the substrate and coupled to the controller; and a second contact disposed on a second side of the substrate, opposite the first side, and coupled to the controller, wherein the substrate is disposed between the first and second connection tabs and wherein the first connection tab overlaps and is coupled to the first contact and the second connection tab overlaps and is coupled to the second contact. 12. The EMD of claim 2, further comprising: a sensor system disposed within the lens enclosure and coupled to the controller, wherein the controller includes logic that when executed by the controller causes the controller to perform operations including: monitoring feedback signals from the sensor system; determining a gaze direction or a focal distance based upon the feedback signals; and adjusting the voltage applied across the liquid crystal material to automatically adjust a level of accommodation provided by the EMD. 13. The EMD of claim 12, wherein the sensor system comprises a capacitive sensor system that monitors eyelid overlap. 14. The EMD of claim 13, wherein the capacitive sensor system comprises a ring of capacitive sensors extending at least partially around the peripheral region. 15. The EMD of claim 1, further comprising: a first alignment layer disposed between the liquid crystal material and the first electrode, wherein the first alignment layer extends across the central region and has a larger area than that of the first electrode; and a second alignment layer disposed between the liquid crystal material and the second electrode, wherein the second alignment layer extends across the central region and has a larger area than that of the second electrode, wherein the first and second alignment layers align molecules of the liquid crystal material. 16. The EMD of claim 1, wherein the first and second encapsulation layers comprise a flexible contact lens material. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present patent application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/710,332 filed on May 12, 2015, which claims priority under the provisions of 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/012,005 filed Jun. 13, 2014, to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/012,017 filed Jun. 13, 2014, and to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/012,033 filed Jun. 13, 2014, all of which contents are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field This disclosure relates generally to the field of optics, and in particular but not exclusively, relates to contact lenses. 2. Background Art Accommodation is a process by which the eye adjusts its focal distance to maintain focus on objects of varying distance. Accommodation is a reflex action, but can be consciously manipulated. Accommodation is controlled by contractions of the ciliary muscle. The ciliary muscle encircles the eye's elastic lens and applies a force on the elastic lens during muscle contractions that change the focal point of the elastic lens. As an individual ages, the effectiveness of the ciliary muscle degrades. Presbyopia is a progressive age-related loss of accommodative or focusing strength of the eye, which results in increased blur at near distances. This loss of accommodative strength with age has been well studied and is relatively consistent and predictable. Presbyopia affects nearly 1.7 billion people worldwide today (110 million in the United States alone) and that number is expected to substantially rise as the world's population ages. Techniques and devices that can help individuals offset the effects of Presbyopia are increasingly in demand. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The various embodiments of the present invention are illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which: FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram of an eye-mountable device that provides auto-accommodation and an external reader for interacting with the eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 2A is a top view illustration of an eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 2B is a perspective view illustration of an eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view that illustrates the various components and layers of an eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a process for fabricating an eye-mountable device with a liquid crystal accommodation actuator, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 5 shows cross-sectional views of a process to fabricate an eye-mountable device according to an embodiment. FIG. 6 shows cross-sectional views of respective eye-mountable devices each according to a corresponding embodiment. FIGS. 7A-7C illustrate configurations of conductive electrodes relative to a liquid crystal layer within the eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 8 is a profile view that illustrates connections between a ring substrate and conductive electrodes within an eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Embodiments of a system, apparatus, and method of fabrication for an eye-mountable device (or “EMD”) including an accommodation actuator are described herein. In the following description numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the embodiments. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize, however, that the techniques described herein may be practiced without one or more of the specific details, or with other methods, components, materials, etc. In other instances, well-known structures, materials, or operations are not shown or described in detail to avoid obscuring certain aspects. Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments. Described herein is a smart contact lens or other eye-mountable device that comprises an electrically activated lens including an accommodation actuator for adjusting the focal distance of the contact lens. In some embodiments, the accommodation is automatically adjusted in real-time based upon a user's gazing direction. The accommodation actuator is disposed in a center region of the smart contact lens (e.g., covering at least the foveal vision). As such, it is desirable that structures and/or fabrication processes aid in the positioning of an accommodation actuator—e.g., relative to electrodes and/or other circuitry that is to support operation of the accommodation actuator. The accommodation actuator may be implemented with a layer of liquid crystal (LC) material, and may require electrodes to electronically control the accommodation actuator. Accordingly, electrical, structural and/or other isolation may need to be provided—e.g., between the electrodes or between the liquid crystal and control circuitry of the EMD. Embodiments of the instant disclosure mitigate drawbacks that, for example, are associated with fabrication of an accommodation actuator separately from other lens structures. Certain embodiments variously allow for an accommodation actuator (e.g., including a LC material and adjoining layers or polyimide or other alignment material) to be built up, by successive processing steps, on an enclosure layer that, for example, is to form at least part of an exterior of a lens enclosure. Such an enclosure layer may be subsequently sealed to another enclosure layer to form the lens enclosure, where the accommodation actuator is surrounded by, and sealed with, a pinch-off region of the lens enclosure. Embodiments of the eye-mountable device may include a power supply, control electronics, an accommodation actuator, a gaze direction sensor system, and an antenna all embedded within a lens enclosure formed to be contact mounted to an eye (e.g., shaped to be removeably mounted to a cornea and allow eyelid motion to open and close). In one embodiment, the control electronics are coupled to monitor the sensor system to identify gaze direction/focal distance, manipulate the accommodation actuator to control the optical power of the eye-mountable device, and provide wireless communications with an external reader. In some embodiments, the power supply may include charging circuitry for controlling inductive wireless charging of an embedded battery. The lens enclosure may be fabricated of a variety of materials compatible for direct contact with a human eye, such as a polymeric material, a hydrogel, PMMA, silicone based polymers (e.g., fluoro-silicon acrylate), or otherwise. The electronics may be disposed upon a substrate—e.g., having a ring shape—embedded within the lens enclosure near its periphery to avoid interference with incident light received closer to the central region of the cornea. The sensor system may be arranged on the substrate to face outward towards the eyelids to detect the gaze direction/focal distance based upon the amount and position of eyelid coverage over the sensor system. As the eyelids cover different portions of the sensor system, this changes a characteristic (e.g., its capacitance), which may be measured to determine gaze direction and/or focal distance. In some embodiments, the gaze direction/focal distance information may then be used to determine the amount of accommodation to be applied via a see-through accommodation actuator positioned in a central portion of the lens enclosure. The accommodation actuator is coupled to the controller to be electrically manipulated thereby via the application of a voltage across a pair of electrodes. For example, the accommodation actuator maybe implemented with a LC cell that changes its index of refraction in response to an applied electrical bias signal across the electrodes. In other embodiments, the accommodation actuator may be implemented using other types of electro-active materials such as electro-optic materials that vary refractive index in the presence of an applied electric field or electro-mechanical structures that change the shape of a deformable lens. Other example structures that may be used to implement the accommodation actuator include electro-wetting optics, micro-electro-mechanical systems, or otherwise. Features of various embodiments are described herein in the context of a flexible eye-mountable accommodating lens device including an accommodation actuator comprising a LC layer, wherein an optical strength (e.g., corresponding to a particular focal length) of the device may be changed based on capacitive gaze tracking mechanisms. However, such description may be extended to additionally or alternatively apply to any of a variety of other accommodating optical devices that may operate in or on an eye of a user. For example, certain embodiments are not limited with respect to a particular flexibility/rigidity of the eye-mountable device and/or a particular mechanism (e.g., LC element or other) by which an accommodation actuator changes an optical strength of the device. Furthermore, some embodiments are not limited with respect to a capacitive gaze tracking, photodetector gaze tracking of other technique that may be used to determine whether a change in optical strength is to take place. FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram of an eye-mountable device (EMD) 100 with gaze tracking for auto-accommodation along with an external reader 105, in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. The exposed portion of EMD 100 is a flexible lens enclosure 110 formed to be contact-mounted to a corneal surface of an eye. A substrate 115 is embedded within or surrounded by flexible lens enclosure 110 to provide a mounting surface for a power supply 120, a controller 125, a sensor system 135, an antenna 140, and various interconnects 145 and 150. An accommodation actuator 130 is embedded within flexible lens enclosure 110 and coupled to controller 125 to provide auto-accommodation to the wearer of EMD 100. The illustrated embodiment of power supply 120 includes an energy harvesting antenna 155, charging circuitry 160, and a battery 165. The illustrated embodiment of controller 125 includes control logic 170, accommodation logic 175, and communication logic 180. The illustrated embodiment of reader 105 includes a processor 182, an antenna 184, and memory 186. Controller 125 is coupled to receive feedback control signals from sensor system 135 and further coupled to operate accommodation actuator 130. Power supply 120 supplies operating voltages to the controller 125 and/or the accommodation actuator 130. Antenna 140 is operated by the controller 125 to communicate information to and/or from EMD 100. In one embodiment, antenna 140, controller 125, power supply 120, and sensor system 135 are all situated on the embedded substrate 115. In one embodiment, accommodation actuator 130 is embedded within a center region of flexible lens enclosure 110, but is not disposed on substrate 115. Because EMD 100 includes electronics and is configured to be contact-mounted to an eye, it is also referred to herein as an ophthalmic electronics platform, a contact lens, or a smart contact lens. To facilitate contact-mounting, the flexible lens enclosure 110 may have a concave surface configured to adhere (“mount”) to a moistened corneal surface (e.g., by capillary forces with a tear film coating the corneal surface). Additionally or alternatively, the EMD 100 may be adhered by a vacuum force between the corneal surface and flexible lens enclosure 110 due to the concave curvature. While mounted with the concave surface against the eye, the outward-facing surface of flexible lens enclosure 110 may have a convex curvature that is formed to not interfere with eye-lid motion while the EMD 100 is mounted to the eye. For example, flexible lens enclosure 110 may be a substantially transparent curved disk shaped similarly to a contact lens. Flexible lens enclosure 110 may include one or more biocompatible materials, such as those employed for use in contact lenses or other ophthalmic applications involving direct contact with the corneal surface. Flexible lens enclosure 110 may optionally be formed in part from such biocompatible materials or may include an outer coating with such biocompatible materials. Flexible lens enclosure 110 may include materials configured to moisturize the corneal surface, such as hydrogels and the like. Flexible lens enclosure 110 is a deformable (“non-rigid”) material to enhance wearer comfort. In some instances, flexible lens enclosure 110 may be shaped to provide a predetermined, vision-correcting optical power, such as can be provided by a contact lens. Flexible lens enclosure 110 may be fabricated of various materials including a polymeric material, a hydrogel, PMMA, silicone based polymers (e.g., fluoro-silicon acrylate), or otherwise. Substrate 115 includes one or more surfaces suitable for mounting sensor system 135, controller 125, power supply 120, and antenna 140. Substrate 115 may be employed both as a mounting platform for chip-based circuitry (e.g., by flip-chip mounting) and/or as a platform for patterning conductive materials (e.g., gold, platinum, palladium, titanium, copper, aluminum, silver, metals, other conductive materials, combinations of these, etc.) to create electrodes, interconnects, antennae, etc. In some embodiments, substantially transparent conductive materials (e.g., indium tin oxide or the flexible conductive materials discussed below) may be patterned on substrate 115 to form circuitry, electrodes, etc. For example, antenna 140 may be formed by depositing a pattern of gold or another conductive material on substrate 115. Similarly, interconnects 145 and 150 may be formed by depositing suitable patterns of conductive materials on substrate 115. A combination of resists, masks, and deposition techniques may be employed to pattern materials on substrate 115. Substrate 115 may be a relatively rigid material, such as polyethylene terephthalate (“PET”) or another material sufficient to structurally support the circuitry and/or electronics within enclosure material 110. EMD 100 may alternatively be arranged with a group of unconnected substrates rather than a single substrate. For example, controller 125 and power supply 120 may be mounted to one substrate, while antenna 140 and sensor system 135 are mounted to another substrate and the two may be electrically connected via interconnects. Although certain embodiments are not limited in this regard, substrate 115 may be shaped as a flattened ring with a radial width dimension sufficient to provide a mounting platform for the embedded electronics components. Substrate 115 may have a thickness sufficiently small to allow the substrate to be embedded in flexible lens enclosure 110 without adversely influencing the profile of EMD 100. Substrate 115 may have a thickness sufficiently large to provide structural stability suitable for supporting the electronics mounted thereon. For example, substrate 115 may be shaped as a ring with a diameter of about 10 millimeters, a radial width of about 1 millimeter (e.g., an outer radius 1 millimeter larger than an inner radius), and a thickness of about 50 micrometers. Substrate 115 may optionally be aligned with the curvature of the eye-mounting surface of EMD 100 (e.g., convex surface). For example, substrate 115 may be shaped along the surface of an imaginary cone between two circular segments that define an inner radius and an outer radius. In such an example, the surface of substrate 115 along the surface of the imaginary cone defines an inclined surface that is approximately aligned with the curvature of the eye mounting surface at that radius. In some embodiments, power supply 120 and controller 125 (and the substrate 115) may be positioned away from the center of EMD 100 and thereby avoid interference with light transmission to the eye through the center of EMD 110. In contrast, accommodation actuator 130 may be centrally positioned to apply optical accommodation to the light transmitted to the eye through the center of enclosure material 110. For example, where EMD 100 is shaped as a concave-curved disk, substrate 115 may be embedded around the periphery (e.g., near the outer circumference) of the disk. In some embodiments, sensor system 135 includes one or more discrete capacitance sensors that are peripherally distributed to sense the eyelid overlap. In the illustrated embodiment, power supply 120 includes a battery 165 to power the various embedded electronics, including controller 125. Battery 165 may be inductively charged by charging circuitry 160 and energy harvesting antenna 155. In one embodiment, antenna 140 and energy harvesting antenna 155 are independent antennae, which serve their respective functions of energy harvesting and communications. In another embodiment, energy harvesting antenna 155 and antenna 140 are the same physical antenna that are time shared for their respective functions of inductive charging and wireless communications with reader 105. Charging circuitry 160 may include a rectifier/regulator to condition the captured energy for charging battery 165 or directly power controller 125 without battery 165. Charging circuitry 160 may also include one or more energy storage devices to mitigate high frequency variations in energy harvesting antenna 155. For example, one or more energy storage devices (e.g., a capacitor, an inductor, etc.) may be connected to function as a low-pass filter. Controller 125 contains logic to choreograph the operation of the other embedded components. Control logic 170 controls the general operation of EMD 100, including providing a logical user interface, power control functionality, etc. Accommodation logic 175 includes logic for monitoring feedback signals from sensor system 135, determining the current gaze direction or focal distance of the user, and manipulating accommodation actuator 130 in response to provide the appropriate accommodation. The auto-accommodation may be implemented in real-time based upon feedback from the gaze tracking, or permit user control to select specific accommodation regimes (e.g., near-field accommodation for reading, far-field accommodation for regular activities, etc.). Communication logic 180 provides communication protocols for wireless communication with reader 105 via antenna 140. In one embodiment, communication logic 180 provides backscatter communication via antenna 140 when in the presence of an electromagnetic field 171 output from reader 105. In one embodiment, communication logic 180 operates as a smart wireless radio-frequency identification (“RFID”) tag that modulates the impedance of antenna 140 for backscatter wireless communications. The various logic modules of controller 125 may be implemented in software/firmware executed on a general purpose microprocessor, in hardware (e.g., application specific integrated circuit), or a combination of both. EMD 100 may include various other embedded electronics and logic modules. For example, a light source or pixel array may be included to provide visible feedback to the user. An accelerometer or gyroscope may be included to provide positional, rotational, directional or acceleration feedback information to controller 125. FIGS. 2A and 2B illustrate two views of an EMD 200, in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. FIG. 2A is a top view of EMD 200 while FIG. 2B is a perspective view of the same. EMD 200 is one possible implementation of EMD 100 illustrated in FIG. 1. The illustrated embodiment of EMD 200 includes a flexible lens enclosure 210, a ring substrate 215, a power supply 220, a controller 225, an accommodation actuator 230, a capacitive sensor system 235, and an antenna 240. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 2A and 2B are not necessarily drawn to scale, but have been illustrated for purposes of explanation only in describing the arrangement of the example EMD 200. Flexible lens enclosure 210 of EMD 200 is shaped as a curved disk. Flexible lens enclosure 210 is formed with one side having a concave surface 211 suitable to fit over a corneal surface of an eye. The opposite side of the disk has a convex surface 212 that does not interfere with eyelid motion while EMD 200 is mounted to the eye. In the illustrated embodiment, a circular or oval outer side edge 213 connects the concave surface 211 and convex surface 212. EMD 200 may have dimensions similar to a vision correction and/or cosmetic contact lenses, such as a diameter of approximately 1 centimeter, and a thickness of about 0.1 to about 0.5 millimeters. However, the diameter and thickness values are provided for explanatory purposes only. In some embodiments, the dimensions of EMD 200 are selected according to the size and/or shape of the corneal surface of the wearer's eye. Flexible lens enclosure 210 may be formed with a curved shape in a variety of ways. For example, techniques similar to those employed to form vision-correction contact lenses, such as heat molding, injection molding, spin casting, etc. may be employed to form flexible lens enclosure 210. Ring substrate 215 is embedded within flexible lens enclosure 210. Ring substrate 215 may be embedded to be situated along the outer periphery of flexible lens enclosure 210, away from the central region where accommodation actuator 230 is positioned. In the illustrated embodiment, ring substrate 215 encircles accommodation actuator 230. Ring substrate 215 does not interfere with vision because it is too close to the eye to be in focus and is positioned away from the central region where incident light is transmitted to the light-sensing portions of the eye. In some embodiments, ring substrate 215 may optionally be formed of a transparent material to further mitigate effects on visual perception. Ring substrate 215 may be shaped as a flat, circular ring (e.g., a disk with a centered hole). The flat surface of ring substrate 215 (e.g., along the radial width) is a platform for mounting electronics and for patterning conductive materials to form electrodes, antenna(e), and/or interconnections. Capacitive sensor system 235 is distributed about EMD 200 to sense eyelid overlap in a manner similar to capacitive touch screens. By monitoring the amount and position of eyelid overlap, feedback signals from capacitive sensor system 235 may be measured by controller 225 to determine the approximate gaze direction and/or focal distance. In the illustrated embodiment, capacitive sensor sytem 235 is formed by a series of parallel coupled discrete capacitive elements. Other implementations may be used. Accommodation actuator 230 is centrally positioned within flexible lens enclosure 210 to affect the optical power of EMD 200 in the user's center of vision. A pinch-off region 232 may be disposed between accommodation actuator 230 and ring substrate 215 to provide electrical isolation from at least some circuitry of ring substrate 215. In various embodiments, accommodation actuator 230 includes an element that changes its index of refraction under the influence of flexible conductive electrodes manipulated by controller 225. By changing its refractive index, the net optical power of the curved surfaces of EMD 200 is altered, thereby applying controllable accommodation. Accommodation actuator 230 may be implemented using a variety of different optoelectronic elements. For example, accommodation actuator 230 may be implemented using a layer of liquid crystal (e.g., a LC cell) disposed in the center of flexible lens enclosure 210. In other embodiments, accommodation actuator 230 may be implemented using other types of electro-active optical materials such as electro-optic materials that vary refractive index in the presence of an applied electric field. Accommodation actuator 230 may be a distinct device embedded within enclosure material 210 (e.g., LC cell), or a bulk material having a controllable refractive index. In yet another embodiment, accommodation actuator 230 may be implemented using a deformable lens structure that changes shape under the influence of an electrical signal. Accordingly, the optical power of EMD 200 is controlled by controller 225 with the application of electric signals via one or more electrodes extending from controller 225 to accommodation actuator 230. FIG. 3 is an explode perspective view illustrating an EMD 300, in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. EMD 300 is one possible implementation of EMDs 100 or 200, but the exploded perspective illustration shows additional details of various components. The illustrated embodiment of EMD 300 includes a flexible lens enclosure including an anterior layer 305 and a posterior layer 310, an anterior flexible conductive electrode (ANT) 315, a posterior flexible conductive electrode (POST) 320, a liquid crystal layer 325, a ring substrate 330, a power supply 335, a controller circuit 340, an anterior contact pad 345, and a posterior contact pad 350 (hidden in FIG. 3). Collectively, the ANT 315, LC layer 325, and POST 320 form an accommodation actuator that is manipulated under the influence of controller circuit 340. The illustrated embodiment of ANT 315 includes a connection tab 360 and the illustrated embodiment of POST 320 includes a connection tab 365. ANT 315 and POST 320 are transparent electrodes that electrically manipulate LC layer 325 via the application of a voltage across the electrodes. ANT 315 and POST 320 are flexible conductors that substantially maintain their conductivity even in the presence of cyclical mechanical stressing including folding and bending. ANT 315 and POST 320 are formed from a liquid conductor material that is cured onto, and therefore conform to, the curved surfaces of anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310, respectively. ANT 315 and POST 320 may be applied to anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310, respectively, using a variety of techniques. For example, a liquid conductor material including conductive epoxy, conductive polymer, conductive silicon, evaporated metal or other conductive material may be spray coated, stamped, shadow masked or otherwise disposed to form electrode structures to operate an accommodation actuator. In one embodiment, the liquid conductor material is spray coated on the inside concave surface of anterior layer 305 using a conforming concave stencil and is also spray coated on the inside convex surface of posterior layer 310 using a conforming convex stencil. In other embodiments, the spray coating may be actively controlled without use of stencils, or applied after application of a temporary mask. In yet other embodiments, the liquid conductor material is coated onto a stamp with a conforming shaped surface that is then pressed to anterior layer 305 or posterior layer 310 to transfer the liquid conductor material. Other application techniques may also be used to form and position ANT 315 and POST 320 onto anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310, respectively. In one embodiment, ANT 315 and POST 320 are formed to achieve a desired total sheet resistance. Target sheet resistances may range between 100 ohms/square to 2000 ohms/square (e.g., 190 ohms/square). Of course, other target sheet resistances outside this range may also be used. LC layer 325 may be disposed between anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310 in a central region of the EMD 300. Formation of LC layer 325 may include spraying, spinning, masking, stamping, stenciling, and/or other operations adapted from conventional fabrication techniques. LC layer 325 may comprise, for example, poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) :poly(styrenesulfonate) (or PEDOT:PSS) or any of various other liquid crystals that provide for variable refractive index characteristics. In an embodiment, LC layer 325 is isolated electrically from at least some circuitry of ring substrate 325. Additionally or alternatively, LC layer 325 may be disposed between ANT 315 and POST 320 in the central region of EMD 300. FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a process 400 for fabricating an EMD—e.g., one of eye-mountable devices 100, 200, or 300—in accordance with an embodiment of the disclosure. The order in which some or all of the process blocks appear in process 400 should not be deemed limiting. Rather, one of ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of the present disclosure will understand that some of the process blocks may be executed in a variety of orders not illustrated, or even in parallel. Features of process 400 are described herein with reference to fabrication of EMD 300. However, such description may be extended to additionally or alternatively apply to fabrication of any of various other EMDs having features set forth herein. In process blocks 405 and 410, anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310 are formed as separate layers of a lens enclosure. Anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310 may be formed using molds that are spray coated or injected with a flexible, transparent material. The flexible, transparent material may include any of a polymeric material, a hydrogel, PMMA, silicone based polymers (e.g., fluoro-silicon acrylate), or otherwise. Although certain embodiments are not limited in this regard, anterior layer 305 and/or posterior layer 310 may be treated to form reactive surfaces for improved bonding to the ANT 315 and POST 320. For example, anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310 may be plasma treated in a highly ionizing environment that causes the inside surfaces of anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310 to be chemically reactive. In a process block 415, conductor material that forms ANT 315 and POST 320 is deposited onto the concave surface of anterior layer 305 and deposited onto the convex surface of posterior layer 310. In one embodiment, the deposition of the liquid conductor material may be spray coated over stencils that conform to the concave and convex surfaces. In yet another embodiment, the liquid conductive material is applied to stamps with curved surfaces that conform to the concave and convex surfaces of anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310, respectively. The coated stamps are then pressed against the inside surfaces of anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310 to transfer the ink pattern thereto. After application of the liquid conductor material, it may be cured and/or annealed—e.g., with heat. The conductor material may include a conductive epoxy (e.g., any of various conductive silicones), evaporated metal (gold, aluminum), a colloidal solution of conductive particles (e.g., nanotubes or nanowires) and/or the like. Deposition of the conductor material may include forming any of a variety of conductive structures including, but not limited to, one or more gold wires, silver nanowires, an indium tin oxide thin film, etc. In some embodiments, various solvents (e.g., alcohol), surfactants, or dilutants may be added to the liquid conductor material to improve the uniform coating and adhesion of ANT 315 and POST 320 to anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310, respectively. Next, ring substrate 330, including power supply 335 and controller circuit 340, are positioned between the anterior layer 305 and the posterior layer 310—e.g., including positioning the substrate over the convex surface of posterior layer 310 (process block 420). Before or during the positioning at 420, a conductive adhesive may be applied to contact pads on ring substrate 330 in preparation for electrical coupling of ring substrate 330 to one or both of ANT 315 and POST 320. The positioning at 420 may include aligning connection tabs 360, 365 each with a respective contact pad of ring substrate 330—e.g., where connection tabs 360, 365 are radially offset from one another. In a process block 425, an accommodation actuator structure is disposed between the anterior layer and the posterior layer. For example, a liquid crystal material may be dispensed around (e.g., including dispensing on) the center region of the concave surface of anterior layer 305 and covers over ANT 315. In one embodiment, the LC material is dispensed over a larger area such that LC layer 325 covers a greater area than either ANT 315 or POST 320. In a process block 430, the two halves (anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310) of the lens enclosure are pressed together and sealed. For example, an amount of enclosure material may be added between anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310 in a region around a circumference of the LC material. Curing of this material between the anterior and posterior layers may result in a pinch-off region being formed around the LC material. In one embodiment, more enclosure material is also added to the bottom edge or rim of the mated anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310 to form the seal. Curing of this additional enclosure material may seal the substrate in a peripheral region between anterior layer 305 and posterior layer 310. Finally, the eye-mountable device or smart contact lens is packaged into a sealed container of lens solution for distribution (process block 435). It will be appreciated that the particular order of the operations shown for method 400 is not limiting on some embodiments. By way of illustration and not limitation, some or all portions of an accommodation actuator, electrode structures and/or a ring substrate may be variously fabricated and combined with one another, according to different embodiments, as a separate component prior to assembly of such a component with one or both lens enclosure layers. FIG. 5 illustrates cross-sectional detail views of processing to fabricate an eye-mountable device according to an embodiment. Fabrication processes represented in FIG. 5 may include some or all of the features of operation 400, for example. Detail view 500 illustrates formation of a posterior layer 504 (e.g., layer 310) on a mold 502, and detail view 510 illustrates formation of an anterior layer 514 (e.g., layer 305) on a mold 512. One or each of layers 504, 510 may be comprised of one of a silicone, silicone hydrogel, hydrogel, rigid gas permeable (RGP) material, rigid plastic (e.g., polycarbonate), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polymerized acrylate. Although certain embodiments are not limited in this regard, layers 504, 510 may be flexible, in some embodiments. In one illustrative embodiment, one or each of layers 504, 510 have a diameter between 11 and 14 mm in size. Alternatively or in addition, one or each of layers 504, 510 is between 20 microns and 150 microns (e.g., between 20 microns and 100 microns) thick. However, such dimensions may vary in different embodiments according to implementation specific details. Formation of layers 504, 514 may include some or all of the features of the forming at 405, 410, for example. In an embodiment, a recess (not shown)—e.g., 0.1 to 50 um deep—is shaped in a concave side 534 of anterior layer 514, or in a recess in a convex side 524 of posterior layer 504, to aid in the formation of a LC layer of an accommodation actuator element. The shaping of such a recess may include pressing and curing between two molds the enclosure material of one of layers 504, 514. Detail view 520 illustrates a flexible electrode 522 (e.g., electrode 320) deposited on convex surface 524 of posterior layer 504, and detail view 530 illustrates a flexible electrode 532 (e.g., electrode 315) deposited on concave surface 534 of posterior layer 514. Formation of one or each of electrodes 522, 532 may including spraying, stamping, shadow masking, evaporating or otherwise depositing a conductive epoxy (e.g., a conductive silicone), a metal (e.g., gold, aluminum, silver, etc.) or other conductive material. The resulting electrodes 522, 532 may include metal wires, nanowires, indium tin oxide thin films or other such conductive structures to operate an accommodation actuator. In an embodiment, one or each of flexible electrodes 522, 532 has a thickness between 10 nm and 10 microns and a diameter between 2 mm and 3 mm. However, such thicknesses may vary according to implementation specific details. In some embodiments, a flexible electrode has a main body portion and a tab portion (not shown), extending from the main body portion, where the main body portion is to be aligned with a LC layer of an accommodation actuator, and the tab portion is to extend through a pinch-off region that separates the LC layer from a substrate having integrated circuitry disposed therein and/or thereon. Detail view 540 illustrates placement of such a substrate (e.g., ring substrate 330)—e.g., including the illustrative control circuitry 542 and antenna 544—on posterior layer 504. In another embodiment, the substrate may instead be initially placed on surface 534. Detail view 550 shows deposition of a LC layer 554 on a concave side of anterior layer 514. Deposition of the LC layer 554 may be including operations adapted from conventional shadow mask, stamping or other fabrication techniques. In an embodiment, an accommodation actuator structure (e.g., a LC layer) comprises, or adjoins, isolation layers providing at least some isolation that prevents or limits one or more conductive paths between a pinch-off region and electrode structures. For example, at least partially dielectric alignment layers (not shown) of the accommodation actuator may be disposed on opposite sides of LC layer 554. The LC layer 554 may have a thickness of between 0.1 um and 50 um and/or a diameter of between 4 mm and 10 mm. However, such dimensions are merely illustrative and not limiting on certain embodiments. Detail view 560 shows respective structures represented in detail views 540, 550 having been aligned and brought into contact with each other. In some embodiments, one or both of surfaces 524, 534 may be pretreated—e.g., with a plasma—to improve adhesion between the two. Layers 504, 514 may then be sealed to form a flexible enclosure, where an accommodation actuator 562 is located within a central region of the flexible enclosure. A perimeter of the central region may be defined at least in part by a pinch-off region 564 where layers 504, 514 are adjacent to (e.g., physically contact) one another. For example, an additional amount of contact lens material—e.g., a silicone elastomer, a silicone hydrogel or the like—may be disposed around LC layer 554 to aid in adhering layers 504, 514. Curing of such additional material (e.g., by heat or ultraviolet light) may result in a sealing of the accommodation actuator within the central region around which pinch-off region 564 is disposed. In some embodiments, contact lens material may also be applied at an edge region around one of layers 504, 514, where this additional material is also cured to seal the ring substrate in a region of the lens enclosure between pinch-off region 564 and the respective edges of layers 504, 514. The electrodes 522, 532 may be separated from one another in pinch-off region 564. For example, in one illustrative embodiment, conductive layers 522, 532 have a 6 mm diameter, and the pinch-off region has a 7 mm diameter, where the LC layer 554 provides for separation of the conductive layers 522, 532 in the central region around which pinch-off region 564 is formed. FIG. 6 show cross-sectional detail views 600, 650 of eye-mountable devices each according to a respective embodiment. For example, detail view 600 shows a posterior encapsulation layer 610 sealed with an anterior encapsulation layer 620 to form a flexible lens enclosure. A central region of the flexible lens enclosure is defined at least in part by a pinch-off region 625 that extends around a perimeter of the central region. The pinch-off region 625 may serve as a seal to hold an accommodation actuator 615 within the central region. In some embodiments, a peripheral region 630 is located around a periphery of pinch-off region 625—e.g., where peripheral region 630 extends from pinch-off region 625 to the respective circumferential edges of encapsulation layers 610, 620. Peripheral region 630 may include a contact lens material that is disposed and cured to aid in sealing of encapsulation layers 610, 620 with one another. A substrate 635, having integrated circuitry disposed thereon, may be disposed between encapsulation layers 610, 620 within peripheral region 630 In detail view 600, a recess is formed in a concave surface of anterior encapsulation layer 620 to aid in the positioning of accommodation actuator 615 during fabrication processing (e.g., according to method 400). In another embodiment, an encapsulation layer may additionally or alternatively be deformed to aid in the formation of a pinch-off region. By way of illustration and not limitation, detail view 650 shows a posterior encapsulation layer 660 sealed with an anterior encapsulation layer 670 to form a flexible lens enclosure, wherein an accommodation actuator is disposed between encapsulation layers 660, 670 within a central region of the eye-mountable device. Respective portions of the encapsulation layers 660, 670 may adjoin one another to form a pinch-off region 680 that defines at least in part a perimeter of the central region. A pinch-off region such as region 680 may be formed at least in part by a layer of a lens material, the thickness of which extends from a flexible conductor to an exterior surface of the EMD. For example, a pinch-off region may be formed by anterior and posterior layers of lens material that each extend from a respective flexible conductor to a different respective exterior side of the EMD. The exterior surface of one such layer of lens material may be deformed in an area over the pinch-off region. As illustrated in detail view 650, a pinch-off region 680 may be formed at least in part by a flat or convex portion of an otherwise concave surface (e.g., the posterior surface) of an anterior encapsulation layer such as layer 670. The pinch-off region 680 may separate a LC layer 665 from circuitry 685 (e.g., of ring substrate 330) that is disposed between encapsulation layers 660, 670 in a peripheral region of the flexible lens enclosure. As shown in detail view 650, the central region formed by encapsulation layers 660, 670 may taper in a direction extending toward pinch-off region 680. Alternatively or in addition, the peripheral region including integrated circuitry 685 may taper in a direction extending toward pinch-off region 680. The accommodation actuator may comprise, or adjoin, isolation layers disposed between respective portions of an accommodation actuator structure (e.g., a liquid crystal layer) and a flexible conductor. For example, the accommodation actuator may include alignment layers 674a, 674b and LC layer 665. One or each of alignment layers 674a, 674b may have a thickness of 10 nm to 10 microns, although certain embodiments are not limited in this regard. Flexible, transparent electrodes 672a, 672b (e.g., electrodes 315, 320) may be disposed on opposite sides of the accommodation actuator—e.g., where alignment layers 674a, 674b provide at least some isolation to prevent one or more conductive paths between pinch-off region 680 and transparent electrodes 672a, 672b. Under control of circuitry 685, electrodes 672a, 672b may apply a voltage differential across the accommodation actuator. Alignment layers 672a, 672b may comprise polyimide or other suitable material to provide for changing an alignment of liquid crystal molecules to change a refractive index of LC layer 665. In one embodiment, an unpowered state of the LC layer 665 allows for distance viewing—e.g., where any non-zero voltage applied across the liquid crystal layer shortens a focal distance of the eye-mountable device (as compared to a focal distance of the eye-mountable device without any such voltage applied). FIGS. 7A-7C illustrate example orientations of an anterior flexible conductive electrode (ANT) 705 and a posterior flexible conductive electrode (POST) 732 within an eye-mountable device 700, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 7A illustrates ANT 705 formed onto the concave surface of an anterior layer 705, FIG. 7B illustrates POST 732 formed onto the convex surface of a posterior layer 710, and FIG. 7C is a plan view illustration of a fully assembled eye-mountable device 700. FIG. 8 is a profile illustration of a portion of ring substrate 730 that forms electrical connections to a connection tab 760 of ANT 715 and a connection tab 765 of POST 732, in accordance with an embodiment. In the illustrated embodiment, ANT 715 includes connection tab 760 for electrically connecting to anterior contact pad 745 disposed on the front side of ring substrate 730. Correspondingly, POST 732 includes connection tab 765 for electrically connecting to posterior contact pad 750 disposed on the backside of ring substrate 730. FIG. 8 illustrates the use of conductive adhesive 785 to improve the electrically connections between connection tabs 760 and 765 and contact pads 745 and 750, respectively. Conductive adhesive 785 may be implemented using a variety of different materials, such as, silver loaded epoxies, silicon, or polyurethane, or otherwise. Conductive adhesive 785 provides flexible, conductive adhesion that maintains electrical connection when the smart contact lens is bent or folded despite the different flexibility characteristics of the various constituent parts of eye-mountable device 700. In the illustrated embodiment, connection tabs 760 and 765 are rotationally offset relative to each other to make room for a through-substrate via for one or both of contact pads 745, 765. For example, in the illustrated embodiment, power supply 735 and controller circuit 740 are disposed on the front side of ring substrate 730, thus posterior contact pad 750 is connected to controller circuit 740 using a through substrate via. FIG. 7C further illustrates the contour 712 of a LC layer between ANT 715 and POST 732. The LC layer may separate ANT 715 and POST 732 from one another, and may be actuated by voltages applied across these electrodes by controller circuit 740. In the illustrated embodiment, the LC layer extends across a larger portion of the center region to ensure that ANT 715 and POST 732 do not short circuit to each other. In one embodiment, transparent insulating layers (e.g., polyimide) may be further applied each to separate the LC layer from a respective one of ANT 715 and POST 732, while in other embodiments ANT 715 and POST 732 may form direct contact with the LC layer. Both LC layer 720 and respective portions of ANT 715 and POST 732—e.g., other than connection tabs 760, 765—may be contained within the inner radius of ring substrate 730 and may not contact the inner edge of ring substrate 730. In one embodiment, ANT 715 and POST 732 have a diameter of approximately 6 mm, LC layer 725 has a diameter of approximately 7 mm, and the inner edge of ring substrate 730, which defines the center region, has a diameter of 9 mm. Of course, other dimensions may be implemented. Anterior layer 705 and posterior layer 710 may come in contact with one another to form a pinch-off region 720 between diameter of contour 712 and a larger diameter of the inner edge of ring substrate 730. Pinch-off region 720 may variously prevent shorting of the liquid crystal layer, ANT 715 and/or POST 732 to at least some circuitry of ring substrate 730. Techniques and architectures for providing automatic accommodation with an eye-mountable device are described herein. Some portions of the detailed description herein are presented in terms of algorithms and symbolic representations of operations on data bits within a computer memory. These algorithmic descriptions and representations are the means used by those skilled in the computing arts to most effectively convey the substance of their work to others skilled in the art. An algorithm is here, and generally, conceived to be a self-consistent sequence of steps leading to a desired result. The steps are those requiring physical manipulations of physical quantities. Usually, though not necessarily, these quantities take the form of electrical or magnetic signals capable of being stored, transferred, combined, compared, and otherwise manipulated. It has proven convenient at times, principally for reasons of common usage, to refer to these signals as bits, values, elements, symbols, characters, terms, numbers, or the like. It should be borne in mind, however, that all of these and similar terms are to be associated with the appropriate physical quantities and are merely convenient labels applied to these quantities. Unless specifically stated otherwise as apparent from the discussion herein, it is appreciated that throughout the description, discussions utilizing terms such as “processing” or “computing” or “calculating” or “determining” or “displaying” or the like, refer to the action and processes of a computer system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulates and transforms data represented as physical (electronic) quantities within the computer system's registers and memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within the computer system memories or registers or other such information storage, transmission or display devices. Certain embodiments also relate to apparatus for performing the operations herein. This apparatus may be specially constructed for the required purposes, or it may comprise a general purpose computer selectively activated or reconfigured by a computer program stored in the computer. Such a computer program may be stored in a computer readable storage medium, such as, but is not limited to, any type of disk including floppy disks, optical disks, CD-ROMs, and magnetic-optical disks, read-only memories (ROMs), random access memories (RAMs) such as dynamic RAM (DRAM), EPROMs, EEPROMs, magnetic or optical cards, or any type of media suitable for storing electronic instructions, and coupled to a computer system bus. The algorithms and displays presented herein are not inherently related to any particular computer or other apparatus. Various general purpose systems may be used with programs in accordance with the teachings herein, or it may prove convenient to construct more specialized apparatus to perform the required method steps. The required structure for a variety of these systems will appear from the description herein. In addition, certain embodiments are not described with reference to any particular programming language. It will be appreciated that a variety of programming languages may be used to implement the teachings of such embodiments as described herein. Besides what is described herein, various modifications may be made to the disclosed embodiments and implementations thereof without departing from their scope. Therefore, the illustrations and examples herein should be construed in an illustrative, and not a restrictive sense. The scope of the invention should be measured solely by reference to the claims that follow. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The various embodiments of the present invention are illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings and in which: FIG. 1 is a functional block diagram of an eye-mountable device that provides auto-accommodation and an external reader for interacting with the eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 2A is a top view illustration of an eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 2B is a perspective view illustration of an eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 3 is an exploded perspective view that illustrates the various components and layers of an eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 4 is a flow chart illustrating a process for fabricating an eye-mountable device with a liquid crystal accommodation actuator, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 5 shows cross-sectional views of a process to fabricate an eye-mountable device according to an embodiment. FIG. 6 shows cross-sectional views of respective eye-mountable devices each according to a corresponding embodiment. FIGS. 7A-7C illustrate configurations of conductive electrodes relative to a liquid crystal layer within the eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. FIG. 8 is a profile view that illustrates connections between a ring substrate and conductive electrodes within an eye-mountable device, in accordance with an embodiment. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | G02C7083 | 20170623 | 20171012 | 59616.0 | G02C708 | 0 | SCHWARTZ, JORDAN MARC | EYE-MOUNTABLE DEVICE TO PROVIDE AUTOMATIC ACCOMMODATION AND METHOD OF MAKING SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G02C | 2,017 |
|
15,632,696 | ACCEPTED | BULK MATERIAL SHIPPING CONTAINER | A bulk material shipping container including a pallet, a compartment mounted on the pallet, a material unloading assembly, and a material loading assembly. | 1. A material shipping container comprising: a pallet defining spaced apart tine receiving openings extending from a front side of the pallet to a back side of the pallet; a compartment securely fixed to the pallet, the compartment having a first top corner, a second top corner, a third top corner, and a fourth top corner, the compartment including: (a) a top wall, (b) a front exterior wall, (c) a back exterior wall, (d) a first exterior side wall, (e) a second exterior side wall, (f) a front exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the front exterior wall, (g) a back exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the back exterior wall, (h) a first side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the first exterior side wall, (i) a second side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the second exterior side wall, (j) an interior bottom wall including: (i) a front downwardly angled section attached to the front exterior wall and having a lower edge that partially forms a material release opening at a bottom of the compartment, (ii) a back downwardly angled section attached to the back exterior wall and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (iii) a first side downwardly angled section attached to the first exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, and (iv) a second side downwardly angled section attached to the second exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (k) a front wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the front downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the front downwardly angled section, (l) a back wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the back downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the back downwardly angled section, (m) a first side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the first side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the first side downwardly angled section, (n) a second side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the second side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the second side downwardly angled section, (o) a first nesting support positioned at the first top corner of the compartment, (p) a second nesting support positioned at the second top corner of the compartment, (q) a third nesting support positioned at the third top corner of the compartment, and (r) a fourth nesting support positioned at the fourth top corner of the compartment, the first, second, third, and fourth nesting supports configured to at least partially support a pallet of another same material shipping container; a material unloading assembly positioned at the bottom of the compartment, the material unloading assembly including: (i) spaced apart guide rails, and (ii) a slidable gate including a closure member and an engagable member extending in an area lower than the closure member and attached to and supported by the closure member, the closure member partially supported by the spaced apart guide rails, the engagable member movable in a first direction toward the front side of the pallet to cause the closure member to allow material in the compartment to flow through the material release opening, and the engagable member movable in a second different direction toward the back side of the pallet to cause the closure member to prevent material in the compartment from flowing through the material release opening; and a material loading assembly attached to the top wall of the compartment, the material loading assembly including a cover hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment along an axis transverse to an axis extending from the front side of the pallet to the back side of the pallet, the cover rotatable from a closed position to an open position, the cover remaining hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment in the open position. 2. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein each of the tubular nesting supports includes a generally rectangular tubular section. 3. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein: (a) the front exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped first corner section, (b) the front exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped second corner section, (c) the back exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped third corner section, and (d) the back exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped fourth corner section. 4. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein the compartment is entirely supported by the pallet. 5. A material shipping container comprising: a pallet defining spaced apart tine receiving openings extending from a front side of the pallet to a back side of the pallet; a compartment securely fixed to the pallet, the compartment having a first top corner, a second top corner, a third top corner, and a fourth top corner, the compartment including: (a) a steel top wall, (b) a steel front exterior wall, (c) a steel back exterior wall, (d) a steel first exterior side wall, (e) a steel second exterior side wall, (f) a steel front exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the front exterior wall, (g) a steel back exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the back exterior wall, (h) a steel first side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the first exterior side wall, (i) a steel second side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the second exterior side wall, (j) an interior bottom wall including: (i) a steel front downwardly angled section attached to the front exterior wall and having a lower edge that partially forms a material release opening at a bottom of the compartment, (ii) a steel back downwardly angled section attached to the back exterior wall and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (iii) a steel first side downwardly angled section attached to the first exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, and (iv) a steel second side downwardly angled section attached to the second exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (k) a steel front wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the front downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the front downwardly angled section, (l) a steel back wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the back downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the back downwardly angled section, (m) a steel first side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the first side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the first side downwardly angled section, (n) a steel second side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the second side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the second side downwardly angled section, (o) a steel first nesting support positioned at the first top corner of the compartment, (p) a steel second nesting support positioned at the second top corner of the compartment, (q) a steel third nesting support positioned at the third top corner of the compartment, and (r) a steel fourth nesting support positioned at the fourth top corner of the compartment, the first, second, third, and fourth nesting supports configured to at least partially support a pallet of another same material shipping container; a material unloading assembly positioned at the bottom of the compartment, the material unloading assembly including: (i) steel spaced apart guide rails, and (ii) a steel slidable gate including a closure member and an engagable member extending in an area lower than the closure member and attached to and supported by the closure member, the closure member partially supported by the spaced apart guide rails, the engagable member movable in a first direction toward the front side of the pallet to cause the closure member to allow material in the compartment to flow through the material release opening, and the engagable member movable in a second different direction toward the back side of the pallet to cause the closure member to prevent material in the compartment from flowing through the material release opening; and a material loading assembly attached to the top wall of the compartment, the material loading assembly including a steel cover hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment along an axis transverse to an axis extending from the front side of the pallet to the back side of the pallet, the cover rotatable from a closed position to an open position, the cover remaining hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment in the open position. 6. The material shipping container of claim 5, wherein each of the tubular nesting supports includes a generally rectangular tubular section. 7. The material shipping container of claim 5, wherein: (a) the front exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped first corner section, (b) the front exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped second corner section, (c) the back exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped third corner section, and (d) the back exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped fourth corner section. 8. The material shipping container of claim 5, wherein the compartment is entirely supported by the pallet. | PRIORITY CLAIM This application is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to, and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/631,737, filed Jun. 23, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/471,896, filed Mar. 28, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/516,292, filed Oct. 16, 2014, which issued on Apr. 11, 2017 as U.S. Pat. No. 9,617,065, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/249,688, filed Sep. 30, 2011, which issued on Nov. 18, 2014 as U.S. Pat. No. 8,887,914, which is a continuation-in-part patent application of, claims priority to, and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/914,075, filed Oct. 28, 2010, which issued on Dec. 31, 2013, as U.S. Pat. No. 8,616,370, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND Various bulk material shipping containers are known. Such known material bulk shipping containers, sometimes referred to herein for brevity as known containers or as known bulk containers, are used to transport a wide range of products, parts, components, items, and materials such as, but not limited to, seeds, shavings, fasteners, and granular materials. These are sometimes called loose materials. There are various disadvantages with such known bulk material shipping containers. For example, one known and widely commercially used known bulk container for shipping materials (such as shipping seeds to farms) is sold by Buckhorn Industries. This known bulk container is made from plastic, weighs about 338 pounds (151.9 kilograms), and holds a maximum of 58.3 cubic feet of material. This known container has a bottom section, a top section, and a cover. To use this known container, loaders at a bulk material supplier must remove the cover, remove the top section from the bottom section, flip the top section upside down, place the flipped top section on the bottom section, fill the container, and then place the cover on the flipped top section. This process requires at least two people and a relatively significant amount of time when filling a large quantity of these containers. In certain instances, specifically configured forklift attachments are required to fill and handle this known container. After this known container is shipped to its ultimate destination (such as a farm), the bulk material (such as seed) is unloaded from the container, and the empty container must be shipped back to the material supplier. However, prior to and for shipping back to the supplier, the cover is removed, the flipped top section is removed from the bottom section, the flipped top section is then flipped back over and placed on the bottom section, and the cover is then placed on the top section and fastened with zip ties. This process also requires at least two people and is relatively time consuming especially for a large quantity of such containers. Another disadvantage of this known container is that this container is made from plastic and if one of the three sections (i.e., the bottom, the top, or the cover) is damaged or cracked, that entire section typically must be replaced (instead of being repaired). This adds additional cost, time out of service for the damaged container, and additional material and energy waste. Another disadvantage of this known container is that when disassembled (for shipping empty), only two of these containers can be stacked on top of each other and still fit in a conventional shipping container or truck. This tends to leave wasted space in such shipping containers and trucks, and thus increases the overall cost of shipping (including related fuel costs) and energy waste. Additional disadvantages of this known container are that: (a) the cover can be easily lost or misplaced; (b) the cover can be easily damaged; (c) this known container is less weather resistant because the cover is readily removable and only attached by zip ties; (d) the insides and outside surfaces are difficult to clean; and (e) a material holding bag is not readily usable with this container, such that this container cannot be used for certain types of loose materials. For purposes of brevity, (a) the people who assemble and/or put a container in the position for receiving materials for transport and who load the material in a container are sometimes referred to herein as the “loaders,” and (b) the people who remove the materials from a container and who disassemble and/or put a container in the position for sending back to the supplier are sometimes referred to herein as the “unloaders.” Accordingly, there is a need for better bulk material shipping containers which overcome these disadvantages. SUMMARY Various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a bulk material shipping container which overcomes the above described disadvantages with previously known commercially available bulk shipping containers. One embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment and movable from a retracted position relative to the bottom compartment (for efficient shipping when not holding materials or holding a relatively small amount of materials) to an expanded position relative to the bottom compartment (for holding extra materials during shipping); (d) a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; (f) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment; and (g) an extension assembly attached to the top compartment which enables a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. The shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive a suitable plastic bag which holds the materials in the container. It should thus be appreciated that the expandable and retractable bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. It should also be appreciated that when a plastic bag is used to hold the materials in the container, the material unloading assembly includes a knife which cuts the bottom of the bag open for unloading of the materials. The bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is sometimes referred herein for brevity as the container or as the shipping container. One embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is primarily made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, except for the pallet which is made from wood. If one of the sections of this embodiment of the container is damaged or cracked, that section can typically be repaired which reduces: (a) cost; (b) time out of service for the container; and (c) additional material and/or energy waste. In alternative embodiments, the pallet of the bulk material shipping container, or certain parts thereof, can be made from a suitably strong plastic material such as a composite material or a fiber glass material. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure can also be stacked three high (when empty) for shipping in conventional transport containers or trucks. This reduces wasted space in such transport containers and trucks and decreases shipping cost and fuel consumption, and thus energy waste. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure holds 72 cubic feet of material and up to about 3125 pounds (1417.5 kilograms). This embodiment of the shipping container has several advantages over the above described known bulk container. Specifically, this embodiment of the bulk container is approximately 65 pounds (29.49 kilograms) lighter, holds approximately 14 cubic feet of additional materials which is approximately 25% more material (such as seeds), is readily repairable, can be stacked three high for more efficient transport to the supplier, and can be moved from the transport or retracted position to the loading or expanded position by one person. To load the presently disclosed container, the loaders do not need to remove a cover, remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment, flip the top compartment over, place the flipped top compartment on the bottom compartment, or place any cover on the flipped top compartment. Additionally, the unloaders do not need to remove the cover, remove the flipped top compartment, flip the top compartment, place the top compartment on the bottom compartment, and then place the cover on the top compartment for returning the empty container. In another embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment, and thus this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the single compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the single compartment. In this embodiment, since there is a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to a top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed in the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, the pallet supports the compartments, but does not directly support the material unloading assembly. In further embodiments, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is configured without the top wall to provide an open top end. It is therefore an advantage of the present disclosure to provide a new and improved bulk material shipping container. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments and the figures. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of one embodiment of the present disclosure, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 2 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the retracted or collapsed position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 3 is a bottom perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and illustrating the legs of the pallet, the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet, and pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 4 is a front view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 5 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 6 is a top view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container in the closed position and the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. FIG. 7 is a bottom view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the legs of the pallet, the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet, and illustrating the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly in the closed position, and the knife attached to the bottom of the chute door or gate. FIG. 8 is an exploded perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with certain of the smaller components such as the tether removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 9 is an enlarged exploded perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9A is an enlarged exploded top perspective view of the sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9B is an enlarged top perspective view of the attached sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9C is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 9D is a further enlarged fragmentary bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 9E is an enlarged top perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with the front and left exterior side walls of the bottom compartment removed to illustrate the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment, the support gussets of the bottom compartment, and the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment. FIG. 9F is an enlarged top perspective view of the bottom compartment and the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with the front and left exterior side walls of the bottom compartment removed to illustrate the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment, the support gussets of the bottom compartment, and the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment. FIG. 10 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container. FIG. 10A is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 11 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container, and illustrating the certain of the legs of the pallet in phantom, certain portions of the fork lift tine receiving channels of the pallet in phantom, and certain portions of the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet in phantom. FIG. 12 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and flipped upside down, and illustrating the certain of the legs of the pallet, certain portions of the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet in phantom, and the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 13 is an enlarged bottom view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating certain of the legs of the pallet, and the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 14 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container, and illustrating the position of the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in the closed position, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 15 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in a partially open position with the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 16 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in a fully open position with the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 17 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position and the blade of the knife in the fully closed and non-extended position. FIG. 17A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position and the blade of the knife in the fully closed and non-extended position. FIG. 18 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position and the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate. FIG. 18A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position and the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate. FIG. 19 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position and the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate. FIG. 19A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position and the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate. FIG. 20A is an enlarged perspective view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20B is an enlarged top plan view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20C is an enlarged side view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20D is an enlarged side view of the gate and knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 21 is an enlarged rear perspective view of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 22 is an enlarged right side view of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the of the shipping container of FIG. 1 FIG. 23 is an enlarged end view of the cutting edge of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 24 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin and the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 25 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 26 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 27A is an enlarged fragmentary exploded perspective view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners before being attached. FIG. 27B is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners after being attached. FIG. 27C is and enlarged fragmentary top plan view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners after being attached. FIG. 28 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the locking pin of the assembly inserted in the pin receipt in a corner of the bottom compartment, the pin holder attached to a corner of the top compartment, and a tether connecting the locking pin to the pin holder. FIG. 29 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the locking pin holders of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment of the container. FIG. 30 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the locking pins and tethers of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 31 is an enlarged fragmentary partially cut away view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 32 is an enlarged fragmentary view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 33 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the fork lift receiving tines or lifting brackets of the extension assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 34 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and the cover of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 35 is a top perspective view of the top wall of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating the opening in the top wall and the lip of the material loading assembly extending from the top wall and which is configured to be securely engaged by the cover of the material loading assembly. FIG. 36 is a top perspective view of the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating in phantom the channel of the cover which is configured to receive the lip of the of the material loading assembly attached to the top compartment for secure engagement by the cover. FIG. 37 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the locking assembly of the material loading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown in the closed position. FIG. 38 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the nesting or stacking guides of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating the bag end holders defined by the nesting or stacking guides. FIG. 39 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 1 and a portion of the pallet and lower compartment of a second shipping container of FIG. 1 shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 40 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 1 and a pallet of a second shipping container of FIG. 1 shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 41 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag positioned over the stacking guides, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 42 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag positioned with its ends extending through the stacking guides, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 43 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag holder of one embodiment of the present disclosure which is configured to hold a roll of bags. FIG. 44 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and the bag holder of FIG. 43, and illustrating how the bag holder of FIG. 41 holds one of the bags over the shipping container during the material loading process, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 45 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and another embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure. FIG. 46 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and the bag holder of FIG. 45, and illustrating how the bag holder of FIG. 43 holds one of the bags over the shipping container during the material loading process, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 47 is a perspective view of another example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 48 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the retracted or collapsed position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 49 is a bottom perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and illustrating the pallet of this embodiment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 50 is a front view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 51 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 52 is a top view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container in the closed position and the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. FIG. 53 is a bottom view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the pallet, and further illustrating the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly in the closed position. FIG. 54 is an exploded perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47 with certain of the smaller components removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 55 is an enlarged exploded perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 56 is an enlarged exploded top perspective view of the sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 57 is an enlarged top perspective view of the attached sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 58 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 59 is a further enlarged fragmentary bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 60 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in their position relative to the pallet. FIG. 61 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in their position relative to the pallet. FIG. 62 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container, and illustrating certain portions of the pallet in phantom. FIG. 63 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and flipped upside down, and illustrating the certain portions of the pallet in phantom. FIG. 64 is an enlarged bottom view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container. FIG. 65 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container, and illustrating the position of the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in the closed position. FIG. 66 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in a partially open position. FIG. 67 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in a fully open position. FIG. 68 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position. FIG. 69 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position. FIG. 70 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position. FIG. 71 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position. FIG. 72 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position. FIG. 73 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position. FIG. 74 is an enlarged perspective view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 75 is an enlarged top view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 76 is an enlarged side view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 77 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin and the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 78 is an enlarged fragmentary front perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 79 is an enlarged fragmentary rear perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 80 is an enlarged fragmentary exploded perspective view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the sections of the corner before being attached. FIG. 81 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating sections of the corner after being attached. FIG. 82 is an enlarged fragmentary top view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the sections of the corner after being attached. FIG. 83 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of part of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the assembly inserted in the pin receipt in a corner of the bottom compartment. FIG. 84 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the combined support bracket and pin holders of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the top compartment of the container. FIG. 85 is an enlarged fragmentary partially cut away side view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 86 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 87 is a perspective view of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment and with a sleeve attached to the interior surfaces of the top compartment. FIG. 88 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the nesting or stacking guides of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the top compartment. FIG. 89 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of one of the corners of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the nesting or stacking guide and the nesting supports attached at that corner. FIG. 90 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 47 and a portion of the pallet and bottom compartment of a second shipping container of FIG. 47, where the portion of the pallet is shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 91 is a further enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 47 and a portion of the pallet of a second shipping container of FIG. 47, where the portion of the pallet is shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 92 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47 resting on a corner of pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the top compartment of the shipping container is in the retracted or collapsed position and the shipping container is empty. FIG. 93 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner of the bottom compartment of the first shipping container of FIG. 47 resting on a corner of pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the top 19 compartment of the shipping container is in the retracted or collapsed position and the shipping container is empty. FIG. 94 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner and side wall of the bottom compartment, a corner and side wall of the top compartment, and a side wall of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full, and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 95A is a fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is empty. FIG. 95B is a fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 96A is an enlarged fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is empty. FIG. 96B is an enlarged fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 97 is a fragmentary perspective view of another example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, FIGS. 1 to 40 illustrate one example embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. This shipping container, which is generally indicated by numeral 50, has an expanded position for holding materials during shipping and a retracted position for efficient shipping when the container is not holding materials or when the container is holding a smaller amount of materials. More specifically, FIG. 2 illustrates the shipping container 50 in the retracted position, and FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 34 illustrate the shipping container 50 in the expanded position. It should thus be appreciated that in the retracted position (as shown in FIG. 2), the shipping container 50 can be used for efficient transport as further described below, and that this provides substantial savings in shipping cost and energy use. Generally, as shown in FIGS. 1 to 9B, this illustrated embodiment of the shipping container 50 includes: (a) a pallet 100 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 9F, and as best shown in FIGS. 10, 10A, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 24, 25, and 26) configured for supporting the container 50 and to facilitate movement and of the container 50 as well as the stacking of multiple containers; (b) a bottom compartment 200 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, and 34) mounted on the pallet 100 and configured to hold materials; (c) a top compartment 300 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 34) mounted on the bottom compartment 200 and configured to hold materials; (d) a plurality of top compartment support assemblies 400 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, and as best shown in FIGS. 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32) configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment and configured to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly 500 (as partially shown in FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 8, 9E, and 9F and as best shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 10, 10A, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26) attached to the bottom compartment and supported by the pallet 100 and configured to facilitate the unloading of materials from the top and bottom compartments; (f) a material loading assembly 600 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2 4, 5, 6, and 8, and as best shown in FIGS. 34, 35, 36, and 37) mounted on the top compartment and configured to facilitate the loading of material into the top and the bottom compartments; and (g) a top compartment extension assembly 700 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 33, and 34) attached to the top compartment 300 and configured to enable a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. It should also be appreciated that generally the container includes a front side or face, a back side or face opposite the front side, a right side or face, and a left side or face as further discussed below. In this illustrated embodiment, (a) the pallet 100 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 6 inches (15.24 centimeters); (b) the bottom compartment 200 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters); and (c) the top compartment 300 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters). When the container is in the retracted position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 35 inches (88.90 centimeters). When the container is in the expanded position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 62 inches (157.48 centimeters). However, it should be appreciated that the container and the components thereof may be other suitable sizes. This embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive and hold a large plastic bag which holds the materials in the interior areas defined by bottom and top compartments. In one embodiment, the bag: (a) is approximately 60 inches (15.40 centimeters) by approximately 55 inches (139.70 centimeters) by approximately 110 inches (279.40 centimeters); (b) has a flat bottom with no bottom seal and hermetic side seals; (c) is FDA compliant; (d) has an approximately 2 millimeter thickness; (e) is clear; and (f) is made from a low density recyclable polyethylene plastic. In one alternative embodiment, the bag is also or alternatively bio-degradable. It should be appreciated that each of the bags is thus suited to hold one load of materials. However, it should be appreciated that the plastic bag may be of any suitable size, configuration, and material, provided that it fits inside of the top and bottom compartments of the container and that the bottom of the bag is able to be readily opened for unloading of the materials. It should be appreciated that the bag will be appropriately folded so that when the bag is placed above and partially in the container for filling the bag (and the container) with the materials, that the bag will properly unfold and be suitably seated in the top and bottom compartments of the container. The filling and un-filling of the bag is further discussed below. More specifically, as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E, and 9F, the bottom compartment 200 includes: (a) a lower exterior bottom wall or panel 202 defining a material release opening or chute 204; (b) an upper interior bottom wall 210 defined by four attached downwardly angled sections or chute ramps 212, 214, 216, and 218; (c) four wedge shaped interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228; (d) spaced apart first and second or front and back exterior walls 232 and 236; and (e) spaced apart third and fourth or left and right exterior side walls 234 and 238. The four sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 234 and 238 define a bottom compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly toward and to the material release opening or chute 204. In this illustrated embodiment, the lower exterior bottom wall 202, the upper interior bottom wall 210, the interior bottom wall supports 222, 224, 226, and 228, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 234 and 238 are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. The exterior bottom wall 202 of the bottom compartment 200 is suitably attached to the pallet 100 of the container 50 by suitable fasteners; however, it should be appreciated that the exterior bottom wall can be attached in other suitable manners. More specifically, the lower exterior bottom wall 202 includes: (a) a rectangular substantially flat base 206 which defines the centrally located rectangular material release opening or chute 204; and (b) an upwardly extending lip 208 extending upwardly from each of outer edges of the base 206. This material release opening or chute 204 enables materials in the top and bottom compartments (or in a bag therein) to flow out of bottom compartment 200 when the chute door or gate 510 of the material unloading assembly for the opening or chute 204 (and the bag therein) is opened as further discussed below. The opening 204 in this illustrated embodiment is approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) by approximately 11 inches (27.94 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. This size of the opening relative to the size of the bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of unloading of the material from the top and bottom compartments (or in a bag therein) without sacrificing structure or strength of the bottom compartment. The interior bottom wall supports 222, 224, 226, and 228 are attached in spaced apart locations to the top of the base 206 by fasteners, although they can also or alternatively be attached by welding. Each of the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228 are of a wedge shape such that they are configured to be engaged by and support a respective one of the downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210. The gusset 222 is wider than the other gussets 224, 226, and 228 in this illustrated embodiment to distribute the weight of the materials supported by gusset 222 to the pallet 100 at further spaced apart locations which are not directly over the gate 510 of the material unloading assembly 500 (which is further described below). The upper interior bottom wall 210, and specifically the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 are respectively attached to the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228 by welding, although they can also or alternatively be attached by fasteners. The interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222 and 226 are some what shorter (as best seen in FIGS. 8, 9, 9E, 9F, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, and 19A) than the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 224 and 288 to prevent too much weight from being placed on the material unloading assembly 500 and particularly on the gate 510. The four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 each have a lower edge such that when such sections are attached, such sections form an opening 211 adjacent to and substantially aligned with the opening 204 of the base wall 206. In particular, the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 extend downwardly approximately adjacent to the material release opening or chute 204 of the base 206 of the bottom compartment. The lower edges of one or more of these four downwardly angled sections are each configured to be supported by the pallet adjacent to the top shelf of the pallet. In other words, this construction enables the central area of the pallet to provided support for part of the weight of the materials held in the top and bottom compartments. The upper interior bottom wall 210, and specifically upper portions of the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 are also respectively attached to and supported by the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 of the bottom compartment 200 is supported at multiple locations including multiple points of support by the various different portions of the pallet 100. More specifically, the sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210 are supported: (a) at their top ends by the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 200; (b) centrally by interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228; (c) by attachment to each other; and (d) by the central portion of the pallet 100. The exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 200 also each includes a skirt that extends downwardly along a respective side of the pallet 100. Suitable fasteners such as screws are used to attach each skirt to the respective side of the pallet 100 to support these exterior walls. Thus, it should be appreciated that this attachment to the side walls of the pallet 100 provides another set of support points for the bottom compartment 200. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 is suitably angled and supported to hold the materials without deforming and to facilitate unloading of the bulk material from the material holding area of the bottom compartment. Each of the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 210 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of an adjacent exterior wall as generally shown in FIGS. 27A, 27B, and 27C. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall: (a) are preferably connected by welding; (b) add structural rigidity to the bottom compartment; and (c) in conjunction with the top compartment support assemblies 400 provide support the support of the top compartment in the expanded position as further described below. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 27A, 27B, and 27C, exterior side wall 232 includes panel 252 and corner 262 which includes corner sections 262a and 262b, and exterior side wall 234 includes panel 254 and corner 264 which includes corner sections 264a and 264b. Corner sections 264a is mated with and attached to corner section 262a, and corner section 264b is mated with and attached to corner section 262b to form this corner of the bottom compartment 200. It should be appreciated that each corner of the bottom compartment is configured in a similar manner; however, it should be appreciated that one or more of the corners can be differently configured. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the bottom compartment and to minimize interference with movement of the top compartment 300 relative to the bottom compartment 200. The top compartment 300 of the container 50, as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, and 35, includes an exterior top wall 302, spaced apart exterior front and back side walls 312 and 316, spaced apart exterior side walls 316 and 318, and exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 respectively attached to the exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318. In this illustrated embodiment, the exterior top wall 302, exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318, and exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 are also all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected in any suitable manner. The upper interior base wall 306 and the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 define a top compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly to the bottom compartment material holding area or cavity. The exterior top wall 302 includes a rectangular substantially flat base 306 which defines the centrally located rectangular material receipt or loading opening or chute 304. This material receipt or loading opening or chute 304 enables materials to flow into the top and bottom compartments when the cover of the material loading assembly is opened as further discussed below. The opening 304 in this illustrated embodiment is 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) by 18 inches (45.72 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. This size opening relative to this size bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of loading of the material into the top and bottom compartments without sacrificing structure or strength of the top compartment 300. The upper interior base wall 306 is suitably attached to the upper portions of the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 by welding. The exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 are respectively attached to the exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 by welding, although they can be attached by rivets or other suitable fasteners. It should be appreciated that for embodiments of the container which will employ a bag, it is preferable to maximize the amount of welding for connecting or attaching components to reduce possible spots or points for snagging or cutting the bag. It should also be appreciated that for a container that will not employ a bag, more rivets or other fasteners can be employed. Similar to the configuration of the bottom compartment, each of the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of the adjacent exterior wall similar to the bottom compartment. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall of the top compartment are preferably connected by welding and add structural rigidity to the top compartment. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the top compartment can include one or more interior walls. These interior walls in certain embodiment are used to protect the exterior walls, and to add further structural rigidly to the top compartment. The pallet 100 of this illustrated embodiment of the shipping container 50 of the present disclosure is specifically configured to take in account that various different lifting and moving vehicles or equipment may be used to lift and move the container 50: (a) when the container is manufactured; (b) when the container is transported to a material loading facility; (c) when the container is at a material loading facility; (d) when the container is moved and positioned in a transport vehicle at the material loading facility after loading materials in the container; (e) when the container is removed from a transport vehicle at a material unloading facility; (f) when the container is at an unloading facility; and (g) when the container is moved and positioned in a transport vehicle at the material unloading facility after unloading the materials from the container. More specifically, these facilities will typically have either a conventional pallet jack and/or a conventional fork lift. One widely commercially used conventional pallet jack has spaced apart non-movable tines or forks, where each fork is approximately 7.75 inches (19.69 centimeters) wide and the space between the tines is approximately 8.50 inches (21.59 centimeters). One widely commercially used conventional fork lift has adjustably spaced apart tines or forks, where each fork is approximately 5 inches (12.70 centimeters) wide, and the space between that tines is adjustable from approximately 4 inches (10.16 centimeters) to approximately 24 inches (60.96 centimeters). As further described below, the container 50 and specifically the pallet 100 of the container 50 is configured to account for the use of such fork lifts which can: (a) lift the containers off of the ground; (b) move the containers; (c) stack the containers on top of each other; and (d) un-stack stacked containers from each other. As also further described below, the container 50 and specifically the pallet 100 of the container 50 is also configured to account for the use of such pallet jacks which can: (a) lift the containers off of the ground; and (b) move the containers, but can not stack or unstack stacked containers. More specifically, turning now to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 10A, 11, 12, and 13, the pallet 100 of this illustrated embodiment of the container 50 of the present disclosure includes: (a) a rectangular body 102 having an upper surface 104, a lower surface 106, a front edge 112, a back edge 116, and opposite side edges 114 and 118; and (b) a plurality of legs 122, 124, 126, and 128 extending downwardly from the body 102. The legs 122 and 126 each respectively extend the entire width of the body 102 of the pallet 100 in this illustrated embodiment. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments the legs 122 and 126 do not need to extend the entire width of the body and that each of these legs can be separated into multiple legs. The legs or islands 124 and 128 extend downwardly from the central portions of the side ends of the body 102. In this illustrated embodiment, the body and the legs of the pallet are all formed from one piece of a suitable wood to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; and (b) minimize overall weight of the container. In this illustrated embodiment, the wood pallet is one piece of wood which is suitably formed by suitable cutting, milling and/or routing processes. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the pallet can be made from multiple components which are suitably attached and that one or more of these components can be made from other suitably strong materials such as composite or fiber glass materials. It should also be appreciated that different parts of the pallet may be made from different materials. For instance, the shelves may be made from a plastic, composite or fiber glass inlay part. The pallet 100 includes or defines: (a) a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a in the legs 122 and 126, respectively; (b) a second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b in the legs 122 and 126, respectively; (c) a first pallet jack tine receiving channel 140 extending from side to side; and (d) a second pallet jack tine receiving channel 142 extending from side to side. The first set of fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a and the second set of fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels of the pallet 100 of the container 50 which is stacked on top of another container, the tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should thus be appreciated that the pallet 100 is configured to enable a fork lift to move these containers when one container is stacked on another container without damaging the lower container, and particularly the cover or the extension assembly. The first pallet jack tine receiving channel 140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 142 are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a pallet jack are inserted into these channels defined by the pallet 100 of the container 50, they can lift and move the container. It should be appreciated that a typical pallet jack does not operate like a fork lift so that the pallet jack will only be used when the container is on the floor or ground and not with stacked containers. Therefore, the tines or forks of a pallet jack will not be in a position to engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of stacked containers or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of stacked containers. It should be appreciated that the first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a and the second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b are not configured to receive the forks or tines of a pallet jack because they are spaced apart further then the tines on a conventional pallet jack (as described above). Specifically, they are spaced apart approximately 34 inches (86.36 centimeters) in this illustrated embodiment. It should further be appreciated that although not preferred, a fork lift with adjustable forks or tines can be inserted into the first pallet jack tine receiving channels 140 and 142 to lift and move the container 50. The pallet 50 and the channels 140 and 142 are also configured to take this into account, and specifically to account for this situation when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels 140 and 142 of the pallet 100 of a container stacked on another container, these tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should further be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment, the legs 124 and 128 of the pallet 100 are also configured to direct the tines or forks of the pallet jack through the channels 140 and 142 if they are inserted at an angle with respect to these channels. Specifically, leg 124 includes four angled tine directing surfaces 154a, 154b, 154c, and 154d, and leg 128 includes four angled tine directing surfaces 158a, 158b, 158c, and 158d. It should further be appreciated that the legs 124 and 128 do not block the fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a or the fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the pallet can include indicator which direct a user on how to insert the tines of a fork lift into the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142. It should also be appreciated, that although not shown, the pallet can include hinged or pivoting flaps in the ends of the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142 to further direct a user on how to insert the tines of a fork lift into the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142. It should also be appreciated that the shape of the legs of the pallet, which rest on the ground, and particularly the flat surfaces of the pallet, prevent the build-up of contaminants on the pallet. Specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the bottom of the pallet does not include a series of cavities in which contaminants such as mud or dirt can build up. Therefore, the pallet provides a less contaminable bulk material container while still being relatively strong and light weight. Turning now to FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 10A, 11, 12, and 13, as mentioned above, the body 102 of the pallet 100 also functions: (a) to support the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment 200; and (b) to support the material unloading assembly 500. More specifically, the body 102 of the pallet 100 defines multi-level shelves including a first or bottom shelf 150 and a second or top shelf 160, and an opening or chute 170. The first or bottom shelf 150 includes front shoulder 152, left side shoulder 154, and right side shoulder 158. These shoulders 152, 154, and 158 are sized and configured to support a bottom portion of each of the guide rails and the door or gate of the material unloading assembly which is further described below. The door or gate includes a closure member or portion and the handle member or portion (as further discussed below). The shoulders 152, 154, 32 and 158 support the guide rails (attached to the bottom compartment as described below) which in turn support the side edges of the closure member as well as the handle portion of the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly. The shoulders 152, 154, and 158 are positioned at the same level to co-act to support the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly such that the chute door or gate moves or slides relative to the bottom shelf 150 from a closed position to an open position for respectively closing and opening the chute 202 in the exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment 100 as well as the opening or chute 170 in the pallet 100 as further discussed below. The second or top shelf of the pallet 100 includes left side shoulder 164, rear shoulder 166, and right side shoulder 168 which are configured at the same level to co-act to also support a top portion of each of the guide rails and the door or gate of the material unloading assembly which is further described below. It should also be appreciated that this configuration enables the pallet to support the bottom compartment and the material unloading assembly and specifically the chute door or gate. This support reduces the amount of weight placed on the gate from the materials held in the top and bottom compartments (or the bag therein). In the illustrated embodiment, and as particularly illustrated in FIGS. 9C and 9D, the container 50 and in particular the material unloading assembly 500 includes a plurality of guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171. Guide rail 163 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the front portions of shoulders 154 and 164. Guide rail 165 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the central and rear portions of the shoulders 154 and 164. Guide rail 167 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the rear shoulders 156 and 166. Guide rail 169 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the central and rear portions of shoulders 158 and 168. Guide rail 171 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the front portions of the shoulders 158 and 168. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 10A, 14, 15, and 16 illustrate these guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171 detached from or without the exterior bottom wall 206 and in the positions where they rest on and are supported by these shoulders of the pallet 100. It should also be appreciated that these guide rails function in multiple ways. The guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171 support and guide the movement of closure portion and the handle portion of the chute door or gate 510 of the material unloading assembly 500. The gate slides or moves on or above these guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171, and these guide rails prevent the downward movement of the chute door or gate and also prevent loose materials being held in the top and bottom compartments from accumulating on or adjacent to the chute door or gate or the shoulders. The guide rails 165, 167, and 169 also rest on the shoulders to provide additional support for the bottom compartment. The body 102 of the pallet 100 also includes defines a handle chamber 180 and a stopping wall 182 for the handle of the material unloading assembly (as described below). The handle chamber 180 and the stopping wall 182 of the pallet 100 are further discussed below in conjunction with the discussion of the material unloading assembly 500. Turning now to FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, the material unloading assembly 500 of the container 50 is supported by both bottom wall 206 of the bottom compartment 200 and the body 102 of the pallet 100 under and adjacent to the opening or chute 204 in the bottom compartment 200 and above the opening or chute 170 in the pallet 100. The material unloading assembly 500 includes a chute door or gate 510 slidably positioned on the guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171, and partially supported by the shoulders 152, 154, and 158 defined by the body 102 of the pallet 100 as discussed above. The gate 510 includes a handle member or portion 512 and a closure member or portion 516 extending from the handle member or portion 512. The gate 510 is movable or slidable from a closed position as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 14, 17, and 17A to a plurality of different partially open positions (such as the partially open position shown in FIGS. 15, 18 and 18A), and then to a fully open position shown in FIGS. 16, 19, and 19A. It should also be appreciated that the body 102 of the pallet 100 defines a plurality of stopping walls that prevent the gate 510 from moving too far outwardly and also keeps the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 relatively close to the pallet 100. In this embodiment, the gate and the guide rails are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; (b) facilitate ease of cleaning; (c) facilitate ease of repair; (d) prevent rusting; (e) minimize overall weight of the container; and (f) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the gate and the guide rails can be made from other suitable materials. The material unloading assembly 500 further includes a knife 520 attached to the bottom surface of the gate 510. Specifically, the knife 520 includes a biasing member in the form of a leaf spring 522 having an attachment end 524 attached to the bottom surface of the gate 510 and a fin shaped blade 530 attached to the top side of the opposite or free end 526 of leaf spring 522. As best shown in FIGS. 17A, 18A, 19A, 21, 22, and 23, the fin shaped blade 530 includes: (a) an attachment base 532 attached to the top of the free end 526 of the leaf spring 522; and (b) a cutting member 534 attached to and extending from the attachment base 532. The cutting member 534 includes an accurate shaped cutting edge 536 and back edge 538 opposite the cutting edge 536. The leaf spring 522 biases the blade 530 upwardly such that the blade 530 is biased upwardly and the cutting member 534 and extends through a vertically extending slot 518 (see FIGS. 20A and 20B) in the closure portion 516 of the gate 510 toward a fully expanded position. In this illustrated embodiment, the knife is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) facilitate ease of cleaning; (c) facilitate ease of repair; (d) prevent rusting; (e) minimize overall weight of the container; and (f) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the knife can be made from other suitable materials. In this illustrated embodiment, the leaf spring is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel; however, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the leaf spring can be made from other suitable materials and in other configurations. The knife 520 (including the leaf spring 522 and the blade 530) moves as the gate 510 moves, and specifically is configured to move from a retracted position as shown in FIGS. 14, 17, 17A, and 20D to a plurality of different extended positions such as the partially extended position shown in FIGS. 15, 18, and 18A and to a fully extended position shown in FIGS. 16, 19, and 19A. The gate 510 is configured to be opened by an unloader such that pulling the handle portion 512 of the gate (and particularly the handle 513) from the closed position to an open position, causes the blade 530 of the cutting member 534 of the knife 520 to extend through the slot 518 and to engage the bottom of the bag (not shown) in the container 50 which holds the material, and to cut a hole in the bottom of the bag to release the material in the bag. When the gate 510 is in the fully closed position, the cutting member 534 of the blade 530 rests below the guide rail 167 as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 17, and 17A. When the gate 510 is in the fully open position, the cutting member 534 of the blade 530 is adjacent to the front section 212 of the interior bottom wall 210 as shown in FIGS. 19 and 19A. It should further be appreciated that as the gate 510 is moved from the fully open position to the closed position, the knife 520 (including the leaf spring 522 and the blade 530) moves with the gate 510 from the fully extended position to a partially retracted position to a fully retracted position. More specifically, the back edge 538 of the cutting member 534 is configured such that when the back edge 538 of the cutting member 534 contacts the bottom of the guide rail 167, the entire blade 520 and the free end 526 of the leaf spring 522 is forced downwardly against the upward bias of the leaf spring 522 and back into the retracted position as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 17, and 17A. It should also be appreciated that the knife 520 does not interfere with the opening of the gate in the embodiments where a bag is not employed to hold the materials in the container. The material unloading assembly 500 also includes a locking assembly 550 configured to enable a user to lock the gate 510, and specifically the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 to the stopping wall 182 of the pallet 510 to prevent the handle portion 512 and the gate 510 from being accidentally opened at undesired points in time such as: (a) during loading of the container 50; (b) during transit of the container 50; or (c) at any other point in time prior to an unloader opening the gate 510. More specifically, as best seen in FIGS. 10A, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 24, 25, and 26, the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 includes a downwardly extending handle 513 which is configured to be gripped by a user to open and close the gate 510. The downwardly extending handle 513 defines a centrally located opening 514 (as best shown in FIG. 20A). The material unloading assembly 500 also includes a stopping plate 560 attached to the outside surface of the stopping wall 182. The stopping plate 560 includes an opening 561 aligned with the centrally located opening 514 of the handle 513 of the handle portion 512 of the gate 510. The stopping wall 182 also includes a hole which is larger than the hole 561 in the stopping plate 560 and is configured to receive a locking pin 590. More specifically, the material unloading assembly 500 further includes a locking pin 590 configured to be inserted through: (a) the centrally located opening 514 of the handle 513 of the handle portion 512 of the gate 510; (b) the opening 561 in the stopping plate 560; and (c) an opening 183 in the stopping wall 182, when the gate 510 is in the closed position. This locking pin 590 engages the rear surface of the stopping plate 560 to prevent unwanted opening of the gate 510. When the user desires to open the gate 510, the user activates the locking pin 590 and fully or partially removes the locking pin 590 from the stopping wall 182 and the stopping plate 560. It should be appreciated that as shown in the various figures, the locking pin 590 can be left in the handle 513 of the gate 510. It should also be appreciated that the locking pin can be placed in a different hole in the handle of the gate 510. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the material unloading assembly can further include one or more guides for holding the locking pin 590 level or otherwise in position for easy re-insertion when the gate 510 is in a fully open or partially open position. It should be appreciated that the locking pin can be commercially obtained from MCMASTER-CARR, and that any other suitable locking pin may be employed. It should also be appreciated that by pushing the handle back toward the closed position, the chute can be closed or partially closed. It should also be appreciated that placing the handle in a partially open or partially closed positioned enables the user to control the rate of emptying the materials from the container 50. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32, the top compartment 300 is supported by a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d which are each configured to support a different one of the corners of the top compartment 300 and to hold the top compartment 300 in the expanded position. In the illustrated embodiment, each top compartment support assembly 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these support assemblies may be different. Support assembly 400a is discussed herein as an example. Support assembly 400a includes a support pin 410a configured to be inserted through a pin receipt or pin receipt hole 450a (at least shown in FIGS. 8 and-27B) in the corner of the bottom compartment 200 and into a tubular support pin receiver or sleeve 412a of the support assembly 400a which is suitably attached (such as by welding) to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment 200 as best illustrated in FIG. 31. It should be appreciated that the configuration and size of the support pin receiver can vary in accordance with the present disclosure. For example, the support pin receiver can be in the form of a flat plate (not shown) attached to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment. The support assembly 400a further includes a support pin holder 430a and a tether 460a attaching the support pin 420a to the support pin holder 430a. It should be appreciated that the support pin holder 430a and the tether 460a are employed to prevent the support pin 410a from being lost and to hold the support pin 410a out of the way of the bottom compartment 200 when the support pin 410a is not in use, and that in alternative embodiments, the shipping container of the present disclosure does not employ the support pin holders or the tethers. It should also be appreciated that FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 34, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, and 46 either have a line representing the tether or that the tether is removed from these figures for ease of illustration. More specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the support pin holder 430a includes an L-shaped body having a mounting member 432a attached to the corner of the top compartment 300 and a pin holder 434a connected to the mounting member 432a. The pin holder 464a defines a first hole 436a for attachment of the one end of the tether 430a and a second hole 438a for removably holding the support pin 410a when the support pin 410a is not in use. This support pin holder 430a is made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, and welded to the corner of the top compartment 300. It should be appreciated that the pin holder 434a could be made from other suitable materials, could be suitably attached to the top compartment in other suitable manners or locations and could be alternatively configured. In this illustrated embodiment, the pin holder is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of this part by welding and/or suitable fasteners to the top compartment; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the pin holder can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected to the top compartment in other suitable manners The tether 460a includes two end loops 462a and 464a. End loop 462a is attached to the support pin holder 430a and end loop 464b is attached to the support pin 410a. The tether 460a may be any suitable length and made from any suitable material such as steel or a high strength plastic. The support pin 410a in the illustrated embodiment includes a handle 413a, a tubular body 414a attached to the handle 412a, and a locking mechanism 416a extending through the handle 413a and tubular body 414a. The locking mechanism 416a includes a release button 418a in and extending from the handle 413a, an actuation shaft (not shown) connected to the release button 418a, and a plurality of locking balls 422a and 422b extending transversely from the from the tubular body 414a adjacent to the end of the tubular body 414a opposite the handle 413a. The locking mechanism 416a is configured such that the locking balls 422a and 422b are normally biased by a spring (not shown) toward the outwardly extending locked position as shown in FIG. 31, and such that when the release button 418a is pressed, the locking balls 422a and 422b are allowed to recede inwardly into the tubular member 414a and specifically into cavities (not shown) in the actuation shaft 420a to enable the support pin 410a to be removed. The locking balls 422a and 422b are configured to engage the inner surface of the tubular support pin receiver 412a of the support assembly 400a to prevent the support pin 410a in the locked position from being easily removed or removed without actuation of the locking mechanism 416a and specifically the release button 418a. Pins of this type are readily commercially available such as from MCMASTER-CARR. It should be appreciated that other suitable support pins may be employed with the container in accordance with the present disclosure. The container 50 includes an extension assembly 700 which enables a user or loader to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position to enable insertion of these support pins as further described below. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 33, the extension assembly 700 of the container 50 includes a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 702 and 704 and a second set of aligned forklift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 706 and 708. Each of the lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 702, 704, 706, and 708 are identical in this illustrated embodiment, but it should be appreciated that these components can be different. FIG. 33 illustrate example fork lift tine receiving loop or lifting bracket 702, which includes a crossbar 720a, end bars 722a and 724a attached to the opposite ends of the crossbar 720a and mounting bars 726a and 728a respectively attached to the opposite ends of the end bars 722a and 724a. In this embodiment, these loops or lifting brackets are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel and the mounting bars are each suitably welded to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300. The loops or lifting brackets are suitably aligned to form two slots configured to receive forklift forks or tines. These loops enable a loader operating a fork lift to insert the forks of the forklift through the loops and to lift the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. These aligned slots enable a forklift to lift the top compartment of the container from either the front or back. It should be appreciated that the outside surfaces of the container can include suitable markings to indicate to the loader the appropriate expanded position of the top compartment. As mentioned above, in this illustrated embodiment, these loop are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these loops can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. As further described below, when the operator lifts the top compartment upwardly from the retracted position to the expanded position, the locking assemblies described above can then be employed to support and lock the top compartment in the expanded position and to prevent the top compartment from moving back into the retracted position. More specifically, when a user such as a loader of the shipping container 50 desires to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position, the user uses a fork lift or other lifting apparatus to engage the extension assembly 700 to lift the top compartment 300 such that the bottom corners of the top compartment 300 are above the pin receipt holes in the four corners of the bottom compartment 200. The user then sequentially takes each support pin out of the respective pin holder, presses the button on the support pin and inserts the support pin in the respective pin receipt hole. It should be appreciated that this is easily and quickly performed by a single person. Thus, it should be appreciated that: (a) a single loader can move the top compartment into the expanded position by lifting the top compartment (using a fork lift); (b) the single loader can engage the support pins of the top compartment supporting assemblies to lock the top compartment in the expanded position; and (c) that prior to unloading the materials, a single un loader can disengage the support pins from the bottom compartment to un-lock the top compartment from the expanded position and release the top compartment from the expanded position, which enables the top compartment to slowly move to the retracted position as the materials empties from the top and bottom compartments. This also prevents the top compartment from rapidly dropping if the support pins are released when no materials are in the compartments. It should further be appreciated that enabling a single person to perform this operation provide a significant advantage in terms of time and cost over certain prior known bulk material shipping containers. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, 35, 36, and 37, the material loading assembly 600 is generally attached to the top compartment 300 and generally includes: (a) an upwardly extending lip 602 attached to and extending from the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300; (b) a cover 610 configured to securely engage the upwardly extending lip 602 and pivotally attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300 by a plurality of hinges 630, 632, and 634; (c) a lock assembly 650 including a first portion 652 attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300 and a second portion or lid latch 654 pivotally attached to the cover 610; (d) and a gasket (not shown) mounted in the cover 610 to seal out contaminants. The cover 610 defines a channel 612 configured to receive the lip 602. The gasket is mounted in the channel 612 to facilitate the seal between the cover 610 and the lip 602. It should be appreciated that although the illustrated lip 602 is shown in sections with spaces there between, additional material is preferably welded to the illustrated sections of the lip 602 to form a continuous lip. The locking assembly 650 includes a suitable lock (not shown) which is used to lock the cover 610 in the closed position, and specifically to lock the second portion or lid latch 654 attached to the cover to the first portion 652 attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300. It should be appreciated that any suitable lock may be employed and that alternative configurations for the locking assembly may be employed in accordance with the present disclosure. In this illustrated embodiment, these components (except the gasket and the lock) are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. It should further be appreciated that the shape of the cover may vary in accordance with the present disclosure. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, 38, 39, and 40, the container 50 includes a plurality of nesting or stacking or guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d which are configured to facilitate secure stacking of the containers of the present disclosure as well as stacking of other known bulk material containers. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these stacking guides may be different. As generally shown in FIGS. 39 and 40, the stacking guides assist in positioning one container of the present disclosure on top of another container of the present disclosure. More specifically, stacking guide 800a is discussed herein as an example stacking guide. As best shown in FIG. 38, stacking guide 800a include mounting walls 802a and 804a configured to be attached to the corner of the top compartment 300 and guide wall 812a and 814a respectively attached to and extend from the mounting walls 802a and 804a. In this illustrated embodiment, the guide wall 812a and 814a each respectively define bag holding slots 820a and 822a. These slots are configured to receive and hold a top section of a bag during the filling process to secure the bag in the desired position as the loader fills the bag and the container with materials to the desired height (as generally illustrated in FIG. 42 and as further described below). In this illustrated embodiment, the stacking guides are all made of stainless steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts to the top compartment by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these stacking guides can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. It should be appreciated that the container 50 and the nesting or stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d of the container 50 are configured to receive or be stacked with known bulk material containers such as the known bulk material container described in the background section of this document. It should be appreciated that as shown in FIGS. 39 and 40, the container of the present disclosure is configured such that a fork lift can be employed to place one container on top of another container and to lift one container from another container without damaging the material loading assembly attached to the top compartment of the lower container, and without damaging the extension assembly attached to the top compartment of the lower container. Turning now to FIG. 41, the container 50 is illustrated with a bag 850 shown draped over the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 850 during the loading process. It should be appreciated that the center of the bag 852 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should also be appreciated that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIG. 42, the container 50 is illustrated with a bag 850 shown with each end respectively extending through the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 850 during the loading process. Again, in this FIG. 42, the center of the bag 852 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIGS. 43 and 44, one example embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure is generally illustrated and indicated by numeral 1000. The bag holder 1000 is configured to hold a supply roll of bags 900 and to sequentially provide each of the bags from the supply roll 900 for positioning over the shipping container during the material loading processes. The first bag 860 of the supply roll of bags 900 is shown draped over the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 860 during the loading process. The center 862 of the bag 860 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. The bag holder 1000 in this embodiment includes a pallet jack 1010, a bag guide 1020 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010, and a supply roll support holder 1030 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010. The bag guide 1020 is sized and configured to hold a bag over the container 50 during the loading process and to prevent the bag from engaging the various components of the container and thus prevent the bag from catching on or ripping from contact with the components of the container. In FIG. 44, the bag holder 1000 holds the bag 860 over the container 50 with the center of the bag 862 positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated with respect to FIG. 44 that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIGS. 45 and 46, another example embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure is generally illustrated and indicated by numeral 1100. The bag holder 1100 is similar to the bag holder 1000 in that it is configured to hold a bag over the shipping container 50 during the material loading process. However, unlike bag holder 1000, bag holder 1100 is not configured to hold a roll of bags and does not include a supply roll support holder. The bag holder 1100 in this embodiment includes a pallet jack 1010 and a bag guide 1120 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010. The bag guide 1120 is sized and configured to hold a bag over the container 50 during the loading process and to prevent the bag from engaging the various components of the container and thus prevent the bag from catching on or ripping from contact with the components of the container. In FIG. 46, the bag holder 1000 holds the bag 870 over the container 50 with the center of the bag 872 positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated with respect to FIG. 46 that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. It should be appreciated that in both of these bag holder embodiments, the pallet jack 1010 is configured to be positioned underneath the container 50, and specifically that the forks are positioned in the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. It should also be appreciated that the bag holder could alternatively include a fork lift instead of a pallet jack and that in such embodiments, the forks are preferably positioned in the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. It should further be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the bag guides and supply roll support holder can be alternatively supported and positionable. It should be appreciated that the bag guide and supply roll support holder are made from any suitable materials. It should also be appreciated that the present disclosure contemplates alternative embodiments (not shown) where the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a top compartment securely mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment. This embodiment does not include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment (not shown) where the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. It should be appreciated that suitable instructional marking or labels may be placed on or attached to the container of the present disclosure to instruct the users on how to load, unload, move, retract, and/or expand the container. It should also be appreciated that suitable reflective tape strips can be attached to the container. It should further be appreciated that the container of the present disclosure can be suitably coated such as by painting with a clear or colored protective coating. It should be appreciated that such coating may include a UV protective agent. It should also be appreciated that one or more sections of the container may be reinforced with a suitable plating to provide additional protection and strength. It should further be appreciated that the attachment of the various components of the container can be performed in any suitable way such as by welding (including but not limited to laser welding) and by suitable fasteners (such as but not limited to rivets). FIGS. 47 to 96B illustrate another example embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. Similar to the example container 50 described above, this illustrated example shipping container, which is generally indicated by numeral 2050, has an expanded position for holding materials during shipping and a retracted position for efficient shipping when the container 2050 is not holding materials or when the container 2050 is holding a smaller amount of materials. More specifically, FIG. 48 generally illustrates the shipping container 2050 in the retracted or collapsed position, and FIGS. 47, 49, 50, and 51 generally illustrate the shipping container 2050 in the expanded position. In this illustrated embodiment, the shipping container 2050 generally includes: (a) a pallet 2100 which is different than pallet 100 as further described below; (b) a bottom compartment 2200 which is different than bottom compartment 200 as further described below; (c) a top compartment 2300 which is different than top compartment 300 as further described below; (d) a plurality of top compartment support assemblies 2400a, 2400b, 2400c (not shown), and 2400d which are different than top compartment support assemblies 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d as further described below; (e) a material unloading assembly 2500 which is different than material unloading assembly 500 as further described below; (f) a material loading assembly 2600 which is substantially similar to material loading assembly 600 described above; and (g) a top compartment extension assembly 2700 which is substantially similar to top compartment extension assembly 700 described above. It should be appreciated that the following description of the shipping container 2050 will primarily focus on these respective differences. In this illustrated embodiment: (a) the pallet 2100 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 6 inches (15.24 centimeters); (b) the bottom compartment 2200 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters); and (c) the top compartment 2300 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters). In this illustrated embodiment, when the container 2050 is in the retracted position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 35 inches (88.90 centimeters). In this illustrated embodiment, when the container 2050 is in the expanded position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 62 inches (157.48 centimeters). It should be appreciated that this alternative container of the present disclosure can be made in other suitable dimensions. More specifically, turning now to FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 90, 91, 92, and 93, the pallet 2100 of this illustrated embodiment of the container 2050 of the present disclosure includes: (a) a rectangular body 2102 having an upper surface 2104, a lower surface 2106, a front edge 2112, a back edge 2116, and opposite side edges 2114 and 2118; (b) a plurality of legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 attached to and extending downwardly from the body 2102; (c) a footing 2101 attached to and extending downwardly from each of the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128, and having an upper surface 2103, a lower surface 2105, a front edge 2111, a back edge 2115, and opposite side edges 2113 and 2117; (d) a gate head 2150 formed at the front of the body 2102; and (e) a plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d respectively attached to the corners of the upper surface 2104 of the body 2102. As further described below, the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 functions to directly support the bottom compartment 2200 and indirectly the top compartment 2300. In this illustrated embodiment, the body, legs, and footing of the pallet are each formed from multiple pieces of a suitable wood to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; and (b) minimize the overall weight of the pallet and the container. More specifically, in this illustrated embodiment: (a) the rectangular body 2102 is constructed from several individual pieces of wood (such as 2×4s in this example illustrated embodiment); (b) the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 are each an individual piece of wood (such as 4×45 and 4×6s in this example illustrated embodiment); and (c) the footing 2101 is constructed from several individual pieces of wood (such as 2×2s in this example illustrated embodiment). In this example illustrated embodiment, these individual pieces of wood are suitably attached by fastening mechanisms such as adhesive, nails, and screws. It should be appreciated that these parts may alternatively be formed from more or less pieces, may be formed from other materials, and may be otherwise suitably attached. It should also be appreciated that the pallet may be painted or otherwise protected by other suitable coatings. The gate head 2150 is formed at the front of the body 2102. In this illustrated example embodiment, the front portion of the body 2102 is formed from three pieces of wood including a bottom piece with a cut-out and two spaced-apart top pieces such that the cut-out and the space between the two pieces provide room for the handle of the gate and which limit movement of the gate as further discussed below and as best seen in FIGS. 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 77, 78, and 79. More specifically, the gate head 2150 of the pallet 2100 includes a handle chamber 2180 and a stopping wall 2182 for the handle 2513 of the gate 2510 material unloading assembly 2500. The handle chamber 2180 and the stopping wall 2182 of the pallet 2100 are further discussed below in more detail in conjunction with the discussion of the material unloading assembly 2500. The pallet 2100 further includes or defines: (a) a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 2132a and 2136a, respectively; (b) a second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 2132b and 2136b, respectively; (c) a first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 extending across the pallet 2500 from side to side; and (d) a second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142 extending across the pallet 2500 from side to side. Similar to the pallet 100 described above, the first set of fork lift tine receiving channels 2132a and 2136a and the second set of fork lift tine receiving channels 2132b and 2136b are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels of the pallet 2100 of the container 2050 which is stacked on top of another container, the tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should thus be appreciated that the pallet 2100 is configured to enable a fork lift to move these containers when one container is stacked on another container without damaging the lower container, and particularly the cover or the extension assembly of the lower container. Also, similar to the pallet 100 described above, the first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142 are positioned such that when the forks or tines of a pallet jack are inserted into these channels defined by the pallet 2100 of the container 2050, they can lift and move the container. As mentioned above, a typical pallet jack does not operate like a fork lift so that the pallet jack will only be used when the container is on the floor or ground and not with stacked containers. Therefore, the tines or forks of a pallet jack will not be in a position to engage the material loading assembly or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of a set of stacked containers. It should also be appreciated that this illustrated embodiment does not include any legs between the first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142, but that alternative embodiments could include one or more legs or separators between these two channels. It should further be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment the footing 2101 has a smaller rectangular footprint than the body 2102 and the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 to enable the pallet 2100, and specifically legs 2121, 2124, 2125, and 2128 of the pallet 2100, to sit on another container, and specifically to respectively sit on the nesting supports 2840a, 2842a, 2840b, 2842b, 2840c, 2842c, 2840d, and 2842d of the top compartment 2300 of another container as best illustrated in FIGS. 89, 90, and 91 and as further described in detail below. The plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d are attached to the respective corners of the body 2102 and are each formed from a suitable stainless steel in this illustrated embodiment. It should be appreciated that the compression guards or plates may alternatively be formed from other suitable materials and in other suitable sizes and configurations. The plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d prevent the corners of the bottom compartment 2200 from digging into the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 as best illustrated in FIGS. 92 and 93. It should also be appreciated that this configuration of the pallet enables the pallet (and thus the entire container) to sit on top of known commercially available containers such as the one or more of commercially available Buckhorn containers which are generally described above. The bottom compartment 2200 of this example illustrated embodiment includes: (a) a lower exterior bottom wall or panel 2202 defining a material release opening or chute 2204; (b) an upper interior bottom wall 2210 defined by four attached downwardly angled sections or chute ramps 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218; (c) four wedge shaped interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228; (d) spaced apart first and second or front and back exterior walls 2232 and 2236; and (e) spaced apart third and fourth or left and right exterior side walls 2234 and 2238, as generally illustrated in FIGS. 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59. The four sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 2234 and 2238 define a bottom compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly toward and to the material release opening or chute 2204. In this illustrated embodiment, the lower exterior bottom wall 2202, the upper interior bottom wall 2210, the interior bottom wall supports 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228, the front and back exterior walls 2232 and 2236, and the exterior side walls 2234 and 2238 are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel, and are attached by rivets. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. The exterior bottom wall 2202 of the bottom compartment 2200 is suitably attached to the pallet 2100 of the container 2050 by suitable fasteners as further described below; however, it should be appreciated that the exterior bottom wall can be attached in other suitable manners. More specifically, the lower exterior bottom wall 2202 includes: (a) a rectangular substantially flat base 2206 which defines the centrally located rectangular material release opening or chute 2204; and (b) an upwardly extending lip 2208 extending upwardly from each of outer edges of the base 2206. The material release opening or chute 2204 enables materials in the top and bottom compartments to flow out of bottom compartment 2200 when the chute door or gate 2510 of the material unloading assembly for the opening or chute 2204 is opened as further discussed below. The opening 2204 in this illustrated embodiment is approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) by approximately 11 inches (27.94 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. The opening has four corners which each may have a suitable radius or curve. This size of the opening relative to the size of the bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of unloading of the material from the top and bottom compartments without sacrificing structure or strength of the bottom compartment. The interior bottom wall supports 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 are attached in spaced apart locations to the top of the base 2206 by rivets, although they can also or alternatively be otherwise attached. Each of the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 are of a wedge shape such that they are configured to be engaged by and support a respective one of the downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 2210. The gusset 2222 is wider than the other gussets 2224, 2226, and 2228 in this illustrated embodiment to distribute the weight of the materials supported by gusset 2222 to the pallet 2100 at further spaced apart locations which are not directly over the gate 2510 of the material unloading assembly 2500 (which is further described below). The upper interior bottom wall 2210, and specifically the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 are respectively attached to the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 by rivets, although they can also or alternatively be otherwise attached. The interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222 and 2226 are some what shorter than the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2224 and 2288 to prevent too much weight from being placed on the material unloading assembly 500 and particularly on the gate 2510. The four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 each have a lower edge such that when such sections are attached, such sections form an opening 2211 adjacent to and slightly smaller than but generally substantially aligned with the opening 2204 of the base wall 2206. In particular, the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 extend downwardly slightly further than the material release opening or chute 2204 of the base wall 2206 of the bottom compartment 2200. FIGS. 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, and 73 best illustrate that the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 define a slightly smaller opening than the opening 2204 defined by the base wall 2206. This prevents materials stored in the container from getting trapped or positioned between the upper bottom wall and the lower bottom wall. The upper interior bottom wall 2210, and specifically upper portions of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 are also respectively attached to and supported by the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 of the bottom compartment 2200 is supported at multiple locations including multiple points of support by the various different portions of the pallet 2100. More specifically, the sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 2210 are supported: (a) at their top ends by the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2200; (b) centrally by interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228; (c) by attachment to each other; and (d) overall by the pallet 2100. As seen in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 77, and 90, and as best seen in FIGS. 92 and 93, the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2200 also each includes a skirt that extends downwardly along a respective different side of the pallet 2100. Each skirt includes a plurality of fastener slots or oval screw holes which are configured to facilitate movement of each exterior wall and particularly the skirt relative to the fasteners. More specifically, as seen in FIGS. 92 and 93, suitable fasteners such as screws are used to attach each skirt to the respective side of the pallet 2100 and particularly the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 to support these exterior walls. In FIG. 92, the container 2050 is collapsed and is empty and the skirt is positioned such that the screws are respectively at the bottom of the slots. In FIG. 93, the container 2050 is collapsed and is filled and the skirt has moved downwardly relative to the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 and is positioned such that the screws are at the top of the slots. The skirts of the exterior walls, and thus the entire the exterior walls of the bottom container have moved downwardly relative to the pallet and particularly relative to the body 2102 of the pallet 2100. It should be appreciated that the bottom compartment is thus configured to move relative to the pallet when filled. It should also be appreciated that the slots may be of different sizes such that in these positions, the screws are adjacent to but not at the tops or bottoms of the slots. As generally illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 and as best illustrated in FIGS. 80, 81, 82, 83, 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, each of the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2210 each include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the rectangular panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of an adjacent exterior wall. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall: (a) are preferably connected rivets; (b) add structural rigidity to the bottom compartment; and (c) in conjunction with the top compartment support assemblies (discussed below) provide support for the top compartment when the top compartment is in the expanded position as further described below. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 80, 81, 82, 83, 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, exterior side wall 2232 includes panel 2252 and corner 2262 which includes corner sections 2262a and 2262b, and exterior side wall 2234 includes panel 2254 and corner 2264 which includes corner sections 2264a and 2264b. Corner sections 2264a is mated with and attached to corner section 2262a, and corner section 2264b is mated with and attached to corner section 2262b to form this corner of the bottom compartment 2200. It should be appreciated that each corner of the bottom compartment is preferably configured in a similar manner. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the bottom compartment and to minimize interference with movement of the top compartment 2300 relative to the bottom compartment 2200. These corners and the top compartment support assemblies are further described below. Turning now to FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, and 54, the top compartment 2300 of the container 2050 includes an exterior top wall 2302, spaced apart exterior front and back side walls 2312 and 2316, spaced apart exterior side walls 2316 and 2318, and exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 respectively attached to the exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318. In this illustrated embodiment, the exterior top wall 2302, exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318, and exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 are also all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel. The upper interior base wall 2306 is suitably attached to the upper portions of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 by rivets. The exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 are respectively attached to the exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 by rivets. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected in any suitable manner. The upper interior base wall 2306 and the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 define a top compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly to the bottom compartment material holding area or cavity. As with container 50, the exterior top wall 2302 of container 2050 includes a rectangular substantially flat base which defines the centrally located rectangular material receipt or loading opening or chute (not shown in FIGS. 47 to 96B). This material receipt or loading opening or chute enables materials to flow into the top and bottom compartments when the cover of the material loading assembly is opened. The opening in this embodiment is 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) by 18 inches (45.72 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. As best illustrated in FIGS. 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, similar to the configuration of the bottom compartment, each of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 of the top compartment 2300 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of the adjacent exterior wall similar to the bottom compartment. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall of the top compartment are preferably connected by welding and add structural rigidity to the top compartment. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, exterior side wall 2312 includes panel 2352 and corner 2362 which includes corner sections 2362a and 2362b, and exterior side wall 2314 includes panel 2354 and corner 2364 which includes corner sections 2364a and 2364b. Corner sections 2364a is mated with and attached to corner section 2362a, and corner section 2364b is mated with and attached to corner section 2362b to form this corner of the top compartment 2300. It should be appreciated that each corner of the top compartment is preferably configured in a similar manner. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 of the bottom compartment 2210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the top compartment 2300. FIGS. 95A and 96A illustrate the position of these walls and corners of the top and bottom compartments when the container is empty and the container is in the expanded position. It should be appreciated that the exact amount of the space between the corners of the top and bottom compartments can vary in accordance with the present disclosure and in accordance with manufacturing tolerances. The figures illustrate that when the container 2050 is empty, the corner of the top compartment can relatively easily move vertically relative to the corner of the bottom compartment. FIGS. 95B and 96B illustrate the position of these walls and corners of the top and bottom compartments when the container is full and the container is in the expanded position. These figures illustrate that when the container 2050 is full, the wall panels of the top and bottom compartment are configured to bow outwardly as very generally illustrated in FIG. 94 and that an engagement is created or formed between the sections of the corners of the top and bottom compartments as generally illustrated in FIGS. 95B and 96B. This engagement of the corners causes the corners of the top compartment to engage and grip the corners of the bottom compartment, which holds the relative position of the top compartment to the bottom compartment (in addition to the support provided by the top compartment support assemblies as further discussed below.) It should also be appreciated that this top corner to bottom corner engagement may happen at one corner, more than one corner, or all of the corners of the container. It should also be appreciated that this corner engagement may occur in the embodiment of FIGS. 1 to 46 described above. Turing now to FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, and 79, the material unloading assembly 2500 of the container 2050 is supported by the bottom wall 2206 of the bottom compartment 2200 adjacent to the opening or chute 2204 in the bottom compartment 2200 and above the opening 2170 in the pallet 2100. The material unloading assembly 2500 generally includes a chute door or gate 2510 slidably positioned on the guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169. In this illustrated embodiment, the gate 2510 and the guide rails are 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the gate and the guide rails can be made from other suitable materials. The guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 are each respectively attached to the bottom exterior surface of the bottom wall 2206. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 60, 61, 65, 66, and 67 illustrate these guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 detached from or without the exterior bottom wall 2206 to show how they are positioned with respect to the pallet 2100 and the opening 2170 defined by the pallet 2100. The guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169, support and guide the movement of closure portion 2516 and the handle portion 2512 of the chute door or gate 2510. The gate 2510 slides or moves above and on these guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169, and these guide rails prevent the downward movement of the chute door or gate when the container is full and also prevent loose materials being held in the top and bottom compartments from accumulating on or adjacent to the chute door or gate. The guide rails 2165 and 2169 include stops or stopping members which prevent the gate from moving outwardly too far and are generally illustrated in FIGS. 65, 66, and 67. The gate 2510 includes a handle member or portion 2512 and a closure member or portion 2516 extending from the handle member or portion 2512 as best illustrated in FIGS. 74, 75, and 76. The gate 2510 is movable or slidable from a closed position as shown in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 68, and 69, to a plurality of different partially open positions (such as the partially open position shown in FIGS. 66, 70, and 71), and then to a fully open position shown in FIGS. 67, 72, and 73. It should be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment, the gate does not rest on the pallet, but that in other embodiments, the gate or portions of the gate may rest on portions of the pallet. It should also be appreciated that the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 also defines a plurality of stopping walls (as best seen in FIGS. 65, 66 and 67) that would prevent the gate 2510 from moving too far outwardly and which also secondarily keep the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 relatively close to the pallet 2100. It should further be appreciated that the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 also provides a stopping walls 2182 that prevents the gate 2510 from moving too far inwardly. It should be appreciated that this illustrated example embodiment of the material unloading assembly 2500 does not include a knife as in the embodiments described above. However, it should be appreciated that an alternative of this embodiment could alternatively include one or more knives. The material unloading assembly 2500 also includes a locking assembly 2550 configured to enable a user to lock the gate 2510, and specifically the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 to the stopping wall 2182 of the pallet 2510 to prevent the handle portion 2512 and the gate 2510 from being accidentally opened at undesired points in time such as: (a) during loading of the container 2050; (b) during transit of the container 2050; or (c) at any other point in time prior to an unloader opening the gate 2510. More specifically, as seen in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 76, 77, 78 and 79, the 60 handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 includes a downwardly extending handle 2513 which is configured to be gripped by a user to open and close the gate 2510. The downwardly extending handle 2513 defines a locking pin slot or opening 2514 (best seen in FIGS. 59, 67, and 77) configured such the locking pin 2590 can extend through the locking pin opening or slot 2514. The material unloading assembly 2500 also includes a stopping bracket 2560 attached to the bottom surface of the stopping wall 2182 as best seen in FIGS. 68, 70 and 72. The stopping bracket 2560 includes an opening aligned with the opening 2514 of the handle 2513 of the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510. More specifically, the material unloading assembly 2500 further includes a locking pin 2590 configured to be inserted through: (a) the locking pin slot or opening 2514 of the handle 2513 of the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510; and (b) the opening in the stopping bracket 2560 when the gate 2510 is in the closed position. This locking pin 2590 engages the stopping bracket 2560 to prevent unwanted opening of the gate 2510. When the user desires to open the gate 2510, the user activates the locking pin 590 and removes the locking pin 2590 from the stopping bracket 2560. It should be appreciated that although not shown, the locking pin 2590 can be tethered to the handle 2513 of the gate 2510 by a suitable tether (not shown). It should also be appreciated that the locking pin can be placed in a different hole in the handle of the gate 2510. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the material unloading assembly can further include one or more guides for holding the locking pin 2590 level or otherwise in position for easy re-insertion when the gate 2510 is in a fully open or partially open position. It should be appreciated that the locking pin can be any suitable locking pin. It should also be appreciated, that although not shown a suitable tether can be employed to maintain the locking pin attached to the gate or container. It should also be appreciated that by pushing the handle back toward the closed position, the chute can be closed or partially closed. It should also be appreciated that placing the handle in a partially open or partially closed positioned enables the user to control the rate of emptying the materials from the container 2050. It should also be appreciated that the pallet or bottom container can include a loop or hole that corresponds to a hole in the handle 2513 for receiving a tamper identification seal or lock. As mentioned above, the top compartment 2300 is supported by a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies 2400a, 2400b, 2400c (not shown), and 2400d which are each configured to support a different one of the corners of the top compartment 2300 and to hold the top compartment 2300 in the expanded position as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 49, 50, 51, 83, 84, 85, 86, and 84. In the illustrated embodiment, each top compartment support assembly 2400a, 2400b, 2400c, and 2400d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these support assemblies may be different. Support assembly 2400a is discussed herein as an example. Support assembly 2400a includes a support pin 2410a configured to be inserted through a pin receipt or pin receipt hole (not shown) in the respective corner of the bottom compartment 2200 and into a tubular support pin receiver or sleeve 2412a of the support assembly 2400a which is attached to a support bracket 2413a which is suitably attached (such as by welding) to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment 2200 as best illustrated in FIG. 85. The illustrated support pin 2410a includes a head, a collar attached to the head and a body extending from the collar, and a locking mechanism with a push button disposed in the head. The bottom edges of the corners of the top compartment are configured to rest on the bodies of these support pins. However, it should be appreciated that other support pins may be employed in accordance with the present disclosure. The support assembly 2400a further includes a combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a and a tether 2460a (shown in FIG. 94) attaching the pin 2420a to the combined support bracket and holder 2430a. It should be appreciated that the combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a and the tether 2460a are partially employed to prevent the support pin 2410a from being lost and to hold the support pin 2410a out of the way of the bottom compartment 2200 when the support pin 2410a is not in use. More specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a is substantially more robust than the support pin holder 430a of container 50 described above. Combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a includes two mounting members 2432a and 2433a suitably attached to the corner of the top compartment 2300 and a pin holder 2434a connected to the mounting members 2432a and 2433a. The pin holder 2434a defines a first hole for attachment of the one end of the tether and a second hole for removably holding the support pin when the support pin is not in use. The combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a is made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, and riveted to the corner of the top compartment 2300. It should be appreciated that the combined support bracket and holder could be made from other suitable materials, could be suitably attached to the top compartment in other suitable manners and could be alternatively configured. It should also be appreciated that each combined support bracket and pin holder is configured to provide additional support for the top compartment when the top compartment rest on the support pins. Similar to tether 460a described above, tether 2460a includes one end loop is attached to the combined support bracket and holder 2430a and another end loop is attached to the support pin. Each tether may be any suitable length and made from any suitable material such as steel or a high strength plastic. The support pin 2410a in the illustrated embodiment is similar to the pin described above. It should be appreciated that other suitable support pins may be employed with the container in accordance with the present disclosure. As mentioned above, the container 2050 includes an extension assembly 2700 which enables a user or loader to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position to enable insertion of the support pins. The extension assembly 2700 of the container 2050 is identical to the extension assembly 700 of the container 50, and thus will only generally be described. Generally, as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 52, and 54, the extension assembly 2700 includes a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2702 and 2704 and a second set of aligned forklift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2706 and 2708. Each of the lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2702, 2704, 2706, and 2708 are identical in this illustrated embodiment, but it should be appreciated that these components can be different. In this embodiment, these loops or lifting brackets are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel and the mounting bars are each suitably riveted to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300. The loops or lifting brackets are suitably aligned to form two slots configured to receive forklift forks or tines. It should be appreciated that these brackets can be made of other suitable materials and attached in other suitable manners. The material loading assembly 2600 is similar to the material loading assembly 600 of container 50 and thus will only be generally described. FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, and 54, generally illustrate that the material loading assembly 2600 is attached to the top compartment 2300 and generally includes: (a) an upwardly extending lip (not shown) attached to and extending from the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300; (b) a cover 2610 configured to securely engage the upwardly extending lip and pivotally attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300 by hinge 2630; (c) a lock assembly 2650 including a first portion attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300 and a second portion or lid latch pivotally attached to the cover 2610; (d) and a gasket (not shown) mounted in the cover 2610 to seal out contaminants. The locking assembly 2650 includes a suitable lock (not shown) which is used to lock the cover 2610 in the closed position, and specifically to lock the second portion or lid latch attached to the cover to the first portion attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300. As mentioned above, the container 2050 and specifically the top compartment 2300 includes a plurality of nesting or stacking or guides 2800a, 2800b, 2800c, and 2800d which are configured to facilitate secure stacking of the containers of the present disclosure as well as stacking of other known bulk material containers as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 88, 89, 90, and 91. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the stacking guides 2800a, 2800b, 2800c, and 2800d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these stacking guides may be different. More specifically, stacking guide 2800a is discussed herein as an example stacking guide. As best shown in FIG. 88, stacking guide 2800a includes mounting walls 2802a and 2804a configured to be attached to the corner of the top compartment 2300 and guide wall 2812a and 2814a respectively attached to and extend from the mounting walls 2802a and 2804a. In this illustrated embodiment, the guide wall 2812a and 2814a each respectively define openings 2820a and 2822a. As generally shown in FIGS. 90 and 91, the stacking guides assist in positioning one container of the present disclosure on top of another container of the present disclosure. FIG. 89 illustrates one corner of the top compartment 2300 of the container 2050 with a nesting guide 2800a and two nesting supports 2840a and 2842a adjacent to and attached to the nesting guide 2800a. In this illustrated example, the nesting supports 2840a and 2842a are each made from a steel tubular material and are attached by rivets to the nesting guide 2800a. It should be appreciated that the nesting supports can be made from other suitably strong materials and can be attached to the nesting guide in other suitable manners such as by welding. When a second container sits on a first container as generally illustrated in FIGS. 90 and 91, the pallet of the second or top container rests on the nesting supports 2840a and 2842a of the first or bottom container which are configured to support the pallet and specifically the legs of the pallet of the second container. The nesting supports direct the weight of the second or top container that sits on those nesting supports to the corners of the first or bottom container rather than the entire side walls or edges of the first or bottom container. This prevents the weight of the second or top container from damaging the walls of the top compartment of the first or bottom container and provides for a better nesting of compatible containers. FIG. 91 shows the leg 2124 of the pallet 2100 sitting on the nesting supports 2842a and 2840a adjacent to the nesting guide 2800a. FIG. 91 also shows a small gap under the footing 2101 attached to the bottom of the legs of the pallet 2100 and that the footing does not rest on the nesting supports and does not rest on the top wall of the top compartment. This configuration prevents too much weight from the second or top pallet from being placed on the top wall of the top compartment of the first or bottom pallet. This example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive and hold a large plastic bag or a sleeve which holds the materials in the interior areas defined by bottom and top compartments. In one embodiment, the same bag as the bag described above can be employed. When a bag is employed with this container 2050, it is expected that a knife will also be employed in the material unloading assembly. In other embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed as generally illustrated in FIG. 87. In one such embodiment, the sleeve includes four connected walls where each wall is approximately 45 inches (114.30 centimeters) by approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters). In one embodiment, the sleeve has no bottom or top walls. In one embodiment, the sleeve: (a) is FDA compliant; (b) has an approximately 2 millimeter thickness; (e) is opaque or gray; and (f) is made from a low density recyclable polyethylene plastic. In one alternative embodiment, the sleeve is also or alternatively bio-degradable. It should be appreciated that in various embodiments the sleeve will be appropriately folded so that the sleeve can be unfolded and positioned in the top and bottom compartments of the container. FIG. 87 shows the top compartment 2300 removed from the bottom compartment and the generally rectangular sleeve 2900 extending downwardly from the top compartment 2300. This sleeve 2900 includes double-sided tape (not shown) on the outside walls of its top end for attachment of the sleeve to the inner surfaces of the walls of the top compartment. In practice, to install a sleeve, an operator would: (a) remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment; (b) clean the interior walls of both top and bottom compartments if necessary; (c) unfold the sleeve, and attach the sleeve to the inner wall surfaces of the top compartment; (d) move the top compartment with the sleeve hanging down over the bottom compartment; and (e) lower the sleeve into the bottom compartment and reconnect the top compartment to the bottom compartment such the sleeve is in the bottom and top compartments. In another embodiment (not shown), the bulk material shipping container is similar to container 2050 but is not expandable or retractable. This example shipping container includes: (a) a pallet similar to pallet 2100; (b) a single compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and similar to material unloading assembly 2500; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the top of the compartment similar to material loading assembly 2600. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag, with a sleeve, or without a bag or sleeve. In another embodiment partially shown in FIG. 97, the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable and does not include a top wall. In this embodiment, the shipping container 3050 includes: (a) a pallet (not shown) similar to pallet 2100; (b) a single compartment 3300 mounted on the pallet; and (c) a material unloading assembly (not shown) supported by the bottom compartment and similar to material loading assembly 2500. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag, with a sleeve, or without a bag or a sleeve. Additionally, in this illustrated embodiment, the compartment is formed without a top wall. End caps or channels 3352, 3354, 3356, and 3358 are respectively positioned over the top edges of the side walls 3312, 3314, 3316, and 3318 to protect and strengthen the top edges of the compartment. The nesting guides 3800a (not shown), 3800b, 3800c, and 3800d are configured to provide additional engagements with the corners of the top of the compartment to sufficiently support the nesting supports. In this embodiment, multiple containers with open top ends can be stacked on each other and unloaded together when the material unloading assemblies are all opened with the containers stacked on each other. It should be appreciated that the present disclosure contemplates the elimination or reduction of sharp edges in the compartment and that any sharp edges can be curved or formed with a suitable radius. It should be understood that modifications and variations may be effected without departing from the scope of the novel concepts of the present disclosure, and it should be understood that this application is to be limited only by the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Various bulk material shipping containers are known. Such known material bulk shipping containers, sometimes referred to herein for brevity as known containers or as known bulk containers, are used to transport a wide range of products, parts, components, items, and materials such as, but not limited to, seeds, shavings, fasteners, and granular materials. These are sometimes called loose materials. There are various disadvantages with such known bulk material shipping containers. For example, one known and widely commercially used known bulk container for shipping materials (such as shipping seeds to farms) is sold by Buckhorn Industries. This known bulk container is made from plastic, weighs about 338 pounds (151.9 kilograms), and holds a maximum of 58.3 cubic feet of material. This known container has a bottom section, a top section, and a cover. To use this known container, loaders at a bulk material supplier must remove the cover, remove the top section from the bottom section, flip the top section upside down, place the flipped top section on the bottom section, fill the container, and then place the cover on the flipped top section. This process requires at least two people and a relatively significant amount of time when filling a large quantity of these containers. In certain instances, specifically configured forklift attachments are required to fill and handle this known container. After this known container is shipped to its ultimate destination (such as a farm), the bulk material (such as seed) is unloaded from the container, and the empty container must be shipped back to the material supplier. However, prior to and for shipping back to the supplier, the cover is removed, the flipped top section is removed from the bottom section, the flipped top section is then flipped back over and placed on the bottom section, and the cover is then placed on the top section and fastened with zip ties. This process also requires at least two people and is relatively time consuming especially for a large quantity of such containers. Another disadvantage of this known container is that this container is made from plastic and if one of the three sections (i.e., the bottom, the top, or the cover) is damaged or cracked, that entire section typically must be replaced (instead of being repaired). This adds additional cost, time out of service for the damaged container, and additional material and energy waste. Another disadvantage of this known container is that when disassembled (for shipping empty), only two of these containers can be stacked on top of each other and still fit in a conventional shipping container or truck. This tends to leave wasted space in such shipping containers and trucks, and thus increases the overall cost of shipping (including related fuel costs) and energy waste. Additional disadvantages of this known container are that: (a) the cover can be easily lost or misplaced; (b) the cover can be easily damaged; (c) this known container is less weather resistant because the cover is readily removable and only attached by zip ties; (d) the insides and outside surfaces are difficult to clean; and (e) a material holding bag is not readily usable with this container, such that this container cannot be used for certain types of loose materials. For purposes of brevity, (a) the people who assemble and/or put a container in the position for receiving materials for transport and who load the material in a container are sometimes referred to herein as the “loaders,” and (b) the people who remove the materials from a container and who disassemble and/or put a container in the position for sending back to the supplier are sometimes referred to herein as the “unloaders.” Accordingly, there is a need for better bulk material shipping containers which overcome these disadvantages. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a bulk material shipping container which overcomes the above described disadvantages with previously known commercially available bulk shipping containers. One embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment and movable from a retracted position relative to the bottom compartment (for efficient shipping when not holding materials or holding a relatively small amount of materials) to an expanded position relative to the bottom compartment (for holding extra materials during shipping); (d) a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; (f) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment; and (g) an extension assembly attached to the top compartment which enables a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. The shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive a suitable plastic bag which holds the materials in the container. It should thus be appreciated that the expandable and retractable bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. It should also be appreciated that when a plastic bag is used to hold the materials in the container, the material unloading assembly includes a knife which cuts the bottom of the bag open for unloading of the materials. The bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is sometimes referred herein for brevity as the container or as the shipping container. One embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is primarily made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, except for the pallet which is made from wood. If one of the sections of this embodiment of the container is damaged or cracked, that section can typically be repaired which reduces: (a) cost; (b) time out of service for the container; and (c) additional material and/or energy waste. In alternative embodiments, the pallet of the bulk material shipping container, or certain parts thereof, can be made from a suitably strong plastic material such as a composite material or a fiber glass material. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure can also be stacked three high (when empty) for shipping in conventional transport containers or trucks. This reduces wasted space in such transport containers and trucks and decreases shipping cost and fuel consumption, and thus energy waste. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure holds 72 cubic feet of material and up to about 3125 pounds (1417.5 kilograms). This embodiment of the shipping container has several advantages over the above described known bulk container. Specifically, this embodiment of the bulk container is approximately 65 pounds (29.49 kilograms) lighter, holds approximately 14 cubic feet of additional materials which is approximately 25% more material (such as seeds), is readily repairable, can be stacked three high for more efficient transport to the supplier, and can be moved from the transport or retracted position to the loading or expanded position by one person. To load the presently disclosed container, the loaders do not need to remove a cover, remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment, flip the top compartment over, place the flipped top compartment on the bottom compartment, or place any cover on the flipped top compartment. Additionally, the unloaders do not need to remove the cover, remove the flipped top compartment, flip the top compartment, place the top compartment on the bottom compartment, and then place the cover on the top compartment for returning the empty container. In another embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment, and thus this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the single compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the single compartment. In this embodiment, since there is a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to a top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed in the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, the pallet supports the compartments, but does not directly support the material unloading assembly. In further embodiments, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is configured without the top wall to provide an open top end. It is therefore an advantage of the present disclosure to provide a new and improved bulk material shipping container. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments and the figures. | B65D1906 | 20170626 | 20171010 | 20171012 | 58071.0 | B65D1906 | 1 | ORTIZ, RAFAEL ALFREDO | BULK MATERIAL SHIPPING CONTAINER | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B65D | 2,017 |
15,633,233 | PENDING | CHARGE-BALANCED IMAGING AGENTS | The present invention relates to compositions for and methods of optically imaging tissues or cells using imaging agents having desirable in vivo properties that result in improved signal-to-background ratio. | 1-64. (canceled) 65. A method of imaging tissue or cells, the method comprising: (a) contacting the tissue or cells with an imaging agent comprising a dye; (b) irradiating the tissue or cells at a wavelength absorbed by the dye; (c) detecting an optical signal from the irradiated tissue or cells, wherein the signal-to-background ratio of the detected optical signal is at least about 1.1, thereby imaging the tissue or cells; wherein the dye has the formula: or an ester thereof, which permits covalent conjugation of the fluorophore to targeting ligands, wherein: E is absent, O or S; Q is (CH2)q or a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety; R17, R18, R19, and R20 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety, halo, cyano, nitro, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 alkoxy, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R21 is H or N-succinimidyl; and q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. 66. A dye, having the formula: or an ester thereof, which permits covalent conjugation of the fluorophore to targeting ligands, wherein: E is absent, O or S; Q is (CH2)q or a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety; R17, R18, R19, and R20 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety, halo, cyano, nitro, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 alkoxy, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R21 is H or N-succinimidyl; and q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. 67. The dye of claim 66, wherein the ester is a N-hydroxysuccinimide ester. 68. The dye of claim 66, isolated as a salt, acid, or combination thereof. 69. An imaging agent comprising the dye of claim 66 which is characterized as having detectable fluorescence with a signal-to-background ratio of at least about 1.1. 70. A method of imaging tissue or cells, the method comprising: (a) contacting the tissue or cells with an imaging agent comprising a dye; (b) irradiating the tissue or cells at a wavelength absorbed by the dye; (c) detecting an optical signal from the irradiated tissue or cells, wherein the signal-to-background ratio of the detected optical signal is at least about 1.1, thereby imaging the tissue or cells; wherein the dye has the formula: or an ester thereof, which permits covalent conjugation of the fluorophore to targeting ligands. 71. A dye, having the formula: or an ester thereof, which permits covalent conjugation of the fluorophore to targeting ligands. 72. The dye of claim 71, wherein the ester is a N-hydroxysuccinimide ester. 73. The dye of claim 71, isolated as a salt, acid, or combination thereof. 74. An imaging agent comprising the dye of claim 71 which is characterized as having detectable fluorescence with a signal-to-background ratio of at least about 1.1. | FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT This invention was made with Government support under Grant No. R01-CA-115296 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government may have certain rights in the invention. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to methods of optically imaging tissues or cells using imaging agents having desirable in vivo properties that result in improved signal-to-background ratio. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Near infrared (NIR) fluorescence has potential importance in the medical field, particularly in diagnostics and image-guided surgery. However, the availability of suitable fluorophores as imaging agents has been a primary hindrance. To be clinically viable, the ideal NIR fluorophore should have both good optical properties and superior in vivo properties with respect to solubility, biodistribution, and clearance. Most current fluorophores contemplated for use as imaging agents fail in connection with their in vivo properties. For example, known fluorophores tend to clear through the liver, which results in undesirable fluorescence throughout the gastrointestinal tract. And in some cases, known fluorophores suffer from significant non-specific background uptake in normal tissues, resulting in a low signal-to-background ratio. Accordingly, there is a current need for new and improved NIR fluorescent imaging agents, particularly those that can equilibrate rapidly between the intravascular and extravascular spaces and are cleared efficiently by renal filtration. The imaging agents of the invention are directed toward these and other needs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The invention is based, at least in part, on the discovery that if one balances, or almost balances, the overall charge on an imaging agent molecule, then the resulting charge-balanced molecule has improved in vivo properties that lead to superior clinical imaging characteristics. In one aspect, the present invention provides methods of imaging tissue or cells, the methods including (a) contacting the tissue or cells with an imaging agent comprising a dye or conjugate thereof, the conjugate comprising a targeting ligand attached to the dye, wherein the dye or conjugate has a net charge of +1, 0, or −1 and comprises one or more ionic groups; (b) irradiating the tissue or cells at a wavelength absorbed by the dye or conjugate; (c) detecting an optical signal from the irradiated tissue or cells, wherein the signal-to-background ratio of the detected optical signal is at least about 1.1, thereby imaging the tissue or cells. The present invention further provides methods of preparing a dye for imaging tissue or cells, the method including (a) selecting a dye having peak absorption at about 500 nm to about 850 nm and peak fluorescent emission at about 550 nm to about 875 nm; (b) optionally modifying the dye to include a linking group; and (c) modifying the dye, and optionally the linking group, to include one or more ionic groups to achieve a solubility of the dye of at least about 10 μM in 10 mM HEPES solution at pH 7.4; wherein the one or more ionic groups are selected so that the net charge of the dye is +1, 0, or −1, and wherein the signal-to-background ratio of fluorescent emission detected from the dye compound while imaging is at least about 1.1. In another aspect, the present invention further provides methods of preparing a conjugate for imaging tissue or cells, wherein the conjugate includes a dye and a targeting ligand. These methods include (a) selecting a dye having peak absorption at about 500 nm to about 850 nm and peak fluorescent emission at about 550 nm to about 875 nm; (b) optionally modifying the dye to include a linking group; (c) modifying the dye and optionally the linking group to include one or more ionic groups to achieve a solubility of at least about 10 μM in 10 mM HEPES solution at pH 7.4; and (d) conjugating the targeting ligand to the dye optionally through the linking group to form the conjugate, wherein the targeting ligand and the one or more ionic groups are selected so that the net charge of the conjugate is +1, 0, or −1, and wherein the signal-to-background ratio of fluorescent emission detected from the conjugate while imaging is at least about 1.1. In addition, the present invention includes imaging agents for imaging tissue or cells, wherein the imaging agents include a conjugate which is characterized as having detectable fluorescence with a signal-to-background ratio of at least about 1.1, and wherein the conjugate has Formula VI: wherein constituent variables are defined herein. The present invention further provides a dye comprising a molecule or ion of Formula VIII: wherein constituent variables are defined herein. The charge-balanced imaging agents of the invention are particularly advantageous because their behavior in vivo is believed to contribute to superior optical imaging properties. More specifically, the charge-balancing is believed to impart good biodistribution and clearance properties to the agents, and reduce undesirable non-specific binding. These in vivo properties help improve the signal-to-background ratio of imaged tissues, leading to higher resolution imaging. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description, and from the claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 a representation of dye molecules having a range of net charges. FIG. 2 is a schematic of the synthesis of dye molecule ZW+1 (MM-19). FIG. 3 is a schematic of the synthesis of dye molecule ZW+5. FIG. 4 is a representation of five dye molecules, the properties of which were compared in vitro and in vivo. FIG. 5 is a representation of experimental results relating to in vivo biodistribution and clearance of the dye molecules of FIG. 4 in a rat model. FIG. 6 is a representation of experimental results relating to in vivo biodistribution and clearance of the dye molecules of FIG. 4 in a pig model. FIG. 7 is a representation of two different dyes conjugated to the targeting ligand cRGD. FIG. 8 is a representation of in vivo experimental results in rat tumor models for the two conjugates of FIG. 7. FIG. 9 is a representation of the preparation of an example adamantane-based targeting ligand containing an ionic group for charge-balancing and moieties that selectively bind to PSMA. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present disclosure relates, inter alia, to imaging agents that are composed of a dye molecule optionally conjugated to a targeting ligand through a linking group. The imaging agents described herein are useful in, for example, the detection of abnormal or diseased biological tissues and cells. The conjugates are particularly useful for imaging whole organisms, because they have improved in vivo behavior, such as low non-specific binding to non-targeted tissues, resulting in an improved signal-to-background ratio in connection with the detected optical signal. It is believed that these improved in vivo properties result from the balancing of formal charges on the conjugate, rendering a “charge-balanced” molecule having a net charge that is neutral or close to neutral. Imaging Methods The new methods of imaging tissue or cells include the following basic steps: (a) contacting the tissue or cells with an imaging agent comprising a dye or conjugate thereof, the conjugate comprising a targeting ligand attached to the dye, wherein the dye or conjugate has a net charge of +1, 0, or −1 and comprises one or more ionic groups; (b) irradiating the tissue or cells at a wavelength absorbed by the dye or conjugate; (c) detecting an optical signal from the irradiated tissue or cells, wherein the signal-to-background ratio of the detected optical signal is at least about 1.1, thereby imaging the tissue or cells. The imaging agents described herein are substances or molecules that can be used to image tissues or cells, such as those of a living organism, for purposes of diagnosis, therapy, image-guided surgery, and the like. In some embodiments, the organism is a mammal, such as a human. The imaging agents generally contain a dye that is capable of absorption of electromagnetic radiation, typically in the ultraviolet (UV), visible, or near infrared (NIR) range. The imaging agent can also be capable fluorescent emission, such as in the visible or NIR range. The optical signal detected from the dye or conjugate can be, for example, absorption or fluorescent emission. In some embodiments, fluorescent emission from the dye is the primary optical signal detected for imaging purposes. In some embodiments, the dye has a peak absorbance at about 525 nm to about 850 nm, at about 550 nm to about 825 nm, about 600 nm to about 825 nm, about 700 nm to about 825 nm, or at about 750 nm to about 825 nm. In some embodiments, the dye has a peak fluorescent emission at about 700 nm to 875 nm, about 725 to about 850 nm, about 750 to about 850 nm, or about 775 to about 850 nm. Suitable dyes for imaging by fluorescent emission include the class of cyanine dyes which are cationic molecules where two cyclic groups are linked through a methine or polymethine bridge. See the following references for examples of various cyanine dye derivatives: Mojzych, M. et al. “Synthesis of Cyanine Dyes” Top. Heterocycl. Chem. (2008) 14:1-9; Sysmex Journal International (1999), Vol. 9, No. 2, pg 185 (appendix); Strekowski, L. et al. Synthetic Communications (1992), 22(17), 2593-2598; Strekowski, L. et al. J. Org. Chem. (1992) 57, 4578-4580; Narayanan, N. et al. J. Org. Chem. (1995), 60(8), 2391-2395; Makin, S. M. et al. Journal of Organic Chemistry of the USSR (1977) 13(6), part 1, 1093-1096; Lee, H. et al. J. Org. Chem. (2006) 71, 7862-7865, WO 2009/006443, WO 2008/015415, WO 2007/136996, WO 2007/005222, WO 2003/082988, WO 2001/090253, U.S. Ser. No. 12/376,243 (filed Feb. 3, 2009), and U.S. Ser. No. 12/376,225 (filed Feb. 3, 2009), each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Example dyes and their conjugates suitable for use in the present imaging methods are described herein. The imaging agents can include conjugates, which refers to a dye which is conjugated to a targeting ligand. The “targeting ligand” is a moiety that binds with some specificity or selectivity to a particular tissue or biological target. The tissue or biological target can include normal tissues as well as abnormal or diseased tissues. Targeting ligands can be selected from specific proteins, protein fragments, peptides, antibodies, carbohydrates, or antigens described, e.g., in Frangioni et al. in “Modified PSMA Ligands and Uses Related Thereto,” WO 02/098885, filed on Feb. 7, 2002 (now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,875,886). An example targeting ligand is the cRGD peptide, which selectively binds to the biological target αvβ3 integrin. It is known that this integrin is overexpressed by various tumors, and thus, these RGD targeting peptides enable the dyes to preferentially label tumors that overexpress these integrins. Other targeting ligands include melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH), which binds to melanoma cells; or bombesin, somatostatin, or Sandostatin™ (synthetic), which target somatostatin receptors. Other targeting ligands include “KUE” and other small molecules, which selectively bind to the biological target prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA) (See, Humblet, V. et al. Mol. Imaging, 2005, 4: 448-62; Misra P. et al. J Nucl. Med. 2007, 48: 1379-89; Chen, Y., et al. J. Med. Chem, 2008, 51: 7933-43; Chandran, S. S., et al. Cancer Biol. Ther., 2008, 7:974-82; Banerjee, S. R., J. Med. Chem. 2008, 51: 4504-17; Mease, R. C., et al. Clin. Cancer Res., 2008, 14:3036-43; Foss, C. A. et al. Clin. Cancer. Res., 2005, 11:4022-8, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Examples of suitable targeting ligands are described elsewhere herein. The imaging agents are generally “charge-balanced,” unless otherwise specified, which refers to having a net overall charge of zero, or close to zero, such as +1 or −1. Charge-balancing occurs when negatively charged substituents on the imaging agent are countered by the presence of an equal number, or close to an equal number, of positively charged substituents on the same molecule, and vice versa. In some embodiment, the net charge is 0 or +1. In some embodiments, the net charge is 0. In some embodiments, the net charge is +1. In further embodiments, the net charge is −1. The value “n” in the formulae provided herein represents net charge. The imaging agents described herein generally have improved “signal-to-background ratio” (SBR) compared to presently known fluorescent imaging agents. The improvement in SBR is believed to be a result of improved in vivo properties due to “charge-balancing.” SBR is a measure of the intensity of the fluorescent signal obtained from a target (peak signal) over the measure of the intensity of the fluorescent signal obtained nearby the target (background signal), the target being the tissues or cells targeted by the imaging agent. SBR measurements can be readily obtained through routine measurement procedures. For fluorescent imaging systems, and other optical-type systems, digital images recording optical signals of the target facilitate SBR measurement. Higher SBR values are more desirable, resulting in greater resolution of the imaged tissues. In some embodiments, the imaging agents achieve an SBR of at least about 1.1 (i.e., peak signal is at least 10% over background). In further embodiments, the imaging agents achieve an SBR of at least about 1.2, at least about 1.3, at least about 1.4, at least about 1.5, at least about 1.6, at least about 1.7, at least about 1.8, at least about 1.9, or at least about 2.0. In yet further embodiments, the imaging agents achieve an SBR of about 1.1 to about 50, about 1.5 to about 30, about 2.0 to about 20, about 2.0 to about 5.0, or about 5.0 to about 10. The imaging agents generally include one or more ionic groups. In some embodiments, the imaging agents include two or more, three or more, four or more, or five or more ionic groups. Ionic groups serve to increase solubility of the generally hydrophobic dye portions of the imaging agent, thus, improving biodistribution. The ionic groups can be located on any portion of the imaging agent, such as the dye portion, the targeting ligand, or both. The term “ionic group” refers to a moiety comprising one or more charged substituents. The “charged substituent” is a functional group that is generally anionic or cationic in substantially neutral aqueous conditions (e.g. a pH of about 6.5 to 8.0, or preferably about physiological pH (7.4)). Examples of charged anionic substituents include anions of inorganic and organic acids such as sulfonate (—SO31−), sulfinate, carboxylate, phosphinate, phosphonate, phosphate, and esters (such as alkyl esters) thereof. In some embodiments, the charged substituent is sulfonate. Examples of charged cationic substituents include quaternary amines (—NR3+), where R is independently selected from C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and arylalkyl. Other charged cationic substituents include protonated primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, and well as guanidinium. In some embodiments, the charged substituent is —N(CH3)3+. Further examples of ionic groups are described infra. The imaging agents described herein generally have good solubility in substantially neutral aqueous media, and in particular, blood and blood serum. In some embodiments, the imaging agent has a solubility in 10 mM HEPES solution, pH 7.4, of at least about 10 μM. In further embodiments, the imaging agent has a solubility in 10 mM HEPES solution, pH 7.4, of at least about 15 μM, at least about 20 μM, at least about 25 μM, at least about 30 μM, at least about 40 μM, or at least about 50 μM. The imaging agents can be neutral molecules or salts. For example, if the dye or dye conjugate is charged, the imaging agent can be or contain a salt or acid (or combination thereof) of the dye or dye conjugate. For positively charged dyes or conjugates, suitable counter ions include anions such as fluoride, chloride, bromide, iodide, acetate, perchlorate, PF6− and the like. For negatively charged dyes or conjugates, suitable counterions include cations such as Na+, K+, and quaternary amines. The imaging agents of the invention can be administered by any suitable technique, including both enteral and parenteral methods. In some embodiments, the imaging agents can be formulated into pharmaceutically acceptable formulations and administered intravenously to an organism for imaging. The dosed organism can be imaged using, for example, a FLARE™ Image-Guided Surgery System, which is a continuous-wave (CW) intraoperative imaging system that is capable of simultaneous, real-time acquisition and display of color video (i.e., surgical anatomy) and two channels of invisible NIR fluorescent (700 nm and 800 nm) light. The imaging system can irradiate the dosed organism with radiation absorbed by the imaging agent, and detect optical signals, such as NIR fluorescence, eminating from the targeted portions of the organism containing the imaging agent. The detected signals can be recorded and analyzed by obtaining digital images or video of the subject organism, thereby facilitating diagnostic procedures and image-guided medical techniques. Dyes and Conjugates In some embodiments, the dyes or conjugates of the invention can have Formula I: wherein: n is +1, 0, or −1; W is a C1 methine or a C2-13 polymethine group optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, or 4 substituents independently selected from C1-6 alkyl, a reactive linking group, or a moiety comprising a linking group and a targeting ligand, wherein two substituents, together with the atoms to which they are attached and optionally one or more methine groups of W, optionally form a 5-, 6-, or 7-membered carbocycle or a 5-, 6-, or 7-membered heterocycle, wherein said carbocycle or heterocycle is optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 substituents independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; Ring A and Ring B are independently selected from a monocyclic heterocycle, a bicyclic heterocycle, a tricyclic heterocycle, a monocyclic a carbocycle, a bicyclic carbocycle, and a tricylic carbocycle, wherein one of Rings A and B is optionally charged; RA and RB are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; x and y are independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, and 11; wherein at least one RA and RB is present and is an ionic group. In some embodiments, at least two of RA and RB are present and are ionic groups. In further embodiments, at least three of RA and RB are present and are ionic groups. In yet further embodiments, at least four of RA and RB are present and are ionic groups. In some embodiments, at least one ionic group is a cationic group. In further embodiments, at least two ionic groups are cationic groups. In some embodiments, Ring A is selected from a monocyclic heterocycle, a bicyclic heterocycle, and a tricyclic heterocycle. In some embodiments, Ring A is selected from a bicyclic heterocycle and a tricyclic heterocycle, wherein Ring A has a formal charge of +1. In some embodiments, Ring A has the Formula: wherein: Ring A is a bicyclic or tricyclic heterocycle; RA is H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; RA′ is an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; and t is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10. In some embodiments, the dye or conjugate has Formula II: wherein: n is +1, 0, or −1; W is a C1 methine or a C2-13 polymethine group optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, or 4 substituents independently selected from C1-6 alkyl, a reactive linking group, or a moiety comprising a linking group and a targeting ligand, wherein two substituents, together with the atoms to which they are attached and optionally one or more methine groups of W, optionally form a 5-, 6-, or 7-membered carbocycle or a 5-, 6-, or 7-membered heterocycle, wherein said carbocycle or heterocycle is optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 substituents independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; Ring A and Ring B are independently selected from monocyclic heterocycle, bicyclic heterocycle, and tricyclic heterocycle; RA and RB are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; RA′ and RB′ are independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; and u and t are independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10; wherein at least one RA, RB, RA′, RB′, and RW is present and is an ionic group, and any other substituents are as defined infra and supra. In some embodiments, at least two RA, RB, RA′, RB′, and RW are present and are ionic groups. In further embodiments, at least three RA, RB, RA′, RB′, and RW are present and are ionic groups. In yet further embodiments, at least four RA, RB, RA′, RB′, and RW are present and are ionic groups. In some embodiments, at least one RA, RB, RA′, RB′, and RW is a cationic group. In some embodiments, at least two RA, RB, RA′, RB′, and RW are cationic groups. In some embodiments, the dye or conjugate has Formula III: wherein: G is independently selected from H, C1-6 alkyl, a moiety comprising a linking group, and a moiety comprising a targeting ligand; Y is O, S, CR11R12, NRn, —CR11═CR12—, or —CR11═N—; R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; or two adjacent R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8 groups, together with the atoms to which they are attached, fours a fused 5-7 membered aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl group, each optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 substituents independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R9, R10, and Rn are independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R11 and R12 are independently selected from C1-4 alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halo; R15 and R16 are independently selected from H and C1-6 alkyl; or R15 and R16, together with the atoms to which they are attached and optionally one or more —CH═ moieties, form a 6-membered aryl or cycloalkyl group, each optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 substituents independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; and v is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5, wherein at least one of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 is an ionic group, and any other substituents are as defined infra and supra. In some embodiments, no more than one G is a moiety comprising a linking group or a moiety comprising a targeting ligand. In some embodiments, least two of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In further embodiments, least three of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In yet further embodiments, least four of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In some embodiments, at least one of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 is a cationic group. In further embodiments, at least two of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are cationic groups. In some embodiments, the dye or conjugate has Formula IV: wherein R13 and R14 are independently selected from C1-4 alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halo, and any other substituents are as defined infra and supra In some embodiments, no more than one G is a moiety comprising a linking group or a moiety comprising a targeting ligand. In some embodiments, least two of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In further embodiments, least three of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In yet further embodiments, least four of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In some embodiments, at least one of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 is a cationic group. In further embodiments, at least two of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are cationic groups. In some embodiments, the dye or conjugate has Formula V: wherein R22, R23, R24, R25, R26, and R27 are independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, and any other substituents are as defined infra and supra. In some embodiments, no more than one G is a moiety comprising a linking group or a moiety comprising a targeting ligand. In some embodiments, least two of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In further embodiments, least three of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In yet further embodiments, least four of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In some embodiments, at least one of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 is a cationic group. In further embodiments, at least two of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are cationic groups. Conjugates Suitable conjugates described herein can be characterized by Formula VI: wherein: TL is a targeting ligand comprising at least one binding moiety that binds to a biological target; L is a linking moiety; R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; or two adjacent R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8 groups, together with the atoms to which they are attached, form a fused 5-7 membered aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, or heterocycloalkyl group, each optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 substituents independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R9 and R10 are independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R11, R12, R13, and R14 are independently selected from C1-4 alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halo; R15 and R16 are independently selected from H and C1-6 alkyl; or R15 and R16 together with the —CH═CH—CH═ moiety which they span form a 6-membered aryl or cycloalkyl group, each optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, or 4 substituents independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; and n is +1, 0, or −1. In some embodiments, at least one of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 is an ionic group. In further embodiments, at least two of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In yet further embodiments, at least three of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In yet further embodiments, at least four of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 are ionic groups. In some embodiments, n is 0. In further embodiments, n is +1. In yet further embodiments, n is −1. In some embodiments, the ionic group is independently selected from: (a) a charged substituent; and (b) a C1-20 alkyl group substituted with one or more charged substituents, and optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 substituents independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl, wherein 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 carbon atoms of the alkyl group are individually replaced with O, S, C(O), C(O)O, NR′, C(O)NR′, SO, SO2, SO2NR′, wherein R′ is H or C1-6 alkyl, with the proviso that the replacement does not result in an unstable moiety. In some embodiments, the charged substituent is selected from sulfonate or a quaternary amine of formula —NR3+, wherein R is independently selected from C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and arylalkyl. In some embodiments, the C1-20 alkyl group substituted with one or more charged substituents has the Formula: wherein y and z are independently selected from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. In some embodiments, the C1-20 alkyl group substituted with one or more charged substituents is independently selected from: In some embodiments, the C1-20 alkyl group substituted with one or more charged substituents is a Zwitterionic group. For example, the Zwitterionic group can comprise a sulfonate group and a quaternary amine of formula —NR3−, wherein R is independently selected from C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and arylalkyl. In some embodiments, R11, R12, R13, and R14 are each methyl. In some embodiments, R15 and R16 together with the —C═C—C— moiety which they span form a 6-membered aryl or cycloalkyl group, each optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, or 4 substituents independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl. In some embodiments, R15 and R16 together form —CH2—CH2—CH2—. In some embodiments, L has the formula: wherein: E is absent, O or S; Q is (CH2)q or a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety; J is C(O), C(O)O, or C(O)NH; R17, R18, R19, and R20 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety, halo, cyano, nitro, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 alkoxy, and C1-4 haloalkyl; and q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. In some embodiments, the conjugate has Formula VII: wherein the substituents are defined supra and infra, and wherein at least one of R2, R6, R9, and R10 is an ionic group. In some embodiments, n is +1. In further embodiments, two of R2, R6, R9, and R10 are cationic groups. In yet further embodiments, two of R2, R6, R9, and R10 are cationic groups and two of R2, R6, R9, and R10 are anionic groups. In some embodiments, the conjugate has the Formula VIII: wherein: n is 0, +1, or −1; and TL is a targeting ligand. Dyes Suitable dyes described herein include a molecule or ion of Formula VIII: wherein: L′ is a reactive linking group; R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, and R8 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; or two adjacent R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, or R8 groups, together with the atoms to which they are attached, form a fused 5-7 membered aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, or heterocyclocalkyl group, each optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 substituents independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R9 and R10 are independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl, wherein said alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 groups independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R11, R12, R13, and R14 are independently selected from C1-4 alkyl optionally substituted with 1, 2, or 3 halo; R15 and R16 are independently selected from H and C1-6 alkyl; or R15 and R16 together with the —C═C—C— moiety which they span form a 6-membered aryl or cycloalkyl group, each optionally substituted with 1, 2, 3, or 4 substituents independently selected from an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing group, halo, C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; and p is −6, −5, −4, −3, −2, −1, 0, +1, +2, +3, +4, +5, or +6. In some embodiments, at least one of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8, R9, and R10 is an ionic group comprising at least one cationic substituent. In some embodiments, L′ comprises a —COOH group or a —C(O)O—NHS group. In some embodiments, L′ has the formula: wherein: E is absent, O or S; Q is (CH2)q or a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety; R17, R18, R19, and R20 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety, halo, cyano, nitro, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 alkoxy, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R21 is H or N-succinimidyl; and q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. In some embodiments, the dye comprises a molecule or ion of Formula IX: wherein the substituents are defined supra and infra, and wherein at least one of R2, R6, R9, and R10 is an ionic group comprising at least one cationic substituent. In some embodiments, p is 0 or +1. In further embodiments, p is +1. In some embodiments, at least two of R2, R6, R9, and R10 are ionic groups each comprising at least one cationic substituent. In some embodiments, the dye compound has Formula X: Definitions and Additional Embodiments As used herein, “targeting ligand” (TL) refers to any molecular entity that contains a binding moiety that binds with some specificity or selectivity to a biological target, and is the primary means for the conjugates of the invention to bind to specific tissues in an organism or sample. Targeting ligands can further include charged functional groups that would balance charge on a conjugated dye molecule. Generally, it is desired that the charge on the targeting ligand substantially neutralizes any charge on the dye compound such that the total net charge of the conjugate is −1, 0, or +1. In some embodiments, the total net charge is 0. The targeting ligand can be covalently attached to the reactive linking group of a dye compound of the invention through standard coupling procedures. For example, the carboxyl or activated carboxyl group of the reactive linking group can react with a nucleophilic functionality on the targeting ligand, such as an amine or alkoxy derivative, to form an amide or ester linkage. Additional details for the conjugation of dyes can be found in WO 2008/017074 and in Frangioni et al. Molecular Imaging, Vol. 1(4), 354-364 (2002), each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The targeting ligand can further include a molecular scaffold moiety to which the binding moiety and other groups can attach. For example, the molecule scaffold can bear one or more of the following: (1) a moiety designed to react with the reactive linking group of the dye to form a covalent bond, (2) a charge balancing moiety, such as any of the ionic groups described herein, and (3) a moiety that binds to the biological target. An example of a molecular scaffold is an adamantane derivative, such as described in U.S. Pat. App. Pub. No. 2006/0063834, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, and illustrates the preparation of a targeting ligand that incorporates an adamantane scaffold. Specifically, the adamantane core holds (1) an amino group capable of reacting with the dye compounds, (2) a charge-balancing moiety that will neutralize a negative charge on the dye molecule, and (3) two moieties that bind to the biological target PSMA. For a description moieties that bind to PSMA, see, Humblet, V. et al. Mol. Imaging, 2005, 4: 448-62; Misra P. et al, J. Nucl. Med. 2007, 48: 1379-89; Chen, Y., et al. J. Med. Chem, 2008, 51: 7933-43; Chandran, S. S., et al. Cancer Biol. Ther., 2008, 7:974-82; Banejee, S. R., J. Med. Chem. 2008, 51: 4504-17; Mease, R. C., et al. Clin. Cancer Res., 2008, 14:3036-43; Foss, C. A. et al. Clay Cancer. Res., 2005, 11:4022-8, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. As used herein, the term “contacting” refers to the bringing together of substances in physical contact such that the substances can interact with each other. For example, when an imaging agent is “contacted” with tissue or cells, the tissue or cells can interact with the imaging agent, for example, allowing the possibility of binding interactions between the agent and molecular components of the tissue or cells. “Contacting” is meant to include the administration of a substance such as an imaging agent of the invention to an organism. Administration can be, for example, oral or parenteral. As used herein, the term “ionic group” refers to a moiety comprising one or more charged substituents. The “charged substituent” is a functional group that is generally anionic or cationic when in substantially neutral aqueous conditions (e.g. a pH of about 6.5 to 8.0 or about physiological pH (7.4)). As recited above, examples of charged anionic substituents include anions of inorganic and organic acids such as sulfonate (—SO31−), sulfinate, carboxylate, phosphinate, phosphonate, phosphate, and esters (such as alkyl esters) thereof. In some embodiments, the charged substituent is sulfonate. Examples of charged cationic substituents include quaternary amines (—NR3+), where R is independently selected from C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and arylalkyl. Other charged cationic substituents include protonated primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, and well as guanidinium. In some embodiments, the charged substituent is —N(CH3)3+. In some embodiments, the ionic group consists solely of a charged substituent. Example charged substituents include any of those mentioned above, including sulfonate and —N(CH3)3+. In further embodiments, the ionic group corresponds to a C1-20 alkyl group substituted with one or more charged substituents, wherein the C1-20 alkyl group is optionally further substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 substituents independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4 haloalkyl, wherein 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 carbon atoms of the alkyl group are individually replaced with O, S, C(O), C(O)O, NR′, C(O)NR′, SO, SO2, SO2NR′, wherein R′ is H or C1-6 alkyl, with the proviso that the replacement does not result in an unstable moiety (e.g., —O—O—, —O—S—, etc.). Example ionic groups include groups of Formula: wherein y and z are independently selected from 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. In some embodiments, y and z are independently selected from 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and 8. In some embodiments, y and z are independently selected from 1, 2, 3, and 4. In some embodiments, y and z are 0. Further example ionic groups include groups of Formula: In some embodiments, the ionic group can contain two or more charged substituents. For example, the ionic group can include both an anionic and a cationic substituent, forming a “Zwitterionic group” (or “Zwitterion”). Zwitterionic groups can be particularly useful as substituents in the present invention because they incorporate additional formal charges in the conjugate yet do not impact net total charge, thereby facilitating charge-balance. In some embodiments, a Zwitterionic group corresponds to a C1-20 alkyl group substituted with at least one positively charged (cationic) substituent and at least one negatively charged (anionic) group, such that the overall charge of the Zwitterionic group is zero, and wherein the C1-20 alkyl group is optionally further substituted with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 substituents independently selected from halo, cyano, nitro, and C1-4haloalkyl, wherein 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6 carbon atoms of the C1-20 alkyl group are individually replaced with O, S, C(O), C(O)O, NR′, C(O)NR′, SO, SO2, SO2NR′, wherein R′ is H or C1-6 alkyl, with the proviso that the replacement does not result in an unstable moiety (e.g., —O—O—, —O—S—, etc.). Example Zwitterion groups comprise both a sulfonate group and a quaternary amine of formula —NR4+, wherein R is independently selected from C1-6 alkyl, aryl, and arylalkyl. For example, the Zwitterionic group has Formula: wherein w is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. In some embodiments, the Zwitterionic group has the Formula: As used herein, the phrase “non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing groups” refers to soluble polymers such as, for example, polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polyethylene oxide and propylene oxide copolymer, a carbohydrate, a dextran, polyacrylamide, and the like. The solubilizing group can be attached by any desired mode. The point of attachment can be, e.g., a carbon-carbon bond, a carbon-oxygen bond, or a nitrogen-carbon bond. The attachment group can be, e.g., an ester group, a carbonate group, a ether group, a sulfide group, an amino group, an alkylene group, an amide group, a carbonyl group, or a phosphate group. Some examples of solubilizing groups include polyethylene glycols, such as —(CH2CH2O)a—H, —OC(═O)O(CH2CH2O)aH, —OC(═O)O(CH2CH2O)aCH3, —O(CH2CH2O)aCH3, and —S(CH2CH2O)aCH3, “a” being an integer between about 2 and about 250. In some embodiments, “a” is 4 to 12 or 5 to 10. In further embodiments, “a” is 6, 7, or 8. Other examples of solubilizing groups include dextrans such as —OC(═O)O(dextran). The solubilizing moiety can have an absolute molecular weight of from about 500 amu to about 100,000 amu, e.g., from about 1,000 amu to about 50,000 amu or from about 1,500 to about 25,000 amu. In some embodiments, R9 and R10 are non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing groups. Further examples of solubilizing groups include: —(CH2)c—(OCH2CH2)d—ORa, wherein “c” is 0 to 6, “d” is 1 to 200, and Ra is H or C1-6 alkyl. In some embodiments, “c” is 1 to 4, “d” is 1 to 10, and Ra is H. In some embodiments, “d” is 6 or 7. See WO 2008/017074, U.S. Ser. No. 12/376,243 (filed Feb. 3, 2009), and U.S. Ser. No. 12/376,225 (filed Feb. 3, 2009), each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, for a further description of suitable non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing groups, and method for incorporating them into dyes. As used herein, “reactive linking group” (L′) refers to any molecular entity having a molecular weight from about 50 to about 500 Da that is capable of conjugating with a targeting ligand (TL). In particular, the reactive linking group includes at least one reactive group selected from a carboxylic acid group or anhydride or ester thereof, as well as an isothiocyanate group. In some embodiments, the reactive linking group contains a carboxylic acid group. In some embodiments, L′ has the Formula: wherein: E is absent, O or S; Q is (CH2)q or a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety; R17, R18, R19, and R20 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety, halo, cyano, nitro, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 alkoxy, and C1-4 haloalkyl; R21 is H or N-succinimidyl; and q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. In various embodiments, all or some of the following, or any combination of the following, may be true: E is absent or O; Q is (CH2)q; Q is CH2CH2; R17, R18, R19, and R20 are each H; R21 is H; R21 is N-succinimidyl; and q is 0. The moiety —C(O)O—R21 represents the reactive moiety of the reactive linking group that is capable of covalently attaching to a targeting ligand. Accordingly, R21 can be H, to form the carboxy group which is reactive with amines or other nucleophiles. R21 can also represent carboxyl activating substituents such as N-succidimidyl (NHS) which can facilitate conjugation. Similarly, the “linking group” (L) is a divalent derivative of L′ in the conjugates of the invention and has the same characteristics identified above except that the reactive group is covalently attached to the conjugated targeting ligand. In some embodiments, L has the Formula: wherein: E is absent, O or S; Q is (CH2)q or a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety; J is C(O), C(O)O, or C(O)NH; R17, R18, R19, and R20 are independently selected from H, an ionic group, a non-ionic oligomeric or polymeric solubilizing moiety, halo, cyano, nitro, C1-4 alkyl, C1-4 alkoxy, and C1-4 haloalkyl; and q is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, or 8. In various embodiments, all or some of the following, or any combination of the following, may be true: E is absent or O; Q is (CH2)q; Q is CH2CH2; R17, R18, R19, and R20 are each H; q is 0; and J is C(O). In some embodiments, L has the Formula: In some embodiments, L has the Formula: See, Lee, H. et al. J. Org. Chem. (2006) 71(20), 7862-7865, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. As used herein, the term “methine” refers to a —CH═ group. Similarly, the term “polymethine” refers to a chain of —CH═ groups containing, for example, 2 to 20 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, the polymethine group has 3 to 13 carbon atoms. In further embodiments, the polymethine group has 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, or 13 carbon atoms. In yet further embodiments, the polymethine group is a heptamethine having 7 carbon atoms. As used herein, the term “alkyl” is meant to refer to a saturated hydrocarbon group which is straight-chained or branched. Example alkyl groups include methyl (Mc), ethyl (Et), propyl (e.g., n-propyl and isopropyl), butyl (e.g., n-butyl, isobutyl, sec-butyl, t-butyl), pentyl (e.g., n-pentyl, isopentyl, sec-pentyl, neopentyl), and the like. An alkyl group can contain from 1 to about 20, from 2 to about 20, from 1 to about 10, from 1 to about 8, from 1 to about 6, from 1 to about 4, or from 1 to about 3 carbon atoms. As used herein, “haloalkyl” refers to an alkyl group having one or more halogen substituents. Example haloalkyl groups include CF3, C2F5, CHF2, CCl3, CHCl2, C2Cl5, and the like. As used herein, “aryl” refers to monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., having 2, 3 or 4 fused rings) aromatic hydrocarbons such as, for example, phenyl, naphthyl, anthracenyl, phenanthrenyl, indanyl, indenyl, and the like. In some embodiments, aryl groups have from 6 to about 20 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, the aryl group is phenyl. As used herein, “cycloalkyl” refers to non-aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon optionally including on or more unsaturations. Cycloalkyl groups can include mono- or polycyclic (e.g., having 2, 3 or 4 fused rings) groups and spirocycles. Ring-forming carbon atoms of a cycloalkyl group can be optionally substituted by oxo or sulfido. Cycloalkyl groups also include cycloalkylidenes. Example cycloalkyl groups include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, cyclopentenyl, cyclohexenyl, cyclohexadienyl, cycloheptatrienyl, norbornyl, norpinyl, norcarnyl, adamantyl, and the like. Also included in the definition of cycloalkyl are moieties that have one or more aromatic rings fused (i.e., having a bond in common with) to the cycloalkyl ring, for example, benzo or thienyl derivatives of cyclopentane, cyclopentene, cyclohexane, and the like. A cycloalkyl group containing a fused aromatic ring can be attached through any ring-forming atom including a ring-forming atom of the fused aromatic ring. In some embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is a 5-7 membered saturated cycloalkyl group. As used herein, “carbocycle” or “carbocyclic” refers to an aryl or cycloalkyl group. As used herein, “heteroaryl” refers to an aromatic heterocycle having at least one heteroatom ring member such as sulfur, oxygen, or nitrogen. Heteroaryl groups include monocyclic and polycyclic (e.g., having 2, 3 or 4 fused rings) systems. Examples of heteroaryl groups include without limitation, pyridyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl, triazinyl, furyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, thienyl, imidazolyl, thiazolyl, indolyl, pyrryl, oxazolyl, benzofuryl, benzothienyl, benzthiazolyl, isoxazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, tetrazolyl, indazolyl, 1,2,4-thiadiazolyl, isothiazolyl, benzothienyl, purinyl, carbazolyl, benzimidazolyl, indolinyl, and the like. In some embodiments, any ring-forming N in a heteroaryl moiety can be substituted by oxo. In some embodiments, the heteroaryl group has from 1 to about 20 carbon atoms, and in further embodiments from about 3 to about 20 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, the heteroaryl group contains 3 to about 14, 4 to about 14, 3 to about 7, or 5 to 6 ring-forming atoms. In some embodiments, the heteroaryl group has 1 to about 4, 1 to about 3, or 1 to 2 heteroatoms. In some embodiments, the heteroaryl group is a 5- or 6-membered heteroaryl ring. As used herein, “heterocycloalkyl” refers to non-aromatic heterocycles having one or more ring-forming heteroatoms such as an O, N, or S atom. Heterocycloalkyl groups include monocyclic and polycyclic (e.g., having 2, 3 or 4 fused rings) systems as well as spirocycles. Example “heterocycloalkyl” groups include morpholino, thiomorpholino, piperazinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothienyl, 2,3-dihydrobenzofuryl, 1,3-benzodioxole, benzo-1,4-dioxane, piperidinyl, pyrrolidinyl, isoxazolidinyl, isothiazolidinyl, pyrazolidinyl, oxazolidinyl, thiazolidinyl, imidazolidinyl, and the like. Ring-forming carbon atoms and heteroatoms of a heterocycloalkyl group can be optionally substituted by oxo or sulfido. Also included in the definition of heterocycloalkyl are moieties that have one or more aromatic rings fused (i.e., having a bond in common with) to the nonaromatic heterocyclic ring, for example phthalimidyl, naphthalimidyl, and benzo derivatives of heterocycles. The heterocycloalkyl group can be attached through a ring-forming carbon atom or a ring-forming heteroatom. The heterocycloalkyl group containing a fused aromatic ring can be attached through any ring-forming atom including a ring-forming atom of the fused aromatic ring. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl group has from 1 to about 20 carbon atoms, and in further embodiments from about 3 to about 20 carbon atoms. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl group contains 3 to about 14, 4 to about 14, 3 to about 7, or 5 to 6 ring-forming atoms. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl group has 1 to about 4, 1 to about 3, or 1 to 2 heteroatoms. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl group contains 0 to 3 double or triple bonds. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl group contains 0 to 2 double or triple bonds. In some embodiments, the heterocycloalkyl group is a 5-, 6-, or 7-membered ring. As used herein, “heterocycle” or “heterocyclic” refers to a heteroaryl group or heterocycloalkyl group. As used herein, “halo” includes fluoro, chloro, bromo, and iodo. As used herein, “arylalkyl” refers to alkyl substituted by aryl. An example arylalkyl group is benzyl. As used herein, “alkoxy” refers to an —O-alkyl group. Example alkoxy groups include methoxy, ethoxy, propoxy (e.g., n-propoxy and isopropoxy), t-butoxy, and the like. At various places in the present specification, substituents are disclosed in groups or in ranges. It is specifically intended that the invention include each and every individual subcombination of the members of such groups and ranges. For example, the term “C1-6 alkyl” is specifically intended to individually disclose methyl, ethyl, C3 alkyl, C4 alkyl, C5 alkyl, and C6 alkyl. It is further appreciated that certain features of the invention, which are, for clarity, described in the context of separate embodiments, can also be provided in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features of the invention which are, for brevity, described in the context of a single embodiment, can also be provided separately or in any suitable subcombination. Compounds of the invention can also include all isotopes of atoms occurring in the intermediates or final compounds. Isotopes include those atoms having the same atomic number but different mass numbers. For example, isotopes of hydrogen include tritium and deuterium. The chemical substances represented herein by name, chemical formula, or structure are meant to include all stereoisomers, geometric isomers, tautomers, resonance structures, and isotopes of the same, unless otherwise specified. The chemical substances described herein may be charged or include substituents with formal charges. When such chemical substances are represented as charged, it is understood that, unless otherwise specified, the charges are generally countered with an appropriate counterion. For example, chemical substances or functional groups having a charge of −1 are understood to be countered with an ion have a +1 charge. Suitable counterions with +1 charge include K+, tetraalkylammonium ions, and the like. Conversely chemical substances or functional groups having a charge of +1 are understood to be countered with an ion having a −1 charge. Suitable counterions with −1 charge include F—, Cl—, Br—, I—, perchlorate, acetate, trifluoroacetate, and the like. Methods of Preparing Dyes and Conjugates The present invention further provides methods for preparing dyes and conjugates suitable for the imaging methods described herein. In some embodiments, the methods include: (a) selecting a dye having peak absorption at about 500 nm to about 850 nm and peak fluorescent emission at about 550 nm to about 875 urn; (b) optionally modifying the dye to include a linking group; and (c) modifying the dye, and optionally the linking group, to include one or more ionic groups to achieve a solubility of the dye of at least about 10 μM in 10 mM HEPES solution at pH 7.4; wherein the one or more ionic groups are selected so that the net charge of the dye is +1, 0, or −1, and wherein the signal-to-background ratio of fluorescent emission detected from the dye compound while imaging is at least about 1.1. The present invention further provides methods of preparing a conjugate for imaging tissue or cells, wherein the conjugate includes a dye and a targeting ligand. These methods include: (a) selecting a dye having peak absorption at about 500 nm to about 850 nm and peak fluorescent emission at about 550 nm to about 875 nm; (b) optionally modifying the dye to include a linking group; (c) modifying the dye and optionally the linking group to include one or more ionic groups to achieve a solubility of at least about 10 μM in 10 mM HEPES solution at pH 7.4; and (d) conjugating the targeting ligand to the dye optionally through the linking group to form the conjugate, wherein the targeting ligand and the one or more ionic groups are selected so that the net charge of the conjugate is +1, 0, or −1, and wherein the signal-to-background ratio of fluorescent emission detected from the conjugate while imaging is at least about 1.1 The dyes described herein can be synthesized according to standard procedures known in the art of organic chemistry. Numerous preparation of cyanine dyes have been published. Accordingly, the dyes of the invention can be prepared according to any of the known literature methods. See, for example, Mojzych, M. et al. “Synthesis of Cyanine Dyes” Top. Heterocycl. Chem. (2008) 14:1-9; Sysmex Journal International (1999), Vol. 9, No. 2, pg 185 (appendix); Strekowski, L. et al. Synthetic Communications (1992), 22(17), 2593-2598; Strekowski, L. et al. J. Org. Chem. (1992) 57, 4578-4580; Narayanan, N. et al. J. Org. Chem. (1995), 60(8), 2391-2395; Makin, S. M. et al. Journal of Organic Chemistry of the USSR (1977) 13(6), part 1, 1093-1096; Lee, H. et al. J. Org. Chem. (2006) 71, 7862-7865, WO 2009/006443, WO 2008/015415, WO 2007/136996, WO 2007/005222, WO 2003/082988, WO 2001/090253, U.S. Ser. No. 12/376,243 (filed Feb. 3, 2009), and U.S. Ser. No. 12/376,225 (filed Feb. 3, 2009), each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The dyes, conjugates, and imaging agents can be isolated as salts, acids, bases, or combinations thereof. For example, dyes, conjugates, and imaging agents having multiple charged substituents can be isolated by introducing counterions and/or protons sufficient to counter the charges of the various substituents normally present in neutral pH so that the dye, conjugate, or imaging agent can be isolated, for example, as a solid substance. Applications, Properties, and Compositions The conjugates described herein can be used for, e.g., optical tomographic, endoscopic, photoacoustic, and sonofluorescent applications for the detection, imaging, and treatment of tumors and other abnormalities. The conjugates can also be used for localized therapy. This can be accomplished, e.g., by attaching a porphyrin or other photodynamic therapy agent to a conjugate; directing the conjugates to a desired target site, or allowing the conjugates to accumulate selectively in the target site; shining light of an appropriate wavelength to activate the agent. Thus, the new conjugates can be used to detect, image, and treat a section of tissue, e.g., a tumor. In addition, the conjugates can be used to detect the presence of tumors and other abnormalities by monitoring the blood clearance profile of the conjugates, for laser assisted guided surgery for the detection of small micrometastases of, e.g., somatostatin subtype 2 (SST-2) positive tumors, and for diagnosis of atherosclerotic plaques and blood clots. The conjugates can be formulated into diagnostic and therapeutic compositions for enteral or parenteral administration. Generally, these compositions contain an effective amount of the conjugate, along with conventional pharmaceutical carriers and excipients appropriate for the type of administration contemplated. For example, parenteral formulations include the dye or dye conjugate in a sterile aqueous solution or suspension. Parenteral compositions can be injected directly into a subject at a desired site, or mixed with a large volume parenteral composition for systemic administration. Such solutions can also contain pharmaceutically acceptable buffers and, optionally, electrolytes, such as sodium chloride. Formulations for enteral administration, in general, can contain liquids, which include an effective amount of the desired dye or dye conjugate in aqueous solution or suspension. Such enteral compositions can optionally include buffers, surfactants, and thixotropic agents. Compositions for oral administration can also contain flavoring agents, and other ingredients for enhancing their organoleptic qualities. Generally, the diagnostic compositions are administered in doses effective to achieve the desired signal strength to enable detection. Such doses can vary, depending upon the particular dye or dye conjugate employed, the organs or tissues to be imaged, and the imaging equipment being used. For example, Zeheer et al., Nature Biotechnology, 19, 1148-1154 (2001) uses 0.1 μmol/kg as a dose for IRDye78 conjugates in vivo. The diagnostic compositions can be administered to a patient systemically or locally to the organ or tissue to be imaged, and then the patient is subjected to the imaging procedure. Generally, the conjugates or dye compounds absorb and emit light in the visible and infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum, e.g., they can emit green, yellow, orange, red light, or near infrared light (“NIR”). In some embodiments, the dyes emit and/or absorb radiation having a wavelength from about 300 nm to about 1000 nm, e.g., from about 400 nm to about 900 nm, or from about 450 nm to about 850 nm. In some embodiments the conjugates and dye compounds have a maximum excitation and/or a maximum emission, measured in 10 mM HEPES solution, pH 7.4, of from about 525 nm to about 875 nm, e.g., from about 550 nm to about 825 nm, or from about 550 nm to about 800 nm. The invention will be described in greater detail by way of specific examples. The following examples are offered for illustrative purposes, and are not intended to limit the invention or claims in any manner. A variety of noncritical parameters in these examples can be changed or modified to yield essentially the same results. EXAMPLES Example 1: Dyes FIG. 1 depicts certain dyes that can be used in the imaging methods of the invention. Note that for molecules ZW−3, ZW−1, ZW+1, ZW+3, and ZW+5, a targeting ligand would have to be introduced having a −3, +1, −1, −3, and −5 charge, respectively, to achieve neutrality. Example 2: Preparation of Dye ZW+1 Dye ZW+1 (see FIG. 1) was made according to the synthetic procedure depicted in FIG. 2. Sodium 4-hydrazinylbenzenesulfonate (1) was reacted with 3-methylbutan-2-one to form the 2,3,3-trimethyl-3H-indole derivative (2). The indole nitrogen was then capped by reaction with 3-bromo-N,N,N-trimethylpropan-1-aminium bromide, and the product (3) reacted with the 2-chloro-3-((phenylamino)methylene)cyclohex-1-enyl)methylene)benzenaminium compound (4) to yield the cyanine dye (5). A linking group was attached by reaction of (5) with 3-(4-hydroxyphenyl)propanoic acid to form the ZW+1 dye (6). See also Mojzych, M. et al. “Synthesis of Cyanine Dyes” Top. Heterocycl. Chem. (2008) 14:1-9; Sysmex Journal International (1999), Vol. 9, No. 2, pg 185 (appendix); Strekowski, L. et al. Synthetic Communications (1992), 22(17), 2593-2598; Strekowski, L. et al. J. Org. Chem (1992) 57, 4578-4580; and Makin, S. M. et al. Journal of Organic Chemistry of the USSR (1977) 13(6), part 1, 1093-1096, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Example 3: Preparation of Dye ZW+5 Dye ZW+5 (see FIG. 1) can be made according to the synthetic procedure depicted in FIG. 3. The first step involves alkylation of indolenine 7. The resultant quaternary salt 8 can be allowed to react with 3-aminopropanoyl chloride (in the form of an ammonium salt to protect the amino group). Then the terminal amino group can be quaternized with excess of methyl iodide to give the bis-quaternary salt 9. The subsequent steps 9→10→11 are analogous to the synthesis described in Example 2 above. Ion exchange can be used to prepare final products with a single counter anion such as chloride or bromide. The presence of a quaternary ammonium cation close to the aromatic ring may inhibit formation of the final dye. Accordingly, a short spacer between the aromatic ring and the ammonium group of ZW+5 can be introduced. Purification can be accomplished through silica gel chromatography or reverse-phase chromatography under both high and low-pressure conditions. Size exclusion chromatography may also be useful. Example 4: Characterization of Dyes After purification to homogeneity, optical properties of the dyes can be measured in 100% calf serum. Absorbance spectrometry (200 to 870 nm) can be performed using a USB2000 fiber optic spectrometer and CHEM2000-UV-VIS light source with cuvette holder (Ocean Optics, Dunedin, Fla.). Fluorescence spectrometry (200 to 1100 nm) can be performed using a HR2000 fiber optic spectrometer, CUV-ALL-UV 4-way cuvette holder (Ocean Optics), and a 250 mW 770 nm laser diode (Electro Optical Components, Santa Rosa, Calif.). Quantum yield can be measured under conditions of matched absorbance and 770 nm laser excitation, using ICG in DMSO (QY=13%) as the calibration standard. Example 5: Preparation of Charge-Balanced Conjugates Prior to in vivo testing, dyes are converted into “charge-balanced” imaging agents with net charge=0, so that they recapitulate the net charge after conjugation to a targeting ligand. Purely anionic or cationic charge can be introduced through a free carboxylic acid on the linking group of the dyes using, for example, amino-adamantane derivatives, described in detail previously (Maison, W., J. V. Frangioni, and N. Pannier, Synthesis of rigid multivalent scaffolds based on adamantane. Org Lett, 2004. 6: 4567-9; Nasr, K., N. Pannier, J. V. Frangioni, and W. Maison, Rigid Multivalent Scaffolds Based on Adamantane. J Org Chem, 2008; and U.S. Pat. App. Pub. No. 2006/0063834, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. Briefly, to introduce cationic “balancing” groups, one, two or three of the available bridgehead carboxylic acid groups of amino-tri-carboxy-adamantane (ATCA) (see FIG. 9) can be conjugated to either (2-aminoethyl)trimethylammonium chloride or 2,2′-iminobis(N,N,N-trimethylethanaminium chloride), and any remaining carboxylic acids blocked with ethanolamine, to create molecules with +1, +2, +3, +4, and +6 charge. Similarly, to create balancing groups with −1, −2, −3, −4, −5, and −6 charge, the three bridgehead carboxylic acids of ATCA will be either uncapped (i.e., remaining carboxylic acids), capped with ethanolamine, or conjugated to glutamate. The appropriate balancing group can be conjugated covalently to each dye to produce a final conjugate, having net charge=0, prior to in vivo characterization. Example 6: Imaging of Organisms The FLARE™ Image-Guided Surgery System is a continuous-wave (CW) intraoperative imaging system that is capable of simultaneous, real-time acquisition and display of color video (i.e., surgical anatomy) and two channels of invisible NIR fluorescent (700 nm and 800 nm) light. Details of the theory, engineering, and operation of the imaging system has been described in detail previously. See, Tanaka, E., H. S. Choi, H. Fujii, M. G. Bawendi, and J. V. Frangioni, Image-guided oncologic surgery using invisible light: completed pre-clinical development for sentinel lymph node mapping. Ann Surg Oncol, 2006. 13: 1671-81; De Grand, A. M. and J. V. Frangioni, An operational near-infrared fluorescence imaging system prototype for large animal surgery. Technol Cancer Res Treat, 2003. 2: 553-562; and Nakayama, A., F. del Monte, R. J. Hajjar, and J. V. Frangioni, Functional near-infrared fluorescence imaging for cardiac surgery and targeted gene therapy. Molecular Imaging, 2002. 1: 365-377, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. Specifications for the FLARE™ Image-Guided Surgery System is provided in Table 1 below. TABLE 1 FLARE ™ NIR Fluorescence Imaging System Specifications Category Specification Description Physical Size Mobile Cart: 32″ W × 32″ D × 41.4″ H; Mast Height: 82″ Weight 675 lbs, including all electronics Arm 6-degree-of-freedom; Reach: 43″-70″ from floor, 50.7″ from cart Electrical Voltage and Plug 120 V AC, 60 Hz; single NEMA 5-15 120 V/15 A AC plug Current 15 A max Grounding Isolation transformer for all components; redundant chassis grounding Leakage Current <300 μA (per AAMI/IEC #60601) Sterility Shield Disposable acrylic shield with ≧95% transmission Drape Disposable, custom-fit plastic drape bonded to shield Light Housing Anodized aluminum with secondary 400 W cooling plate Source Elements Custom 25 mm circular LED arrays w/integrated linear drivers Electronics Custom passive and active boards with embedded controller Fluence Rates 40,000 lx white light (400-650 nm), 4 mW/cm2 of 700 nm (656-678 nm) excitation light, 14 mW/cm2 of 800 nm (745-779 nm) excitation light Optics Working Distance 18″ from surface of patient Field-of-View 2.2 W × 1.7 H cm to 15 W × 11.3 cm (adjustable zoom) Emission/Reflectance Color Video (400-650 nm), 700 nm fluorescence (689-725 nm), Channels 800 nm fluorescence (800-848 nm), all with simultaneous acquisition Pixel Resolution 640 × 480 for each camera System Resolution 125 × 125 μm (x, y) to 625 × 625 μm (x, y) Display Refresh Up to 15 Hz simultaneous acquisition on all 3 camera NIR Exposure Time Adjustable from 100 μsec to 8 sec Hands-Free Optics Automatic zoom/focus Control 6-pedal footswitch Monitors Number 2 cart-mounted 20″ for operator; 1 satellite 20″ on stand for surgeon Example 7: In Vivo Characterization of Dyes and Conjugates For in vivo characterization, 40 pmol/g (average 10 nmol) of each dye or conjugate can be injected IV into 250 g Sprague-Dawley rats whose major viscera are surgically exposed. The FLARE™ imaging system can be set to a 760 nm excitation fluence rate of 5 mW/cm2. Simultaneous color video and NIR fluorescence (800 nm) images can be acquired pre-injection, every 1 sec for the first 20 sec then every 1 min for 2 h. Camera acquisition can be held constant (typically 100 msec) and chosen to ensure that all intensity measurements are within the linear range of the 12-bit Orca-AG (Hamamatsu) NIR camera. Blood can be sampled at 0, 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 30, 60, and 120 min via tail vein. Intensity-time curves for all major organs and tissues can be quantified. The peak fluorescence intensity and time can be determined for each tissue/organ, along with the intensity in each at 1 h post-injection. The experiment can then be repeated in pigs, with measurement of NIR fluorescent intensity of skin and all internal tissues and organs. A statistical justification for rat and pig usage can be found in Vertebrate Animals. Example 8: In Vitro Optical and Stability Properties of Dyes Five heptamethine indocyanine dyes, ranging in net charge from −4 to +2 are shown in FIG. 4 and were characterized with respect to their optical properties and stability in vitro. Commercial NIR fluorophores, such as IRDye™800-RS (RS-800), IRDye800-CW (CW-800), Cy5.5, and Cy7 have various degrees of sulfonation in order to achieve aqueous solubility. NIR fluorophore MM-25 (+2 net charge) was prepared by employing quaternary ammonium cations (quats). MM-19 was synthesized by employing both sulfonate groups and quats, following the synthetic scheme outlined in FIG. 2 (see Example 2). Note that MM-19 (ZW+1, see FIG. 1) has a net charge of zero. Table 2 below summarizes the optical and stability properties of each of these dyes in 100% calf serum (supplemented with 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.4). TABLE 2 Optical Properties of Variously Charged NIR Fluorophores in 100% serum. Net Charge Extinction Stability NIR (Individual Peak Coefficient Peak at 4 h, Fluorophore MW charges) Absorbance (M−1cm−1) Emission QY 37° C. CW-800 1,069 −4 (−5, +1) 786 nm 237,000 801 nm 14.2% 95% RS-800 865 −2 (−3, +1) 784 nm 240,000 800 nm 16.9% 97% ICG 774 −1 (−2, +1) 807 nm 121,000 822 nm 9.3% 96% MM-19 1,230 0 (−3, +3) 773 nm 249,000 790 nm 13.7% 95% MM-25 1,026 +2 (+3, −1) 772 nm 309,000 790 nm 16.1% 97% Example 9: Comparative In Vivo Behavior of Dyes While the in vitro optical and stability properties for the five tested dyes in Example 8 were similar, the in vivo behavior of these dyes was shown to be dramatically different. Results are shown in FIG. 5. The dyes were injected IV into rats at a dose of 40 pmol/g (10 nmol). Shown in FIG. 5 are the color video (top row) and 800 nm NIR fluorescence (bottom row) images of all major organs and tissues, surgically exposed. Excitation fluence rate was 5 mW/cm2. Camera integration time was 200 msec. All NIR fluorescence images have identical normalizations. Bl=bladder. Li=Liver. In=Intestines. As can be seen in FIG. 5, the dye with net charge of 0 (MM-19) outperformed the other dyes. The dyes with −1 (ICG) or −2 (RS-800) net charge and having a high “hydrophobic moment” (i.e., one half of molecule is highly hydrophobic and the other half is hydrophilic), resulted in undesirable rapid uptake by the liver (i.e., short blood half-life) and eventual excretion into bile. The dye with −4 net charge (CW-800) was cleared equally by liver and kidneys, resulting in high intestinal signal, but also demonstrated relatively high retention in skin and other major tissues and organs. The dye with +2 net charge (MM-25) was cleared by kidney more than liver, however, non-specific uptake in organs and tissue was relatively high. Finally, MM-19, which has a net charge of zero, demonstrated rapid equilibration between intravascular and extravascular spaces, no measurable liver uptake, rapid renal excretion into urine, and extremely low background retention in normal tissues and organs. These results were confirmed in pig (FIG. 6). All dyes were injected IV into pigs at a dose of 40 pmol/g (1.6 μmol). Shown in FIG. 6 are the color video and NIR fluorescence (800 nm) images of skin, along with the measured SBR of skin 1 h post-injection. Excitation fluence rate was 5 mW/cm2. Camera integration time was 200 msec. All NIR fluorescence images had identical normalizations. Even after only 1 h of clearance, MM-19 signal in skin was only 11% of peak fluorescence (FIG. 6), and no non-specific uptake was seen in any other tissues and organs. This is in contrast to ICG, RS-800, and CW-800, which resulted in very high uptake in pig liver and intestines. Blood half-lives of CW-800, RS-800, ICG, MM-19, and MM-25 were 30.6, 6.5, 4.6, 13.4, and 44.0 min, respectively. Example 10: Comparative In Vivo Behavior of Conjugates Dyes CW-800 (see FIG. 4) with net charge −4 and MM-19 (see FIG. 4) with net charge of 0 were conjugated with cRGD, a specific binder to αvβ3 integrin. See FIG. 7 for structures of the conjugates. Athymic nu/nu mice with integrin αvβ3-expressing tumors on the left flank (T+; arrows) and integrin αvβ3-negative tumors (T−; arrowheads) on the right flank were used in this experiment. Shown are color video (top row) and 800 NIR fluorescence images (bottom row) at 0 and 4 h after IV injection of 40 pmol/g (1 nmol) of cRGD-CW-800 (left) and cRGD-MM-19 (right) Even though net charge on the cRGD-MM-19 conjugate was +1 due to the indole nitrogen, the results were clear that this conjugate had superior imaging properties. After IV injection of identical doses of cRGD-MM-19 and cRGD-CW-800, the MM-19 based conjugate had a much higher tumor-to-background ratio (TBR) at all time points and exhibited rapid renal clearance (see FIG. 8). The CW-800 based conjugate (net charge −3) had very high non-specific uptake in skin, muscle, and bone (FIG. 8). At 4 h post-injection, cRGD-CW-800 had a TBR of 5.0 and cRGD-MM-19 had a TBR of 17.2, corresponding to a 3.4-fold improvement in TBR. Other Embodiments It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with the detailed description thereof, the foregoing description is intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims. Other aspects, advantages, and modifications are within the scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Near infrared (NIR) fluorescence has potential importance in the medical field, particularly in diagnostics and image-guided surgery. However, the availability of suitable fluorophores as imaging agents has been a primary hindrance. To be clinically viable, the ideal NIR fluorophore should have both good optical properties and superior in vivo properties with respect to solubility, biodistribution, and clearance. Most current fluorophores contemplated for use as imaging agents fail in connection with their in vivo properties. For example, known fluorophores tend to clear through the liver, which results in undesirable fluorescence throughout the gastrointestinal tract. And in some cases, known fluorophores suffer from significant non-specific background uptake in normal tissues, resulting in a low signal-to-background ratio. Accordingly, there is a current need for new and improved NIR fluorescent imaging agents, particularly those that can equilibrate rapidly between the intravascular and extravascular spaces and are cleared efficiently by renal filtration. The imaging agents of the invention are directed toward these and other needs. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention is based, at least in part, on the discovery that if one balances, or almost balances, the overall charge on an imaging agent molecule, then the resulting charge-balanced molecule has improved in vivo properties that lead to superior clinical imaging characteristics. In one aspect, the present invention provides methods of imaging tissue or cells, the methods including (a) contacting the tissue or cells with an imaging agent comprising a dye or conjugate thereof, the conjugate comprising a targeting ligand attached to the dye, wherein the dye or conjugate has a net charge of +1, 0, or −1 and comprises one or more ionic groups; (b) irradiating the tissue or cells at a wavelength absorbed by the dye or conjugate; (c) detecting an optical signal from the irradiated tissue or cells, wherein the signal-to-background ratio of the detected optical signal is at least about 1.1, thereby imaging the tissue or cells. The present invention further provides methods of preparing a dye for imaging tissue or cells, the method including (a) selecting a dye having peak absorption at about 500 nm to about 850 nm and peak fluorescent emission at about 550 nm to about 875 nm; (b) optionally modifying the dye to include a linking group; and (c) modifying the dye, and optionally the linking group, to include one or more ionic groups to achieve a solubility of the dye of at least about 10 μM in 10 mM HEPES solution at pH 7.4; wherein the one or more ionic groups are selected so that the net charge of the dye is +1, 0, or −1, and wherein the signal-to-background ratio of fluorescent emission detected from the dye compound while imaging is at least about 1.1. In another aspect, the present invention further provides methods of preparing a conjugate for imaging tissue or cells, wherein the conjugate includes a dye and a targeting ligand. These methods include (a) selecting a dye having peak absorption at about 500 nm to about 850 nm and peak fluorescent emission at about 550 nm to about 875 nm; (b) optionally modifying the dye to include a linking group; (c) modifying the dye and optionally the linking group to include one or more ionic groups to achieve a solubility of at least about 10 μM in 10 mM HEPES solution at pH 7.4; and (d) conjugating the targeting ligand to the dye optionally through the linking group to form the conjugate, wherein the targeting ligand and the one or more ionic groups are selected so that the net charge of the conjugate is +1, 0, or −1, and wherein the signal-to-background ratio of fluorescent emission detected from the conjugate while imaging is at least about 1.1. In addition, the present invention includes imaging agents for imaging tissue or cells, wherein the imaging agents include a conjugate which is characterized as having detectable fluorescence with a signal-to-background ratio of at least about 1.1, and wherein the conjugate has Formula VI: wherein constituent variables are defined herein. The present invention further provides a dye comprising a molecule or ion of Formula VIII: wherein constituent variables are defined herein. The charge-balanced imaging agents of the invention are particularly advantageous because their behavior in vivo is believed to contribute to superior optical imaging properties. More specifically, the charge-balancing is believed to impart good biodistribution and clearance properties to the agents, and reduce undesirable non-specific binding. These in vivo properties help improve the signal-to-background ratio of imaged tissues, leading to higher resolution imaging. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, suitable methods and materials are described below. All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety. In case of conflict, the present specification, including definitions, will control. In addition, the materials, methods, and examples are illustrative only and not intended to be limiting. Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following detailed description, and from the claims. | A61K490032 | 20170626 | 20171012 | 71330.0 | A61K4900 | 0 | HANLEY, SUSAN MARIE | CHARGE-BALANCED IMAGING AGENTS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,633,348 | PENDING | ORIENTAL MEDICINAL COLLAGEN FOOD | Oriental medicinal collagen food and manufacturing method of the oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement are provided. The manufacturing method including: a first process including: removing claws and scales from chicken feet, and preparing dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root; a second process including: performing high-pressure pasteurization for the chicken feet obtained in the first process; a third process including: preparing dandelion extract by heating the dandelion in a bag; a fourth process including: obtaining Gyepogyo by heating and fermenting the pasteurized chicken feet and the dandelion extract in a pot; and a fifth process including: obtaining extract and distillate from a distillation of a mixture comprising the Gyepogyo, the angelica gigas, and the pueraria root. | 1. An oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement comprising: a dried extract comprising: Gyepogyo comprising a fermented mixture of pasteurized chicken feet and dandelion extract, wherein claws and scales are removed from the pasteurized chicken feet; and at least one of angelica gigas and pueraria root. 2. The oriental medicinal collagen food of claim 1, wherein the dried extract is obtained from a distillation of a mixture of the Gyepogyo, the angelica gigas, and the pueraria root. 3. The oriental medicinal collagen food of claim 2, wherein the mixture further comprises an oriental medicinal ingredient, and wherein the oriental medicinal ingredient comprises one or more of: astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, or peppermint. 4. The oriental medicinal collagen food of claim 3, wherein an approximate weight ratio of the Gyepogyo, the angelica gigas, the pueraria root, and the oriental medicinal ingredient is set as about (25:10:8:113). 5. The oriental medicinal collagen food of claim 2, wherein the mixture further comprises an oriental medicinal ingredient comprising astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, and peppermint. 6. The oriental medicinal collagen food of claim 5, wherein an approximate weight ratio of the Gyepogyo, the angelica gigas, the pueraria root, and the oriental medicinal ingredient is set as about (25:10:8:113). 7. The oriental medicinal collagen food of claim 2, wherein the oriental medicinal collagen food is a dried granule-type food. 8. The oriental medicinal collagen food of claim 1, wherein an approximate weight ratio of the Gyepogyo, the angelica gigas, and the pueraria root is set as about (25:10:8). | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a divisional of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/794,361, filed on Jul. 8, 2015, which claims priority from and the benefit of Korean Patent Application No. 10-2014-0108139, filed on Aug. 29, 2014, each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND 1. Field Exemplary embodiments relate to oriental medicinal collagen food and manufacturing method thereof, and, more particularly to, oriental medicinal collagen food and manufacturing method of the oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement. 2. Discussion of the Background Wrinkles are one of the most common symptoms caused by loss of moisture and elasticity resulting from skin aging. Among many theories regarding skin aging, some of which causes are diseases, stress, ultraviolet, and oxidative reactive species which also occurs during normal metabolism. These result in lipid peroxidation, protein oxidation, cutting and abnormal crosslinking of elastic fibers such as collagen and elastin chain, and melanin production. These lead to oxidative damage to cells and tissues, accelerating decrease in skin elasticity, wrinkles, melasma, freckles, and other skin aging symptoms. After climacteric period, women experience decrease in female hormone excretion, which leads to drastic decrease in biosynthesis ability of collagen including skin, especially dermis, resulting from low female hormone level. To prevent skin aging, reinforcement of collagen biosynthesis ability or building anti-oxidation defensive system to remove and suppress oxidative reactive species are necessary. The connective tissues of dermis closely related to skin aging mainly include collagen and elastin. The main protein in the connective tissues, collagen, includes 70-80% of dry weight of dermis providing elasticity, strength, and maintains moisture. Decrease in collagen functionality from photoaging and intrinsic aging affects skin adversely by causing wrinkles, rough skin, less elasticity, dryness. As explained, collagen plays a vital role in maintaining skin elasticity and moisture, which would come from the proteins essential to cell generation. Therefore in dietetics, consumption of quality protein is closely related to skin health. Edible cosmetic supplements are mainly collagen products extracted from fish, meat, and vegetables. Collagen is a type of fibrous protein, a main nutrient for formation of form muscular tissue, skin tissue, bone tissue, cartilage and cornea. Among the constituents of proteins, hydroxyproline, glycine, and serine have great effects on skin elasticity and moisture retention. Korean pharmaceutical or cosmetic companies sell collagen products made from imported collagen from United States and Japan. For example, Chung-Gye Pharmaceutical's ‘Collagen Plus 3000,’ Han-Mi Pharmaceutical's ‘New Collagen,’ Je-Il Pharmaceutical's ‘Collagen 100,’ and Citri's ‘Collagen 1000’ are all 100% or 99.9% made of imported collagens from the U.S. or Japan. Non-Korean products such as ‘Collagen Gold’ or ‘Pure Collagen SD’ are also made of pure collagen. Companies all over the world emphasize the collagen purity in selling their products. However, the problem lies on the lack of researches relating collagen consumption to increase in collagen content in human bodies. In addition, there is another issue that the efficacy of edible collagen supplements is insufficiently proven objectively. There are not many researches whether consuming collagen increases the collagen contents in a human body. Korean Ministry of Food and Drug Safety (MFDS) keeps its stance at telling collagen can be used as a food ingredient but the relation between eating it and positive effect on skin is not scientifically proven. Recently, collagen products with increased functionality by adding vitamin, beta-carotene, pomegranate, isopeulrabon from soybean, and others, are on market. ‘Collagen Crystal 100’ from Saerom Cosmetics is made of collagen from pork skin, ‘Jeju Horse Placenta Collagen’ is literally condensed from horse placenta, and low Molecular Weight Fish Collagen′ from Amore Aritaum has fish collagen raw compound outside of Korea. There are other products with collagen from stingrays, shark's fin, pig placenta or skin, or sheep placenta. To strengthen connective tissues like muscle, skin, and bones, a traditional way Koreans used to consume collagen is making gelatin from heating animals or fishes with high collagen content followed by fermenting them. Collagen becomes viscous gelatin when heated. They consumed it in glue state for easy storage. The examples of edible glue are glue from donkey skin, glue made with antlers, glue from tortoise shell, glue from snapping turtle shell. Since these materials were expensive and hard to procure, they used chicken feet, which can be easily and massively purchased, to prepare gel from boiling. Other traditional ways of efficiently consuming collagen were eating fermented skates or cow knee knucklebone soup. As explained, traditional ways of consuming collagen is deficient of proven efficacy from accurate clinical trials, and without examples or prescription specifically meant for skin health improvement. It is difficult to assess an appropriate price based on efficacy, not knowing why such high price has to be paid. Korean Patent No. 10-1361060, issued to University-Industry Cooperation Foundation at Konkuk University in Korea (Title of invention “Method of Collagen Extraction from Chicken Residual Parts”), maximizes extraction efficiency with swelling chicken skin in acid and alkali, controlling pH to edible range with neutralization, removing odor and unwanted ingredients with hot-water extraction, and prepare granulized collagen with freeze-dry for easy utilization. Korean Patent No. 10-0733081, issued to Hankook Foodifarm Co., describing a method of preparing chondroitin sulfuric acid from chicken feet consist of heated extraction, centrifuge, condensation or condensing the top part from centrifuge after hydrolysis with proteolytic enzyme and inactivating the enzyme. The method to prepare nutrition boost extract and jelly involves boiling chicken feet with atractylodes, amomum anthioides wallich, and other gastrointestinal supplements. Korea Food Research Institute obtained collagen by sonicating from fish skin. There is another way to prepare collagen product from collagen with molecular weight around 30,000-50,000 from a low-temperature and low molecular weight process. However, the above mentioned products for edible beauty supplements do not produce sufficient collagen in a human body. Other processes that extract collagen from animal only try producing active ingredients using strong acids, hydrolysis, or boiling animal parts with oriental medicines helping digestion. These involve very complex procedures and produce a lot of industrial waste due to use of strong acid. Lack of theoretical evidence regarding collagen digestion and biosynthesis in a human body is another problem. The above information is only for enhancement of understanding of the background of the inventive concept. Thus, it may contain information that does not constitute the prior art that is already known to a person having ordinary skill in the art. SUMMARY Exemplary embodiments disclose an oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement prepared with chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root as main ingredients, and a method of manufacturing thereof. An exemplary embodiment discloses a manufacturing method including: a first process including: removing claws and scales from chicken feet, and preparing dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root; a second process including: performing high-pressure pasteurization for the chicken feet obtained in the first process; a third process including: preparing dandelion extract by heating the dandelion in a bag; a fourth process including: obtaining Gyepogyo by heating and fermenting the pasteurized chicken feet and the dandelion extract in a pot; and a fifth process including: obtaining extract and distillate from a distillation of a mixture comprising the Gyepogyo, the angelica gigas, and the pueraria root. An exemplary embodiment also discloses an oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement including: Gyepogyo comprising a fermented mixture of pasteurized chicken feet and dandelion extract, wherein claws and scales are removed from the pasteurized chicken feet; and at least one of angelica gigas and pueraria root. To resolve the aforementioned problems, oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement may be prepared with natural ingredients such as chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root to increase affinity to a human body. Along with one or more exemplary embodiments described herein, other methods and processes may be used to prepare gelatin collagen for increased absorption to body. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a flowchart illustrating a manufacturing method of oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement prepared with chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root as main ingredients. FIG. 2 illustrates hydroxyproline contents in four collagen products. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENTS Exemplary embodiments will be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodiments of inventive concept are shown. Throughout the drawings and the detailed description, unless otherwise described, the same drawing reference numerals are understood to refer to the same elements, features, and structures. In describing the exemplary embodiments, detailed description on known configurations or functions may be omitted for clarity and conciseness. Exemplary embodiments disclose a manufacturing method of oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement prepared with chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root as main ingredients. An exemplary embodiment provides affordable and easy-to-use oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement. This can be done by enabling safe and mass production through the optimal combination of herbal medicine with ample amino acids and herbal medicine rich with vegetable female hormone that helps collagen biosynthesis in a human body. To achieve the above-mentioned objective, the manufacturing method of oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement prepared with chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root as main ingredients may include the following processes: a first process: a) cleaning chicken feet with potable water, removing claws and scales, and thoroughly cleaning the chicken feet with high-pressure hot water blaster to remove other unwanted materials, and b) preparing dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root, and, optionally, other oriental medicinal ingredients; a second process: applying high-pressure pasteurization to the chicken feet prepared through the first process; a third process: preparing dandelion extract by heating the dandelion in a bag made of hemp cloth or a similar bag; a fourth process: preparing Gyepogyo by heating and fermenting the mixture of the pasteurized chicken feet and the dandelion extract previously prepared in a large pot; a fifth process: mixing Gyepogyo with the prepared angelica gigas and pueraria root while extract and post-distillation residual liquid from one or more of the prepared oriental medicinal ingredients are prepared in a large pot or pharmaceutical distillatory; a sixth process: preparing granules by drying the extract obtained from the fifth process with low-temperature vacuum condenser or dry-freezer. The other oriental medicinal ingredients may include at least one of astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, and peppermint. Further, the previously mentioned third process may include preparing the dandelion extract by mixing the dandelion with angelica gigas, pueraria root, and one or more of the following oriental medicinal ingredients; astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, and peppermint. The oriental medicinal collagen food may increase provision of essential amino acids with chicken feet collagen and anti-inflammatory function from dandelion. This positively affects skin elasticity and moisture retention from enhanced bodily absorption when taken by consumers. Chicken feet and dandelion are common natural ingredients. The manufacturing processes are also economical due to low cost and relatively easy processes. Further, the oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement can be used as protein supplement for dietary weight control, blood circulation facilitation for fatigue recovery, drinking cosmetics boosting collagen biosynthesis, powder cosmetics easy for taking internally and applying on skin, oriental medicine for musculoskeletal system, and curing agent for aridness, atopy, and dry skin. The main ingredients in this oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement may include collagen, chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root. Their main nutrients, efficacy, main oriental medicinal theory are explained hereinafter. Collagen: 25 percent of proteins in a human body is collagen. Collagen is the main substance for connective tissues such as bone, tendon, and muscle. Collagen forms a truss with its three branches of polymer protein bound strongly. It is not soluble to water, weak acid, or weak alkali, but becomes gelatin when boiled. The known efficacy of collagen is for osteoporosis, knee arthritis, brain development, skin beautification, moisture retention, increase in immunity, growth and development, arteriosclerotic, hemostasis, and vision improvement. Amino acids in collagen are proline, oxyproline, glycine, and glutamic acid. Pig feet, broth from boiled cow bones, chicken feet, pig skin, cow knee knucklebone soup contain high concentration of collagen. Chicken feet: chicken feet include bone, joint, cartilage, tendon, and muscle, rich in potassium, marrow, protein, collagen, and other trace elements. Collagen is fibrous proteins including amino acids, which is mostly found in outer layer of organs, cartilage, teeth, hair, muscle, and skin. It strengthens joints. Chicken feet are not thick and in cartilage form. Cartilage parts has chondroitin, skin has glycoprotein such as glycine and protein for connective tissues such as collagen or elastin. Considerable mass of extracellular materials exists between connective tissues, and the species and array of these materials specify connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, and blood. Among connective tissue proper, dermis is a loose connective tissue with dispersed collagen, a kind of fibrous collagen. Tendons connect muscles and bones, and are dense connective tissues with collagen densely arrayed in a regular or irregular manner. Chicken feet have been known for a long time to be good for degenerative joint arthritis. Its recently discovered beneficial effect on skin beautification and lowering blood pressure is due to increase in physiological activity from these nutrients. Dandelion: taraxacums are perennial plants in astrales order. Different taraxacums are Taraxacum nonogolicum H. Mazz, Taraxacum ohwianum Kitamura, Taraxacum coreanum Nakai, and Taraxacum officinale Weber. They are used to remedy acute hepatitis, reinforce immune systems, protect liver, promote urination, and remedy mastitis, throat inflammation, swelling due to fever. They have 17 of all proteinogenic amino acids except cysteine, and other 8 essential amino acids. They are 1.4 to 1.8 times more abundant in leaves than roots. The leaves contain the following main constituents in order of its contents; glutamic acid, proline, phenylalanine, aspartic acid, arginine, leucine, lysine. Inorganics such as potassium and calcium are abundant along with magnesium, manganese, and iron. Angelica gigas: angelica gigas are commonly used for blood-related disease because it promotes blood production. Angelica gigas Nakai, Angelica sinensis (Oliv.) Diels, Angelica acutiloba (Sieb. & Zuc) Kitagawa are commonly used. They promote blood flow in coronary arteries and production of red blood cells. The encyclopedia of basic agricultural plants of ancient China describes it tastes sweet, has warm traits, is not poisonous, warms body, stops pain, cure arthritis, are used when a pregnant woman has a sign of miscarriage or on their skin problems, protects five viscera, generates tendons and muscle. According to Compendium of Materia Medica, angelica gigas controls blood, is good for womanhood. They cure palsy, chi malfunction, and fatigue. They also remove bad blood and produce fresh blood. They are good for habitual constipation, menstruation and other postpartum symptoms. A research tells they prevent loss of bone tissues by inhibiting the differentiation of osteophage. Decursinol in them is for pain-relieving, decursin for anticancer, angelan for anti-diabetes. They promote red blood cell production and protein synthesis. They are anti-inflammatory, pain-relieving. Pueraria root: The levels female hormone related to biosynthesis of collagen in a human body plummet after menopause. The collagen cosmetics released recently in the market contain vegetable female hormone from pomegranate or isopeulrabon from soybean. One research, however, showed pueraria root has 600 times more vegetable female hormone than pomegranate. Hereinafter, a manufacturing method of oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement will be described with reference to FIG. 1. FIG. 1 is a flowchart illustrating a manufacturing method of oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement prepared with chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root as main ingredients. The First Process: Ingredients Preparation In the first process, chicken feet are cleaned with potable water, claws and scales are removed from the chicken feet, and then the chicken feet are thoroughly cleaned with high-pressure hot water blaster to remove other unwanted materials from the chicken feet. Also, dandelion, angelica gigas, pueraria root, and other oriental medicinal ingredients are prepared. Although it may be omitted or modified, it is preferred that the chicken feet are cleaned with potable water, removed of claws and scales, and thoroughly cleaned with high-pressure hot water blaster to remove other unwanted materials. It is also recommended that dandelion, angelica gigas, pueraria root, and other oriental medicinal ingredients are thoroughly cleaned. The following ingredients, but not limited thereto, are examples of other oriental medicinal ingredients mentioned above; astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, and peppermint. The Second Process: Pasteurization In the second process, the chicken feet prepared by the first process are heated in a water bath at 100-125° C., 1.5-2.5 atm for 10-30 minutes for high-pressure pasteurization. It is recommended to kill the germs in and out of the chicken feet by heating the chicken feet prepared by the first process for high-pressure pasteurization at 100-125° C., 1.5-2.5 atm for 10-30 minutes. 121° C., 2 atm for 15 minutes are highly preferred. The Third Process: Dandelion Extract Preparation In the third process, the dandelion extract is prepared by heating dandelion prepared by the first process with potable water in a bag made of hemp cloth or a similar one at 80-125° C. for 60-180 minutes. It is recommended that the above-mentioned dandelion is placed in a bag of hemp cloth or a similar one. The material for the bag is recommended to be of natural origin that does not release any harmful substances when heated. It is preferred that the dandelion is heated in a water bath with potable water after placed in the bag of hemp cloth or similar at 80-125° C., 1-2.5 atm for 60-180 minutes to prepare the extract. It is highly recommended that the dandelion is extracted at 80-90° C. and is heated for 90-120 minutes after it reaches the recommended temperature. The weight of the potable water for extraction is recommended to be 15-20 times more than that of dandelion. The other oriental medicine prepared in the first process may include one or more of astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, and peppermint. They are placed in the water bath along with the dandelion, then heated at 80-125° C., 1-2.5 atm for 60-180 minutes to prepare the mixed extract. The weight of the potable water for extraction is recommended to be 9-15 times more than weights of dandelion and the other oriental medicine. The Fourth Process: Preparation of Gyepogyo In the fourth process, Gyepogyo is produced by boiling the pasteurized chicken feet from the second process and the dandelion extract from the third process in a large kettle at 60-99.9° C. for 24-72 hours. The pasteurized chicken feet prepared by the second process and the dandelion extract prepared by the third process are mixed in the weight ratio of 1:1.2 to 1:3, then boiled in a large kettle at 60-99.9° C. for 24-72 hours. The weight of the dandelion is recommended to be 1.2-2 times higher than that of the chicken feet. It is highly recommended that the dandelion extract, 1.5 times more than the chicken feet by weight, are heated while loss from the evaporation is continually compensate by adding more extracts. The total heating time to prepare Gyepogyo can be longer than 24-55 hours if more time is needed to turn the product into glue. Heated condensation at medium heat for 30-48 hours after the mixture first boils is highly recommended while adding more dandelion extract as it evaporates. It is recommended that the fat forming during the heating process be removed while adding more dandelion extract as it evaporates. The product is packaged after removing residual bones and parts, adding fermenting liquid at room temperature, fermenting at 30 55° C. for 10-60 hours, and high pressure pasteurization at 110-125° C. The fermenting liquid can be any that satisfies food safety regulations. The Fifth Process: Preparation of Post-Distillation Residual Liquid and Extract In the fifth process, post-distillation residual liquid and extract are prepared by adding angelica gigas and pueraria root obtained from the first process to Gyepogyo prepared by the fourth process, followed by placing this mixed Gyepogyo and one or more of the other oriental medicine obtained from the first process in a pharmaceutical distillatory. The other oriental medicine mentioned above may include one or more of astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, and peppermint to be placed in a large kettle or a pharmaceutical distillatory. The Gyepogyo obtained from the above mentioned processes may be placed in the bath with potable water together with oriental medicinal nutrients efficacious as oriental medicinal collagen skin beauty food including astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, and peppermint. Then, they are heated at 80-125° C., 1-2.5 atm for 60-220 minutes to obtain extract. This extract can be used after packaged in pouches or containers. Distillate from the extract can be obtained with a pharmaceutical distillatory. The Sixth Process: Drying and Packaging In the sixth process, granules may be produced by drying the post-distillation residual liquid and extract obtained from the fifth process with vacuum condensation or freeze-dry. It is recommended that the extract obtained from the fifth process is condensed in a low-temperature vacuum condenser, mixed with excipients, dried to produce solid powder. After solidification through freeze-drying, it is recommended that the product be prepared into spheres, granules, pills, or capsules. The liquid extract produced from boiling or distillation as in the fifth process may be used without the sixth process. Further, according to an exemplary embodiment, a manufacturing method of oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement is prepared with chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root as main ingredients. First, cleaned chicken feet is pasteurized in a water bath at high-pressure, and dandelion extract is prepared. Gyeopogyo is then obtained by heating the pasteurized chicken feet and the dandelion extract in a large kettle, and Gyepogyo is mixed with angelica gigas and pueraria root after the heating. One or more of the aforementioned oriental medicinal ingredients are further mixed and heated in a large kettle or a pharmaceutical distillatory to prepare extract and post-distillation residual liquid. The extract is dried in a low-temperature vacuum condenser to prepare dry spherical solid. The oriental medicinal collagen food enhances the anti-inflammatory function of dandelion and provision of essential amino acids with chicken feet collagen ingredients by manufacturing oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement prepared with chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, and pueraria root as main ingredients. It is also to maintain moist and smooth skin, and increase skin elasticity by facilitating the absorption to a human body when consumers take this food. Moreover, since chicken feet and dandelion are natural nutrients, and the overall manufacturing cost is low and economical. The following examples explain one or more exemplary embodiments in more detail. These examples and exemplary embodiments are for illustration purpose only, without limiting the scope of the claims. Exemplary Embodiment 1 1. The First Process: Ingredients Preparation Chicken feet were washed with potable water. After the first cleaning process, claws and scales were removed from the chicken feet, and then the chicken feet were thoroughly cleaned with high-pressure hot water blaster. From various sources, e.g., dried food vendors and oriental medicinal herbal vendors, dandelion, pueraria root, astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, peppermint, and other ingredients were obtained. 2. The Second Process: Pasteurization 10 kg of the cleaned chicken feet were heated in a water bath at 121° C., 2 atm for 15 minutes for high-pressure pasteurization. 3. The Third Process: Dandelion Extract Preparation 24 kg of dandelion extract was obtained by boiling 4 kg of dandelion in a hemp cloth bag with 40 liter of water at 80-100° C. for 60-180 minutes in a water bath. The weight of the solvent was kept at 15-20 times that of dandelion while extracting. 4. The Fourth Process: Gyepogyo Production 10 kg of the pasteurized chicken feet and 15 liter of dandelion extract were placed in a large kettle together, and the temperature was kept at 80-99.9° C. for 24-72 hours. They were then fermented for 30-50 hours at 40-55° C. The product was pasteurized at 110-125° C. to produce 7.5 liter of Gyepogyo. 5. The Fifth Process: Extract Production Gyepogyo 250 g, angelica gigas 100 g, pueraria root 80 g, astragalus membranaceus 100 g, lycium barbarum 60 g, ligusticum wallichii 60 g, white paeonia lactiflora 60 g, matured rehmannia glutinosa 60 g, spirodela polyrhiza 60 g, white imperata cylindrical 100 g, longan 80 g, houttuynia cordata 60 g, dried Artemisia 60 g, glasswort 60 g, tender branch of cinnamon 60 g, glycyrrhiza uralensis 50 g, black bean 80 g, Job's tears 80 g, saururi herba 60 g, and peppermint 40 g were heated with 14 liter of potable water in a pharmaceutical distillatory at 90-105° C. for 100-200 minutes to produce 2.5 liter of distillate and 10 liter of extract. If no distillate is needed, a common kettle can be used. 6. The Sixth Process: Drying and Packaging 12 liter of the extract obtained from the fifth process was condensed in a low-temperature vacuum condenser for 6 hours to produce 285 grams of oriental medicinal collagen skin beauty food powder. It was packaged into 100 pouches for 2.8 g each. The extract from low-temperature vacuum can be produced into powder with excipients. Exemplary Embodiment 2 1. The First Process: Ingredients Preparation Chicken feet were washed with potable water. Claws and scales were removed from the chicken feet, and the chicken feet were thoroughly cleaned with high-pressure hot water blaster. From various sources, e.g., dried food vendors and oriental medicinal herbal vendors, dandelion, pueraria root, astragalus membranaceus, lycium barbarum, ligusticum wallichii, white paeonia lactiflora, matured rehmannia glutinosa, spirodela polyrhiza, white imperata cylindrical, longan, houttuynia cordata, dried artemisia, glasswort, tender branch of cinnamon, glycyrrhiza uralensis, black bean, Job's tears, saururi herba, peppermint, and other ingredients were obtained. 2. The Second Process: Pasteurization 10 kg of the cleaned chicken feet were heated in a water bath at 121° C., 2 atm for 15 minutes for high-pressure pasteurization. 3. The Third Process: Mixed Dandelion Extract Preparation 4 kg of dandelion was placed in a hemp cloth bag along with angelica gigas 100 g, pueraria root 80 g, astragalus membranaceus 100 g, lycium barbarum 60 g, ligusticum wallichii 60 g, white paeonia lactiflora 60 g, matured rehmannia glutinosa 60 g, spirodela polyrhiza 60 g, white imperata cylindrical 100 g, longan 80 g, houttuynia cordata 60 g, dried Artemisia 60 g, glasswort 60 g, tender branch of cinnamon 60 g, glycyrrhiza uralensis 50 g, black bean 80 g, Job's tears 80 g, saururi herba 60 g, and peppermint 40 g. The bag and 40 liter of potable water was heated at 80-100° C. for 60-180 minutes in a water bath to produce 24 liter of dandelion extract. The weight of the solvent was 9-15 times that of medicinal herbal ingredients while mixed dandelion extract was being produced. 4. The Fourth Process: Gyepogyo Production 10 kg of the pasteurized chicken feet and 15 liter of dandelion and herbal medicine extract obtained from the third process were placed in a large kettle together, and the temperature was kept at 80-99.9° C. for 24-72 hours. They were then fermented for 30-50 hours at 40-55° C. The product was pasteurized at 110-125° C. to produce 7.5 liter of Gyepogyo. 5. The Fifth Process: Extract Production 7.5 liter of Gyepogyo from the fourth process was dried with a low-temperature vacuum condenser to produce 850 g of oriental medicinal collagen skin beauty food powder. 170 pouches with Gyepogyo with 5 g each were prepared. The oriental medicinal collagen skin beauty food, which is the mixture of the individual extracts from high-protein and anti-oxidative foods, has beneficial effects on skin elasticity, moisture retention, wrinkle, and pores. The reason for protein content increase is thought to be due to the fact that the main ingredient, the chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas, pueraria root, accelerated the protein biosynthesis and absorption in a human body. Significant differences were shown in moisture, elasticity, pores, wrinkles, and other items before and after the consumption. In addition, the increase in bodily water content, skin moisture increase, and reduction in pore size were verified after the consumption of the oriental medicinal collagen skin beauty food. This shows that the vegetable protein in pueraria root has a close relation with skin elasticity, pore, wrinkle, and moisture retention. Experiment 1: Measurement of Hydroxyproline Content. Hydroxyproline is the characteristic protein in collagen and the gelatin. FIG. 2 illustrates hydroxyproline contents in four collagen products. TABLE 1 Hydroxyproline contents in four collagen products Sample A Sample B Sample C Sample D Mean 0.539111 0.383147 0.692833 0.303793 Standard 0.08328 0.006864 0.010135 0.00595 Deviation As shown in FIG. 2 and Table 1, Sample C according to an exemplary embodiment has the most hydroxyproline than the other three comparative examples. The other three comparative examples are other collagen enhancement foods. Experiment 2 TABLE 2 General content analysis of the product according to an exemplary embodiment Product Analyzed Item No. Name Item Results Remarks 15-209 Gyepogyo Water 91.48 g/100 g ±0.00 Content 15-210 Ash 1.03 g/100 g ±0.03 15-211 Crude Fat 0.21 g/100 g ±0.03 15-212 Crude 6.25 g/100 g ±0.04 Protein 15-213 pH 5.01 ±0.01 15-214 Benzopyrene 0.00 μg/kg 15-215 Lead 0.028 mg/kg ±0.00 15-216 Cadmium Not detected In Gyepogyo product according to an exemplary embodiment, harmful metals or other harmful substances were not identified. Protein content result showed 30 times higher than fat. The acidity is pH 5.01, meeting the criteria for food materials. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Exemplary embodiments disclose an oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement prepared with chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas , and pueraria root as main ingredients, and a method of manufacturing thereof. An exemplary embodiment discloses a manufacturing method including: a first process including: removing claws and scales from chicken feet, and preparing dandelion, angelica gigas , and pueraria root; a second process including: performing high-pressure pasteurization for the chicken feet obtained in the first process; a third process including: preparing dandelion extract by heating the dandelion in a bag; a fourth process including: obtaining Gyepogyo by heating and fermenting the pasteurized chicken feet and the dandelion extract in a pot; and a fifth process including: obtaining extract and distillate from a distillation of a mixture comprising the Gyepogyo, the angelica gigas , and the pueraria root. An exemplary embodiment also discloses an oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement including: Gyepogyo comprising a fermented mixture of pasteurized chicken feet and dandelion extract, wherein claws and scales are removed from the pasteurized chicken feet; and at least one of angelica gigas and pueraria root. To resolve the aforementioned problems, oriental medicinal collagen food for skin beauty enhancement may be prepared with natural ingredients such as chicken feet, dandelion, angelica gigas , and pueraria root to increase affinity to a human body. Along with one or more exemplary embodiments described herein, other methods and processes may be used to prepare gelatin collagen for increased absorption to body. | A61K897 | 20170626 | 20171026 | 95017.0 | A61K897 | 0 | MI, QIUWEN | ORIENTAL MEDICINAL COLLAGEN FOOD | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,633,704 | PENDING | BONDED LAYER TREATMENT METHOD FOR A DEVICE UTILIZED IN A CRUDE OIL SERVICE OPERATION, AND METHOD OF INSTALLING SAID DEVICE | A method for installing a device into a crude oil service operation, the method may include installing the device into a section of the crude oil service operation, wherein the device comprises a surface comprising a bonded layer coating, and may also include contacting the surface with the contaminant, wherein the contaminant is selected from the group consisting of paraffins and asphaltenes, and wherein the bonded layer is a molecularly bonded layer or a covalently bonded layer. Various systems include one having a liquid environment of paraffins and asphaltene, and a surface residing within the environment comprising a bonded layer composition. Systems also include pipelines and vessels having an internal surface therein comprising a bonded layer composition, and with hydrocarbon liquids present in the pipeline or vessel. | 1. A method for treating a device utilized in a crude oil service operation, wherein the device comprises at least one surface, the method comprising the steps of: cleaning the surface to remove surface contamination; drying the cleaned surface of the device; applying a coat of a bonded layer composition to the clean and dried surfaces of said device to form a treated device, wherein the bonded layer is a molecularly bonded layer or a covalently bonded layer, said bonded layer reducing paraffin or asphaltene deposition on the said surfaces; installing said treated device into a section of a crude oil service operation; and, contacting the surface with a contaminant, wherein the contaminant is selected from the group consisting of paraffins and asphaltenes. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein during the contacting step, crude oil is present. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein during the installing step, crude oil is present. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the composition further comprises at least one of a tracer additive, corrosion inhibitor, or anti-static additive. 5. A method for installing a device into a crude oil service operation, the method comprising the step of: installing the device into a section of the crude oil service operation, wherein the device comprises a surface comprising a bonded layer, wherein the bonded layer is a molecularly bonded layer or a covalently bonded layer, said bonded layer reducing paraffin or asphaltene deposition on the said surfaces; and, contacting the surface with the contaminant, wherein the contaminant is selected from the group consisting of paraffins and asphaltenes. 6. The method of claim 4, wherein during the contacting step, crude oil is present. 7. The method of claim 4, wherein during the installing step, crude oil is present. 8. The method of claim 3, wherein the composition further comprises at least one of a tracer additive, corrosion inhibitor, or anti-static additive. 9. A system comprising a liquid environment that comprises at least one contaminant selected from the group consisting of paraffins and asphaltene; and, a surface residing within the environment comprising a bonded layer, wherein the bonded layer is a molecularly bonded layer or a covalently bonded layer, said bonded layer reducing paraffin or asphaltene deposition on the said surfaces. 10. The system of claim 9, wherein the surface is a wetted part. 11. The system of claim 9, wherein the liquid environment further comprises a hydrocarbon liquid. 12. The system of claim 9, wherein the liquid environment further comprises a crude oil. 13. A system comprising: a conduit having an internal surface comprising a bonded layer, wherein the conduit is selected from the group consisting of a pipeline, line, and tubing, and , wherein the bonded layer is a molecularly bonded layer or a covalently bonded layer; and, hydrocarbon liquids present in the conduit. 14. The system of claim 12, wherein the hydrocarbon liquids comprise crude oil. 15. The system of claim 12, wherein the hydrocarbon liquids comprise at least one of paraffins and asphaltene. 16. A system comprising: a vessel having an internal surface comprising a bonded layer, wherein the bonded layer is a molecularly bonded layer or a covalently bonded layer, said bonded layer reducing paraffin or asphaltene deposition on the said surfaces; and, hydrocarbon liquids present in the vessel. 17. The system of claim 15, wherein the hydrocarbon liquids comprise crude oil. 18. The system of claim 15, wherein the hydrocarbon liquids comprise at least one of paraffins and asphaltene. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION DATA This utility application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/164,842 filed May 25, 2016 now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,688,926 on Jun. 27, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/099,497 filed Dec. 6, 2013 and now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,476,754, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/770,963 filed Feb. 28, 2013, all of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes., both of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to paraffin and asphaltene deposition on components used in crude oil service operations. In another aspect, the present invention relates to coatings for reduction of paraffin and asphaltene deposition on stainless steel and nickel alloy components utilized in crude oil service. In even another aspect, the present invention relates to anti-paraffin coatings to address paraffin/asphaltene deposition on stainless steel and nickel alloy sensor components. In still another aspect, the present invention relates to unique application of commercially available nano-coatings for the reduction of paraffin and asphaltene deposition on stainless steel and nickel alloy components utilized in crude oil service. In yet another aspect, the present invention relates to a method and kit for surface treatment of cooperating, controller or sensor components used in crude oil service operations to reduce paraffin/asphaltene deposition. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Paraffins, more commonly referred to as alkanes, are the chemical family of saturated hydrocarbons that result from combining CH2 groups in succession. Additional CH2 groups are added to form straight-chain paraffins. The term “wax” simply refers to saturated hydrocarbons that contain more than 16 carbon atoms in the paraffin series (C16-C40) and are in a solid state at room temperature. The majority of waxes present in crude oil are considered synthetic paraffin waxes with non-oxidized saturated alkanes. Paraffins may exist in crude oil in all three states. At standard room temperature, C16+n-paraffins generally exists in a solid form and solidify to form deposits. Wax is the product of paraffin deposition, so in the industrial context, “wax” and “paraffin” are often used interchangeably. Therefore, “paraffin wax deposition” refers to the solid form of paraffins that solidify to cause deposition. Because asphaltene is typically talked about in the same context as paraffin, it is important to understand what asphaltene is and why it is problematic to the crude oil service operations. Asphaltene is the material present in petroleum that is insoluble in n-paraffins but soluble in aromatic solvents. Asphaltenes cause catalyst deactivation and sediment formation. Tars or asphaltenes occur in many crudes as colloidally suspended solid particles. Precipitation takes place when the crude loses its ability to keep those particles dispersed. Many of the same factors affecting paraffin deposition (discussed below) also affect asphaltene deposition. Paraffins precipitate out of waxy crudes when there is a slight change in equilibrium conditions, causing a loss of solubility of the wax in the crude. A lowering in temperature is the most common cause of paraffin precipitation. Thus, hydrocarbon liquids, including both crude oils and condensates, form a paraffin or asphaltene solid phase when process temperatures fall below the cloud point (or Wax Appearance Temperature) of the liquid. While this normally occurs in colder temperature services, it may also occur in any process where the combination of complex composition factors, such as API gravity, pressure/temperature variables and other factors favor deposition. The presence of asphaltenes increases the difficulties for paraffin wax treatments because these structures are almost always found in association with waxes when they are retrieved from wells, storage tanks, or pipelines (Becker J. R. 1997, Crude oil waxes, emulsions, and asphaltenes. Tulsa, Ok.; PennWell Publishing Company). While paraffin wax deposition may be reduced by increasing the flow velocity of crude, increasing fluid velocities increases the likelihood of asphaltene deposition. Further, studies show that the amount of asphaltene precipitation decreases as the number of carbons forming straight-chain paraffins increases. In other words, treatment of paraffin wax could escalate the precipitation of heavier, problematic asphaltene compounds. Therefore, treatment of paraffin and asphaltene deposition must both be considered in the balance. Once formed, these paraffin/asphaltene solids will typically deposit on tank-mounted level sensors and instrumentation. This deposition presents a potential safety hazard when critical operational and/or safety sensors are affected. This may cause a loss of billions of dollars per year worldwide through the enormous cost of remediation, reduced or deferred production, well shut-ins, equipment replacements and/or abandonments, equipment failures, extra horsepower requirements, and increased manpower needs. The modern petroleum industry has developed new technologies for controlling the deposition of petroleum paraffin and asphaltenes, particularly in wells, storage tanks, and pipelines. However, these technologies have been less effective on sensitive tank level sensors, flow sensors, and other instrumentation. Traditional methods of management and remediation have been established for many years and include the following: a. Chemical Treatments and Additives: While chemical treatments help to manage solids deposition in connected lines, instrument tubing and storage tank internal components, some chemicals do not suspend the paraffin indefinitely and may be damaging to the environment. b. Hot Oiling: Hot oiling is one method often employed for removing deposition in storage tanks. Paraffin and asphaltene buildup is handled by periodically pumping very hot oil, augmented by cleansing additives, into the vessels in order to melt the accumulations from tank walls, sensors and internal equipment. c. Manual Cleaning: During normal maintenance operations, internally mounted equipment may be periodically subject to manual cleaning. This typically involves removal of sensors, instruments, etc. from out-of-service tanks and process equipment for cleaning. Alternately, personnel may physically enter out-of-service tanks to perform the cleaning with sensors and equipment in place. These methods typically involve considerable expense in time and labor for taking equipment out of service, the cleaning process itself, and management of safety associated with hazardous conditions, including hydrogen sulfide (H2S) exposure. However, these procedures are labor and cost intensive and are not very effective with sensitive sensors and instrumentations. The solution is to avoid wax and asphaltene depositions in the first place. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The AP (Anti-Paraffin) Coating composition of the present invention provides a unique and cost-effective way for petroleum facility owner/operators to address common paraffin/asphaltene deposition on cooperating stainless steel and nickel alloy sensor components and instrumentation. It is anticipated that the present method may be utilized with a wide range of metals as well as non-metallic components. The present invention is a new application of a modified, existing, chemical technology representing a significant potential for reduction in typical labor and costs of paraffin/asphaltene remediation in critical process instrumentation and the elimination of associated hazards. Using available nano-coating materials applied to cooperating surfaces of subject components produces permanent changes in the molecular characteristics of subject component metal, wetted parts and/or entire sensor assemblies, making them highly resistant to solids deposition in the extreme process environments normally encountered in petroleum production facilities. The present invention provides improved reliability of sensors and devices, as well as providing improved operational and maintenance personnel safety. Again, the key strategy is to avoid the initial affixation of the paraffin and asphaltene deposits on the surface subject components. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 illustrates a diagram of the present invention method showing the process steps. FIG. 2 is the perspective view of a foil packet of the present inventive kit. FIG. 3 is a basic illustration of some components of a digital level sensor described in this application. FIGS. 4A-4F are illustrations of capacitance sensors which have been treated along exposed surfaces with the anti-paraffin coating composition of the present invention. FIGS. 4A-4C illustrate capacitance sensors having cylindrical outer housings. FIGS. 4D-4E show an alternative embodiment of a capacitance sensor having a generally rectangular outer housing. FIG. 4F is a perspective view of the embodiment of FIGS. 4D and 4E. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF A PREFERRED EMBODIMENT The present invention to create resistance to and/or reduce paraffin/asphaltene deposition on stainless steel and nickel alloy components utilizes a composition known as a Self-Assembled Monolayer of Phosphonate (SAMP). SAMP is commercially available from a wide range of suppliers. Typically, SAMP is utilized with an alcohol-based carrier which allows for rapid drying. It is anticipated that the SAMP may be combined with a glycol carrier for use in the treatment of components used in crude oil service operation. A monolayer is a nanoscale coating that is one molecule thick or 1-4 nanometers in thickness (1 nm=1×10-9 meters). A phosphonate is a phosphorous acid connected with a carbon-based group through a highly stable phosphorus carbon bond. The phosphonic acid reacts with the component surface through stable metal phosphorus bonds, and the carbons are chosen for their non-stick chemical functionality. The SAMP is covalently bound to the substrate, forming a durable, low-surface tension, non-stick surface. This permanent chemical bond is highly stable under ambient conditions. Currently, an alcohol-based carrier is combined with the SAMP in some applications, but using a glycol-based carrier is unique in crude oil environments. Through standard Dyne pen testing, surface energy is shown to be significantly and permanently reduced through application of a nano-coating to the tested component. Field trials with components treated via the present inventive process indicate a significant reduction of paraffin/asphaltene deposition on stainless steel sensor components installed in crude oil storage tanks operated in low acidity/low turbulence applications at normal temperatures. The present inventive process may be utilized in the manufacture of sensors and instrumentation for a crude oil service operation. As a non-limiting embodiment, a typical application method during manufacture involves a simple two-part process in which a cleaner/primer wipe is manually applied to prepare the surface of the stainless steel or nickel allow components and rinsed with di-ionized water to remove dirt, grease, etc. After the initial cleaning/preparation step and drying, a nano-coating wipe is manually applied directly to the component to be protected. The method is simple: clean, dry, apply, insert, and monitor process, as illustrated in FIG. 1. As an example, the manufacture of a vertical crude oil storage tank level sensor includes a continuous 316L, square, stainless steel outer tubing that cooperates with the float carrier and all electronic sensor components and switches that are activated by the movement of float carrier to measure the level of the liquid in the storage tank. FIG. 3 shows the square tubing 50 of a digital level sensor (DLS), a float carrier 52 with floats members 54 attached to the carrier 52. During operation, the outer surface 56 of tubing comes into contact with the inner surface 58 of the carrier 52. This sliding contact between the tubing 50 and the inner surface 58 of the float carrier 52 is adversely affected if paraffin or asphaltene deposits build up on these surfaces. When deposits build up on the surfaces of the components, the float carrier 52 does not freely move up and down the tubing 50, thereby causing false level readings in the digital level sensor. The outer tubing extends the entire length of the sensor from top tank connection to the bottom of the sensor. After assembly and testing, the sensor is disassembled and the nano-treatment is completed in the following steps: a. The sensor assembly including the stainless steel tubes 50, float carrier 52, and floats 54 are placed on horizontal support racks. The entire sensor assembly is thoroughly cleaned on all sides with an alcohol or phosphate-based detergent laden sponge or wipe 60 to remove any mill oil, dirt, grease, etc. and liberally flushed with clean water. This process step is repeated until all visual indications of surface contaminants are removed. b. The assembly is thoroughly dried using clean, lint-free cloth or absorbent paper towels. c. Immediately after drying, the nano-treatment chemical composition of the present invention (SAMP) is directly applied to the clean outer tube surfaces 56 and the inner carrier surfaces 58 of the assembly parts with a soft cloth or wipe 62 impregnated with the SAMP composition and gently rubbed into the outer surface 56 and inner surface 58 in order to assure complete chemical coverage. After approximately 1 minute of contact time, excess SAMP composition residue is removed and the complete assembly is thoroughly dried and reassembled. According to the present inventive method, capacitance sensors 70A, 70B, 70C and 70D as shown in FIGS. 4A-4F may be treated as described above. The nano-treatment chemical composition (SAMP) is directly applied to the clean outer surfaces 72A, 72B, 72C, 72D; the inner surfaces 74A-74D; and core elements 78A-78D as described above. It may be further understood that openings 76A, 76B, and 76C in FIGS. 4A-4C allow crude oil to flow through the sensors, 70A-70C and become exposed to the sensor core 78A-78C. In FIGS. 4D-4F, capacitance sensor 70D has a different, unique design wherein rather from utilizing a generally, cylindrical tube 80A-80C, as shown in FIGS. 4A-4C, two spaced-apart stainless steel plates 90 are held in a generally parallel relationship by two, perforated plastic sidewalls 92. A shrink wrapped printed circuit board sensor 94, with an explosion-proof head 91 attached to one end of the sensor, is disposed within the generally rectangular enclosure or housing formed by the two steel plates 90 and the perforated plastic side walls 92. The nano-treatment chemical composition (SAMP) is applied to the inner surfaces 96 and outer surfaces 98 of the spaced-apart stainless steel plates 90. Crude oil flows through the perforation 93 in the sidewall 92 to be read by the sensor printed circuit board 94. Excess SAMP composition residue is removed from the treated surfaces. With the sensors 70A, 70B, 70C and 70D, it is the utilization of the anti-paraffin composition along the surfaces exposed to the crude oil which reduces the paraffin build-up which may affect the sensitivity of the sensor. In future applications involving larger scale factory coating processes, the manual system described above can easily be replaced with more automated processes, non-limiting examples of which include spray-type applicators and/or a tank dip system. A commercial embodiment of the present invention may comprise bulk supply and large scale application of primer/cleaner, coating chemical, and rinse/flush agents. The coatings of the present invention may be designed for coating a wider range of metal as well as non-metal surfaces (including glass, polymers, etc.). In another non-limiting embodiment, a kit may be employed wherein individual wipes 60 and 62 (FIG. 2) are separately sealed and robustly packaged to withstand long-term storage and handling. Wipe 60 is a cleaning wipe having an alcohol or phosphate-based detergent. Wipe 62 is impregnated with a SAMP composition appropriate for the application. The chemical components are non-toxic, REACH compliant (having approximately the same environmental characteristics as common isopropyl alcohol), and have no known adverse environmental impacts. No specialized training or Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) is required for use. A proper application of the nano-coating composition produces a permanent molecular bond that is highly stable under normal ambient conditions. However, components subjected to turbulent flow profiles in which basic sediment index is high (abrasive service), or those subject to high acidity/temperature may require a re-application of the protective coating due to surface abrasion of the metal component. It should be understood that the AP coating is monitored to evaluate the effectiveness of the SAMP composition coating. Recoating of components may be accomplished by cleaning, drying, and applying, as described above. It should be understood that the SAMP composition of the present invention may be enhanced by the addition of tracer additives which impart a “tint” or color to treated components. Such “tinting” will result in an observable indication of the sufficiency of the component coating. As the “tint” intensity decreases, the operator will be able to determine if additional coating coverage is required. Further, enhancements may include additives to produce a wider range of component surface characterizations including, but to limited to, corrosion inhibitors, anti-static properties, and the like. As described above, utilization of a glycol-based carrier component to the SAMP composition may enhance crude oil process/service applications. The present invention is useful for surfaces that come into contact with hydrocarbon liquids, including both crude oils and condensates, in which paraffins and/or asphaltenes are present or may become present. Non-limiting examples of commercial applicability of the present invention include petroleum production, petroleum pipelines, petroleum equipment (storage tanks and specialty vessels, etc.), and petroleum sensor and instrument manufacturing. The foregoing is considered as illustrative only of the principles of the invention. Further, since numerous modifications and changes will readily occur to those skilled in the art, it is not desired to limit the invention to the exact construction and operation shown and described. Those skilled in the art will recognize other embodiments of the invention which may be drawn from the illustrations and the teachings herein. To the extent that such alternative embodiments are so drawn, it is intended that they shall fall within the ambit of protection of the claims appended hereto. Having disclosed the invention in the foregoing specification and accompanying drawings in such a clear and concise manner, those skilled in the art will readily understand and easily practice the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Paraffins, more commonly referred to as alkanes, are the chemical family of saturated hydrocarbons that result from combining CH 2 groups in succession. Additional CH 2 groups are added to form straight-chain paraffins. The term “wax” simply refers to saturated hydrocarbons that contain more than 16 carbon atoms in the paraffin series (C 16 -C 40 ) and are in a solid state at room temperature. The majority of waxes present in crude oil are considered synthetic paraffin waxes with non-oxidized saturated alkanes. Paraffins may exist in crude oil in all three states. At standard room temperature, C 16 +n-paraffins generally exists in a solid form and solidify to form deposits. Wax is the product of paraffin deposition, so in the industrial context, “wax” and “paraffin” are often used interchangeably. Therefore, “paraffin wax deposition” refers to the solid form of paraffins that solidify to cause deposition. Because asphaltene is typically talked about in the same context as paraffin, it is important to understand what asphaltene is and why it is problematic to the crude oil service operations. Asphaltene is the material present in petroleum that is insoluble in n-paraffins but soluble in aromatic solvents. Asphaltenes cause catalyst deactivation and sediment formation. Tars or asphaltenes occur in many crudes as colloidally suspended solid particles. Precipitation takes place when the crude loses its ability to keep those particles dispersed. Many of the same factors affecting paraffin deposition (discussed below) also affect asphaltene deposition. Paraffins precipitate out of waxy crudes when there is a slight change in equilibrium conditions, causing a loss of solubility of the wax in the crude. A lowering in temperature is the most common cause of paraffin precipitation. Thus, hydrocarbon liquids, including both crude oils and condensates, form a paraffin or asphaltene solid phase when process temperatures fall below the cloud point (or Wax Appearance Temperature) of the liquid. While this normally occurs in colder temperature services, it may also occur in any process where the combination of complex composition factors, such as API gravity, pressure/temperature variables and other factors favor deposition. The presence of asphaltenes increases the difficulties for paraffin wax treatments because these structures are almost always found in association with waxes when they are retrieved from wells, storage tanks, or pipelines (Becker J. R. 1997, Crude oil waxes, emulsions, and asphaltenes. Tulsa, Ok.; PennWell Publishing Company). While paraffin wax deposition may be reduced by increasing the flow velocity of crude, increasing fluid velocities increases the likelihood of asphaltene deposition. Further, studies show that the amount of asphaltene precipitation decreases as the number of carbons forming straight-chain paraffins increases. In other words, treatment of paraffin wax could escalate the precipitation of heavier, problematic asphaltene compounds. Therefore, treatment of paraffin and asphaltene deposition must both be considered in the balance. Once formed, these paraffin/asphaltene solids will typically deposit on tank-mounted level sensors and instrumentation. This deposition presents a potential safety hazard when critical operational and/or safety sensors are affected. This may cause a loss of billions of dollars per year worldwide through the enormous cost of remediation, reduced or deferred production, well shut-ins, equipment replacements and/or abandonments, equipment failures, extra horsepower requirements, and increased manpower needs. The modern petroleum industry has developed new technologies for controlling the deposition of petroleum paraffin and asphaltenes, particularly in wells, storage tanks, and pipelines. However, these technologies have been less effective on sensitive tank level sensors, flow sensors, and other instrumentation. Traditional methods of management and remediation have been established for many years and include the following: a. Chemical Treatments and Additives: While chemical treatments help to manage solids deposition in connected lines, instrument tubing and storage tank internal components, some chemicals do not suspend the paraffin indefinitely and may be damaging to the environment. b. Hot Oiling: Hot oiling is one method often employed for removing deposition in storage tanks. Paraffin and asphaltene buildup is handled by periodically pumping very hot oil, augmented by cleansing additives, into the vessels in order to melt the accumulations from tank walls, sensors and internal equipment. c. Manual Cleaning: During normal maintenance operations, internally mounted equipment may be periodically subject to manual cleaning. This typically involves removal of sensors, instruments, etc. from out-of-service tanks and process equipment for cleaning. Alternately, personnel may physically enter out-of-service tanks to perform the cleaning with sensors and equipment in place. These methods typically involve considerable expense in time and labor for taking equipment out of service, the cleaning process itself, and management of safety associated with hazardous conditions, including hydrogen sulfide (H2S) exposure. However, these procedures are labor and cost intensive and are not very effective with sensitive sensors and instrumentations. The solution is to avoid wax and asphaltene depositions in the first place. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The AP (Anti-Paraffin) Coating composition of the present invention provides a unique and cost-effective way for petroleum facility owner/operators to address common paraffin/asphaltene deposition on cooperating stainless steel and nickel alloy sensor components and instrumentation. It is anticipated that the present method may be utilized with a wide range of metals as well as non-metallic components. The present invention is a new application of a modified, existing, chemical technology representing a significant potential for reduction in typical labor and costs of paraffin/asphaltene remediation in critical process instrumentation and the elimination of associated hazards. Using available nano-coating materials applied to cooperating surfaces of subject components produces permanent changes in the molecular characteristics of subject component metal, wetted parts and/or entire sensor assemblies, making them highly resistant to solids deposition in the extreme process environments normally encountered in petroleum production facilities. The present invention provides improved reliability of sensors and devices, as well as providing improved operational and maintenance personnel safety. Again, the key strategy is to avoid the initial affixation of the paraffin and asphaltene deposits on the surface subject components. | C10G7502 | 20170626 | 20171012 | 95839.0 | C10G7502 | 1 | WOODWARD, NATHANIEL T | BONDED LAYER TREATMENT METHOD FOR A DEVICE UTILIZED IN A CRUDE OIL SERVICE OPERATION, AND METHOD OF INSTALLING SAID DEVICE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | C10G | 2,017 |
|
15,634,283 | PENDING | Storing Information For Access Using a Captured Image | An electronic device associates first information and at least a first portion of a first image, and uses a second image that includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image to access the associated first information. | 1.-35. (canceled) 36. An electronic user device comprising: a processor; and a memory including computer program code, wherein the memory, computer program code and processor are configured: to enable definition, by a user of the electronic user device, of user-defined information for access by multiple users via association at a server with at least a first portion of a first image, wherein the user-defined information augments first user-defined information already associated at the server with at least the first portion of a first image for access by multiple users; and to enable using a captured second image that includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image to access, at the server via a network, the user-defined information previously defined by the user of the electronic user device and associated at the server with at least a first portion of a first image and the first user-defined information associated at the server with at least the first portion of the first image, and to receive in reply the accessed user-defined information previously defined by the user of the electronic device and the first user-defined information. 37. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 36, wherein the second image includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image if interest points extracted from the portion of the second image match interest points extracted from the first image. 38. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 36, wherein the memory, computer program code and processor are configured: to output the accessed information. 39. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 36, wherein the memory, computer program code and processor are configured: to enable user selection of an area, at least a portion of which is the first portion, in the first image with which the user-defined information is associated. 40. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 36, wherein the memory, computer program code and processor are configured: to enable composition by the user of the user-defined information. 41. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 36, wherein the captured second image is sent with an application identifier that causes a subset of a database to be searched by the server. 42. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 36, wherein the user-defined information is text. 43. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 36, comprising a radio transceiver for communication with a cellular telecommunications network, wherein the computer program code is provided via the cellular telecommunications network. 44. A method of storing user-defined information for future access by multiple parties comprising, at a server controlled by a third party: receiving from a first originating party user-defined information that is defined by the first originating party and is for access by multiple parties; and associating the user-defined information received from the first originating party and at least a first portion of a first image in a database , wherein the user-defined information augments first user-defined information already associated at the server with at least the first portion of a first image in the database; and providing access by a second party to the user-defined information and the first user-defined information, when a second image, captured by the second party, includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image. 45. A method as claimed in claim 44, further comprising: providing access by a further party, using a captured third image that includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image, to the user-defined information. 46. A method as claimed in claim 44, further comprising: extracting interest points from the portion of the second image; extracting interest points from the first image; providing access by a second party to the user-defined information, when the interest points extracted from the portion of the second image matches the interest points extracted from the first image. 47. A method as claimed in claim 44, wherein the first image is received from the first originating party and/or wherein the first image is received via a network (4) in a message. 48. A method as claimed in claim 44, wherein the user-defined information is text. 49. A method as claimed in claim 44, further comprising: processing a target region of the first image defined by the first originating party to create a model user image key; and linking the created model user image key with the user-defined information in the database. 50. A method as claimed in claim 49, further comprising: creating a scene user image key for the captured second image; searching the database for correspondence between the created scene user image key and a model user image key stored in the database; and if there is correspondence, obtaining the user-defined information linked to the corresponding model user image key. 51. A server for control by a third party comprising: a processor; and wherein the memory, computer program code and processor are configured: to receive user-defined information from a first user different to the third party for access by multiple parties; and to associate the received user-defined information and at least a first portion of a first image in a database, wherein the user-defined information augments first user-defined information already associated at the server with at least the first portion of the first image in the database; and to provide access by a remote second user to the user-defined information and the first user-defined information when a second image, captured by the remote second user, includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image. 52. A server as claimed in claim 51, wherein the server comprises the database. 53. A server as claimed in claim 51, wherein the database has a plurality of entries each of which associates one of a plurality of image portions with respective information. 54. A server as claimed in claim 51, wherein the user-defined information is received via a network. 55. A non-transitory computer-readable storage medium encoded with instructions that, when performed by a processor of an electronic device, cause performance of the method of claim 44. 56. An electronic user device comprising: means for definition, by a user of the electronic user device, of user-defined information for access by multiple users via association at a server with at least a first portion of a first image, wherein the user-defined information augments first user-defined information already associated at the server with at least the first portion of a first image for access by multiple users; and a camera for capturing a second image that includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image; and means for using the captured second image to access, at the server via a network, the user-defined information previously defined by the user of the electronic user device and associated at the server with at least a first portion of a first image and the first user-defined information associated at the server with at least the first portion of the first image, and for receiving in reply the accessed user-defined information previously defined by the user of the electronic device and the first user-defined information. 57. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 56, comprising user input means for enabling user selection of an area, at least a portion of which is the first portion, in the first image with which the user-defined information is associated. 58. An electronic user device as claimed in claim 56, comprising means for composing the user-defined information. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the present invention relate to storing information so that it can be accessed using a captured image. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION It may be desirable in certain circumstances to attach information to locations in the real world. This has previously been achieved by using barcodes or RFID tags attached to real world objects or by associating information with absolute positions in the world. It would be desirable to provide an alternative mechanism by which information can be associated with real world locations and objects. It would be desirable to provide a mechanism by which a user can ‘leave’ information at a real world location or object so that it can be ‘collected’ later by that user or another user. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION According to one aspect of a first embodiment there is provided an electronic device comprising: means for associating first information and at least a first portion of a first image; and means for using a second image that includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image to access the associated first information. It should be noted that a single electronic device comprises both means i.e. it is capable of both associating information with an image and using an image to access information. The information may be stored centrally, in which case, a plurality of such electronic devices are able to both place content using an image and retrieve content using an image, that is both placement and access to information is distributed. The first information may be media such as an image, a video or an audio file or it may be, for example, an instruction for performing a computer function. Correspondence between the portion of the second image and the first portion of the first image does not necessarily result in automatic access to the associated first information. The access may be conditional on other factors. The first information may be pre-stored for access or dynamically generated on access. According to another aspect of the first embodiment there is provided a method of storing information for future access by others comprising: associating first information and at least a first portion of a first image in a database controlled by a third party so that the first information can be accessed by others using a second image that includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image. According to another aspect of the first embodiment there is provided a system for storing information comprising: a server having a database that has a plurality of entries each of which associates one of a plurality of image portions with respective information; a first client device comprising a camera for capturing, at a first time, a first image that includes a first portion and means for enabling association, at the database, of the first portion with first information; and a second client device comprising: a camera for capturing, at a second later time, a second image, which includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image; means for using the second image to access, at the database, the associated first information; and output means for outputting the accessed first information. The first portion may be the whole or a part of an area associated with the first image. In implementations of this embodiment of the invention, features in a captured ‘model’ image are used to index information. Then if a later captured ‘scene’ image corresponds to a previously captured model image because some of the features in the captured ‘scene’ image are recognised as equivalent to some of the features of the model image, the information indexed by the corresponding model image is retrieved. According to one aspect of a second embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps plural interest points of a first image with interest points in a second image, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of the second image; b) making a weighted sample of correspondences from the generated set; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; and f) selecting the homography with the most support. According to another aspect of the second embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps a plural interest points of a first image with interest points of at least one of a plurality of second images, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of a second image; b) making a weighted sample of correspondences from the generated set where the probability of sampling a particular putative correspondence depends upon a measure of probability for the interest point of the second image defining that particular putative correspondence; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; f) changing the second image and returning to step a), multiple times; g) selecting the second image associated with the homography with the most support; h) updating the measure of probability for each of the interest points of the selected second image that support the homography associated with the selected second image. According to one aspect of a third embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps a significant number of interest points of a first image with interest points in a second image, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of the second image; b) making a sample of correspondences from the generated set; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; f) selecting the homography with the most support; and g) verifying the homography by verifying that the first and second images match. According to one aspect of a fourth embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps plural interest points of a first image with interest points in a second image, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of the second image; b) making a sample of correspondences from the generated set; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set by determining the cost of each putative correspondence, wherein the cost of a putative correspondence is dependent upon statistical parameters for the interest point of the second image defining that putative correspondence; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; and f) selecting the homography with the most support. g) updating the statistical parameters for the interest points of the second image in dependence upon the cost of the putative correspondences under the selected homography. According to another aspect of the fourth embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps a plural interest points of a first image with interest points of at least one of a plurality of second images, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of a second image; b) making a sample of correspondences from the generated set; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set by determining the support from each putative correspondence, wherein the support from a putative correspondence is dependent upon statistical parameters for the interest point of the second image defining that putative correspondence; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; f) changing the second image and returning to step a), multiple times; g) selecting the second image associated with the homography with the most support; h) updating the statistical parameters for the interest points of the selected second image BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a better understanding of the present invention reference will now be made by way of example only to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a system 10 by which one of a plurality of different users can bind information to any location by taking an image of that location; FIG. 2 presents the process 20 for creating a new model user image key from an image captured by a user and for associating information with this key; FIG. 3 presents the process for retrieving information from the database 8 using an image captured by a user; FIG. 4 illustrates a process for finding an homography, Hms, that aligns a significant number of the interest points of the scene user image key with interest points in one of the model user image keys stored in the database; FIG. 5 presents the process 50 for adding new information to a model user image key already in the database 8 given an appropriate image captured by a user; and FIG. 6 illustrates the process of augmenting the image captured by the user with information. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENT(S) OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 illustrates a system 10 by which one of a plurality of different users can bind information (digital content) to any location in the world by taking an image of that location. The digital content then notionally exists at that location and can be collected by the same user or a different user by taking an image of that location. A user 3A uses a mobile imaging device 2A to capture an image of a location. The mobile imaging device 2A is in this example network enabled and it can operate as a client to a server 6. It communicates with the server 6 via a network 4. The imaging device 2A may, for example, be a mobile cellular telephone that operates in a mobile cellular telecommunications network 4. In this example, the mobile imaging device comprises a processor 11 that writes to and reads from memory 12 and receives data from and sends data to radio transceiver 13 which communicates with the network 4. The processor 11 receives input commands/data from an audio input device 17 such as a microphone, a user input device 16 such as a keypad or joystick and a digital camera 15. The processor 11 provides commands/data to a display 14 and an audio output device 18 such as a loudspeaker. The operation of the imaging device 2A is controlled by computer program instructions which are loaded into the processor 11 from the memory 12. The computer program instructions may be provided via a computer readable medium or carrier such as a CD-ROM or floppy disk or may be provided via the cellular telecommunications network. The captured image is then uploaded from the client 2A to the server 6 via the network 4 in an Upload Message, which may be an MMS message. The originating user 3A uses the client device 2A to communicate with the server 6 via the network 4 and a target region is defined in the image. The target region is then processed at the server 6 to create a model user image key for that location. The originating user 3A defines digital content that is to be associated with the target region of the captured image. If this digital content is stored at the client device 2A it is uploaded to the server 6. The server 6 comprises a database 8 that links model user image keys with their associated digital content. The same user 3A or a different user 3B can subsequently obtain the digital content associated with a location (if any) by capturing an image of the location, using their respective imaging device 2A, 2B, and by sending the image to the server 6 in a Request Message which may be an MMS message. The server 6 responds to this message by creating a scene user image key for the image received in the Request Message. It then searches its database 8 to see if the scene user image key corresponds to a model user image key stored in the database 8. if there is correspondence, the digital data linked by the database 8 to the corresponding model user image key is obtained. For non augmented reality digital content, the scene user image key simply acts as a trigger for downloading the obtained digital content to the requesting client device 2A, 2B. For augmented reality content, the captured image received in the Request Message is used as a coordinate system to place the obtained digital content within the image and the augmented image is returned to the requesting client device. For augmented reality content, the user defines an area where the digital content is to appear when the digital content is defined. This area may correspond to the target region. If certain digital content is notionally associated with a location, then any user 3A, 3B may be able to augment the digital content associated with that location with additional digital content. An image of the location is captured and the captured image is uploaded from the client 2A, 2B to the server 6 via the network 4 in an Update Message, which may be an MMS message. The server 6 responds to this message by creating a scene user image key for the image received in the Update Message. It then searches its database 8 to see if the scene user image key corresponds to a model user image key stored in the database 8. If there is correspondence, the digital data linked by the database 8 to the corresponding model user image key is, obtained and augmented with the additional digital content. It should be appreciated that although in the preceding description user image key creation occurred at the server 6, it is also possible to have the client device 2A, 2B perform this process. It should be appreciated that although a system 10 has been described, the invention may also be used wholly within a single device. For example, a single device may operate as both client and server, with the database 6 being stored in the device. The Upload message, Request Message and Update Message would then be messages transmitted within the device as opposed to externally transmitted MMS messages. It should be appreciated that although a single device may operate as a imaging device and a client device, in other implementations they may be separate devices. The implementation of the invention is described in more detail in FIGS. 2 to 6. FIG. 2 presents a process 20 for creating a new model user image key from a ‘model’ image captured by a user and for associating digital content with this key. To place digital content at a new location in the world a ‘model’ image of that location is captured by a user 3A using the imaging device 2A at step 21. The user will usually intend for digital content to be associated with an object present in the captured image or a part of the captured image rather than the complete image. For example the user might wish to associate content with a sign or poster present in the image. The user, at step 22, defines the target region to be associated with digital content. If augmented content is to be used at this target and the aspect ratio of the content is to be preserved in the rendering then the aspect ratio of the target region, that is the ratio of its width to its height, must be known. This can either be supplied by the user or estimated from the shape of the target region. If the imaging device 2A is a networked mobile device then this device may be used to define the target region. If the imaging device is a digital camera, then the captured image is loaded into software running on a desktop computer or similar to allow definition of the target region. The user 3A may manually define the target region of interest in the captured image by positioning four corner points on the image to define a quadrilateral. The points may, for example, be positioned via a simple graphical user interface that allows the user to drag the corners of a quadrilateral. In one implementation, on a mobile telephone, four keys 2, 8, 4, 6 of a keypad, such as an ITU standard keypad, are used to move the currently selected point respectively up, down, left or right. Another key, for example the 5 key, selects the next corner with the first corner being selected again after the last. A further key, for example, the 0 key indicates that the target region is complete. An alternative method for positioning the points is to have the user move the mobile telephone so that displayed cross-hairs point at a corner point of the quadrilateral and press a key to select. The mobile telephone determines which position in the previously captured image corresponds to the selected corner region. A semi-automatic process can be employed in which an algorithm is used to find quadrilateral structures in the image and propose one or more of these as potential target regions. The user can then simply accept a region or else elect to define the region entirely manually. If the shape of the target region quadrilateral is defined manually by the user it may be constrained to be one that is in agreement with the image perspective to aid the manual selection process. The captured image is processed to determine the “horizon” where parallel structures in the captured image intersect. The parallel sides of the quadrilateral target region are positioned in the image so that they also intersect at the horizon. A model user image key for indexing the content database is then automatically created at step 23 using the image just captured by the user. Only parts of the image contained within the target region defined in the previous stage are used in key creation. An image key contains: the captured image and interest points extracted by processing the image. It, in this example, also contains statistical parameters associated with the image interest points and, optionally, a description of the location of the image in the world. Various methods can be used to determine interest points. For example, Hartley and Zisserman ( “Multiple View Geometry in Computer Vision”, Richard Hartley and Andrew Zisserman, Cambridge University Press, second edition, 2003) s4.8 use interest points defined by regions of minima in the image auto-correlation function. Interest points may also be defined using Scale invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) features as described in “Distinctive Image Features from Scale-Invariant Keypoints”, David G. Lowe, International Journal of Computer Vision, 60, 2 (2004), pp. 91-110. The statistical parameters are adaptive. They are initially assigned a default value but become updated when the model user image key successfully matches new scene user image keys in the future. If the location of the user 3A is known when capturing the image then this is stored as part of the model user image key at step 24. The location may, for example, be derived in a mobile cellular telephone from the Cell ID of the current cell, from triangulation using neighbouring base stations, using Global Positioning System (GPS) or by user input. At step 25, the user 3A defines the digital content that is to be associated with the captured image. How the user 3A specifies the digital content is application specific. When specifying content for storage the user 3A may select content that exists on their mobile device 2A. This digital content may have been created by the user or by a third party. The digital content may be a static image (and optionally an alpha mask needed for image blending), a static 3d model, video, animated 3d models, a resource locator such as a URL, sound, text, data etc. If the digital content is to be used in augmented reality, then it is additionally necessary for a user to specify where in the imaged location the digital content should appear. The user may separately define an area using a quadrilateral frame on the captured image for this purpose. However, in the described implementation the target region is used to define the area. At step 26, the digital content is stored in the database 8, indexed by the created model user image key. FIG. 3 presents the process for retrieving digital content from the database 8 using a scene image captured by a user. To retrieve digital content associated with a particular location in the world an image of that location is captured by a user 3A, 3B in step 31 using an imaging device 2A, 2B. In general this will be done on a networked mobile device but this could also be done on a sufficiently powerful network-less device if the database 8 is stored on and the processing run on the device. At step 32 a scene user image key is created using the captured image. The process is the same as described for step 23 in FIG. 2 except that the whole image rather than a part (the target region) of the captured image is processed to determine the interest points. The location information includes the current location of the imaging device when the image was captured, if known. The created scene user image key is sent to the database 8 in a Request message. Although statistical parameters may be included in a scene user image key they are not generally adaptive in this implementation as they are for a model image key. The request message may also contain an application identifier. A particular application might only be concerned with a small subset of the model user image keys in the database in which case only the relevant keys need to be considered. The application identifier enables this subset to be identified as illustrated in step 33. For example, a treasure hunt application might only require the user to visit a small number of particular locations even though the database contains many more keys for other applications. By considering only the relevant keys both the computation load of matching keys and the potential for error is reduced. The number of model user image keys in the database 8 that are to be compared to the received image key may be reduced by considering only those stored image keys that have a location the same as or similar to the user image key in the query. This process is illustrated in step 34. The use of location information may be application dependent. For example, in a game where a user collects images of generic road signs the application is not concerned about the location of the sign but only its appearance. Although in FIG. 3 step 34 follows step 33, in other implementations step 34 may precede step 33. The sample of model user keys from the database that are to be used for comparison with the current scene user key may consequently be constrained by the application used and/or by the location associated with the scene user image key or may be unconstrained. The four alternative are illustrated in the Figure. At step 35 it is attempted to find a match between the scene user image key created at step 32 and a model user image key from the sample of model user image keys from the database 8. Matching the scene user image key to a model user image key stored in the database involves finding an homography, Hms, that aligns a significant number of the interest points of the scene user image key with interest points in one of the model user image keys stored in the database. It is possible but not necessary for the scene image to contain all of the target region of the model image. The scene image need only contain a reasonable proportion of the model image. A suitable process 40 is illustrated in more detail in FIG. 4. It uses the Random Sample Consensus (RANSAC) algorithm which is described in Hartley and Zisserman s 4.8 and algorithm 4.6 the contents of which are incorporated by reference. The homography produced by RANSAC maps pixels from one image to another image of the same planar surface and enables the recognition of objects from very different viewpoints. Referring to FIG. 4, at step 41 a set of putative correspondences between the interest points of the scene user image key (scene interest points) and the interest points in a first one of the model user image keys stored in the database (model interest points) is determined. Typically, each scene interest point may match to multiple model interest points and vice versa. It is useful to filter the putative matches so that at most one match exists for each interest point. This can be done by ordering the putative matches into a list with the best matches occurring first. The list is then descended and a record is made of which scene and model interest points have been encountered. If a putative match is found in the list for which the scene or model interest point has already been encountered then the match is removed from the list. The RANSAC algorithm is applied to the putative correspondence set to estimate the homography and the correspondences which are consistent with that estimate. The process is iterative, where the number of iterations N is adaptive. A loop is entered at step 42A. The loop returns to step 42A, where a loop exit criterion is tested and the criterion is adapted at step 42B which is positioned at the end of the loop before it returns to step 42A. In each loop iteration, a random sample of four correspondences is selected at step 43A and the homography H computed at step 43B. Then, a cost (distance) is calculated for each putative correspondence under the computed homography. The cost calculates the distance between an interest point and its putative corresponding interest point after mapping via the computed homography. The support for the computed homography is measured at step 43C by the number of interest points (inliers) for which the cost is less than some threshold. After the loop is exited, the homography with most support above a threshold level is chosen at step 44. Further step 45 may be used to improve the estimate of the homography given all of the inliers. If the support does not exceed the threshold level then the process moves to step 48. An additional verification phase may occur after step 45 at step 46 to ensure that the image (scene image) associated with the scene user image key matches the image (model image) associated with the found model user image key, rather than just the interest points matching. Verification is performed by matching pixels in the target region of the model image with their corresponding pixels in the scene image. The correspondence between model and scene pixels is defined by the model to scene homohraphy Hms defined earlier. Our preferred implementation is based on the normalised cross correlation measure of the image intensities because this is robust to changes in lighting and colour. The normalised cross correlation measure (NCC) is calculated as follows: NCC = Σ I m 2 ( x , y ) Σ I m 2 ( x , y ) Σ I s 2 ( H ms [ x , y ] ) Where Im(x,y) is the intensity of a model image pixel at location (x,y) and Is(x,y) is the intensity of a scene image pixel at location (x,y). The intensity of an image pixel is simply the average of the pixels colour values, usually I(x,y)=[R(x,y)+(G(x,y)+B(x,y)]/3. The summation is done over all pixel locations in the model image that are (1) contained within the model target region and (2) lie within the bounds of the scene image when mapped using the homography Hms. Condition (2) is necessary since the scene image may only contain a view of part of the model target region. Verification is successful if the NCC measure is above a specified threshold. In our implementation we used a threshold of 0.92. If verification is successful, then Hms is returned at step 47. If verification is unsuccessful the process moves to step 48. At step 48, the model image is updated to the next model image and the process returns to step 41. At step 41 a set of putative correspondences between the interest points of the scene user image key (scene interest points) and the interest points in the new model user image key (model interest points) is determined and then the loop 41A is re-entered. if there are no remaining untested model user image keys in the database at step 48, then the process moves to step 49 where a failure is reported. Thus the RANSAC process is repeated for each possible model user image key in the database until the support for a chosen homography exceeds a threshold and the scene image and corresponding model image are verified. Such a match indicates a match between the model user image key associated with the chosen homography and the scene user image key. In the preceding description, it has been assumed that the loop 41A, is exited only when N iterations have been completed. It other implementations, early termination of the loop 41A is possible if the number of inliers counted at step 32C exceeds a threshold. In this implementation, if the verification fails at step 46 then the process moves to step 42B in loop 41A if the loop 41A was terminated early but moves to step 48 if the loop 41A was not terminated early. Returning to FIG. 3, after a match has been found between a scene user image key and a model user image key, the statistical parameters of the model image key are updated at step 36 (step 47 in FIG. 4). Then at step 37 the digital content associated with the matched model user image key is obtained from the database 8. In the update at step 36 the following model image key statistics are determined from the previous M successful matches of the model. These statistics are used to improve the performance of the RANSAC matching algorithm. 1. For each model interest point, the mean and variance of the distance (cost) between the model interest point and the corresponding matching scene image point when mapped back into the model image. 2. The frequency of a model interest point being an inlier in a matched scene image When a model has successfully matched to a scene there is a correspondence between model interest points and scene interest points and an estimated homography, Hms, that maps model coordinates to scene coordinates. Similarly, the inverse of Hms, namely Hsm, maps scene coordinates to model coordinates. In an ideal situation this mapping will map scene interest points to the exact position of their corresponding model interest point. In practice there will be some variation in this position. For each model interest point we measure the mean and variance of the positions of corresponding scene image points when mapped back into the model image. This statistic is used in the RANSAC algorithm to determine whether a putative match between a model interest point and a scene interest point is an inlier given an homography. As described in the RANSAC algorithm earlier the classification of a putative match as an inlier is done if the distance (cost) between the model and scene positions is below a specified distance threshold. Rather than setting a fixed distance threshold we use the measured mean and variance. A putative match is classified as an idler if the scene interest point, when mapped by the homography into the model image, is within 3 standard deviations of the mean. The RANSAC algorithm may be improved by recording and using the frequency of matching correspondence for each interest point of a model image. The frequency of matching correspondence is the frequency with which each interest point of the model user image key has a correspondence with an interest point of a matching scene user image key ie. the frequency at which each model interest point is classified as an inlier when the model has been successfully matched. The frequency of matching correspondence is calculated in FIG. 4 at step 47 (step 36 in FIG. 3). This frequency of matching correspondence is then stored in the statistical parameters of the matching model user image key. The sample of the four correspondences made at step 43A may be a weighted random selection. The probability of selecting an interest point of the model is weighted according to its frequency of matching correspondence. The higher the frequency of matching correspondence the greater the weighting and the greater the probability of its selection. In our implementation weighted sampling reduces the number of iterations necessary to find a good homography by a factor of 50 on average. This also filters out erroneous and unreliable model interest points from the matching process and also from future matching processes involving different scene images. When using a weighted random selection of interest points the weights should be considered when calculating the number of iterations N at step 42B. In the referenced text, Hartley & Zisserman Algorithm 4.5, the probability that an taller point is selected, w, assumes uniformed random selection and is defined as the ratio of the number of inners to the total number of points. To account for the weighted sampling this is trivially reformulated as: w = Σ W i i ∈ inlier points Σ Wi i ∈ all points Where Wi is the weight associated with the ith interest point. When all Wis are constant this is equivalent to the original formulation in the referenced text. FIG. 5 presents the process 50 for adding new digital content to a model user image key already in the database 8 given an appropriate image captured by a user. This process is largely the same as that described in FIG. 3 (differences at steps 51, 52) and similar references numbers denote similar steps. However, step 37 is replaced by steps 51 and 52. At step 51, the additional digital content for storage in association with the matched model user image key is defined and at step 52 this additional digital content is stored in the database where it is indexed by the matched mode user image key. The process of augmenting the image captured by the user with the image digital content obtained from the database in step 37 of FIG. 3 is illustrated in FIG. 6. Rendering the digital image augmented with the digital content comprises two distinct phases. First the content to scene mapping is determined. This maps pixels (in the case of image based content), 2d vertices (in the case of 2d vector drawings) or 3d vertices (in the case of 3d models) from model coordinates to scene coordinates. Next this mapping is used to render the image content into the scene. At step 61, a digital content to canonical frame mapping Tc0 is calculated. It is convenient to define an intermediate canonical frame when determining the mapping of content to the scene The canonical frame is a rectangular frame with unit height and a width equal to the aspect ratio of the rectangular piece of the world defined by the target region. Aspect ratio is defined as the ratio of width to height, i.e., width/height. The purpose of this mapping it to appropriately scale and position the digital content so that it appears correctly when finally rendered into the scene image. For the purpose of our implementation we transform the content so that: 1. It is at the largest possible scale that fits into the target region detected in the scene image 2. The contents aspect ratio is preserved 3. The content is centred either horizontally or vertically to balance out any remaining space. If a point in the digital content frame is given by pc then the equivalent point p0 in the canonical frame is given by the expression: P0=Tc0pc For 2d content Tc0 is a 3×3matrix and content and canonical points are defined in homogeneous coordinates as 3 element column vectors: P0=[x0 y0 l]T pc=[xc yc wc]T The mapping Tc0 is given by the expression: T c 0 = [ s 0 w 0 - sw c 2 0 s 1 - sh c 2 0 0 1 ] . Where s is the scale factor given by the expression: If (wc/h0>w0) then s=w0wc otherwise s=1/hc Where wc is the width of the content, hc is the height of the content and w0 is the width of the canonical frame (which is also the aspect ratio of the target location). For 3d content Tc0 is calculated in an analogous way but it is now a 4×4 matrix and the content vertices are 3d points represented in homogeneous coordinates by 4 element column vectors. is At step 62, the canonical frame to Model Mapping H0m is calculated. This mapping takes the four corners of the rectangular canonical frame and maps them to the four vertices of the target region quadrilateral of the model image. Since all points lie on planes this mapping can be described by a 3×3 homography matrix and can be determined using the direct linear transformation (DLT). Note again that the 2d vertex coordinates are described in homogeneous coordinates using 3 element column vectors. The DLT algorithm for calculating an homography given four points is described by Hartley and Zisserman in s. 4.1. and algorithm 4.1, the content of which are herby incorporated by reference. At step 63, the canonical frame to scene Mapping T0s is calculated. For 2d content the mapping from the canonical frame to the scene is simply determined by concatenating the mapping from the canonical frame to the model and the mapping from the model to the scene. The mapping from the model to the scene is the output of the image key matching process 40 and is given by the homography Hms. The mapping from the canonical frame to the scene is still an homography and is given by the expression: T0s=HmsH0m For 3d content T0s is a projection from 3d to 2d represented by a 3×4 element matrix. This can be determined using standard techniques for camera calibration such as the DLT. Camera calibration requires a set of corresponding 3d vertices and 2d points for which we use the 2d scene and model interest points and the 2d model interest points mapped into the canonical frame and given the extra coordinate z=0. At step 64, the content to scene mapping Tos is calculated by combining the mappings calculated in steps 63 and 61. Tcs=T0sTc0 At step 65, the digital content is rendered into the Scene using Tcs For 2d content the content to scene mapping is used directly to draw the content into the scene. There are many algorithms in the literature to do this for image and vector type graphics. One example, for rendering image content is to iterate over every pixel in the scene target region and calculate the corresponding pixel in the content frame using the inverse of the content to scene transformation. To avoid aliasing we perform bilinear sampling of the content to determine the value of the pixel to render into the scene. Our system also supports the use of an alpha mask which can be used to blend the scene and content pixels to create effects such as transparency and shadows. The alpha mask is simply a greyscale image with the same dimensions of the content and it is used in the standard way to blend images. The rendering of 3d content is performing using standard 3d rendering software such as OpenGL or DirectX. The mapping T0s defined above is analogous to the camera matrix in these rendering systems. Another application of the invention is in ‘texture mapping’. In this case, digital content is associated with an image portion that may appear in many captured images. The image portion, when it appears in a captured image, triggers the augmentation of the captured image using the digital content. Although embodiments of the present invention have been described in the preceding paragraphs with reference to various examples, it should be appreciated that modifications to the examples given can be made without departing from the scope of the invention as claimed. Whilst endeavoring in the foregoing specification to draw attention to those features of the invention believed to be of particular importance it should be understood that the Applicant claims protection in respect of any patentable feature or combination of features hereinbefore referred to and/or shown in the drawings whether or not particular emphasis has been placed thereon. | <SOH> BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION <EOH>It may be desirable in certain circumstances to attach information to locations in the real world. This has previously been achieved by using barcodes or RFID tags attached to real world objects or by associating information with absolute positions in the world. It would be desirable to provide an alternative mechanism by which information can be associated with real world locations and objects. It would be desirable to provide a mechanism by which a user can ‘leave’ information at a real world location or object so that it can be ‘collected’ later by that user or another user. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to one aspect of a first embodiment there is provided an electronic device comprising: means for associating first information and at least a first portion of a first image; and means for using a second image that includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image to access the associated first information. It should be noted that a single electronic device comprises both means i.e. it is capable of both associating information with an image and using an image to access information. The information may be stored centrally, in which case, a plurality of such electronic devices are able to both place content using an image and retrieve content using an image, that is both placement and access to information is distributed. The first information may be media such as an image, a video or an audio file or it may be, for example, an instruction for performing a computer function. Correspondence between the portion of the second image and the first portion of the first image does not necessarily result in automatic access to the associated first information. The access may be conditional on other factors. The first information may be pre-stored for access or dynamically generated on access. According to another aspect of the first embodiment there is provided a method of storing information for future access by others comprising: associating first information and at least a first portion of a first image in a database controlled by a third party so that the first information can be accessed by others using a second image that includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image. According to another aspect of the first embodiment there is provided a system for storing information comprising: a server having a database that has a plurality of entries each of which associates one of a plurality of image portions with respective information; a first client device comprising a camera for capturing, at a first time, a first image that includes a first portion and means for enabling association, at the database, of the first portion with first information; and a second client device comprising: a camera for capturing, at a second later time, a second image, which includes a portion corresponding to at least the first portion of the first image; means for using the second image to access, at the database, the associated first information; and output means for outputting the accessed first information. The first portion may be the whole or a part of an area associated with the first image. In implementations of this embodiment of the invention, features in a captured ‘model’ image are used to index information. Then if a later captured ‘scene’ image corresponds to a previously captured model image because some of the features in the captured ‘scene’ image are recognised as equivalent to some of the features of the model image, the information indexed by the corresponding model image is retrieved. According to one aspect of a second embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps plural interest points of a first image with interest points in a second image, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of the second image; b) making a weighted sample of correspondences from the generated set; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; and f) selecting the homography with the most support. According to another aspect of the second embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps a plural interest points of a first image with interest points of at least one of a plurality of second images, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of a second image; b) making a weighted sample of correspondences from the generated set where the probability of sampling a particular putative correspondence depends upon a measure of probability for the interest point of the second image defining that particular putative correspondence; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; f) changing the second image and returning to step a), multiple times; g) selecting the second image associated with the homography with the most support; h) updating the measure of probability for each of the interest points of the selected second image that support the homography associated with the selected second image. According to one aspect of a third embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps a significant number of interest points of a first image with interest points in a second image, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of the second image; b) making a sample of correspondences from the generated set; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; f) selecting the homography with the most support; and g) verifying the homography by verifying that the first and second images match. According to one aspect of a fourth embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps plural interest points of a first image with interest points in a second image, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of the second image; b) making a sample of correspondences from the generated set; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set by determining the cost of each putative correspondence, wherein the cost of a putative correspondence is dependent upon statistical parameters for the interest point of the second image defining that putative correspondence; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; and f) selecting the homography with the most support. g) updating the statistical parameters for the interest points of the second image in dependence upon the cost of the putative correspondences under the selected homography. According to another aspect of the fourth embodiment there is provided a method for producing an homography that maps a plural interest points of a first image with interest points of at least one of a plurality of second images, comprising: a) generating a set of putative correspondences between interest points of the first image and interest points of a second image; b) making a sample of correspondences from the generated set; c) computing an homography for the sampled correspondences; d) determining the support for that homography from the generated set by determining the support from each putative correspondence, wherein the support from a putative correspondence is dependent upon statistical parameters for the interest point of the second image defining that putative correspondence; e) repeating steps c) to d) multiple times; f) changing the second image and returning to step a), multiple times; g) selecting the second image associated with the homography with the most support; h) updating the statistical parameters for the interest points of the selected second image | G06K96202 | 20170627 | 20171012 | 81927.0 | G06K962 | 1 | SETH, MANAV | STORING INFORMATION FOR ACCESS USING A CAPTURED IMAGE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06K | 2,017 |
|
15,634,383 | ACCEPTED | BULK MATERIAL SHIPPING CONTAINER | A bulk material shipping container including a pallet, a compartment mounted on the pallet, a material unloading assembly, and a material loading assembly. | 1. A material shipping container comprising: a pallet; a compartment mounted on the pallet, the compartment having a first top corner, a second top corner, a third top corner, and a fourth top corner, the compartment including: (a) a top wall, (b) a front exterior wall, (c) a back exterior wall spaced apart from the front exterior wall a first distance, (d) a first exterior side wall, (e) a second exterior side wall spaced apart from the first exterior side wall a second distance, wherein the second distance is approximately 80% of the first distance; (f) a front exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the front exterior wall, (g) a back exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the back exterior wall, (h) a first side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the first exterior side wall, (i) a second side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the second exterior side wall, (j) an interior bottom wall including: (i) a front downwardly angled section attached to the front exterior wall and having a lower edge that partially forms a material release opening at a bottom of the compartment, (ii) a back downwardly angled section attached to the back exterior wall and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (iii) a first side downwardly angled section attached to the first exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, and (iv) a second side downwardly angled section attached to the second exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (k) a front wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the front downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the front downwardly angled section, (l) a back wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the back downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the back downwardly angled section, (m) a first side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the first side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the first side downwardly angled section, (n) a second side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the second side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the second side downwardly angled section, (o) a first nesting support positioned at the first top corner of the compartment, the first nesting support defining an opening extending through the first nesting support, (p) a second nesting support positioned at the second top corner of the compartment, the second nesting support defining an opening extending through the second nesting support, (q) a third nesting support positioned at the third top corner of the compartment, the third nesting support defining an opening extending through the third nesting support, and (r) a fourth nesting support positioned at the fourth top corner of the compartment, the fourth nesting support defining an opening extending through the fourth nesting support, the first, second, third, and fourth nesting supports configured to at least partially support a pallet of another same material shipping container; a material unloading assembly positioned at the bottom of the compartment, the material unloading assembly including: (i) spaced apart guide rails, and (ii) a slidable gate including a closure member and an engagable member extending in an area lower than the closure member and attached to and supported by the closure member, the closure member at least partially supported by the spaced apart guide rails, the engagable member movable in a first direction to cause the closure member to open the material release opening and movable in a second different direction to cause the closure member to close the material release opening; and a material loading assembly attached to the top wall of the compartment, the material loading assembly including a cover hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment and rotatable from a closed position to an open position, the cover remaining hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment in the open position. 2. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein the pallet includes: (i) a first bottom corner leg, (ii) a second bottom corner leg, (iii) a third bottom corner leg, and (iv) a fourth bottom corner leg. 3. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein: (a) the front exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped first corner section, (b) the front exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped second corner section, (c) the back exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped third corner section, and (d) the back exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped fourth corner section. 4. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein the compartment is entirely supported by the pallet. 5. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein the second distance is approximately 79% of the first distance. 6. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein the second distance is approximately 78.5% of the first distance. 7. A material shipping container comprising: a pallet; a compartment mounted on the pallet, the compartment having a first top corner, a second top corner, a third top corner, and a fourth top corner, the compartment including: (a) a steel top wall, (b) a steel front exterior wall, (c) a steel back exterior wall spaced apart from the front exterior wall a first distance, (d) a steel first exterior side wall, (e) a steel second exterior side wall spaced apart from the first exterior side wall a second distance, wherein the second distance is approximately 80% of the first distance; (f) a steel front exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the front exterior wall, (g) a steel back exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the back exterior wall, (h) a steel first side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the first exterior side wall, (i) a steel second side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the second exterior side wall, (j) a steel interior bottom wall including: (i) a steel front downwardly angled section attached to the front exterior wall and having a lower edge that partially forms a material release opening at a bottom of the compartment, (ii) a steel back downwardly angled section attached to the back exterior wall and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (iii) a steel first side downwardly angled section attached to the first exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, and (iv) a steel second side downwardly angled section attached to the second exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge that partially forms the material release opening at the bottom of the compartment, (k) a steel front wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the front downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the front downwardly angled section, (l) a steel back wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the back downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the back downwardly angled section, (m) a steel first side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the first side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the first side downwardly angled section, (n) a steel second side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the second side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the second side downwardly angled section, (o) a steel first nesting support positioned at the first top corner of the compartment, the first nesting support defining an opening extending through the first nesting support, (p) a steel second nesting support positioned at the second top corner of the compartment, the second nesting support defining an opening extending through the second nesting support, (q) a steel third nesting support positioned at the third top corner of the compartment, the third nesting support defining an opening extending through the third nesting support, and (r) a steel fourth nesting support positioned at the fourth top corner of the compartment, the fourth nesting support defining an opening extending through the fourth nesting support, the first, second, third, and fourth nesting supports configured to at least partially support a pallet of another same material shipping container; a material unloading assembly positioned at the bottom of the compartment, the material unloading assembly including: (i) spaced apart steel guide rails, and (ii) a steel slidable gate including a steel closure member and a steel engagable member extending in an area lower than the closure member and attached to and supported by the closure member, the closure member at least partially supported by the spaced apart guide rails, the engagable member movable in a first direction to cause the closure member to open the material release opening and moveable in a second different direction to cause the closure member to close the material release opening; and a material loading assembly attached to the top wall of the compartment, the material loading assembly including a steel cover hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment and rotatable from a closed position to an open position, the cover remaining hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment in the open position. 8. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein the pallet includes: (i) a first bottom corner leg, (ii) a second bottom corner leg, (iii) a third bottom corner leg, and (iv) a fourth bottom corner leg. 9. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein: (a) the front exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped first corner section, (b) the front exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped second corner section, (c) the back exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped third corner section, and (d) the back exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped fourth corner section. 10. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein the compartment is entirely supported by the pallet. 11. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein the second distance is approximately 79% of the first distance. 12. The material shipping container of claim 7, wherein the second distance is approximately 78.5% of the first distance. | PRIORITY CLAIM This application is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to, and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/632,696, filed Jun. 26, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/631,737, filed Jun. 23, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/471,896, filed Mar. 28, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/516,292, filed Oct. 16, 2014, which issued on Apr. 11, 2017 as U.S. Pat. No. 9,617,065, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/249,688, filed Sep. 30, 2011, which issued on Nov. 18, 2014 as U.S. Pat. No. 8,887,914, which is a continuation-in-part patent application of, claims priority to, and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/914,075, filed Oct. 28, 2010, which issued on Dec. 31, 2013, as U.S. Pat. No. 8,616,370, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND Various bulk material shipping containers are known. Such known material bulk shipping containers, sometimes referred to herein for brevity as known containers or as known bulk containers, are used to transport a wide range of products, parts, components, items, and materials such as, but not limited to, seeds, shavings, fasteners, and granular materials. These are sometimes called loose materials. There are various disadvantages with such known bulk material shipping containers. For example, one known and widely commercially used known bulk container for shipping materials (such as shipping seeds to farms) is sold by Buckhorn Industries. This known bulk container is made from plastic, weighs about 338 pounds (151.9 kilograms), and holds a maximum of 58.3 cubic feet of material. This known container has a bottom section, a top section, and a cover. To use this known container, loaders at a bulk material supplier must remove the cover, remove the top section from the bottom section, flip the top section upside down, place the flipped top section on the bottom section, fill the container, and then place the cover on the flipped top section. This process requires at least two people and a relatively significant amount of time when filling a large quantity of these containers. In certain instances, specifically configured forklift attachments are required to fill and handle this known container. After this known container is shipped to its ultimate destination (such as a farm), the bulk material (such as seed) is unloaded from the container, and the empty container must be shipped back to the material supplier. However, prior to and for shipping back to the supplier, the cover is removed, the flipped top section is removed from the bottom section, the flipped top section is then flipped back over and placed on the bottom section, and the cover is then placed on the top section and fastened with zip ties. This process also requires at least two people and is relatively time consuming especially for a large quantity of such containers. Another disadvantage of this known container is that this container is made from plastic and if one of the three sections (i.e., the bottom, the top, or the cover) is damaged or cracked, that entire section typically must be replaced (instead of being repaired). This adds additional cost, time out of service for the damaged container, and additional material and energy waste. Another disadvantage of this known container is that when disassembled (for shipping empty), only two of these containers can be stacked on top of each other and still fit in a conventional shipping container or truck. This tends to leave wasted space in such shipping containers and trucks, and thus increases the overall cost of shipping (including related fuel costs) and energy waste. Additional disadvantages of this known container are that: (a) the cover can be easily lost or misplaced; (b) the cover can be easily damaged; (c) this known container is less weather resistant because the cover is readily removable and only attached by zip ties; (d) the insides and outside surfaces are difficult to clean; and (e) a material holding bag is not readily usable with this container, such that this container cannot be used for certain types of loose materials. For purposes of brevity, (a) the people who assemble and/or put a container in the position for receiving materials for transport and who load the material in a container are sometimes referred to herein as the “loaders,” and (b) the people who remove the materials from a container and who disassemble and/or put a container in the position for sending back to the supplier are sometimes referred to herein as the “unloaders.” Accordingly, there is a need for better bulk material shipping containers which overcome these disadvantages. SUMMARY Various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a bulk material shipping container which overcomes the above described disadvantages with previously known commercially available bulk shipping containers. One embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment and movable from a retracted position relative to the bottom compartment (for efficient shipping when not holding materials or holding a relatively small amount of materials) to an expanded position relative to the bottom compartment (for holding extra materials during shipping); (d) a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; (f) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment; and (g) an extension assembly attached to the top compartment which enables a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. The shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive a suitable plastic bag which holds the materials in the container. It should thus be appreciated that the expandable and retractable bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. It should also be appreciated that when a plastic bag is used to hold the materials in the container, the material unloading assembly includes a knife which cuts the bottom of the bag open for unloading of the materials. The bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is sometimes referred herein for brevity as the container or as the shipping container. One embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is primarily made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, except for the pallet which is made from wood. If one of the sections of this embodiment of the container is damaged or cracked, that section can typically be repaired which reduces: (a) cost; (b) time out of service for the container; and (c) additional material and/or energy waste. In alternative embodiments, the pallet of the bulk material shipping container, or certain parts thereof, can be made from a suitably strong plastic material such as a composite material or a fiber glass material. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure can also be stacked three high (when empty) for shipping in conventional transport containers or trucks. This reduces wasted space in such transport containers and trucks and decreases shipping cost and fuel consumption, and thus energy waste. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure holds 72 cubic feet of material and up to about 3125 pounds (1417.5 kilograms). This embodiment of the shipping container has several advantages over the above described known bulk container. Specifically, this embodiment of the bulk container is approximately 65 pounds (29.49 kilograms) lighter, holds approximately 14 cubic feet of additional materials which is approximately 25% more material (such as seeds), is readily repairable, can be stacked three high for more efficient transport to the supplier, and can be moved from the transport or retracted position to the loading or expanded position by one person. To load the presently disclosed container, the loaders do not need to remove a cover, remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment, flip the top compartment over, place the flipped top compartment on the bottom compartment, or place any cover on the flipped top compartment. Additionally, the unloaders do not need to remove the cover, remove the flipped top compartment, flip the top compartment, place the top compartment on the bottom compartment, and then place the cover on the top compartment for returning the empty container. In another embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment, and thus this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the single compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the single compartment. In this embodiment, since there is a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to a top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed in the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, the pallet supports the compartments, but does not directly support the material unloading assembly. In further embodiments, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is configured without the top wall to provide an open top end. It is therefore an advantage of the present disclosure to provide a new and improved bulk material shipping container. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments and the figures. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of one embodiment of the present disclosure, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 2 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the retracted or collapsed position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 3 is a bottom perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and illustrating the legs of the pallet, the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet, and pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 4 is a front view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 5 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 6 is a top view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container in the closed position and the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. FIG. 7 is a bottom view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the legs of the pallet, the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet, and illustrating the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly in the closed position, and the knife attached to the bottom of the chute door or gate. FIG. 8 is an exploded perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with certain of the smaller components such as the tether removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 9 is an enlarged exploded perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9A is an enlarged exploded top perspective view of the sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9B is an enlarged top perspective view of the attached sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9C is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 9D is a further enlarged fragmentary bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 9E is an enlarged top perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with the front and left exterior side walls of the bottom compartment removed to illustrate the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment, the support gussets of the bottom compartment, and the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment. FIG. 9F is an enlarged top perspective view of the bottom compartment and the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with the front and left exterior side walls of the bottom compartment removed to illustrate the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment, the support gussets of the bottom compartment, and the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment. FIG. 10 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container. FIG. 10A is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 11 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container, and illustrating the certain of the legs of the pallet in phantom, certain portions of the fork lift tine receiving channels of the pallet in phantom, and certain portions of the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet in phantom. FIG. 12 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and flipped upside down, and illustrating the certain of the legs of the pallet, certain portions of the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet in phantom, and the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 13 is an enlarged bottom view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating certain of the legs of the pallet, and the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 14 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container, and illustrating the position of the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in the closed position, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 15 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in a partially open position with the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 16 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in a fully open position with the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 17 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position and the blade of the knife in the fully closed and non-extended position. FIG. 17A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position and the blade of the knife in the fully closed and non-extended position. FIG. 18 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position and the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate. FIG. 18A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position and the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate. FIG. 19 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position and the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate. FIG. 19A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position and the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate. FIG. 20A is an enlarged perspective view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20B is an enlarged top plan view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20C is an enlarged side view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20D is an enlarged side view of the gate and knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 21 is an enlarged rear perspective view of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 22 is an enlarged right side view of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the of the shipping container of FIG. 1 FIG. 23 is an enlarged end view of the cutting edge of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 24 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin and the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 25 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 26 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 27A is an enlarged fragmentary exploded perspective view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners before being attached. FIG. 27B is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners after being attached. FIG. 27C is an enlarged fragmentary top plan view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners after being attached. FIG. 28 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the locking pin of the assembly inserted in the pin receipt in a corner of the bottom compartment, the pin holder attached to a corner of the top compartment, and a tether connecting the locking pin to the pin holder. FIG. 29 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the locking pin holders of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment of the container. FIG. 30 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the locking pins and tethers of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 31 is an enlarged fragmentary partially cut away view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 32 is an enlarged fragmentary view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 33 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the fork lift receiving tines or lifting brackets of the extension assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 34 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and the cover of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 35 is a top perspective view of the top wall of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating the opening in the top wall and the lip of the material loading assembly extending from the top wall and which is configured to be securely engaged by the cover of the material loading assembly. FIG. 36 is a top perspective view of the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating in phantom the channel of the cover which is configured to receive the lip of the of the material loading assembly attached to the top compartment for secure engagement by the cover. FIG. 37 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the locking assembly of the material loading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown in the closed position. FIG. 38 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the nesting or stacking guides of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating the bag end holders defined by the nesting or stacking guides. FIG. 39 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 1 and a portion of the pallet and lower compartment of a second shipping container of FIG. 1 shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 40 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 1 and a pallet of a second shipping container of FIG. 1 shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 41 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag positioned over the stacking guides, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 42 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag positioned with its ends extending through the stacking guides, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 43 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag holder of one embodiment of the present disclosure which is configured to hold a roll of bags. FIG. 44 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and the bag holder of FIG. 43, and illustrating how the bag holder of FIG. 41 holds one of the bags over the shipping container during the material loading process, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 45 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and another embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure. FIG. 46 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and the bag holder of FIG. 45, and illustrating how the bag holder of FIG. 43 holds one of the bags over the shipping container during the material loading process, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 47 is a perspective view of another example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 48 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the retracted or collapsed position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 49 is a bottom perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and illustrating the pallet of this embodiment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 50 is a front view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 51 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 52 is a top view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container in the closed position and the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. FIG. 53 is a bottom view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the pallet, and further illustrating the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly in the closed position. FIG. 54 is an exploded perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47 with certain of the smaller components removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 55 is an enlarged exploded perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 56 is an enlarged exploded top perspective view of the sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 57 is an enlarged top perspective view of the attached sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 58 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 59 is a further enlarged fragmentary bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 60 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in their position relative to the pallet. FIG. 61 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in their position relative to the pallet. FIG. 62 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container, and illustrating certain portions of the pallet in phantom. FIG. 63 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and flipped upside down, and illustrating the certain portions of the pallet in phantom. FIG. 64 is an enlarged bottom view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container. FIG. 65 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container, and illustrating the position of the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in the closed position. FIG. 66 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in a partially open position. FIG. 67 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in a fully open position. FIG. 68 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position. FIG. 69 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position. FIG. 70 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position. FIG. 71 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position. FIG. 72 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position. FIG. 73 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position. FIG. 74 is an enlarged perspective view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 75 is an enlarged top view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 76 is an enlarged side view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 77 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin and the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 78 is an enlarged fragmentary front perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 79 is an enlarged fragmentary rear perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 80 is an enlarged fragmentary exploded perspective view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the sections of the corner before being attached. FIG. 81 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating sections of the corner after being attached. FIG. 82 is an enlarged fragmentary top view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the sections of the corner after being attached. FIG. 83 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of part of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the assembly inserted in the pin receipt in a corner of the bottom compartment. FIG. 84 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the combined support bracket and pin holders of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the top compartment of the container. FIG. 85 is an enlarged fragmentary partially cut away side view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 86 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 87 is a perspective view of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment and with a sleeve attached to the interior surfaces of the top compartment. FIG. 88 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the nesting or stacking guides of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the top compartment. FIG. 89 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of one of the corners of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the nesting or stacking guide and the nesting supports attached at that corner. FIG. 90 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 47 and a portion of the pallet and bottom compartment of a second shipping container of FIG. 47, where the portion of the pallet is shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 91 is a further enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 47 and a portion of the pallet of a second shipping container of FIG. 47, where the portion of the pallet is shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 92 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47 resting on a corner of pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the top compartment of the shipping container is in the retracted or collapsed position and the shipping container is empty. FIG. 93 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner of the bottom compartment of the first shipping container of FIG. 47 resting on a corner of pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the top 19 compartment of the shipping container is in the retracted or collapsed position and the shipping container is empty. FIG. 94 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner and side wall of the bottom compartment, a corner and side wall of the top compartment, and a side wall of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full, and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 95A is a fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is empty. FIG. 95B is a fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 96A is an enlarged fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is empty. FIG. 96B is an enlarged fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 97 is a fragmentary perspective view of another example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, FIGS. 1 to 40 illustrate one example embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. This shipping container, which is generally indicated by numeral 50, has an expanded position for holding materials during shipping and a retracted position for efficient shipping when the container is not holding materials or when the container is holding a smaller amount of materials. More specifically, FIG. 2 illustrates the shipping container 50 in the retracted position, and FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 34 illustrate the shipping container 50 in the expanded position. It should thus be appreciated that in the retracted position (as shown in FIG. 2), the shipping container 50 can be used for efficient transport as further described below, and that this provides substantial savings in shipping cost and energy use. Generally, as shown in FIGS. 1 to 9B, this illustrated embodiment of the shipping container 50 includes: (a) a pallet 100 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 9F, and as best shown in FIGS. 10, 10A, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 24, 25, and 26) configured for supporting the container 50 and to facilitate movement and of the container 50 as well as the stacking of multiple containers; (b) a bottom compartment 200 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, and 34) mounted on the pallet 100 and configured to hold materials; (c) a top compartment 300 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 34) mounted on the bottom compartment 200 and configured to hold materials; (d) a plurality of top compartment support assemblies 400 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, and as best shown in FIGS. 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32) configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment and configured to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly 500 (as partially shown in FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 8, 9E, and 9F and as best shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 10, 10A, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26) attached to the bottom compartment and supported by the pallet 100 and configured to facilitate the unloading of materials from the top and bottom compartments; (f) a material loading assembly 600 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2 4, 5, 6, and 8, and as best shown in FIGS. 34, 35, 36, and 37) mounted on the top compartment and configured to facilitate the loading of material into the top and the bottom compartments; and (g) a top compartment extension assembly 700 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 33, and 34) attached to the top compartment 300 and configured to enable a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. It should also be appreciated that generally the container includes a front side or face, a back side or face opposite the front side, a right side or face, and a left side or face as further discussed below. In this illustrated embodiment, (a) the pallet 100 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 6 inches (15.24 centimeters); (b) the bottom compartment 200 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters); and (c) the top compartment 300 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters). When the container is in the retracted position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 35 inches (88.90 centimeters). When the container is in the expanded position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 62 inches (157.48 centimeters). However, it should be appreciated that the container and the components thereof may be other suitable sizes. This embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive and hold a large plastic bag which holds the materials in the interior areas defined by bottom and top compartments. In one embodiment, the bag: (a) is approximately 60 inches (15.40 centimeters) by approximately 55 inches (139.70 centimeters) by approximately 110 inches (279.40 centimeters); (b) has a flat bottom with no bottom seal and hermetic side seals; (c) is FDA compliant; (d) has an approximately 2 millimeter thickness; (e) is clear; and (f) is made from a low density recyclable polyethylene plastic. In one alternative embodiment, the bag is also or alternatively bio-degradable. It should be appreciated that each of the bags is thus suited to hold one load of materials. However, it should be appreciated that the plastic bag may be of any suitable size, configuration, and material, provided that it fits inside of the top and bottom compartments of the container and that the bottom of the bag is able to be readily opened for unloading of the materials. It should be appreciated that the bag will be appropriately folded so that when the bag is placed above and partially in the container for filling the bag (and the container) with the materials, that the bag will properly unfold and be suitably seated in the top and bottom compartments of the container. The filling and un-filling of the bag is further discussed below. More specifically, as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E, and 9F, the bottom compartment 200 includes: (a) a lower exterior bottom wall or panel 202 defining a material release opening or chute 204; (b) an upper interior bottom wall 210 defined by four attached downwardly angled sections or chute ramps 212, 214, 216, and 218; (c) four wedge shaped interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228; (d) spaced apart first and second or front and back exterior walls 232 and 236; and (e) spaced apart third and fourth or left and right exterior side walls 234 and 238. The four sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 234 and 238 define a bottom compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly toward and to the material release opening or chute 204. In this illustrated embodiment, the lower exterior bottom wall 202, the upper interior bottom wall 210, the interior bottom wall supports 222, 224, 226, and 228, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 234 and 238 are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. The exterior bottom wall 202 of the bottom compartment 200 is suitably attached to the pallet 100 of the container 50 by suitable fasteners; however, it should be appreciated that the exterior bottom wall can be attached in other suitable manners. More specifically, the lower exterior bottom wall 202 includes: (a) a rectangular substantially flat base 206 which defines the centrally located rectangular material release opening or chute 204; and (b) an upwardly extending lip 208 extending upwardly from each of outer edges of the base 206. This material release opening or chute 204 enables materials in the top and bottom compartments (or in a bag therein) to flow out of bottom compartment 200 when the chute door or gate 510 of the material unloading assembly for the opening or chute 204 (and the bag therein) is opened as further discussed below. The opening 204 in this illustrated embodiment is approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) by approximately 11 inches (27.94 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. This size of the opening relative to the size of the bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of unloading of the material from the top and bottom compartments (or in a bag therein) without sacrificing structure or strength of the bottom compartment. The interior bottom wall supports 222, 224, 226, and 228 are attached in spaced apart locations to the top of the base 206 by fasteners, although they can also or alternatively be attached by welding. Each of the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228 are of a wedge shape such that they are configured to be engaged by and support a respective one of the downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210. The gusset 222 is wider than the other gussets 224, 226, and 228 in this illustrated embodiment to distribute the weight of the materials supported by gusset 222 to the pallet 100 at further spaced apart locations which are not directly over the gate 510 of the material unloading assembly 500 (which is further described below). The upper interior bottom wall 210, and specifically the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 are respectively attached to the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228 by welding, although they can also or alternatively be attached by fasteners. The interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222 and 226 are some what shorter (as best seen in FIGS. 8, 9, 9E, 9F, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, and 19A) than the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 224 and 288 to prevent too much weight from being placed on the material unloading assembly 500 and particularly on the gate 510. The four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 each have a lower edge such that when such sections are attached, such sections form an opening 211 adjacent to and substantially aligned with the opening 204 of the base wall 206. In particular, the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 extend downwardly approximately adjacent to the material release opening or chute 204 of the base 206 of the bottom compartment. The lower edges of one or more of these four downwardly angled sections are each configured to be supported by the pallet adjacent to the top shelf of the pallet. In other words, this construction enables the central area of the pallet to provided support for part of the weight of the materials held in the top and bottom compartments. The upper interior bottom wall 210, and specifically upper portions of the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 are also respectively attached to and supported by the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 of the bottom compartment 200 is supported at multiple locations including multiple points of support by the various different portions of the pallet 100. More specifically, the sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210 are supported: (a) at their top ends by the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 200; (b) centrally by interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228; (c) by attachment to each other; and (d) by the central portion of the pallet 100. The exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 200 also each includes a skirt that extends downwardly along a respective side of the pallet 100. Suitable fasteners such as screws are used to attach each skirt to the respective side of the pallet 100 to support these exterior walls. Thus, it should be appreciated that this attachment to the side walls of the pallet 100 provides another set of support points for the bottom compartment 200. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 is suitably angled and supported to hold the materials without deforming and to facilitate unloading of the bulk material from the material holding area of the bottom compartment. Each of the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 210 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of an adjacent exterior wall as generally shown in FIGS. 27A, 27B, and 27C. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall: (a) are preferably connected by welding; (b) add structural rigidity to the bottom compartment; and (c) in conjunction with the top compartment support assemblies 400 provide support the support of the top compartment in the expanded position as further described below. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 27A, 27B, and 27C, exterior side wall 232 includes panel 252 and corner 262 which includes corner sections 262a and 262b, and exterior side wall 234 includes panel 254 and corner 264 which includes corner sections 264a and 264b. Corner sections 264a is mated with and attached to corner section 262a, and corner section 264b is mated with and attached to corner section 262b to form this corner of the bottom compartment 200. It should be appreciated that each corner of the bottom compartment is configured in a similar manner; however, it should be appreciated that one or more of the corners can be differently configured. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the bottom compartment and to minimize interference with movement of the top compartment 300 relative to the bottom compartment 200. The top compartment 300 of the container 50, as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, and 35, includes an exterior top wall 302, spaced apart exterior front and back side walls 312 and 316, spaced apart exterior side walls 316 and 318, and exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 respectively attached to the exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318. In this illustrated embodiment, the exterior top wall 302, exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318, and exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 are also all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected in any suitable manner. The upper interior base wall 306 and the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 define a top compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly to the bottom compartment material holding area or cavity. The exterior top wall 302 includes a rectangular substantially flat base 306 which defines the centrally located rectangular material receipt or loading opening or chute 304. This material receipt or loading opening or chute 304 enables materials to flow into the top and bottom compartments when the cover of the material loading assembly is opened as further discussed below. The opening 304 in this illustrated embodiment is 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) by 18 inches (45.72 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. This size opening relative to this size bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of loading of the material into the top and bottom compartments without sacrificing structure or strength of the top compartment 300. The upper interior base wall 306 is suitably attached to the upper portions of the exterior walls 312,314,316, and 318 by welding. The exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 are respectively attached to the exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 by welding, although they can be attached by rivets or other suitable fasteners. It should be appreciated that for embodiments of the container which will employ a bag, it is preferable to maximize the amount of welding for connecting or attaching components to reduce possible spots or points for snagging or cutting the bag. It should also be appreciated that for a container that will not employ a bag, more rivets or other fasteners can be employed. Similar to the configuration of the bottom compartment, each of the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of the adjacent exterior wall similar to the bottom compartment. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall of the top compartment are preferably connected by welding and add structural rigidity to the top compartment. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the top compartment can include one or more interior walls. These interior walls in certain embodiment are used to protect the exterior walls, and to add further structural rigidly to the top compartment. The pallet 100 of this illustrated embodiment of the shipping container 50 of the present disclosure is specifically configured to take in account that various different lifting and moving vehicles or equipment may be used to lift and move the container 50: (a) when the container is manufactured; (b) when the container is transported to a material loading facility; (c) when the container is at a material loading facility; (d) when the container is moved and positioned in a transport vehicle at the material loading facility after loading materials in the container; (e) when the container is removed from a transport vehicle at a material unloading facility; (f) when the container is at an unloading facility; and (g) when the container is moved and positioned in a transport vehicle at the material unloading facility after unloading the materials from the container. More specifically, these facilities will typically have either a conventional pallet jack and/or a conventional fork lift. One widely commercially used conventional pallet jack has spaced apart non-movable tines or forks, where each fork is approximately 7.75 inches (19.69 centimeters) wide and the space between the tines is approximately 8.50 inches (21.59 centimeters). One widely commercially used conventional fork lift has adjustably spaced apart tines or forks, where each fork is approximately 5 inches (12.70 centimeters) wide, and the space between that tines is adjustable from approximately 4 inches (10.16 centimeters) to approximately 24 inches (60.96 centimeters). As further described below, the container 50 and specifically the pallet 100 of the container 50 is configured to account for the use of such fork lifts which can: (a) lift the containers off of the ground; (b) move the containers; (c) stack the containers on top of each other; and (d) un-stack stacked containers from each other. As also further described below, the container 50 and specifically the pallet 100 of the container 50 is also configured to account for the use of such pallet jacks which can: (a) lift the containers off of the ground; and (b) move the containers, but can not stack or unstack stacked containers. More specifically, turning now to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 10A, 11, 12, and 13, the pallet 100 of this illustrated embodiment of the container 50 of the present disclosure includes: (a) a rectangular body 102 having an upper surface 104, a lower surface 106, a front edge 112, a back edge 116, and opposite side edges 114 and 118; and (b) a plurality of legs 122, 124, 126, and 128 extending downwardly from the body 102. The legs 122 and 126 each respectively extend the entire width of the body 102 of the pallet 100 in this illustrated embodiment. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments the legs 122 and 126 do not need to extend the entire width of the body and that each of these legs can be separated into multiple legs. The legs or islands 124 and 128 extend downwardly from the central portions of the side ends of the body 102. In this illustrated embodiment, the body and the legs of the pallet are all formed from one piece of a suitable wood to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; and (b) minimize overall weight of the container. In this illustrated embodiment, the wood pallet is one piece of wood which is suitably formed by suitable cutting, milling and/or routing processes. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the pallet can be made from multiple components which are suitably attached and that one or more of these components can be made from other suitably strong materials such as composite or fiber glass materials. It should also be appreciated that different parts of the pallet may be made from different materials. For instance, the shelves may be made from a plastic, composite or fiber glass inlay part. The pallet 100 includes or defines: (a) a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a in the legs 122 and 126, respectively; (b) a second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b in the legs 122 and 126, respectively; (c) a first pallet jack tine receiving channel 140 extending from side to side; and (d) a second pallet jack tine receiving channel 142 extending from side to side. The first set of fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a and the second set of fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels of the pallet 100 of the container 50 which is stacked on top of another container, the tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should thus be appreciated that the pallet 100 is configured to enable a fork lift to move these containers when one container is stacked on another container without damaging the lower container, and particularly the cover or the extension assembly. The first pallet jack tine receiving channel 140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 142 are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a pallet jack are inserted into these channels defined by the pallet 100 of the container 50, they can lift and move the container. It should be appreciated that a typical pallet jack does not operate like a fork lift so that the pallet jack will only be used when the container is on the floor or ground and not with stacked containers. Therefore, the tines or forks of a pallet jack will not be in a position to engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of stacked containers or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of stacked containers. It should be appreciated that the first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a and the second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b are not configured to receive the forks or tines of a pallet jack because they are spaced apart further then the tines on a conventional pallet jack (as described above). Specifically, they are spaced apart approximately 34 inches (86.36 centimeters) in this illustrated embodiment. It should further be appreciated that although not preferred, a fork lift with adjustable forks or tines can be inserted into the first pallet jack tine receiving channels 140 and 142 to lift and move the container 50. The pallet 50 and the channels 140 and 142 are also configured to take this into account, and specifically to account for this situation when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels 140 and 142 of the pallet 100 of a container stacked on another container, these tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should further be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment, the legs 124 and 128 of the pallet 100 are also configured to direct the tines or forks of the pallet jack through the channels 140 and 142 if they are inserted at an angle with respect to these channels. Specifically, leg 124 includes four angled tine directing surfaces 154a, 154b, 154c, and 154d, and leg 128 includes four angled tine directing surfaces 158a, 158b, 158c, and 158d. It should further be appreciated that the legs 124 and 128 do not block the fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a or the fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the pallet can include indicator which direct a user on how to insert the tines of a fork lift into the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142. It should also be appreciated, that although not shown, the pallet can include hinged or pivoting flaps in the ends of the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142 to further direct a user on how to insert the tines of a fork lift into the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142. It should also be appreciated that the shape of the legs of the pallet, which rest on the ground, and particularly the flat surfaces of the pallet, prevent the build-up of contaminants on the pallet. Specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the bottom of the pallet does not include a series of cavities in which contaminants such as mud or dirt can build up. Therefore, the pallet provides a less contaminable bulk material container while still being relatively strong and light weight. Turning now to FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 10A, 11, 12, and 13, as mentioned above, the body 102 of the pallet 100 also functions: (a) to support the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment 200; and (b) to support the material unloading assembly 500. More specifically, the body 102 of the pallet 100 defines multi-level shelves including a first or bottom shelf 150 and a second or top shelf 160, and an opening or chute 170. The first or bottom shelf 150 includes front shoulder 152, left side shoulder 154, and right side shoulder 158. These shoulders 152, 154, and 158 are sized and configured to support a bottom portion of each of the guide rails and the door or gate of the material unloading assembly which is further described below. The door or gate includes a closure member or portion and the handle member or portion (as further discussed below). The shoulders 152, 154, 32 and 158 support the guide rails (attached to the bottom compartment as described below) which in turn support the side edges of the closure member as well as the handle portion of the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly. The shoulders 152, 154, and 158 are positioned at the same level to co-act to support the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly such that the chute door or gate moves or slides relative to the bottom shelf 150 from a closed position to an open position for respectively closing and opening the chute 202 in the exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment 100 as well as the opening or chute 170 in the pallet 100 as further discussed below. The second or top shelf of the pallet 100 includes left side shoulder 164, rear shoulder 166, and right side shoulder 168 which are configured at the same level to co-act to also support a top portion of each of the guide rails and the door or gate of the material unloading assembly which is further described below. It should also be appreciated that this configuration enables the pallet to support the bottom compartment and the material unloading assembly and specifically the chute door or gate. This support reduces the amount of weight placed on the gate from the materials held in the top and bottom compartments (or the bag therein). In the illustrated embodiment, and as particularly illustrated in FIGS. 9C and 9D, the container 50 and in particular the material unloading assembly 500 includes a plurality of guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171. Guide rail 163 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the front portions of shoulders 154 and 164. Guide rail 165 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the central and rear portions of the shoulders 154 and 164. Guide rail 167 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the rear shoulders 156 and 166. Guide rail 169 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the central and rear portions of shoulders 158 and 168. Guide rail 171 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the front portions of the shoulders 158 and 168. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 10A, 14, 15, and 16 illustrate these guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171 detached from or without the exterior bottom wall 206 and in the positions where they rest on and are supported by these shoulders of the pallet 100. It should also be appreciated that these guide rails function in multiple ways. The guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171 support and guide the movement of closure portion and the handle portion of the chute door or gate 510 of the material unloading assembly 500. The gate slides or moves on or above these guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171, and these guide rails prevent the downward movement of the chute door or gate and also prevent loose materials being held in the top and bottom compartments from accumulating on or adjacent to the chute door or gate or the shoulders. The guide rails 165, 167, and 169 also rest on the shoulders to provide additional support for the bottom compartment. The body 102 of the pallet 100 also includes defines a handle chamber 180 and a stopping wall 182 for the handle of the material unloading assembly (as described below). The handle chamber 180 and the stopping wall 182 of the pallet 100 are further discussed below in conjunction with the discussion of the material unloading assembly 500. Turning now to FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, the material unloading assembly 500 of the container 50 is supported by both bottom wall 206 of the bottom compartment 200 and the body 102 of the pallet 100 under and adjacent to the opening or chute 204 in the bottom compartment 200 and above the opening or chute 170 in the pallet 100. The material unloading assembly 500 includes a chute door or gate 510 slidably positioned on the guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171, and partially supported by the shoulders 152, 154, and 158 defined by the body 102 of the pallet 100 as discussed above. The gate 510 includes a handle member or portion 512 and a closure member or portion 516 extending from the handle member or portion 512. The gate 510 is movable or slidable from a closed position as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 14, 17, and 17A to a plurality of different partially open positions (such as the partially open position shown in FIGS. 15, 18 and 18A), and then to a fully open position shown in FIGS. 16, 19, and 19A. It should also be appreciated that the body 102 of the pallet 100 defines a plurality of stopping walls that prevent the gate 510 from moving too far outwardly and also keeps the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 relatively close to the pallet 100. In this embodiment, the gate and the guide rails are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; (b) facilitate ease of cleaning; (c) facilitate ease of repair; (d) prevent rusting; (e) minimize overall weight of the container; and (f) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the gate and the guide rails can be made from other suitable materials. The material unloading assembly 500 further includes a knife 520 attached to the bottom surface of the gate 510. Specifically, the knife 520 includes a biasing member in the form of a leaf spring 522 having an attachment end 524 attached to the bottom surface of the gate 510 and a fin shaped blade 530 attached to the top side of the opposite or free end 526 of leaf spring 522. As best shown in FIGS. 17A, 18A, 19A, 21, 22, and 23, the fin shaped blade 530 includes: (a) an attachment base 532 attached to the top of the free end 526 of the leaf spring 522; and (b) a cutting member 534 attached to and extending from the attachment base 532. The cutting member 534 includes an accurate shaped cutting edge 536 and back edge 538 opposite the cutting edge 536. The leaf spring 522 biases the blade 530 upwardly such that the blade 530 is biased upwardly and the cutting member 534 and extends through a vertically extending slot 518 (see FIGS. 20A and 20B) in the closure portion 516 of the gate 510 toward a fully expanded position. In this illustrated embodiment, the knife is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) facilitate ease of cleaning; (c) facilitate ease of repair; (d) prevent rusting; (e) minimize overall weight of the container; and (f) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the knife can be made from other suitable materials. In this illustrated embodiment, the leaf spring is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel; however, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the leaf spring can be made from other suitable materials and in other configurations. The knife 520 (including the leaf spring 522 and the blade 530) moves as the gate 510 moves, and specifically is configured to move from a retracted position as shown in FIGS. 14, 17, 17A, and 20D to a plurality of different extended positions such as the partially extended position shown in FIGS. 15, 18, and 18A and to a fully extended position shown in FIGS. 16, 19, and 19A. The gate 510 is configured to be opened by an unloader such that pulling the handle portion 512 of the gate (and particularly the handle 513) from the closed position to an open position, causes the blade 530 of the cutting member 534 of the knife 520 to extend through the slot 518 and to engage the bottom of the bag (not shown) in the container 50 which holds the material, and to cut a hole in the bottom of the bag to release the material in the bag. When the gate 510 is in the fully closed position, the cutting member 534 of the blade 530 rests below the guide rail 167 as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 17, and 17A. When the gate 510 is in the fully open position, the cutting member 534 of the blade 530 is adjacent to the front section 212 of the interior bottom wall 210 as shown in FIGS. 19 and 19A. It should further be appreciated that as the gate 510 is moved from the fully open position to the closed position, the knife 520 (including the leaf spring 522 and the blade 530) moves with the gate 510 from the fully extended position to a partially retracted position to a fully retracted position. More specifically, the back edge 538 of the cutting member 534 is configured such that when the back edge 538 of the cutting member 534 contacts the bottom of the guide rail 167, the entire blade 520 and the free end 526 of the leaf spring 522 is forced downwardly against the upward bias of the leaf spring 522 and back into the retracted position as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 17, and 17A. It should also be appreciated that the knife 520 does not interfere with the opening of the gate in the embodiments where a bag is not employed to hold the materials in the container. The material unloading assembly 500 also includes a locking assembly 550 configured to enable a user to lock the gate 510, and specifically the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 to the stopping wall 182 of the pallet 510 to prevent the handle portion 512 and the gate 510 from being accidentally opened at undesired points in time such as: (a) during loading of the container 50; (b) during transit of the container 50; or (c) at any other point in time prior to an unloader opening the gate 510. More specifically, as best seen in FIGS. 10A, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 24, 25, and 26, the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 includes a downwardly extending handle 513 which is configured to be gripped by a user to open and close the gate 510. The downwardly extending handle 513 defines a centrally located opening 514 (as best shown in FIG. 20A). The material unloading assembly 500 also includes a stopping plate 560 attached to the outside surface of the stopping wall 182. The stopping plate 560 includes an opening 561 aligned with the centrally located opening 514 of the handle 513 of the handle portion 512 of the gate 510. The stopping wall 182 also includes a hole which is larger than the hole 561 in the stopping plate 560 and is configured to receive a locking pin 590. More specifically, the material unloading assembly 500 further includes a locking pin 590 configured to be inserted through: (a) the centrally located opening 514 of the handle 513 of the handle portion 512 of the gate 510; (b) the opening 561 in the stopping plate 560; and (c) an opening 183 in the stopping wall 182, when the gate 510 is in the closed position. This locking pin 590 engages the rear surface of the stopping plate 560 to prevent unwanted opening of the gate 510. When the user desires to open the gate 510, the user activates the locking pin 590 and fully or partially removes the locking pin 590 from the stopping wall 182 and the stopping plate 560. It should be appreciated that as shown in the various figures, the locking pin 590 can be left in the handle 513 of the gate 510. It should also be appreciated that the locking pin can be placed in a different hole in the handle of the gate 510. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the material unloading assembly can further include one or more guides for holding the locking pin 590 level or otherwise in position for easy re-insertion when the gate 510 is in a fully open or partially open position. It should be appreciated that the locking pin can be commercially obtained from MCMASTER-CARR, and that any other suitable locking pin may be employed. It should also be appreciated that by pushing the handle back toward the closed position, the chute can be closed or partially closed. It should also be appreciated that placing the handle in a partially open or partially closed positioned enables the user to control the rate of emptying the materials from the container 50. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32, the top compartment 300 is supported by a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d which are each configured to support a different one of the corners of the top compartment 300 and to hold the top compartment 300 in the expanded position. In the illustrated embodiment, each top compartment support assembly 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these support assemblies may be different. Support assembly 400a is discussed herein as an example. Support assembly 400a includes a support pin 410a configured to be inserted through a pin receipt or pin receipt hole 450a (at least shown in FIGS. 8 and-27B) in the corner of the bottom compartment 200 and into a tubular support pin receiver or sleeve 412a of the support assembly 400a which is suitably attached (such as by welding) to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment 200 as best illustrated in FIG. 31. It should be appreciated that the configuration and size of the support pin receiver can vary in accordance with the present disclosure. For example, the support pin receiver can be in the form of a flat plate (not shown) attached to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment. The support assembly 400a further includes a support pin holder 430a and a tether 460a attaching the support pin 420a to the support pin holder 430a. It should be appreciated that the support pin holder 430a and the tether 460a are employed to prevent the support pin 410a from being lost and to hold the support pin 410a out of the way of the bottom compartment 200 when the support pin 410a is not in use, and that in alternative embodiments, the shipping container of the present disclosure does not employ the support pin holders or the tethers. It should also be appreciated that FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 34, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, and 46 either have a line representing the tether or that the tether is removed from these figures for ease of illustration. More specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the support pin holder 430a includes an L-shaped body having a mounting member 432a attached to the corner of the top compartment 300 and a pin holder 434a connected to the mounting member 432a. The pin holder 464a defines a first hole 436a for attachment of the one end of the tether 430a and a second hole 438a for removably holding the support pin 410a when the support pin 410a is not in use. This support pin holder 430a is made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, and welded to the corner of the top compartment 300. It should be appreciated that the pin holder 434a could be made from other suitable materials, could be suitably attached to the top compartment in other suitable manners or locations and could be alternatively configured. In this illustrated embodiment, the pin holder is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of this part by welding and/or suitable fasteners to the top compartment; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the pin holder can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected to the top compartment in other suitable manners The tether 460a includes two end loops 462a and 464a. End loop 462a is attached to the support pin holder 430a and end loop 464b is attached to the support pin 410a. The tether 460a may be any suitable length and made from any suitable material such as steel or a high strength plastic. The support pin 410a in the illustrated embodiment includes a handle 413a, a tubular body 414a attached to the handle 412a, and a locking mechanism 416a extending through the handle 413a and tubular body 414a. The locking mechanism 416a includes a release button 418a in and extending from the handle 413a, an actuation shaft (not shown) connected to the release button 418a, and a plurality of locking balls 422a and 422b extending transversely from the from the tubular body 414a adjacent to the end of the tubular body 414a opposite the handle 413a. The locking mechanism 416a is configured such that the locking balls 422a and 422b are normally biased by a spring (not shown) toward the outwardly extending locked position as shown in FIG. 31, and such that when the release button 418a is pressed, the locking balls 422a and 422b are allowed to recede inwardly into the tubular member 414a and specifically into cavities (not shown) in the actuation shaft 420a to enable the support pin 410a to be removed. The locking balls 422a and 422b are configured to engage the inner surface of the tubular support pin receiver 412a of the support assembly 400a to prevent the support pin 410a in the locked position from being easily removed or removed without actuation of the locking mechanism 416a and specifically the release button 418a. Pins of this type are readily commercially available such as from MCMASTER-CARR. It should be appreciated that other suitable support pins may be employed with the container in accordance with the present disclosure. The container 50 includes an extension assembly 700 which enables a user or loader to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position to enable insertion of these support pins as further described below. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 33, the extension assembly 700 of the container 50 includes a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 702 and 704 and a second set of aligned forklift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 706 and 708. Each of the lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 702, 704, 706, and 708 are identical in this illustrated embodiment, but it should be appreciated that these components can be different. FIG. 33 illustrate example fork lift tine receiving loop or lifting bracket 702, which includes a crossbar 720a, end bars 722a and 724a attached to the opposite ends of the crossbar 720a and mounting bars 726a and 728a respectively attached to the opposite ends of the end bars 722a and 724a. In this embodiment, these loops or lifting brackets are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel and the mounting bars are each suitably welded to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300. The loops or lifting brackets are suitably aligned to form two slots configured to receive forklift forks or tines. These loops enable a loader operating a fork lift to insert the forks of the forklift through the loops and to lift the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. These aligned slots enable a forklift to lift the top compartment of the container from either the front or back. It should be appreciated that the outside surfaces of the container can include suitable markings to indicate to the loader the appropriate expanded position of the top compartment. As mentioned above, in this illustrated embodiment, these loop are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these loops can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. As further described below, when the operator lifts the top compartment upwardly from the retracted position to the expanded position, the locking assemblies described above can then be employed to support and lock the top compartment in the expanded position and to prevent the top compartment from moving back into the retracted position. More specifically, when a user such as a loader of the shipping container 50 desires to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position, the user uses a fork lift or other lifting apparatus to engage the extension assembly 700 to lift the top compartment 300 such that the bottom corners of the top compartment 300 are above the pin receipt holes in the four corners of the bottom compartment 200. The user then sequentially takes each support pin out of the respective pin holder, presses the button on the support pin and inserts the support pin in the respective pin receipt hole. It should be appreciated that this is easily and quickly performed by a single person. Thus, it should be appreciated that: (a) a single loader can move the top compartment into the expanded position by lifting the top compartment (using a fork lift); (b) the single loader can engage the support pins of the top compartment supporting assemblies to lock the top compartment in the expanded position; and (c) that prior to unloading the materials, a single un loader can disengage the support pins from the bottom compartment to un-lock the top compartment from the expanded position and release the top compartment from the expanded position, which enables the top compartment to slowly move to the retracted position as the materials empties from the top and bottom compartments. This also prevents the top compartment from rapidly dropping if the support pins are released when no materials are in the compartments. It should further be appreciated that enabling a single person to perform this operation provide a significant advantage in terms of time and cost over certain prior known bulk material shipping containers. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, 35, 36, and 37, the material loading assembly 600 is generally attached to the top compartment 300 and generally includes: (a) an upwardly extending lip 602 attached to and extending from the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300; (b) a cover 610 configured to securely engage the upwardly extending lip 602 and pivotally attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300 by a plurality of hinges 630, 632, and 634; (c) a lock assembly 650 including a first portion 652 attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300 and a second portion or lid latch 654 pivotally attached to the cover 610; (d) and a gasket (not shown) mounted in the cover 610 to seal out contaminants. The cover 610 defines a channel 612 configured to receive the lip 602. The gasket is mounted in the channel 612 to facilitate the seal between the cover 610 and the lip 602. It should be appreciated that although the illustrated lip 602 is shown in sections with spaces there between, additional material is preferably welded to the illustrated sections of the lip 602 to form a continuous lip. The locking assembly 650 includes a suitable lock (not shown) which is used to lock the cover 610 in the closed position, and specifically to lock the second portion or lid latch 654 attached to the cover to the first portion 652 attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300. It should be appreciated that any suitable lock may be employed and that alternative configurations for the locking assembly may be employed in accordance with the present disclosure. In this illustrated embodiment, these components (except the gasket and the lock) are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. It should further be appreciated that the shape of the cover may vary in accordance with the present disclosure. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, 38, 39, and 40, the container 50 includes a plurality of nesting or stacking or guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d which are configured to facilitate secure stacking of the containers of the present disclosure as well as stacking of other known bulk material containers. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these stacking guides may be different. As generally shown in FIGS. 39 and 40, the stacking guides assist in positioning one container of the present disclosure on top of another container of the present disclosure. More specifically, stacking guide 800a is discussed herein as an example stacking guide. As best shown in FIG. 38, stacking guide 800a include mounting walls 802a and 804a configured to be attached to the corner of the top compartment 300 and guide wall 812a and 814a respectively attached to and extend from the mounting walls 802a and 804a. In this illustrated embodiment, the guide wall 812a and 814a each respectively define bag holding slots 820a and 822a. These slots are configured to receive and hold a top section of a bag during the filling process to secure the bag in the desired position as the loader fills the bag and the container with materials to the desired height (as generally illustrated in FIG. 42 and as further described below). In this illustrated embodiment, the stacking guides are all made of stainless steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts to the top compartment by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these stacking guides can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. It should be appreciated that the container 50 and the nesting or stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d of the container 50 are configured to receive or be stacked with known bulk material containers such as the known bulk material container described in the background section of this document. It should be appreciated that as shown in FIGS. 39 and 40, the container of the present disclosure is configured such that a fork lift can be employed to place one container on top of another container and to lift one container from another container without damaging the material loading assembly attached to the top compartment of the lower container, and without damaging the extension assembly attached to the top compartment of the lower container. Turning now to FIG. 41, the container 50 is illustrated with a bag 850 shown draped over the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 850 during the loading process. It should be appreciated that the center of the bag 852 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should also be appreciated that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIG. 42, the container 50 is illustrated with a bag 850 shown with each end respectively extending through the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 850 during the loading process. Again, in this FIG. 42, the center of the bag 852 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIGS. 43 and 44, one example embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure is generally illustrated and indicated by numeral 1000. The bag holder 1000 is configured to hold a supply roll of bags 900 and to sequentially provide each of the bags from the supply roll 900 for positioning over the shipping container during the material loading processes. The first bag 860 of the supply roll of bags 900 is shown draped over the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 860 during the loading process. The center 862 of the bag 860 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. The bag holder 1000 in this embodiment includes a pallet jack 1010, a bag guide 1020 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010, and a supply roll support holder 1030 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010. The bag guide 1020 is sized and configured to hold a bag over the container 50 during the loading process and to prevent the bag from engaging the various components of the container and thus prevent the bag from catching on or ripping from contact with the components of the container. In FIG. 44, the bag holder 1000 holds the bag 860 over the container 50 with the center of the bag 862 positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated with respect to FIG. 44 that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIGS. 45 and 46, another example embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure is generally illustrated and indicated by numeral 1100. The bag holder 1100 is similar to the bag holder 1000 in that it is configured to hold a bag over the shipping container 50 during the material loading process. However, unlike bag holder 1000, bag holder 1100 is not configured to hold a roll of bags and does not include a supply roll support holder. The bag holder 1100 in this embodiment includes a pallet jack 1010 and a bag guide 1120 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010. The bag guide 1120 is sized and configured to hold a bag over the container 50 during the loading process and to prevent the bag from engaging the various components of the container and thus prevent the bag from catching on or ripping from contact with the components of the container. In FIG. 46, the bag holder 1000 holds the bag 870 over the container 50 with the center of the bag 872 positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated with respect to FIG. 46 that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. It should be appreciated that in both of these bag holder embodiments, the pallet jack 1010 is configured to be positioned underneath the container 50, and specifically that the forks are positioned in the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. It should also be appreciated that the bag holder could alternatively include a fork lift instead of a pallet jack and that in such embodiments, the forks are preferably positioned in the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. It should further be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the bag guides and supply roll support holder can be alternatively supported and positionable. It should be appreciated that the bag guide and supply roll support holder are made from any suitable materials. It should also be appreciated that the present disclosure contemplates alternative embodiments (not shown) where the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a top compartment securely mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment. This embodiment does not include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment (not shown) where the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. It should be appreciated that suitable instructional marking or labels may be placed on or attached to the container of the present disclosure to instruct the users on how to load, unload, move, retract, and/or expand the container. It should also be appreciated that suitable reflective tape strips can be attached to the container. It should further be appreciated that the container of the present disclosure can be suitably coated such as by painting with a clear or colored protective coating. It should be appreciated that such coating may include a UV protective agent. It should also be appreciated that one or more sections of the container may be reinforced with a suitable plating to provide additional protection and strength. It should further be appreciated that the attachment of the various components of the container can be performed in any suitable way such as by welding (including but not limited to laser welding) and by suitable fasteners (such as but not limited to rivets). FIGS. 47 to 96B illustrate another example embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. Similar to the example container 50 described above, this illustrated example shipping container, which is generally indicated by numeral 2050, has an expanded position for holding materials during shipping and a retracted position for efficient shipping when the container 2050 is not holding materials or when the container 2050 is holding a smaller amount of materials. More specifically, FIG. 48 generally illustrates the shipping container 2050 in the retracted or collapsed position, and FIGS. 47, 49, 50, and 51 generally illustrate the shipping container 2050 in the expanded position. In this illustrated embodiment, the shipping container 2050 generally includes: (a) a pallet 2100 which is different than pallet 100 as further described below; (b) a bottom compartment 2200 which is different than bottom compartment 200 as further described below; (c) a top compartment 2300 which is different than top compartment 300 as further described below; (d) a plurality of top compartment support assemblies 2400a, 2400b, 2400c (not shown), and 2400d which are different than top compartment support assemblies 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d as further described below; (e) a material unloading assembly 2500 which is different than material unloading assembly 500 as further described below; (f) a material loading assembly 2600 which is substantially similar to material loading assembly 600 described above; and (g) a top compartment extension assembly 2700 which is substantially similar to top compartment extension assembly 700 described above. It should be appreciated that the following description of the shipping container 2050 will primarily focus on these respective differences. In this illustrated embodiment: (a) the pallet 2100 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 6 inches (15.24 centimeters); (b) the bottom compartment 2200 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters); and (c) the top compartment 2300 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters). In this illustrated embodiment, when the container 2050 is in the retracted position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 35 inches (88.90 centimeters). In this illustrated embodiment, when the container 2050 is in the expanded position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 62 inches (157.48 centimeters). It should be appreciated that this alternative container of the present disclosure can be made in other suitable dimensions. More specifically, turning now to FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 90, 91, 92, and 93, the pallet 2100 of this illustrated embodiment of the container 2050 of the present disclosure includes: (a) a rectangular body 2102 having an upper surface 2104, a lower surface 2106, a front edge 2112, a back edge 2116, and opposite side edges 2114 and 2118; (b) a plurality of legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 attached to and extending downwardly from the body 2102; (c) a footing 2101 attached to and extending downwardly from each of the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128, and having an upper surface 2103, a lower surface 2105, a front edge 2111, a back edge 2115, and opposite side edges 2113 and 2117; (d) a gate head 2150 formed at the front of the body 2102; and (e) a plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d respectively attached to the corners of the upper surface 2104 of the body 2102. As further described below, the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 functions to directly support the bottom compartment 2200 and indirectly the top compartment 2300. In this illustrated embodiment, the body, legs, and footing of the pallet are each formed from multiple pieces of a suitable wood to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; and (b) minimize the overall weight of the pallet and the container. More specifically, in this illustrated embodiment: (a) the rectangular body 2102 is constructed from several individual pieces of wood (such as 2×4s in this example illustrated embodiment); (b) the legs 2121,2122,2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 are each an individual piece of wood (such as 4×45 and 4×6s in this example illustrated embodiment); and (c) the footing 2101 is constructed from several individual pieces of wood (such as 2×2s in this example illustrated embodiment). In this example illustrated embodiment, these individual pieces of wood are suitably attached by fastening mechanisms such as adhesive, nails, and screws. It should be appreciated that these parts may alternatively be formed from more or less pieces, may be formed from other materials, and may be otherwise suitably attached. It should also be appreciated that the pallet may be painted or otherwise protected by other suitable coatings. The gate head 2150 is formed at the front of the body 2102. In this illustrated example embodiment, the front portion of the body 2102 is formed from three pieces of wood including a bottom piece with a cut-out and two spaced-apart top pieces such that the cut-out and the space between the two pieces provide room for the handle of the gate and which limit movement of the gate as further discussed below and as best seen in FIGS. 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 77, 78, and 79. More specifically, the gate head 2150 of the pallet 2100 includes a handle chamber 2180 and a stopping wall 2182 for the handle 2513 of the gate 2510 material unloading assembly 2500. The handle chamber 2180 and the stopping wall 2182 of the pallet 2100 are further discussed below in more detail in conjunction with the discussion of the material unloading assembly 2500. The pallet 2100 further includes or defines: (a) a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 2132a and 2136a, respectively; (b) a second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 2132b and 2136b, respectively; (c) a first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 extending across the pallet 2500 from side to side; and (d) a second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142 extending across the pallet 2500 from side to side. Similar to the pallet 100 described above, the first set of fork lift tine receiving channels 2132a and 2136a and the second set of fork lift tine receiving channels 2132b and 2136b are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels of the pallet 2100 of the container 2050 which is stacked on top of another container, the tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should thus be appreciated that the pallet 2100 is configured to enable a fork lift to move these containers when one container is stacked on another container without damaging the lower container, and particularly the cover or the extension assembly of the lower container. Also, similar to the pallet 100 described above, the first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142 are positioned such that when the forks or tines of a pallet jack are inserted into these channels defined by the pallet 2100 of the container 2050, they can lift and move the container. As mentioned above, a typical pallet jack does not operate like a fork lift so that the pallet jack will only be used when the container is on the floor or ground and not with stacked containers. Therefore, the tines or forks of a pallet jack will not be in a position to engage the material loading assembly or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of a set of stacked containers. It should also be appreciated that this illustrated embodiment does not include any legs between the first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142, but that alternative embodiments could include one or more legs or separators between these two channels. It should further be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment the footing 2101 has a smaller rectangular footprint than the body 2102 and the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 to enable the pallet 2100, and specifically legs 2121, 2124, 2125, and 2128 of the pallet 2100, to sit on another container, and specifically to respectively sit on the nesting supports 2840a, 2842a, 2840b, 2842b, 2840c, 2842c, 2840d, and 2842d of the top compartment 2300 of another container as best illustrated in FIGS. 89, 90, and 91 and as further described in detail below. The plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d are attached to the respective corners of the body 2102 and are each formed from a suitable stainless steel in this illustrated embodiment. It should be appreciated that the compression guards or plates may alternatively be formed from other suitable materials and in other suitable sizes and configurations. The plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d prevent the corners of the bottom compartment 2200 from digging into the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 as best illustrated in FIGS. 92 and 93. It should also be appreciated that this configuration of the pallet enables the pallet (and thus the entire container) to sit on top of known commercially available containers such as the one or more of commercially available Buckhorn containers which are generally described above. The bottom compartment 2200 of this example illustrated embodiment includes: (a) a lower exterior bottom wall or panel 2202 defining a material release opening or chute 2204; (b) an upper interior bottom wall 2210 defined by four attached downwardly angled sections or chute ramps 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218; (c) four wedge shaped interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228; (d) spaced apart first and second or front and back exterior walls 2232 and 2236; and (e) spaced apart third and fourth or left and right exterior side walls 2234 and 2238, as generally illustrated in FIGS. 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59. The four sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 2234 and 2238 define a bottom compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly toward and to the material release opening or chute 2204. In this illustrated embodiment, the lower exterior bottom wall 2202, the upper interior bottom wall 2210, the interior bottom wall supports 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228, the front and back exterior walls 2232 and 2236, and the exterior side walls 2234 and 2238 are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel, and are attached by rivets. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. The exterior bottom wall 2202 of the bottom compartment 2200 is suitably attached to the pallet 2100 of the container 2050 by suitable fasteners as further described below; however, it should be appreciated that the exterior bottom wall can be attached in other suitable manners. More specifically, the lower exterior bottom wall 2202 includes: (a) a rectangular substantially flat base 2206 which defines the centrally located rectangular material release opening or chute 2204; and (b) an upwardly extending lip 2208 extending upwardly from each of outer edges of the base 2206. The material release opening or chute 2204 enables materials in the top and bottom compartments to flow out of bottom compartment 2200 when the chute door or gate 2510 of the material unloading assembly for the opening or chute 2204 is opened as further discussed below. The opening 2204 in this illustrated embodiment is approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) by approximately 11 inches (27.94 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. The opening has four corners which each may have a suitable radius or curve. This size of the opening relative to the size of the bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of unloading of the material from the top and bottom compartments without sacrificing structure or strength of the bottom compartment. The interior bottom wall supports 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 are attached in spaced apart locations to the top of the base 2206 by rivets, although they can also or alternatively be otherwise attached. Each of the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 are of a wedge shape such that they are configured to be engaged by and support a respective one of the downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 2210. The gusset 2222 is wider than the other gussets 2224, 2226, and 2228 in this illustrated embodiment to distribute the weight of the materials supported by gusset 2222 to the pallet 2100 at further spaced apart locations which are not directly over the gate 2510 of the material unloading assembly 2500 (which is further described below). The upper interior bottom wall 2210, and specifically the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 are respectively attached to the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 by rivets, although they can also or alternatively be otherwise attached. The interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222 and 2226 are some what shorter than the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2224 and 2288 to prevent too much weight from being placed on the material unloading assembly 500 and particularly on the gate 2510. The four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 each have a lower edge such that when such sections are attached, such sections form an opening 2211 adjacent to and slightly smaller than but generally substantially aligned with the opening 2204 of the base wall 2206. In particular, the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 extend downwardly slightly further than the material release opening or chute 2204 of the base wall 2206 of the bottom compartment 2200. FIGS. 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, and 73 best illustrate that the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 define a slightly smaller opening than the opening 2204 defined by the base wall 2206. This prevents materials stored in the container from getting trapped or positioned between the upper bottom wall and the lower bottom wall. The upper interior bottom wall 2210, and specifically upper portions of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 are also respectively attached to and supported by the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 of the bottom compartment 2200 is supported at multiple locations including multiple points of support by the various different portions of the pallet 2100. More specifically, the sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 2210 are supported: (a) at their top ends by the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2200; (b) centrally by interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228; (c) by attachment to each other; and (d) overall by the pallet 2100. As seen in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 77, and 90, and as best seen in FIGS. 92 and 93, the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2200 also each includes a skirt that extends downwardly along a respective different side of the pallet 2100. Each skirt includes a plurality of fastener slots or oval screw holes which are configured to facilitate movement of each exterior wall and particularly the skirt relative to the fasteners. More specifically, as seen in FIGS. 92 and 93, suitable fasteners such as screws are used to attach each skirt to the respective side of the pallet 2100 and particularly the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 to support these exterior walls. In FIG. 92, the container 2050 is collapsed and is empty and the skirt is positioned such that the screws are respectively at the bottom of the slots. In FIG. 93, the container 2050 is collapsed and is filled and the skirt has moved downwardly relative to the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 and is positioned such that the screws are at the top of the slots. The skirts of the exterior walls, and thus the entire the exterior walls of the bottom container have moved downwardly relative to the pallet and particularly relative to the body 2102 of the pallet 2100. It should be appreciated that the bottom compartment is thus configured to move relative to the pallet when filled. It should also be appreciated that the slots may be of different sizes such that in these positions, the screws are adjacent to but not at the tops or bottoms of the slots. As generally illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 and as best illustrated in FIGS. 80, 81, 82, 83, 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, each of the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2210 each include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the rectangular panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of an adjacent exterior wall. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall: (a) are preferably connected rivets; (b) add structural rigidity to the bottom compartment; and (c) in conjunction with the top compartment support assemblies (discussed below) provide support for the top compartment when the top compartment is in the expanded position as further described below. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 80, 81, 82, 83, 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, exterior side wall 2232 includes panel 2252 and corner 2262 which includes corner sections 2262a and 2262b, and exterior side wall 2234 includes panel 2254 and corner 2264 which includes corner sections 2264a and 2264b. Corner sections 2264a is mated with and attached to corner section 2262a, and corner section 2264b is mated with and attached to corner section 2262b to form this corner of the bottom compartment 2200. It should be appreciated that each corner of the bottom compartment is preferably configured in a similar manner. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the bottom compartment and to minimize interference with movement of the top compartment 2300 relative to the bottom compartment 2200. These corners and the top compartment support assemblies are further described below. Turning now to FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, and 54, the top compartment 2300 of the container 2050 includes an exterior top wall 2302, spaced apart exterior front and back side walls 2312 and 2316, spaced apart exterior side walls 2316 and 2318, and exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 respectively attached to the exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318. In this illustrated embodiment, the exterior top wall 2302, exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318, and exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 are also all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel. The upper interior base wall 2306 is suitably attached to the upper portions of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 by rivets. The exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 are respectively attached to the exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 by rivets. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected in any suitable manner. The upper interior base wall 2306 and the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 define a top compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly to the bottom compartment material holding area or cavity. As with container 50, the exterior top wall 2302 of container 2050 includes a rectangular substantially flat base which defines the centrally located rectangular material receipt or loading opening or chute (not shown in FIGS. 47 to 96B). This material receipt or loading opening or chute enables materials to flow into the top and bottom compartments when the cover of the material loading assembly is opened. The opening in this embodiment is 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) by 18 inches (45.72 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. As best illustrated in FIGS. 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, similar to the configuration of the bottom compartment, each of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 of the top compartment 2300 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of the adjacent exterior wall similar to the bottom compartment. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall of the top compartment are preferably connected by welding and add structural rigidity to the top compartment. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, exterior side wall 2312 includes panel 2352 and corner 2362 which includes corner sections 2362a and 2362b, and exterior side wall 2314 includes panel 2354 and corner 2364 which includes corner sections 2364a and 2364b. Corner sections 2364a is mated with and attached to corner section 2362a, and corner section 2364b is mated with and attached to corner section 2362b to form this corner of the top compartment 2300. It should be appreciated that each corner of the top compartment is preferably configured in a similar manner. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 of the bottom compartment 2210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the top compartment 2300. FIGS. 95A and 96A illustrate the position of these walls and corners of the top and bottom compartments when the container is empty and the container is in the expanded position. It should be appreciated that the exact amount of the space between the corners of the top and bottom compartments can vary in accordance with the present disclosure and in accordance with manufacturing tolerances. The figures illustrate that when the container 2050 is empty, the corner of the top compartment can relatively easily move vertically relative to the corner of the bottom compartment. FIGS. 95B and 96B illustrate the position of these walls and corners of the top and bottom compartments when the container is full and the container is in the expanded position. These figures illustrate that when the container 2050 is full, the wall panels of the top and bottom compartment are configured to bow outwardly as very generally illustrated in FIG. 94 and that an engagement is created or formed between the sections of the corners of the top and bottom compartments as generally illustrated in FIGS. 95B and 96B. This engagement of the corners causes the corners of the top compartment to engage and grip the corners of the bottom compartment, which holds the relative position of the top compartment to the bottom compartment (in addition to the support provided by the top compartment support assemblies as further discussed below.) It should also be appreciated that this top corner to bottom corner engagement may happen at one corner, more than one corner, or all of the corners of the container. It should also be appreciated that this corner engagement may occur in the embodiment of FIGS. 1 to 46 described above. Turing now to FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, and 79, the material unloading assembly 2500 of the container 2050 is supported by the bottom wall 2206 of the bottom compartment 2200 adjacent to the opening or chute 2204 in the bottom compartment 2200 and above the opening 2170 in the pallet 2100. The material unloading assembly 2500 generally includes a chute door or gate 2510 slidably positioned on the guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169. In this illustrated embodiment, the gate 2510 and the guide rails are 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the gate and the guide rails can be made from other suitable materials. The guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 are each respectively attached to the bottom exterior surface of the bottom wall 2206. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 60, 61, 65, 66, and 67 illustrate these guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 detached from or without the exterior bottom wall 2206 to show how they are positioned with respect to the pallet 2100 and the opening 2170 defined by the pallet 2100. The guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169, support and guide the movement of closure portion 2516 and the handle portion 2512 of the chute door or gate 2510. The gate 2510 slides or moves above and on these guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169, and these guide rails prevent the downward movement of the chute door or gate when the container is full and also prevent loose materials being held in the top and bottom compartments from accumulating on or adjacent to the chute door or gate. The guide rails 2165 and 2169 include stops or stopping members which prevent the gate from moving outwardly too far and are generally illustrated in FIGS. 65, 66, and 67. The gate 2510 includes a handle member or portion 2512 and a closure member or portion 2516 extending from the handle member or portion 2512 as best illustrated in FIGS. 74, 75, and 76. The gate 2510 is movable or slidable from a closed position as shown in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 68, and 69, to a plurality of different partially open positions (such as the partially open position shown in FIGS. 66, 70, and 71), and then to a fully open position shown in FIGS. 67, 72, and 73. It should be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment, the gate does not rest on the pallet, but that in other embodiments, the gate or portions of the gate may rest on portions of the pallet. It should also be appreciated that the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 also defines a plurality of stopping walls (as best seen in FIGS. 65, 66 and 67) that would prevent the gate 2510 from moving too far outwardly and which also secondarily keep the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 relatively close to the pallet 2100. It should further be appreciated that the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 also provides a stopping walls 2182 that prevents the gate 2510 from moving too far inwardly. It should be appreciated that this illustrated example embodiment of the material unloading assembly 2500 does not include a knife as in the embodiments described above. However, it should be appreciated that an alternative of this embodiment could alternatively include one or more knives. The material unloading assembly 2500 also includes a locking assembly 2550 configured to enable a user to lock the gate 2510, and specifically the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 to the stopping wall 2182 of the pallet 2510 to prevent the handle portion 2512 and the gate 2510 from being accidentally opened at undesired points in time such as: (a) during loading of the container 2050; (b) during transit of the container 2050; or (c) at any other point in time prior to an unloader opening the gate 2510. More specifically, as seen in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 76, 77, 78 and 79, the 60 handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 includes a downwardly extending handle 2513 which is configured to be gripped by a user to open and close the gate 2510. The downwardly extending handle 2513 defines a locking pin slot or opening 2514 (best seen in FIGS. 59, 67, and 77) configured such the locking pin 2590 can extend through the locking pin opening or slot 2514. The material unloading assembly 2500 also includes a stopping bracket 2560 attached to the bottom surface of the stopping wall 2182 as best seen in FIGS. 68, 70 and 72. The stopping bracket 2560 includes an opening aligned with the opening 2514 of the handle 2513 of the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510. More specifically, the material unloading assembly 2500 further includes a locking pin 2590 configured to be inserted through: (a) the locking pin slot or opening 2514 of the handle 2513 of the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510; and (b) the opening in the stopping bracket 2560 when the gate 2510 is in the closed position. This locking pin 2590 engages the stopping bracket 2560 to prevent unwanted opening of the gate 2510. When the user desires to open the gate 2510, the user activates the locking pin 590 and removes the locking pin 2590 from the stopping bracket 2560. It should be appreciated that although not shown, the locking pin 2590 can be tethered to the handle 2513 of the gate 2510 by a suitable tether (not shown). It should also be appreciated that the locking pin can be placed in a different hole in the handle of the gate 2510. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the material unloading assembly can further include one or more guides for holding the locking pin 2590 level or otherwise in position for easy re-insertion when the gate 2510 is in a fully open or partially open position. It should be appreciated that the locking pin can be any suitable locking pin. It should also be appreciated, that although not shown a suitable tether can be employed to maintain the locking pin attached to the gate or container. It should also be appreciated that by pushing the handle back toward the closed position, the chute can be closed or partially closed. It should also be appreciated that placing the handle in a partially open or partially closed positioned enables the user to control the rate of emptying the materials from the container 2050. It should also be appreciated that the pallet or bottom container can include a loop or hole that corresponds to a hole in the handle 2513 for receiving a tamper identification seal or lock. As mentioned above, the top compartment 2300 is supported by a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies 2400a, 2400b, 2400c (not shown), and 2400d which are each configured to support a different one of the corners of the top compartment 2300 and to hold the top compartment 2300 in the expanded position as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 49, 50, 51, 83, 84, 85, 86, and 84. In the illustrated embodiment, each top compartment support assembly 2400a, 2400b, 2400c, and 2400d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these support assemblies may be different. Support assembly 2400a is discussed herein as an example. Support assembly 2400a includes a support pin 2410a configured to be inserted through a pin receipt or pin receipt hole (not shown) in the respective corner of the bottom compartment 2200 and into a tubular support pin receiver or sleeve 2412a of the support assembly 2400a which is attached to a support bracket 2413a which is suitably attached (such as by welding) to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment 2200 as best illustrated in FIG. 85. The illustrated support pin 2410a includes a head, a collar attached to the head and a body extending from the collar, and a locking mechanism with a push button disposed in the head. The bottom edges of the corners of the top compartment are configured to rest on the bodies of these support pins. However, it should be appreciated that other support pins may be employed in accordance with the present disclosure. The support assembly 2400a further includes a combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a and a tether 2460a (shown in FIG. 94) attaching the pin 2420a to the combined support bracket and holder 2430a. It should be appreciated that the combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a and the tether 2460a are partially employed to prevent the support pin 2410a from being lost and to hold the support pin 2410a out of the way of the bottom compartment 2200 when the support pin 2410a is not in use. More specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a is substantially more robust than the support pin holder 430a of container 50 described above. Combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a includes two mounting members 2432a and 2433a suitably attached to the corner of the top compartment 2300 and a pin holder 2434a connected to the mounting members 2432a and 2433a. The pin holder 2434a defines a first hole for attachment of the one end of the tether and a second hole for removably holding the support pin when the support pin is not in use. The combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a is made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, and riveted to the corner of the top compartment 2300. It should be appreciated that the combined support bracket and holder could be made from other suitable materials, could be suitably attached to the top compartment in other suitable manners and could be alternatively configured. It should also be appreciated that each combined support bracket and pin holder is configured to provide additional support for the top compartment when the top compartment rest on the support pins. Similar to tether 460a described above, tether 2460a includes one end loop is attached to the combined support bracket and holder 2430a and another end loop is attached to the support pin. Each tether may be any suitable length and made from any suitable material such as steel or a high strength plastic. The support pin 2410a in the illustrated embodiment is similar to the pin described above. It should be appreciated that other suitable support pins may be employed with the container in accordance with the present disclosure. As mentioned above, the container 2050 includes an extension assembly 2700 which enables a user or loader to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position to enable insertion of the support pins. The extension assembly 2700 of the container 2050 is identical to the extension assembly 700 of the container 50, and thus will only generally be described. Generally, as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 52, and 54, the extension assembly 2700 includes a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2702 and 2704 and a second set of aligned forklift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2706 and 2708. Each of the lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2702, 2704, 2706, and 2708 are identical in this illustrated embodiment, but it should be appreciated that these components can be different. In this embodiment, these loops or lifting brackets are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel and the mounting bars are each suitably riveted to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300. The loops or lifting brackets are suitably aligned to form two slots configured to receive forklift forks or tines. It should be appreciated that these brackets can be made of other suitable materials and attached in other suitable manners. The material loading assembly 2600 is similar to the material loading assembly 600 of container 50 and thus will only be generally described. FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, and 54, generally illustrate that the material loading assembly 2600 is attached to the top compartment 2300 and generally includes: (a) an upwardly extending lip (not shown) attached to and extending from the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300; (b) a cover 2610 configured to securely engage the upwardly extending lip and pivotally attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300 by hinge 2630; (c) a lock assembly 2650 including a first portion attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300 and a second portion or lid latch pivotally attached to the cover 2610; (d) and a gasket (not shown) mounted in the cover 2610 to seal out contaminants. The locking assembly 2650 includes a suitable lock (not shown) which is used to lock the cover 2610 in the closed position, and specifically to lock the second portion or lid latch attached to the cover to the first portion attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300. As mentioned above, the container 2050 and specifically the top compartment 2300 includes a plurality of nesting or stacking or guides 2800a, 2800b, 2800c, and 2800d which are configured to facilitate secure stacking of the containers of the present disclosure as well as stacking of other known bulk material containers as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 88, 89, 90, and 91. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the stacking guides 2800a, 2800b, 2800c, and 2800d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these stacking guides may be different. More specifically, stacking guide 2800a is discussed herein as an example stacking guide. As best shown in FIG. 88, stacking guide 2800a includes mounting walls 2802a and 2804a configured to be attached to the corner of the top compartment 2300 and guide wall 2812a and 2814a respectively attached to and extend from the mounting walls 2802a and 2804a. In this illustrated embodiment, the guide wall 2812a and 2814a each respectively define openings 2820a and 2822a. As generally shown in FIGS. 90 and 91, the stacking guides assist in positioning one container of the present disclosure on top of another container of the present disclosure. FIG. 89 illustrates one corner of the top compartment 2300 of the container 2050 with a nesting guide 2800a and two nesting supports 2840a and 2842a adjacent to and attached to the nesting guide 2800a. In this illustrated example, the nesting supports 2840a and 2842a are each made from a steel tubular material and are attached by rivets to the nesting guide 2800a. It should be appreciated that the nesting supports can be made from other suitably strong materials and can be attached to the nesting guide in other suitable manners such as by welding. When a second container sits on a first container as generally illustrated in FIGS. 90 and 91, the pallet of the second or top container rests on the nesting supports 2840a and 2842a of the first or bottom container which are configured to support the pallet and specifically the legs of the pallet of the second container. The nesting supports direct the weight of the second or top container that sits on those nesting supports to the corners of the first or bottom container rather than the entire side walls or edges of the first or bottom container. This prevents the weight of the second or top container from damaging the walls of the top compartment of the first or bottom container and provides for a better nesting of compatible containers. FIG. 91 shows the leg 2124 of the pallet 2100 sitting on the nesting supports 2842a and 2840a adjacent to the nesting guide 2800a. FIG. 91 also shows a small gap under the footing 2101 attached to the bottom of the legs of the pallet 2100 and that the footing does not rest on the nesting supports and does not rest on the top wall of the top compartment. This configuration prevents too much weight from the second or top pallet from being placed on the top wall of the top compartment of the first or bottom pallet. This example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive and hold a large plastic bag or a sleeve which holds the materials in the interior areas defined by bottom and top compartments. In one embodiment, the same bag as the bag described above can be employed. When a bag is employed with this container 2050, it is expected that a knife will also be employed in the material unloading assembly. In other embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed as generally illustrated in FIG. 87. In one such embodiment, the sleeve includes four connected walls where each wall is approximately 45 inches (114.30 centimeters) by approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters). In one embodiment, the sleeve has no bottom or top walls. In one embodiment, the sleeve: (a) is FDA compliant; (b) has an approximately 2 millimeter thickness; (e) is opaque or gray; and (f) is made from a low density recyclable polyethylene plastic. In one alternative embodiment, the sleeve is also or alternatively bio-degradable. It should be appreciated that in various embodiments the sleeve will be appropriately folded so that the sleeve can be unfolded and positioned in the top and bottom compartments of the container. FIG. 87 shows the top compartment 2300 removed from the bottom compartment and the generally rectangular sleeve 2900 extending downwardly from the top compartment 2300. This sleeve 2900 includes double-sided tape (not shown) on the outside walls of its top end for attachment of the sleeve to the inner surfaces of the walls of the top compartment. In practice, to install a sleeve, an operator would: (a) remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment; (b) clean the interior walls of both top and bottom compartments if necessary; (c) unfold the sleeve, and attach the sleeve to the inner wall surfaces of the top compartment; (d) move the top compartment with the sleeve hanging down over the bottom compartment; and (e) lower the sleeve into the bottom compartment and reconnect the top compartment to the bottom compartment such the sleeve is in the bottom and top compartments. In another embodiment (not shown), the bulk material shipping container is similar to container 2050 but is not expandable or retractable. This example shipping container includes: (a) a pallet similar to pallet 2100; (b) a single compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and similar to material unloading assembly 2500; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the top of the compartment similar to material loading assembly 2600. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag, with a sleeve, or without a bag or sleeve. In another embodiment partially shown in FIG. 97, the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable and does not include a top wall. In this embodiment, the shipping container 3050 includes: (a) a pallet (not shown) similar to pallet 2100; (b) a single compartment 3300 mounted on the pallet; and (c) a material unloading assembly (not shown) supported by the bottom compartment and similar to material loading assembly 2500. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag, with a sleeve, or without a bag or a sleeve. Additionally, in this illustrated embodiment, the compartment is formed without a top wall. End caps or channels 3352, 3354, 3356, and 3358 are respectively positioned over the top edges of the side walls 3312, 3314, 3316, and 3318 to protect and strengthen the top edges of the compartment. The nesting guides 3800a (not shown), 3800b, 3800c, and 3800d are configured to provide additional engagements with the corners of the top of the compartment to sufficiently support the nesting supports. In this embodiment, multiple containers with open top ends can be stacked on each other and unloaded together when the material unloading assemblies are all opened with the containers stacked on each other. It should be appreciated that the present disclosure contemplates the elimination or reduction of sharp edges in the compartment and that any sharp edges can be curved or formed with a suitable radius. It should be understood that modifications and variations may be effected without departing from the scope of the novel concepts of the present disclosure, and it should be understood that this application is to be limited only by the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Various bulk material shipping containers are known. Such known material bulk shipping containers, sometimes referred to herein for brevity as known containers or as known bulk containers, are used to transport a wide range of products, parts, components, items, and materials such as, but not limited to, seeds, shavings, fasteners, and granular materials. These are sometimes called loose materials. There are various disadvantages with such known bulk material shipping containers. For example, one known and widely commercially used known bulk container for shipping materials (such as shipping seeds to farms) is sold by Buckhorn Industries. This known bulk container is made from plastic, weighs about 338 pounds (151.9 kilograms), and holds a maximum of 58.3 cubic feet of material. This known container has a bottom section, a top section, and a cover. To use this known container, loaders at a bulk material supplier must remove the cover, remove the top section from the bottom section, flip the top section upside down, place the flipped top section on the bottom section, fill the container, and then place the cover on the flipped top section. This process requires at least two people and a relatively significant amount of time when filling a large quantity of these containers. In certain instances, specifically configured forklift attachments are required to fill and handle this known container. After this known container is shipped to its ultimate destination (such as a farm), the bulk material (such as seed) is unloaded from the container, and the empty container must be shipped back to the material supplier. However, prior to and for shipping back to the supplier, the cover is removed, the flipped top section is removed from the bottom section, the flipped top section is then flipped back over and placed on the bottom section, and the cover is then placed on the top section and fastened with zip ties. This process also requires at least two people and is relatively time consuming especially for a large quantity of such containers. Another disadvantage of this known container is that this container is made from plastic and if one of the three sections (i.e., the bottom, the top, or the cover) is damaged or cracked, that entire section typically must be replaced (instead of being repaired). This adds additional cost, time out of service for the damaged container, and additional material and energy waste. Another disadvantage of this known container is that when disassembled (for shipping empty), only two of these containers can be stacked on top of each other and still fit in a conventional shipping container or truck. This tends to leave wasted space in such shipping containers and trucks, and thus increases the overall cost of shipping (including related fuel costs) and energy waste. Additional disadvantages of this known container are that: (a) the cover can be easily lost or misplaced; (b) the cover can be easily damaged; (c) this known container is less weather resistant because the cover is readily removable and only attached by zip ties; (d) the insides and outside surfaces are difficult to clean; and (e) a material holding bag is not readily usable with this container, such that this container cannot be used for certain types of loose materials. For purposes of brevity, (a) the people who assemble and/or put a container in the position for receiving materials for transport and who load the material in a container are sometimes referred to herein as the “loaders,” and (b) the people who remove the materials from a container and who disassemble and/or put a container in the position for sending back to the supplier are sometimes referred to herein as the “unloaders.” Accordingly, there is a need for better bulk material shipping containers which overcome these disadvantages. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a bulk material shipping container which overcomes the above described disadvantages with previously known commercially available bulk shipping containers. One embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment and movable from a retracted position relative to the bottom compartment (for efficient shipping when not holding materials or holding a relatively small amount of materials) to an expanded position relative to the bottom compartment (for holding extra materials during shipping); (d) a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; (f) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment; and (g) an extension assembly attached to the top compartment which enables a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. The shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive a suitable plastic bag which holds the materials in the container. It should thus be appreciated that the expandable and retractable bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. It should also be appreciated that when a plastic bag is used to hold the materials in the container, the material unloading assembly includes a knife which cuts the bottom of the bag open for unloading of the materials. The bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is sometimes referred herein for brevity as the container or as the shipping container. One embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is primarily made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, except for the pallet which is made from wood. If one of the sections of this embodiment of the container is damaged or cracked, that section can typically be repaired which reduces: (a) cost; (b) time out of service for the container; and (c) additional material and/or energy waste. In alternative embodiments, the pallet of the bulk material shipping container, or certain parts thereof, can be made from a suitably strong plastic material such as a composite material or a fiber glass material. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure can also be stacked three high (when empty) for shipping in conventional transport containers or trucks. This reduces wasted space in such transport containers and trucks and decreases shipping cost and fuel consumption, and thus energy waste. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure holds 72 cubic feet of material and up to about 3125 pounds (1417.5 kilograms). This embodiment of the shipping container has several advantages over the above described known bulk container. Specifically, this embodiment of the bulk container is approximately 65 pounds (29.49 kilograms) lighter, holds approximately 14 cubic feet of additional materials which is approximately 25% more material (such as seeds), is readily repairable, can be stacked three high for more efficient transport to the supplier, and can be moved from the transport or retracted position to the loading or expanded position by one person. To load the presently disclosed container, the loaders do not need to remove a cover, remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment, flip the top compartment over, place the flipped top compartment on the bottom compartment, or place any cover on the flipped top compartment. Additionally, the unloaders do not need to remove the cover, remove the flipped top compartment, flip the top compartment, place the top compartment on the bottom compartment, and then place the cover on the top compartment for returning the empty container. In another embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment, and thus this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the single compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the single compartment. In this embodiment, since there is a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to a top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed in the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, the pallet supports the compartments, but does not directly support the material unloading assembly. In further embodiments, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is configured without the top wall to provide an open top end. It is therefore an advantage of the present disclosure to provide a new and improved bulk material shipping container. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments and the figures. | B65D1906 | 20170627 | 20171024 | 20171012 | 58071.0 | B65D1906 | 1 | ORTIZ, RAFAEL ALFREDO | BULK MATERIAL SHIPPING CONTAINER | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B65D | 2,017 |
15,634,424 | PENDING | DISC FOR A SEPARATING CONVEYOR SCREEN AND SEPARATING CONVEYOR SCREEN INCLUDING SUCH A DISC | A disc for a separating conveyor screen has a disc body with an opening in an axial direction for receiving a shaft. At least one anchoring member of the disc has an anchoring portion projecting into the opening in a radially inward direction and has a positioning portion fitted in a disc body of the disc. The anchoring portion has at least one projection in circumferential sense of the opening for anchoring in at least one recess in an outside surface of the shaft. At least one tensioner is provided for tensioning the anchoring member and the disc body radially towards each other. A separating conveyor screen equipped with such discs is also described. | 1. A disc for a separating conveyor screen, the disc having: a disc body with a releasable part and with an opening in an axial direction for receiving a shaft carrying the disc, the releasable part being displaceable when in released condition between a displaced position leaving open a radial passage for passing the shaft radially into and out of the opening and a mounted position for enclosing the shaft in the opening; at least one anchoring member arranged for fixation in a recess in an outside surface of the shaft; and at least one tensioner for tensioning said disc body and said anchoring member radially towards each other. 2. A disc according to claim 1, wherein said anchoring member has an anchoring portion projecting into said opening in a radially inward direction and a positioning portion fitted in said disc body, said anchoring portion having at least one projection in circumferential sense of said opening for anchoring in at least one undercut in a side wall of at least one slot forming the recess. 3. A disc according to claim 1, wherein a passage extends radially through the anchoring member and wherein the tensioning member extends through said passage and is arranged for exerting a tensioning force via a free end projecting radially inwardly of said anchoring member. 4. A disc according to claim 3, wherein said passage is a threaded bore and wherein the tensioning member is a bolt having a threaded stem in threaded engagement with the threaded bore. 5. A disc according to claim 4, wherein the bolt has a head, at least partially located in a recess in an outer circumferential surface of the disc body. 6. A disc according to claim 3, wherein the tensioning member and the disc body are arranged for pressing the disc body radially inwardly towards the anchoring member when the tensioning member is tensioned. 7. A disc according to claim 4, wherein the tensioning member and the disc body are arranged for pressing the disc body radially inwardly towards the anchoring member when the tensioning member is tensioned and wherein the tensioning member has a flange for pressing against an outwardly facing shoulder of the disc body. 8. A disc according to claim 1, wherein the anchoring portion is dovetail shaped. 9. A disc according to claim 1, wherein the anchoring member and the tensioning member are of metal material and the disc body is of polymer material. 10. A disc according to claim 1, wherein the anchoring member has a size in axial direction of the opening which is equal to the size of an adjacent portion of the disc body in said axial direction. 11. A disc according to claim 1, comprising at least two of said anchoring members, distributed in circumferential sense around said opening. 12. A disc according to claim 1, wherein the releasable part is one of at least two mutually identical disc body parts clamped to each other, each of said disc body parts being provided with an anchoring member. 13. A separating conveyor screen for sorting a material composed of large numbers of loose items or particles, into a first fraction having a first distribution of a property of the particles or items and a second fraction having a second distribution of said property of the particles or items, said first distribution being different from said second distribution, the conveyor screen comprising a row of shafts mutually spaced in a conveying direction, each of said shafts being rotatable about an axial center line thereof, extending transversely to said conveying direction, and carrying a row of radially projecting discs for intermittently urging material on the sorting conveyor upward and in the conveying direction, the discs of each of said rows being mutually spaced in longitudinal direction of the respective shaft, wherein the discs of at least one of said rows are releasably clamped to the respective one of said shafts extending through openings in said discs, for allowing readjustment of the mutual spacing of said discs in longitudinal direction along said shaft when in released condition, wherein the at least one shaft to which the discs of said at least one row are clamped has at least one recess in its outside surface; and wherein said releasably clamped discs each have at least one anchoring member for anchoring in said at least one recess and at least one tensioner for tensioning said disc body and said anchoring member radially towards each other. 14. A conveyor according to claim 13, wherein the at least one recess is a slot extending in longitudinal direction of said shaft, wherein side walls of said slot have at least one undercut, said anchoring member has an anchoring portion projecting into said opening in a radially inward direction and a positioning portion fitted in said disc body, said anchoring portion having at least one projection in circumferential sense of said opening anchoring in at least one undercut in a side wall of said slot. | FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a disc for a separating conveyor screen and to a separating conveyor screen. Separating conveyor screens or sorting conveyor screens are used for separating materials composed of large numbers of particles or items into fractions with different distributions of a property. The item property on which separation is based may for instance be size of the particles or items, such as in separating mud from potatoes, separating larger stones from smaller stones, sand and clay or separating larger fruit from smaller fruit. The separation may also be based on other properties, such as separating on the basis of stiffness of the items, such as in separating waste paper from waste cardboard to avoid inclusion of substantial amounts of waste cardboard in raw material from which paper is to be made, which would result in relatively grey or brown paper. In such a separating conveyor, a screen is formed by a row of rotatable, driven shaft assemblies mutually spaced in a conveying direction and each extending transversely to the conveying direction. The shafts of each of the shaft assemblies each carry a row of radially extending discs for intermittently urging material on the separating conveyor screen upward and in the conveying direction. The discs of each of the rows are mutually spaced in longitudinal direction of the respective shaft. In particular for sorting on the basis of deformability or for removing adhering material from larger items, rotary contours of discs carried by each of the shafts may project between rotary contours of the discs carried by a neighboring one of the shafts. In particular for accurate separation by size of generally ball, cube or similarly shaped items with no predominant length and/or width, discs of successive shafts may be positioned mutually in-line in transport direction, leaving open passages for material to fall through that precisely match the maximum dimensions of items that are to fall through the passages. In operation, a material to be separated is fed to the upstream end of the separating conveyor. Rotary motion of the discs intermittently urges the material on the conveyor upward and forward in conveying direction. Thus, the material on the conveyor is simultaneously shaken and transported along the conveyor. The smaller and/or more easily deformable parts of the material tend to fall through openings between the shafts and the discs. Since for instance paper in a mixture of paper and cardboard is typically of a smaller size and more flexible than cardboard, paper on the conveyor tends to fall through interspaces between the shafts and the discs, while cardboard tends to remain on top of the conveyor. Thus, a first separated material predominantly consisting of cardboard can be collected at the downstream end of the conveyor or succession of conveyors, and a second separated material predominantly consisting of paper can be collected from under the conveyor. A disc and a separating conveyor screen of the initially-identified type for sorting waste paper from waste cardboard are described in applicant's European patent 0 773 070. In this separating conveyor screen, the mutual spacing between the discs of at least one of the rows in longitudinal direction of the respective shaft is easily adjustable, because the discs are releasably clamped onto the shafts. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to allow the positions of the discs to be fixed and released more quickly and to allow the discs to be fixed more reliably. According to the invention, this object is achieved by providing a disc for a separating conveyor screen, which disc has a disc body, at least one anchoring member and at least one tensioner. The disc body has a releasable part and an opening in an axial direction for receiving a shaft carrying the disc. The releasable part is displaceable when in released condition between a displaced position leaving open a radial passage for passing the shaft radially into and out of the opening and a mounted position for enclosing the shaft in the opening. The at least one anchoring member is arranged for fixation in a recess in an outside surface of the shaft. The at least one tensioner is for tensioning the disc body and the anchoring member radially towards each other. The invention can also be embodied in a separating conveyor screen for sorting a material composed of large numbers of loose items or particles, into a first fraction having a first distribution of a property of the particles or items and a second fraction having a second distribution of the property of the particles or items, the first distribution being different from the second distribution. The conveyor screen comprises a row of shafts mutually spaced in a conveying direction, each of the shafts being rotatable about an axial center line thereof, extending transversely to the conveying direction, and carrying a row of radially projecting discs for intermittently urging material on the sorting conveyor upward and in the conveying direction, the discs of each of the rows being mutually spaced in longitudinal direction of the respective shaft. The discs of at least one of the rows are releasably clamped to the respective one of the shafts extending through openings in the discs, for allowing readjustment of the mutual spacing of the discs in longitudinal direction along the shaft when in released condition. The at least one shaft to which the discs of the at least one row are clamped has at least one recess in its outside surface. The releasably clamped discs each have at least one anchoring member for anchoring in the at least one recess and at least one tensioner for tensioning the disc body and the anchoring member radially towards each other. Because the releasably clamped discs each have at least one anchoring member for anchoring in a recess in the shaft and at least one tensioner for tensioning the disc body and the anchoring member radially towards each other, the discs can be reliably fixed in axial direction without clamping via the disc body so that the clamping force required for keeping the disc axially positioned on the shaft does not have to be transferred through a large portion of the disc body. This allows the disc body to be of a relatively light design and of a soft material. Particular elaborations and embodiments of the invention are set forth in the dependent claims. Further features, effects and details of the invention appear from the detailed description and the drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic side view of an example of a separating conveyor system according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a schematic top plan view of a series of shaft assemblies of a conveyor screen of the separating conveyor system according to FIG. 1; FIG. 3 is a side view in cross-section along the line III-III in FIG. 2; FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a cut-off portion of a shaft assembly of a separating conveyor according to FIGS. 1-3; FIG. 5 is a view of the shaft assembly portion shown in FIG. 4; FIG. 6 is a longitudinal cross-sectional view of the shaft assembly portion according to FIGS. 3 and 4; and FIG. 7 is a view in cross-section along a plane through a disc of the shaft assembly portion shown in FIGS. 4-6. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In FIG. 1, an example of a separating conveyor system is shown of which a separating portion is composed of two separating conveyor screens 1, 2 according to the invention. The conveyor screens 1, 2 are arranged in series. Depending on separating requirements and properties of the materials to be separated, a single separating screen or three or more separating screens arranged in series may also be provided. The upstream one 1 of the conveyors screens has a downstream end positioned above the upstream end of the downstream one 2 of the conveyor screens, so that material which has been passed over the upstream conveyor 1 is dropped onto the downstream conveyor 2. The system further includes a feeding conveyor 3 and discharge conveyors 4, 5 and 6. The conveyor screens 1, 2 are each provided with a row of rotatable, driven shaft assemblies 7 (see also FIGS. 2 and 3, in FIG. 2 not all shaft assemblies are designated by reference numerals). The shaft assemblies 7 are arranged in positions with center lines of the shaft assemblies 7 mutually spaced in a conveying direction (arrow 8) and each extend perpendicularly to the conveying direction. The shaft assemblies 7 each have a shaft 17 carrying a row of radially extending discs 9 (in FIG. 2, not all discs are designated by reference numerals) for intermittently urging material on the conveyor screen upwards and in the conveying direction 8. The discs 9 of each of the shaft assemblies 7 are mutually spaced in the longitudinal direction of the respective shaft 17. In this example, rotary contours 10 of discs 9 (as defined by the disc portions at the largest radial distance from the shaft center line) carried by each of the shafts 17 project between rotary contours 10′ of the discs 9 carried by a neighboring one of the shafts 17. Depending on the basis for separation and the nature of the materials to be separated, other disc configurations may be provided, such as discs of successive shafts mutually in line in transport direction or discs of successive shafts mutually staggered, but with rotary contours not projecting between rotary contours of discs of neighboring shafts. In this example, the conveyors 1, 2 are further each provided with a motor-transmission unit 12 (FIG. 1) and transmission systems for driving the shaft assemblies 7. The transmission systems each include sprocket wheels 13 (not all sprocket wheels 13 are designated by reference numerals) rotationally fixed relative to the shaft assemblies 7, for transmitting driving forces exerted by the respective motor 12. The sprocket wheels 13 are engaged by a chain 14 which passes over the sprocket wheels 13, over divert wheels 15 (not all divert wheels 15 are designated by reference numerals) and over tensioning wheels 16. The tensioning wheels 16 are rotatably suspended from a tensioning structure which is adapted for resiliently exerting a tensioning force in a direction indicated by arrows 18. In operation, material to be separated is fed along the feeding conveyor 3. From there, the material is deposited onto the upstream separating conveyor 1. The upstream separating conveyor 1 transports the material in conveying direction 8 through rotation of the discs 9 in conveying direction 8. Since the discs include radially projecting portions 11, the material on the conveyor 1 is simultaneously intermittently urged upwards and thereby agitated, which increases the likelihood that items sufficiently small and/or flexible to pass through open spaces in the conveyor 1 will eventually drop through the conveyor 1. Material that has not dropped through the conveyor 1 and has reached the downstream end of the conveyor 1 is dropped onto the downstream separating conveyor 2, where the same separating treatment is repeated, optionally at a different separation setting, so that a further, fraction of the material with different properties than the fraction that is first separated is separated. Material that has dropped through the conveyors 1, 2 is carried off along discharge conveyors 4, 5. Material that has also passed the downstream conveyor 2 without dropping through is dropped onto a third discharge conveyor 6 and carried off to another location. The mutual spacing of the discs 9 of each shaft assembly 7 in the longitudinal direction of that shaft assembly 7 is adjustable. In this example, each of the separating conveyors 1, 2 is constituted by an upstream section 29 and a downstream section 30. The mutual spacings between the shafts 17 in the upstream sections 29 and between the shafts 17 in the downstream sections 30 are independently adjustable. The upstream and downstream sections 29, 30 of each of the separating conveyors 1, 2 are driven by separate chains 14, so the circumferential velocities of the shaft assemblies 7 in the upstream and downstream sections are controllable independently of each other. In FIG. 1, the upstream sections of both conveyors 1, 2 are shown in a setting in which the chain 14 skips a divert wheel 15 as well. The spare divert wheels 15 allow mounting an additional shaft. As is best seen in FIGS. 4-7, the discs 9 are each provided with an opening 24 through which a shaft 17 carrying that disc 9 extends. A releasable part 25 is displaceable when in released condition. When the releasable part 25 is in displaced condition, a radial passage for passing the shaft 17 radially into and out of the opening 24 is obtained. This construction of the discs allows the discs 9 to be mounted on and dismounted from the shafts 17 without dismounting the shafts 17. Thus, if damage to a disc 9 or readjustment of the lateral spacing between the discs 9 necessitates mounting or dismounting discs 9, discs 9 can be dismounted from the shaft assembly 7 or mounted onto the shaft 17 without dismounting the shaft 17. In particular, given the fixed width of the separating conveyors 1, 2, substantial adjustment of the mutual, lateral spacing between the discs 9 of a shaft assembly 7 will generally require the removal or addition of at least one disc plate assembly 9. The discs 9 of the separating conveyors shown can be manufactured particularly efficiently, because the disc body is formed by two mutually identical parts 25. The parts 25 are releasably clamped around the one of the shafts 17 carrying that disc 9 by bolts 26 engaging nuts 27 in the opposite parts. The disc body can also be advantageously formed by more than two identical parts clamped around the shaft. The discs 9 have radial projections 11 projecting further outward than radially recessed portions 28 between the projections 11. However, depending on the requirements and properties of the materials to be separated, other shapes may be more advantageous. The discs 9 each have anchoring members 31 fixed in a recess 35 in the shaft 17. The anchoring members 31 each have an anchoring portion 32 projecting into the opening 24 in a radially inward direction and a positioning portion 33 fitted in the disc body part 25. The anchoring portion 32 has projections 34 in circumferential sense of the opening 24 for anchoring in undercuts 36 in side walls of the recess 35 in an outside surface of the shaft 17. The undercuts are portions of the side wall that are recessed relative to radially more outwardly located portions of the side wall, so that a projection projecting into the undercut cannot be moved radially out of the recess. In the present example, the recesses are slots 35 each extending in longitudinal direction of the shaft 17, so that the positions of the anchoring members 31 in longitudinal direction of the slots 35 can be chosen freely. Furthermore, the slots 35 may extend over such lengths that many discs 9 (preferably all discs 9 mounted to a shaft 17) can be anchored in the same slot or, as in the present example, in the same set of circumferentially distributed slots 35. The slots 35 have a dovetail shaped cross-section, so the undercuts are formed by the entire sidewalls since the entire sidewalls are recessed relative to upper (i.e. outer) edges thereof. Furthermore, the discs 9 each have tensioners 37 for tensioning the associated anchoring member 31 in a radially outward direction (arrow 38 in FIG. 7). The anchoring members 31 fixed in the recess 35 in the shaft 17 and each tensioned by a tensioner 37 tensioning the anchoring member 31 in a radially towards the disc body, reliably fix the disc 9 in axial direction without clamping via the disc body, so that the clamping force required for keeping the disc 9 axially positioned on the shaft 17 does not have to be transferred through a large portion of the disc body. This allows the disc body to be of a relatively light design and of a soft material that exhibits tension relaxation under continuous static loads. Because the anchoring member 31 has an anchoring portion 32 projecting into the opening 24 in a radially inward direction and a positioning portion 33 fitted in the disc body and the anchoring portion 32 has projections 34 in circumferential sense of the opening 24 for anchoring in the undercuts 36 in a side walls of the slot 35 in an outside surface of the shaft 17, the anchoring member 31 can easily be fixed and be fixed in any position in a range along the length of the slot 35. Anchoring may also be achieved by a single projection on one side of the anchoring member engaging an undercut on the same side. A passage 39 extends radially through the anchoring member 31 and the tensioning member 37 extends through the passage 39 and is arranged for exerting a tensioning force via a free end 40 projecting radially inwardly of the anchoring member 31. Thus, tension forces are transferred very directly and a very simple construction is sufficient for exerting the tension force. The construction can be particularly simple if, as in the present example, the passage is a threaded bore 39 and the tensioning member is a bolt 37 having a threaded stem 41 in threaded engagement with the threaded bore 39. By turning the bolt 37 using a tool engaging a head 42 of the bolt 37, the bolt 37 can be screwed through the anchoring member 31, until its distal end 40 projects from the anchoring member 31 far enough to abut against the bottom of the slot 35. By tightening the bolt 37 to a prescribed tightening torque, the anchoring member 31 is urged out of the slot and its projections 34 are clamped against the undercuts of the sidewalls 36 of the slot 35, so that the anchoring member is reliably fixed against movement in axial direction of the shaft 17. The head 42 of the bolt 37 is partially located in a recess 43 in an outer circumferential surface 28 of the disc body, so that it does not interfere significantly with the sorting function of the disc. Also, the head 42 of the bolt 32 is located between radially projecting portions 11 of the disc, so that it is further shielded from the materials to be sorted. The tensioning member 37 and the disc body are furthermore arranged for pressing the disc body radially inwardly towards the anchoring member 31 when the tensioning member 37 is tensioned. Thus, the disc body is firmly pressed against the outer surface portions of the shaft 17 adjacent to the anchoring member 31, so that play between the shaft 17 and the disc body is eliminated and the disc body is firmly held in place at the anchoring members 31. In the present example, this is achieved in a simple manner by providing that the tensioning member 37 has a flange 44 pressing against an outwardly facing shoulder 45 of the disc body via washers 46, 47. Between a radially outwardly facing side of the anchoring member 31 and opposite surfaces of the disc body part 25 and of a bushing 48 lining a portion of the passage 39, some free space is left, so that it is ensured that the tensioning bolt 37 can be tightened far enough for tensioning the anchoring member 31 and that the portion of the disc body part 25 between the washers 46, 47 and the anchoring member 31 can accommodate to the radially inward displacement of the washers 46, 47 as the tensioning bolt 37 is tightened. Instead of as a bolt 37 extending through a bushing 48, the tensioning member may also be provided in another form, such as in the form of a fitted bolt accurately fitting in a passage through the polymer material of the disc body. Because the anchoring portion 32 is dovetail-shaped, it is also positioned accurately in circumferential sense when it is tensioned in radially outward direction. Moreover, a wedging effect is achieved, so that effective clamping is achieved already at relatively moderate tensioning forces. Preferably, the anchoring member 31 and the tensioning member 37 are of metal material and the disc body is of polymer material. Thus, the tensioning and clamping forces are transferred through material in which tension relaxation over time does not occur and the disc body is of a relatively soft but wear resistant, light and low-cost material. The anchoring member 31 and the tensioning member 37 may for instance be of steel and the disc body parts 25 may for instance be of Polyethylene, Polypropylene or Polyurethane or rubber material. In particular if a thermoplastic material is used, the disc body parts may entirely or partially be of recycled material. The anchoring member 31 has a size in axial direction of the opening 24 which is equal to the size of an adjacent portion of the disc body parts 25 in that axial direction. Thus, the clamping forces are distributed over a large surface area and the disc body is effectively supported against tilting in axial direction. On the other hand, the anchoring member 31 does not project axially from the disc body, so that it does not interfere with the separating function. If, as in the present example, the disc 9 has two anchoring members 31, distributed in circumferential sense around the opening 24, the disc 9 is held in position particularly reliably. For this effect, the anchoring members 31 are preferably distributed evenly in circumferential sense and also a larger number of anchoring members may be provided. However, depending on the requirements, a single anchoring member per disc may also be advantageous, since it reduces costs and allows particularly quick mounting and dismounting as well as readjustment of the position of a disc. In the present example, the releasable part 25 is one of two mutually identical disc body parts 25 clamped to each other, each of said disc body parts 25 being provided with an anchoring member. This combines a small variety in parts with anchoring positions that are evenly distributed in circumferential sense. While in the present example, the discs have a maximum thickness in axial direction which is constant from the shaft to the radially most outward portions of the disc, it is also possible to provide that the discs have a thickness in axial direction that varies between the shaft and the radially most outward portions of the disc, e.g. a thickness that decreases from the shaft towards the radially most outward portions to provide rhombus shaped passages. Also, seen in cross-section along a plane through the center line of the discs, the sides of the discs may be curved or stepped, for instance to provide passages with rounded boundaries. Further, in the above example, the anchoring members engage undercuts is side walls of the slots. It may however also be provided that the anchoring members are fixed in another manner. The anchoring members may for instance be anchored in the recesses of the circumferential surface of the shaft and include fasteners, such as bolts, threaded into threaded holes in the shafts. For allowing adjustment of positions of discs in axial direction of the shafts, the anchoring members may for instance be provided with one or more rows of threaded holes. Threaded ends of the tensioning members may be screwed into selected ones of the threaded holes to determine the axial positions of the discs. In the event of wear or damage to the threaded holes, or if a different pattern of holes is required, the anchoring members can be replaced easily. Several features have been described as part of the same or separate embodiments. However, it will be appreciated that the scope of the invention also includes embodiments having combinations of all or some of these features other than the specific combinations of features embodied in the examples. | <SOH> FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The invention relates to a disc for a separating conveyor screen and to a separating conveyor screen. Separating conveyor screens or sorting conveyor screens are used for separating materials composed of large numbers of particles or items into fractions with different distributions of a property. The item property on which separation is based may for instance be size of the particles or items, such as in separating mud from potatoes, separating larger stones from smaller stones, sand and clay or separating larger fruit from smaller fruit. The separation may also be based on other properties, such as separating on the basis of stiffness of the items, such as in separating waste paper from waste cardboard to avoid inclusion of substantial amounts of waste cardboard in raw material from which paper is to be made, which would result in relatively grey or brown paper. In such a separating conveyor, a screen is formed by a row of rotatable, driven shaft assemblies mutually spaced in a conveying direction and each extending transversely to the conveying direction. The shafts of each of the shaft assemblies each carry a row of radially extending discs for intermittently urging material on the separating conveyor screen upward and in the conveying direction. The discs of each of the rows are mutually spaced in longitudinal direction of the respective shaft. In particular for sorting on the basis of deformability or for removing adhering material from larger items, rotary contours of discs carried by each of the shafts may project between rotary contours of the discs carried by a neighboring one of the shafts. In particular for accurate separation by size of generally ball, cube or similarly shaped items with no predominant length and/or width, discs of successive shafts may be positioned mutually in-line in transport direction, leaving open passages for material to fall through that precisely match the maximum dimensions of items that are to fall through the passages. In operation, a material to be separated is fed to the upstream end of the separating conveyor. Rotary motion of the discs intermittently urges the material on the conveyor upward and forward in conveying direction. Thus, the material on the conveyor is simultaneously shaken and transported along the conveyor. The smaller and/or more easily deformable parts of the material tend to fall through openings between the shafts and the discs. Since for instance paper in a mixture of paper and cardboard is typically of a smaller size and more flexible than cardboard, paper on the conveyor tends to fall through interspaces between the shafts and the discs, while cardboard tends to remain on top of the conveyor. Thus, a first separated material predominantly consisting of cardboard can be collected at the downstream end of the conveyor or succession of conveyors, and a second separated material predominantly consisting of paper can be collected from under the conveyor. A disc and a separating conveyor screen of the initially-identified type for sorting waste paper from waste cardboard are described in applicant's European patent 0 773 070. In this separating conveyor screen, the mutual spacing between the discs of at least one of the rows in longitudinal direction of the respective shaft is easily adjustable, because the discs are releasably clamped onto the shafts. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to allow the positions of the discs to be fixed and released more quickly and to allow the discs to be fixed more reliably. According to the invention, this object is achieved by providing a disc for a separating conveyor screen, which disc has a disc body, at least one anchoring member and at least one tensioner. The disc body has a releasable part and an opening in an axial direction for receiving a shaft carrying the disc. The releasable part is displaceable when in released condition between a displaced position leaving open a radial passage for passing the shaft radially into and out of the opening and a mounted position for enclosing the shaft in the opening. The at least one anchoring member is arranged for fixation in a recess in an outside surface of the shaft. The at least one tensioner is for tensioning the disc body and the anchoring member radially towards each other. The invention can also be embodied in a separating conveyor screen for sorting a material composed of large numbers of loose items or particles, into a first fraction having a first distribution of a property of the particles or items and a second fraction having a second distribution of the property of the particles or items, the first distribution being different from the second distribution. The conveyor screen comprises a row of shafts mutually spaced in a conveying direction, each of the shafts being rotatable about an axial center line thereof, extending transversely to the conveying direction, and carrying a row of radially projecting discs for intermittently urging material on the sorting conveyor upward and in the conveying direction, the discs of each of the rows being mutually spaced in longitudinal direction of the respective shaft. The discs of at least one of the rows are releasably clamped to the respective one of the shafts extending through openings in the discs, for allowing readjustment of the mutual spacing of the discs in longitudinal direction along the shaft when in released condition. The at least one shaft to which the discs of the at least one row are clamped has at least one recess in its outside surface. The releasably clamped discs each have at least one anchoring member for anchoring in the at least one recess and at least one tensioner for tensioning the disc body and the anchoring member radially towards each other. Because the releasably clamped discs each have at least one anchoring member for anchoring in a recess in the shaft and at least one tensioner for tensioning the disc body and the anchoring member radially towards each other, the discs can be reliably fixed in axial direction without clamping via the disc body so that the clamping force required for keeping the disc axially positioned on the shaft does not have to be transferred through a large portion of the disc body. This allows the disc body to be of a relatively light design and of a soft material. Particular elaborations and embodiments of the invention are set forth in the dependent claims. Further features, effects and details of the invention appear from the detailed description and the drawings. | B07B1155 | 20170627 | 20171228 | 59847.0 | B07B115 | 1 | RODRIGUEZ, JOSEPH C | DISC FOR A SEPARATING CONVEYOR SCREEN AND SEPARATING CONVEYOR SCREEN INCLUDING SUCH A DISC | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | B07B | 2,017 |
|
15,634,461 | PENDING | FOLDABLE CARRIAGE | A carriage having a frame which includes a plurality of elongated frame components. A first attachment point couples a first and second elongated frame component. A second attachment point couples a third and fourth elongated frame component. A transverse elongated frame component couples to the first and second attachment points. A rotation lock is disposed on the transverse elongated frame component. The rotation lock is configured to prevent rotation of the transverse elongated frame component in a locked configuration. | 1. A carriage, comprising: a frame comprising a plurality of elongated frame components; a first attachment point coupling a first and second elongated frame component; a second attachment point coupling a third and fourth elongated frame component; a transverse elongated frame component coupled to the first and second attachment points; and a rotation lock disposed on the transverse elongated frame component and configured to prevent rotation of the transverse elongated frame component in a locked configuration. 2. The carriage of claim 1, wherein the transverse elongated frame component comprises a longitudinal axis, wherein the transverse elongated frame component and the rotation lock are configured to rotate about the longitudinal axis when the rotation lock is in an unlocked configuration. 3. The carriage of claim 2, wherein the transverse elongated frame component and the rotation lock rotate simultaneously. 4. The carriage of claim 2, wherein the longitudinal axis extends through the first and second attachment points. 5. The carriage of claim 1, wherein the rotation lock is disposed around the transverse elongated frame component. 6. The carriage of claim 5, wherein the rotation lock is disposed entirely around the transverse elongated frame component. 7. The carriage of claim 1, wherein the rotation lock is disposed at a midpoint of the transverse elongated frame component. 8. The carriage of claim 1, wherein the rotation lock comprises a pin, wherein the transverse elongated frame component is permitted to rotate when the pin is in an unlocked position. 9. The carriage of claim 2, wherein translating a portion of the rotation lock in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis of the transverse elongated frame component unlocks the rotation lock. 10. The carriage of claim 1, further comprising a pivot lock disposed at the first attachment point, wherein the pivot lock prevents the first and second elongated frame components from pivoting with respect to each other when the pivot lock is in a locked configuration. 11. The carriage of claim 10, wherein rotating the transverse elongated frame component unlocks the pivot lock. 12. A carriage, comprising: a frame configured to fold between a use position and a storage position; a first attachment point configured to attach a plurality of elongated frame components and a second attachment point configured to attach a plurality of elongated frame components, wherein the frame is configured to fold at the first and second attachment points; and a transverse elongated frame component connecting the first and second attachment points, wherein the transverse elongated frame component comprises a rotation lock having an actuation member configured to unlock the rotation lock, wherein the actuation member is disposed entirely between the first attachment point and the second attachment point. 13. The carriage of claim 12, wherein unlocking the rotation lock with the actuation member permits the transverse elongated frame component to rotate about a longitudinal axis. 14. The carriage of claim 13, further comprising a pivot lock arranged at the first attachment point and configured to lock the frame in the use position, wherein the pivot lock is configured to be operated by rotating the transverse elongated frame component about the longitudinal axis. 15. A method for folding a carriage to a storage position, comprising: displacing a pin to unlock a rotation lock, wherein the rotation lock is coupled to a transverse elongated frame component and disposed between a first and second attachment point, wherein the transverse elongated frame component is coupled to the first and second attachment points, and wherein the first attachment point couples a first and second elongated frame component of the carriage and the second attachment point couples a third and fourth elongated frame component of the carriage; and rotating the transverse elongated frame component about a longitudinal axis. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein displacing the pin comprises translating a portion of the rotation lock in a direction toward the first attachment point. 17. The method of claim 16, wherein the portion of the rotation lock is translated in a direction parallel to the longitudinal axis. 18. The method of claim 15, wherein rotating the transverse elongated frame component unlocks a pivot lock disposed at the first attachment point. 19. The method of claim 15, wherein rotating the transverse elongated frame component simultaneously rotates the rotation lock. 20. The method of claim 15, wherein displacing the pin to unlock the rotation lock is performed before rotating the transverse elongated frame component. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. Nonprovisional application Ser. No. 14/529,387, filed Oct. 31, 2014, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/898,498, filed Nov. 1, 2013, which are hereby incorporated herein in their entirety by reference. FIELD A carriage, such as a stroller, and a method for folding a carriage. The carriage has a foldable frame comprising a plurality of elongated frame components and a pivot lock and can be folded between a use position and a storage position. The pivot lock is adapted to retain the frame of the carriage in the use position. BACKGROUND Foldable carriages, such as foldable strollers, have been developed to permit a user to reduce the size of the carriage, permitting easy storage and transportation when the carriage is not in use. Usually a foldable carriage can be folded between a use position in which the carriage can be used for transporting an object, and a storage position, in which the carriage has a reduced size permitting the carriage to be stored in an easy manner. To retain a foldable carriage in a use position, the foldable carriage has a pivot lock. The pivot lock retains the foldable carriage in the use position but as a precaution needs to be unlocked before the foldable carriage can be folded to the storage position. The German utility model No. DE 20218 521 U1 disclose a pushchair having a pivot lock operated via a rotateable handle. The handle is arranged to two wires which run inside of the tubular frame of the pushchair. The wires are in turn connected to a lock flange which after being displaced permits the pushchair to be folded. It has shown however that wires are subjected to wear and run the risk of being damaged due to such wear. As the wires generally tend to run inside of the tubular frame it is difficult to discover such wear in advance. Another solution is disclosed in the Chinese patent disclosure, publication No. CN 2730360Y. The latter document discloses a stroller with a pivot lock comprises a rotatable handle which cooperates with two rods. The rods assist in locking the stroller in a use position. Both the above mentioned solutions require components that run inside of frame components, hence they are still rather complex solutions. There is a need to provide simple yet sturdy solutions which are suitable on different kinds of carriages, preferably strollers. SUMMARY It is an object of the present invention to remove or reduce at least one of the drawbacks of the mentioned prior art, or to provide for a useful alternative. The object is at least partly met by a carriage comprising a frame. The frame is foldable between a use position and a storage position. An attachment point for a plurality of elongated frame components, a pivot lock arranged at said attachment point for locking the frame in the use position, a pivot axis about which the frame can be folded. The pivot lock is operable by rotating at least a portion of at least one of said elongated frame components, preferably by rotating one of the elongated frame components. The present invention provides for a pivot lock for elongated components, and a carriage comprising a pivot lock for elongated frame components, which reduces the risk for a user acquiring injury due to pinching or crushing in the joint or between elongated frame components. It removes, or at least reduces, the need for additional mechanisms inside of the elongated frame components, which reduces weight, costs and complexity of the end product. The frame can be provided with a first and a second attachment point for elongated frame components. The pivot axis can in such a case extend between the first and the second attachment points for elongated frame components. The frame can thus be configured so that the frame is folded at the first and the second attachment points. In this case the attachment points are joints. According to an aspect, an elongated frame component connects said first and said second attachment points for elongated frame components. In this embodiment, the first and the second attachment points shares an elongated frame component which enables both the first and the second attachment points to be manipulated using the mentioned elongated frame component. Both the first and the second attachment point can thus be provided with a pivot lock, which assures that the frame can be retained in the use position. The elongated frame component is preferably a transverse elongated frame component. Transverse in the sense that is has a substantially perpendicular extension with respect to at least some of the other elongated frame components connected at the attachment point. According to an aspect, the pivot lock is operable by rotating the transverse elongated frame component. The transverse elongated frame component can be operable to unlock the pivot lock so that the frame can be folded to the storage position. The transverse elongated frame component can be rotated about it longitudinal center line clock wise and/or counter clock wise. By using the transverse elongated frame component to unlock the pivot lock; one pivot lock can be operated or even two pivot locks can be operated simultaneously. Further, it provides for a rigid connection which is not depending on a mechanism arranged inside of the elongated frame component, as the elongated frame component itself is used to translate a rotational motion to a longitudinal motion with respect to the elongated frame component. The carriage can comprise a first wheel side and the second wheel side. The first wheel side and the second wheel side are connected via the transverse elongated frame component. The transverse elongated frame component is thus substantially parallel, or parallel, with the wheel pivot axis of the frame. This permits the frame to be folded in a favourable position with respect to the wheel pivot axis. According to an aspect, the carriage can comprise one or more pivot lock to lock the frame in a use position. The carriage can be provided with a first and a second pivot lock for example. Two pivot locks provides for a safe configuration. The first and the second pivot locks can be operable by an elongated frame component, preferably the transverse elongated frame component. This enables a simultaneous and rigid control of the pivot lock using relatively few components. The pivot lock can be configured in different ways. The pivot lock can comprise a first and a second lock member, wherein the pivot lock comprises a first lock member and a translation member, the first lock member is adapted to engage and disengage an elongated frame component by a relative displacement of the first lock member. Specifically, if the first lock member is of a cogwheel type lock member, or if it is a cogwheel, the rotational motion of the transverse elongated frame component is translated via the translation member to displace the first lock member along a longitudinal center axis of the transverse elongated frame component. The rotation of the at least a portion of at least one of the elongated frame components displaces the first lock member in direction along a longitudinal center axis of the transverse elongated frame component. The solution provides for a rigid configuration as a frame component is used to translate an imparted rotational motion by a user, to the displacement of the first lock member. The transverse elongated frame component can be arranged in different ways to manipulate the first lock member. The transverse elongated frame component comprises a first and a second end, and the first end of the transverse elongated frame component can be cooperating with the first lock member. The cooperation can be directly or indirectly. A direct cooperation is a direct connection between the first end of the transverse elongated frame component and the first lock member. An indirect cooperation is an indirect connection with the first lock member e.g. via an intermediate member such a coupling member, translation member or similar. According to an aspect, the transverse elongated frame component has a longitudinal center axis, and the displaceable lock member is displaced in a direction along the longitudinal center axis. According to an aspect, the at least a portion of at least one of the elongated frame components can comprise a rotation lock. It is advantageous if the rotation of the elongated frame component is not actuated accidentally by a user. A rotation lock to the elongated frame component address this issue. The rotation lock is preferably arranged on the transverse elongated frame component, or at least associated with the transverse elongated frame component. The rotation lock is adapted to prevent the transverse elongated frame component from being accidentally rotated; hence the frame of the carriage can be configured with double lock mechanisms. The rotation lock can comprise a handle, wherein the handle is operable to unlock the rotation lock and to rotate the transverse elongated frame component. This enables a user to unlock a two lock mechanisms using one grip and without changing grip between unlocking the first rotation lock and thereafter unlocking the pivot lock so that the frame can be folded to a storage position. According to an aspect, the invention also relates to a method for folding a carriage to a storage position. The carriage comprises a frame which is foldable between a use position and a storage position, an attachment point for a plurality of elongated frame components. The frame further comprises a pivot lock arranged at the attachment point for locking the frame in the use position, and a pivot axis about which the frame can be folded. The method comprises the steps of unlocking the pivot lock by rotating a portion of at least one elongated frame component, so that the carriage is permitted to be folded to the storage position. It is also within the boundaries of the present invention to provide a pivot lock for locking a first elongated component from pivoting with respect to a second elongated component about a pivot axis. The pivot lock is arranged in an attachment point for the first and the second elongated frame components and an additional third elongated component. The third elongated component has a longitudinal center axis. Wherein the pivot lock is operated by rotating the third elongated component about its longitudinal center axis and wherein the pivot axis and the longitudinal center axis are substantially parallel. The pivot lock is a sturdy lock with relatively few components. The pivot axis and the longitudinal center axis are preferably aligned with each other. According to an aspect, the third elongated component comprises an angled surface wherein by rotating the third elongated component about its longitudinal center axis, a lock member is displaced in a direction along the longitudinal center axis of the third elongated component. The lock member is disengaged from the first elongated component, permitting the first and the second elongated component to be pivoted with respect to each other. According to an aspect, the invention relates to a carriage comprising a frame, the frame is foldable between a use position and a storage position. The frame comprises an attachment point for a plurality of frame components and a pivot lock for retaining the frame in the use position. The pivot lock is operated by rotating a portion of the frame of the carriage to unlock the pivot lock permitting the carriage to be folded to the storage position. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Non-limiting embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying figures in which: FIG. 1 shows the frame of a stroller arranged in a use position, the frame is foldable to a storage position; FIG. 2a shows a cross section of a portion of the frame shown in FIG. 1, illustrating a first and a second pivot lock, and portions of elongated frame members connected to a first and a second attachment point, the pivot locks being in a locked position; FIG. 2b shows a cross section of a portion of the frame shown in FIG. 1, illustrating a first and a second pivot lock, and portions of elongated frame members connected to a first and a second attachment point, the pivot locks being in an unlocked position; FIG. 3 shows the cross section of the first pivot lock at the first attachment point in greater detail, the pivot lock, and the first lock member, is in a locked position, in which the carriage is prevented from being folded; and FIG. 4 shows the cross section of the first pivot lock at the first attachment point in greater detail, the pivot lock, and the first lock member, is in un unlocked position, in which the carriage can be folded. FIG. 5 shows an exploded view of a portion of the frame with the first attachment point. FIG. 6 shows the first end of the transverse elongated frame component without the first and the second elongated frame components attached thereto. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 shows a carriage 1, in this case a stroller for a child. The carriage 1 comprises a frame 2, in this case a load carrying frame, a handle 3, and a child seat receiving site 4 adapted to receive an insert or a seat for a child. A first and a second rear wheel 5, 6 and a front wheel 7. The illustrated stroller is a tri wheel stroller, although the present invention is not limited to tri wheel strollers but can be applied on any carriage such as four wheel strollers. The carriage 1 is foldable, or collapsible. The carriage 1 can be folded between a use position, shown in FIG. 1, and a storage position. In the use position, the carriage 1 can be used to transport a child while in the storage position; the carriage 1 can easily be tucked away for storage or for transport in the trunk of a car for example. The frame 2 is formed by a plurality of elongated frame components 10. The elongated frame components 10 are generally formed by extruded aluminum, but other materials are possible such as polymers, composites, wood, steel such as sheet steel, tubes formed by different materials, the like or combinations thereof. It is important however that the elongated frame components are selected so as to be able to safely carry the weight of load, especially in the cases of strollers. As mentioned the carriage 1 is foldable. The carriage 1 comprises a pivot axis Pc about which the carriage 1 can be folded, or pivoted, between the use position and the storage position. The carriage 1 also comprises a pivot lock 20 to lock the carriage 1 in the use position. The carriage 1 further has a first wheel side 12 and a second wheel side 13 and a wheel pivot axis Pw extending there between. The wheel pivot axis Pw of course extends between a first and a second wheel. In the shown embodiment, the carriage 1 can be folded substantially parallel with the wheel pivot axis Pw. FIG. 2a shows a cross section of a first and a second pivot lock 20, 20′ which are in the shown embodiment substantially identical in function and structural features. Hereafter only one of the pivot locks 20, 20′ will be described in greater detail. FIG. 2a further shows a transverse elongated frame component 10′″ and a rotation lock which will be described in greater detail with reference to FIG. 2b. A carriage 1 can be provided with one or two, or more such pivot locks dependent on how the carriage is intended to be folded. The shown carriage 1, and the frame 2, can be folded once about the pivot axis Pc and can thus be provided with either one or two pivot locks 20. The pivot lock 20 is operated using one of the elongated frame components 10 and more precisely by rotating at least one of the elongated frame components. The elongated frame component is rotated about its longitudinal center line L, and can be rotated a predetermined amount of angular degrees, preferably from 1-360°, more preferably from 10-270°, even more preferably from 20-180°, even more preferably from 20-90°. As is noticeable, the carriage 1 comprises a first and a second attachment point 30, 40 for elongated frame components 10′, 10″, 10′″. The pivot axis Pc intersects with the first and the second attachment point 30, 40 and a transverse elongated frame component 10′″ extends between and connects the first and the second attachment points 30, 40. In the shown embodiment, each attachment point 30, 40 have three elongated frame components 10′, 10″, 10′″ attached thereto. As is noticed, the first and the second attachment points 30, 40 shares the transverse elongated frame component 10′″. Except for the transverse elongated frame component 10′″, a first elongated frame component 10′ and a second elongated frame component 10″ is attached to the attachment points 30, 40. The pivot lock 20 is configured for locking a first elongated component, in this case an elongated frame component 10′, from pivoting with respect to a second elongated component, in this case a second elongated frame component 10″, about a pivot axis Pc. The pivot lock is arranged in an attachment point 30, 40 for the mentioned first and the second elongated components and an additional third elongated component, in this case the transverse elongated component 10′″. The third elongated component has a longitudinal center axis L. The pivot lock is operated by rotating the third elongated component about its longitudinal center axis L, wherein the pivot axis Pc and the longitudinal center axis L are substantially parallel, and preferably aligned with each other. The attachment points 30, 40 are joints 30′, 40′ at which the load carrying frame 2 can be folded. Each of the attachment points 30, 40 comprises a pivot lock 20 which is operated using the transverse elongated frame component 10′″. Any elongated frame component 10′, 10″, 10′″ connected to the attachment point could however be used to operate the pivot lock 20 dependent on the configuration of the pivot lock 20. An advantage of using a transverse elongated frame component extending between the first and the second attachment points 30, 40, is that the pivot locks 20, 20′ can be simultaneously operated, e.g. unlocked. The pivot lock 20 comprises a first lock member 21 which can be displaced via a translation member 22. The first lock member 21 engages both the first elongated frame component 10′ and the second elongated frame component 10″ when being in a lock position. When the first lock member 21 is engaged, the first and the second elongated frame components 10′, 10″ are prevented from being pivoted with respect to each other i.e. the frame 2 cannot be folded to a storage position. When the first lock member 21 is displaced from engagement using the translation member 22, the first and the second elongated frame components 10′, 10″ are permitted to be pivoted with respect to each other i.e. the frame 2 can be folded to a storage position. The transverse elongated frame component 10′″ comprises a first and a second end 10a, 10b. Each end 10a, 10b is associated with a first lock member 21. The first lock member 21 is substantially disc shaped and can be displaced between a first and a second position. The first position is also referred to as the lock position. In the first position, the first lock member 21 fixates the first elongated frame component 10′ with respect to the second elongated frame component 10″ by engaging both the first and the second elongated frame components 10′, 10″ via the attachment point 30. The first attachment point 30 is effectively prevented from functioning as a joint, i.e. the first elongated frame component 10′ cannot be pivoted with respect to the second elongated frame component 10″. When the first lock member 21 is in the second position (shown in FIG. 4), the first attachment point 30 is effectively functioning as a joint, i.e. the first elongated frame component 10′ can be pivoted with respect to the second elongated frame component 10″. The pivot lock 20 will be described in greater detail with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4. FIG. 2b shows the cross section of FIG. 2a but with the pivot locks 20, 20′ in an unlocked position, i.e. the lock member 21 displaced to the second position, i.e. the unlocked position. FIG. 2b further shows the rotation lock comprising a handle 70 and a lock mechanism 71. The handle 70 is biased using a spring 72 from left to right. When a user counter act the spring 72 and pushes the handle 70 from right to left as indicated by the arrow in FIG. 2b, a pin is displaced permitting the transverse elongated frame component 10′ to be rotated about its longitudinal center line L. Due to the configuration of the handle 70, the transverse elongated frame component 10′ can be rotated about its longitudinal center line L using the handle 70. Hence the carriage 1 can be folded using a two step lock mechanism in which a user first unlocks a rotational lock by a sliding motion of the handle 70, and then using the same handle, and with no need to change grip, the user unlocks the pivot lock by rotating the handle 70 and thus rotates the transverse elongated frame component 10′″. FIG. 3 shows the first lock member 21 in the first position, i.e. a locked position. In FIG. 3, the first end 10a of the transverse elongated frame component 10′″ is arranged to a coupling member 50 having a central bore 51 and a rim 52 arranged around the bore 51. The rim is engaged with the second lock member so that if the transverse elongated frame component 10′ is rotated about its longitudinal axis P, the coupling member 50 and the translation member 22 rotates synchronously with it. The first lock member 21 is biased towards the translation member 22 using a biasing member, in the shown embodiment in the form of a helical spring 55. The spring 55 braces against an interior surface of a housing 56 of the attachment point 30. A screw 57 extends through the housing 56 and connects the second lock member 21 via a sleeve 58 about which the translation member 22 can rotate. The sleeve 58 further provides a shelf 58′ against which the translation member 22 can rest. As can be noticed in FIG. 3, the housing 56 is formed by a first portion 56a of the attachment point 30 and a second portion 56b of the attachment point 30, which each portions are connected to an elongated frame component. A slip surface 59 is arranged on both the first and second portions 56a, 56b of the attachment point 30, and can be said to divide the housing 56 in two halves. The slip surfaces 59 of the housing 56 are flat and configured so that the first and the second portions 56a, 56b of the housing 56 can slip against each other during folding of the frame 2 between the use position and the storage position. The first elongated frame component 10′ is attached to first portion 56a of the attachment point 30, and the second elongated frame component 10″ is attached to the second portion 5b of the attachment point 30. The slip surfaces 59 of each portion 56a, 56b of the housing 56 together define a plane Ps which is substantially perpendicular with respect to the pivot axis Pc of the frame 2 and the longitudinal center line L of the transverse elongated frame component 10′″. As can be seen, the first lock member 21 is intersecting the slip surfaces 59 of the housing 56 and the plane Ps when the first lock member is in the first position. The first lock member 21 is a cogwheel (shown in greater detail in FIG. 5). The teeth of the first lock member 21 engages the interior surface of the housing 56 and in in the lock position as shown in FIG. 3, the first lock member 21 engages both the first portion 56a of the housing 56 and the second portion 56b housing 56. The first lock member 21 extends across the slip surfaces 59 of the housing and thus prevents the first elongated frame component 10′ and the second elongated frame component 10″ from pivoting with respect to each other. As mentioned above, the first lock member 21 is a cogwheel having teeth which interacts with the interior surface of the housing 56. The interior surface of the housing 56 has corresponding grooves, adapted to engage with the teeth of the first lock member 21. It should be noted that the interior surface of the housing 56 can be provided with teeth and the first lock member 21 with grooves instead. Instead of using a cogwheel, the first lock member 21 can have substantially any polygonal form providing locking surfaces. For example, the first lock member could be pentagonal, hexagonal, heptagonal or the like. FIG. 4 shows the pivot lock of FIG. 3 with the first lock member 21 in the second position, i.e. an unlocked position. As can be seen in FIG. 4, the translation member 22 comprises tooth shaped protrusions 60 which engage the first lock member 21. The tooth shaped protrusions 60 extend in a direction corresponding to the longitudinal center line L of the transverse elongated frame component 10″. Each protrusion 60 comprises an angled surface 61, forming the tooth shaped protrusions 60. When the translation member 22 is rotated, as a consequence of the rotation of the transverse frame component 10″', the angled surfaces 61 of the protrusion 60 slips on a surfaces of the first lock member 21, preferably formed by grooves, and push the first lock member 21 in a direction away from the translation member 22 and the first end 10a of the transverse elongated frame component 10′″. At one point, the protrusions 60 of the translation member 22 has pushed the first lock member 21 past the plane Ps formed by the slip surfaces 59 of the housing 56, so that the first lock member 21 disengages from the first portion 56a of the housing 56 and its corresponding grooves, permitting the first frame component 10′ to be pivoted with respect to the second frame component 10″. It should be noted that in an embodiment, the transverse elongated frame component 10′″ can be provided with angled surfaces just as the protrusions 60 of the translation member 22, i.e. the translation member 22 can be integrally formed with the transverse elongated frame component 10′″. In FIG. 4, the slip surfaces 59 of the housing 56 is arranged to the left of the first lock member 21, i.e. the first lock member 21 is displaced from the slip surfaces 59 and the plane Ps which they define. The first lock member 21 is thus disengaged from the second elongated frame component 10″ permitting the first elongated frame component 10′ and the second elongated frame component 10″ to pivot with respect to each other. Each elongated frame component 10′, 10″, 10′″ is formed by a hollow tubular component formed by extruded aluminum, while the attachment point 30, 40, and the housing 56, in this case the joints 30′, 40′ are formed by a plastic material such as polypropylene. FIG. 5 shows an exploded view of a portion of the frame 2 comprising the first attachment point 30. FIG. 5 shows from left to right; the second attachment point 40, the transverse elongated frame component 10′″, the slidable handle 70 and the lock mechanism 71 providing a rotation lock for the transverse elongated frame component 10′″, a protective sleeve 73 comprising a gripping surface, the coupling member 50, a first portion 56a of the housing 56 comprising the slip surface 59, the translation member 22, the first lock member 21, the spring 55, the second portion 56b of the housing 56, and the screw 57 connecting the first portion 56a of the housing 56 with the second portion 56b of the housing 56 and indirectly the transverse elongated frame component 10′″. In the inside of the first portion 56a of the housing 56 can grooves be seen which cooperates with the teeth of the first lock member 21. Similar grooves are arranged on the inside of the second portion 56b of the housing 56. FIG. 6 shows the first end 10a of the transverse elongated frame component 10′″ in greater detail without the first and the second elongated frame components 10′, 10″ attached thereto. FIG. 6 specifically show the translation member 22 and the protrusions 60 with their angled surfaces 61, adapted to interact with grooves arranged in the first lock member 21. It should be noted that the transverse elongated frame component 10′″ can be rotated counter clock wise or clock wise dependent on which side the angled surfaces 61 is arranged on the protrusions 60. If the protrusions 60 comprises angled surfaces 61 on two sides, it may be possible that the transverse elongated frame component 10′″ can be rotated about its longitudinal center line L in both a clock wise and in a counter clock wise direction, as indicated with the arrows CW (clock wise) and CCW (counter clock wise). The important feature is that the rotational motion of the transverse elongated frame component 10′″ can be translated to a motion in a direction along the longitudinal center line L of the transverse elongated frame component 10′″ so that the first lock member 21 can be displaced. It is possible that instead of rotating an elongated frame component 10′, 10″, 10′″ as described above, only a portion of the elongated frame component is rotated. For example, the elongated frame component 10′″ can be formed by a first and a second elongated frame component which are rotateably connected together using e.g. a swivel connection between the first and the second ends 10a, 10b. The position of such swivel connection is illustrated in FIG. 2 with the reference SC. According to a second aspect, the present invention also relates to a method for folding a carriage, such as a stroller, to a storage position. The carriage comprises a frame foldable between a use position and a storage position. An attachment point for a plurality of elongated frame components, a pivot lock arranged at the attachment point for locking the frame in the use position, a pivot axis about which the frame can be folded. The method comprises the steps of; -unlocking the pivot lock by rotating at least a portion of at least one elongated frame component, so that the carriage is permitted to be folded to the storage position. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Foldable carriages, such as foldable strollers, have been developed to permit a user to reduce the size of the carriage, permitting easy storage and transportation when the carriage is not in use. Usually a foldable carriage can be folded between a use position in which the carriage can be used for transporting an object, and a storage position, in which the carriage has a reduced size permitting the carriage to be stored in an easy manner. To retain a foldable carriage in a use position, the foldable carriage has a pivot lock. The pivot lock retains the foldable carriage in the use position but as a precaution needs to be unlocked before the foldable carriage can be folded to the storage position. The German utility model No. DE 20218 521 U1 disclose a pushchair having a pivot lock operated via a rotateable handle. The handle is arranged to two wires which run inside of the tubular frame of the pushchair. The wires are in turn connected to a lock flange which after being displaced permits the pushchair to be folded. It has shown however that wires are subjected to wear and run the risk of being damaged due to such wear. As the wires generally tend to run inside of the tubular frame it is difficult to discover such wear in advance. Another solution is disclosed in the Chinese patent disclosure, publication No. CN 2730360Y. The latter document discloses a stroller with a pivot lock comprises a rotatable handle which cooperates with two rods. The rods assist in locking the stroller in a use position. Both the above mentioned solutions require components that run inside of frame components, hence they are still rather complex solutions. There is a need to provide simple yet sturdy solutions which are suitable on different kinds of carriages, preferably strollers. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to remove or reduce at least one of the drawbacks of the mentioned prior art, or to provide for a useful alternative. The object is at least partly met by a carriage comprising a frame. The frame is foldable between a use position and a storage position. An attachment point for a plurality of elongated frame components, a pivot lock arranged at said attachment point for locking the frame in the use position, a pivot axis about which the frame can be folded. The pivot lock is operable by rotating at least a portion of at least one of said elongated frame components, preferably by rotating one of the elongated frame components. The present invention provides for a pivot lock for elongated components, and a carriage comprising a pivot lock for elongated frame components, which reduces the risk for a user acquiring injury due to pinching or crushing in the joint or between elongated frame components. It removes, or at least reduces, the need for additional mechanisms inside of the elongated frame components, which reduces weight, costs and complexity of the end product. The frame can be provided with a first and a second attachment point for elongated frame components. The pivot axis can in such a case extend between the first and the second attachment points for elongated frame components. The frame can thus be configured so that the frame is folded at the first and the second attachment points. In this case the attachment points are joints. According to an aspect, an elongated frame component connects said first and said second attachment points for elongated frame components. In this embodiment, the first and the second attachment points shares an elongated frame component which enables both the first and the second attachment points to be manipulated using the mentioned elongated frame component. Both the first and the second attachment point can thus be provided with a pivot lock, which assures that the frame can be retained in the use position. The elongated frame component is preferably a transverse elongated frame component. Transverse in the sense that is has a substantially perpendicular extension with respect to at least some of the other elongated frame components connected at the attachment point. According to an aspect, the pivot lock is operable by rotating the transverse elongated frame component. The transverse elongated frame component can be operable to unlock the pivot lock so that the frame can be folded to the storage position. The transverse elongated frame component can be rotated about it longitudinal center line clock wise and/or counter clock wise. By using the transverse elongated frame component to unlock the pivot lock; one pivot lock can be operated or even two pivot locks can be operated simultaneously. Further, it provides for a rigid connection which is not depending on a mechanism arranged inside of the elongated frame component, as the elongated frame component itself is used to translate a rotational motion to a longitudinal motion with respect to the elongated frame component. The carriage can comprise a first wheel side and the second wheel side. The first wheel side and the second wheel side are connected via the transverse elongated frame component. The transverse elongated frame component is thus substantially parallel, or parallel, with the wheel pivot axis of the frame. This permits the frame to be folded in a favourable position with respect to the wheel pivot axis. According to an aspect, the carriage can comprise one or more pivot lock to lock the frame in a use position. The carriage can be provided with a first and a second pivot lock for example. Two pivot locks provides for a safe configuration. The first and the second pivot locks can be operable by an elongated frame component, preferably the transverse elongated frame component. This enables a simultaneous and rigid control of the pivot lock using relatively few components. The pivot lock can be configured in different ways. The pivot lock can comprise a first and a second lock member, wherein the pivot lock comprises a first lock member and a translation member, the first lock member is adapted to engage and disengage an elongated frame component by a relative displacement of the first lock member. Specifically, if the first lock member is of a cogwheel type lock member, or if it is a cogwheel, the rotational motion of the transverse elongated frame component is translated via the translation member to displace the first lock member along a longitudinal center axis of the transverse elongated frame component. The rotation of the at least a portion of at least one of the elongated frame components displaces the first lock member in direction along a longitudinal center axis of the transverse elongated frame component. The solution provides for a rigid configuration as a frame component is used to translate an imparted rotational motion by a user, to the displacement of the first lock member. The transverse elongated frame component can be arranged in different ways to manipulate the first lock member. The transverse elongated frame component comprises a first and a second end, and the first end of the transverse elongated frame component can be cooperating with the first lock member. The cooperation can be directly or indirectly. A direct cooperation is a direct connection between the first end of the transverse elongated frame component and the first lock member. An indirect cooperation is an indirect connection with the first lock member e.g. via an intermediate member such a coupling member, translation member or similar. According to an aspect, the transverse elongated frame component has a longitudinal center axis, and the displaceable lock member is displaced in a direction along the longitudinal center axis. According to an aspect, the at least a portion of at least one of the elongated frame components can comprise a rotation lock. It is advantageous if the rotation of the elongated frame component is not actuated accidentally by a user. A rotation lock to the elongated frame component address this issue. The rotation lock is preferably arranged on the transverse elongated frame component, or at least associated with the transverse elongated frame component. The rotation lock is adapted to prevent the transverse elongated frame component from being accidentally rotated; hence the frame of the carriage can be configured with double lock mechanisms. The rotation lock can comprise a handle, wherein the handle is operable to unlock the rotation lock and to rotate the transverse elongated frame component. This enables a user to unlock a two lock mechanisms using one grip and without changing grip between unlocking the first rotation lock and thereafter unlocking the pivot lock so that the frame can be folded to a storage position. According to an aspect, the invention also relates to a method for folding a carriage to a storage position. The carriage comprises a frame which is foldable between a use position and a storage position, an attachment point for a plurality of elongated frame components. The frame further comprises a pivot lock arranged at the attachment point for locking the frame in the use position, and a pivot axis about which the frame can be folded. The method comprises the steps of unlocking the pivot lock by rotating a portion of at least one elongated frame component, so that the carriage is permitted to be folded to the storage position. It is also within the boundaries of the present invention to provide a pivot lock for locking a first elongated component from pivoting with respect to a second elongated component about a pivot axis. The pivot lock is arranged in an attachment point for the first and the second elongated frame components and an additional third elongated component. The third elongated component has a longitudinal center axis. Wherein the pivot lock is operated by rotating the third elongated component about its longitudinal center axis and wherein the pivot axis and the longitudinal center axis are substantially parallel. The pivot lock is a sturdy lock with relatively few components. The pivot axis and the longitudinal center axis are preferably aligned with each other. According to an aspect, the third elongated component comprises an angled surface wherein by rotating the third elongated component about its longitudinal center axis, a lock member is displaced in a direction along the longitudinal center axis of the third elongated component. The lock member is disengaged from the first elongated component, permitting the first and the second elongated component to be pivoted with respect to each other. According to an aspect, the invention relates to a carriage comprising a frame, the frame is foldable between a use position and a storage position. The frame comprises an attachment point for a plurality of frame components and a pivot lock for retaining the frame in the use position. The pivot lock is operated by rotating a portion of the frame of the carriage to unlock the pivot lock permitting the carriage to be folded to the storage position. | B62B7068 | 20170627 | 20171012 | 69130.0 | B62B706 | 0 | COOLMAN, VAUGHN | FOLDABLE CARRIAGE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B62B | 2,017 |
|
15,634,698 | PENDING | ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE | An electronic cigarette includes a battery assembly, an atomizer assembly and a cigarette bottle assembly. An external thread electrode is located in one end of battery assembly. An internal thread electrode is located in one end of atomizer assembly. The battery assembly and the atomizer assembly are connected by the screwthread electrode. The cigarette bottle assembly is inserted into the other end of the atomizer assembly and both form a cigarette type or cigar type body. | 1. A vaporizing device comprising: a battery assembly comprising a battery and an LED electrically connected to a circuit board within a battery assembly housing; a first electrode on the battery assembly housing; an atomizer assembly comprising an atomizer, a liquid supply and a mouthpiece; with the atomizer including a heater wire coil wound around a porous body, with the heater wire coil and the porous body positioned perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the atomizer assembly; an airflow path through the atomizer assembly leading to an outlet in the mouthpiece; a second electrode at an end of the atomizer assembly; and the battery assembly and the atomizer assembly electrically connected by engagement of the first electrode with the second electrode, and with electricity conducted from the battery to the heater wire coil through the first and second electrodes. 2. The device of claim 1 with a lead of the heater wire coil connected to the second electrode. 3. The device of claim 2 with the porous body comprising fiber. 4. The device of claim 3 wherein air in the air flow path flows past the heater wire coil and out through the mouthpiece. 5. The device of claim 1 further including fiber containing a cigarette liquid in contact with the atomizer. 6. The device of claim 5 with the heater wire coil comprising a single spiral metal wire and wherein the liquid is vaporized via heating the heating wire. 7. The device of claim 3 wherein the porous body provides capillary action. 8. The device of claim 1 with the liquid supply comprising a plastic bottle with the mouthpiece on the plastic bottle. 9. A vaporizing device comprising: a battery assembly comprising a circuit board electrically connected to an LED and a battery within a battery assembly housing; a first electrode on the battery assembly housing; an atomizer assembly comprising an atomizer including a heater wire coil wound around a porous body made of fiber material, and the heater wire coil and a part of the porous body positioned perpendicular to a longitudinal axis of the atomizer assembly; an airflow path through the atomizer assembly leading to an outlet in the mouthpiece; a second electrode on an end of the atomizer assembly; a liquid supply bottle containing liquid in contact with the porous body; and the battery assembly and the atomizer assembly electrically connected by engagement of the first electrode to the second electrode; wherein air in the air flow path flows past the heater wire coil to the outlet. 10. The device of claim 9 with the heater wire coil comprising a single spiral metal wire and wherein liquid from the liquid supply is vaporized via heating the heating wire. 11. The device of claim 10 wherein the porous body moves liquid to the single spiral metal wire by capillary action. 12. The device of claim 9 with the liquid supply comprising a plastic bottle with the mouthpiece on the plastic bottle. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/158,421, filed May 18, 2016 and now pending, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/754,521, filed Jan. 30, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,370,205, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/226,819, filed Jan. 15, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,375,957, which is a §371 national phase application of International Patent Application No. PCT/CN2007/001576, filed May 15, 2007 and now converted, which claims the benefit of Chinese Patent Application No. 200620090805.0, filed May 16, 2006. All of these applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND Although smoking causes serious respiratory diseases and cancers, it is difficult to get smokers to quit smoking. Nicotine is the effective ingredient in cigarettes. Nicotine is a micro-molecular alkaloid which is basically harmless to humans at low dosages. Tar is the major harmful substance in tobacco. Tobacco tar contains thousands of ingredients, dozens of which are carcinogenic. Cigarette substitutes have used relatively pure nicotine in patches, chewing gum and aerosols. Still disadvantages remain with cigarette substitutes or products for helping smokers to quit smoking. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION An improved electronic cigarette has a battery assembly, an atomizer assembly and a cigarette bottle assembly. The battery assembly connects with one end of the atomizer assembly, and the cigarette bottle assembly is inserted into the other end of the atomizer assembly, thus forming one cigarette type or cigar type body. Use of the electronic cigarette reduces cancer risks and fire hazards while providing a simulated smoking experience. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a side view of an electronic cigarette. FIG. 2A is a view of the battery assembly. FIG. 2B is a view of another battery assembly. FIG. 3 is the diagram of the atomizer assembly. FIG. 4 is the diagram of the cigarette bottle assembly. FIG. 5A is a section view of an electronic cigarette. FIG. 5B is a section view of another embodiment. FIG. 6 is a diagram of a charger. FIG. 7 is the electric circuit diagram. FIG. 8 is a side view of an atomizer. FIG. 9 is an end view of the atomizer shown in FIG. 8. FIG. 10 is a diagram of a spray atomizer. FIG. 11 is an end view of the atomizer shown in FIG. 10. FIG. 12 is a section view of another embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS As shown in FIG. 1, an electronic cigarette has an appearance similar to a cigarette inserted into the cigarette holder. As shown in FIG. 2A, the electronic cigarette includes a battery assembly, an atomizer assembly and a cigarette bottle assembly. An external thread electrode (209) is located in one end of the battery assembly, and an internal thread electrode (302) is located in one end of the atomizer assembly. The battery assembly and atomizer assembly are connected through the screw thread electrode into an electronic cigarette. The cigarette bottle assembly is inserted into the other end of atomizer assembly. As shown in FIG. 2A, the battery assembly includes an indicator (202), lithium ion battery (203), MOSFET electric circuit board (205), sensor (207), silica gel corrugated membrane (208), primary screw thread electrode (209), primary negative pressure cavity (210), and primary shell (211). On one end of the primary shell (211) is an external thread electrode (209). On the other end is an indicator (202), where there is an indicator cap (201) on one side having a small hole (501). On the other side, the lithium ion battery (203) and MOSFET (Metallic Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Tube) electric circuit board (205) are connected successively. The sensor (207) is located on MOSFET electric circuit board (205). Between the primary screw thread electrode (209) and sensor (207) is a silica gel corrugated membrane (208), on which there is the primary negative pressure cavity (210). The sensor (207) is connected with the silica gel corrugated membrane (208) through the switch spring (212). The sensor (207) may be switch sensor made of elastic alloy slice, a linear output Hall sensor, a semiconductor force-sensitive chip, a semiconductor matrix thermoelectric bridge chip, capacitance or inductance sensor. The indicators (202) include two red LEDs. The lithium ion battery (203) may be either a rechargeable polymer lithium ion battery or a rechargeable lithium ion battery. The external thread electrode (209) is a gold-coated stainless steel or brass part with a hole drilled in the center. The silica gel corrugated membrane (208) may alternatively be made of fluorinated rubber, butyronitrile rubber, or elastic alloy film. As shown in FIG. 3, the atomizer assembly includes the internal thread electrode (302), air-liquid separator (303), atomizer (307) and the secondary shell (306). One end of the secondary shell (306) is inserted into the cigarette bottle assembly for connection, while the other end has an internal thread electrode (302), in which there is the secondary negative pressure cavity (301). The air-liquid separator (303) and the atomizer (307) are connected with the internal thread electrode (302) successively. On the secondary shell (306), there is an air intake hole (502). The air-liquid separator (303) is made of stainless steel or plastic with a hole. The internal thread electrode (302) is a gold-coated stainless steel or brass part with a hole in the center. The atomizer (307) may be a capillary impregnation atomizer as in FIGS. 8 and 9, or a spray atomizer as in FIGS. 10 and 11. As shown in FIG. 4, the cigarette bottle assembly includes the cigarette liquid bottle (401), fiber (402) and suction nozzle (403). The fiber (402) containing cigarette liquid is located on one end of the cigarette liquid bottle (401). This end is inserted into the secondary shell (306) and lies against the atomizer (307). The suction nozzle (403) is located on the other end of the cigarette liquid bottle (401). Between the fiber (402) and interior wall of the cigarette liquid bottle (40 I) is an air intake hole (503). As shown in FIG. 5A, the standby state has the fully charged battery assembly shown on FIG. 2A fastened onto the atomizer assembly shown on FIG. 3, which is then inserted into the cigarette bottle assembly shown in FIG. 4. When the user slightly sucks the suction nozzle (403), negative pressure forms on the silica gel corrugated membrane (208) through the air intake hole (503) and the primary and secondary negative pressure cavities (210, 301). The silica gel corrugated membrane (208), under the action of suction pressure difference, distorts to drive the switch spring (212) and sensor (207), thus switching MOSFET electric circuit board (205). At this moment, the indicators (202) are lit gradually; the lithium ion battery (203) electrifies the heating body (305) inside the atomizer (307) through MOSFET electric circuit board (205) as well as the internal and external thread electrodes (302, 209). The heating body (305) inside the atomizer (307) produces heat. The fiber (402) inside the cigarette liquid bottle (401) contains cigarette liquid, which soaks the micro-porous ceramics (801) inside the atomizer through the fiber (402). The air enters through the air intake hole (502), passes through the run-through hole on the air-liquid separator (303), and helps to form air-liquid mixture in the spray nozzle (304) of the atomizer (307). The air-liquid mixture sprays onto the heating body (305), gets vaporized, and is quickly absorbed into the airflow and condensed into aerosol, which passes through the air intake hole (503) and suction nozzle (403) to form white mist type aerosol. When suction stops, the switch spring (212) and sensor (207) are reset; the atomizer (307) stops working; the indicators (202) gradually die down. When the operation times reaches the pre-set value, the atomizer (307) provides a work delay of 5-20 seconds per time, so as to remove the micro-dirt accumulated on the heating body (305). Besides the micro-porous ceramics, the liquid supply material of the atomizer (307) may also be foamed ceramics, micro-porous glass, foamed metal, stainless steel fiber felt, terylene fiber, nylon fiber, nitrile fiber, aramid fiber or hard porous plastics. The heating body (305) is made of the micro-porous ceramics on which nickel-chromium alloy wire, iron-chromium alloy wire, platinum wire, or other electro thermal materials are wound. Alternatively, it may be a porous component directly made of electrically conductive ceramics or PTC (Positive Temperature Coefficient) ceramics and associated with a sintered electrode. The surface of the heating body (305) is sintered into high-temperature glaze to fix the zeolite grains, which are made of natural zeolite, artificial non-organic micro-porous ceramics or aluminum oxide grains. The cigarette liquid bottle (401) and suction nozzle (403) in the cigarette bottle assembly are made of non-toxic plastic. The fiber (402) inside of them is made of polypropylene fiber or nylon fiber to absorb cigarette liquid. In the battery assembly, there is a fine hole (501) on the indicator cap (201) for balancing the pressure difference on both sides of the silica gel corrugated membrane (208). The cigarette liquid contains 0.1-3.5% nicotine, 0.05-5% tobacco flavor, 0.1-3% organic acid, 0.1-0.5% stabilizer, and propanediol for the remaining. The primary and secondary shells (211, 306) are made of stainless steel tube or copper alloy tube with baked-enamel coating of real cigarette color. As shown in FIG. 12, the diameter of the battery assembly may be increased in proportion, so that it is consistent with the diameter of the atomizer assembly. Its shell may be decorated with the leaf veins and sub-gloss brown-yellow baked-enamel coating, to create a cigar type device. For charging the lithium ion battery (203), the screw thread electrode (601) matches the external thread electrode (209) on the battery assembly, so that it may be used as the charging interface. The design in FIG. 2B is difference from the design in FIG. 1A as follows: Microcircuit (206) is added between MOSFET electric circuit board (205) and sensor (207). On the surface of the primary shell (211), there is a screen (204) for display of the power of the lithium ion battery (203) and the sucking times. As shown in FIG. 5B, a fully charged battery assembly is attached onto the atomizer assembly, which is then inserted into the cigarette bottle assembly shown on FIG. 4. When the user slightly sucks the suction nozzle (403), negative pressure forms on the silica gel corrugated membrane (208) through the air intake hole (503) and the primary and secondary negative pressure cavities (210, 301). The silica gel corrugated membrane (208), under the action of suction pressure difference, distorts to drive the switch spring (212) and sensor (207), thus activating the Microcircuit (206) and MOSFET electric circuit board (205). At this moment, the indicators (202) are lit gradually; the lithium ion battery (203) electrifies the heating body (305) inside the atomizer (307) through MOSFET electric circuit board (205) as well as the internal and external thread electrodes (302, 209), so that the heating body (305) inside the atomizer (307) produces heat. The fiber (402) inside the cigarette liquid bottle (401) contains cigarette liquid, which soaks the micro-porous ceramics (801) inside the atomizer through the fiber (402). The air enters through the air intake hole (502), passes through the run-through hole on the air-liquid separator (303), and helps to form air-liquid mixture in the spray nozzle (304) of the atomizer (307). The air-liquid mixture sprays onto the heating body (305), gets vaporized, and is quickly absorbed into the airflow and condensed into aerosol, which passes through the air intake hole (503) and suction nozzle (403) to form white mist type aerosol. As shown in FIG. 7, when the action of suction activates the sensor, Microcircuit (206) scans the sensor (207) in the power-saving mode of pulse, and according to the signal parameters of the sensor (207), restricts the atomizing capacity with the integral function of frequency to single operation time. Also, the microcircuit (206) accomplishes the pulse width modulation and over discharging protection for the constant power output, automatic cleansing for thousands of times per operation, step lighting/dying down control of the indicator, display of the operation times and battery capacity, automatic recovery after sensor malfunction shutdown, etc. The unit and its connecting structure may also be loaded with drugs for delivery to the lung. Above are just specifications of an example and do not necessarily restrict the scope of protection. Any equivalent modification made on the basis of the design spirit shall fall into the scope of protection. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Although smoking causes serious respiratory diseases and cancers, it is difficult to get smokers to quit smoking. Nicotine is the effective ingredient in cigarettes. Nicotine is a micro-molecular alkaloid which is basically harmless to humans at low dosages. Tar is the major harmful substance in tobacco. Tobacco tar contains thousands of ingredients, dozens of which are carcinogenic. Cigarette substitutes have used relatively pure nicotine in patches, chewing gum and aerosols. Still disadvantages remain with cigarette substitutes or products for helping smokers to quit smoking. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>An improved electronic cigarette has a battery assembly, an atomizer assembly and a cigarette bottle assembly. The battery assembly connects with one end of the atomizer assembly, and the cigarette bottle assembly is inserted into the other end of the atomizer assembly, thus forming one cigarette type or cigar type body. Use of the electronic cigarette reduces cancer risks and fire hazards while providing a simulated smoking experience. | A24F47008 | 20170627 | 20171012 | 79125.0 | A24F4700 | 2 | KRINKER, YANA B | ELECTRONIC CIGARETTE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A24F | 2,017 |
|
15,635,097 | PENDING | WEB-BASED POINT OF SALE BUILDER | This invention provides a system and a method for online, web-based point of sale (POS) building and configuration, which can assist non-expert business operators in building, editing and testing a point of sale system to manage their businesses. The business operations range from a single branch to a large chain of stores or branches. The key advantages of the Web-based POS builder are that it is completely built on the foundation of the Web. The POS builder is accessible anywhere in the world. It can be used by a person of any skill level. The POS builder builds, edits, and tests new POS terminals in real time. | 1. (canceled) 2. (canceled) 3. A web-based point of sale (POS) builder system comprising: a web server having installed thereon POS builder software; one or more POS terminals generated by said POS builder software and said one or more POS terminals accessible at one or more terminal devices, said POS terminals accepting POS transactions and collecting corresponding transaction data; and a POS builder interface accessible via network communication with said web server over a communications network; wherein said POS builder interface is utilized to access said POS builder software for programmatically creating or modifying said POS terminals in real time over the network, wherein said POS builder software interacts with said one or more POS terminals over the network in order for the system to perform functions in accordance with instructions sent from the POS builder interface; wherein said POS transactions and corresponding transaction data from said one or more POS terminals are transmitted to said web server via the network; and wherein each POS transaction is correlated with corresponding transaction data occurring at said POS terminals. 4. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein use of said POS builder interface requires no special training. 5. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein said POS terminals are tested iteratively in real time while said POS terminals are operable to accept POS transactions. 6. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein at least one of said POS builder interface and said one or more POS terminals may be implemented without specialized hardware or software at a given terminal device. 7. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein said POS builder software is made available as software as a service (SAAS). 8. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein said web server is a standard internet web server implemented with standard web server hardware and software, using one or more relational databases, wherein software for said POS builder interface resides in and is executed from said web server. 9. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein said POS builder software provides instructions to add new POS terminals. 10. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein said POS builder software provides instructions to modify existing POS terminals. 11. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein the number, shape and arrangement of selection keys or buttons for said POS terminals are specified from the POS builder interface. 12. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 11, wherein items are associated with said keys or buttons from the POS builder interface. 13. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 12, wherein attributes are attributed to said items from the POS builder interface. 14. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 13, wherein said attributes are stored, retrievable and changeable from a database stored on said web server. 15. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein said POS terminals are accessible by a web browser. 16. The web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 3, wherein said POS terminals, once generated, operate independently of said web server. 17. A method of implementing a web-based point of sale (POS) builder system, said system comprising a network-accessible web server having installed thereon POS builder software, the method comprising: providing access to said web server by one or more POS terminals, said POS terminals being generated from instructions communicated from said POS builder software to respective one or more terminal devices; accepting POS transactions via said POS terminals; collecting transaction data corresponding to transactions occurring at said one or more POS terminals; and providing further access to said web server by a POS builder interface via a communications network, said POS builder software being configured to programmatically create or modify said one or more POS terminals in real time over the network; wherein said POS builder software interacts with said one or more POS terminals over said network in order for the system to perform functions in accordance with instructions sent from the POS builder interface; wherein said POS transactions and corresponding transaction data from said one or more POS terminals are transmitted to said web server via a network connection; and wherein each POS transaction is correlated with corresponding transaction data occurring at said POS terminals. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein use of said POS builder interface requires no special training. 19. The method of providing a web-based point of sale (POS) builder system of claim 17, wherein the method further comprises testing of said POS terminals iteratively in real time while said POS terminals are operable to accept POS transactions. 20. The method of claim 17, wherein at least one of said POS builder interface and said one or more POS terminals may be implemented without specialized hardware or software at a given terminal device. 21. The method of claim 17, wherein said POS builder software is made available as software as a service (SAAS). 22. The method of claim 17, wherein said web server is a standard internet web server, implemented with standard web server hardware and software, using one or more relational databases, wherein programming for said POS builder interface resides in and is executed from said web server. 23. The method of claim 17, wherein the number, shape and arrangement of selection keys or buttons for said POS terminals are specified from the POS builder interface. 24. The method of claim 23, wherein items are associated with said keys or buttons from the POS builder interface. 25. The method of claim 24, wherein attributes are attributed to said items, said attributes stored, retrievable and changeable from a back office database stored on said web server. 26. The method of claim 17, wherein said POS terminals are accessible by a web browser. 27. The method of claim 17, wherein said POS terminals, once generated, are operable independently of said web server. | This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/012,666, filed on Feb. 5, 2008, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety, and assigned to a common assignee. RELATED PATENT APPLICATIONS This application is related to docket number TY2006-001, filed on Feb. 26, 2007, Ser. No. 11,710,722 and docket number TY2006-002, filed on Feb. 26, 2007, Ser. No. 11,710,723, which are herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention This invention relates to a system and a method for building a point of sale (POS) system to manage business operations. The business operations range from a single branch to a large chain of stores or branches. More particularly this invention relates to an online, web-based point of sale builder method, which can assist nonexpert business operators in assembling a point of sale system to manage their businesses. Description of Related Art Current practice in the field of assembling point of sale systems includes manually coding front-of-screen information. Typically, this front-of-screen information contains menu selections, page selections, and general answers to business questions. This front-of-screen menu is typically manually coded by a business expert with the help of a programmer or data expert. Also, currently the entry of this front-of-screen information requires intimate knowledge of a complex interface to a front-of-screen programming language. In summary, current practice includes the manual building of a point of sale (POS) screen. This manual process requires defining the position and operation of touch screen keys and their database correspondence. Currently, only specially trained people can build or change POS screens. This manual POS building and editing is prone to mistakes and is time-consuming. Since POS screen changes are difficult and prone to error, store owners tend to retain older, inaccurate, out-of-date POS screens in order to avoid the POS screen editing process. Also, current POS screen editing occurs off-line with the testing of the screens occurring at a later date, at a remote store location. The following references represent prior art in the field of screen configuration building. U.S. Pat. No. 5,818,428 (Eisenbrandt et al.) describes a control system with a user configurable interface, particularly suitable for use in connection with appliances. Users can configure display screens either at a point of sale location or at home with a personal computer. U.S. Pat. No. 6,629,080 B1 (Kolls) describes a universal advertising and payment system and method for networking, monitoring and advancing electronic commerce and controlling vending equipment. U.S. Pat. No. 7,051,091B1 (Cohen et al.) discloses a configuration builder useful in configuring software containing hardware units which are serviced by a center which services a multiplicity of similar units having a plurality of different configurations. U.S. Pat. No. 5,987,426 (Goodwin) describes a system and method of transferring information between a first software application and a second software application which employ an isolation layer. The system includes a client computer system provided by a first seller of computer systems, including a client software application, and a server computer system provided by a second seller of computer system. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is the objective of this invention to provide a system and a method for building a point of sale (POS) system to manage business operations. The business operations range from a single branch to a large chain of stores or branches. It is further an object of this invention to provide an online, web-based point of sale builder system and method, which can assist non-expert or expert business operators in assembling a point of sale system to manage their businesses. This point of sale building operation can be done in real time from anywhere in the world. The objects of this invention are achieved by a web-based point of sale (POS) builder comprising one or more point of sale terminals, which display POS, screens, an Internet connection to a web server, one or more local or remote PC workstations, and point of sale builder software which runs on said web server. Local or remote workstations can be utilized to build or edit said POS terminals in real time, from anywhere in the world and over the world-wide web. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows a typical point of sale touch screen for a pretzel store, as an example only. FIG. 2 shows a typical touch screen for the drinks panel of a pizza restaurant, as an example only. FIG. 3 is a system diagram for web-based back office which supports point of sale terminals. FIG. 4a is a sample screen builder panel before the screen building process begins. FIG. 4b is a sample screen builder panel after the screen building process is under way. FIG. 5 is a high level flowchart which illustrates the main embodiment of the screen building process. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIG. 1 shows a typical point of sale (POS) touch screen for, as an example only, a pretzel store. There are touch keys for pretzels 11 and for drinks 12. Selecting these keys would typically bring up secondary screens displaying specific product keys for ordering different types of pretzels and drinks respectively. In addition, the screen in FIG. 1 has some specific pretzel product keys 13 and specific pretzel topping keys 14. Currently in the prior art, a touch screen as shown in FIG. 1 is manually configured by a programmer who knows the specific proprietary point of sale system used by a store or business. The FIG. 1 screen design involves the specific key layout and size of keys. In addition, the FIG. 1 screen keys must have corresponding hooks or references to product data such as item name, price, cost, group, taxable, and inventory as shown in FIG. 4. In this invention, this product data and the touch key structure is stored in relational databases in the back office which is stored on the web servers 36 shown in FIG. 3. As an example only, FIG. 2 shows a touch screen for the drinks page of a pizza restaurant. Again in the prior art, a specialized programmer had to design the layout and data for these POS touch keys. Typically, the programmer is located remotely from the store or business. He or she must learn about the store's POS requirements via phone calls, emails, and meetings with store operators. In addition, the programmer would need to iterate several passes of the touch screen design and allow the store operator to test the screens. With this invention, the store operator will be able to build his POS screens online over the Internet. With input from the store operator, the POS builder can specify and display the number, shape and arrangement of selection keys or buttons on said POS screens. The store operator, who does not have to be technically trained, will be able to edit and test his screens until he is satisfied with the end results. The testing of said POS screens can be done iteratively by the store operator in real time while said POS terminals are simultaneously in use during store and business operation hours or after store hours. Alternatively, the testing of said POS screens can be done iteratively by a remotely located person such as a store manager or director in real time while said POS terminals are simultaneously in use during store hours or after store hours. All backoffice changes which include screen changes, price changes, employee validation changes are submitted to a batch bucket or queue. These changes have to be submitted for final posting at a scheduled time. For example, the phasing in of new screens and/or new data such as prices and employee validation can be scheduled. The time schedule for uploading or posting these screen changes and/or new data can be specified as follows. Only as examples, the changes can take place after the present transactions are completed. Alternatively, the changes can take place at the end of the business day, during the night, at the start of the next day or at the next application restart for example. Typically, screen changes will take place at the next application start at the beginning of a business day. This automatic online POS builder will reduce the development time for POS screens by weeks. In addition, the store operator will be able to edit the POS screens and its relational databases any time as often as desired. In addition, the store operator will be able to edit, change and test the screens within minutes in real time. The store operator can iterate these changes instantly until he gets the desired screen appearance. This real-time testing and iteration of screen designs is an important feature of this invention. This feature motivates the store operator to keep his screens up to date and accurate. Previously, the store operator would avoid updating screens, since it involved the time and expense of working with programmers off line. FIG. 3 shows a high level diagram of this invention. There are N POS terminals (POS 1, POS 2 . . . POS N) in “Store” 31 and in “Store N” 32. POS 31 is in Store 1 and POS 2 (32) is in Store 2. Each POS includes personal computer hardware and software. Additional POS terminals beyond those shown, as well as additional stores beyond the two shown, are within the scope of the invention. Each POS normally operates with a hardware/software connection 35 to the Internet or Web. However, if the web goes down, the POS terminal continues to operate. There is a “loose coupling” of the POS to the back office (BO): the POS to BO connection is not required for the basic business functions of the POS. All transaction data is stored in a relational database on the hard drive in the POS. A relational database stores all of its data inside tables. All operations on data are done on the tables themselves. Some operation produce other tables as the result. A table is a set of rows and columns. Each row is a set of Columns with only one value for each. All rows from the same table have the same set of columns, although some columns may have NULL values. A NULL value is an “unknown” value. The rows from a relational table are analogous to a record, and the columns are analogous to a field. Below is an example of a relational table. NAME COMPANY E_MAIL Jane A. Doe ABC [email protected] Bill X. Smith XYZ [email protected] There are two basic operations one can perform on a relational table. The first one is retrieving a subset of its columns. The second is retrieving a subset of its rows. The field names such as company describe the content of the columns of the relational table. The rows delineate the individual records stored in the relational tables. As transactions are created at a POS a log entry for the newest transaction is also created, this log entry is used to flag if the transaction has been uploaded to the web server. Part of the POS application, the BO interface is continuously running in the background. This component reads the log of transactions. If a transaction needs to be sent, it tries to send it. If the send fails (for example, if the connection to, or the Internet itself, is down), it goes to sleep and tries again later. Additionally, the BO interface requests update from the BO such as new items, price changes, employees, etc. The POS terminals communicate via HTTP protocol (hypertext transfer protocol) 35 with Back-office BO software, which is implemented on web servers 36, which can be located anywhere in the world. In addition, the BO software and data can be viewed from any store employee at any PC 33 who has Internet access 37 and a password. The POS such as 31 send transaction data to the BO in the form of an HTTP post or communication. The packet 35 sent from the POS to the BO consists of transactions, employee clock, customer add/update, item add/update, promotions and more. Promotions are configured in the back office and associated with items or customers or departments. For example, a promotion may be associated with a customer to implement customer loyalty points or a promotion may be associated with a certain item for a % discount. A client who is the store manager or owner selects a promotion type, associates it with an item, department, etc, then sets the parameters that control ho that promotion works. These transaction transmissions between the POS and the BO can be encrypted to insure privacy and security. A typical encryption method is 128 bit SSL (secure sockets layer). A further element of security is that each BO client (individual POS, store or multi-store owner) gets their own instance of a database. When they log into the BO they are attached to their own relational database associated and validated via their user login and password. FIGS. 4a and 4b show a typical web-based POS builder interface. FIG. 4a shows a grid of boxes labeled with screen numbers 1-4. Typically, screens will have screen names such as in 21, “Subs”. Under each screen box column are boxes labeled “Add Item”. These boxes allow the addition of different products such as small pizza, large pizza, etc. as shown in FIG. 4b. FIG. 4b shows the data interface which would appear when selecting the large pizza box. The store operator would be able to enter and/or modify item name, price, cost, group, taxable and inventory. The above illustrates the ease of building POS screens by store operators via the Web. FIG. 5 shows a flowchart of the point of sale builder methodology. The flow in FIG. 5 also refers to FIGS. 4a and 4b. The Begin POS Build block 51 is entered when the Builder Program is initiated 50 from a Web page action. When creating a new POS, Block 51 brings up a screen such as that shown in FIG. 4a. The screens in FIG. 4a need to be defined. Block 53 allows the store operator to select which screen number to define. FIG. 4b shows what appears on the Web screen after the store operator selects screen #1 (53) to work on. In FIG. 5, Block 54 allows the store operator to enter/edit the screen name being worked on, such as pizza, as an example only, in FIG. 4b. In FIG. 5, block 54 allows the store operator to enter the number of touch keys planned for the pizza screen, as an example only. FIG. 4b shows the screen after a few touch screen buttons have been defined. Screen 1 has been labeled Pizza. The pizza screen in FIG. 4b currently has 1 touch screen button item defined on the screen, Large pizza 22. The Large Pizza item button was entered by hitting ADD Item 20 in FIG. 4a. After hitting add item, FIG. 4b appears with the template 23 to be filled in. This step is shown in block 56 of FIG. 5. The template includes Item Name, Price, Cost, Group, Taxable, Inventory. Item Name is Large Pizza. Price is easily changeable, Cost is the cost of making materials. Group is the Pizza Group, Taxable is as yes or no selection. Inventory can be used to monitor the number of Large Pizza's makeable with the dough, cheese and sauce on hand. Other Template items can be added to the template 23 in FIG. 4b. In FIG. 5, block 57 asks whether the screen being worked on i.e.) Pizza Screen is done. If the store operator answers yes 59, the flowchart flows to Node 52 in FIG. 5. This allows the store operator to select another screen # as shown In FIG. 4a. If the store operator answers no 58, the flowchart flows to Node 55 in FIG. 5. This allows the store operator to select, add,or edit another item on the pizza screen. The key advantages of the Web-based POS builder are that it is completely built on the foundation of the Web. The POS builder is accessible anywhere in the world. It can be used by a person of any skill level. The POS builder builds, edits, and tests new POS terminals in real time. In addition, all screen designs and changes are reflected real-time into the back office (BO) server's screen database. For example, all screen designs inputted from any PC in the world appear instantly in the BO screen database, which is instantly viewable anywhere in the world via web browsers. Another big advantage is that all screen design software is located and executed in the BO server. Since all screen designs and changes are immediately visible from any manager's PC at their home or at headquarters, there is always management oversight of these changes. Therefore, this screen builder allows for local in-store flexibility by the individual store operator or manager, but also provides for corporate visibility of screens instantly for control and standardization. Also, this screen builder does not require the need for any server to be located in the store. Another advantage of this system is the use of standard PC and web architecture which offers both full-scalability without degrading system performance. This results in improved performance and lower cost of implementing these business systems. There is a lower cost associated with projects developed with the technology of this invention due to the flexibility of easy design changes and well-understood software. There is less training required for programmers and system testers. Projects can draw on the huge talent pool in the open source development community. The invention allows configurable software modules for different types of businesses and sales promotions. The invention allows remote monitoring of screen designs from anywhere via the web. There is minimal time required for the implementation and installation of the POS builder system, since the POS builder setup is as basic as a home PC setup. Another advantage is that the POS builder system can be provided as a service or deployed within a corporation. For example, Software as a Service (SAAS) is a software distribution model in which applications are hosted by a vendor or service provider and made available to customers over a network, typically the Internet. Another advantage of this invention is that the POS builder system is maintained in customer centric databases, making it impossible for customers to see other's data. Each POS builder system client gets their own instance of a database. When they log into the BO they are attached to their own relational database associated and validated via their user login and password. While this invention has been particularly shown and described with Reference to the preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those Skilled in the art that various changes in form and details may be made without Departing from the spirit and scope of this invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is the objective of this invention to provide a system and a method for building a point of sale (POS) system to manage business operations. The business operations range from a single branch to a large chain of stores or branches. It is further an object of this invention to provide an online, web-based point of sale builder system and method, which can assist non-expert or expert business operators in assembling a point of sale system to manage their businesses. This point of sale building operation can be done in real time from anywhere in the world. The objects of this invention are achieved by a web-based point of sale (POS) builder comprising one or more point of sale terminals, which display POS, screens, an Internet connection to a web server, one or more local or remote PC workstations, and point of sale builder software which runs on said web server. Local or remote workstations can be utilized to build or edit said POS terminals in real time, from anywhere in the world and over the world-wide web. | G06F830 | 20170627 | 20171019 | 95412.0 | G06F944 | 3 | MASUD, ROKIB | WEB-BASED POINT OF SALE BUILDER | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,017 |
|
15,635,604 | PENDING | Image Forming Apparatus, Conductive Member Service Life Determination Method, And Conductive Member Service Life Determination Program | An image forming apparatus provided with a conductive member to form an image on a sheet using a toner includes: a voltage acquisition portion configured to acquire a biased voltage value as a voltage value by applying a bias to the conductive member; an environment sensor configured to output an environment condition measurement value representing an internal environment condition; and a hardware processor configured to transform the biased voltage value acquired by the voltage acquisition portion into a virtual voltage value appearing in the conductive member as the biased voltage value under a standard environment condition, in which the environment condition has a predetermined standard condition, on the basis of the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor, and determine a service life of the conductive member on the basis of the virtual voltage value. | 1. An image forming apparatus provided with a conductive member to form an image on a sheet using a toner, the image forming apparatus comprising: a voltage acquisition portion acquiring a biased voltage value as a voltage value by applying a bias to the conductive member; an environment sensor outputting an environment condition measurement value representing an internal environment condition; and a hardware processor transforming the biased voltage value acquired by the voltage acquisition portion into a virtual voltage value appearing in the conductive member as the biased voltage value under a standard environment condition, in which the environment condition has a predetermined standard condition, on the basis of the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor, and determining a service life of the conductive member on the basis of the virtual voltage value. 2. The image forming apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the hardware processor uses, as the standard environment condition, the most frequent environment condition in a history of the environment condition measurement value when the biased voltage value is acquired. 3. The image forming apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the hardware processor allows a user to select the environment condition used as the standard environment condition and uses the selected environment condition as the standard environment condition subsequently. 4. The image forming apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the biased voltage value is a voltage value for applying a constant current to the conductive member. 5. The image forming apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the hardware processor acquires a first critical voltage value appearing when the conductive member reaches a wear-out limitation under the standard environment condition, and a second critical voltage value appearing when the conductive member reaches the wear-out limitation under an environment condition corresponding to the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor, acquires the virtual voltage value by applying a coefficient obtained by dividing the first critical voltage value by the second critical voltage value to the biased voltage value acquired by the voltage acquisition portion, and determines that abnormality occurs when the virtual voltage value is equal to or larger than a predetermined critical value. 6. The image forming apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the hardware processor sets a range of the next virtual voltage value when the virtual voltage value is obtained, and determines that abnormality occurs when the next virtual voltage value obtained actually is within the range. 7. The image forming apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the hardware processor computes a wear rate as a proportion of a consumed part of the service life against the entire service life of the conductive member by dividing a difference obtained by subtracting, from the virtual voltage value, an initial standard voltage value as a voltage value appearing as the biased voltage value under the standard environment condition when the conductive member is a new product, by a difference obtained by subtracting the initial standard voltage value from the first critical voltage value. 8. The image forming apparatus according to claim 5, wherein the hardware processor stores a relationship between a temperature and a critical voltage value for each absolute humidity based on the environment condition, and reads the first and second critical voltage values from a relationship between a temperature and a critical voltage value for each absolute humidity on the basis of a standard environment condition and an environment condition corresponding to the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor. 9. The image forming apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the conductive member is formed of an ionic conductive material. 10. The image forming apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the hardware processor uses an environment condition including a temperature of 15 to 25° C. and a relative humidity of 25 to 75% as the standard environment condition. 11. A conductive member service life determination method executed in an image forming apparatus provided with a conductive member to form an image on a sheet using a toner, the conductive member service life determination method comprising: a voltage acquisition step of acquiring a biased voltage value as a voltage value obtained by applying a bias to the conductive member; an environment acquisition step of acquiring an environment condition measurement value representing an internal environment condition; a step of transforming the biased voltage value acquired in the voltage acquisition step into a virtual voltage value indicated by the conductive member as the biased voltage value under the standard environment condition in which the environment condition has a predetermined standard condition on the basis of the environment condition measurement value acquired in the environment acquisition step; and a step of determining a service life of the conductive member on the basis of the virtual voltage value. 12. A non-transitory computer-readable storage medium that stores a program for causing a computer to execute the conductive member service life determination method according to claim 11. 13. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 12, wherein, in the step of determining a service life, the most frequent environment condition in a history of the environment condition measurement value at the time of acquisition of the biased voltage value is used as the standard environment condition. 14. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 12, wherein, in the step of determining a service life, a user is allowed to select an environment condition used as the standard environment condition, and the selected environment condition is used as the standard environment condition subsequently. 15. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 12, wherein the biased voltage value is a voltage value for applying a constant current to the conductive member. 16. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 12, wherein the step of determining a service life includes the steps of: acquiring a first critical voltage value appearing in a wear-out limitation of the conductive member under a standard environment condition and a second critical voltage value appearing in a wear-out limitation of the conductive member under an environment condition corresponding to the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor; acquiring a virtual voltage value by applying a coefficient obtained by dividing the first critical voltage value by the second critical voltage value to the biased voltage value acquired by the voltage acquisition portion; and determining that abnormality occurs when the virtual voltage value is equal to or higher than a predetermined critical value. 17. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 16, wherein, in the step of determining a service life, a range of the next virtual voltage value is set when the virtual voltage value is obtained, and it is determined that abnormality occurs when the next virtual voltage value obtained actually is within the range. 18. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 16, wherein the step of determining a service life further includes a step of computing a wear rate as a proportion of a consumed part with respect to the entire service life of the conductive member by dividing a difference obtained by subtracting, from the virtual voltage value, an initial standard voltage value which is a voltage value appearing in a new product of the conductive member as the biased voltage value under the standard environment condition by a difference obtained by subtracting the initial standard voltage value from the first critical voltage value. 19. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 16, wherein the step of determining a service life further includes the steps of: storing a relationship between a temperature and a critical voltage value for each absolute humidity based on an environment condition; and reading the first and second critical voltage values from the relationship between the temperature and the critical voltage value for each absolute humidity on the basis of the standard environment condition and the environment condition corresponding to the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor. 20. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 12, wherein the conductive member is formed of an ionic conductive material. 21. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 12, wherein, in the step of determining a service life, an environment condition having a temperature of 15 to 25° C. and a relative humidity of 25 to 75% is used as the standard environment condition. | This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to Japanese Patent Application No. 2016-129163 filed on Jun. 29, 2016, the entire disclosure, including description, claims, drawings, and abstract, of which is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND Technical Field The present invention relates to an image forming apparatus that forms an image using a toner. More specifically, the present invention relates to an image forming apparatus having a conductive member used for image formation in an image forming portion, in which an increase of resistance accompanied by wear-out of the conductive member brings an end of a service life of the conductive member. In addition, the present invention also relates to a conductive member service life determination method for the image forming apparatus and a conductive member service life determination program executed by a computer that controls the image forming apparatus. Description of the Related Art In the related art, a conductive member is used for various purposes in an image forming portion of an image forming apparatus that forms an image using a toner. For example, the conductive member includes a charging roller, a transfer roller, a developing roller, and the like. Typically, a resistance of such a conductive member tends to increase as it is worn out. As the resistance of the conductive member increases, image quality is degraded, and finally, the conductive member encounters its service limitation. The conductive member encountering the service limitation is to be replaced with a new product. For this reason, some techniques have been proposed in the art to recognize the service limitation in advance. JP 2003-195700 A discusses such a technique by way of example. In the technique of JP 2003-195700 A, a service life of the transfer roller is determined using a service life determination program on the basis of a voltage value for flowing a predetermined current through the transfer roller and a condition such as temperature and humidity at that timing. In this service life determination program, a service life table is used, in which the service lives and the voltage values to be determined are set for each environment condition. The service life is determined by mapping the measured voltage value of the transfer roller to a voltage value defined for the temperature and humidity of that timing in the service life table. However, the technique of the related art described above has the following problems. In some cases, service life detection accuracy is unsatisfactory because of a characteristic of the voltage value exhibited by the conductive member. A general characteristic of the voltage value exhibited by the conductive member against the environment condition is shown in a graph of FIG. 1. As illustrated in FIG. 1, assuming that the abscissa refers to the environment condition (such as temperature or humidity), and the ordinate refers to the voltage value, the graph representing a relationship between the environment condition and the voltage value has a hyperbolic curve shape. Here, in FIG. 1, considering a variation of the detected voltage value, a lower limit voltage value is indicated by the solid line, and an upper limit voltage value is indicated by the dotted line. The dotted line curve of FIG. 1 may be considered as upward parallel translation of the solid line curve. From the characteristic of the graph of FIG. 1, it is difficult to anticipate accuracy in the voltage value measured under a momentarily changing environment condition because the solid line curve or the dotted line curve has a steep slope in a low-temperature low-humidity side. For this reason, a slight fluctuation of the temperature/humidity (“X” in FIG. 1) generates a large variation of the voltage value (detection variation in the “low-temperature low-humidity side” in FIG. 1). Meanwhile, in the high-temperature high-humidity side, the slope of the curve is gentle, but the measured voltage value itself is small. For this reason, a gap between the solid line curve and the dotted line curve works significant as a variation of the voltage value. For this reason, the measured voltage value itself becomes irregular (“detection variation in high-temperature high-humidity side” in FIG. 1). Nevertheless, if the environment condition keeps changing in the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity (NN) state for a long time, the detected voltage value gently increases as illustrated in FIG. 2. For this reason, a normal service life can be generally detected by setting a normal range for an approximation against a change of the detected voltage value (oblique bold line rising to the right side in FIG. 2) to about ±10%. When the detected voltage value reaches the “NN” threshold (horizontal bold line in FIG. 2), it may be determined that the service life is terminated. Although an abnormal value may occur from time to time, it is within a negligible range. Note that the “NN” threshold value refers to a voltage value specified for the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition in the aforementioned service life table. However, in reality, a change of the environment condition is rarely maintained in the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity state for a long time. Actually, by all means, the environment condition unexpectedly changes as illustrated in FIG. 3. For this reason, while the detected voltage value is low under the high-temperature high-humidity (HH) condition, the detected voltage value is high under the low-temperature low-humidity (LL) condition as described above. Therefore, the detected voltage value is seriously fluctuated. Naturally, the determination threshold value itself is low under the high-temperature high-humidity condition (HH threshold value), and the determination threshold value itself is high under the low-temperature low-humidity condition (LL threshold value). However, under such a circumstance, reliability of the service life determination is inevitably low. This is because the detected voltage value itself has low accuracy under the high-temperature high-humidity condition or under the low-temperature low-humidity condition as described above. For this reason, a replacement timing of the conductive member may be delayed or expedited in some cases. SUMMARY The present invention has been made to address the aforementioned problems of the related art. That is, an object of the present invention is to provide an image forming apparatus capable of detecting a service life of the conductive member with high accuracy regardless of an environmental factor. In addition, another object of the present invention is to provide a conductive member service life determination method for the image forming apparatus and a conductive member service life determination program executed by a computer that controls the image forming apparatus. To achieve at least one of the abovementioned objects, according to an aspect, an image forming apparatus provided with a conductive member to form an image on a sheet using a toner, reflecting one aspect of the present invention comprises: a voltage acquisition portion configured to acquire a biased voltage value as a voltage value by applying a bias to the conductive member; an environment sensor configured to output an environment condition measurement value representing an internal environment condition; and a hardware processor configured to transform the biased voltage value acquired by the voltage acquisition portion into a virtual voltage value appearing in the conductive member as the biased voltage value under a standard environment condition, in which the environment condition has a predetermined standard condition, on the basis of the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor, and determine a service life of the conductive member on the basis of the virtual voltage value. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The above and other objects, advantages and features provided by one or more embodiments of the invention will become more fully understood from the detailed description given hereinbelow and the appended drawings which are given by way of illustration only, and thus are not intended as a definition of the limits of the present invention, and wherein: FIG. 1 is a graph illustrating a relationship between a voltage value of a conductive member and an environmental value; FIG. 2 is a graph illustrating a change of the detected voltage value under a neutral-temperature neutral-humidity environment; FIG. 3 is a graph illustrating a change of the detected voltage value under a real environment; FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view illustrating a whole structure of an image forming apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a conductive member and a service life management mechanism according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a graph illustrating a change of the virtual voltage value obtained by transforming the detected voltage value under a real environment; FIG. 7 is a graph illustrating critical voltage values specified for each environment; FIG. 8 is a table showing coefficients of an approximation for each absolute humidity; and FIG. 9 is a graph illustrating a method of determining abnormality in a plot of the virtual voltage value. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, one or more embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to the drawings. However, the scope of the invention is not limited to the illustrated examples. The embodiments are obtained by applying the present invention to the image forming apparatus 1 of FIG. 4. The image forming apparatus 1 of FIG. 4 has an image forming portion 2 and a paper feeder 3. The image forming portion 2 according to an embodiment of the present invention is a tandem double-transfer type having four image forming units 4, an intermediate transfer belt 5, and a secondary transfer roller 6. The four image forming units 4 correspond to four colors including yellow, magenta, cyan, and black, and each image forming unit 4 has a photosensitive body 7, a charging roller 8, an exposure device 9, a developer 10, a primary transfer roller 11, and a cleaner 12. The developer 10 has a developing roller 13. The image forming portion 2 is further provided with a fixing device 14. As a result, a toner image is transferred onto a sheet supplied from the paper feeder 3 using the image forming portion 2, and the toner image is fixed using the fixing device 14. In the image forming apparatus 1 according to this embodiment, the secondary transfer roller 6, the charging roller 8, the primary transfer roller 11, and the developing roller 13 are conductive members having resistance increasing along with wear-out. In the image forming apparatus 1 according to this embodiment, service life management is performed by measuring a voltage of the conductive member. Out of the conductive members described above, the charging roller 8 will now be described representatively. The image forming apparatus 1 according to this embodiment has a configuration of FIG. 5 in order to manage the service life of the charging roller 8. As illustrated in FIG. 5, the charging roller 8 has a bias applying portion 15. The bias applying portion 15 is connected to a controller 16. The controller 16 is also connected to a temperature/humidity sensor 17 in addition to the bias applying portion 15. The controller 16 includes a central processing unit (CPU) and a memory. The memory stores a program executed by the CPU. The bias applying portion 15 applies a bias to the charging roller 8 in typical image formation. However, according to this embodiment, a voltage of the charging roller 8 is measured for service life management of the charging roller 8 as well. Specifically, a bias is applied to allow a predetermined constant current to flow through the charging roller 8, and a voltage value of that timing is acquired as a biased voltage value. The biased voltage value acquired in this manner reflects an electric resistance of the charging roller 8 of that timing. As the electric resistance of the charging roller 8 increases by wear-out, the biased voltage value acquired by the bias applying portion 15 also increases. In addition, according to this embodiment, the constant current is set to several tens of microamperes (μA). This is nearly the same as the current flowing through the charging roller 8 in typical image formation. The controller 16 controls the bias applied to the charging roller 8 from the bias applying portion 15. The controller 16 performs a bias control for service life management as well as the control for typical image formation. The bias control for service life management includes the following three operations. As a first operation, a constant current is applied to the charging roller 8, and a voltage at that timing is acquired as the biased voltage value. As a second operation, the biased voltage value is transformed to a virtual voltage value on the basis of an environment measurement value output from the temperature/humidity sensor 17. The transformation will be described below in more details. As a third operation, the virtual voltage value obtained through the transformation is compared with a predetermined critical value. If the virtual voltage value is equal to or higher than the critical value, it is determined that the charging roller 8 is abnormal. Such a voltage for service life management is measured while no image formation is performed instead of typical image formation. Specifically, the voltage measurement may be performed immediately after power on of the image forming apparatus 1, immediately before power off, or periodically whenever a predetermined number of sheets are printed (several hundreds to several thousands of sheets). In addition, when this voltage is measured, the environment measurement value from the temperature/humidity sensor 17 at that timing is also input to the controller 16. The transformation from the biased voltage value to the virtual voltage value in the controller 16 is performed on the basis of the following transformation formula. Transformation formula: virtual voltage value=biased voltage value x (first critical voltage value/second critical voltage value) Here, the first and second critical voltage values in the aforementioned transformation formula have the following meanings. Such values are defined in advance through experiments using a charging roller 8 of the same specification. First critical voltage value: the biased voltage value appearing when the charging roller 8 encounters a wear-out limitation, and the environment condition has a predetermined standard condition. Second critical voltage value: the biased voltage value appearing when the charging roller 8 encounters a wear-out limitation, and the environment condition has the same condition as that of the voltage measurement timing. From the aforementioned description, it is recognized that the voltage measurement value is directly used as the virtual voltage value when the environment condition at the voltage measurement timing satisfies a predetermined standard condition. That is, this transformation is sufficient as long as it is performed only when the environment condition at the voltage measurement timing does not satisfy the standard condition. Here, the “predetermined standard condition” is, for example, a neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition. Here, the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition is defined as a temperature of 15 to 25° C. and a relative humidity of 25 to 75%. This is the environment condition most frequently observed yearly in a usual installation place. In this case, if the environment condition at the voltage measurement timing is the high-temperature high-humidity condition, the coefficient of the aforementioned transformation formula (parenthesized portion) is greater than “1.” This is because the voltage value is smaller as the environment condition is closer to the high-temperature high-humidity side as illustrated in FIG. 1. In contrast, if the environment condition at the voltage measurement timing is the low-temperature low-humidity condition, the coefficient is smaller than “1.” If the virtual voltage values obtained in this manner whenever the voltage is measured are plotted along the number of printable sheets, for example, the graph of FIG. 6 is obtained. In FIG. 6, the biased voltage values resulting from the measurement (indicated by black circles in the drawing) are similar to the black circles of FIG. 3. However, the measurement values acquired under the “LL” or “HH” environment are plotted as the virtual voltage values transformed on the basis of the transformation formula as described above (in the drawings, white circles). That is, the value obtained under the “LL” environment is transformed downward due to the coefficient smaller than “1.” Meanwhile, the value obtained under the “HH” environment is transformed upward due to the coefficient larger than “1.” Note that the value obtained under the “NN” environment is not significantly changed around the transformation, and thus, only black circles are plotted. Referring to the plots obtained by the transformation in FIG. 6 (black circles under the “NN” condition and white circles under the “LL” or “HH” condition), they satisfy a normal range of ±10% for an approximation. Although several white circles that do not satisfy the normal range exist, they are still within an allowable range. As a whole, they are not significantly deviated from the plots of FIG. 2. Therefore, in this case, by comparing the virtual voltage value subjected to the transformation with a critical value determined for the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition (“NN threshold value” in FIG. 6) in advance, it is possible to appropriately determine the service life of the charging roller 8. For this reason, it is desirable to set the critical voltage values for each environment condition and the critical value of the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition in the controller 16 in advance. Here, the critical value under the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition may be equal to the first critical voltage value described above or may be a value determined in advance around the first critical voltage value (within a range of ±10%). If the critical value is set to be smaller than the first critical voltage value, the charging roller 8 can be replaced slightly earlier with safety. If the critical value is set to be larger than the first critical voltage value, replacement of the charging roller 8 is delayed. This is acceptable in the case of the image forming apparatus 1 used for applications not requiring excellent image quality. The predetermined standard condition is the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition in the aforementioned description, but this is not indispensable. For example, in some places where the image forming apparatus 1 is used, the environment condition other than the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition may appear most frequently. In the case of the image forming apparatus 1 delivered to such a place of use, it is desirable to set the environment condition as a predetermined standard condition. In this case, the critical value of the environment condition set as the standard condition is set in the controller 16 in advance. Alternatively, an environment condition appearing most frequently at the voltage measurement timing may be set as the standard condition. For this purpose, it is necessary to store a history of the environment condition acquired at the voltage measurement timing in the controller 16 and provide a function of determining the environment condition appearing most frequently out of the history. In addition, critical values for each environment condition that may be used as the predetermined standard condition are determined in advance. In particular, in this case, it is desirable to restrict the history of the stored environment conditions to those acquired within a predetermined time length of the immediate past. As a result, it is possible to automatically follow a change of the most frequent environment condition depending on a season change. Which environment condition will be set as the standard condition may be selected by a user. For this purpose, it is necessary to provide the controller 16 with a function of allowing a user to select the environment condition used as the standard condition and a function of using the selected environment condition as the standard condition subsequently. In addition, the critical values for each environment condition that may be selected as the predetermined standard condition are set in advance. As a result, it is possible to modify the selection of the standard condition depending on a climate at that timing such as when a service staff visits. Alternatively, the selection of the standard condition may be modified by a remote control from a service center by connecting the image forming apparatus 1 to a network or the like. In addition, by consolidating the history of the biased voltage values or the environment condition values into the service center, it is possible to create a visiting plan of the service staff or use it for development of the next model. Hereinbefore, the first and second critical voltage values for the transformation formula described above have been described in brief by narrowing the environment conditions to three conditions including the high-temperature high-humidity condition, the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition, and the low-temperature low-humidity condition. However, the first and second critical voltage values may be set more accurately. For this purpose, the graph of FIG. 7 is used. In the graph of FIG. 7, the ordinate refers to a temperature of the environment condition to show a relationship between the temperature and the critical voltage. FIG. 7 contains sixteen curves. These sixteen curves are obtained by dividing the environment conditions into sixteen stages on the basis of the absolute humidity of the environment condition (they can be computed from the temperature and the relative humidity using the temperature/humidity sensor 17). That is, FIG. 7 shows a relationship between the temperature and the critical voltage for each absolute humidity. Out of sixteen curves of FIG. 7, the highest position corresponds to the lowest absolute humidity (environmental step 1) of sixteen stages, and the lowest position corresponds to the highest absolute humidity (environmental step 16). All of the sixteen curves are common to those of the graph of FIG. 1 in the following facts. That is, the voltage value is lower, and the slope is gentle as close to the right side (high temperature side) in the graph. In addition, the voltage value is lower, and the slope is steep as close to the left side (low temperature side) in the graph. In this regard, these sixteen curves are approximated to a quadratic curve. Specifically, the critical voltage value is expressed as the following quadratic formula by setting the temperature t as a variable. critical voltage value=at2+bt+c Here, the coefficient a of the second order term is set to be positive. That is, since the graph of the quadratic formula is an upward opening parabolic curve, the sixteen curves of FIG. 7 are on the left side with respect to a vertex of the parabolic curve. Each coefficient of the quadratic formula was set as illustrated in the table of FIG. 8 by mapping based on experimental results obtained by placing the charging roller 8 having the same specification as the actual one under various conditions. The numerals 1 to 16 immediately in the right side of the “environmental step” in FIG. 8 correspond to the sixteen curves of FIG. 7 in order from the top. Here, the environmental step 2 corresponding to the second lowest humidity stage is almost at the center of the environment condition usually referred to as the “LL” environment. In addition, the environmental step 10 is almost at the center of the environment condition usually referred to as the “NN” environment. In addition, the environmental step 15 corresponding to the second highest humidity is almost at the center of the environment condition usually referred to as the “HH” environment. The numerical values in the columns “a,” “b,” and “c” in FIG. 8 correspond to the coefficients of the second order term, the first order term, and the constant term, respectively, of the quadratic formula. Referring to the numerical value of the column “a,” the higher value is obtained from the upper row, the smaller value is obtained the lower row. This matches characteristics of the shapes of the sixteen curves in the graph of FIG. 7. In addition, referring to the numerical value of the column “c” in FIG. 8, similarly, the larger value is obtained from the upper row, and the smaller value is obtained from the lower row. Since the numerical value of the column “c” corresponds to the y-intercept of each curve in the graph of FIG. 7, this also matches the actual y-intercept of each curve. In this regard, at the voltage measurement timing, the first and second voltage values described above are determined using the graph of FIG. 7. First, for the first critical voltage value, the absolute humidity is obtained on the basis of the temperature value and the relative humidity of the environment condition as the standard condition. Which curve of FIG. 7 is used is determined on the basis of the obtained absolute humidity. If the curve is determined, the critical voltage value may be read from the temperature value of the environment condition and its curve. This corresponds to the first critical voltage value. For the second critical voltage value, similar operation may be performed depending on the temperature and humidity values obtained from the temperature/humidity sensor 17 at the voltage measurement timing. This corresponds to the second critical voltage value. Using the first and second critical voltage values obtained in this manner, the virtual voltage values are obtained on the basis of the aforementioned transformation formula, so that it is possible to perform more accurate service life management. For this reason, the graph of FIG. 7 based on the experiment result and the step division based on the absolute humidity for that purpose may be stored in the controller 16 in advance. In the aforementioned description, the number of division based on the absolute humidity is not limited to sixteen. That is, the number of curves of FIG. 7 may not be sixteen. In addition, the approximation of the curve is not limited to the quadratic formula. A linear formula may also be sufficient depending on a material of the charging roller 8 in some cases. Furthermore, a table method may also be used regardless of a special numerical formula. An optimum method may be selected on the basis of the experimental results. As a result, it is possible to more accurately manage the service life by plotting the transformed virtual voltage values as illustrated in FIG. 6. In FIG. 6, an approximation was applied to the plots of the virtual voltage values, and a normal range for this approximation was set to ±10%. Then, the approximation may be obtained again by excluding those deviated from the normal range from the virtual voltage values transformed from the biased voltage values of the “LL” or “HH” environment. As a result, it is possible to further improve the accuracy. In addition, as indicated by the arrow D in the graph of FIG. 9, the virtual voltage value may be lower than the previous one even when the number of printable sheets is reduced in some cases. This case may be determined as abnormality even when it is within the established normal range. This similarly applies to the case where the virtual voltage value excessively rises from the previous one (arrow E) on the contrary. That is, a range of the next virtual voltage value may be determined in advance with respect to the previous virtual voltage value, and the case where the next virtual voltage value is deviated from this range actually may be determined as abnormality. If abnormality occurs more frequently, the abnormality may be warned on a display panel of the image forming apparatus 1 or may be notified to the service center. This is because the charging roller 8 may suffer from pressing point separation or abnormality in high pressure output. In addition, the abnormality may be similarly warned or notified when it occurs from a new product or a nearly new product. This is because the charging roller 8 may be a defective part. In the aforementioned description, whether or not the service life of the charging roller 8 has come is determined by measuring the voltage. However, in the image forming apparatus 1 according to this embodiment, the wear rate may be computed for the charging roller 8 whose service life has not yet come by measuring the voltage as well. The wear rate refers to a percentage of the consumed part against the entire service life and is set to 0% for a new product and 100% for the product whose service life has come. This wear rate is computed on the basis of the following formula using the virtual voltage values transformed as described above. wear rate=(virtual voltage value−initial standard voltage value)/(first critical voltage value−initial standard voltage value) The resulting value is multiplied by 100 for conversion into a percentage notation. Here, the initial standard voltage value is a biased voltage value for a new charging roller 8 under the standard condition. By computing the wear rate in this manner, it is possible to notice a user of the end of the service life in advance. As a result, a user can prepare a new product for replacement before the charging roller 8 becomes completely failed. Various service life management methods described above according to this embodiment are particularly important when the charging roller 8 is formed of an ionic conductive material (such as epichlorohydrin rubber or urethane). This is because the ionic conductive material is characterized in that voltage detection accuracy is worse under the low-temperature low-humidity or high-temperature high-humidity condition, compared to other conductive materials. In the aforementioned embodiment, the charging roller 8 has been described by way of example out of the secondary transfer roller 6, the charging roller 8, the primary transfer roller 11, and the developing roller 13 of the image forming apparatus 1. Various service life management methods described above may also be applied to the secondary transfer roller 6, the primary transfer roller 11, and the developing roller 13. Such cases are also included in the scope of the present invention as long as the service life management described above is applied to any one of the four applications. As described above in details, using the image forming apparatus 1 according to this embodiment, the virtual voltage value measured whenever a voltage is measured for detecting the service life of the conductive member (such as the charging roller 8) is transformed depending on the environment condition to obtain the virtual voltage value. In addition, the service life is determined on the basis of this virtual voltage value. For this reason, the service life is determined without using a large error region in the relationship between the environment condition and the voltage value. As a result, it is possible to implement an image forming apparatus capable of detecting the service life of the conductive member with high accuracy regardless of any environmental factor. In addition, it is possible to implement a conductive member service life determination method for the image forming apparatus and a conductive member service life determination program executed by a computer for controlling the image forming apparatus. Note that the embodiments of the present invention are just for exemplary purposes, and are not intended to limit the scope of the invention. Naturally, various modifications or alterations may be possible without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. For example, although the image forming apparatus 1 of FIG. 4 is a tandem type, a multi-cycle type or a monochromatic type may also be employed without any limitation. Any type of developer may also be employed in the developer 10. In addition, the image forming apparatus 1 may also have a reader function, a communication function, a both-side sheet processing function, or a post-processing function. In the image forming apparatus according to the aforementioned aspect, the voltage acquisition portion acquires a voltage value appearing when a bias is applied to the conductive member in order to detect a service life of the conductive member. This voltage value is called a biased voltage value. This biased voltage value is transformed into a voltage value appearing under the standard environment condition on the basis of the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor. This voltage value is called a virtual voltage value. Using this virtual voltage value, the service life determining portion determines the service life. As a result, the service life is determined using a high accuracy region without using an error region. In the image forming apparatus according to the aforementioned aspect, the hardware processor preferably uses, as the standard environment condition, the most frequent environment condition in a history of the environment condition measurement value when the biased voltage value is acquired. As a result, the biased voltage value can be directly transformed into the virtual voltage value in many cases. For this reason, it is possible to more accurately determine the service life. In the image forming apparatus according to the aforementioned aspect, the hardware processor preferably allows a user to select the environment condition used as the standard environment condition and uses the selected environment condition as the standard environment condition subsequently. In this way, a user or a service crew is allowed to select the environment condition used as the standard environment condition, and this contributes to convenience. In the image forming apparatus according to any of the aforementioned aspects, the biased voltage value is preferably a voltage value for applying a constant current to the conductive member. It is conceived that the biased voltage value obtained in this manner reflects a wear-out status of the conductive member. In the image forming apparatus according to any of the aforementioned aspects, the hardware processor preferably acquires a first critical voltage value appearing when the conductive member reaches a wear-out limitation under the standard environment condition, and a second critical voltage value appearing when the conductive member reaches the wear-out limitation under an environment condition corresponding to the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor, acquires the virtual voltage value by applying a coefficient obtained by dividing the first critical voltage value by the second critical voltage value to the biased voltage value acquired by the voltage acquisition portion, and determines that abnormality occurs when the virtual voltage value is equal to or larger than a predetermined critical value. In this way, it is possible to appropriately compute the virtual voltage value and determine the service life with high accuracy. In the image forming apparatus according to the aforementioned aspect, the hardware processor preferably sets a range of the next virtual voltage value when the virtual voltage value is obtained, and determines that abnormality occurs when the next virtual voltage value obtained actually is within the range. As a result, abnormality determination is also performed on the basis of a relationship between the virtual voltage value measured in the past and the current virtual voltage value. In the image forming apparatus according to any of the aforementioned aspects, the hardware processor preferably computes a wear rate as a proportion of a consumed part of the service life against the entire service life of the conductive member by dividing a difference obtained by subtracting, from the virtual voltage value, an initial standard voltage value as a voltage value appearing as the biased voltage value under the standard environment condition when the conductive member is a new product, by a difference obtained by subtracting the initial standard voltage value from the first critical voltage value. In this way, it is possible to predict termination of the service life in advance as well as simple abnormality determination, and this contributes to convenience. In the image forming apparatus according to any of the aforementioned aspects, the hardware processor preferably stores a relationship between a temperature and a critical voltage value for each absolute humidity based on the environment condition, and reads the first and second critical voltage values from a relationship between a temperature and a critical voltage value for each absolute humidity on the basis of a standard environment condition and an environment condition corresponding to the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor. In this way, it is possible to classify the environment condition case by case in more details and highly accurately determine the service life through optimum transformation for the corresponding case. In the image forming apparatus according to any of the aforementioned aspects, the conductive member is preferably formed of an ionic conductive material. An ionic conductive material tends to more easily exhibit degradation of voltage detection accuracy under a low-temperature low-humidity condition and a high-temperature high-humidity condition, compared to other conducting materials. Therefore, as described above, highly accurate abnormality determination is important in some cases. In the image forming apparatus according to any of the aforementioned aspects, the hardware processor preferably uses an environment condition including a temperature of 15 to 25° C. and a relative humidity of 25 to 75% as the standard environment condition. Such an environment condition highly frequently appears in practice, and the biased voltage value can be directly used as the virtual voltage value in many cases. For this reason, it is possible to perform more accurate determination. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a conductive member service life determination method executed in an image forming apparatus provided with a conductive member to form an image on a sheet using a toner, the conductive member service life determination method comprising: a voltage acquisition step of acquiring a biased voltage value as a voltage value obtained by applying a bias to the conductive member; an environment acquisition step of acquiring an environment condition measurement value representing an internal environment condition; a step of transforming the biased voltage value acquired in the voltage acquisition step into a virtual voltage value indicated by the conductive member as the biased voltage value under the standard environment condition in which the environment condition has a predetermined standard condition on the basis of the environment condition measurement value acquired in the environment acquisition step; and a step of determining a service life of the conductive member on the basis of the virtual voltage value. According to yet another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium that stores a program for causing a computer to execute the conductive member service life determination method described above. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, in the step of determining a service life, the most frequent environment condition in a history of the environment condition measurement value at the time of acquisition of the biased voltage value is preferably used as the standard environment condition. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, in the step of determining a service life, a user is preferably allowed to select an environment condition used as the standard environment condition, and the selected environment condition is preferably used as the standard environment condition subsequently. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, the biased voltage value is preferably a voltage value for applying a constant current to the conductive member. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, the step of determining a service life preferably includes the steps of: acquiring a first critical voltage value appearing in a wear-out limitation of the conductive member under a standard environment condition and a second critical voltage value appearing in a wear-out limitation of the conductive member under an environment condition corresponding to the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor; acquiring a virtual voltage value by applying a coefficient obtained by dividing the first critical voltage value by the second critical voltage value to the biased voltage value acquired by the voltage acquisition portion; and determining that abnormality occurs when the virtual voltage value is equal to or higher than a predetermined critical value. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, in the step of determining a service life, a range of the next virtual voltage value is preferably set when the virtual voltage value is obtained, and it is preferably determined that abnormality occurs when the next virtual voltage value obtained actually is within the range. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, the step of determining a service life preferably further includes a step of computing a wear rate as a proportion of a consumed part with respect to the entire service life of the conductive member by dividing a difference obtained by subtracting, from the virtual voltage value, an initial standard voltage value which is a voltage value appearing in a new product of the conductive member as the biased voltage value under the standard environment condition by a difference obtained by subtracting the initial standard voltage value from the first critical voltage value. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, the step of determining a service life preferably further includes the steps of: storing a relationship between a temperature and a critical voltage value for each absolute humidity based on an environment condition; and reading the first and second critical voltage values from the relationship between the temperature and the critical voltage value for each absolute humidity on the basis of the standard environment condition and the environment condition corresponding to the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, the conductive member is preferably formed of an ionic conductive material. In the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to the aforementioned aspect, in the step of determining a service life, an environment condition having a temperature of 15 to 25° C. and a relative humidity of 25 to 75% is preferably used as the standard environment condition. According to an embodiment of the present invention, there is provided an image forming apparatus capable of detecting the service life of the conductive member with high accuracy regardless of an environmental factor. In addition, there are also provided a conductive member service life determination method for the image forming apparatus and a conductive member service life determination program executed by a computer that controls the image forming apparatus. Although embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated in detail, it is clearly understood that the same is by way of illustration and example only and not limitation, the scope of the present invention should be interpreted by terms of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Technical Field The present invention relates to an image forming apparatus that forms an image using a toner. More specifically, the present invention relates to an image forming apparatus having a conductive member used for image formation in an image forming portion, in which an increase of resistance accompanied by wear-out of the conductive member brings an end of a service life of the conductive member. In addition, the present invention also relates to a conductive member service life determination method for the image forming apparatus and a conductive member service life determination program executed by a computer that controls the image forming apparatus. Description of the Related Art In the related art, a conductive member is used for various purposes in an image forming portion of an image forming apparatus that forms an image using a toner. For example, the conductive member includes a charging roller, a transfer roller, a developing roller, and the like. Typically, a resistance of such a conductive member tends to increase as it is worn out. As the resistance of the conductive member increases, image quality is degraded, and finally, the conductive member encounters its service limitation. The conductive member encountering the service limitation is to be replaced with a new product. For this reason, some techniques have been proposed in the art to recognize the service limitation in advance. JP 2003-195700 A discusses such a technique by way of example. In the technique of JP 2003-195700 A, a service life of the transfer roller is determined using a service life determination program on the basis of a voltage value for flowing a predetermined current through the transfer roller and a condition such as temperature and humidity at that timing. In this service life determination program, a service life table is used, in which the service lives and the voltage values to be determined are set for each environment condition. The service life is determined by mapping the measured voltage value of the transfer roller to a voltage value defined for the temperature and humidity of that timing in the service life table. However, the technique of the related art described above has the following problems. In some cases, service life detection accuracy is unsatisfactory because of a characteristic of the voltage value exhibited by the conductive member. A general characteristic of the voltage value exhibited by the conductive member against the environment condition is shown in a graph of FIG. 1 . As illustrated in FIG. 1 , assuming that the abscissa refers to the environment condition (such as temperature or humidity), and the ordinate refers to the voltage value, the graph representing a relationship between the environment condition and the voltage value has a hyperbolic curve shape. Here, in FIG. 1 , considering a variation of the detected voltage value, a lower limit voltage value is indicated by the solid line, and an upper limit voltage value is indicated by the dotted line. The dotted line curve of FIG. 1 may be considered as upward parallel translation of the solid line curve. From the characteristic of the graph of FIG. 1 , it is difficult to anticipate accuracy in the voltage value measured under a momentarily changing environment condition because the solid line curve or the dotted line curve has a steep slope in a low-temperature low-humidity side. For this reason, a slight fluctuation of the temperature/humidity (“X” in FIG. 1 ) generates a large variation of the voltage value (detection variation in the “low-temperature low-humidity side” in FIG. 1 ). Meanwhile, in the high-temperature high-humidity side, the slope of the curve is gentle, but the measured voltage value itself is small. For this reason, a gap between the solid line curve and the dotted line curve works significant as a variation of the voltage value. For this reason, the measured voltage value itself becomes irregular (“detection variation in high-temperature high-humidity side” in FIG. 1 ). Nevertheless, if the environment condition keeps changing in the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity (NN) state for a long time, the detected voltage value gently increases as illustrated in FIG. 2 . For this reason, a normal service life can be generally detected by setting a normal range for an approximation against a change of the detected voltage value (oblique bold line rising to the right side in FIG. 2 ) to about ±10%. When the detected voltage value reaches the “NN” threshold (horizontal bold line in FIG. 2 ), it may be determined that the service life is terminated. Although an abnormal value may occur from time to time, it is within a negligible range. Note that the “NN” threshold value refers to a voltage value specified for the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity condition in the aforementioned service life table. However, in reality, a change of the environment condition is rarely maintained in the neutral-temperature neutral-humidity state for a long time. Actually, by all means, the environment condition unexpectedly changes as illustrated in FIG. 3 . For this reason, while the detected voltage value is low under the high-temperature high-humidity (HH) condition, the detected voltage value is high under the low-temperature low-humidity (LL) condition as described above. Therefore, the detected voltage value is seriously fluctuated. Naturally, the determination threshold value itself is low under the high-temperature high-humidity condition (HH threshold value), and the determination threshold value itself is high under the low-temperature low-humidity condition (LL threshold value). However, under such a circumstance, reliability of the service life determination is inevitably low. This is because the detected voltage value itself has low accuracy under the high-temperature high-humidity condition or under the low-temperature low-humidity condition as described above. For this reason, a replacement timing of the conductive member may be delayed or expedited in some cases. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The present invention has been made to address the aforementioned problems of the related art. That is, an object of the present invention is to provide an image forming apparatus capable of detecting a service life of the conductive member with high accuracy regardless of an environmental factor. In addition, another object of the present invention is to provide a conductive member service life determination method for the image forming apparatus and a conductive member service life determination program executed by a computer that controls the image forming apparatus. To achieve at least one of the abovementioned objects, according to an aspect, an image forming apparatus provided with a conductive member to form an image on a sheet using a toner, reflecting one aspect of the present invention comprises: a voltage acquisition portion configured to acquire a biased voltage value as a voltage value by applying a bias to the conductive member; an environment sensor configured to output an environment condition measurement value representing an internal environment condition; and a hardware processor configured to transform the biased voltage value acquired by the voltage acquisition portion into a virtual voltage value appearing in the conductive member as the biased voltage value under a standard environment condition, in which the environment condition has a predetermined standard condition, on the basis of the environment condition measurement value output from the environment sensor, and determine a service life of the conductive member on the basis of the virtual voltage value. | G03G1555 | 20170628 | 20180104 | 63227.0 | G03G1500 | 0 | LEE, SUSAN SHUK YIN | Image Forming Apparatus, Conductive Member Service Life Determination Method, And Conductive Member Service Life Determination Program | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | G03G | 2,017 |
|
15,635,744 | PENDING | CONTINUOUSLY UPDATABLE COMPUTER-GENERATED ROUTES WITH CONTINUOUSLY CONFIGURABLE VIRTUAL BUS STOPS FOR PASSENGER RIDE-SHARING OF A FLEET OF RIDE-SHARING VEHICLES AND COMPUTER TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS AND COMPUTER-IMPLEMENTED METHODS FOR USE THEREOF | In some embodiments, the present invention provides a computer-implemented transportation system which can include at least the following components, a specialized computer machine, including: a non-transient memory, electronically storing particular computer executable program code; a specifically programmed computer processor of the specialized computer machine of the computer-implemented transportation system that is configured to perform at least the following operations: electronically receiving, in real-time, via a computer network, a plurality of electronic riding requests from a plurality of electronic computing devices operated by a plurality of ride-sharing requesting passengers; where each electronic riding request from each ride-sharing requesting passenger includes: a passenger-requested origin point, and a passenger-requested destination point; for a particular electronic riding request, dynamically determining, in real-time, from a plurality of candidate vehicles an assigned vehicle for picking up the particular ride-shaming requesting passenger and a pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks. | 1. (canceled) 2. A system for routing a rideshare vehicle, the system comprising: a communications interface configured to receive, from a first mobile communications device of a first user, a request for a rideshare, wherein the request includes information associated with a current location of the first user and a first desired destination; at least one processor configured to receive information from the communications interface and to: determine, based on current locations of multiple rideshare vehicles and the received request, a rideshare vehicle to pick up the first user; select, based on the current travel route of the rideshare vehicle, virtual bus stops for the identified rideshare vehicle, including a first virtual bus stop for picking up the first user, a second virtual bus stop for dropping off the first user, and wherein the first virtual bus stop is at a first location at least a block away from the current location of the first user and the second virtual bus stop is at a second location differing from the first desired destination; and assign the rideshare vehicle to pick up the first user from the first virtual bus stop and to drop off the first user at the second virtual bus stop. 3. The system of claim 2, wherein the communications interface is further configured to: receive from a mobile communications device of a second user a second request for a rideshare, wherein the second request includes information associated with a current location of the second user and a second desired destination; and the at least one processor is further configured to: select a third virtual bus stop for picking up the second user and a fourth virtual bus stop for dropping off for the second user, wherein the third virtual bus stop is at a third location differing from the current location of the second user and the fourth virtual bus stop is at a fourth location differing from the second desired destination; and assign the rideshare vehicle to pick up the second user from the third virtual bus stop. 4. The system of claim 3, wherein the first location differs from the third location, 5. The system of claim 3, wherein the second location differs from the fourth location. 6. The system of claim 3, wherein along a route of the rideshare vehicle the third location is located before the second location. 7. The system of claim 3, wherein along a route of the rideshare vehicle the fourth location is located before the second location. 8. The system of claim 3, wherein the at least one processor is further configured to select the third virtual bus stop at a location of the second bus stop such that the second location is a same as the third location. 9. The system of claim 3, wherein the at least one processor is further configured to: determine a location for the second virtual bus stop for dropping off the first user; and re-adjust, during a ride of the rideshare vehicle, the determined location when the ridesharing vehicle is assigned to the second user. 10. The system of claim 2, wherein the at least one processor is further configured to: dynamically assign rideshare vehicles to pick up users in a manner that minimizes at least one of the following quality of service factors: i) a first duration of time which each user spends in the rideshare vehicle; ii) a second duration of time which each user spends waiting for the rideshare vehicle to arrive at a respective virtual bus stop; iii) a third duration of time which each user spends walking to a respective virtual pick-up bus stop; or iv) a fourth duration of time which each user spends walking to a respective desired destination. 11. The system of claim 2, further comprising a memory for storing a plurality of pre-identified locations for candidate virtual bus stops, wherein the at least one processor is further configured to select virtual bus stops from the pre-identified locations stored in the memory. 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the memory is further configured to store information about businesses located proximate the candidate virtual bus stops. 13. The system of claim 2, wherein the at least one processor is further configured to dynamically select virtual bus stops such that the first location is less than a threshold distance from the current location of the first user and the second location is less than a threshold distance from the first desired destination. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the threshold distance is, at least partially, determined in real-time based on at least one of a weather condition, an overall system demand, and a delay duration for other users of the rideshare vehicle. 15. The system of claim 2, wherein the at least one processor is further configured to dynamically assign rideshare vehicles to pick-up users in a manner that assigns multiple riders to each of the multiple rideshare vehicles. 16. The system of claim 2, wherein the at least one processor is further configured to dynamically assign rideshare vehicles meet expected future demand by selecting virtual bus stops in historically high demand areas, 17. The system of claim 2, wherein the at least one processor is further configured to: generate a first time-estimation for the rideshare vehicle to arrive at the first virtual bus stop for picking up the first user; continuously track location a current location of the rideshare vehicle prior to arrival at the first virtual bus stop, to generate an updated time-estimation for the rideshare vehicle to arrive at the first virtual bus stop for picking up the first user; cancel the assignment of the rideshare vehicle when the updated time-estimation differs from the first time-estimation by more than a predefined threshold; and reassign another rideshare vehicle to pick up the first user from the first virtual bus stop. 18. A method for routing a rideshare vehicle, the method comprising: receiving, from a first mobile communications device of a first user, a request for a rideshare, wherein the request includes information associated with a current location of the first user and a first desired destination; determining, based on current locations of multiple rideshare vehicles and the received request, a rideshare vehicle to pick up the first user; selecting, based on the current travel route of the rideshare vehicle, virtual bus stops for the identified rideshare vehicle, including a first virtual bus stop for picking up the first user, a second virtual bus stop for dropping off the first user, and wherein the first virtual bus stop is at a first location at least a block away from the current location of the first user and the second virtual bus stop is at a second location differing from the first desired destination; and assigning the rideshare vehicle to pick up the first user from the first virtual bus stop and to drop off the first user at the second virtual bus stop. 19. The method of claim 18, further including: receiving from a mobile communications device of a second user a second request for a rideshare, wherein the second request includes information associated with a current location of the second user and a second desired destination; selecting a third virtual bus stop for picking up the second user and a fourth virtual bus stop for dropping off for the second user, wherein the third virtual bus stop is at a third location differing from the current location of the second user and the fourth virtual bus stop is at a fourth location differing from the second desired destination; and assigning the rideshare vehicle to pick up the second user from the third virtual bus stop. 20. The method of claim 19 further including: selecting the third virtual bus stop at the location of the second bus stop such that the second location is a same as the third location. 21. The method of claim 19 further including: determining a location for the second virtual bus stop for dropping off the first user; and re-adjusting, during a ride of the rideshare vehicle, the determined location when the ridesharing vehicle is assigned to the second user. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the priority of U.S. provisional patent application U.S. Provisional Appln No. 62/194,651, filed Jul. 20, 2015, entitled “COMPUTER SYSTEMS FOR DIRECTING TRANSPORTATION AND COMPUTER-IMPLEMENTED METHODS OF USE THEREOF,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes. FIELD OF INVENTION In some embodiments, the present invention is related to continuously updatable computer-generated routes with continuously configurable virtual bus stops for passenger ride-sharing of a fleet of ride-sharing vehicles and computer transportation systems and computer-implemented methods for use thereof. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Typically, ride-sharing allows people to share rides to their destinations. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In some embodiments, the present invention provides for a computer-implemented method that includes at least the following steps: electronically receiving, in real-time, by at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via at least one computer network, a plurality of electronic riding requests from a plurality of electronic computing devices operated by a plurality of ride-sharing requesting passengers; where each electronic riding request from each ride-sharing requesting passenger includes: an origin location data identifying a passenger-requested origin point, and a destination location data identifying a passenger-requested destination point; for a particular electronic riding request of a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger: electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, for at least one database, at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger can be picked up or drop off by a first assigned vehicle; dynamically selecting, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, from at least one grid of virtual bus stops for the at least one geographic locale, a subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops and a subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops based, at least in part, on: i) a first absolute walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, and ii) a second absolute walking distance, being a distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point; electronically receiving, in real-time, during a first time period, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, current vehicle location data for a plurality of ride-sharing vehicles traveling within the at least one geographic locale, where the current vehicle location data include global positioning system (GPS) data generated by at least one GPS component of at least one electronic computing device associated with each ride-sharing vehicle; electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, current ride-sharing data which are representative of current routes and current virtual bus stops associated with a plurality of riding passengers who are currently riding in the plurality of ride-sharing vehicles; where the plurality of riding passengers includes at least one hundred riding passengers; dynamically determining, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a plurality of candidate vehicles which can pick up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, where the determining of the plurality of candidate vehicles is based, at least in part on: the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops, the current ride-sharing data and the current vehicle location data; dynamically determining, in real-time, from the plurality of candidate vehicles, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, 1) a first assigned vehicle for picking up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger and 2) a pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, based, at least in part, on: i) maximizing a vehicle occupancy to be at least two ride-sharing passengers in the first assigned vehicle at least a portion of a ride of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, ii) minimizing at least one of: 1) a first duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle; 2) a second duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends waiting for each candidate ride-sharing vehicle to arrive at a respective virtual bus stop; 3) a third duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends walking from the passenger-requested origin point to a respective candidate virtual pickup bus stop and from a respective candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point; 4) a fourth duration of time which each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is held up in a traffic until a respective final virtual dropoff bus stop associated with the last tide-sharing passenger during a particular time period; iii) an order in which a pair of candidate virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks are inserted into a route schedule of existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with each candidate vehicle of the plurality of candidate vehicles; dynamically generating, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a route proposal for the first assigned vehicle, where the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle includes a first updated route schedule, formed by inserting the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger into an existing route schedule, including existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with the first assigned vehicle; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop on a screen of a first electronic computing device associated with the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule on a screen of a second electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle. In some embodiments, the selecting of each candidate virtual pickup bus stop into the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops is based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) a first walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to each candidate virtual pickup bus stop, ii) a second walking distance, being a distance from each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point, iii) at least one first walking comfort condition associated with the first walking distance, the second walking distance, or both, iv) at least one first walking safety condition associated with a first walking route, being a route from the passenger-requested origin point to each candidate virtual pickup bus stop, v) at least one passenger well-being related factor, vi) at least one passenger personal preference related to at least one of: a walking distance, an expected time of arrival, a ride duration, a price, and any combination thereof, vii) at least one environment related factor, viii) a first cost assigned to each pair of a particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and a particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop, and ix) any combination thereof; and where the selecting of each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop into the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops is based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the first walking distance, the second walking distance, or both, ii) the sum of the first walking distance and the second walking distance, iii) the at least one walking comfort condition, iv) at least one second walking safety condition associated with a second walking route, being a route from each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point, v) the at least one passenger well-being, related factor, vi) the at least one passenger personal preference, vii) the at least one environment related factor, viii) the first cost assigned to each pair of the particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and the particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop, and ix) any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cost assigned to each pair of the particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and the particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop is based, at least in part on at least one cost related to at least one ride segment passing through an area associated with a particular demand. In some embodiments, the first absolute walking distance is a first reasonable walking distance; where the second absolute walking distance is a second reasonable walking distance; and where the method further includes: dynamically determining, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first reasonable walking distance based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the distance from the passenger-requested origin point to the at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop, ii) a direction of travel of a road on which the at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop is located, iii) an availability of at least one first additional candidate virtual pickup bus stop having a shorter walking distance, and iv) an availability of at least one second additional candidate virtual pickup bus stop having a longer walking distance; and dynamically determining, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the second reasonable walking distance based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point, ii) a direction of travel of a road on which the at least one candidate virtual dropoff stop is located, iii) an availability of at least one first additional candidate virtual dropoff bus stop having a shorter walking distance, and iv) an availability of at least one second additional candidate virtual dropoff bus stop having a longer walking distance. In some embodiments, the dynamically generating the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle is based, at least in part, on one of : i) at least one existing pickup virtual bus stop task and at least one existing dropoff virtual bus stop task associated with the first assigned vehicle, ii) a road speed of at least one road on which the first assigned vehicle travels or will travel, iii) a distance of at least one route which the first assigned vehicle will travel, and iv) a particular demand associated with the at least one route which the first assigned vehicle will travel. In some embodiments, the method can further include steps(s) of: continuously tracking, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the current vehicle location and the current ride-sharing data to identify at least one condition which requires to re-assign the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger to a second assigned vehicle; dynamically reassigning, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop task from the first assigned vehicle to the second assigned vehicle; dynamically revising, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule of the first assigned vehicle to obtain a first revised updated route schedule, by removing the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing, requesting passenger; dynamically revising, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a second updated route schedule of the second assigned vehicle to add a second pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first revised updated route schedule on the screen of the electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle; and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the second updated route schedule on a screen of an electronic computing device associated with the second assigned vehicle. In some embodiments, the method can further include step(s) of: generating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which at least one passenger can be picked up or drop off by at least one vehicle; electronically receiving, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, human-readable location identifying data for uniquely identify each geographic location point corresponding to each virtual bus stop in the grid of virtual bus stops; electronically associating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the human-readable location identifying data to each geographic location point corresponding to each virtual bus stop in the grid of virtual bus stops; and electronically storing, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the grid of virtual bus stops with the human-readable location identifying data in the at least one database. In some embodiments, the geographic location point is along at least one main road of the at least one geographic locale. In some embodiments, the method can further include steps(s) of: generating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, demand-point tasks based at least in part, on one of: current ride-sharing demand data within the at least one geographic locale, and historic ride-sharing demand data within the at least one geographic locale; dynamically assigning, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, at least one demand-point task assigned to the first assigned vehicle; and where the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on the at least one demand-point task. In some embodiments, the current demand data includes data regarding at least one of: i) a first current ride-sharing demand in a vicinity of the passenger-requested origin point, and ii) a second current ride-sharing demand in a vicinity of the passenger-requested destination point. In some embodiments, each respective reasonable walking distance is in the range of 100-300 meters. In some embodiments, the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on minimizing an additional walking distance, and where the additional walking distance is in the range of 0-200 meters. In some embodiments, each respective absolute walking distance is in the range of 200-500 meters. In some embodiments, the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on avoiding exceeding at least one of; 1) a fifth duration of time by which a ride duration of each ride-sharing passenger in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is increased due to the addition of the ride-sharing requesting passenger in the existing route schedule of such candidate ride-sharing vehicle, ii) a detour distance by which a ride distance for each ride-sharing passenger in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is increased due to the addition of the ride-sharing requesting passenger in the existing route schedule of such candidate ride-sharing vehicle. In some embodiments, the fifth duration of time is in the range of 0.5-15 minutes, and where the detour distance is in the range of 100-1000 meters. In some embodiments, the present invention provides a computer-implemented transportation system which can include at least the following components: at least one specialized computer machine, including: a non-transient memory, electronically storing particular computer executable program code; and at least one computer processor which, when executing the particular program code, becomes at least one specifically programmed computer processor of the at least one specialized computer machine of the computer-implemented transportation system that is configured to perform at least the following operations: electronically receiving, in real-time, by at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via at least one computer network, a plurality of electronic riding requests from a plurality of electronic computing devices operated by a plurality of ride-sharing requesting passengers; where each electronic riding request from each ride-sharing requesting passenger includes: an origin location data identifying a passenger-requested origin point, and a destination location data identifying a passenger-requested destination point; for a particular electronic riding request of a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger: electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, for at least one database, at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger can be picked up or drop off by a first assigned vehicle; dynamically selecting, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, from at least one grid of virtual bus stops for the at least one geographic locale, a subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops and a subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops based, at least in part, on: i) a first absolute walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, and ii) a second absolute walking distance, being a distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point; electronically receiving, in real-time, during a first time period, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, current vehicle location data for a plurality of ride-sharing vehicles traveling within the at least one geographic locale, where the current vehicle location data include global positioning system (GPS) data generated by at least one GPS component of at least one electronic computing device associated with each ride-sharing vehicle; electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, current ride-sharing data which are representative of current routes and current virtual bus stops associated with a plurality of riding passengers who are currently riding in the plurality of ride-sharing vehicles; where the plurality of riding passengers includes at least one hundred riding passengers; dynamically determining, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a plurality of candidate vehicles which can pick up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, where the determining of the plurality of candidate vehicles is based, at least in part on: the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops, the current ride-sharing data and the current vehicle location data; dynamically determining, in real-time, from the plurality of candidate vehicles, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, 1) a first assigned vehicle for picking up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger and 2) a pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, based, at least in part, on: i) maximizing a vehicle occupancy to be at least two ride-sharing passengers in the first assigned vehicle at least a portion of a ride of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, ii) minimizing at least one of: 1) a first duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle; 2) a second duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends waiting for each candidate ride-sharing vehicle to arrive at a respective virtual bus stop; 3) a third duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends walking from the passenger-requested origin point to a respective candidate virtual pickup bus stop and from a respective candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point; 4) a fourth duration of time which each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is held up in a traffic until a respective final virtual dropoff bus stop associated with the last ride-sharing passenger during a particular time period; iii) an order in which a pair of candidate virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks are inserted into a route schedule of existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with each candidate vehicle of the plurality of candidate vehicles; dynamically generating, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a route proposal fir the first assigned vehicle, where the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle includes a first updated route schedule, formed by inserting the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger into an existing route schedule, including existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with the first assigned vehicle; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop on a screen of a first electronic computing device associated with the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule on a screen of a second electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention can be further explained with reference to the attached drawings, wherein like structures are referred to by like numerals throughout the several views. The drawings shown are not necessarily to scale, with emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the present invention. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present invention. FIGS. 1-4 illustrate certain exemplary computer architecture in accordance with some principles of some embodiments of the present invention. FIGS. 5-7 illustrate certain aspects of some embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Among those benefits and innovations that have been disclosed, other objects and advantages of this invention will become apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying figures. Detailed embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein; however, it is to be understood that the disclosed embodiments are merely illustrative of the invention that may be embodied in various forms. In addition, each of the examples given in connection with the various embodiments of the invention is intended to be illustrative, and not restrictive. Throughout the specification and claims, the following terms take the meanings explicitly associated herein, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The phrases “in one embodiment” and “in some embodiments” as used herein do not necessarily refer to the same embodiment(s), though it may. Furthermore, the phrases “in another embodiment” and “in some other embodiments” as used herein do not necessarily refer to a different embodiment, although it may. Thus, as described below, various embodiments of the invention may be readily combined, without departing from the scope of spirit of the invention. In addition, as used herein, the term “or” is an inclusive “or” operator, and is equivalent to the term “and/or,” unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. The term “based on” is not exclusive and allows for being based on additional factors not described, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. In addition, throughout the specification, the meaning of “a”, “an”, and “the” include plural references. The meaning of “in” includes “in” and “on”. It is understood that at least one aspect/functionality of various embodiments described herein can be performed in real-time and/or dynamically. As used herein, the term “real-time” is directed to an event/action that can occur instantaneously or almost instantaneously in time when another event/action has occurred. In some embodiments, the terms “instantaneous,” “instantaneously,” “instantly,” and “in real time” refer to a condition where a time difference between a first time when a search request is transmitted and a second time when a response to the request is received is no more than 20 seconds. In some embodiments, the time difference between the request and the response is between less than 1 second and tens of seconds. As used herein, the term “dynamic(ly)” means that events and/or actions can be triggered and/or occur without any human intervention. In some embodiments, events and/or actions in accordance with the present invention can be in real-time and/or based on a predetermined periodicity of at least one of: nanosecond, several nanoseconds, millisecond, several milliseconds, second, several seconds, minute, several minutes, hourly, several hours, daily, several days, weekly, monthly, etc. In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation system(s) of the present invention can include the use of electronic mobile devices (e.g., smartphones, etc.) of passengers and server(s) in the distributed network environment, communicating over a suitable data communication network (e.g., the Internet, etc.) and utilizing at least one suitable data communication protocol (e.g., IPX/SPX, X.25, AX.25, AppleTalk, TCP/IP (e.g.. HTTP), etc.). In some embodiments, a plurality of passengers can be, but is not limited to, at least 100 passengers (e.g., but not limited to, 100-999 passengers), at least 1,000 passengers (e.g., but not limited to, 1,000-9,999 passengers), at least 10,000 passengers but not limited to, 10,000-99,999 passengers), at least 100,000 passengers (e.g., but not limited to, 100,000-999,999 passengers), at least 1,000,000 passengers (e.g., but not limited to, 1,000,000-9,999,999 passengers), at least 10,000,000 passengers (e.g., but not limited to, 10,000,000-99,999,999 passengers), at least 100,000,000 passengers (e.g. but not limited to, 100,000,000-999,999,999 passengers), at least 1,000,000,000 passengers (e.g., but not limited to, 1,000,000,000-10,000,000,000 passengers). In some embodiments, the present invention includes computer transportation systems configured to use of a grid of so-called “virtual bus-stops”. As used herein, the term “virtual bus stop” is a location selected by the exemplary computer transportation system(s) of the present invention, as being safe for at least one passenger pickup (i.e., the location to which passenger(s) being directed to go to be picked up by a designated vehicle (e.g., bus, van, car, etc.)) and/or at least one passenger dropoff. In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation system(s) of the present invention are configured to communicate with at least one driver and at least one passenger, where the communication can be delivered to the at least one driver by use of at least one first graphical user interface (GUI) displayed by a computing device of the driver (e.g., smartphone), and/or where the communication can be delivered to the at least one passenger by use of at least one second GUI at a computing device of the passenger (e.g., smartphone). In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention are configured to determine in which virtual bus-stops should passengers board and/or disembark, and thus, not requiring passengers to board and/or disembark at locations predetermined by a typical bus schedule (e.g., a schedule of M7 bus operated in Manhattan, N.Y.). In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention are further configured to determine which of the virtual bus-stops among the grid of virtual bus-stops are candidate for boarding and/or disembarking based on at least one of walking distance required with respect to specified origin and/or destination of the request, and/or the sum of the pickup and drop-off walking distances, and/or route considerations such as uncomfortableness when climbing/getting down stairs, crossing bridges tunnels or any other route segments which may be regarded as less comfortable for walking, and/or specific origin and destination locations that may impose limitations on maximal walking distances such as isolated neighborhoods, and/or passengers' related factors such as, but not limited to, disability, age dependence, and/or personal or global preferences such as, but not limited to, walking distance, expected time of arrival, ride duration, price, and their dependence on factors such as weather and or precipitation, any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention are further configured to choose a single boarding virtual bus-stop and/or single disembarking virtual bus-stop (where the later may not be presented to passenger as it is not essential for rider-driver coordination, thus leaving more flexibility to change disembarking virtual bus-stops at a later stage during ride), where the chosen boarding virtual bus-stop and/or disembarking bus-stop are based on at least one of: costs assigned to boarding-disembarking virtual bus-stop pairs, their insertion order along already assigned boarding and disembarking; virtual bus-stops tasks (due to existing passengers in vehicle or passengers that were already assigned to vehicle), and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, costs may include one or more of: duration each passenger spends in the vehicle, duration each passenger spends waiting for assigned vehicle to arrive at the designated virtual bus stop, duration each passenger spends walking from origin to pick-up and from drop-off to destination, duration in which vehicle is held up (e.g., until final drop-off), costs related to ride segments in low-demand areas (e.g. highways), and any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the present invention includes computer transportation systems configured to identify a passenger-requested ride, where the exemplary computer transportation systems are configured to assign the ride to an available vehicle. In some embodiments, assigning a ride to an available vehicle includes at least one of the following activities: (1) determining a virtual bus stop for the new passenger's pickup, within reasonable walking range of the passenger-requested point of origin, (2) determining a virtual bus stop for the new passenger's drop off, within reasonable walking range of the passenger-requested destination, (3) adjusting the drop off points for passengers assigned to a vehicle, where the drop off points may only be adjusted and where pickup points are unchangeable once the exemplary computer transportation system delivers the pickup point to the passenger), (4) determining an order of pickups and drop offs, (5) determining a route between pickup and drop off points, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to determine each virtual bus stop of a plurality of virtual bus stops of a vehicle's (e.g., but not limited to, a car, a van, a trolley, a bus, etc.) route, where each virtual bus stop is within a “reasonable walking distance” of the passenger-requested origin point and/or destination point. As used herein, the terms “reasonable walking distance” and “reasonable walk” refer interchangeably to: (1) a distance between a passenger's designated origin point and a virtual bus stop, (2) a direction of travel of the road on which the requested destination point is located but not limited to, a passenger standing on a road opposite the direction of travel may be more amenable to walking than a passenger standing on a road in the direction of travel), (3) identifying additional pickup and/or drop off points (i.e., pickup and/or drop off virtual bus stops), which may correspond to shorter walking distance, thus causing other pickup and/or drop off points to be less amenable. Exemplary Calculations of the Reasonable Walk As used herein, the term “absolute walk” refers to an actual walking distance to a virtual bus stop, which can be calculated for example by a map containing walking paths in a digital form or through geometrical measures such as Euclidian distance or, for example, but not limited to, Manhattan (L1) distance. As used herein, the term “additional walk,” as used herein, refers to an amount of “unnecessary” walking to a virtual bus stop, i.e., the distance beyond the distance to the nearest natural relevant alternative. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 1-300 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 1-250 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 1-200 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 1-150 meters, in some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 1-100 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 1-50 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 50-300 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 100-300 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 150-300 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 200-300 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 250-300 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 50-250 meters. In some embodiments, a reasonable walk can range from, e.g., but not limited to, 100-200 meters. Example of an Absolute Walk and an Additional Walk In some embodiments, if the absolute walk to a first virtual bus stop is 200 meters, but there is a second virtual bus stop at 50 meters, the first virtual bus stop has an additional walk of 150 meters (i.e., 200 meters−50 meters=150 meters). Exemplary Rule(s) Utilized in Determining Virtual Bus Stops For example, in an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, the exemplary rule(s) utilized in determining virtual bus stops are provided below. In some embodiments, for example, pickup and drop-off virtual bus stops can be regarded as natural virtual bus stops if they are along main roads. For example, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to recognize directed main roads based on “natural” and/or “nearest” criteria. For example, riders can be more amenable to walking when there would be no natural point (e.g., an existing main road (e.g., a central street in a town)) nearby. In some embodiment, pickup and dropoff virtual bus stops can be in the general direction of the ride, along main roads i.e., a major road for any form of motor transport. (e.g., avenues in Manhattan, N.Y.)). In some embodiments, drop-off virtual bus stops can be in any direction, and any road (except for example dead ends). In some embodiments, drop-offs that are on main roads along the rides direction can be counted as “nearest” for the purpose of determining the additional walk of other alternatives. In some embodiments, pick-up virtual but stops can be also along cross streets and or on main roads against ride direction. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention may allow for pick-ups which are not along the direction of ride in accordance with the detouring effect and/or increased wait time they impose on existing riders and/or riders that are already assigned to the same vehicle. Consequently, a particular vehicle can pick-up passengers during the same ride at the same or different points: along main road(s) in the direction of the ride, along cross-street(s), and on points which are not the direction of ride (e.g., opposite side of a main road). In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured that the absolute walk has a length of 50-500 meters (m). In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured such that the absolute walk has a length of 300-400 m. In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured such that the absolute walk has a maximum length of 360 m. In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured such that the additional walk has a length of 0-400 meters (m). In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured such that the additional walk has a length of 150-250 m. In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured such that the additional walk has a maximum length of 180 m. In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured such that the sum of the absolute walk and the additional walk has a length of 50-900 m. In sonic embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured such that the sum of the absolute walk and the additional walk has a length of 300-400 m. In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured such that the sum of the absolute walk and the additional walk has a maximum length of 360 m (this rules implies the previous two rules). In some embodiments, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to determine the reasonable walking distance based, at least in part, on the absolute walk and the additional walk. The exemplary rules should not be deemed limiting and other similarly suitable rules are being contemplated; moreover, not all rules but some rules can be utilized to determine locations of virtual bus stops. For example, boarding virtual bus-stops can be treated the same as disembarking virtual bus-stop, where only points on suitably directed main roads can be natural but-stops, and riders are more amenable to walking when there's no natural point nearby. Examples Using the Rules: The following examples of some embodiments of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention are based on using the exemplary computer transportation system in Manhattan, N.Y., U.S.A. However, these examples are illustrative and not restrictive, and may be applied to any city or community. I. Origin on 46th and 10th, Going Uptown: For example, in an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, since 10th Avenue goes uptown, there's a virtual bus stop near the origin (0-40 m, depending on exact point of origin). 11th Avenue is 270 m away from 10th, and can also be used for uptown pickups. However, the “additional walk” to 11th is calculated relative to the walk to the nearest virtual bus stop (on 10th), and is above 180 m, so 11th Avenue would not be considered in this example. A 1-2 block walk is allowed along 10th if the car's route requires it (at 80 m per block, it's less than 180 m of additional walk). 2. Origin on 80th and 1st, Going Downtown: For example, in an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, 1st Avenue goes uptown, so virtual bus stops along 1st avenue are not considered for rides going downtown. This means that the nearest virtual bus stops are on York and 2nd (220 m and 235 m from 1st, respectively). These are within the 360 m limit. They're also within the 180 m additional walk limit, since there's no closer virtual bus stop. The additional walk for York is 0 m (it's the nearest stop) and the additional walk for 2nd is 15 m (because it's 1.5 m. more than York). Thus, both York and 2nd would be considered. 3. Origin on 80th and Madison, Going Downtown: For example, in an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, again, Madison itself is not considered, because it's going uptown. 5th and Park (both 150 m away) are the nearest relevant virtual bus stops, and are considered. Lexington is 160 m beyond park. The absolute walk is 310 m (which falls within the rules in this example). The additional walk is 160 m (which falls within the rules in this example). However, the sum of the two measures is 460 m, which is over 360 m, so Lexington is not considered. Since passengers already are walking a block to the next avenue, they will not need to walk yet another “unnecessary” block. 4. Destination on 80th and 1st, Coming from Uptown: In an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, the following example is similar to example #2; however, virtual bus stops on 1st Avenue (against the ride direction) and virtual bus stops on 80th (not a main road) would also be considered as such constraints may not be applicable to drop-offs. However, these “secondary” options would not count when figuring the additional walk of other points. This means that the primary points on York and 2nd (220 m and 235 m away) would also be considered. The passenger would be brought home (coming from uptown, making a detour back to 1st) if possible, but the passenger would walk from 2nd or York if there are further dropoffs downtown. An Illustrative Example of Determining a Resonable Passenger Route In some embodiments, the present invention includes computer transportation systems configured to determine a reasonable route from origin and destination locations. In some embodiments, an evaluation of a route to determine if the route is a reasonable route includes: (1) time, where time of the route is measured as about the same amount of time as the direct route (e.g., but not limited to, 5%, 10%, 15%, or 20% etc. longer in duration than the direct route) and/or (2) geometry, where the route increases only slightly (e.g. but not limited to, by 50 m, 100 m, 150 m, 200 m, etc.) geometrical detour(s) (e.g., but not limited to, traveling north 200 m and then traveling back south again, leading a 200 m*2=400 m overall geometrical detour). For example, depending on traffic, a route that travels back and forth may still be shorter in duration than a geometrically direct route. In some embodiments, the present invention includes computer transportation systems employing at least one routing algorithm which takes into account data from at least one of offline or real-time traffic data from at least one of external electronic data sources and/or internal data generated by the exemplary computerized transporting system of the present invention based on, for example but not limited to, a speed of vehicles being controlled. In some embodiments of the current invention, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to determine, in real-time, a vehicle route by a time duration and an overall distance, such that a speed-based geometrical detour would not be preferred, if such detour results in only a slightly shorter expected duration of the trip. In some embodiments of the current invention, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to dynamically determine, in real time, the passenger route with the continuously updatable virtual bus stops by a combination of time duration and demand factors. For example, a routing through high demand areas can be preferred. In some embodiments of the current invention, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to dynamically determine, in real time, the passenger route with the continuously updatable virtual bus stops by utilizing a combination of time duration and demand factors. For example, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to account for the demand only in case when vehicle(s) is (are) partially occupied In some embodiments of the current invention, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to dynamically determine, in real time, the passenger route with the continuously updatable virtual bus stops by a combination of time duration, demand, and toll routes factors, such that routing through toll routes is not preferred unless it saves significant cost overall, and/or routing through toll routes is preferred only in case driver and/or passengers acceptance. In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention are farther configured to assign a vehicle, among the vehicles connected to the computer transportation system, to a ride requested by a passenger. In some embodiments of the current invention, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to dynamically filter candidate vehicle(s) to include only those vehicles in which one or more of the following conditions apply: distance to requested origin shorter than a threshold (e.g., but not limited to 1 km, 2 km, 3 km, 4 km, etc.); expected time of arrival to a virtual but-stop closest to the origin is less than a threshold (e.g., but not limited to 5, 10, 15, 20 minutes etc.,); a number of candidate vehicles do not exceed a threshold (e.g., but not limited to 10, 50, 100, 150, 250, 500 vehicles etc.); location(s) where the ordering of candidate vehicle(s) are/is based on a distance and/or expected time of arrival (ETA). In some embodiments of the current invention, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to dynamically assign a single vehicle among the candidate vehicles or among all vehicles to a passenger request, based on, but not limited on, at least one of: costs associated with boarding at virtual but-stops, costs associated with disembarking at virtual bus-stops, and a possible ordering with respect to existing tasks. In some embodiments of the current invention, the vehicle assigned to a request is the one with minimal associated cost, and/or minimal suggested ETA, and/or minimal associated ride duration, to each an/or all passengers, and any combination thereof. In some embodiment of the current invention, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to dynamically determine the vehicle to be assigned to a request according to at least one of: passenger's preference(s) such as, but not limited to, ride duration, ETA, price, etc.; maximum expected contribution to vehicle's profitability; maximal expected profitability associated with request; minimal cost, and any combination thereof. etc. For example, in a scenario when the exemplary computer transportation system of present invention determines the presence of a vehicle supply constraint, the exemplary computer transportation system of present invention is configured to assign a vehicle according to maximum expected profitability associated with request, while otherwise, vehicle is chosen according to minimal cost. Exemplary Calculations for Meeting a Future Demand In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention are configured to assign a plurality of passengers (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, etc.) to a vehicle by: selecting routes between virtual bus stops, where the virtual bus stops pass through at least one high demand area(s), and where the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention create “demand-point tasks”, which are a plurality of points on a map, where each point of the plurality of points has a designated preference level, determined as detailed below, and where a distribution of (i) the plurality of points and (ii) the preference level of each of the plurality of points is based on a demand model, as detailed below. In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention are configured to assign a plurality of passengers(e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, etc.) to a vehicle to meet future demand, by: delivering instructions to each passenger of a plurality of passengers to travel a reasonable walking distance to a high demand area, where each vehicle of a plurality of vehicles move to a plurality of high demand areas (e.g., but not limited to, instructing each vehicle of a plurality of vehicles to move to an area close to each vehicle's current location), and spreading vehicles out between different high demand areas, in proportion to the demand in each high demand area. Demand Point Tasks: Explanations and Illustrative Examples As used herein, “Demand points” refer to sets of points through which every ride in a certain area demand area) would have to pass. For example, in an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, every ride going uptown from below 50th to above 50th cross st. in Manhattan, would have to cross 50th somewhere. This means that a set of demand points just below 50th is created, on each uptown-bound avenue (1st, 3rd, Park, Madison, 6th, 8th, 10th, West End). Whenever an uptown ride needs to cross 50th, a “demand-point task” is added to the car, in addition to the pickup and drop-off tasks for the various passengers. This demand-point task is invisible to the driver, but might affect routing choices. The demand-point task has several locations at which it can be resolved. In this example, the demand-point task could be resolved in any of the 8 uptown avenues, just below 50th. When the route for the car is built or modified, the exemplary computer transportation systems are configured to determine which of those locations the car will pass through. For example, in an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, since the demand-point task needs to be resolved at one of the designated locations, the demand-point task prevents a route that goes around those locations. For example, when driving a Midtown pickup to an Upper Fast Side (UES) dropoff, the Franklin D. Roosevelt East River (FDR) Drive will not be used, as that prevents any further pickups for that car. Having to cross 50th (and some other streets) in a location from the designated set (which does not include FDR) prevents an FDR route from being built. In some embodiments of the current invention, the computer transportation systems of present invention are configured to ignore the demand-point tasks in cases when the vehicle occupancy is at least at a certain number (e.g., but not limited to, 1, 2, 3, etc. passengers present in the vehicle and/or e.g., but not limited to, 0, 1, 2, 3, etc. empty seats are available). For example, in case of Manhattan, NYC, the exemplary computer transportation systems of present invention can be configured to allow the routing through the FDR would be allowed if there would be a sufficient number (exceeding a pre-determined number) of passengers inside the vehicle. In some embodiments, each possible location for the demand-point task is assigned a cost based on the demand. For example, in the evening commute, there is increased demand from Midtown to UES but that demand is centered around central Midtown (Park, Madison, and to a less extent 6th and 3rd). There is a smaller demand (i.e., fewer passengers that compared to, e.g., but not limited to, Midtown) in the peripheral avenues (1st, 8th, 10th, 11th). in this case, the exemplary computer transportation systems are configured to assign passengers located at the central avenues low costs, while the passengers located at the peripheral avenues would be assigned higher costs. In some embodiments, when the exemplary algorithm calculates the possible routes, demand costs are taken into account, penalizing the peripheral avenues. For example, a route through a central avenue would have a higher likelihood of being chosen, even if the peripheral avenue is a few minutes faster (as long as the central avenue is compatible with the pickups and drop-offs for that car). In some embodiments, when a car is full (so further demand is irrelevant) or close to be full, demand point tasks are ignored, and the exemplary computer transportation systems deliver instructions for the vehicle to travel the fastest route or according to combination of time and duration. The exemplary usage of demand-tasks should not be deemed limiting and other similarly suitable demand-based routing methods may be used. For example, demand costs may be added on each road and the routing algorithm may calculate possible routes based on any combination of duration, distance, and/or demand. Exemplary Algorithmic Calculations In some embodiments, the transportation methods of the present invention include: routing calculations to identify the fastest route from A to B on a map by determining routes between a plurality of possible virtual bus stops for a plurality of passengers transported by a plurality of vehicles, where the calculation can result in between 100-100,000 routing queries per calculation(e.g., but not limited to, 1,000; 5,000; 10,000, etc.), and where routing calculation is calculated in real-time (e.g., from nanoseconds to 20 seconds; from microseconds to 20 seconds, from milliseconds to 20 seconds; from 1 second to 20 seconds). In sonic embodiments, the transportation methods include defining a set of points on the map (e.g., but not limited to, 10 points, 100 points, 1,000 points, etc.), between which the routes are pre-calculated and stored (e.g., the driving times for each of the routes). In some embodiments, the passenger-entered points are calculated by: (i) using stored points from the set, (ii) calculating the driving time, and (iii) adjusting for the determined point. In some embodiments, each point of a set of points is a location reference having at least one identifying characteristic (e.g., but not limited to, gas stations, museums, restaurants, hotels, schools, theaters. etc.) In some embodiments, the transportation methods of the present invention further include a selection calculation, where the selection calculation is performed by utilizing at least one algorithm, and where the at least one algorithm solves complex problems by recursively solving smaller problems of the same type, such as, but not limited to, routing and virtual but-stop and demand-point tasks selection discussed herein. In some embodiments, the transportation methods of the present invention further include vehicle filtering to improve performance times, where the vehicle filtering includes performing a preliminary calculation regarding each vehicle of a plurality of vehicles, and filter each vehicle of a plurality of vehicles based on the geometrical correspondence between each vehicle's existing route and the new passenger request. In some embodiments, this initial calculation does not include the particulars of the road map or the distribution of virtual bus stops. In some embodiments, only vehicles that pass this initial calculation (i.e., filtering) are considered for assignment. FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, showing virtual bus stops. FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating an embodiment of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention, showing expected demand driven routing using demand-tasks. Examples of Virtual Bus Stops Table 1 illustrates an exemplary grid of virtual bus stops determined in accordance with principles of the present invention discussed herein. Exemplary Dynamic Pre-Generation of Virtual Bus Stops In some embodiments of the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention, each virtual bus stop of a plurality of virtual bus stops is dynamically put at the beginning of every block, right after and/or right before a particular intersection and/or at the middle of a block. In some embodiments, the beginning of the block is used rather than the end of the block, because this gives the driver time to switch lanes after leaving the stop (based on the driver's route from the stop). In some embodiments, virtual bus stops on all roads are used, except e.g., but not limited to, dead ends. In some embodiments, a drop-off virtual bus stop can safely be chosen that is convenient for a passenger, even if it is not as accessible in general. In some embodiments, when additional passengers are added to the car, the drop-off of existing passengers may be dynamically adjusted in real-time to different virtual bus stop(s), according to, for example but not limited to, the best associated cost. TABLE 1 A B C D E F G H 1 lat lng bearing corner direction place_of_business street number 2 40.73961042 −73.9824458 29.100800deg NE out inoteca 3rd Ave 323 3 40.78192243 −73.9719515 −151.436000deg SW out Museum of Natural History Subway Entranc Central Park West 211 4 40.78187015 −73.9808068 14.873600deg NE out 1st Republic Broadway 2162 5 40.77195579 −73.9501648 −149.697000deg SW out D'Agostino York Ave 1507 6 40.77234416 −73.9897909 28.733500deg NE out The Abraham Joshu Heschel School West End Ave 20 7 40.80364846 −73.9668369 28.672400deg NE out Chase Bank Broadway 2824 8 40.77581 −73.9533843 −151.032000deg SW out Item Boutique 2nd Ave 1595 9 40.75224819 −73.9782219 119.227000deg SE out One Grand Central Place 42nd St 60 10 40.79011587 −73.9476957 −151.096000deg SE out Lex & 103 Inc Lexington Ave 1629 11 40.78731031 −73.9479213 29.026300deg NW out Next Evolution Mixed MMA 3rd Ave 1786 12 40.78633118 −73.950451 −151.022000deg SE out Preschool of America Lexington Ave 1501 13 40.78711271 −73.9772923 32.586600deg NE out Gamestop Broadway 2322 14 40.78378227 −73.9814653 29.975600deg NE out The Apthorp West End Ave 390 15 40.78299534 −73.9573851 29.094700deg NW out Jacadi Paris Madison Ave 1242 16 40.80122996 −73.9681345 −174.673000deg SW out KFC Broadway 2753 17 40.76326576 −73.9966773 −150.594000deg SW out Daisy May's BBQ 11th Ave 623 18 40.7700495 −73.9668294 28.902000deg NW out Cattler Madison Ave 828 19 40.74796929 −73.9829386 28.798900deg NW out NYPL of Science Industry & Business Madison Ave 188 20 40.76754899 −73.9686509 28.938100deg NW out Giorgio Armani Madison Ave 760 21 40.79029705 −73.9747363 29.229100deg NE out Pinky Broadway 2424 22 40.79281308 −73.9729058 29.562800deg NE out Broadway Church of Christ Broadway 2500 23 40.76122 −73.97325 28.700000deg NW out Sony Madison Ave 550 24 40.76910887 −73.9921438 28.701700deg NE out Audi Manhattan 11th Ave 798 25 40.76152999 −73.971047 −151.138000deg SW out Phillips de Pury & Company Park Ave 450 26 40.77869109 −73.9742859 −151.067000deg SW out 4th Universalist Society Central Park West 160 27 40.77651726 −73.9621333 30.218400deg NW out J. Crew Madison Ave 1040 28 40.78889165 −73.9762919 −146.896000deg SW out CapitalOne Broadway 2379 29 40.78785 −73.94428 −151.427000deg SE out Metropolitan Pharmacy 2nd Ave 1982 30 40.76734394 −73.9662475 28.920300deg NE out Park Avenue Armory Park Ave 643 31 40.75834728 −73.9733625 −151.139000deg SW out Fidelity Investments Park Ave 350 32 40.74405893 −73.9834083 28.923400deg NE out Fresh & Co Park Ave 425 33 40.74287235 −73.9692963 −174.303000deg SW out 40/40 Club Broadway 1115 34 40.79989427 −73.9679408 12.346900deg NE out Beri & Jerry's Broadway 2722 35 40.74259353 −73.9847472 −151.262000deg SW out Hillstone Park Ave 378 36 40.75661024 −73.974077 28.920500deg NE out The Waldorf Astoria Park Ave 301 37 40.76960854 −73.9823632 177.536000deg SW out Gluliano Global Center Broadway 1849 38 40.77707894 −73.9524605 −150.912000deg SW out MexiBBQ 2nd Ave 1631 39 40.76099034 −73.9708821 28.922100deg NE out T. Anthony Ltd Park Ave 445 40 40.7446 −73.97585 −150.100000deg SE out New York Sports Club 2nd Ave 614 41 40.78236131 −73.9578472 28.826600deg NW out Corooran Madison Ave 1226 42 40.76942919 −73.967284 29.078000deg NW out Belstaff Madison Ave 814 43 40.75048678 −73.981105 28.630900deg NW out Chase Madison Ave 260 44 40.73726072 −73.9883591 28.996000deg NE out Flushing Bank Park Ave 225 45 40.743831 −73.9838458 −151.101000deg SW out Lacosie Park Ave 418 46 40.77238243 −73.9819655 −0.107681deg NE out Lululemon Athletica Broadway 1926 47 40.786342 −73.9783992 −150.823000deg SW out Taylor's Shoes Broadway 2299 48 40.75973954 −73.9717945 28.921400deg NE out Atlantic Bank Park Ave 405 49 40.76532 −73.982162 −167.000000deg SW out CapitalOne Broadway 1745 50 40.77520735 −73.9630677 28.951400deg NW out Zadig & Voltaire Madison Ave 992 In some embodiments of the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention, after virtual bus stops are dynamically generated according to the above rules, the exemplary computer transportation systems can be configured to allow administrators of the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention to: 1. change and/or remove “bad” stops (no stopping, or no convenient access to sidewalk); 2. on one-way roads, identify stops that need to be moved to left side of street (because of bus lanes, sidewalk access, etc.); 3. add business information or additional useful information that would help drivers and passengers identify the correct rendezvous; and 4. any combination thereof. Illustrative Examples of Spatial Detour Prevention In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems are configured to communicate a route to a passenger and/or driver by using, for example but not limited to, via an electronic device having a specifically programmed graphical user interface (GUI). In some example, the detour instruction can be present in the form of: text, graphical signs, audio sounds, being juxtaposed over and/or embedded in a map of a related geographic area, and any combination thereof. In some cases, the route may contain detour instruction(s) (e.g., go east, and then back west). For example, a detoured route with updated virtual bus stop(s) can be generated by the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention after determining, utilizing the at least one routing algorithm that the detoured route would be sufficiently faster due to traffic over an original route, for example but not limited to, when using a longer route through a highway. For example, a detoured route with updated virtual bus stop(s) can be generated by the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention after determining, utilizing the at least one routing algorithm that a detour is needed for another passenger to be picked up or dropped off in the same vehicle. In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems is configured not to avoid routing which includes detour for any of the two reasons above, but to avoid passenger aggravation, geometrical detours can be limited to 50-1000 m. In some embodiments, the geometrical detours can be limited to 350-450 m. In some embodiments, the geometrical detours can be limited to a maximum length of 400 m (e.g., one short avenue block, or two street blocks (back and forth) in Manhattan, N.Y. City). In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention can be configured to dynamically determine, in real-time, the fastest route that serves multiple passengers while observing spatial detour limits by utilizing, but not limited to, at least one of the following four steps: 1. Identify reasonable pickup and or drop-off virtual bus stops for at least a subset of passengers on the vehicle and or assigned to be picked up by vehicle; 2. Pre-filtering: for each task (pickup or dropoff), remove all stops that would cause an excessive detour (at this point, a virtual bus-stop is only removed from consideration if it necessarily causes a detour (no matter which bus-stops are selected for other tasks)); 3. Use at least one routing algorithm of the present invention described herein to calculate a route using virtual bus-stops that survived steps 1 and 2; and 4. Verify that final route causes no excessive detour for any passengers. Illustrative Examples of Dynamic Route Selection with Virtual Bus Stops Assignment In some embodiments, given a list of pickup and drop off tasks, the calculated virtual bus stop for each task is selected by the exemplary computer transportation system. FIG. 7 illustrates an embodiment of the dynamic route-virtual bus stop selection algorithm being executed by the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention. For example, as FIG. 7 illustrates, the exemplary dynamic route-virtual bus stop selection algorithm which is configured to select among a plurality of potential alternatives for each virtual bus stop (e g., Pickup#1, Pickup#2, Dropoff#1, Dropoff#2) to be assigned to passenger(s) who already requested the service and, in addition, to also select among a plurality of potential “demand point” at least one “demand point” task that the vehicle would need to perform. The columns correspond to one possible location (virtual bus stop, or demand-point). Each task has a cost associated with it, based on how much walking is required (for a pickup or drop-off) or how much demand is expected at that point for a demand point). Each arrow represents a potential route from a possible location for one bus-stop or demand-point task, to a possible location for the next but-stop or demand-point task. Each arrow has a cost associated with it, based on the driving time, and based on the number of passengers that are affected by that drive (on board the car, or waiting for it). FIG. 7 further illustrates starting from the car's current location, then choosing from 3 possible virtual bus stops for the first pickup, each with an associated walking distance. After pickup, the exemplary computer transportation system is configured to choose between 3 possible designated demand-points, each with its own evaluation based on expected demand. The exemplary computer transportation system is configured then to choose between 2 possible virtual bus stops for another pickup, 2 possible virtual bus stops for the first passenger's drop-off, and finally 3 possible stops for the second passenger's drop-off. In this example, there are at least 3×3×2×2×3=108 possible real-time selections, which translate into making selection among at least 108 possible routes. Illustrative Examples of Cost Function In some embodiments, the exemplary computer transportation systems of the present invention are configured to dynamically calculate and select, utilizing the exemplary dynamic route-virtual bus stop selection algorithm of the present invention, a route that minimizes a cost function accounting for at least one of the following factors: 1. Duration each passenger spends in the car; 2. Duration each passenger spends waiting; 3. Duration each passenger spends walking from origin to pickup and from drop-off to destination; 4. Duration in which car is held up (i.e., until final drop-off); 5. Cost of chosen demand point (higher cost for low demand); 6. Any combination thereof. Table 2 provides an illustrative computer script which can be utilized to specifically configure the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention to dynamically calculate and select, in real time, an updatable route having a plurality of virtual bus stops. For example, the illustrative computer script of Table 2 is configured to consider up to 15 demand-point tasks (including multiple sets of demand points) with more than 10 possible locations for some of the demand-point tasks, which can result in more than a billion possible routes. For example, the illustrative computer script of Table 2 is configured to compute the cost for the best sub-route ending in a particular location in a particular layer is computed, after the best sub-routes ending at each location in the previous layer are known. TABLE 2 for task in task_list: for location in task: min_route_cost = infinity for prev_location in task previous: route_cost = prev_location.route_cost + driving_time(prev_location, location) * driving_weight(task) + location.cost if route_cost < min_route_cost: min_route_cost = route_cost location.back_reference = previous_location final_location = min(last_task, key=route_cost) route = [final_location] while route[0].back_reference is not null: route.insert(0, route[0].back_reference) In one example, to figure out the calculated route ending in a particular location of a particular task, the exemplary computer transportation system is configured to go over all locations for the previous task. And, since the exemplary computer transportation system is configured to go over tasks in order, the best route ending in each of these previous locations would be computed. In some embodiments, for each previous location, the exemplary computer transportation system is configured to take the cost for previous location's calculated route, add the driving time from the previous location to the current location (weighted by the number of passengers affected by it), add the cost (walking/demand) for the new location, and get the route cost for the new location. In some embodiments, taking the calculated cost out of all options for previous locations, the exemplary computer transportation system is configured to get the final best cost for a route ending in the current location. The exemplary computer transportation system is configured to do this for each location in the current layer, and proceed to the next layer. Illustrative Operating Environments FIG. 1 illustrates one embodiment of an environment in which the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention may operate. However, not all of these components may be required to practice the invention, and variations in the arrangement and type of the components may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. In some embodiments, the inventive system and method may include a large number of members and/or concurrent transactions. In other embodiments, the inventive system and method are based on a scalable computer and network architecture that incorporates various strategies for assessing the data, caching, searching, and database connection pooling. An example of the scalable architecture is an architecture that is capable of operating multiple servers. In embodiments, members of the exemplary computer transportation system of the present invention 102-104 include virtually an computing device capable of receiving and sending a message over a network, such as network 105, to and from another computing device, such as servers 106 and 107, each other, and the like. In embodiments, the set of such devices includes devices that typically connect using a wired communications medium such as personal computers, multiprocessor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, and the like. In embodiments, the set of such devices also includes devices that typically connect using a wireless communications medium such as cell phones, smart phones, pagers, walkie talkies, radio frequency (RF) devices, infrared (IR) devices, CBs, integrated devices combining one or more of the preceding devices, or virtually any mobile device, and the like. Similarly, in embodiments, client devices 102-104 are any device that is capable of connecting using a wired or wireless communication medium such as a PDA, POCKET PC, wearable computer, and any other device that is equipped to communicate over a wired and/or wireless communication medium. In embodiments, each member device within member devices 102-104 may include a browser application that is configured to receive and to send web pages, and the like. In embodiments, the browser application may be configured to receive and display graphics, text, multimedia, and the like, employing virtually any web based language, including, but not limited to Standard Generalized Markup Language (SMGL), such as HyperText Markup Language (HTML), a wireless application protocol (WAP), a Handheld Device Markup Language (HDML), such as Wireless Markup Language (WML), WMLScript, XML, JavaScript, and the like. In embodiments, programming may include either Java, .Net, QT, C, C++ or other suitable programming language. In embodiments, member devices 102-104 may be further configured to receive a message from another computing device employing another mechanism, including, but not limited to email; Short Message Service (SMS), Multimedia Message Service (MMS), instant messaging (IM), interact relay chat (IRC), mIRC, Jabber, and the like or a Proprietary protocol. In embodiments, network 105 may be configured to couple one computing device to another computing device to enable them to communicate. In some embodiments, network 105 may be enabled to employ any form of computer readable media for communicating information from one electronic device to another. Also, in embodiments, network 105 may include a wireless interface, and/or a wired interface, such as the Internet, in addition to local area networks (LANs), wide area networks (WANs), direct connections, such as through a universal serial bus (USB) port, other forms of computer-readable media, or any combination thereof. In embodiments, on an interconnected set of LANs, including those based on differing architectures and protocols, a router may act as a link between LANs, enabling messages to be sent from one to another. Also, in some embodiments, communication links within LANs typically include twisted wire pair or coaxial cable, while communication links between networks may utilize analog telephone lines, full or fractional dedicated digital lines including T1, T2, T3, and T4, Integrated Services Digital Networks (ISDNs), Digital Subscriber Lines (DSLs), wireless links including satellite links, or other communications links known to those skilled in the art. Furthermore, in some embodiments, remote computers and other related electronic devices could be remotely connected to either LANs or WANs via a modem and temporary telephone link. In essence, in some embodiments, network 105 includes any communication method by which information may travel between client devices 102-104, and servers 106 and 107. FIG. 2 shows another exemplary embodiment of the computer and network architecture that supports the computer transportation methods and computer transportation systems of the instant invention. In some embodiments, the member devices 202a, 202b thru 202n shown each at least includes a computer-readable medium, such as a random access memory (RAM) 208 coupled to a processor 210 or FLASH memory. In some embodiments, the processor 210 may execute computer-executable program instructions stored in memory 208. In some embodiments, such processors comprise a microprocessor, an ASIC, and state machines. In some embodiments, such processors comprise, or may be in communication with, media, for example computer-readable media, which stores instructions that, when executed by the processor, cause the processor to perform the steps described herein. Embodiments of computer-readable media may include, but are not limited to, an electronic,, optical, magnetic, or other storage or transmission device capable of providing a processor, such as the processor 210 of client 202a, with computer-readable instructions. In sonic embodiments, other examples of suitable media may include, but are not limited to, a floppy disk, CD-ROM, DVD, magnetic disk, memory chip, ROM, RAM, an ASIC, a configured processor, all optical media, all magnetic tape or other magnetic media, or any other medium from which a computer processor can read instructions. Also, various other forms of computer-readable media may transmit or carry instructions to a computer, including a router, private or public network, or other transmission device or channel, both wired and wireless. In some embodiments, the instructions may comprise code from any computer-programming language, including, for example, C, C++, Visual Basic, Java, Python, and JavaScript. In some embodiments, member devices 202a-n may also comprise a number of external or internal devices such as a mouse, a CD-ROM, DVD, a keyboard, a display, or other input or output devices. Examples of client devices 202a-n may be personal computers, digital assistants, personal digital assistants, cellular phones, mobile phones, smart phones, pagers, digital tablets, laptop computers, Internet appliances, and other processor-based devices. In general, a client device 202a may be any type of processor-based platform that is connected to a network 206 and that interacts with one or more application programs. Client devices 202a-n may operate on any operating system capable of supporting a browser or browser-enabled application, such as Microsoft™, Windows™, or Linux. The client devices 202a-n shown may include, for example, personal computers executing a browser application program such as Microsoft Corporation's Internet Explorer™, Apple Computer, Inc's Safari™, Mozilla Firefox, and Opera. Through the client devices 202a-n, users, 212a-n communicate over the network 206 with each other and with other systems and devices coupled to the network 206. As shown in FIG. 2, server devices 204 and 213 may be also coupled to the network 206. In an embodiment of the present invention, one or more clients can be a mobile client. In some embodiments, the term “mobile electronic device” may refer to any portable electronic device that may or may not be enabled with location tracking functionality. For example, a mobile electronic device can include, but is not limited to, a mobile phone, Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), Blackberry ™, Pager, Smartphone, or any other reasonable mobile electronic device. For ease, at times the above variations are not listed or are only partially listed, this is in no way meant to be a limitation. In some embodiments, the terms “proximity detection,” “locating,” “location data,” “location information,” and “location tracking” as used herein may refer to any form of location tracking technology or locating method that can be used to provide a location of a mobile electronic device, such as, but not limited to, at least one of location information manually input by a user, such as, but not limited to entering the city, town, municipality, zip code, area code, cross streets, or by any other reasonable entry to determine a geographical area; Global Positions Systems (GPS); GPS accessed using Bluetooth™, GPS accessed using any reasonable form of wireless and/or non-wireless communication; WiFi™ server location data; Bluetooth ™ based location data; triangulation such as, but not limited to, network based triangulation, WiFi™ server information based triangulation, Bluetooth™ server information based triangulation; Cell Identification based triangulation, Enhanced Cell Identification based triangulation, Uplink-Time difference of arrival (U-TDOA) based triangulation, Time of arrival (TOA) based triangulation, Angle of arrival (AOA) based triangulation; techniques and systems using a geographic coordinate system such as, but not limited to, longitudinal and latitudinal based, geodesic height based, cartesian coordinates based; Radio Frequency identification such as, but not limited to, Long range RFID, Short range RFID; using any form of RFID tag such as, but not limited to active RFID tags, passive RFID tags, battery assisted passive RFID tags; or any other reasonable way to determine location. For ease, at times the above variations are not listed or are only partially listed, this is in no way meant to be a limitation. In some embodiments, near-field wireless communication (NFC) can represent a short-range wireless communications technology in which NFC-enabled devices are “swiped,” “bumped,” “tap” or otherwise moved in close proximity to communicate. In some embodiments, NFC could include a set of short-range wireless technologies, typically requiring a distance of 10 cm or less. In some embodiments, NFC may operate at 13.56 MHz on ISO/IEC 18000-3 air interface and at rates ranging from 106 kbit/s to 424 kbit/s. In some embodiments, NFC can involve an initiator and a target, the initiator actively generates an RF field that can power a passive target. In some embodiment, this can enable NFC targets to take very simple form factors such as tags, stickers, key fobs, or cards that do not require batteries. In some embodiments, NFC peer-to-peer communication can be conducted when a plurality of NFC-enable devices within close proximity of each other. For purposes of the instant description, the terms “cloud,” “Internet cloud,” “cloud computing,” “cloud architecture,” and similar terms correspond to at least one of the following: (1) a large number of computers connected through a real-time communication network (e.g., Internet); (2) providing the ability to run a program or application on many connected computers (e.g., physical machines, virtual machines (VMs)) at the same time (3) network-based services, which appear to be provided by real server hardware, and are in fact served up by virtual hardware (e.g., virtual servers), simulated by software running on one or more real machines (e.g., allowing to be moved around and scaled up (or down) on the fly without affecting the end user). In some embodiments, the inventive computer transportation system otters/manages the cloud computing/architecture as, but not limiting to: infrastructure a service (IaaS), platform as a service (PaaS), and software as a service (SaaS). FIGS. 3 and 4 illustrate schematics of exemplary implementations of the cloud computing/architecture. Of note, the embodiments described herein may, of course, be implemented using any appropriate computer transportation system hardware and/or computer transportation system software. In this regard, those of ordinary skill in the art are well versed in the type of computer hardware that may be used (e.g., a mainframe, a mini-computer, a personal computer (“PC”), a network (e.g., an intranet and/or the internet)), the type of computer programming techniques that may be used (e.g., object oriented programming), and the type of computer programming languages that may be used (e.g., C++, Basic, AJAX, Javascript). The aforementioned examples are, of course, illustrative and not restrictive. In some embodiments, the present invention provides for a computer-implemented method that includes at least the following steps: electronically receiving, in real-time, by at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via at least one computer network, a plurality of electronic riding requests from a plurality of electronic computing devices operated by a plurality of ride-sharing requesting passengers; where each electronic riding request from each ride-sharing requesting passenger includes: an origin location data identifying a passenger-requested origin point, and a destination location data identifying a passenger-requested destination point; for a particular electronic riding request of a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger: electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, for at least one database, at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger can be picked up or drop off by a first assigned vehicle; dynamically selecting, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, from at least one grid of virtual bus stops for the at least one geographic locale, a subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops and a subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops based, at least in part, on: i) a first absolute walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, and ii) a second absolute walking distance, being a distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point; electronically receiving, in real-time, during a first time period, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, current vehicle location data for a plurality of ride-sharing vehicles traveling within the at least one geographic locale, where the current vehicle location data include global positioning system (GPS) data generated by at least one GPS component of at least one electronic computing device associated with each ride-sharing vehicle; electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, current ride-sharing data which are representative of current routes and current virtual bus stops associated with a plurality of riding passengers who are currently riding in the plurality of ride-sharing vehicles; where the plurality of riding passengers includes at least one hundred riding passengers; dynamically determining, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a plurality of candidate vehicles which can pick up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, where the determining of the plurality of candidate vehicles is based, at least in part on: the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops, the current ride-sharing data and the current vehicle location data; dynamically determining, in real-time, from the plurality of candidate vehicles, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, 1) a first assigned vehicle for picking up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger and 2) a pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, based, at least in part, on: i) maximizing a vehicle occupancy to be at least two ride-sharing passengers in the first assigned vehicle at least a portion of a ride of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, ii) minimizing at least one of: 1) a first duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle; 2) a second duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends waiting for each candidate ride-sharing vehicle to arrive at a respective virtual bus stop; 3) a third duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends walking from the passenger-requested origin point to a respective candidate virtual pickup bus stop and from a respective candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point; 4) a fourth duration of time which each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is held up in a traffic until a respective final virtual dropoff bus stop associated with the last ride-sharing passenger during a particular time period; iii) an order in which a pair of candidate virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks are inserted into a route schedule of existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with each candidate vehicle of the plurality of candidate vehicles; dynamically generating, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a route proposal for the first assigned vehicle, where the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle includes a first updated route schedule, formed by inserting the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger into an existing route schedule, including existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with the first assigned vehicle; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop on a screen of a first electronic computing device associated with the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule on a screen of a second electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle. In some embodiments, the selecting of each candidate virtual pickup bus stop into the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops is based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) a first walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to each candidate virtual pickup bus stop, ii) a second walking distance, being a distance from each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point, iii) at least one first walking comfort condition associated with the first walking distance, the second walking distance, or both, iv) at least one first walking safety condition associated with a first walking route, being a route from the passenger-requested origin point to each candidate virtual pickup bus stop, v) at least one passenger well-being related factor, vi) at least one passenger personal preference related to at least one of: a walking distance, an expected time of arrival, a ride duration, a price, and any combination thereof, vii) at least one environment related factor, viii) a first cost assigned to each pair of a particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and a particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop, and ix) any combination thereof; and where the selecting of each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop into the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops is based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the first walking distance, the second walking distance, or both, ii) the sum of the first walking distance and the second walking distance, iii) the at least one walking comfort condition, iv) at least one second walking safety condition associated with a second walking route, being a route from each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point, v) the at least one passenger well-being related factor, vi) the at least one passenger personal preference, vii) the at least one environment related factor, viii) the first cost assigned to each pair of the particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and the particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop, and ix) any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cost assigned to each pair of the particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and the particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop is based, at least in part on at least one cost related to at least one ride segment passing through an area associated with a particular demand. In some embodiments, the first absolute walking distance is a first reasonable walking distance; where the second absolute walking distance is a second reasonable walking distance; and where the method further includes: dynamically determining, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first reasonable walking distance based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the distance from the passenger-requested origin point to the at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop, ii) a direction of travel of a road on which the at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop is located, iii) an availability of at least one first additional candidate virtual pickup bus stop having a shorter walking distance, and iv) an availability of at least one second additional candidate virtual pickup bus stop having a longer walking distance; and dynamically determining, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the second reasonable walking distance based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point, ii) a direction of travel of a road on which the at least one candidate virtual dropoff stop is located, iii) an availability of at least one first additional candidate virtual dropoff bus stop having a shorter walking distance, and iv) an availability of at least one second additional candidate virtual dropoff bus stop having a longer walking distance. In some embodiments, the dynamically generating the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle is based, at least in part, on one of: i) at least one existing pickup virtual bus stop task and at least one existing dropoff virtual bus stop task associated with the first assigned vehicle, ii) a road speed of at least one road on which the first assigned vehicle travels or travel, iii) a distance of at least one route which the first assigned vehicle will travel, and iv) a particular demand associated with the at least one route which the first assigned vehicle will travel. In some embodiments, the method can further include steps(s) of: continuously tracking, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the current vehicle location and the current ride-sharing data to identify at least one condition which requires to re-assign the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger to a second assigned vehicle; dynamically reassigning, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop task from the first assigned vehicle to the second assigned vehicle; dynamically revising, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule of the first assigned vehicle to obtain a first revised updated route schedule, by removing the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; dynamically revising, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a second updated route schedule of the second assigned vehicle to add a second pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first revised updated route schedule on the screen of the electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle; and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the second updated route schedule on a screen of an electronic computing device associated with the second assigned vehicle. In some embodiments, the method can further include step(s) of: generating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which at least one passenger can be picked up or drop off by at least one vehicle; electronically receiving, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, human-readable location identifying data for uniquely identify each geographic location point corresponding to each virtual bus stop in the grid of virtual bus stops; electronically associating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the human-readable location identifying data to each geographic location point corresponding to each virtual bus stop in the grid of virtual bus stops; and electronically storing, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the grid of virtual bus stops with the human-readable location identifying data in the at least one database. In some embodiments, the geographic location point is along at least one main road of the at least one geographic locale. In some embodiments, the method can further include steps(s) of: generating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, demand-point tasks based, at least in part, on one of: current ride-sharing demand data within the at least one geographic locale, and historic ride-sharing demand data within the at least one geographic locale; dynamically assigning, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, at least one demand-point task assigned to the first assigned vehicle; and where the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on the at least one demand-point task. In some embodiments, the current demand data includes data regarding at least one of: i) a first current ride-sharing demand in a vicinity of the passenger-requested origin point, and ii) a second current ride-sharing demand in a vicinity of the passenger-requested destination point. In some embodiments, each respective reasonable walking distance is in the range of 100-300 meters. In some embodiments, the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on minimizing an additional walking distance, and where the additional walking distance is in the range of 0-200 meters. In some embodiments, each respective absolute walking distance is in the range of 200-500 meters. In some embodiments, the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing, requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on avoiding exceeding at least one of: i) a fifth duration of time by which a ride duration of each ride-sharing passenger in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is increased due to the addition of the ride-sharing requesting passenger in the existing route schedule of such candidate ride-sharing vehicle, ii) a detour distance by which a ride distance for each ride-sharing passenger in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is increased due to the addition of the ride-sharing requesting passenger in the existing route schedule of such candidate ride-sharing vehicle. In some embodiments, the fifth duration of time is in the range of 0.5-15 minutes, and where the detour distance is in the range of 100-1000 meters. In some embodiments, the present invention provides a computer-implemented transportation system which can include at least the following components: at least one specialized computer machine, including: a non-transient memory, electronically storing particular computer executable program code; and at least one computer processor which, when executing the particular program code, becomes at least one specifically programmed computer processor of the at least one specialized computer machine of the computer-implemented transportation system that is configured to perform at least the following operations: electronically receiving, in real-time, by at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via at least one computer network, a plurality of electronic riding requests from a plurality of electronic computing devices operated by a plurality of ride-sharing requesting passengers; where each electronic riding request from each ride-sharing requesting passenger includes: an origin location data identifying a passenger-requested origin point, and a destination location data identifying a passenger-requested destination point; for a particular electronic riding request of a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger: electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, for at least one database, at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger can be picked up or drop off by a first assigned vehicle; dynamically selecting, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, from at least one grid of virtual bus stops for the at least one geographic locale, a subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops and a subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops based, at least in part, on: i) a first absolute walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, and ii) a second absolute walking distance, being a distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point; electronically receiving, in real-time, during a first time period, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, current vehicle location data for a plurality of ride-sharing vehicles traveling within the at least one geographic locale, where the current vehicle location data include global positioning system (GPS) data generated by at least one GPS component of at least one electronic computing device associated with each ride-sharing vehicle; electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, current ride-sharing data which are representative of current routes and current virtual bus stops associated with a plurality of riding passengers who are currently riding in the plurality of ride-sharing vehicles; where the plurality of riding passengers includes at least one hundred riding passengers; dynamically determining, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a plurality of candidate vehicles which can pick up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, where the determining of the plurality of candidate vehicles is based, at least in part on: the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops, the current ride-sharing data and the current vehicle location data; dynamically determining, in real-time, from the plurality of candidate vehicles, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, 1) a first assigned vehicle for picking up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger and 2) a pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, based, at least in part, on: i) maximizing a vehicle occupancy to be at least two ride-sharing passengers in the first assigned vehicle at least a portion of a ride of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, ii) minimizing at least one of: 1) a first duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle; 2) a second duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends waiting for each candidate ride-sharing vehicle to arrive at a respective virtual bus stop; 3) a third duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends walking from the passenger-requested origin point to a respective candidate virtual pickup bus stop and from a respective candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point; 4) a fourth duration of time which each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is held up in a traffic until a respective final virtual dropoff bus stop associated with the last ride-sharing passenger during a particular time period; iii) an order in which a pair of candidate virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks are inserted into a route schedule of existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with each candidate vehicle of the plurality of candidate vehicles; dynamically generating, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a route proposal for the first assigned vehicle, where the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle includes a first updated route schedule, formed by inserting the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger into an existing route schedule, including existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with the first assigned vehicle; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop on a screen of a first electronic computing device associated with the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule on a screen of a second electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle. While a number of embodiments of the present invention have been described, it is understood that these embodiments are illustrative only, and not restrictive, and that many modifications may become apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. Further still, the various steps may be carried out in any desired order (and any desired steps may ne added and/or any desired steps may be eliminated). | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Typically, ride-sharing allows people to share rides to their destinations. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In some embodiments, the present invention provides for a computer-implemented method that includes at least the following steps: electronically receiving, in real-time, by at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via at least one computer network, a plurality of electronic riding requests from a plurality of electronic computing devices operated by a plurality of ride-sharing requesting passengers; where each electronic riding request from each ride-sharing requesting passenger includes: an origin location data identifying a passenger-requested origin point, and a destination location data identifying a passenger-requested destination point; for a particular electronic riding request of a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger: electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, for at least one database, at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger can be picked up or drop off by a first assigned vehicle; dynamically selecting, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, from at least one grid of virtual bus stops for the at least one geographic locale, a subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops and a subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops based, at least in part, on: i) a first absolute walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, and ii) a second absolute walking distance, being a distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point; electronically receiving, in real-time, during a first time period, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, current vehicle location data for a plurality of ride-sharing vehicles traveling within the at least one geographic locale, where the current vehicle location data include global positioning system (GPS) data generated by at least one GPS component of at least one electronic computing device associated with each ride-sharing vehicle; electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, current ride-sharing data which are representative of current routes and current virtual bus stops associated with a plurality of riding passengers who are currently riding in the plurality of ride-sharing vehicles; where the plurality of riding passengers includes at least one hundred riding passengers; dynamically determining, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a plurality of candidate vehicles which can pick up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, where the determining of the plurality of candidate vehicles is based, at least in part on: the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops, the current ride-sharing data and the current vehicle location data; dynamically determining, in real-time, from the plurality of candidate vehicles, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, 1) a first assigned vehicle for picking up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger and 2) a pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, based, at least in part, on: i) maximizing a vehicle occupancy to be at least two ride-sharing passengers in the first assigned vehicle at least a portion of a ride of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, ii) minimizing at least one of: 1) a first duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle; 2) a second duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends waiting for each candidate ride-sharing vehicle to arrive at a respective virtual bus stop; 3) a third duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends walking from the passenger-requested origin point to a respective candidate virtual pickup bus stop and from a respective candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point; 4) a fourth duration of time which each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is held up in a traffic until a respective final virtual dropoff bus stop associated with the last tide-sharing passenger during a particular time period; iii) an order in which a pair of candidate virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks are inserted into a route schedule of existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with each candidate vehicle of the plurality of candidate vehicles; dynamically generating, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a route proposal for the first assigned vehicle, where the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle includes a first updated route schedule, formed by inserting the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger into an existing route schedule, including existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with the first assigned vehicle; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop on a screen of a first electronic computing device associated with the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule on a screen of a second electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle. In some embodiments, the selecting of each candidate virtual pickup bus stop into the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops is based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) a first walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to each candidate virtual pickup bus stop, ii) a second walking distance, being a distance from each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point, iii) at least one first walking comfort condition associated with the first walking distance, the second walking distance, or both, iv) at least one first walking safety condition associated with a first walking route, being a route from the passenger-requested origin point to each candidate virtual pickup bus stop, v) at least one passenger well-being related factor, vi) at least one passenger personal preference related to at least one of: a walking distance, an expected time of arrival, a ride duration, a price, and any combination thereof, vii) at least one environment related factor, viii) a first cost assigned to each pair of a particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and a particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop, and ix) any combination thereof; and where the selecting of each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop into the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops is based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the first walking distance, the second walking distance, or both, ii) the sum of the first walking distance and the second walking distance, iii) the at least one walking comfort condition, iv) at least one second walking safety condition associated with a second walking route, being a route from each candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point, v) the at least one passenger well-being, related factor, vi) the at least one passenger personal preference, vii) the at least one environment related factor, viii) the first cost assigned to each pair of the particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and the particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop, and ix) any combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cost assigned to each pair of the particular candidate virtual pickup bus stop and the particular candidate virtual dropoff bus stop is based, at least in part on at least one cost related to at least one ride segment passing through an area associated with a particular demand. In some embodiments, the first absolute walking distance is a first reasonable walking distance; where the second absolute walking distance is a second reasonable walking distance; and where the method further includes: dynamically determining, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first reasonable walking distance based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the distance from the passenger-requested origin point to the at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop, ii) a direction of travel of a road on which the at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop is located, iii) an availability of at least one first additional candidate virtual pickup bus stop having a shorter walking distance, and iv) an availability of at least one second additional candidate virtual pickup bus stop having a longer walking distance; and dynamically determining, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the second reasonable walking distance based, at least in part, on at least one of: i) the distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point, ii) a direction of travel of a road on which the at least one candidate virtual dropoff stop is located, iii) an availability of at least one first additional candidate virtual dropoff bus stop having a shorter walking distance, and iv) an availability of at least one second additional candidate virtual dropoff bus stop having a longer walking distance. In some embodiments, the dynamically generating the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle is based, at least in part, on one of : i) at least one existing pickup virtual bus stop task and at least one existing dropoff virtual bus stop task associated with the first assigned vehicle, ii) a road speed of at least one road on which the first assigned vehicle travels or will travel, iii) a distance of at least one route which the first assigned vehicle will travel, and iv) a particular demand associated with the at least one route which the first assigned vehicle will travel. In some embodiments, the method can further include steps(s) of: continuously tracking, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the current vehicle location and the current ride-sharing data to identify at least one condition which requires to re-assign the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger to a second assigned vehicle; dynamically reassigning, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop task from the first assigned vehicle to the second assigned vehicle; dynamically revising, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule of the first assigned vehicle to obtain a first revised updated route schedule, by removing the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing, requesting passenger; dynamically revising, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a second updated route schedule of the second assigned vehicle to add a second pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first revised updated route schedule on the screen of the electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle; and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the second updated route schedule on a screen of an electronic computing device associated with the second assigned vehicle. In some embodiments, the method can further include step(s) of: generating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which at least one passenger can be picked up or drop off by at least one vehicle; electronically receiving, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, human-readable location identifying data for uniquely identify each geographic location point corresponding to each virtual bus stop in the grid of virtual bus stops; electronically associating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the human-readable location identifying data to each geographic location point corresponding to each virtual bus stop in the grid of virtual bus stops; and electronically storing, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the grid of virtual bus stops with the human-readable location identifying data in the at least one database. In some embodiments, the geographic location point is along at least one main road of the at least one geographic locale. In some embodiments, the method can further include steps(s) of: generating, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, demand-point tasks based at least in part, on one of: current ride-sharing demand data within the at least one geographic locale, and historic ride-sharing demand data within the at least one geographic locale; dynamically assigning, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, at least one demand-point task assigned to the first assigned vehicle; and where the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on the at least one demand-point task. In some embodiments, the current demand data includes data regarding at least one of: i) a first current ride-sharing demand in a vicinity of the passenger-requested origin point, and ii) a second current ride-sharing demand in a vicinity of the passenger-requested destination point. In some embodiments, each respective reasonable walking distance is in the range of 100-300 meters. In some embodiments, the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on minimizing an additional walking distance, and where the additional walking distance is in the range of 0-200 meters. In some embodiments, each respective absolute walking distance is in the range of 200-500 meters. In some embodiments, the dynamically determining the first assigned vehicle and the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger is further based, at least in part, on avoiding exceeding at least one of; 1) a fifth duration of time by which a ride duration of each ride-sharing passenger in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is increased due to the addition of the ride-sharing requesting passenger in the existing route schedule of such candidate ride-sharing vehicle, ii) a detour distance by which a ride distance for each ride-sharing passenger in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is increased due to the addition of the ride-sharing requesting passenger in the existing route schedule of such candidate ride-sharing vehicle. In some embodiments, the fifth duration of time is in the range of 0.5-15 minutes, and where the detour distance is in the range of 100-1000 meters. In some embodiments, the present invention provides a computer-implemented transportation system which can include at least the following components: at least one specialized computer machine, including: a non-transient memory, electronically storing particular computer executable program code; and at least one computer processor which, when executing the particular program code, becomes at least one specifically programmed computer processor of the at least one specialized computer machine of the computer-implemented transportation system that is configured to perform at least the following operations: electronically receiving, in real-time, by at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via at least one computer network, a plurality of electronic riding requests from a plurality of electronic computing devices operated by a plurality of ride-sharing requesting passengers; where each electronic riding request from each ride-sharing requesting passenger includes: an origin location data identifying a passenger-requested origin point, and a destination location data identifying a passenger-requested destination point; for a particular electronic riding request of a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger: electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, for at least one database, at least one grid of virtual bus stops for at least one geographic locale; where each virtual bus stop corresponds to a geographic location point within the at least one geographic locale at which a particular ride-sharing requesting passenger can be picked up or drop off by a first assigned vehicle; dynamically selecting, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, from at least one grid of virtual bus stops for the at least one geographic locale, a subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops and a subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops based, at least in part, on: i) a first absolute walking distance, being a distance from the passenger-requested origin point to at least one candidate virtual pickup bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, and ii) a second absolute walking distance, being a distance from at least one candidate virtual dropoff bus stop of the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops to the passenger-requested destination point; electronically receiving, in real-time, during a first time period, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, via the at least one computer network, current vehicle location data for a plurality of ride-sharing vehicles traveling within the at least one geographic locale, where the current vehicle location data include global positioning system (GPS) data generated by at least one GPS component of at least one electronic computing device associated with each ride-sharing vehicle; electronically accessing, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, current ride-sharing data which are representative of current routes and current virtual bus stops associated with a plurality of riding passengers who are currently riding in the plurality of ride-sharing vehicles; where the plurality of riding passengers includes at least one hundred riding passengers; dynamically determining, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a plurality of candidate vehicles which can pick up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, where the determining of the plurality of candidate vehicles is based, at least in part on: the subset of candidate virtual pickup bus stops, the subset of candidate virtual dropoff bus stops, the current ride-sharing data and the current vehicle location data; dynamically determining, in real-time, from the plurality of candidate vehicles, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, 1) a first assigned vehicle for picking up the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger and 2) a pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks related to the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, based, at least in part, on: i) maximizing a vehicle occupancy to be at least two ride-sharing passengers in the first assigned vehicle at least a portion of a ride of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger, ii) minimizing at least one of: 1) a first duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends in each candidate ride-sharing vehicle; 2) a second duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends waiting for each candidate ride-sharing vehicle to arrive at a respective virtual bus stop; 3) a third duration of time which each ride-sharing passenger spends walking from the passenger-requested origin point to a respective candidate virtual pickup bus stop and from a respective candidate virtual dropoff bus stop to the passenger-requested destination point; 4) a fourth duration of time which each candidate ride-sharing vehicle is held up in a traffic until a respective final virtual dropoff bus stop associated with the last ride-sharing passenger during a particular time period; iii) an order in which a pair of candidate virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks are inserted into a route schedule of existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with each candidate vehicle of the plurality of candidate vehicles; dynamically generating, in real-time, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, a route proposal fir the first assigned vehicle, where the route proposal for the first assigned vehicle includes a first updated route schedule, formed by inserting the pair of assigned virtual pickup and dropoff bus stop tasks of the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger into an existing route schedule, including existing pickup and dropoff virtual bus stop tasks associated with the first assigned vehicle; causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the assigned virtual pickup bus stop on a screen of a first electronic computing device associated with the particular ride-sharing requesting passenger; and causing to electronically display, in real-time, via the at least one computer network, by the at least one specifically programmed computer processor, the first updated route schedule on a screen of a second electronic computing device associated with the first assigned vehicle. | G01C213438 | 20170628 | 20171102 | 75340.0 | G01C2134 | 1 | NGUYEN, CUONG H | CONTINUOUSLY UPDATABLE COMPUTER-GENERATED ROUTES WITH CONTINUOUSLY CONFIGURABLE VIRTUAL BUS STOPS FOR PASSENGER RIDE-SHARING OF A FLEET OF RIDE-SHARING VEHICLES AND COMPUTER TRANSPORTATION SYSTEMS AND COMPUTER-IMPLEMENTED METHODS FOR USE THEREOF | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G01C | 2,017 |
|
15,636,211 | PENDING | Liquid Formulations of Urease Inhibitors for Fertilizers | An improved solvent system for the formulation and application of N-alkyl thiophosphoric triamide urease inhibitors. These formulations provide safety and performance benefits relative to existing alternatives and enable storage, transport and subsequent coating or blending with urea based or organic based fertilizers. These formulations are comprised primarily of environmentally friendly aprotic and protic solvents (particularly dimethyl sulfoxide and alcohols/polyols) to stabilize the urease inhibitor. | 1. A liquid fertilizer additive composition comprising one or more urease inhibitor(s) and one or more polar aprotic solvents wherein said polar aprotic solvents comprises one or more members selected from the group consisting of a. dimethyl sulfoxide; and b. one or more sulfoxide(s) selected from the group consisting of dialkyl, diaryl, and alkylaryl sulfoxide(s) selected from the formula structure: R9S(O) R10 wherein i. R9 and R10 are each independently a C1-C6alkylene group, an aryl group and a C1-C3 alkylenearyl group ii. or R9 and R10 with the sulfur to which they are attached form a 4 to 8 membered ring wherein R9 and R10 together are a C1-C6 alkylene group which optionally contains one or more atoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, Se, Te, N, and P in the ring such that said composition weight percent comprises 75-5% of said urease inhibitor(s) and 25-95% of said polar aprotic solvents. 2. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises one or more urease inhibitors selected from the group consisting of aliphatic phosphoric triamide, phosphoramides and N-alkyl thiophosphoric triamides. 3. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 1, wherein the composition comprises the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide. 4. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 1 wherein the composition comprises the polar aprotic solvent dimethyl sulfoxide. 5. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 1, wherein the composition further comprises one or more members selected from the group consisting of buffer, flow aide, silicas, surfactants and dyes/colorants. 6. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 1, wherein the composition further comprises water thereby resulting in a liquid urea fertilizer. 7. A liquid fertilizer additive comprising a) N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide and b) dimethyl sulfoxide wherein the liquid fertilizer additive is made by heating a mixture of N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide and dimethyl sulfoxide to 20-60° C. to effectuate dissolution of the N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide into the dimethyl sulfoxide and mixing the N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide and dimethyl sulfoxide to attain a composition wherein the N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide is present in an amount that is between about 25-75% of a total formulation amount. 8. The liquid fertilizer additive of claim 7, wherein the composition further comprises one or more members selected from the group consisting of buffer, flow aide, silicas, surfactants and dyes/colorants. 9. A liquid fertilizer additive composition comprising one or more urease inhibitor(s) and one or more solvents selected from the group consisting of polar aprotic, aprotic and protic solvents wherein said polar aprotic solvents comprise one or more members selected from the group consisting of: i. dimethyl sulfoxide, ii. one or more alkylene carbonates selected from the group consisting of propylene carbonate, ethylene carbonate and butylene carbonate, and iii. one or more sulfoxide(s) selected from the group consisting of dialkyl, diaryl, and alkylaryl sulfoxide(s) selected from the formula structure: R9S(O) R10 wherein 1. R9 and R10 are each independently a C1-C6alkylene group, an aryl group or C1-C3 alkylenearyl group 2. or R9 and R10 with the sulfur to which they are attached form a 4 to 8 membered ring wherein R9 and R10 together are a C1-C6alkylene group which optionally contains one or more atoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, Se, Te, N, and P in the ring wherein the liquid additive composition comprises 75-5% of said urease inhibitors and 25-95% of said polar aprotic, aprotic and protic solvents. 10. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 9, wherein the composition comprises one or more urease inhibitors selected from the group consisting of aliphatic phosphoric triamide, phosphoramides, and N-alkyl thiophosphoric triamides 11. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 9, wherein the composition comprises the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide. 12. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 9, wherein the composition comprises one or more aprotic solvents selected from the group consisting of a) 2-methoxyethyl ether, b) cyclohexylpyrrolidone, c) 1,3 dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone and d) the organo phosphorous liquid hexamethyl phosphoramide. 13. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 9, wherein the composition comprises one or more protic solvents selected from the group consisting of a) an alcohol, b) one or more polyols selected from the group consisting of alkylene and poly(alkylene) glycols, and glycerin and c) one or more alkyl lactate selected from the group consisting of ethyl, propyl and butyl lactate. 14. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 13, wherein the composition comprises one or more polyalkylene glycols selected from the group consisting of a) polymethylene glycols, b) polyethylene glycols, c) polypropylene glycols and d) polybutylene glycols. 15. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 13, wherein the composition comprises one or more alkylene glycols selected from the group consisting of a) ethylene glycol, b) propylene glycol and c) butylene glycol. 16. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 9, wherein the composition comprises the polar aprotic solvent dimethyl sulfoxide and one or more members from the group consisting of said polar aprotic, said aprotic and said protic solvents. 17. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 9, wherein the composition further comprises one or more members selected from the group consisting of buffers, flow aide, silicas, surfactants and, dyes/colorants. 18. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 9, wherein the composition further comprises water thereby resulting in a liquid urea fertilizer. 19. A liquid fertilizer additive composition comprising a) N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide b) dimethyl sulfoxide and c) one or more solvents selected from the group consisting of polar aprotic, aprotic and protic solvents wherein the fertilizer additive is made by heating a mixture of N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide and one or more members selected from the group consisting of a) dimethyl sulfoxide and b) one or more solvents selected from the group consisting of polar aprotic, aprotic and protic solvents to 20-60° C. to effectuate the dissolution of the N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide into the one or more solvents selected from the group consisting of dimethyl sulfoxide , polar aprotic, aprotic and protic solvents and mixing of the ingredients to attain a composition wherein the N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide is present in an amount that is between about 25-75% of a total formulation amount, wherein said aprotic solvents comprises one or more members selected from the group consisting of: a. one or more alkylene carbonates selected from the group consisting of propylene carbonate, ethylene carbonate and butylene carbonate, b. one or more sulfoxide(s) selected from the group consisting of dialkyl, diaryl, and alkylaryl sulfoxide(s) selected from the formula structure: R9S(O) R10 wherein i. R9 and R10 are each independently a C1-C6alkylene group, an aryl group or C1-C3 alkylenearyl group ii. or R9 and R10 with the sulfur to which they are attached form a 4 to 8 membered ring wherein R9 and R10 together are a C1-C6alkylene group which optionally contains one or more atoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, Se, Te, N, and P in the ring wherein said aprotic solvents comprises one or more members selected from the group consisting of of a) 2-methoxyethyl ether, b) cyclohexylpyrrolidone, c) 1,3 dimethyl-2-imidazolidinone and d) the organo phosphorous liquid hexamethyl phosphoramide and wherein said protic solvents comprises one or more members selected from the group consisting of a) an alcohol, b) one or more polyols selected from the group consisting of 1. one or more alkylene glycols selected from the group consisting of a) ethylene glycol, b) propylene glycol and c) butylene glycol 2. one or more poly(alkylene) glycols selected from the group consisting of a) polymethylene glycols, b) polyethylene glycols, c) polypropylene glycols and d) polybutylene glycols. and 3. glycerin c) and one or more alkyl lactates selected from the group consisting of ethyl, propyl and butyl lactate. 20. The liquid fertilizer additive composition of claim 19, wherein the composition further comprises one or more members selected from the group consisting of buffers, flow aide, silicas, surfactants and dyes/colorants. | The present application is a continuation and claims priority under 35 §USC 120 to U.S. application Ser. No. 13/890,082 filed May 8, 2013, which in turn claims priority under 35 §USC 119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application 61/708,105 filed Oct. 1, 2012, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION In embodiments, the present invention relates to improved solvent formulations for the urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide, hereafter referred to by its acronym NBPT. NBPT is a solid chemical substance, which is dissolved in a suitable solvent to allow application at low levels in the field. Additionally, solutions of NBPT are desirable when it is to be incorporated as a component of a granular mixed fertilizer, such that it can be deposited as a coating in a controlled and homogenous layer. In one embodiment, this invention proposes formulations of mixtures containing aprotic and protic solvents which are more environmentally friendly and are safer for workers to handle than known NBPT solutions. Moreover, performance advantages relative to NBPT solution stability, solution handling, and loading levels are disclosed for these new formulations. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Description of the Prior Art Nitrogen is an essential plant nutrient and is thought to be important for the adequate and strong foliage. Urea provides a large nitrogen content and is one of the best of all nitrogenous fertilizer materials, which consequently makes it an efficient fertilizer compound. In the presence of soil moisture, natural or synthetic ureas are converted to ammonium ion, which is then available for plant uptake. When applied as a fertilizer material, native soil bacteria enzymatically convert urea to two molar equivalents of ammonium ion for each mole of urea as demonstrated by the following two reactions: CO(NH2)2+2H2O→(NH4)2CO3 (NH4)2CO3+2H+→2NH4++CO2+H2O In the presence of water, the ammonium thus produced is in equilibrium with ammonia. The equilibrium between NH4+ and NH3 is pH dependent, in accordance with the following equilibrium: NH4++OH−NH3(solution)+H2O As such, gaseous ammonia losses are higher at higher pH values. The flux of NH3 from soil is primarily dependent on the NH3 concentration, pH, and temperature. In the presence of oxygen, ammonium can also be converted to nitrate (NO3−). Nitrogen in both its ammonium and nitrate forms may then be taken up as nutrient substances by growing plants. The ammonium ion can also ultimately be converted to ammonia gas, which escapes to the air. The concentrations of NH3 in the air and in solution are governed by Henry's law constant (H), which is a function of temperature: └NH3(air)┘=H└NH3(solution)┘ Urea fertilizer is often just applied once at the beginning of the growing season. A weakness in this nitrogen delivery system involves the different rates at which ammonium and nitrate are produced in the soil, and the rate at which ammonium and nitrate are required by the plant during its growing season. The generation of ammonium and nitrate is fast relative to its uptake by plants, allowing a considerable amount of the fertilizer nitrogen to go unutilized or to be lost to the atmosphere as ammonia gas, where it is no longer available to the plant. Thus, there is a desire to control the hydrolysis of urea to ammonium and ammonia gas, thereby making the urea fertilizer more effective for plant growth. Numerous methods have been developed for making urea fertilizers more effective, and for controlling the volatilization of ammonia from urea. Weston et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,352,265) details a method for controlling urea fertilizer losses, including: (1) multiple fertilizer treatments in the field, staged across the growing season, (2) the development of ‘controlled release’ granular fertilizer products, using protective coatings which erode slowly to introduce the urea to the soil in a controlled fashion, and (3) the discovery of simple chemical compounds (urease inhibitors) which inhibit the rate at which urea is metabolized by soil bacteria and converted to the ammonium ion. Use of various urea coatings to provide urea in a controlled fashion to the plant has been widely demonstrated. Phosphate coatings for urea have been described by Barry et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 3,425,819) wherein the coating is applied to urea as an aqueous phosphate mixture. Miller (U.S. Pat. No. 3,961,932) describes the use of chelated micronutrients to coat fertilizer materials. Polymer coatings have also been disclosed which control the delivery of fertilizer materials (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 6,262,183 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,435,821). Whitehurst et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 6,830,603) teach the use of borate salts to produce coated urea fertilizer, as a means of controlling ammonia losses during the growth cycle. Whitehurst summarizes numerous examples of this coating strategy to inhibit the loss of ammonia nitrogen in the soil. Accordingly, the prior art considers the merits of coated fertilizer products as one means of inhibiting the loss of ammonia nitrogen in the soil. Urease inhibiting materials other than NBPT have been disclosed. Some examples include the use of polysulfide and thiosulfate salts as taught by Hojjatie et al (US 2006/0185411 A1) and the use of dicyandiamide (DCD) and nitrapyrin. Kolc at al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,530,714) teach the use of aliphatic phosphoric triamide urease inhibitors, including the use of NBPT for this purpose. Kolc mentions the use of aqueous and organic carrier media, but specifies volatile (and flammable) solvents from the group including acetone, diisobutylketone, methanol, ethanol, diethyl ether, toluene, methylene chloride, chlorobenzene, and petroleum distillates. The principle reason for the use of these solvents was to assure that negligible amounts of solvent residue be retained on the crop. Improved carrier systems for NBPT have been described subsequent to the Kolc. NBPT is both a hydrolytically and thermally unstable substance and several solvent systems have been developed to overcome these and other weaknesses. Unfortunately, the existing formulations are problematic in their own right due to thermal stability concerns and the toxicity of key formulation components. Generally, it is desirable that solvents being used in conjunction with fertilizers be water soluble in all proportions which allows for facile dispersion at the point of use as well as a relatively high flashpoint (so that it has a reduced chances of explosions and/or fires at elevated temperatures). Many of the formulation solvents disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,530,714 do not possess these desirable properties. Examples of such problematic solvents from this patent include the use of toluene, a flammable and water immiscible solvent. Weston et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,352,265) disclose the use of pyrrolidone solvents, such as N-Methyl pyrrolidone (NMP), as does Narayanan et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,160,528 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,071,463). It is shown that a solvents of this type can dissolve high levels of NBPT to produce product concentrates and that the resulting concentrates have good temperature stability. These features are useful in that they allow commercial products to be stored, pumped, and transported in conventional ways. In U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,003, Omilinsky and coworkers also disclose the use of ‘liquid amides” such as NMP in NBPT formulations. Omilinsky further speaks to the importance of solution stability and develops glycol-type solvents as desirable base solvents for NBPT delivery mixtures. The dominant role played by a liquid amide co-solvent is to depress the pour point of the mixture, which is insufficiently high as a consequence of the natural viscosity of glycols at reduced temperatures. NMP plays several roles in NBPT-based agrichemical formulations. As taught in '265, '528, and '463, NMP is a useful solvent capable of producing concentrated NBPT product formulations which have good temperature stability. It may also be used as an additive to depress the pour point of viscous base solvents, such as propylene glycol. Omilinsky discloses the use of NMP as a co-solvent to depress the pour point of propylene glycol in '003. In mixtures such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,698,003, the requirement for an additive to depress the pour point of glycol-type NBPT solvent formulations is described. Solvents such as propylene glycol have the attractive feature of being essentially nontoxic and are thus an attractive mixture component in agrichemical and pharmaceutical products. One drawback of some glycols is a relatively high viscosity level, which can make these materials resistant to flow and difficult to pour. Indeed, the dynamic viscosity at 25° C. of propylene glycol is 48.8 centipoise, almost 50 times that of water at the same temperature. Viscosity data for propylene glycol can be found in Glycols (Curme and Johnston, Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York, 1952). Omilinsky '003 describes the use of NMP as an additive capable of depressing the pour point of NBPT mixtures. Although NMP and other liquid amide solvents play useful roles in the described NBPT formulations, concerns about the safety of these solvents has increased greatly in recent years. In particular, European Directives 67/548/EEC and/or 99/45/EC have recently classified N-methylpyrrolidone (NMP) as a reproductive toxin (R61) in amounts exceeding 5% of the product formulation. It is scheduled for listing on the European Union's ‘Solvent of Very High Concern’ list, which would preclude its use in industrial and agrichemical formulations. In the US, NMP is subject to California Proposition 65 (The Safe Drinking Water and Toxic Enforcement Act of 1986) requirements, which regulate substances known by the US State of California to cause cancer or reproductive harm. Nothing in the prior art addresses the suitability of NMP in these formulations from the standpoint of safety, or proposes appropriate alternatives from the perspectives of both safety and performance. Indeed, guidelines for the use of reaction solvents in the pharmaceutical industry also speak to the relatively poor safety profile of NMP. As reaction solvents may be present at residual levels in finished drug products such considerations are warranted. The International Conference on Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH) classifies NMP as a ‘solvent to be limited (Class 2)’ in its document Impurities: Guideline for Residual Solvents Q3C (R3). NMP is potentially toxic if it is given directly to humans and/or animals. Moreover, it is possible that NMP may be toxic when it is ingested by higher order animals after passage through the food chain. For example, often times, fertilizers are not completely absorbed/used by fields/crops/plants on which they are used and the fertilizers end up in water-ways (such as fresh water, brackish water or salt water bodies). In those situations where at least a part of the fertilizer ends up in these bodies of water, they may be absorbed, ingested or otherwise taken in by organisms that are either directly or indirectly consumed by higher animals (such as humans). In these instances, it is possible that the fertilizer and/or compounds that are associated with said fertilizer may be directly and/or indirectly ingested by humans or higher animals and lead to toxicity to said humans. It is also possible that the fertilizers that end up in water ways may be directly ingested by higher animals/humans that drink the water. Moreover, when toxic compounds that are associated with various fertilizers are used, not only may they be toxic to the higher animals but they also may be toxic to the animals lower in the food chain. At higher doses, this may mean die-off of the animals lower in the food chain, which consequently means that there may be economic consequences such as crop and/or animal die-off, which means lower profit margins and less food available. In light of the above, it is desirable to develop formulations/fertilizers that are less toxic to the environment and to animals and humans. An important feature of NBPT-based agrichemical formulation is their chemical stability in solution. Although such products are diluted with water at the point of use, NBPT undergoes hydrolysis in the presence of water. Aqueous solutions or emulsions of NBPT are therefore not practical from a commercial perspective and organic solvents are preferred as vehicles to deliver concentrated NBPT products. But NBPT is not chemically inert to all solvents, and its stability must be assessed in order to develop a product suitable to the needs of agrichemical users. The stability of NBPT to NMP has been previously established in U.S. Pat. No. 5,352,265 (Weston et al.) and by Narayanan et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 5,160,528 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,071,463). Beyond the consideration of NBPT chemical stability in the presence of formulation solvents is the inherent stability of the solvents themselves to hydrolysis. As NBPT products are often ultimately dispersed into water, the hydrolytic stability of liquid amide solvents like NMP is a consideration. At elevated temperatures and pH levels, NMP hydrolysis can be significant (“M-Pyrrol” product bulletin, International Specialty Products, p. 48). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one embodiment, the present invention relates to liquid formulations containing N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT). In an embodiment, the formulations can be made by dissolving the NBPT into an aprotic solvent consisting of a) dimethyl sulfoxide, b) dialkyl, diaryl, or alkylaryl sulfoxide having the formula R1—SO—R2, when R1 is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, phenyl or benzyl and R2 is ethyl, n-propyl, phenyl or benzyl, c) sulfolane, d) ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, or mixtures thereof. In an embodiment, these formulations can be mixed with a protic component consisting of 1) an alcohol or polyol from the family of alkylene and poly(alkylene) glycols (PG), 2) an alkylene glycol from the group comprised of ethylene, propylene, or butylene glycol, 3) glycerin, 4) an alkanolamine from the group comprising ethanolamine, diethanolamine, dipropanolamine, methyl diethanolamine, monoisopropanolamine and triethanolamine, and/or 5) ethyl, propyl, or butyl lactate. In one embodiment, we propose the use of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as a replacement in NBPT-based agrichemical products for more toxic solvents such as, for N-methyl pyrrolidone. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows accelerated chemical stability of NBPT solutions comparing the test product (50% PG, 25% DMSO, 25% NBPT) vs. the commercial product containing N-methyl pyrrolidone. The stability testing was conducted at 50° C., and concentrations were assayed by HPLC. FIG. 2 shows accelerated chemical stability of NBPT solutions comparing the test product (35% PG, 40% DMSO, 25% NBPT) vs. the commercial product containing N-methyl pyrrolidone. The stability testing was conducted at 50° C., and concentrations were assayed by HPLC. FIG. 3 shows accelerated chemical stability of NBPT solutions comparing the test product (20% PG, 40% DMSO, 40% NBPT) vs. the commercial product containing N-methyl pyrrolidone. The stability testing was conducted at 50° C., and concentrations were assayed by HPLC. FIG. 4 shows accelerated chemical stability of NBPT solutions comparing the test product (48.5% glycerine, 1.5% methanol, 25% DMSO, 25% NBPT) vs. the commercial product containing N-methyl pyrrolidone. The stability testing was conducted at 50° C., and concentrations were assayed by FIG. 5 shows accelerated chemical stability of NBPT solutions comparing the test product (48.5% glycerine, 1.5% methanol, 25% DMSO, 25% NBPT) vs. the commercial product containing N-methyl pyrrolidone. The stability testing was conducted at 50° C., and concentrations were assayed by HPLC. FIG. 6 shows accelerated chemical stability of four NBPT solutions: Mix A; 75.0% N-methyl pyrrolidone, 25% NBPT. Mix B; 75 PG, 25% NBPT. Mix C; 75.0% Buffered mix, 25.0% NBPT. Mix D; 75% DMSO, 25.0% NBPT. The stability testing was conducted at 50° C., and concentrations were assayed by HPLC. FIG. 7 shows viscosity testing results comparing mixtures of propylene glycol with varying percentages of co-solvents DMSO vs. NMP. Viscosities were measured using a Brookfield LVDV-E digital rotational viscometer with LVDV-E spindle set. Also shown is the viscosity of the commercial NBPT product, which contains NMP and PG, of example 2. FIG. 8 shows viscosity testing results comparing mixtures of glycerol with varying percentages of co-solvents DMSO vs. NMP. Viscosities were measured using a Brookfield LVDV-E digital rotational viscometer with LVDV-E spindle set. Also shown is the viscosity of the commercial NBPT product, which contains NMP and PG, of example 2. FIG. 9 shows viscosity testing results comparing mixtures of monoisopropanolamine (MIPA) with varying percentages of co-solvents DMSO vs. NMP. Viscosities were measured using a Brookfield LVDV-E digital rotational viscometer with LVDV-E spindle set. Also shown is the viscosity of the commercial NBPT product, which contains NMP and PG, of example 2. FIG. 10 shows ammonia emissions testing results from soil which had been applied commercial urea fertilizer vs. commercial urea fertilizer coated with an NBPT solution containing 50.0% PG, 30.0% DMSO, and 20.0% NBPT by weight. The testing was conducted for 7 days at 22° C. using a commercially available potting soil blend, and was analyzed using a chemiluminescence ammonia analyzer. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION In an embodiment, the present invention relates to formulations containing N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT). In an embodiment, these formulations are prepared by dissolving NBPT into an aprotic solvent consisting of a) dimethyl sulfoxide, b) dialkyl, diaryl, or alkylaryl sulfoxide having the formula R1—SO—R2, when R1 is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, phenyl or benzyl and R2 is ethyl, n-propyl, phenyl or benzyl, c) sulfolane, d) ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, or mixtures thereof. In an embodiment, these formulations can be mixed with a protic component consisting of 1) an alcohol or polyol from the family of alkylene and poly(alkylene) glycols (PG), 2) an alkylene glycol from the group comprised of ethylene, propylene, or butylene glycol, 3) glycerin, 4) an alkanolamine from the group comprising ethanolamine, diethanolamine, dipropanolamine, methyl diethanolamine, monoisopropanolamine and triethanolamine, and/or 5) ethyl, propyl, or butyl lactate. In one embodiment, dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) is used as a replacement in NBPT-based agrichemical products for more toxic solvents such as, for N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP). In one embodiment, the solution is either combined with a dry granular or liquid urea fertilizer and applied to cropland to make the fertilizer more effective for plant growth, and/or applied directly to urea-containing lands, surfaces, or products to reduce ammonia emissions. In one embodiment, coated granular urea products containing additional plant nutrients can be prepared from granular urea, a source or sources of the additional nutrients in powdered form and the diluted NBPT containing mixture described below. Granular urea can be first dampened with the diluted NBPT containing mixture followed by mixing to distribute the NBPT containing liquid mixture over the granular urea surface using any commonly used equipment to commingle a liquid with a granular solid. After distribution of the diluted NBPT containing mixture over the granular surface, the additional nutrients in powdered form can be added to the dampened mixture and the resulting combined ingredients can be further mixed to distribute the powdered materials. In an alternate embodiment, the powdered materials may be first mixed with the granular urea and then the NBPT containing diluted mixture can be sprayed onto a tumbling bed of the dry ingredients to agglomerate the dry materials. This latter method may be particularly suited to continuous processing. The term “urea fertilizer” as used herein refers to both natural and synthetic ureas, either used alone or mixed with other macro- and/or micronutrients and/or organic matter. Dry granular urea fertilizer contains about 46% nitrogen by weight. In one embodiment, the compounds listed in this invention as aprotic and protic solvents may be described generally as sulfoxides and alcohols, respectively. In an embodiment, the present invention relates to the use of safer and more environmentally friendly solvents to overcome the limitations of specific existing urease inhibitor formations. In an embodiment, the solvents used in the present invention are less toxic than the solvents that have been used in the prior art, for example, NMP. In an embodiment, the formulations use combinations of polar aprotic solvents (sulfoxides, sulfones, dialkyl carbonates) with protic solvents (glycols, triols, and alkanolamines) to produce NBPT formulations having acceptable viscosity levels and high NBPT loading while also being relatively non-toxic. Moreover, in an embodiment, the protic/aprotic solvent mixtures demonstrate excellent NBPT stability as demonstrated by accelerated stability testing. One aspect of the invention involves the use of dimethyl sulfoxide as a replacement for the more hazardous liquid amide component in formulations requiring such a co-solvent to modify the formulation's flow properties. In this aspect, this is a considerable improvement in light of increased regulatory scrutiny of the liquid amide solvents. In one embodiment, the present invention relates to the use of DMSO with NBPT instead of NMP. NMP has a recognized reproductive toxicity and an examination of acute toxicity data shows that NMP is considerably more hazardous than dimethyl sulfoxide, by any exposure route. A summary of basic toxicological indicators is given in Table 1. TABLE 1 Comparative acute/reproductive toxicity data for dimethyl sulfoxide and N-methyl pyrrolidone. Toxicological indicator Dimethyl sulfoxide N-methyl pyrrolidone CAS [67-58-4] [872-50-4] Oral LD-50 14,500-28,300 3,914 Dermal LD-50 40,000 8,000 Inhalation toxicity None established 3200 μg/day (MADL) Reproductive toxin no yes MADL = Maximum Allowable Dosage Level per day (California Proposition 65) As shown in the table above, it should be clear to those of ordinary skill in the art that DMSO is significantly less toxic than NMP. Furthermore, DMSO is classified as ‘a solvent with low toxic potential (Class 3)’—the most favorable rating. In one embodiment, the present invention addresses the shortcomings of solvents of the prior art by the use of specific mixtures of low toxicity polar aprotic solvents (most principally dimethyl sulfoxide) and various common protic solvents, that also tend to be relatively non-toxic. In an embodiment, the present invention relates to formulations comprising aprotic/protic solvent mixtures that are used to fluidize the specific urease inhibitor N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide such that it might be used to coat fertilizer products. In one embodiment, phosphate coatings for urea may be used wherein the coating is applied to urea as an aqueous phosphate mixture prior to adding the fertilizer additive of the present invention. In an embodiment, chelated micronutrients may be used to coat fertilizer materials. Alternatively and/or additionally, polymer coatings may be used which control the delivery of fertilizer materials. In one embodiment, the formulations of the present invention use DMSO as a solvent. DMSO has an advantage over prior art solvents such as NMP because DMSO does not undergo the hydrolysis that can be significant with NMP (see “M-Pyrrol” product bulletin, International Specialty Products, p. 48). Accordingly, when one uses DMSO, one has significantly more latitude in formulation development. Further, the solvent properties of DMSO are useful in these formulations in that NBPT concentrations containing over 50 wt. % NBPT are attainable. Such high loading of an active substance by a solvent enables the manufacture of product concentrates, which can be less expensive to store, transport and use. When the fertilizer additive product arrives at the user, the user is able to dilute the concentrate with water and use the fertilizer additive (with fertilizer) for their crops/plants or the like. In one embodiment, NBPT is dissolved into an aprotic solvent such as dimethyl sulfoxide. The NBPT-aprotic solvent solution may be used alone, or further mixed with a protic solvent to improve product handling, stability, and/or pourability of the solution. The mixing of the materials may be accomplished in any commonly used method: for example; simply tank mixing materials prior to use, using a metering system to inject materials simultaneously, or mixing via a spray injection system. In one embodiment, the NBPT/aprotic solvent/protic solvent mixture is mixed to produce a NBPT concentration of 5% to 75% by weight. Alternatively, a NBPT concentration of 5% to 60% by weight may be used. Alternatively, a NBPT concentration of 5% to 50% by weight may be used. Alternatively, a NBPT concentration of 5% to 40% by weight may be used. The initial solubilizing step in dimethyl sulfoxide can be accomplished between room temperature about 19° C. up to about 150° C. (the boiling point of DMSO at atmospheric pressure is ˜190° C.). Alternatively, the solubilizing step in dimethyl sulfoxide can be accomplished between about 22° C. and up to 60° C. The mixture can be mixed in any common mixing tank. Although the metering of NBPT, aprotic solvent, and protic solvent can be based on a weight, it may also be based on a volumetric basis. A dye or colorant can be added to the mixture to aid in visual assessment of uniform coating during the coating of granular urea. Alternatively, a dye or colorant can be added to the mixture to aid in visual assessment of uniform coating during the coating of urea in aqueous mixtures just prior to application. In one embodiment, the colorant can include any nontoxic common food dye. EXAMPLES The following examples are provided to illustrate the practice of the invention. The examples are not intended to illustrate the complete range of possible uses. All compositions are based on mass percentages unless expressly stated. Concentrations of individual components are presented before their name. For example, 20.0% NBPT refers to a mixture containing 20.0% NBPT by weight. Example 1 An NBPT solution was prepared by thoroughly mixing NBPT, DMSO, and PG to obtain the following percentages by weight: 50.0% PG, 30.0% DMSO, 20.0% NBPT. Example 2 To test for the toxicity of DMSO and compare it to the relative toxicity of NMP, a 96 hr. acute toxicity range-finding test was conducted on juvenile crayfish (Procambarus clarkii) to estimate the lethal concentration to half of the population (LC50) for the solution as described in example 1. Simultaneously, the LC50 was determined on a commercially available NBPT solution which contained 26.7% NBPT by weight (per product label), and approximately 10% N-methyl pyrrolidone (MSDS range 10-30%), and approximately 63% propylene glycol (MSDS range 40-70%). Crayfish were placed into static chambers and exposed to equal NBPT concentrations of 0, 72, 145, 290, 580, and 1160 mg/L in clean water. The LC50 of the solution of example 1 was 145 mg NBPT (as active ingredient)/L, while the LC50 of Agrotain® Ultra was 75 mg NBPT (as active ingredient)/L. Because a higher LC50value indicates lower toxicity, the solution of example 1 was approximately half as toxic as the commercial product which contained N-methyl pyrrolidone. This test demonstrates that the formulations of the present invention are significantly less toxic than the formulations of the prior art. Example 3 NBPT solutions were prepared in DMSO and equal amounts of DMSO/PG to determine the maximum solubility at room temperature of 22° C. Following mixing and sonification, the samples were visually inspected, then filtered through a 0.45 μm filter and analyzed by near infrared reflectance spectrometry. At 22° C., the solubility of NBPT in DMSO was at least 58.9% by weight. The solubility of NBPT in equal amounts of DMSO/PG was at least 55.0% by weight. It would be expected that at increased temperatures beyond that disclosed above, one might be able to increase the solubility of NBPT above the amounts found in this example providing an avenue for concentrates. Even if the temperature is lowered during transport, instructions on the use of the fertilizer additive may instruct the user to raise the temperature of the formulation to assure complete solubilization of the product prior to use. Example 4 An NBPT solution was prepared by thoroughly mixing NBPT, DMSO, and PG to obtain the following percentages by weight: 50% PG, 25% DMSO, and 25% NBPT. The commercially available NBPT solution of example 2 was also used for comparison. Example 5 The NBPT solutions of example 4 were placed into individual vials and incubated for 45 days at 50±1° C. in a laboratory oven. Samples were periodically removed for analysis of NBPT in solution using a Waters model 1525 High Performance Liquid Chromatograph (HPLC) equipped with a Waters 2489 tunable UV/visible detector. Suitable analytical parameters (mobile phase composition, column selection, etc.) such as would occur to workers knowledgeable in the art were employed, and raw data from the HPLC analyses were calibrated against authentic standards of NBPT having a nominal purity of >99%. FIG. 1 shows the results of the accelerated stability testing. This test shows that the NBPT did not have significant deterioration at elevated temperatures meaning that the formulations of the present invention can be transported without worrying about significant degradation of the product. Example 6 An NBPT solution was prepared by thoroughly mixing NBPT, DMSO, and PG to obtain the following percentages by weight: 35% PG, 40% DMSO, and 25% NBPT. The commercially available NBPT solution of example 2 was also used for comparison. Example 7 The NBPT solutions of example 6 were placed into individual vials and incubated for 45 days at 50±1 ° C. in a laboratory oven. Samples were periodically removed and analyzed using the procedures of example 5. FIG. 2 shows the results of the accelerated stability testing. This test shows that the NBPT did not have significant deterioration at elevated temperatures when the relative amounts of DMSO are varied. Accordingly, the formulations of the present invention can be transported without worrying about significant degradation of the product at different DMSO levels. Example 8 An NBPT solution was prepared by thoroughly mixing NBPT, DMSO, and PG to obtain the following percentages by weight: 20% PG, 40% DMSO, and 40% NBPT. The commercially available NBPT solution of example 2 was also used for comparison. Example 9 The NBPT solutions of example 8 were placed into individual vials and incubated for 45 days at 50±1° C. in a laboratory oven. Samples were periodically removed and analyzed using the procedures of example 5. FIG. 3 shows the results of the accelerated stability testing. This test shows that the NBPT did not have significant deterioration at elevated temperatures when the relative amount of NBPT is increased. Accordingly, the formulations of the present invention can be transported without worrying about significant degradation of the product even at a relatively high NBPT concentration. Example 10 An NBPT solution was prepared by thoroughly mixing NBPT, DMSO, glycerine, and methanol to obtain the following percentages by weight: 48.5% glycerine, 1.5% methanol, 25% DMSO, and 25% NBPT. The commercially available NBPT solution of example 2 was also used for comparison. Example 11 The NBPT solutions of example 10 were placed into individual vials and incubated for 45 days at 50±1° C. in a laboratory oven. Samples were periodically removed and analyzed using the procedures of example 5. FIG. 4 shows the results of the accelerated stability testing. This test shows that the NBPT did not have significant deterioration at elevated temperatures with this formulation meaning that this formulation can be transported without worrying about significant degradation of the product. Example 12 An NBPT solution was prepared by thoroughly mixing NBPT, DMSO, glycerine, and methanol to obtain the following percentages by weight: 33.5% glycerine, 1.5% methanol, 25% DMSO, and 40% NBPT. The commercially available NBPT solution of example 2 was also used for comparison. Example 13 The NBPT solutions of example 12 were placed into individual vials and incubated for 45 days at 50±1° C. in a laboratory oven. Samples were periodically removed and analyzed using the procedures of example 5. FIG. 5 shows the results of the accelerated stability testing. This test shows that the NBPT did not have significant deterioration at elevated temperatures with this formulation meaning that this formulation can be transported without worrying about significant degradation of the product. Example 14 A buffer solution was prepared by carefully mixing monoisopropanolamine (MIPA) with glacial acetic acid (GAA) to obtain the following percentages by weight: 62.5% MIPA, 37.5% GAA. The mixing was conducted such that the temperature of the mixture remained below 50° C. Multiple NBPT solutions were prepared to obtain the following percentages by weight: Mix A: 75% N-methyl pyrrolidone, 25% NBPT; Mix B: 75% PG, 25% NBPT; Mix C: 75% Buffer Solution, 25% NBPT; Mix D: 75% DMSO, 25% NBPT. Example 15 The four NBPT solutions of example 14 were placed into individual vials and incubated for approximately 200 hrs. at 50±1° C. Samples were periodically removed and analyzed using the HPLC procedures of example 5. FIG. 6 shows the results of the accelerated stability testing. This test shows that Mix C had more sample degradation at elevated temperatures than mixtures containing DMSO(Mix D), NMP (Mix A) or PG (Mix B). It should be noted that PG does not have the pourability of DMSO and NMP is more toxic than DMSO. Example 16 Dynamic viscosity measurements were collected for propylene glycol, glycerin, and a representative alkanolamine (monoisopropanolamine, MIPA) with increasing levels of DMSO and NMP. A Brookfield LVDV-E digital rotational viscometer with LVDV-E spindle set (Brookfield Engineering Labs, Inc., Middleboro, Mass.) was employed for this work and was calibrated using Cannon N14 general purpose, synthetic base oil viscosity calibration standard solution (Cannon Instrument Company, State College, Pa.). The sampling was conducted at 21° C. FIGS. 7, 8, and 9 display the ability of DMSO to depress the viscosity of NBPT mixtures at 21° C. as a function of concentration, relative to similar NMP measurements. This test shows that there is virtually no difference between DMSO and NMP in reducing the viscosity of various viscous formulations. Example 17 A dye solution was added to the solution of example 1. 454 grams of granular urea was added to two clean, dry glass 2000 mL media bottles. Using a pipette, 1.87 mL, to represent application rate of 2 quarts product/ton urea of the dyed solution in example 1, was added to the urea in one of the bottles. Using a pipette, 1.87 mL, to represent application rate of 2 quarts product/ton urea of the commercial solution of example 2, was added to the urea in the other bottle. With the lid on, the media bottles were rotated hand over hand (1 rotation=360-degree hand over hand turn) until the urea was consistently coated. More complete coverage was observed after four turns in the dyed solution of example 1. The number of rotations required to obtain 100% visual coverage was recorded. The dyed solution of example 1 required 30 rotations for complete coverage, while the commercial product of example 2 required 35 rotations. This test shows that formulations containing DMSO and a dye can more easily cover urea than a corresponding solution containing NMP and a dye. Example 18 The NBPT solutions of examples 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12, together with the commercial NBPT solution of example 2, were placed in a −20° C. freezer for 48 hrs. The NBPT solutions of examples 4, 6, 8, and the commercial NBPT solution of example 2, were all freely flowable at −20° C. The NBPT solution of example 10 was very viscous but still flowable. The NBPT solution of example 12 was a solid at −20° C. Example 19 Commercial granulated urea was treated with the NBPT solution of example 1. Both untreated and treated urea were applied to a commercially available potting soil blend at 22° C., and ammonia concentrations in the headspace were measured for a 7-day period using a chemiluminescence analyzer. Ammonia concentrations in the treated urea were considerably less than those in the untreated urea. FIG. 10 shows the results of the ammonia emissions testing. This test shows that NBPT formulations containing DMSO are effective at reducing the hydrolysis of urea to ammonium, thereby reducing ammonia losses to the atmosphere and making the fertilizer more effective. In certain embodiments, the present invention relates to formulations, fertilizer additives, methods and processes of making and using these formulations and/or fertilizer additives. In an embodiment, the present invention relates to a formulation comprising N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide and one or more of an C1-6alkylene carbonate and R1S(O)xR2 wherein R1 and R2 are each independently a C1-6 alkylene group, an aryl group, or C1-3alkylenearyl group or R1 and R2 with the sulfur to which they are attached form a 4 to 8 membered ring wherein R1 and R2 together are a C1-6 alkylene group which optionally contains one or more atoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, Se, Te, N, and P in the ring and x is 1 or 2. In a variation, the atoms in the ring may optionally include O, S, N and P or alternatively, O, S, and N. In one embodiment, the formulation contains R1S(O)xR2, which is dimethyl sulfoxide. Alternatively, the formulation contains R1S(O)xR2, which is a dialkyl, diaryl, or alkylaryl sulfoxide. Alternatively, R1 and R2 may be the same or different and each of R1 and R2 may be C1-6 alkylene group, an aryl group, or C1-3alkylenearyl group. In an embodiment, R1 is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, phenyl or benzyl and R2 is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, phenyl or benzyl or mixtures thereof In another embodiment, R1S(O)xR2is sulfolane. In an embodiment, the formulation may contain akylene carbonate, which is ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, butylene carbonate or mixtures thereof. In a variation, the formulation may contain akylene carbonate, which is ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, or mixtures thereof In an embodiment, the formulation may further comprise an alcohol or polyol wherein the polyol is alkylene or poly(alkylene) glycols or mixtures thereof. In an embodiment, the polyol is an alkylene glycol selected from the group consisting of ethylene, propylene, and butylene glycol, or mixtures thereof. In an embodiment, the polyol is glycerin. In an embodiment, the formulation may further comprise an alkanolamine selected from the group consisting of ethanolamine, diethanolamine, dipropanolamine, methyl diethanolamine, monoisopropanolamine and triethanolamine. The formulation(s) may contain an aqueous ethanolamine borate such as ARBORITE Binder. In one embodiment, the concentration of the secondary or tertiary amino alcohol may be kept above about 12% and alternatively, above about 20%. When the concentration of aqueous ethanolamine borate is below about a 12% concentration, a suspension of NBPT in the aqueous mixture may form which can be solved by agitation to be used to prepare other products. In an embodiment of the invention, NBPT may be dissolved by melting the compound with sufficient triethanolamine to provide a mixture with up to about 30% by weight of NBPT. The resulting NBPT mixture in triethanolamine can be used to treat urea as described herein. In another embodiment of the invention, NBPT is dissolved in diethanolamine in an amount up to 40% by weight by melting the solid into diethanolamine until a solution is obtained. The NBPT diethanolamine mixture may be used to treat urea as described herein. In another embodiment of the invention, a liquid mixture of diisopropanolamine may be prepared by gently warming the solid until it has liquefied and the mixing NBPT with the solid up to the solubility limit. The liquid NBPT containing mixture in disioproanolamine may be used to treat urea as described herein. In a variation, the formulation may further comprise ethyl, propyl, or butyl lactate. In an embodiment, the N-(n-butyl)-thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT) may be present in an amount that is between about 5-75 wt. % of the formulation. In a variation, the formulation may contain between about 10 and 75 wt. % NBPT, 10 and 50 wt. % DMSO, and 10 and 80 wt. % PG (poly glycol) or alkylene carbonate. In a variation, the formulation may contain between about 10 and 60 wt. % NBPT, 10 and 40 wt. % DMSO, and 10 and 60 wt. % PG or alkylene carbonate. In a variation, the formulation may contain between about 10 and 50 wt. % NBPT, 10 and 50 wt. % DMSO, and 10 and 50 wt. % PG or alkylene carbonate. In a variation, the formulation may contain between about 10 and 40 wt. % NBPT, 10 and 40 wt. % DMSO, and 10 and 50 wt. % PG or alkylene carbonate. In a variation, the formulation may contain between about 20 and 50 wt. % NBPT, 20 and 50 wt. % DMSO, and 10 and 50 wt. % PG or alkylene carbonate. In a variation, the formulation may be diluted with water. In an embodiment, the present invention relates to a fertilizer additive comprising N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide and one or more of an C1-6alkylene carbonate and R1S(O)xR2 wherein R1 and R2 are each independently a C1-6 alkylene group, an aryl group, or C1-3alkylenearyl group or R1 and R2 with the sulfur to which they are attached form a 4 to 8 membered ring wherein R1 and R2 together are a C1-6 alkylene group which optionally contains one or more atoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, Se, Te, N, and P in the ring and x is 1 or 2. In an embodiment, the fertilizer additive may comprise N-(n-butyl)-thiophosphoric triamide and dimethyl sulfoxide. In a variation, the fertilizer may further comprise polyalkylene glycols. In a variation, the polyalkylene glycols are selected from the group consisting of polymethylene glycols, polyethylene glycols, polypropylene glycols, polybutylene glycols, and mixtures thereof. In an embodiment, the fertilizer additive may be any of the embodiments discussed above as it relates to the formulation. In an embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of reducing the volatility of urea fertilizers comprising adding a composition that comprises N-(n-butyl)-thiophosphoric triamide and one or more of an C1-6alkylene carbonate and R1S(O)xR2 wherein R1 and R2 are each independently a C1-6 alkylene group, an aryl group, or C1-3alkylenearyl group or R1 and R2 with the sulfur to which they are attached form a 4 to 8 membered ring wherein R1 and R2 together are a C1-6 alkylene group which optionally contains one or more atoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, Se, Te, N, and P in the ring and x is 1 or 2. In an embodiment, the present invention relates to a method of making a formulation and/or fertilizer additive, wherein to N-(n-butyl)-thiophosphoric triamide is added one or more of an C1-6alkylene carbonate and R1S(O)xR2 wherein R1 and R2 are each independently a C1-6 alkylene group, an aryl group, or C1-3alkylenearyl group or R1 and R2 with the sulfur to which they are attached form a 4 to 8 membered ring wherein R1 and R2 together are a C1-6 alkylene group which optionally contains one or more atoms selected from the group consisting of O, S, Se, Te, N, and P in the ring and x is 1 or 2. In an embodiment, the methods may comprise R1S(O)xR2, which is dimethyl sulfoxide. In an embodiment, the methods may comprise C1-6alkylene carbonate, which is ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, butylene carbonate or mixtures thereof. In an embodiment, the methods may comprise any of the formulations and/or fertilizer additives discussed above. Every patent mentioned herein is incorporated by reference in its entirety. It should be understood that the present invention is not to be limited by the above description. Modifications can be made to the above without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. It is contemplated and therefore within the scope of the present invention that any feature that is described above can be combined with any other feature that is described above. Moreover, it should be understood that the present invention contemplates minor modifications that can be made to the formulations, compositions, fertilizer additives and methods of the present invention. When ranges are discussed, any number that may not be explicitly disclosed but fits within the range is contemplated as an endpoint for the range. The scope of protection to be afforded is to be determined by the claims which follow and the breadth of interpretation which the law allows. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one embodiment, the present invention relates to liquid formulations containing N-(n-butyl) thiophosphoric triamide (NBPT). In an embodiment, the formulations can be made by dissolving the NBPT into an aprotic solvent consisting of a) dimethyl sulfoxide, b) dialkyl, diaryl, or alkylaryl sulfoxide having the formula R 1 —SO—R 2 , when R 1 is methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, phenyl or benzyl and R 2 is ethyl, n-propyl, phenyl or benzyl, c) sulfolane, d) ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, or mixtures thereof. In an embodiment, these formulations can be mixed with a protic component consisting of 1) an alcohol or polyol from the family of alkylene and poly(alkylene) glycols (PG), 2) an alkylene glycol from the group comprised of ethylene, propylene, or butylene glycol, 3) glycerin, 4) an alkanolamine from the group comprising ethanolamine, diethanolamine, dipropanolamine, methyl diethanolamine, monoisopropanolamine and triethanolamine, and/or 5) ethyl, propyl, or butyl lactate. In one embodiment, we propose the use of dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) as a replacement in NBPT-based agrichemical products for more toxic solvents such as, for N-methyl pyrrolidone. | C05G308 | 20170628 | 20171019 | 63662.0 | C05G308 | 1 | LANGEL, WAYNE A | Liquid Formulations of Urease Inhibitors for Fertilizers | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | C05G | 2,017 |
|
15,636,847 | PENDING | COMPUTER CONTROL METHOD, CONTROL PROGRAM AND COMPUTER | Provided is a method for controlling a computer, etc., which makes it possible to improve the usability of city building games. The computer is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The method includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. | 1. A method performed by an electronic device, the method comprising: arranging a plurality of game contents in first respective positions within a game space; storing information identifying the plurality of game contents and the first respective positions within the game space; creating, in response to a first command received at an interface of the electronic device, a first template based on the arrangement of the plurality of game contents in the first respective positions within the game space; storing the first template responsive to the first command received at the interface of the electronic device; and applying the first template to an area within the game space by allocating one or more of the plurality of game contents to positions defined by the template based on a second command received at the interface of the electronic device. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: displaying, in response to in a third command received at the interface of the electronic device, a screen including a thumbnail image corresponding to the first template. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the screen includes an graphic indicia configured to receive the second command for applying the first template to the predetermined area within the game space. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the applying includes applying the first template to the area within the game space based on the second command received at the graphic indicia. 5. The method of claim 1, further comprising: storing image data corresponding to each of the plurality of game contents. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of game contents are categorized into a plurality of different types of game content; different image data is associated with each of the plurality of different types of game content, and the method further comprises storing each of the plurality of game contents, the type of each of the game contents and the image data associated with each of the game contents. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the respective positions of the game contents are identified by coordinates in the game space. 8. The method of claim 1, further comprising: arranging a second plurality of game contents in second respective positions within the game space; storing information identifying the second plurality of game contents and the second respective positions within the game space; creating, in response to a third command received at the interface of the electronic device, a second template based on the arrangement of the second plurality of game contents in the second respective positions within the game space; storing the second template responsive to the third command received at the interface of the electronic device; and applying the second template to an area within the game space by allocating one or more of the plurality of game contents to positions defined by the second template based on a fourth command received at the interface of the electronic device. 9. The method of claim 8, further comprising: displaying, in response to a fifth command received at the interface of the electronic device, a screen including at least a first thumbnail corresponding to the first template and a second thumbnail corresponding to the second template. 10. The method of claim 9, further comprising: applying, in response to a sixth command received at the interface of the electronic device selecting one of first template and the second template, the selected one of the first template and the second template. 11. The method of claim 1, further comprising: moving the plurality of game contents in the first respective positions within the game space to second respective positions within the game space when applying the first template to the predetermined area within the game space. 12. An electronic device, comprising: circuitry configured to arrange a plurality of game contents in first respective positions within a game space; store information identifying the plurality of game contents and the first respective positions within the game space; create, in response to a first command received at an interface of the electronic device, a first template based on the arrangement of the plurality of game contents in the first respective positions within the game space; store the first template responsive to the first command received at the interface of the electronic device; and apply the first template to an area within the game space by allocating one or more of the plurality of game contents to positions defined by the template based on a second command received at the interface of the electronic device. 13. The electronic device of claim 12, further comprising: a display configured to display, in response to in a third command received at the interface of the electronic device, a screen including a thumbnail image corresponding to the first template. 14. The electronic device of method of claim 13, wherein the screen includes an graphic indicia configured to receive the second command for applying the first template to the predetermined area within the game space. 15. The electronic device of claim 14, wherein the applying includes applying the first template to the area within the game space based on the second command received at the graphic indicia. 16. The electronic device of claim 12, wherein the circuitry is configured to store image data corresponding to each of the plurality of game contents. 17. The electronic device of claim 12, wherein the plurality of game contents are categorized into a plurality of different types of game content; different image data is associated with each of the plurality of different types of game content, and the circuitry is configured to store each of the plurality of game contents, the type of each of the game contents and the image data associated with each of the game contents. 18. The electronic device of claim 12, wherein the respective positions of the game contents are identified by coordinates in the game space. 19. The electronic device of claim 12, wherein the circuitry is configured to: arrange a second plurality of game contents in second respective positions within the game space; store information identifying the second plurality of game contents and the second respective positions within the game space; create, in response to a third command received at the interface of the electronic device, a second template based on the arrangement of the second plurality of game contents in the second respective positions within the game space; store the second template responsive to the third command received at the interface of the electronic device; and apply the second template to an area within the game space by allocating one or more of the plurality of game contents to positions defined by the second template based on a fourth command received at the interface of the electronic device. 20. The electronic device of claim 19, further comprising: a display configured to display, in response to a fifth command received at the interface of the electronic device, a screen including at least a first thumbnail corresponding to the first template and a second thumbnail corresponding to the second template. 21. The electronic device of claim 20, wherein the circuitry is configured to apply, in response to a sixth command received at the interface of the electronic device selecting one of first template and the second template, the selected one of the first template and the second template. 22. The electronic device of claim 12, wherein the circuitry is configured to move the plurality of game contents in the first respective positions within the game space to second respective positions within the game space when applying the first template to the predetermined area within the game space. 23. One or more non-transitory computer readable media including computer-program instructions, which when executed by an electronic device, cause the electronic device to: store a plurality of templates and a plurality of thumbnails each of which corresponds to one of the plurality of templates, wherein the templates define positions of a plurality of game contents including at least game contents for defending from another player's attack; execute a game by arranging game contents within a game space based on a command received from a player; store categories and positions of the game contents arranged within the game space; control a display to display, in response to a player's command, a template selection screen for selecting one of the plurality of templates, the template selection screen comprising a plurality of thumbnails; after a selection of one of the plurality of templates, displaying a screen comprising information indicating the game contents included in the one of the plurality of templates; and apply the first template to an area within the game space by allocating one or more of the plurality of game contents to positions defined by the template based on a second command received at the interface of the electronic device. 24. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 23, wherein the screen comprising information indicating the game contents included in the one of the plurality of templates further comprises a button configured to receive the player's command for the template to be applied in the game, and the player's command for the template to be applied in the game corresponds to a user input at the button. 25. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 23, wherein the game contents further comprises a facility. 26. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 23, wherein each of the thumbnails is a reduced-sized image of the corresponding template. 27. A method performed by an electronic device comprising a memory configured to store a plurality of templates and a plurality of thumbnails each of which corresponds to one of the plurality of templates, the templates defining positions of a plurality of game contents which are able to comprise at least game contents for defending from other player's attack, the method comprising: executing a game by arranging game contents within a game space based on a command received from a player; storing categories and positions of the game contents arranged within the game space; controlling a display to display, in response to a player's command, a template selection screen for selecting one of the plurality of templates, the template selection screen comprising a plurality of thumbnails; after a selection of one of the plurality of templates, displaying a screen comprising information indicating the game contents included in the one of the plurality of templates; and applying the selected one of the plurality of templates to an area within the game space by allocating one or more of a plurality of game contents to positions defined by the selected one of the plurality of templates based on a player's command for the template to be applied in the game. 28. The method of claim 27, wherein the screen comprising information indicating the category and the number of the game contents included in the one of the plurality of templates further comprises a button configured to receive the player's command for the template to be applied in the game, and the player's command for the template to be applied in the game corresponds to a user input at the button. 29. The method of claim 27, wherein the game contents further comprises a facility. 30. The method of claim 27, wherein each of the thumbnails is a reduced-size image of the corresponding template. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application is a continuation application which claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/393,646, filed Dec. 29, 2016, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 14/983,984, filed Dec. 30, 2015, (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,597,594, issued Mar. 21, 2017), which is a continuation of PCT/JP2014/075673, filed Sep. 26, 2014 which claims the benefit of priority from JP 2013-202721, filed on Sep. 27, 2013, JP 2014-080554, filed on Apr. 9, 2014, the entire content of which are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to a method for controlling a computer, a recording medium and a computer. BACKGROUND In recent years, games which are played by installing a game program on a portable device from a server via a communication network have become common. Such games include games in which multiple players can participate (so-called “social games”). There are games wherein players can not only fight against or help each other, but are also enabled to communicate with each other. Such known games include, for example, games (so-called “city building games”) wherein a player builds a city within a virtual space (hereinafter referred to as “game space”) provided in the game program. In city building games, players can build various facilities (such as houses, streets, ports, train stations, airports, castles, training facilities, etc.) on desired positions and create a city after their liking. SUMMARY In conventional city building games, it is the object of the game to build a desired city, and it is unnecessary to completely rebuild a city after it has been built once. On the other hand, in recent city building games, a city built by one player is attacked by a different player, and the city (arrangement of items such as protective walls, buildings that are subject to an attack, protecting soldiers, weapons, etc.) is one of factors for deciding the winning and losing, or superiority and inferiority. However, since the items (game contents) of a city of a player increase as the city develops, it is very complicated for a player to change positions, types, levels, etc., of individual items. Further, it is hard to understand what kind of effect changing a city would have against an attack from a different player. Therefore, many players have limited themselves to change only certain kinds of items, such as soldiers and weapons, for which changing positions, types, levels, etc., is easy. As a result, as the game progresses, it becomes monotonous, and players might become bored with it. The present invention has been devised to address the above problem, and an object of the invention is to provide a method for controlling a computer, a recording medium and a computer that improve the usability of city building games and continuously attract players to the game. Provided is a method for controlling a computer that is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and that progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The method includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. The computer may be, for example, a portable device, a desktop device, a server, etc., as long as it can execute the above procedure. In one embodiment, in the above method, the storage unit further stores a template related to a different player, and when the template related to the different player is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template related to the different player. In another embodiment, in the above method, the storage unit further stores game contents which are arranged within the game space and are related to the different player, and positions of the game contents, and when the template related to the different player is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on a command by the different player, the computer moves, out of the game contents arranged within the game space, game contents related to the different player to the positions of the game contents defined by the template related to the different player. In another embodiment, in the above method, when a start of an event is reported by a different computer, the computer obtains a template for the event from the different computer and moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template obtained from the different computer. Yet in another embodiment, in the above method, when the number of game contents arranged within the game space is smaller than the number of game contents for which positions are defined by the template, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template to which the moving distance is the smallest. Still in another embodiment, in the above method, out of the positions of the game contents defined by the template, the computer displays positions on which no game contents are arranged and the game contents, in a discernible condition. In another embodiment, in the above method, when the number of game contents arranged within the game space is larger than the number of game contents for which position are defined by the template, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space for which the moving distance to the positions of the game contents defined by the template is the smallest, to the positions. In another embodiment, in the above method, when a template is created for a predetermined area within the game space based on a command from the player, the computer stores positions of game contents arranged within the predetermined area, as the template, in the storage unit. Yet in another embodiment, in the above method, when a template is created by combining a plurality of templates based on a command from the player or a different player, or commands from the player and the different player, the computer stores the positions of the game contents defined by the plurality of templates, as the template, in the storage unit. Provided is a non-transitory computer-readable recording medium having recorded thereon a program for a computer that is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and that progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The program causes the computer to execute a process. The process includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. Provided is a computer that progresses a game by arranging game contents within a game space based on a command by a player. The computer includes a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and a processing unit configured to apply the template to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player. When the template is applied, the processing unit moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. The above method, recording medium and computer make it possible to improve the usability of city building games and continuously attract players to the game by making game contents and the arrangement of the game contents changeable by using templates. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the ensuing description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of a game system; FIG. 2A illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device; FIGS. 2B to 2D illustrate examples of data structures of the various types of tables; FIGS. 3A to 3E illustrate examples of a display screen of the portable device; FIG. 4 illustrates a concept of creating and applying a template; FIG. 5A illustrates one possible schematic configuration of the server; FIGS. 5B and 5C illustrate examples of data structures of the various types of tables; FIGS. 6A to 6C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device; FIGS. 7A to 7C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the server; FIG. 8A illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device according to the second embodiment; FIG. 8B illustrates an example of a data structure of the facility table; FIG. 9 illustrates a concept of applying a template in a multi-player environment; FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device; FIG. 11 illustrates a concept of combining templates in a multi-player environment; FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device according to the third embodiment; FIG. 13A illustrates one possible schematic configuration of the server; FIG. 13B illustrates an example of a data structure of the event table; FIGS. 14A and 14B illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device; and FIGS. 15A to 15C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the server. DESCRIPTION Hereinafter, with reference to the drawings, a method for controlling a computer, a recording medium, and a computer will be described. It should be noted that the technical scope of the present invention is not limited to the described embodiments, but covers the invention described in the claims and its equivalent. First Embodiment In the present embodiment, a player builds a city within a game space. The player can arrange various facilities which are one example of game contents, within the game space. Further, for a predetermined area within the game space, the player can also create a template stipulating types and positions of facilities based on the types and positions of facilities arranged within the area. Moreover, the player can also apply the created template to a given area within the game space. When a template is applied, facilities arranged within the game space are automatically changed to the facilities defined in the template, and they are automatically moved to the defined positions. Game contents refer to digital contents used in a game, and include, besides facilities, characters, soldiers, weapons, cards, figures, avatars, items, etc. FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of a game system 1. The game system 1 includes at least one portable device 2 and a server 3. The portable device 2 and the server 3 are connected to each other via a communication network, and are connected to each other, for example, via a base station 4, a mobile communication network 5, a gateway 6, and the Internet 7. A program to be executed by the portable device 2 (e.g., a game program) and a program to be executed by the server 3 (e.g., a game control program) communicate with each other by using a communication protocol such as a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). FIG. 2A illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device 2. The portable device 2 progresses the game in response to an operation of an operation unit 23 by a player. When necessary, the portable device 2 is connected to the server 3 via the base station 4, the mobile communication network 5, the gateway 6, and the Internet 7, to communicate with the server 3. In order to implement the foregoing functions, the portable device 2 includes a device communication unit 21, a device storage unit 22, the operation unit 23, a display unit 24, and a device processing unit 25. While a multifunctional mobile phone (a so-called “smartphone”) may be assumed as the portable device 2, the present invention is not limited to this. The portable device 2 may be, for example, a mobile phone (a so-called “feature phone”), a personal digital assistant (PDA), a portable game machine, a portable music player, a tablet device, a tablet personal computer (PC), a notebook PC, etc., as long as the present invention is applicable thereto. The device communication unit 21 includes a communication interface circuit including an antenna having a sensitivity band in a predetermined frequency band, and connects the portable device 2 to a wireless communication network. The device communication unit 21 establishes a wireless signal link with the base station 4 by a Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system or the like via a channel to be assigned by the base station 4, and communicates with the base station 4. The device communication unit 21 sends data supplied from the device processing unit 25 to the server 3 or the like. The device communication unit 21 supplies the data received from the server 3 or the like to the device processing unit 25. The device storage unit 22 includes a semiconductor memory, for example. The device storage unit 22 stores an operating system program, a driver program, an application program, data, etc., used for processing in the device processing unit 25. For example, the device storage unit 22 stores an input device driver program for controlling the operation unit 23 and an output device driver program for controlling the display unit 24, as the driver program. The device storage unit 22 stores a game program, etc., for progressing the game and displaying the result thereof, as the application program. The device storage unit 22 stores identification numbers (IDs) of the players, a facility table (FIG. 2B) for managing facilities arranged within the game space, a facility-type table (FIG. 2C) for managing types of the facilities, a template table (FIG. 2D) for managing templates, and image data, video data, etc., relating to the facilities, templates, etc., as the data. Further, the device storage unit 22 may store temporary data relating to predetermined processing. FIG. 2B depicts a facility table. In the facility table, a facility ID, a type ID, a position within the game space, etc., are recorded for each facility. In the present embodiment, the game space is configured in grid form, wherein one facility is arranged on one grid, and the position of the facility is represented with the help of grid coordinates that have their origin in a predetermined grid (e.g., upper left of the game space). However, the present invention is not limited to this configuration. Any configuration of the game space, etc., is possible as long as the present invention can be applied to the configuration. FIG. 2C depicts a facility-type table. In the facility-type table, a type ID, name, file name of image data, etc., are recorded for each type of facility. FIG. 2D depicts a template table. In the template table, for each template, a template ID, a file name of thumbnail image data, a type ID and a position within the template of each facility, etc., are recorded. Similarly to FIG. 2B, a position of a facility is represented with the help of the grid coordinates that have their origin in a predetermined grid (e.g., upper left of the template). However, the present invention is not limited to this configuration. Any representation of a position is possible as long as the present invention can be applied with the representation. The operation unit 23 may be any device capable of operating the portable device 2, for example, a touch panel, a key button or the like. The player can input letters, numbers, symbols, etc., by using the operation unit 23. When operated by the player, the operation unit 23 generates a signal corresponding to the operation. The generated signal is supplied to the device processing unit 25 as a command from the player. The display unit 24 may be any device capable of displaying a video, an image, etc., for example, a liquid crystal display, an organic electro-luminescence (EL) display, etc. The display unit 24 displays a video, an image, etc., corresponding to video data and image data supplied from the device processing unit 25. The device processing unit 25 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The device processing unit 25 is, for example, a central processing unit (CPU), and integrally controls an overall operation of the portable device 2. The device processing unit 25 controls operations of the device communication unit 21, the display unit 24, etc., so that various types of processing of the portable device 2 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the device storage unit 22, the operation of the operation unit 23, etc. The device processing unit 25 executes processing based on the programs (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.) stored in the device storage unit 22. The device processing unit 25 can execute multiple programs (application programs, etc.) in parallel. FIGS. 3A to 3E illustrate examples of a display screen of the portable device 2. FIG. 3A depicts a game progression screen 300 that is displayed when a command has been given to start the game. The game progression screen 300 displays a game space 301 and various facilities 302 to 306 arranged within the game space. Further, multiple buttons are displayed in the lower portion of the game progression screen 300. By pushing buttons, commands are given: pushing a “Create” button 307 creates a template, pushing an “Apply” button 308 applies a template. FIG. 3B depicts an area selection screen 310 that is displayed when a command to create a template has been given on the game progression screen 300 depicted in FIG. 3A. The area selection screen 310 displays the game space 301, in which, for example, by tapping on two arbitrary points, an area 311 with the two points as opposite apexes is selected. Further, a “Confirm” button 312 is displayed in the lower portion of the area selection screen 310, and by pushing this button, a command is given to create a template for the selected area 311. FIG. 3C depicts a template selection screen 320 that is displayed when a command to apply a template has been given on the game progression screen 300 depicted in FIG. 3A. On the template selection screen 320, a thumbnail image 321 and a “Select” button 322 are displayed for each template. By pushing the “Select” button 322, the corresponding template is selected. FIG. 3D depicts a template display screen 330 that is displayed when a template has been selected on the template selection screen 320 depicted in FIG. 3C. A preview image 3310 for when the template is applied to a predetermined area (e.g., around the center) within the game space is displayed in the left portion of the template display screen 330. Further, names and quantities 3320 of facilities for which positions are defined by the template, are listed in the right portion of the template display screen 330. Further, a “Confirm” button 333 is displayed in the lower portion of the template display screen 330, and by pushing this button, a template is confirmed. FIG. 3E depicts an area selection screen 340 that is displayed when a template has been confirmed on the template display screen 330 depicted in FIG. 3D. The area selection screen 340 displays the game space 301, in which, for example, by tapping on two arbitrary points, an area 341 with the two points as opposite apexes is selected. Further, a “Confirm” button 342 is displayed in the lower portion of the area selection screen 340, and by pushing this button, a command is given to apply the template to the selected area 341. FIG. 4 illustrates a concept of creating and applying a template. 400 illustrates a game space. Nine facilities are arranged within the game space 400. Specifically, four facilities illustrated as “black circle”, three facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and two facilities illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Assume that a template has been created for an area 401 within the game space 400. 410 illustrates the created template. The template 410 defines that facilities illustrated as “black circle” of a type illustrated as “white circle” are arranged at (1,1) and (1,2), facilities illustrated as “black triangle” of a type illustrated as “white triangle” are arranged at (1,3), (2,1) and (2,2), and a facility illustrated as “black square” of a type illustrated as “white square” is arranged at (2,3). 420 illustrates another game space. Six facilities are arranged within the game space 420. Specifically, two facilities illustrated as “black circle”, three facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and one facility illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Assume that the template 410 has been applied to an area 421 within the game space 420. The number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type arranged within the game space 420 are equal to the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type, respectively, positions of the facilities being defined by the template 410. Thus, all facilities arranged within the game space 420 are moved to positions of facilities as defined by the template 410. Actually, facilities 422 to 425 arranged outside of the area 421 are moved to positions of these facilities within the area 421. 420′ illustrates the game space 420 after the facilities 422 to 425 have been moved. 430 illustrates yet another game space. Nine facilities are arranged within the game space 430. Specifically, three facilities illustrated as “black circle”, five facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and one facility illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Assume that the template 410 has been applied to an area 431 within the game space 430. The number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type arranged within the game space 430 is equal to or larger than the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type, respectively, positions of the facilities being defined by the template 410. Thus, of the facilities arranged within the game space 420, those facilities with the smallest moving distance (e.g., Manhattan distance) to positions of facilities defined by the template 410, are moved to the positions of facilities. Actually, facilities 432 to 435 arranged outside of the area 431 are moved to positions of these facilities within the area 431. 430′ illustrates the game space 430 after the facilities 432 to 435 have been moved. The facilities to be moved are not limited to those with the smallest moving distance. The player may also designate facilities which are to be moved, or an area containing facilities which are to be moved. Further, the player may also in advance designate facilities which are not to be moved, or an area containing facilities which are not to be moved. 440 illustrates still another game space. Four facilities are arranged within the game space 440. Specifically, one facility illustrated as “black circle”, two facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and one facility illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Assume that the template 410 has been applied to an area 441 within the game space 440. The number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type arranged within the game space 440 is equal to or smaller than the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type, respectively, positions of the facilities being defined by the template 410. Thus, all facilities arranged within the game space 440 are moved to positions of facilities defined by the template 410, to which the moving distance is the smallest. Actually, facilities 442 and 443 arranged outside the area 441 are moved to positions of these facilities within the area 441. 440′ illustrates the game space 440 after the facilities 442 and 443 have been moved. In the game space 440′, positions on which no facilities are arranged among the positions of facilities defined by the template 410, are illustrated in a condition where the facility type is discernible (e.g., “white circle” 444 and “white triangle” 445). Further, when no facility has been arranged, it is also possible to present the player with facilities of the same type or with facilities of a similar type as proposals. Moreover, it is also possible for the player to purchase facilities for positions where no facility has been arranged, or to acquire the facilities, for example, by trading with a different player in a multi-player environment as described below. Moreover, when the player has not arranged a facility defined by a template within the game space but has stored the facility in storage, the player may arrange this facility based on the template, or conversely, the player may store a facility that is not defined by the template, in the storage. Although in the above description, a player creates templates himself/herself, templates may also be distributed from a service-side server 3, or may be acquired from other players. In such cases, a player may not possess a facility defined by a template in some cases. However, whether the player possesses a facility defined by a template may be judged on a portable device 2 side or on a server 3 side, and a screen for purchasing the facility which has been judged not to be in the player's possession may be displayed on the portable device 2, so that the player is automatically guided to a purchase screen. Further, templates may also be automatically created based on an operation by the player. For example, the server 3 may automatically create templates based on facilities the player possesses, facilities selected by the player, an area and/or an objective of a template. The objective of a template is, for instance, to realize a city that offers strong protection against soldiers with bows and arrows, to realize a city that work effectively for protection against attacks by giants, to strengthen the protection against air attacks, etc. In doing so, it becomes easy for the player to create templates consistent with objectives. In order to achieve the above-described functions, the device processing unit 25 includes a game progression unit 251, a template creation unit 252, and a template application unit 253. All of these units are functional modules implemented by a program executed on a processor provided in the device processing unit 25. Alternatively, these units may also be provided as firmware on the portable device 2. In the following, processing by the game progression unit 251 will be described. The game progression unit 251 controls the start and progression of the game, and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template creation unit 252, template application unit 253, etc. Specifically, when a command to start the game is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251 displays the game progression screen 300. In other words, the game progression unit 251 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22, and extracts a type ID and a position of each facility. Further, the game progression unit 251 refers to the facility-type table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the extracted type IDs as key, and extracts file names of image data for corresponding types. Further, the game progression unit 251 obtains image data corresponding to the extracted file names, from the device storage unit 22. Then, the game progression unit 251 configures a game progression screen 300 that displays images arising from the obtained image data according to the extracted positions, and that simultaneously displays buttons for receiving commands such as template creation, template application, etc., in a predetermined layout; and outputs the game progression screen 300 to the display unit 24. When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251 gives a command to execute processing to the template creation unit 252. When a command to apply a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251 gives a command to execute processing to the template application unit 253. When a command to execute different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251 executes the different processing. In the following, processing by the template creation unit 252 will be described. The template creation unit 252 creates templates, stores the templates in the device storage unit 22, and registers the created templates on the server 3. Specifically, the template creation unit 252 displays the area selection screen 310. When an area has been selected and a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the template creation unit 252 creates a template. In other words, the template creation unit 252 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the coordinates of the selected area as key, and extracts a type ID and a position within the game space of each facility arranged within the selected area. The template creation unit 252 further converts the extracted positions within the game space to positions within the template. Moreover, the template creation unit 252 creates thumbnail image data for the selected area, and stores the data in the device storage unit 22. The template creation unit 252 then stores the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the extracted type ID and position within the template of each facility, etc., in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 under a newly assigned template ID. Further, the template creation unit 252 registers the created template on the server 3. In other words, the template creation unit 252 sends a template registration request via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the player ID, the assigned template ID, the created thumbnail image data, and the extracted type ID and position within the template of each facility, as parameters. Then, the template creation unit 252 terminates the processing. In the following, processing by the template application unit 253 will be described. The template application unit 253 obtains a template from the device storage unit 22 or the server 3, and applies the obtained template. Specifically, the template application unit 253 displays the template selection screen 320. In other words, the template application unit 253 refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22, and extracts an ID and a file name of thumbnail image data of each template. Further, the template application unit 253 obtains thumbnail image data corresponding to the extracted file name, from the device storage unit 22. When necessary, the template application unit 253 sends a request for providing a template list via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the player ID as a parameter. Further, the template application unit 253 receives an ID and thumbnail image data of each template from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21. Then, the template application unit 253 configures the template selection screen 320 that displays thumbnail images arising from the obtained thumbnail image data, buttons for receiving commands such as template selection, etc., in a predetermined layout; and outputs the template selection screen 320 to the display unit 24. When a template is selected by the player via the operation unit 23, the template application unit 253 displays the template di splay screen 330. In other words, when the selected template is a template provided by the server 3, the template application unit 253 sends a request for providing the template via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the ID of the selected template as a parameter. Further, the template application unit 253 receives thumbnail image data of a corresponding template and the type ID and position of each facility from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21. The template application unit 253 then stores the received thumbnail image data in the device storage unit 22. Further, the template application unit 253 stores the ID of the selected template, the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the received type ID and position of each facility, etc., in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22. The template application unit 253 refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the selected template as key, and extracts a type ID of each facility in the corresponding template. The template application unit 253 counts the number of extracted types of facilities. Further, the template application unit 253 refers to the facility-type table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the extracted type IDs as key, and extracts corresponding names of the types. Moreover, the template application unit 253 creates a preview image for when the selected template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space. Then, the template application unit 253 configures the template display screen 330 that displays the extracted names and the number of facilities, the created preview image, buttons for receiving commands such as template confirmation, etc., in a predetermined layout; and outputs the template display screen 330 to the display unit 24. In the following, a process of applying a template will be described. When a template is confirmed by the player via the operation unit 23, the template application unit 253 displays the area selection screen 340. When an area has been selected and a command to apply a template has been given by the player via the operation unit 23, the template application unit 253 applies the template. In other words, the template application unit 253 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22, and extracts an ID, a type ID and a position within the game space of each facility. The template application unit 253 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. The template application unit 253 further refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the selected template as key, and extracts a type ID and a position within the template of each facility in the corresponding template. The template application unit 253 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. Moreover, the template application unit 253 converts the extracted positions within the template to positions within the game space based on coordinates of the selected area. For each type of facility, the template application unit 253 compares the number of facilities of this type within the game space and the number of facilities of this type within the template. When the former and the latter are equal, the template application unit 253 moves the facilities of this type within the game space to the positions of the facilities of this type within the template. In other words, the template application unit 253 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the IDs of the facilities of each type within the game space as key, and stores the positions of the facilities of this type within the template as positions of the corresponding facilities within the game space. On the other hand, when the former is larger than the latter, the template application unit 253 moves the facilities of this type within the game space for which the moving distance to the positions of the facilities of this type within the template is the smallest, to the positions of these facilities. In other words, for each position of a facility of a type within the template, the template application unit 253 specifies a facility of this type within the game space for which the moving distance to the position is the smallest. The template application unit 253 then refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the specified facility as key, and stores the position of the specified facility as position of the corresponding facility within the game space. On the other hand, when the former is smaller than the latter, the template application unit 253 moves the facilities of a type within the game space to positions of the facilities of this type within the template to which the moving distance is the smallest. In other words, for each facility of a type within the game space, the template application unit 253 specifies a position of a facility of this type within the template to which the moving distance is the smallest. The template application unit 253 then refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the facility as key, and stores the specified position as position of the corresponding facility within the game space. Other than facilities for which the moving distance is the smallest, the player may also designate facilities which are to be moved, or an area containing facilities which are to be moved. Further, the player may also in advance designate facilities which are not to be moved, or an area containing facilities which are not to be moved. Then, the template application unit 253 terminates the processing. FIG. 5A illustrates one possible schematic configuration of the server 3. In response to requests from the portable device 2, the server 3 registers and provides templates. In order to achieve such functions, the server 3 is provided with a server communication unit 31, a server storage unit 32, and a server processing unit 33. The server communication unit 31 includes a communication interface circuit for connecting the server 3 to the Internet 7, and communicates with the Internet 7. The server communication unit 31 supplies the data received from the portable device 2 or the like to the server processing unit 33. The server communication unit 31 sends the data supplied from the server processing unit 33 to the portable device 2 or the like. The server storage unit 32 includes at least one of a magnetic tape device, a magnetic disk device and an optical disk device, for example. The server storage unit 32 stores an operating system program, a driver program, an application program, data, etc., used for processing in the server processing unit 33. The server storage unit 32 stores, for example, a game control program, etc., for registering and providing templates, as the application program. The server storage unit 32 stores a player table (FIG. 5B) for managing players, a template table (FIG. 5C) for managing templates, and image data, video data, etc., relating to the players, templates, etc., as the data. Further, the server storage unit 32 may store temporary data relating to certain processing. FIG. 5B depicts a player table. In the player table, a player ID, a name, a file name of image data, an ID of a created template, etc., are recorded for each player. FIG. 5C depicts a template table. Similarly to FIG. 2D, in the template table, for each template, a template ID, a file name of thumbnail image data, a type ID and a position within the template of each facility, etc., are recorded. The server processing unit 33 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The server processing unit 33 is, for example, a CPU, and integrally controls an overall operation of the server 3. The server processing unit 33 controls an operation of the server communication unit 31 or the like so that various types of processing of the server 3 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the server storage unit 32. The server processing unit 33 executes processing based on the programs stored in the server storage unit 32 (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.). The server processing unit 33 can execute the multiple programs (the application program, etc.) in parallel. The server processing unit 33 includes a server control unit 331, a template registration unit 332, and a template provision unit 333. Each of the units is a functional module implemented by a program to be executed by the processor included in the server processing unit 33. Alternatively, each of the units may be provided as a firmware on the server 3. In the following, processing by the server control unit 331 will be described. The server control unit 331 controls the performance of the server and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template registration unit 332, template provision unit 333, etc. Specifically, when a template registration request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331 gives the template registration unit 332 a command to execute processing, by using the received template registration request as a parameter. When a request for providing a template list or a template provision request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331 gives the template provision unit 333 a command to execute processing, by using the received request for providing a template list or the like as a parameter. When a different request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331 executes different processing corresponding to the request. In the following, processing by the template registration unit 332 will be described. The template registration unit 332 stores templates in the server storage unit 32. In other words, the template registration unit 332 interprets the received template registration request, and specifies the ID of the player, the ID of the template, thumbnail image data, as well as the type ID and position of each facility. Then, the template registration unit 332 stores the specified thumbnail image data in the server storage unit 32. The template registration unit 332 further refers to the player table stored in the server storage unit 32 by using the specified player ID as key, and stores the specified template ID as an ID of a template created by the corresponding player. Moreover, the template registration unit 332 stores the specified template ID, the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the type ID and position of each specified facility, etc., in the template table stored in the server storage unit 32. Then, the template registration unit 332 terminates the processing. In the following, processing by the template provision unit 333 will be described. The template provision unit 333 obtains a template list or a template from the server storage unit 32, and sends the obtained template list or the like to the portable device 2. Specifically, when a request for providing a template list has been received, the template provision unit 333 obtains a template list from the server storage unit 32. In other words, the template provision unit 333 interprets the received request for providing a template list, and specifies the ID of the player. The template provision unit 333 then refers to the player table stored in the server storage unit 32 by using the specified player ID as key, and extracts an ID of a template created by a player different from the corresponding player. Further, the template provision unit 333 refers to the template table stored in the server storage unit 32 by using the extracted template ID as key, and extracts a file name of thumbnail image data for the corresponding template. Moreover, the template provision unit 333 obtains the thumbnail image data corresponding to the extracted file name, from the server storage unit 32. On the other hand, when a template provision request is received, the template provision unit 333 obtains a template from the server storage unit 32. In other words, the template provision unit 333 interprets the received template provision request, and specifies the ID of the template. Then, the template provision unit 333 refers to the template table stored in the server storage unit 32 by using the specified template ID as key, and extracts a file name of thumbnail image data for the corresponding template, as well as the type ID and position of each facility. Further, the template provision unit 333 obtains thumbnail image data corresponding to the extracted file name, from the server storage unit 32. The template provision unit 333 sends the obtained template list or the like to the portable device 2. In other words, the template provision unit 333 sends the extracted ID of each template and the thumbnail image data, or the thumbnail image data of the template as well as the type ID and position of each facility that are obtained or the like, to the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31. Then, the template provision unit 333 terminates the processing. FIGS. 6A to 6C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device 2. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the device storage unit 22, mostly by the device processing unit 25 by working together with each component of the portable device 2. FIG. 6A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the game progression unit 251. The player gives the device processing unit 25 a command to start a game via the operation unit 23. The device processing unit 25 starts processing based on the game program. In other words, the game progression unit 251 implemented by the game program displays the game progression screen 300 (Step S100). When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S102—Yes), the game progression unit 251 gives the template creation unit 252 a command to execute processing (Step S104). FIG. 6B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the template creation unit 252. The template creation unit 252 displays the area selection screen 310 (Step S120). When an area is selected by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S122) and a command to create a template is given, the template creation unit 252 creates a template (Step S124). The template creation unit 252 registers the created template on the server 3 (Step S126). Then, the template creation unit 252 terminates processing. On the other hand, when a command to apply a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S106—Yes), the game progression unit 251 gives the template application unit 253 a command to execute processing (Step S108). FIG. 6C illustrates an example of the operational flow of the template application unit 253. The template application unit 253 displays the template selection screen 320 (Step S130). When a template is selected by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S132), the template application unit 253 displays the template display screen 330. When the template is confirmed by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S134), the template application unit 253 displays the area selection screen 340. When an area is selected by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S136) and a command to apply a template is given, the template application unit 253 applies the template (Step S138). Then, the template application unit 253 terminates processing. On the other hand, when a command for different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S106—No), the game progression unit 251 executes the different processing (Step S110). FIGS. 7A to 7C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the server 3. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the server storage unit 32, mostly by the server processing unit 33 by working together with each component of the server 3. FIG. 7A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the server control unit 331. When a template registration request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S200—Yes), the server control unit 331 gives the template registration unit 332 a command to execute processing (Step S202), by using the received template registration request as a parameter. FIG. 7B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the template registration unit 332. The template registration unit 332 stores the template included in the received template registration request in the server storage unit 32 (Step S220). Then, the template registration unit 332 terminates processing. On the other hand, when a request for providing a template list or a template provision request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S204—Yes), the server control unit 331 gives the template provision unit 333 a command to execute processing (Step S206), by using the received request for providing a template list or the like as a parameter. FIG. 7C illustrates an example of the operational flow of the template provision unit 333. When the request for providing a template list is received (Step S230—Yes), the template provision unit 333 obtains a list of templates of players other than the player corresponding to the player ID included in the received request for providing a template list, from the server storage unit 32 (Step S232). On the other hand, when the template provision request is received (Step S230—No), the template provision unit 333 obtains a template corresponding to the template ID included in the received template provision request, from the server storage unit 32 (Step S234). The template provision unit 333 sends the obtained template list or the like to the portable device 2 (Step S236). Then, the template provision unit 333 terminates processing. On the other hand, when a different request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S204—No), the server control unit 331 executes different processing corresponding to the request (Step S208). As have been described above, by making the arrangement of facilities changeable by using templates, the usability of city building games is improved, and it becomes possible to continuously attract players to the game. In the above-described embodiment, the case is described where upon application of a template, facilities are automatically arranged within the game space based on definition in the template. However, it is also possible that when a template is being applied, a mark is displayed on the game space, so that the player can use this mark as approximation and change the types and positions of facilities himself/herself. Further, besides buildings, walls, fences and so forth, facilities may also include information on types and quantities of soldiers and weapons to fight back against an attack by a different player. Further, multiple templates may be prepared corresponding to objectives, and the player may be able to select a template depending on the objective. To give specific examples; there are multiple types of soldiers with which a different player attacks, and there may be a template realizing a city that offers strong protection against soldiers with bows and arrows, a template realizing a city that work effectively for protection against attacks by giants, a template that strengthens the protection against air attacks, etc. Moreover, a characteristic value of each template may be calculated based on the facilities included in the template and the records of battles fought using the template in the game. Further, the characteristic value of the template and characteristics of the template based on the characteristic value may be displayed and presented to the player. Specifically, a defense power may be displayed based on parameters of protective facilities and the number of the protective facilities included in the template; a winning percentage when using the template may be displayed; and characteristic that the template has good defense power and a good winning percentage is displayed based on the defense power and winning percentage included in the templates. Thus, the player can easily understand the characteristics of respective templates and compare the characteristics. Second Embodiment In the first embodiment, a single player environment is assumed, wherein a player progresses the game by himself/herself. However, the present invention can also be applied to a multi-player environment wherein multiple players progress the game together. In the present embodiment, multiple players build a city within a single game space, and each player applies templates to a predetermined area within the game space. When a template is applied by a player, the facilities that belong to the player among the facilities arranged within the game space are moved to positions of these facilities defined by the template. Since the schematic configuration of the game system 1 is the same as illustrated in FIG. 1, a description thereof is omitted. FIG. 8A illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device 2. The portable device 2 progresses the game in response to an operation of an operation unit 23 by a player or a command from a different portable device 2. When necessary, the portable device 2 is connected to the server 3 via the base station 4, the mobile communication network 5, the gateway 6, and the Internet 7, to communicate with the server 3. In order to implement the foregoing functions, the portable device 2 includes a device communication unit 21, a device storage unit 22′, the operation unit 23, a display unit 24, and a device processing unit 25. Since the device communication unit 21, the operation unit 23, and the display unit 24 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 2A, a description thereof is omitted. The device storage unit 22′ includes a semiconductor memory, for example. The device storage unit 22′ stores an operating system program, a driver program, an application program, data, etc., used for processing in the device processing unit 25. For example, the device storage unit 22′ stores an input device driver program for controlling the operation unit 23 and an output device driver program for controlling the display unit 24, as the driver program. The device storage unit 22′ stores a game program, etc., for progressing the game and displaying the result thereof, as the application program. The device storage unit 22′ stores player IDs, a facility table (FIG. 8B) for managing facilities arranged within the game space, a facility-type table (FIG. 2C) for managing types of the facilities, a template table (FIG. 2D) for managing templates, and image data, video data, etc., relating to the facilities, templates, etc., as the data. Further, the device storage unit 22′ may store temporary data relating to predetermined processing. FIG. 8B depicts a facility table. In the facility table, for each player, an ID of each facility arranged within the game space by the player, a type ID, a position within the game space, etc., are recorded. The device processing unit 25 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The device processing unit 25 is, for example, a CPU, and integrally controls an overall operation of the portable device 2. The device processing unit 25 controls operations of the device communication unit 21, the display unit 24, etc., so that various types of processing of the portable device 2 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the device storage unit 22′, the operation of the operation unit 23, etc. The device processing unit 25 executes processing based on the programs (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.) stored in the device storage unit 22′. The device processing unit 25 can execute multiple programs (application programs, etc.) in parallel. FIG. 9 illustrates a concept of applying a template in a multi-player environment. 900 illustrates a game space. Twelve facilities are arranged within the game space 900. Specifically, four facilities illustrated as “black circle”, four facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and four facilities illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Among these facilities, assume that the one facility illustrated as “black circle” and the two facilities illustrated as “black triangle” arranged in the upper-right three by three squares are those of a player1. Further, assume that the three facilities illustrated as “black square” arranged in the lower-right three by three squares are those of a player2, the two facilities illustrated as “black triangle” and the one facility illustrated as “black square” arranged in the lower-left three by three squares are those of a player3, and the three facilities illustrated as “black circle” arranged in the upper-left three by three squares are those of a player4. Assume that a template 910 has been applied to an area 901 within the game space 900 by the player1. Similarly, assume that templates 920 to 940 have been applied to areas 902 to 904 by the player2 to player4, respectively. In relation to the player1, the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type arranged within the game space 900 are equal to the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type, respectively, positions of the facilities being defined by the template 910. Thus, all facilities of the player1 are moved to positions of facilities as defined by the template 910. Similarly, all facilities of the player2 to player4 are moved to positions of facilities as defined by the templates 920 to 940, respectively. 900′ illustrates the game space 900 after all the facilities have been moved. In order to achieve the above-described functions, the device processing unit 25 includes a game progression unit 251′, a template creation unit 252, a template application unit 253, and a second template application unit 254. All of these units are functional modules implemented by a program executed on a processor provided in the device processing unit 25. Alternatively, these units may also be provided as firmware on the portable device 2. Since the template creation unit 252 and the template application unit 253 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 2A, a description thereof is omitted. In the following, processing by the game progression unit 251′ will be described. The game progression unit 251′ controls the start and progression of the game, and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template creation unit 252, template application unit 253, second template application unit 254, etc. Specifically, when a command to start the game is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251′ displays the game progression screen 300. When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251′ gives a command to execute processing to the template creation unit 252. When a command to apply a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251′ gives a command to execute processing to the template application unit 253. When a template application command is received from a different portable device 2 via the device communication unit 21, the game progression unit 251′ gives the second template application unit 254 a command to execute processing, by using the received template application command as a parameter. When a command to execute different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251′ executes the different processing. In the following, processing by the second template application unit 254 will be described. The second template application unit 254 obtains a template from the server 3, and applies the obtained template. Specifically, the second template application unit 254 obtains a template from the server 3. In other words, the second template application unit 254 interprets the received template application command, and specifies the ID of the player, the ID of the template, and the coordinates of the area to which the template is to be applied. Further, the second template application unit 254 sends a template provision request via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the specified template ID as a parameter. Further, the second template application unit 254 receives thumbnail image data of a corresponding template, as well as the type ID and position of each facility from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21. The second template application unit 254 then stores the received thumbnail image data in the device storage unit 22′. Further, the second template application unit 254 stores the ID of the specified template, the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the received type ID and position of each facility, etc., in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22′. The second template application unit 254 applies the obtained template. In other words, the second template application unit 254 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22′ by using the ID of the specified player as key, and extracts an ID, a type ID and a position within the game space of each facility of the corresponding player. The second template application unit 254 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. The second template application unit 254 further refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22′ by using the ID of the specified template as key, and extracts a type ID and a position within the template of each facility in the corresponding template. The second template application unit 254 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. Moreover, the second template application unit 254 converts the extracted positions within the template to positions within the game space based on coordinates of the specified area. For each type of facility, the second template application unit 254 compares the number of facilities of this type within the game space and the number of facilities of this type within the template, and, according to the result, moves the facilities of this type within the game space to the positions of the facilities of this type within the template. Then, the second template application unit 254 terminates the processing. Since the schematic configuration of the server 3 is the same as illustrated in FIG. 5A, a description thereof is omitted. FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device 2. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the device storage unit 22′, mostly by the device processing unit 25 by working together with each component of the portable device 2. FIG. 10A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the game progression unit 251′. Since Steps S100 to S108 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 6A, a description thereof is omitted. When a template application command is received from a different portable device 2 via the device communication unit 21 (Step S300—Yes), the game progression unit 251′ gives the second template application unit 254 a command to execute processing, by using the received template application command as a parameter (Step S302). FIG. 10B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the second template application unit 254. The second template application unit 254 obtains a template corresponding to the template ID included in the received template application command, from the server 3 (Step S310). The second template application unit 254 applies the obtained template (Step S312). Then, the second template application unit 254 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when a command for different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S300—No), the game progression unit 251′ executes the different processing (Step S110). As have been described above, by allowing each player to change the arrangement of facilities by using templates in a multi-player environment, the usability of city building games is improved, and it becomes possible to continuously attract players to the game. It should be noted that the present invention is not limited to the above-described embodiment. For example, in the above-described embodiment, in order to combine multiple templates to create a single template, it is assumed that a player applies multiple templates to predetermined areas within the game space, or multiple players apply a template each to predetermined areas within the game space, and then a template for a predetermined area that encompasses all these areas is created. However, a player may designate multiple templates or multiple players may designate a template each, and then a template may be created by directly joining these templates. FIG. 11 illustrates a concept of combining templates in a multi-player environment. Assume that the player1 has specified a template 1110 for an area 1100. Further, assume that the player2 to player4 have specified templates 1120 to 1140 for areas 1101 to 1103, respectively. 1150 illustrates a template obtained by combining the templates 1110 to 1140. In order to achieve the above-described functions, the portable device 2 may perform processing as described below. When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the portable device 2 displays a predetermined screen and receives designations of template and area. In the same manner, the portable device 2 receives designations of template and area from a different portable device 2. Then, the portable device 2 obtains the designated templates from the device storage unit 22 or the server 3, and creates a new template by arranging the obtained templates on the designated areas. In other words, the portable device 2 corrects the position of each facility defined by the obtained templates based on the coordinates specified by the designated areas. The portable device 2 then stores the type ID and corrected position, etc., of each facility defined by the obtained templates, in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 under a newly assigned template ID. Third Embodiment In the above-described embodiment, it is assumed that templates are created by the player. However, preexisting templates may also be distributed by a server or the like. In the present embodiment, a preexisting template is distributed by a server depending on an event (e.g., protecting the city from an enemy character) happening in the city building game. The player applies the template distributed by the server, to a predetermined area within his/her own game space, moves and adds facilities as necessary, and thus prepares for the event. After a certain time has passed, the event happens, and the player is given various rewards (e.g., templates, facilities, etc.) depending on the outcome. Such a template can also be understood as a task given to the player in an event. Since the schematic configuration of the game system 1 is the same as illustrated in FIG. 1, a description thereof is omitted. FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device 2. The portable device 2 progresses the game in response to an operation of an operation unit 23 by a player. When necessary, the portable device 2 is connected to the server 3 via the base station 4, the mobile communication network 5, the gateway 6, and the Internet 7, to communicate with the server 3. In order to implement the foregoing functions, the portable device 2 includes a device communication unit 21, a device storage unit 22, the operation unit 23, a display unit 24, and a device processing unit 25. Since the device communication unit 21, the device storage unit 22, the operation unit 23, and the display unit 24 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 2A, a description thereof is omitted. The device processing unit 25 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The device processing unit 25 is, for example, a CPU, and integrally controls an overall operation of the portable device 2. The device processing unit 25 controls operations of the device communication unit 21, the display unit 24, etc., so that various types of processing of the portable device 2 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the device storage unit 22, the operation of the operation unit 23, etc. The device processing unit 25 executes processing based on the programs (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.) stored in the device storage unit 22. The device processing unit 25 can execute multiple programs (application programs, etc.) in parallel. The device processing unit 25 includes a game progression unit 251″, a template creation unit 252, a template application unit 253, and a third template application unit 255. All of these units are functional modules implemented by a program executed on a processor provided in the device processing unit 25. Alternatively, these units may also be provided as firmware on the portable device 2. Since the template creation unit 252 and the template application unit 253 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 2A, a description thereof is omitted. In the following, processing by the game progression unit 251″ will be described. The game progression unit 251″ controls the start and progression of the game, and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template creation unit 252, template application unit 253, third template application unit 255, etc. Specifically, when a command to start the game is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251″ displays the game progression screen 300. When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251″ gives a command to execute processing to the template creation unit 252. When a command to apply a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251″ gives a command to execute processing to the template application unit 253. When an event start report is received from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21, the game progression unit 251″ gives the third template application unit 255 a command to execute processing, by using the received event start report as a parameter. When a command to execute different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251″ executes the different processing. In the following, processing by the third template application unit 255 will be described. The third template application unit 255 obtains a template for an event from the server 3, and applies the obtained template. Specifically, the third template application unit 255 obtains a template for an event from the server 3. In other words, the third template application unit 255 interprets the received event start report, and specifies the ID of the event. Further, when a command to participate in an event is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the third template application unit 255 sends an event participation request via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the player ID and the specified event ID as parameters. Further, the third template application unit 255 receives an ID and thumbnail image data of a template for the corresponding event, as well as the type ID and position of each facility from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21. The third template application unit 255 then stores the received thumbnail image data in the device storage unit 22. Further, the third template application unit 255 stores the ID of the received template, the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the received type ID and position of each facility, etc., in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22. The third template application unit 255 applies the obtained template. In other words, the third template application unit 255 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22, and extracts an ID, a type ID and a position within the game space of each facility. The third template application unit 255 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. The third template application unit 255 further refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the received template as key, and extracts a type ID and a position within the template of each facility in the corresponding template. The third template application unit 255 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. Moreover, the third template application unit 255 converts the extracted positions within the template to positions within the game space based on coordinates of the area selected by the player via the operation unit 23. For each type of facility, the third template application unit 255 compares the number of facilities of this type within the game space and the number of facilities of this type within the template, and, according to the result, moves the facilities of this type within the game space to the positions of the facilities of this type within the template. Then, the third template application unit 255 terminates the processing. FIG. 13A illustrates one possible schematic configuration of the server 3. In response to requests from the portable device 2, the server 3 registers and provides templates. Further, the server 3 manages events and provides templates. In order to achieve such functions, the server 3 is provided with a server communication unit 31, a server storage unit 32′, and a server processing unit 33. Since the server communication unit 31 is the same as illustrated in FIG. 5A, a description thereof is omitted. The server storage unit 32′ includes at least one of a magnetic tape device, a magnetic disk device and an optical disk device, for example. The server storage unit 32′ stores an operating system program, a driver program, an application program, data, etc., used for processing in the server processing unit 33. The server storage unit 32′ stores, for example, a game control program, etc., for registering and providing templates and managing events, as the application program. The server storage unit 32′ stores a player table (FIG. 5B) for managing players, a template table (FIG. 5C) for managing templates, an event table for managing events (FIG. 13B), and image data, video data, etc., relating to the players, templates, etc., as the data. Further, the server storage unit 32′ may store temporary data relating to certain processing. FIG. 13B depicts an event table. In the event table, an event ID, starting date and time, an ID of a template to be used, an ID of a participating player, etc., are recorded for each event. The server processing unit 33 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The server processing unit 33 is, for example, a CPU, and integrally controls an overall operation of the server 3. The server processing unit 33 controls an operation of the server communication unit 31 or the like so that various types of processing of the server 3 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the server storage unit 32′. The server processing unit 33 executes processing based on the programs stored in the server storage unit 32′ (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.). The server processing unit 33 can execute the multiple programs (the application program, etc.) in parallel. The server processing unit 33 includes a server control unit 331′, a template registration unit 332, a template provision unit 333, and an event management unit 334. Each of the units is a functional module implemented by a program to be executed by the processor included in the server processing unit 33. Alternatively, each of the units may be provided as a firmware on the server 3. Since the template registration unit 332 and the template provision unit 333 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 5A, a description thereof is omitted. In the following, processing by server control unit 331′ will be described. The server control unit 331′ controls the performance of the server and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template registration unit 332, template provision unit 333, event management unit 334, etc. Specifically, when a template registration request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331′ gives the template registration unit 332 a command to execute processing, by using the received template registration request as a parameter. When a request for providing a template list or a template provision request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331′ gives the template provision unit 333 a command to execute processing, by using the received request for providing a template list or the like as a parameter. When there is an event whose starting date and time has passed, the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the event ID as a parameter. In other words, the server control unit 331′ refers to the event table stored in the server storage unit 32′, and extracts an ID and starting date and time of each event. Further, the server control unit 331′ obtains the current date and time from a clock (not illustrated). When there is an event whose starting date and time is before the obtained current date and time, the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the event ID as a parameter. When an event participation request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the received event participation request as a parameter. When a different request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331′ executes different processing corresponding to the request. In the following, processing by the event management unit 334 will be described. The event management unit 334 sends an event start report to the portable device 2. Further, the event management unit 334 obtains a template for an event from the server storage unit 32′, and sends the obtained template to the portable device 2. Specifically, when an event ID has been received, the event management unit 334 sends an event start report to the portable device 2. In other words, the event management unit 334 refers to the player table stored in the server storage unit 32′, and specifies players. Then, the event management unit 334 sends an event start report via the server communication unit 31 to the portable device 2 of each of the specified players, by using the received event ID as a parameter. Then, the event management unit 334 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when an event participation request has been received, the event management unit 334 makes the player participate in the corresponding event. Specifically, the event management unit 334 interprets the received event participation request, and specifies the ID of the event and the ID of the player. The event management unit 334 then refers to the event table stored in the server storage unit 32′ by using the specified event ID as key, and stores the specified player ID as an ID of a player participating in the corresponding event. The event management unit 334 obtains a template for the corresponding event from the server storage unit 32′. Specifically, the event management unit 334 refers to the event table stored in the server storage unit 32′ by using the specified event ID as key, and extracts an ID of a template for the corresponding event. Then, the event management unit 334 refers to the template table stored in the server storage unit 32′ by using the extracted template ID as key, and extracts a file name of thumbnail image data for the corresponding template, as well as the type ID and position of each facility. Further, the event management unit 334 obtains thumbnail image data corresponding to the extracted file name, from the server storage unit 32′. The event management unit 334 sends the obtained template to the portable device 2. In other words, the event management unit 334 sends the thumbnail image data of the template as well as the type ID and position of each facility that are obtained or the like, to the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31. Then, the event management unit 334 terminates the processing. FIGS. 14A and 14B illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device 2. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the device storage unit 22, mostly by the device processing unit 25 by working together with each component of the portable device 2. FIG. 14A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the game progression unit 251″. Since Steps S100 to S108 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 6A, a description thereof is omitted. When an event start report is received from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21 (Step S400—Yes), the game progression unit 251″ gives the third template application unit 255 a command to execute processing, by using the received event start report as a parameter (Step S402). FIG. 14B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the third template application unit 255. The third template application unit 255 obtains a template for an event from the server 3, and applies the obtained template (Step S410). The third template application unit 255 applies the obtained template (Step S412). Then, the third template application unit 255 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when a command for different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S400—No), the game progression unit 251″ executes the different processing (Step S110). FIGS. 15A to 15C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the server 3. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the server storage unit 32′, mostly by the server processing unit 33 by working together with each component of the server 3. FIG. 15A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the server control unit 331′. Since Steps S200 to S206 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 7A, a description thereof is omitted. When there is an event whose starting date and time has passed (Step S500—Yes), the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the event ID as a parameter (Step S502). FIG. 15B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the event management unit 334. When an event ID has been received, the event management unit 334 sends an event start report to the portable device 2 (Step S510). Then, the event management unit 334 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when an event participation request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S504—Yes), the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the received event participation request as a parameter (Step S506). FIG. 15C illustrates another example of the operational flow of the event management unit 334. When an event participation request has been received, the event management unit 334 makes the player participate in the corresponding event. (Step S520). The event management unit 334 obtains a template for the corresponding event from the server storage unit 32′ (Step S522). The event management unit 334 sends the obtained template to the portable device 2 (Step S524). Then, the event management unit 334 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when a different request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S504—No), the server control unit 331′ executes different processing corresponding to the request (Step S208). As have been described above, by making preexisting templates distributable, it becomes possible to make an event happen in accordance with the arrangement of facilities, which increases the attractiveness of city building games, and makes it possible to continuously attract players to the game. It should be noted that the present invention is not limited to the above-described embodiment. For example, in the above-described embodiment, it is assumed that a preexisting template is distributed depending on occurrence of an event. But templates may not only be used when an event is happening. During a so-called tutorial that is meant to teach players how to play by arranging various facilities, templates with arrangements for different intended uses, such as balance type, resource protecting type, and so forth may be provided. Further, in the above-described embodiment, the creation and application of a template are performed by the portable device 2. However, the creation and application may also be performed by the server 3. In this case, the server 3 may store facilities arranged within the game space for each player, and in response to commands by the player, create and/or apply a template to a predetermined area within the game space of the player. Further, while the above-described embodiment is described by an example wherein positions of facilities are changed based on definition in the template, the types of facilities may be changed. Further, types are not limited to buildings, walls, fences and so forth, and any other game items such as soldiers and weapons to fight back against an attack by a different player may be applicable. A computer program for causing a computer to execute the respective functions of the device processing unit 25 and the server processing unit 33 may be provided in a form recorded on a non-transitory computer-readable recording medium such as a semiconductor recording medium, a magnetic recording medium and an optical recording medium, and may be installed on the device storage unit 22 and the server storage unit 32 from the recording medium by using a known set-up program, etc. The preceding description has been presented only to illustrate and describe exemplary embodiments of the present invention. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to any precise form disclosed. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted for elements thereof without departing from the scope of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from the essential scope. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the claims. The invention may be practiced otherwise than is specifically explained and illustrated without departing from its spirit or scope. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In recent years, games which are played by installing a game program on a portable device from a server via a communication network have become common. Such games include games in which multiple players can participate (so-called “social games”). There are games wherein players can not only fight against or help each other, but are also enabled to communicate with each other. Such known games include, for example, games (so-called “city building games”) wherein a player builds a city within a virtual space (hereinafter referred to as “game space”) provided in the game program. In city building games, players can build various facilities (such as houses, streets, ports, train stations, airports, castles, training facilities, etc.) on desired positions and create a city after their liking. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In conventional city building games, it is the object of the game to build a desired city, and it is unnecessary to completely rebuild a city after it has been built once. On the other hand, in recent city building games, a city built by one player is attacked by a different player, and the city (arrangement of items such as protective walls, buildings that are subject to an attack, protecting soldiers, weapons, etc.) is one of factors for deciding the winning and losing, or superiority and inferiority. However, since the items (game contents) of a city of a player increase as the city develops, it is very complicated for a player to change positions, types, levels, etc., of individual items. Further, it is hard to understand what kind of effect changing a city would have against an attack from a different player. Therefore, many players have limited themselves to change only certain kinds of items, such as soldiers and weapons, for which changing positions, types, levels, etc., is easy. As a result, as the game progresses, it becomes monotonous, and players might become bored with it. The present invention has been devised to address the above problem, and an object of the invention is to provide a method for controlling a computer, a recording medium and a computer that improve the usability of city building games and continuously attract players to the game. Provided is a method for controlling a computer that is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and that progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The method includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. The computer may be, for example, a portable device, a desktop device, a server, etc., as long as it can execute the above procedure. In one embodiment, in the above method, the storage unit further stores a template related to a different player, and when the template related to the different player is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template related to the different player. In another embodiment, in the above method, the storage unit further stores game contents which are arranged within the game space and are related to the different player, and positions of the game contents, and when the template related to the different player is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on a command by the different player, the computer moves, out of the game contents arranged within the game space, game contents related to the different player to the positions of the game contents defined by the template related to the different player. In another embodiment, in the above method, when a start of an event is reported by a different computer, the computer obtains a template for the event from the different computer and moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template obtained from the different computer. Yet in another embodiment, in the above method, when the number of game contents arranged within the game space is smaller than the number of game contents for which positions are defined by the template, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template to which the moving distance is the smallest. Still in another embodiment, in the above method, out of the positions of the game contents defined by the template, the computer displays positions on which no game contents are arranged and the game contents, in a discernible condition. In another embodiment, in the above method, when the number of game contents arranged within the game space is larger than the number of game contents for which position are defined by the template, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space for which the moving distance to the positions of the game contents defined by the template is the smallest, to the positions. In another embodiment, in the above method, when a template is created for a predetermined area within the game space based on a command from the player, the computer stores positions of game contents arranged within the predetermined area, as the template, in the storage unit. Yet in another embodiment, in the above method, when a template is created by combining a plurality of templates based on a command from the player or a different player, or commands from the player and the different player, the computer stores the positions of the game contents defined by the plurality of templates, as the template, in the storage unit. Provided is a non-transitory computer-readable recording medium having recorded thereon a program for a computer that is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and that progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The program causes the computer to execute a process. The process includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. Provided is a computer that progresses a game by arranging game contents within a game space based on a command by a player. The computer includes a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and a processing unit configured to apply the template to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player. When the template is applied, the processing unit moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. The above method, recording medium and computer make it possible to improve the usability of city building games and continuously attract players to the game by making game contents and the arrangement of the game contents changeable by using templates. | A63F13537 | 20170629 | 20171019 | 63073.0 | A63F13537 | 1 | AHMED, MASUD | COMPUTER CONTROL METHOD, CONTROL PROGRAM AND COMPUTER | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A63F | 2,017 |
|
15,636,964 | PENDING | COMPUTER CONTROL METHOD, CONTROL PROGRAM AND COMPUTER | Provided is a method for controlling a computer, etc., which makes it possible to improve the usability of city building games. The computer is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The method includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. | 1. An electronic device comprising: circuitry configured to execute a game by arranging, based on a command received from a first player, a plurality of game contents within a game space, the game contents including at least game contents for defending from an attack initiated by a second player; receive a command to create a template from the first player; create, responsive to the received command to create the template, a plurality of templates defining the plurality of game contents and respective positions of the plurality of game contents within the game space; create a plurality of images that each correspond to one of the plurality of templates; display a screen including the plurality of images; receive a selection corresponding to one of the displayed images; and apply a template corresponding to the received selection to a predetermined area within the game space. 2. The electronic device of claim 1, wherein the respective positions of the plurality of game contents within the game space are defined by coordinates in the game space. 3. The electronic device of claim 1, wherein the circuitry is configured to: control a display to display an interface including the game space and images corresponding to a plurality of game contents; receive a command to allocate at least one of the plurality of game contents in an area of the game space; and allocate the at least one of the plurality of game contents to the area of the game space based on the received command. 4. The electronic device of claim 3, wherein the plurality of game contents are categorized into a plurality of different types of game content, and different image data is associated wide each of the plurality of different types of game content. 5. The electronic device of claim 1, wherein the circuitry is configured to allocate the applied template as the first player's active allocation of the plurality of game contents upon receiving a command from the first player. 6. The electronic device of claim 1, wherein the circuitry is configured to register the applied template to a server by transmitting information corresponding to the applied template to the server via a communication interface of the electronic device. 7. One or more non-transitory computer readable media, including computer-program instructions, which when executed by an electronic device, cause the electronic device to: execute a game by arranging, based on a command received from a first player, a plurality of game contents within a game space, the game contents including at least game contents for defending from an attack initiated by a second player; receive a command to create a template from the first player; create, responsive to the received command to create the template, a plurality of templates defining the plurality of game contents and respective positions of the plurality of game contents within the game space; create a plurality of images that each correspond to one of the plurality of templates; display a screen including the plurality of images; receive a selection corresponding to one of the displayed images; and apply a template corresponding to the received selection to a predetermined area within the game space. 8. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 7, wherein the respective positions of the plurality of game contents within the game space are defined by coordinates in the game space. 9. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 7, wherein the computer-program instructions when executed by the electronic device, cause the electronic device to: control a display to display an interface including the game space and images corresponding to a plurality of game contents; receive a command to allocate at least one of the plurality of game contents in an area of the game space; and allocate the at least one of the plurality of game contents to the area of the game space based on the received command. 10. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 9, wherein the plurality of game contents are categorized into a plurality of different types of game content, and different image data is associated with each of the plurality of different types of game content. 11. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 7, wherein the computer-program instructions, when executed by the electronic device, cause the electronic device to: allocate the applied template as the first player's active allocation of the plurality of game contents upon receiving a command from the first player. 12. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 7, wherein the computer-program instructions, when executed by the electronic device, cause the electronic device to: register the applied template to a server by transmitting information corresponding to the applied template to the server via a communication interface of the electronic device. 13. An electronic device comprising: a memory configured to store a template used for defending against an attack initiated by an opponent in a game space, the template defining positions within the game space of a plurality of game contents including game contents for defending against the attack; and circuitry configured to execute, based on a first command received by a first player, a game by allocating one or more game contents to positions within the game space; store, in the memory, types and positions of the one of more game contents allocated in the game space; and apply the template based on a second command received from the first player by allocating the game contents allocated in the game space to positions in the game space defined by the template. 14. The electronic device of claim 13, wherein a number of the plurality of game contents included in the template is equal to the number of game contents allocated in the game space. 15. The electronic device of claim 13, wherein the circuitry is configured to: compare a number of the plurality, of game contents included in the template with a number of the game contents allocated in the gate space; and allocate the game contents allocated in the game space to positions in the game space defined by the template when the number of the plurality of game contents included in the template is equal to the number of the game contents allocated in the game space. 16. The electronic device of claim 13, wherein the memory is configured to store a type corresponding to each of the plurality of game contents included in the template. 17. The electronic device of claim 16, wherein the circuitry is configured to allocate the game contents allocated in the game space to positions in the game space defined by the template based on the type of each of the plurality of the game contents included in the template and the type of each of the game content allocated in the game space. 18. The electronic device of claim 13, wherein the circuitry is configured to apply the template by moving the one or more game contents allocated in the game space to the positions within the game space of the plurality of game contents defined by the template. 19. One or more non-transitory computer readable media, including computer-program instructions, which when executed by an electronic device, cause the electronic device to: store a template used for defending against an attack initiated by an opponent in a game space, the template defining positions within the game space of a plurality of game contents including game contents for defending against the attack; execute, based on a first command received by a first player, a game by allocating one or more game contents to positions within the game space; store types and positions of the one of more game contents allocated in the game space; and apply the template based on a second command received from the first player by allocating the game contents allocated in the game space to positions in the game space defined by the template. 20. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 19, wherein a number of the plurality of game contents included in the template is equal to the number of game contents allocated in the game space. 21. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 19, wherein the computer-program instructions, when executed by the electronic device, cause the electronic device to: compare a number of the plurality of game contents included in the template with a number of the game contents allocated in the game space; and allocate the game contents allocated in the game space to positions in the game space defined by the template when the number of the plurality of game contents included in the template is equal to the number of the game contents allocated in the game space. 22. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 19, wherein the computer-program instructions, when executed by the electronic device, cause the electronic device to: store a type corresponding to each of the plurality of game contents included in the template. 23. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 22, wherein the computer-program instructions, when executed by the electronic device, cause the electronic device to: allocate the game contents allocated in the game space to positions in the game space defined by the template based on the type of each of the plurality of the game contents included in the template and the type of each of the game content allocated in the game space. 24. The one or more non-transitory computer readable media of claim 19, wherein the computer-program instructions, when executed by the electronic device, cause the electronic device to: apply the template by moving the one or more game contents allocated in the game space to the positions within the game space of the plurality of game contents defined by the template. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION The present application is a continuation application which claims the benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. §120 of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/393,646, filed Dec. 29, 2016, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 14/983,984, filed Dec. 30, 2015, (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,597,594, issued Mar. 21, 2017), which is a continuation of PCT/JP2014/075673, filed Sep. 26, 2014 which claims the benefit of priority from JP 2013-202721, filed on Sep. 27, 2013, JP 2014-080554, filed on Apr. 9, 2014, the entire content a which are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD This invention relates to a method for controlling a computer, a recording medium and a computer. BACKGROUND In recent years, games which are played by installing a game program on a portable device from a server via a communication network have become common. Such games include games in which multiple players can participate (so-called “social games”). There are games wherein players can not only fight against or help each other, but are also enabled to communicate with each other. Such known games include, for example, games (so-called “city building games”) wherein a player builds a city within a virtual space (hereinafter referred to as “game space”) provided in the game program. In city building games, players can build various facilities (such as houses, streets, ports, train stations, airports, castles, training facilities, etc.) on desired positions and create a city after their liking. SUMMARY In conventional city building games, it is the object of the game to build a desired city, and it is unnecessary to completely rebuild a city after it has been built once. On the other hand, in recent city building games, a city built by one player is attacked by a different player, and the city (arrangement of items such as protective walls, buildings that are subject to an attack, protecting soldiers, weapons, etc.) is one of factors for deciding the winning and losing, or superiority and inferiority. However, since the items (game contents) of a city of a player increase as the city develops, it is very complicated for a player to change positions, types, levels, etc., of individual items. Further, it is hard to understand what kind of effect changing a city would have against an attack from a different player. Therefore, many players have limited themselves to change only certain kinds of items, such as soldiers and weapons, for which changing positions, types, levels, etc., is easy. As a result, as the game progresses, it becomes monotonous, and players might become bored with it. The present invention has been devised to address the above problem, and an object of the invention is to provide a method for controlling a computer, a recording medium and a computer that improve the usability of city building games and continuously attract players to the game. Provided is a method for controlling a computer that is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and that progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The method includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. The computer may be, for example, a portable device, a desktop device, a server, etc., as long as it can execute the above procedure. In one embodiment, in the above method, the storage unit further stores a template related to a different player, and when the template related to the different player is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template related to the different player. In another embodiment, in the above method, the storage unit further stores game contents which are arranged within the game space and are related to the different player, and positions of the game contents, and when the template related to the different player is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on a command by the different player, the computer moves, out of the game contents arranged within the game space, game contents related to the different player to the positions of the game contents defined by the template related to the different player. In another embodiment, in the above method, when a start of an event is reported by a different computer, the computer obtains a template for the event from the different computer and moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template obtained from the different computer. Yet in another embodiment, in the above method, when the number of game contents arranged within the game space is smaller than the number of game contents for which positions are defined by the template, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template to which the moving distance is the smallest. Still in another embodiment, in the above method, out of the positions of the game contents defined by the template, the computer displays positions on which no game contents are arranged and the game contents, in a discernible condition. In another embodiment, in the above method, when the number of game contents arranged within the game space is larger than the number of game contents for which position are defined by the template, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space for which the moving distance to the positions of the game contents defined by the template is the smallest, to the positions. In another embodiment, in the above method, when a template is created for a predetermined area within the game space based on a command from the player, the computer stores positions of game contents arranged within the predetermined area, as the template, in the storage unit. Yet in another embodiment, in the above method, when a template is created by combining a plurality of templates based on a command from the player or a different player, or commands from the player and the different player, the computer stores the positions of the game contents defined by the plurality of templates, as the template, in the storage unit. Provided is a non-transitory computer-readable recording medium having recorded thereon a program for a computer that is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and that progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The program causes the computer to execute a process. The process includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. Provided is a computer that progresses a game by arranging game contents within a game space based on a command by a player. The computer includes a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and a processing unit configured to apply the template to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player. When the template is applied, the processing unit moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. The above method, recording medium and computer make it possible to improve the usability of city building games and continuously attract players to the game by making game contents and the arrangement of the game contents changeable by using templates. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Other features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent from the ensuing description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of a game system; FIG. 2A illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device; FIGS. 2B to 2D illustrate examples of data structures of the various types of tables; FIGS. 3A to 3E illustrate examples of a display screen of the portable device; FIG. 4 illustrates a concept of creating and applying a template; FIG. 5A illustrates one possible schematic configuration of the server; FIGS. 5B and 5C illustrate examples of data structures of the various types of tables; FIGS. 6A to 6C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device; FIGS. 7A to 7C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the server; FIG. 8A illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device according to the second embodiment; FIG. 8B illustrates an example of a data structure of the facility table; FIG. 9 illustrates a concept of applying a template in a multi-player environment; FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate examples of the operational flow the portable device; FIG. 11 illustrates a concept of combining templates in a multi-player environment; FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device according to the third embodiment; FIG. 13A illustrates one possible schematic configuration of the server; FIG. 13B illustrates an example of a data structure of the event table; FIGS. 14A and 14B illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device; and FIGS. 15A to 15C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the server. DESCRIPTION Hereinafter, with reference to the drawings, a method for controlling a computer, a recording medium, and a computer will be described. It should be noted that the technical scope of the present invention is not limited to the described embodiments, but covers the invention described in the claims and its equivalent. First Embodiment In the present embodiment, a player builds a city within a game space. The player can arrange various facilities which are one example of game contents, within the game space. Further, for a predetermined area within the game space, the player can also create a template stipulating types and positions of facilities based on the types and positions of facilities arranged within the area. Moreover, the player can also apply the created template to a given area within the game space. When a template is applied, facilities arranged within the game space are automatically changed to the facilities defined in the template, and they are automatically moved to the defined positions. Game contents refer to digital contents used in a game, and include, besides facilities, characters, soldiers, weapons, cards, figures, avatars, items, etc. FIG. 1 illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of a game system 1. The game system 1 includes at least one portable device 2 and a server 3. The portable device 2 and the server 3 are connected to each other via a communication network, and are connected to each other, for example, via a base station 4, a mobile communication network 5, a gateway 6, and the Internet 7. A program to be executed by the portable device 2 (e.g., a game program) and a program to be executed by the server 3 (e.g., a game control program) communicate with each other by using a communication protocol such as a Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP). FIG. 2A illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device 2. The portable device 2 progresses the game in response to an operation of an operation unit 23 by a player. When necessary, the portable device 2 is connected to the server 3 via the base station 4, the mobile communication network 5, the gateway 6, and the Internet 7, to communicate with the server 3. In order to implement the foregoing functions, the portable device 2 includes a device communication unit 21, a device storage unit 22, the operation unit 23, a display unit 24, and a device processing unit 25. While a multifunctional mobile phone (a so-called “smartphone”) may be assumed as the portable device 2, the present invention is not limited to this. The portable device 2 may be, for example, a mobile phone (a so-called “feature phone”), a personal digital assistant (PDA), a portable game machine, a portable music player, a tablet device, a tablet personal computer (PC) a notebook PC, etc., as long as the present invention is applicable thereto. The device communication unit 21 includes as communication interface circuit including an antenna having a sensitivity band in a predetermined frequency band, and connects the portable device 2 to a wireless communication network. The device communication unit 21 establishes a wireless signal link with the base station 4 by a Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) system or the like via a channel to be assigned by the base station 4, and communicates with the base station 4. The device communication unit 21 sends data supplied from the de e processing unit 25 to the server 3 or the like. The device communication unit 21 supplies the data received from the server 3 or the like to the device processing unit 25. The device storage unit 22 includes a semiconductor memory, for example. The device storage unit 22 stores an operating system program, a driver program, an application program, data, etc., used for processing in the device processing unit 25. For example, the device storage unit 22 stores an input device driver program for controlling the operation unit 23 and an output device driver program for controlling the display unit 24, as the driver program. The device storage unit 22 stores a game program, etc., for progressing the game and displaying the result thereof, as the application program. The device storage unit 22 stores identification numbers (IDs) of the players, a facility table (FIG. 2B) for managing facilities arranged within the game space, a facility-type table (FIG. 2C) for managing types of the facilities, a template table (FIG. 2D) for managing templates, and image data, video data, etc., relating to the facilities, templates, etc., as the data. Further, the device storage unit 22 may store temporary data relating to predetermined processing. FIG. 2B depicts a facility table. In the facility table, a facility ID, a type ID, a position within the game space, etc., are recorded for each facility. In the present embodiment, the game space is configured in grid form, wherein one facility is arranged on one grid, and the position of the facility is represented with the help of grid coordinates that have their origin in a predetermined grid (e.g., upper left of the game space). However, the present invention is not limited to this configuration. Any configuration of the game space, etc., is possible as long as the present invention can be applied to the configuration. FIG. 2C depicts a facility-type table. In the facility-type table, a type ID, name, file name of image data, etc., are recorded for each type of facility. FIG. 2D depicts a template table. In the template table, for each template, a template ID, a file name of thumbnail image data, a type ID and a position within the template of each facility, etc., are recorded. Similarly to FIG. 2B, a position of a facility is represented with the help of the grid coordinates that have their origin in a predetermined grid (e.g., upper left of the template). However, the present invention is not limited to this configuration. Any representation of a position is possible as long as the present invention can be applied with the representation. The operation unit 23 may be any device capable of operating the portable device 2, for example, a touch panel, a key button or the like. The player can input letters, numbers, symbols, etc., by using the operation unit 23. When operated, by the player, the operation unit 23 generates a signal corresponding to the operation. The generated signal is supplied to the device processing unit 25 as a command from the player. The display unit 24 may be any device capable of displaying a video, an image, etc., for example, a liquid crystal display, an organic electro-luminescence (EL) display, etc. The display unit 24 displays a video, an image, etc., corresponding to video data and image data supplied from the device processing unit 25. The device processing unit 25 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The device processing unit 25 is, for example, a central processing unit (CPU), and integrally controls an overall operation of the portable device 2. The device processing unit 25 controls operations of the device=communication unit 21, the display unit 24, etc., so that various types of processing of the portable device 2 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the device storage unit 22, the operation of the operation unit 23, etc. The device processing unit 25 executes processing based on the programs (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.) stored in the device storage unit 22. The device processing unit 25 can execute multiple programs (application programs, etc.) in parallel. FIGS. 3A to 3E illustrate examples of a display screen of the portable device 2. FIG. 3A depicts a game progression screen 300 that is displayed when a command has been given to start the game. The game progression screen 300 displays a game space 301 and various facilities 302 to 306 arranged within the game space. Further, multiple buttons are displayed in the lower portion of the game progression screen 300. By pushing buttons, commands are given: pushing a “Create” button 307 creates a template, pushing an “Apply” button 308 applies a template. FIG. 3B depicts an area selection screen 310 that is displayed when a command to create a template has been given on the game progression screen 300 depicted in FIG. 3A. The area selection screen 310 displays the game space 301, in which, for example, by tapping on two arbitrary points, an area 311 with the two points as opposite apexes is selected. Further, a “Confirm” button 312 is displayed in the lower portion of the area selection screen 310, and by pushing this button, a command is given to create a template for the selected area 311. FIG. 3C depicts a template selection screen 320 that is displayed when a command to apply a template has been given on the game progression screen 300 depicted in FIG. 3A. On the template selection screen 320, a thumbnail image 321 and a “Select” button 322 are displayed for each template. By pushing the “Select” button 322, the corresponding template is selected. FIG. 3D depicts a template display screen 330 that is displayed when a template has been selected on the template selection screen 320 depicted in FIG. 3C. A preview image 3310 for when the template is applied to a predetermined area (e.g., around the center) within the game space is displayed in the left portion of the template display screen 330. Further, names and quantities 3320 of facilities for which positions are defined lay the template, are listed in the right portion of the template display screen 330. Further, a “Confirm” button 333 is displayed in the lower portion of the template display screen 330, and by pushing this button, a template is confirmed. FIG. 3E depicts an area selection screen 340 that is displayed when a template has been confirmed on the template display screen 330 depicted in FIG. 3D. The area selection screen 340 displays the game space 301, in which, for example, by tapping on two arbitrary points, an area 341 with the two points as opposite apexes is selected. Further, a “Confirm” button 34 is displayed in the lower portion of the area selection screen 340, and by pushing this button, a command is given to apply the template to the selected area 341. FIG. 4 illustrates a concept of creating and applying a template. 400 illustrates a game space. Nine facilities are arranged within the game space 400. Specifically, four facilities illustrated as “black circle”, three facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and two facilities illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Assume that a template has been created for an area 401 within the game space 400. 410 illustrates the created template. The template 410 defines that facilities illustrated as “black circle” of a type illustrated as “white circle” are arranged at (1,1) and (1,2), facilities illustrated as “black triangle” of a type illustrated as “white triangle” are arranged at (1,3), (2,1) and (2,2) and a facility illustrated as “black square” of a type illustrated as “white square” is arranged at (2,3). 420 illustrates another game space. Six facilities are arranged within the game space 420. Specifically, two facilities illustrated as “black circle”, three facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and one facility illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Assume that the template 410 has been applied to an area 421 within the game space 420. The number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type arranged within the game space 420 are equal to the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type, respectively, positions of the facilities being defined by the template 410. Thus, all facilities arranged within the game space 420 are moved to positions of facilities as defined by the template 410. Actually, facilities 422 to 425 arranged outside of the area 421 are moved to positions of these facilities within the area 421. 420′ illustrates the game space 420 after the facilities 422 to 425 have been moved. 430 illustrates yet another game space. Nine facilities are arranged within the game space 430. Specifically, three facilities illustrated as “black circle”, five facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and one facility illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Assume that the template 410 has been applied to an area 431 within the game space 430. The number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type arranged within the game space 430 is equal to or larger than the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type, respectively, positions of the facilities being defined by the template 410. Thus, of the facilities arranged within the game space 420, those facilities with the smallest moving distance (e.g., Manhattan distance) to positions of facilities defined by the template 410, are moved to the positions of facilities. Actually, facilities 432 to 435 arranged outside of the area 431 are moved to positions of these facilities within the area 431. 430′ illustrates the game space 430 after the facilities 432 to 435 have been moved. The facilities to be moved are not limited to those with the smallest moving distance. The player may also designate facilities which are to be moved, or an area containing facilities which are to be moved. Further, the player may also in advance designate facilities which are not to be moved, or an area containing facilities which are not to be moved. 440 illustrates still another game space. Four facilities are arranged within the game space 440. Specifically, one facility illustrated as “black circle”, two facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and one facility illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Assume that the template 410 has been applied to an area 441 within the game space 440. The number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type arranged within the game space 440 is equal to or smaller than the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type, respectively, positions of the facilities being defined by the template 410. Thus, all facilities arranged within the game space 440 are moved to positions of facilities defined by the template 410, to which the moving distance is the smallest. Actually, facilities 442 and 443 arranged outside the area 441 are moved to positions of these facilities within the area 441. 440′ illustrates the game space 440 after the facilities 442 and 443 have been moved. In the game space 440′, positions on which no facilities are arranged among the positions of facilities defined by the template 410, are illustrated in a condition where the facility type is discernible (e.g., “white circle” 444 and “white triangle” 445). Further, when no facility has been arranged, it is also possible to present the player with facilities of the same type or with facilities of a similar type as proposals. Moreover, it is also possible for the player to purchase facilities for positions where no facility has been arranged, or to acquire the facilities, for example, by trading with a different player in a multi-player environment as described below. Moreover, when the player has not arranged a facility defined by a template within the game space but has stored the facility in storage, the player may arrange this facility based on the template, or conversely, the player may store a facility that is not defined by the template, in the storage. Although in the above description, a player creates templates himself/herself, templates may also be distributed from a service-side server 3, or may be acquired from other players. In such cases, a player may not possess a facility defined by a template in some cases. However, whether the player possesses a facility defined by a template may be judged on a portable device 2 side or on a server 3 side, and a screen for purchasing the facility which has been judged not to be in the player's possession may be displayed on the portable device 2, so that the player is automatically guided to a purchase screen. Further, templates may also be automatically created based on an operation by the player. For example, the server 3 may automatically create templates based on facilities the player possesses, facilities selected by the player, an area and/or an objective of a template. The objective of a template is, for instance, to realize a city that offers strong protection against soldiers with bows and arrows, to realize a city that work effectively for protection against attacks by giants, to strengthen the protection against air attacks, etc. In doing so, it becomes easy for the player to create templates consistent with objectives. In order to achieve the above-described functions, the device processing unit 25 includes a game progression unit 251, a template creation unit 252, and a template application unit 253. All of these units are functional modules implemented by a program executed on a processor provided in the device processing unit 25. Alternatively, these units may also be provided as firmware on the portable device 2. In the following, processing by the game progression unit 251 will be described. The game progression unit 251 controls the start and progression of the game, and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template creation unit 252, template application unit 253, etc. Specifically, when a command to start the game is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251 displays the game progression screen 300. In other words, the game progression unit 251 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22, and extracts a type ID and a position of each facility. Further, the game progression unit 251 refers to the facility-type table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the extracted type IDs as key, and extracts file names of image data for corresponding types. Further, the game progression unit 251 obtains image data corresponding to the extracted file names, from the device storage unit 22. Then, the game progression unit 251 configures a game progression screen 300 that displays images arising from the obtained image data according to the extracted positions, and that simultaneously displays buttons for receiving commands such as template creation, template application, etc., in a predetermined layout; and outputs the, game, progression screen 300 to the display unit 24. When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251 gives a command to execute processing to the template creation unit 252. When a command to apply a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251 gives a command to execute processing to the template application unit 253. When a command to execute different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251 executes the different processing. In the following, processing by the template creation unit 252 will be described. The template creation unit 252 creates templates, stores the templates in the device storage unit 22, and registers the created templates on the server 3. Specifically, the template creation unit 252 displays the area selection screen 310. When an area has been selected and a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the template creation unit 252 creates a template. In other words, the template creation unit 252 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the coordinates of the selected area as key, and extracts a type ID and a position within the game space of each facility arranged within the selected area. The template creation unit 252 further converts the extracted positions within the game space to positions within the template. Moreover, the template creation unit 252 creates thumbnail image data for the selected area, and stores the data in the device storage unit 22. The template creation unit 252 then stores the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the extracted type ID and position within the template of each facility, etc., in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 under a newly assigned template ID. Further, the template creation unit 252 registers the created template on the server 3. In other words, the template creation unit 252 sends a template registration request via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the player ID, the assigned template ID, the created thumbnail image data, and the extracted type ID and position within the template of each facility, as parameters. Then, the template creation unit 252 terminates the processing. In the following, processing by the template application unit 253 will be described. The template application unit 253 obtains a template from the device storage unit 22 or the server 3, and applies the obtained template. Specifically, the template application unit 253 displays the template selection screen 320. In other words, the template application unit 253 refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22, and extracts an ID and a file name of thumbnail image data of each template. Further, the template application unit 253 obtains thumbnail image data corresponding to the extracted file name, from the device storage unit 22. When necessary, the template application unit 253 sends a request for providing a template list via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the player ID as a parameter. Further, the template application unit 253 receives an ID and thumbnail image data of each template from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21. Then, the template application unit 253 configures the template selection screen 320 that displays thumbnail images arising from the obtained thumbnail image data, buttons for receiving commands such as template selection, etc., in a predetermined layout; and outputs the template selection screen 320 to the display unit 24. When a template is selected by the player via the operation unit 23, the template application unit 253 displays the template display screen 330. In other words, when the selected template is a template provided by the server 3, the template application unit 253 sends a request for providing the template via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the ID of the selected template as a parameter. Further, the template application unit 253 receives thumbnail image data of a corresponding template and the type ID and position of each facility from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21. The template application unit 253 then stores the received thumbnail image data in the device storage unit 22. Further, the template application unit 253 stores the ID of the selected template, the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the received type ID and position of each facility, etc., in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22. The template application unit 253 refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the selected template as key, and extracts a type ID of each facility in the corresponding template. The template application unit 253 counts the number of extracted types of facilities. Further, the template application unit 253 refers to the facility-type table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the extracted type IDs as key, and extracts corresponding names of the types. Moreover, the template application unit 253 creates a preview image for when the selected template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space. Then, the template application unit 253 configures the template display screen 330 that displays the extracted names and the number of facilities, the created preview image, buttons for receiving commands such as template confirmation, etc., in a predetermined layout; and outputs the template display screen 330 to the display unit 24. In the following, a process of applying a template will be described. When a template is confirmed by the player via the operation unit 23, the template application unit 253 displays the area selection screen 340. When an area has been selected and a command to apply a template has been given by the player via the operation unit 23, the template application unit 253 applies the template. In other words, the template application unit 253 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22, and extracts an ID, a type ID and a position within the game space of each facility. The template application unit 253 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. The template application unit 253 further refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the selected template as key, and extracts a type ID and a position within the template of each facility in the corresponding template. The template application unit 253 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. Moreover, the template application unit 253 converts the extracted positions within the template to positions within the game space based on coordinates of the selected area. For each type of facility, the template application unit 253 compares the number of facilities of this type within the game space and the number of facilities of this type within the template. When the former and the latter are equal, the template application unit 253 moves the facilities of this type within the game space to the positions of the facilities of this type within the template. In other words, the template application unit 253 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the IDs of the facilities of each type within the game space as key, and stores the positions of the facilities of this type within the template as positions of the corresponding facilities within the game space. On the other hand, when the former is larger than the latter, the template application unit 253 moves the facilities of this type within the game space for which the moving distance to the positions of the facilities of this type within the template is the smallest, to the positions of these facilities. In other words, for each position of a facility of a type within the template, the template application unit 253 specifies a facility of this type within the game space for which the moving distance to the position is the smallest. The template application unit 253 then refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the specified facility as key, and stores the position of the specified facility as position of the corresponding facility within the game space. On the other hand, when the former is smaller than the latter, the template application unit 253 moves the facilities of a type within the game space to positions of the facilities of this type within the template to which the moving distance is the smallest. In other words, for each facility of a type within the game space, the template application unit 253 specifies a position of a facility of this type within the template to which the moving distance is the smallest. The template application unit 253 then refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the facility as key, and stores the specified position as position of the corresponding facility within the game space. Other than facilities for which the moving distance is the smallest, the player may also designate facilities which are to be moved, or an area containing facilities which are to be moved. Further, the player may also in advance designate facilities which are not to be moved, or an area containing facilities which are not to be moved. Then, the template application unit 253 terminates the processing. FIG. 5A illustrates one possible schematic configuration of the server 3. In response to requests from the portable device 2, the server 3 registers and provides templates. In order to achieve such functions, the server 3 is provided with a server communication unit 31, a server storage unit 32, and a server processing unit 33. The server communication unit 31 includes a communication interface circuit for connecting the server 3 to the Internet 7, and communicates with the Internet 7. The server communication unit 31 supplies the data received from the portable device 2 or the like to the server processing unit 33. The server communication unit 31 sends the data supplied from the server processing unit 33 to the portable device 2 or the like. The server storage unit 32 includes at least one of a magnetic tape device, a magnetic disk device and an optical disk device, for example. The server storage unit 32 stores an operating system program, a driver program, an application program, data, etc., used for processing in the server processing unit 33. The server storage unit 32 stores, for example, a game control program, etc., for registering and providing templates, as the application program. The server storage unit 32 stores a player table (FIG. 5B) for managing players, a template table (FIG. 5C) for managing templates, and image data, video data, etc., relating to the players, templates, etc., as the data. Further, the server storage unit 32 may store temporary data relating to certain processing. FIG. 5B depicts a player table. In the player table, a player ID, a name, a file name of image data, an ID of a created template, etc., are recorded for each player. FIG. 5C depicts a template table. Similarly to FIG. 2D, in the template table, for each template, a template ID, a file name of thumbnail image data, a type ID and a position within the template of each facility, etc., are recorded. The server processing unit 33 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The server processing unit 33 is, for example, a CPU, and integrally controls an overall operation of the server 3. The server processing unit 33 controls an operation of the server communication unit 31 or the like so that various types of processing of the server 3 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the server storage unit 32. The server processing unit 33 executes processing based on the programs stored in the server storage unit 32 (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.). The server processing unit 33 can execute the multiple programs (the application program, etc.) in parallel. The server processing unit 33 includes a server control unit 331, a template registration unit 332, and a template provision unit 333. Each of the units is a functional module implemented by a program to be executed by the processor included in the server processing unit 33. Alternatively, each of the units may be provided as a firmware on the server 3. In the following, processing by the server control unit 331 will be described. The server control unit 331 controls the performance of the server and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template registration unit 332, template provision unit 333, etc. Specifically, when a template registration request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331 gives the template registration unit 332 a command to execute processing, by using the received template registration request as a parameter. When a request for providing a template list or a template provision request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331 gives the template provision unit 333 a command to execute processing, by using the received request for providing a template list or the like as a parameter. When a different request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331 executes different processing corresponding to the request. In the following, processing by the template registration unit 332 will be described. The template registration unit 332 stores templates in the server storage unit 32. In other words, the template registration unit 332 interprets the received template registration request, and specifies the ID of the player, the ID of the template, thumbnail image data, as well as the type ID and position of each facility. Then, the template registration unit 332 stores the specified thumbnail image data in the server storage unit 32. The template registration unit 332 further refers to the player table stored in the server storage unit 32 by using the specified player ID as key, and stores the specified template ID as an ID of a template created by the corresponding player. Moreover, the template registration unit 332 stores the specified template ID, the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the type ID and position of each specified facility, etc., in the template table stored in the server storage unit 32. Then, the template registration unit 332 terminates the processing. In the following, processing by the template provision unit 333 will be described. The template provision unit 333 obtains a template list or a template from the server storage unit 32, and sends the obtained template list or the like to the portable device 2. Specifically, when a request for providing a template list has been received, the template provision unit 333 obtains a template list from the server storage unit 32. In other words, the template provision unit 333 interprets the received request for providing a template list, and specifies the ID of the player. The template provision unit 333 then refers to the player table stored in the server storage unit 32 by using the specified player ID as key, and extracts an ID of a template created by a player different from the corresponding player. Further, the template provision unit 333 refers to the template table stored in the server storage unit 32 by using the extracted template ID as key, and extracts a file name of thumbnail image data for the corresponding template. Moreover, the template provision unit 333 obtains the thumbnail image data corresponding to the extracted file name, from the server storage unit 32. On the other hand, when a template provision request is received, the template provision unit 333 obtains a template from the server storage unit 32. In other words, the template provision unit 333 interprets the received template provision request, and specifies the ID of the template. Then, the template provision unit 333 refers to the template table stored in the server storage unit 32 by using the specified template ID as key, and extracts a file name of thumbnail image data for the corresponding template, as well as the type ID and position of each facility. Further, the template provision unit 333 obtains thumbnail image data corresponding to the extracted file name, from the server storage unit 32. The template prevision unit 333 sends the obtained template list or the like to the portable device 2. In other words, the template provision unit 333 sends the extracted ID of each template and the thumbnail image data, or the thumbnail image data of the template as well as the type ID and position of each facility that are obtained or the like, to the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31. Then, the template provision unit 333 terminates the processing. FIGS. 6A to 6C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device 2. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the device storage unit 22, mostly by the device processing unit 25 by working together with each component of the portable device 2. FIG. 6A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the game progression unit 251. The player gives the device processing unit 25 a command to start a game via the operation unit 23. The device processing unit 25 starts processing based on the game program. In other words, the game progression unit 251 implemented by the game program displays the game progression screen 300 (Step S100). When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S102—Yes), the game progression unit 251 gives the template creation unit 252 a command to execute processing (Step S104). FIG. 6B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the template creation unit 252. The template creation unit 252 displays the area selection screen 310 (Step S120). When an area is selected by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S122) and a command to create a template is given, the template creation unit 252 creates a template (Step S124). The template creation unit 252 registers the created template on the server 3 (Step S126). Then, the template creation unit 252 terminates processing. On the other hand, when a command to apply a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S106—Yes), the game progression unit 251 gives the template application unit 253 a command to execute processing (Step S108). FIG. 6C illustrates an example of the operational flow of the template application unit 253. The template application unit 253 displays the template selection screen 320 (step S130). When a template is selected by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S132), the template application unit 253 displays the template display screen 330. When the template is confirmed by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S134), the template application unit 253 displays the area selection screen 340. When an area is selected by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S136) and a command to apply a template is given, the template application unit 253 applies the template (Step S138). Then, the template application unit 253 terminates processing. On the other hand, when a command for different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step 106—No), the game progression unit 251 executes the different processing (Step S110). FIGS. 7A to 7C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the server 3. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the server storage unit 32, mostly by the server processing unit 33 by working together with each component of the server 3. FIG. 7A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the server control unit 331. When a template registration request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S200—Yes), the server control unit 331 gives the template registration unit 332 a command to execute processing (Step S202), by using the received template registration request as a parameter. FIG. 7B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the template registration unit 332. The template registration unit 332 stores the template included in the received template registration request in the server storage unit 32 (Step S220). Then, the template registration unit 332 terminates processing. On the other hand, when a request for providing a template list or a template provision request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S204—Yes), the server control unit 331 gives the template provision unit 333 a command to execute processing (Step S206), by using the received request for providing a template list or the like as a parameter. FIG. 7C illustrates an example of the operational flow of the template provision unit 333. When the request for providing a template list is received (Step S230—Yes), the template provision unit 333 obtains a list of templates of players other than the player corresponding to the player ID included in the received request for providing a template list, from the server storage unit 32 (Step S232). On the other hand, when the template provision request is received (Step S230—No), the template provision unit 333 obtains a template corresponding to the template ID included in the received template provision request, from the server storage unit 32 (Step S234). The template provision unit 333 sends the obtained template list or the like to the portable device 2 (Step S236). Then, the template provision unit 333 terminates processing. On the other hand, when a different request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S204—No), the server control unit 331 executes different processing corresponding to the request (Step S208). As have been described above, by making the arrangement of facilities changeable by using templates, the usability of city building games is improved, and it becomes possible to continuously attract players to the game. In the above-described embodiment, the case is described where upon application of a template, facilities are automatically arranged within the game space based on definition in the template. However, it is also possible that when a template is being applied, a mark is displayed on the game space, so that the player can use this mark as approximation and change the types and positions of facilities himself/herself. Further, besides buildings, walls, fences and so forth, facilities may also include information on types and quantities of soldiers and weapons to fight back against an attack by a different player. Further, multiple templates may be prepared corresponding to objectives, and the player may be able to select a template depending on the objective. To give specific examples; there are multiple types of soldiers with which a different player attacks, and there may be a template realizing a city that offers strong protection against soldiers with bows and arrows, a template realizing a city that work effectively for protection against attacks by giants, a template that strengthens the protection against air attacks, etc. Moreover, a characteristic value of each template may be calculated based on the facilities included in the template and the records of battles fought using the template in the game. Further, the characteristic value of the template and characteristics of the template based on the characteristic value may be displayed and presented to the player. Specifically, a defense power may be displayed based on parameters of protective facilities and the number of the protective facilities included in the template; a winning percentage when using the template may be displayed; and characteristic that the template has good defense power and a good winning percentage is displayed based on the defense power and winning percentage included in the templates. Thus, the player can easily understand the characteristics of respective templates and compare the characteristics. Second Embodiment In the first embodiment, a single player environment is assumed, wherein a player progresses the game by himself/herself. However, the present invention can also be applied to a multi-player environment wherein multiple players progress the game together. In the present embodiment, multiple players build a city within a single game space, and each player applies templates to a predetermined area within the game space. When a template is applied by a player, the facilities that belong to the player among the facilities arranged within the game space are moved to positions of these facilities defined by the template. Since the schematic configuration of the game system 1 is the same as illustrated in FIG. 1, a description thereof is omitted. FIG. 8A illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device 2. The portable device 2 progresses the game in response to an operation of an operation unit 23 by a player or a command from a different portable device 2. When necessary, the portable device 2 is connected to the server 3 via the base station 4, the mobile communication network 5, the gateway 6, and the Internet 7, to communicate with the server 3. In order to implement the foregoing functions, the portable device 2 includes a device communication unit 21, a device storage unit 22′, the operation unit 23, a display unit 24, and a device processing unit 25. Since the device communication unit 21, the operation unit 23, and the display unit 24 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 2A, a description thereof is omitted. The device storage unit 22′ includes a semiconductor memory, for example. The device storage unit 22′ stores an operating system program, a driver program, an application program, data, etc., used for processing in the device processing unit 25. For example, the device storage unit 22′ stores an input device driver program for controlling the operation unit 23 and an output device driver program for controlling the display unit 24, as the driver program. The device storage unit 22′ stores a game program, etc., for progressing the game and displaying the result thereof, as the application program. The device storage unit 22′ stores player IDs, a facility table (FIG. 8B) for managing facilities arranged within the game space, a facility-type table (FIG. 2C) for managing types of the facilities, a template table (FIG. 2D) for managing templates, and image data, video data, etc., relating to the facilities, templates, etc., as the data. Further, the device storage unit 22′ may store temporary data relating to predetermined processing. FIG. 8B depicts a facility table. In the facility table, for each player, an ID of each facility arranged within the game space by the player, a type ID, a position within the game space, etc., are recorded. The device processing unit 25 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The device processing unit 25 is, for example, a CPU, and integrally controls an overall operation of the portable device 2. The device processing unit 25 controls operations of the device communication unit 21, the display unit 24, etc., so that various types of processing of the portable device 2 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the device storage unit 22′, the operation of the operation unit 23, etc. The device processing unit 25 executes processing based on the programs (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program etc.) stored in the device storage unit 22′. The device processing unit 25 can execute multiple programs (application programs, etc.) in parallel. FIG. 9 illustrates a concept of applying a template in a multi-player environment. 900 illustrates a game space. Twelve facilities are arranged within the game space 900. Specifically, four facilities illustrated as “black circle”, four facilities illustrated as “black triangle”, and four facilities illustrated as “black square” are arranged therein. Among these facilities, assume that the one facility illustrated as “black circle” and the two facilities illustrated as “black triangle” arranged in the upper-right three by three squares are those of a player1. Further, assume that the three facilities illustrated as “black square” arranged in the lower-right three by three squares are those of a player2, the two facilities illustrated as “black triangle” and the one facility illustrated as “black square” arranged in the lower-left three by three squares are those of a player3, and the three facilities illustrated as “black circle” arranged in the upper-left three by three squares are those of a player4. Assume that a template 910 has been applied to an area 901 within the game space 900 by the player1. Similarly, assume that templates 920 to 940 have been applied to areas 902 to 904 by the player2 to player4, respectively. In relation to the player1, the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type arranged within the game space 900 are equal to the number of types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type, respectively, positions of the facilities being defined by the template 910. Thus, all facilities of the player1 are moved to positions of facilities as defined by the template 910. Similarly, all facilities of the player2 to player4 are moved to positions of facilities as defined by the templates 920 to 940, respectively. 900′ illustrates the game space 900 after all the facilities have been moved. In order to achieve the above-described functions, the device processing unit 25 includes a game progression unit 251′, a template creation unit 252, a template application unit 253, and a second template application unit 254. All of these units are functional modules implemented by a program executed on a processor provided in the device processing unit 25. Alternatively, these units may also be provided as firmware on the portable device 2. Since the template creation unit 252 and the template application unit 253 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 2A, a description thereof is omitted. In the following, processing by the game progression unit 251′ will be described. The game progression unit 251′ controls the start and progression of the game, and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template creation unit 252, template application unit 253, second template application unit 254, etc. Specifically, when a command to start the game is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251′ displays the game progression screen 300. When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251′ gives a command to execute processing to the template creation unit 252. When a command to apply a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251′ gives a command to execute processing to the template application unit 253. When a template application command is received from a different portable device 2 via the device communication unit 21, the game progression unit 251′ gives the second template application unit 254 a command to execute processing, by using the received template application command as a parameter. When a command to execute different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251′ executes the different processing. In the following, processing by the second template application unit 254 will be described. The second template application unit 254 obtains a template from the server 3, and applies the obtained template. Specifically, the second template application unit 254 obtains a template from the server 3. In other words, the second template application unit 254 interprets the received template application command, and specifies the ID of the player, the ID of the template, and the coordinates of the area to which the template is to be applied. Further, the second template application unit 254 sends a template provision request via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the specified template ID as a parameter. Further, the second template application unit 254 receives thumbnail image data of a corresponding template, as well as the type ID and position of each facility from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21. The second template application unit 254 then stores the received thumbnail image data in the device storage unit 22′. Further, the second template application unit 254 stores the ID of the specified template, the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the received type ID and position of each facility, etc., in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22′. The second template application unit 254 applies the obtained template. In other words, the second template application unit 254 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22′ by using the ID of the specified player as key, and extracts an ID, a type ID and a position within the game space of each facility of the corresponding player. The second template application unit 254 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. The second template application unit 254 further refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22′ by using the ID of the specified template as key, and extracts a type ID and a position within the template of each facility in the corresponding template. The second template application unit 254 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. Moreover, the second template application unit 254 converts the extracted positions within the template to positions within the game space based on coordinates of the specified area. For each type of facility, the second template application unit 254 compares the number of facilities of this type within the game space and the number of facilities of this type within the template, and, according to the result, moves the facilities of this type within the game space to the positions of the facilities of this type within the template. Then, the second template application unit 254 terminates the processing. Since the schematic configuration of the server 3 is the same as illustrated in FIG. 5A, a description thereof is omitted. FIGS. 10A and 10B illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device 2. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the device storage unit 22′, mostly by the device processing unit 25 by working together with each component of the portable device 2. FIG. 10A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the game progression unit 251′. Since Steps S100 to S108 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 6A, a description thereof is omitted. When a template application command is received from a different portable device 2 via the device communication unit 21 (Step S300—Yes), the game progression unit 251′ gives the second template application unit 254 a command to execute processing, by using the received template application command as a parameter (Step S302). FIG. 10B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the second template application unit 254. The second template application unit 254 obtains a template corresponding to the template ID included in the received template application command, from the server 3 (Step S310). The second template application unit 254 applies the obtained template (Step S312). Then, the second template application unit 254 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when a command for different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S300—No), the game progression unit 251′ executes the different processing (Step S110). As have been described above, by allowing each player to change the arrangement of facilities by using templates in a multi-player environment, the usability of city building games is improved, and it becomes possible to continuously attract players to the game. It should be noted that the present invention is not limited to the above-described embodiment. For example, in the above-described embodiment, in order to combine multiple templates to create a single template, it is assumed that a player applies multiple templates to predetermined areas within the game space, or multiple players apply a template each to predetermined areas within the game space, and then a template for a predetermined area that encompasses all these areas is created. However, a player may designate multiple templates or multiple players may designate a template each, and then a template may be created by directly joining these templates. FIG. 11 illustrates a concept of combining templates in a multi-player environment. Assume that the player1 has specified a template 1110 for an area 1100. Further, assume that the player2 to player4 have specified templates 1120 to 1140 for areas 1101 to 1103, respectively. 1150 illustrates a template obtained by combining the templates 1110 to 1140. In order to achieve the above-described functions, the portable device 2 may perform processing as described below. When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the portable device 2 displays a predetermined screen and receives designations of template and area. In the same manner, the portable device 2 receives designations of template and area from a different portable device 2. Then, the portable device 2 obtains the designated templates from the device storage unit 22 or the server 3, and creates a new template by arranging the obtained templates on the designated areas. In other words, the portable device 2 corrects the position of each facility defined by the obtained templates based on the coordinates specified by the designated areas. The portable device 2 then stores the type ID and corrected position, etc., of each facility defined by the obtained templates, in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 under a newly assigned template ID. Third Embodiment In the above-described embodiment, it is assumed that templates are created by the player. However, preexisting templates may also be distributed by a server or the like. In the present embodiment, a preexisting template is distributed by a server depending on an event (e.g., protecting the city from an enemy character) happening in the city building game. The player applies the template distributed by the server, to a predetermined area within his/her own game space, moves and adds facilities as necessary, and thus prepares for the event. After a certain time has passed, the event happens, and the player is given various rewards (e.g., templates, facilities, etc.) depending on the outcome. Such a template can also be understood as a task given to the player in an event. Since the schematic configuration of the game system 1 is the same as illustrated in FIG. 1, a description thereof is omitted. FIG. 12 illustrates an example of a schematic configuration of the portable device 2. The portable device 2 progresses the game in response to an operation of an operation unit 23 by a player. When necessary, the portable device 2 is connected to the server 3 via the base station 4, the mobile communication network 5, the gateway 6, and the Internet 7, to communicate with the server 3. In order to implement the foregoing functions, the portable device 2 includes a device communication unit 21, a device storage unit 22, the operation unit 23, a display unit 24, and a device processing unit 25. Since the device communication unit 21, the device storage unit 22, the operation unit 23, and the display unit 24 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 2A, a description thereof is omitted. The device processing unit 25 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The device processing unit 25 is, for example, a CPU, and integrally controls an overall operation of the portable device 2. The device processing unit 25 controls operations of the device communication unit 21, the display unit 24, etc., so that various types of processing of the portable device 2 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the device storage unit 22, the operation of the operation unit 23, etc. The device processing unit 25 executes processing based on the programs (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.) stored in the device storage unit 22. The device processing unit 25 can execute multiple programs (application programs, etc.) in parallel. The device processing unit 25 includes a game progression unit 251″, a template creation unit 252, a template application unit 253, and a third template application unit 255. All of these units are functional modules implemented by a program executed on a processor provided in the device processing unit 25. Alternatively, these units may also be provided as firmware on the portable device 2. Since the template creation unit 252 and the template application unit 253 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 2A, a description thereof is omitted. In the following, processing by the game progression unit 251″ will be described. The game progression unit 251″ controls the start and progression of the game, and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template creation unit 252, template application unit 253, third template application unit 255, etc. Specifically, when a command to start the game is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251″ displays the game progression screen 300. When a command to create a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251″ gives a command to execute processing to the template creation unit 252. When a command to apply a template is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251″ gives a command to execute processing to the template application unit 253. When an event start report is received from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21, the game progression unit 251″ gives the third template application unit 255 a command to execute processing, by using the received event start report as a parameter. When a command to execute different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the game progression unit 251″ executes the different processing. In the following, processing b the third template application unit 255 will be described. The third template application unit 255 obtains a template for an event from the server 3, and applies the obtained template. Specifically, the third template application unit 255 obtains a template for an event from the server 3. In other words, the third template application unit 255 interprets the received event start report, and specifies the ID of the event. Further, when a command to participate in an event is given by the player via the operation unit 23, the third template application unit 255 sends an event participation request via the device communication unit 21 to the server 3 by using the player ID and the specified event ID as parameters. Further, the third template application unit 255 receives an ID and thumbnail image data of a template for the corresponding event, as well as the type ID and position of each facility from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21. The third template application unit 255 then stores the received thumbnail image data in the device storage unit 22. Further, the third template application unit 255 stores the ID of the received template, the file name of the stored thumbnail image data, the received type ID and position of each facility, etc., in the template table stored in the device storage unit 22. The third template application unit 255 applies the obtained template. In other words, the third template application unit 255 refers to the facility table stored in the device storage unit 22, and extracts an ID, a type ID and a position within the game space of each facility. The third template, application unit 255 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. The third template application unit 255 further refers to the template table stored in the device storage unit 22 by using the ID of the received template as key, and extracts a type ID and a position within the template of each facility in the corresponding template. The third template application unit 255 counts the number of extracted types of facilities and the number of facilities in each type. Moreover, the third template application unit 255 converts the extracted positions within the template to positions within the game space based on coordinates of the area selected by the player via the operation unit 23. For each type of facility, the third template application unit 255 compares the number of facilities of this type within the game space and the number of facilities, of this type within the template, and, according to the result, moves the facilities of this type within the game space to the positions of the facilities of this type within the template. Then, the third template application unit 255 terminates the processing. FIG. 13A illustrates one possible schematic configuration of the server 3. In response to requests from the portable device 2, the server 3 registers and provides templates. Further, the server 3 manages events and provides templates. In order to achieve such functions, the server 3 is provided with a server communication unit 31, a server storage unit 32′, and a server processing unit 33. Since the server communication unit 31 is the same as illustrated in FIG. 5A, a description thereof is omitted. The server storage unit 32′ includes at least one of a magnetic tape device, a magnetic disk device and an optical disk device, for example. The server storage unit 32′ stores an operating system program, a driver program, an application program, data, etc., used for processing in the server processing unit 33. The server storage unit 32′ stores, for example, a game control program, etc., for registering and providing templates and managing events, as the application program. The server storage unit 32′ stores a player table (FIG. 5B) for managing players, a template table (FIG. 5C) for managing templates, an event table for managing events (FIG. 13B), and image data, video data, etc., relating to the players, templates, etc, as the data. Further, the server storage unit 32′ may store temporary data relating to certain processing. FIG. 13B depicts an event table. In the event table, an event ID, starting date and time, an ID of a template to be used, an ID of a participating player, etc., are recorded for each event. The server processing unit 33 includes one or more processors and their peripheral circuits. The server processing unit 33 is, for example, a CPU, and integrally controls an overall operation of the server 3. The server processing unit 33 controls an operation of the server communication unit 31 or the like so that various types of processing of the server 3 are executed in an appropriate order in accordance with the programs stored in the server storage unit 32′. The server processing unit 33 executes processing based on the programs stored in the server storage unit 32′ (the operating system program, the driver program, the application program, etc.). The server processing unit 33 can execute the multiple programs (the application program, etc.) in parallel. The server processing unit 33 includes a server control unit 331′, a template registration unit 332, a template provision unit 333, and an event management unit 334. Each of the units is a functional module implemented by a program to be executed by the processor included in the server processing unit 33. Alternatively, each of the units may be provided as a firmware on the server 3. Since the template registration unit 332 and the template provision unit 333 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 5A, a description thereof is omitted. In the following, processing by server control unit 331′ will be described. The server control unit 331′ controls the performance of the server and appropriately gives commands to execute processing to the template registration unit 332, template provision unit 333, event management unit 334, etc. Specifically, when a template registration request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331′ gives the template registration unit 332 a command to execute processing, by using the received template registration request as a parameter. When a request for providing a template list or a template provision request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331′ gives the template provision unit 333 a command to execute processing, by using the received request for providing a template list or the like as a parameter. When there is an event whose starting date and time has passed, the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the event ID as a parameter. In other words, the server control unit 331′ refers to the event table stored in the server storage unit 32′, and extracts an ID and starting date and time of each event. Further, the server control unit 331′ obtains the current date and time from a clock (not illustrated). When there is an event whose starting date and time is before the obtained current date, and time, the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the event ID as a parameter. When an event participation request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the received event participation request as a parameter. When a different request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31, the server control unit 331′ executes different processing corresponding to the request. In the following, processing by the event management unit 334 will be described. The event management unit 334 sends an event start report to the portable device 2. Further, the event management unit 334 obtains a template for an event from the server storage unit 32′, and sends the obtained template to the portable device 2. Specifically, when an event ID has been received, the event management unit 334 sends an event start report to the portable device 2. In other words, the event management unit 334 refers to the player table stored in the server storage unit 32′, and specifies players. Then, the event management unit 334 sends an event start report via the server communication unit 31 to the portable device 2 of each of the specified players, by using the received event ID as a parameter. Then, the event management unit 334 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when an event participation request has been received, the event management unit 334 makes the player participate in the corresponding event. Specifically, the event management unit 334 interprets the received event participation request, and specifies the ID of the event and the ID of the player. The event management unit 334 then refers to the event table stored in the server storage unit 32′ by using the specified event ID as key, and stores the specified player ID as an ID of a player participating in the corresponding event. The event management unit 334 obtains a template for the corresponding event from the server storage unit 32′. Specifically, the event management unit 334 refers to the event table stored in the server storage unit 32′ by using the specified event ID as key, and extracts an ID of a template for the corresponding event. Then, the event management unit 334 refers to the template table stored in the server storage unit 32′ by using the extracted template ID as key, and extracts a file name of thumbnail image data for the corresponding template, as well as the type ID and position of each facility. Further, the event management unit 334 obtains thumbnail image data corresponding to the extracted file name, from the server storage unit 32′. The event management unit 334 sends the obtained template to the portable device 2. In other words, the event management unit 334 sends the thumbnail image data of the template as well as the type ID and position of each facility that are obtained or the like, to the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31. Then, the event management unit 334 terminates the processing. FIGS. 14A and 14B illustrate examples of the operational flow of the portable device 2. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the device storage unit 22, mostly by the device processing unit 25 by working together with each component of the portable device 2. FIG. 14A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the game progression unit 251″. Since Steps S100 to S108 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 6A, a description thereof is omitted. When an event start report is received from the server 3 via the device communication unit 21 (Step S400—Yes), the game progression unit 251″ gives the third template application unit 255 a command to execute processing, by using the received event start report as a parameter (Step S402). FIG. 14B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the third template application unit 255. The third template application unit 255 obtains a template for an event from the server 3, and applies the obtained template (Step S410). The third template application unit 255 applies the obtained template (Step S412). Then, the third template application unit 255 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when a command for different processing is given by the player via the operation unit 23 (Step S400—No), the game progression unit 251″ executes the different processing (Step S110). FIGS. 15A to 15C illustrate examples of the operational flow of the server 3. The below-described operational flow is executed, based on a program that is stored in advance in the server storage unit 32′, mostly by the server processing unit 33 by working together with each component of the server 3. FIG. 15A illustrates an example of the operational flow of the server control unit 331′. Since Steps S200 to S206 are the same as illustrated in FIG. 7A, a description thereof is omitted. When there is an event whose starting date and time has passed (Step S500—Yes), the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the event ID as a parameter (Step S502). FIG. 15B illustrates an example of the operational flow of the event management unit 334. When an event ID has been received, the event management unit 334 sends an event start report to the portable device 2 (Step S510). Then, the event management unit 334 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when an event participation request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S504—Yes), the server control unit 331′ gives the event management unit 334 a command to execute processing, by using the received event participation request as a parameter (Step S506). FIG. 15C illustrates another example of the operational flow of the event management unit 334. When an event participation request has been received, the event management unit 334 makes the player participate in the corresponding event. (Step S520). The event management unit 334 obtains a template for the corresponding event from the server storage unit 32′ (Step S522). The event management unit 334 sends the obtained template to the portable device 2 (Step S524). Then, the event management unit 334 terminates the processing. On the other hand, when a different request is received from the portable device 2 via the server communication unit 31 (Step S504—No), the server control unit 331′ executes different processing corresponding to the request (Step S208). As have been described above, by making preexisting templates distributable, it becomes possible to make an event happen in accordance with the arrangement of facilities, which increases the attractiveness of city building games, and makes it possible to continuously attract players to the game. It should be noted that the present invention is not limited to the above-described embodiment. For example, in the above-described embodiment, it is assumed that a preexisting template is distributed depending on occurrence of an event. But templates may not only be used when an event is happening. During a so-called tutorial that is meant to teach players how to play by arranging various facilities, templates with arrangements for different intended uses, such as balance type, resource protecting type, and so forth may be provided. Further, in the above-described embodiment, the creation and application of a template are performed by the portable device 2. However, the creation and application may also be performed by the server 3. In this case, the server 3 may store facilities arranged within the game space for each player, and in response to commands by the player, create and/or apply a template to a predetermined area within the game space of the player. Further, while the above-described embodiment is described by an example wherein positions of facilities are changed based on definition in the template, the types of facilities may be changed. Further, types are not limited to buildings, walls, fences and so forth, and any other game items such as soldiers and weapons to fight back against an attack by a different player may be applicable. A computer program for causing a computer to execute the respective functions of the device processing unit 25 and the server processing unit 33 may be provided in a form recorded on a non-transitory computer-readable recording medium such as a semiconductor recording medium, a magnetic recording medium and an optical recording medium, and may be installed on the device storage unit 22 and the server storage unit 32 from the recording medium by using a known set-up program, etc. The preceding description has been presented only to illustrate and describe exemplary embodiments of the present invention. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to any precise form disclosed. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes may be made and equivalents may be substituted for elements thereof without departing from the scope of the invention. In addition, many modifications may be made to adapt a particular situation or material to the teachings of the invention without departing from the essential scope. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiment disclosed as the best mode contemplated for carrying out this invention, but that the invention will include all embodiments falling within the scope of the claims. The invention may be practiced otherwise than is specifically explained and illustrated without departing from its spirit or scope. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>In recent years, games which are played by installing a game program on a portable device from a server via a communication network have become common. Such games include games in which multiple players can participate (so-called “social games”). There are games wherein players can not only fight against or help each other, but are also enabled to communicate with each other. Such known games include, for example, games (so-called “city building games”) wherein a player builds a city within a virtual space (hereinafter referred to as “game space”) provided in the game program. In city building games, players can build various facilities (such as houses, streets, ports, train stations, airports, castles, training facilities, etc.) on desired positions and create a city after their liking. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In conventional city building games, it is the object of the game to build a desired city, and it is unnecessary to completely rebuild a city after it has been built once. On the other hand, in recent city building games, a city built by one player is attacked by a different player, and the city (arrangement of items such as protective walls, buildings that are subject to an attack, protecting soldiers, weapons, etc.) is one of factors for deciding the winning and losing, or superiority and inferiority. However, since the items (game contents) of a city of a player increase as the city develops, it is very complicated for a player to change positions, types, levels, etc., of individual items. Further, it is hard to understand what kind of effect changing a city would have against an attack from a different player. Therefore, many players have limited themselves to change only certain kinds of items, such as soldiers and weapons, for which changing positions, types, levels, etc., is easy. As a result, as the game progresses, it becomes monotonous, and players might become bored with it. The present invention has been devised to address the above problem, and an object of the invention is to provide a method for controlling a computer, a recording medium and a computer that improve the usability of city building games and continuously attract players to the game. Provided is a method for controlling a computer that is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and that progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The method includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. The computer may be, for example, a portable device, a desktop device, a server, etc., as long as it can execute the above procedure. In one embodiment, in the above method, the storage unit further stores a template related to a different player, and when the template related to the different player is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template related to the different player. In another embodiment, in the above method, the storage unit further stores game contents which are arranged within the game space and are related to the different player, and positions of the game contents, and when the template related to the different player is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on a command by the different player, the computer moves, out of the game contents arranged within the game space, game contents related to the different player to the positions of the game contents defined by the template related to the different player. In another embodiment, in the above method, when a start of an event is reported by a different computer, the computer obtains a template for the event from the different computer and moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template obtained from the different computer. Yet in another embodiment, in the above method, when the number of game contents arranged within the game space is smaller than the number of game contents for which positions are defined by the template, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template to which the moving distance is the smallest. Still in another embodiment, in the above method, out of the positions of the game contents defined by the template, the computer displays positions on which no game contents are arranged and the game contents, in a discernible condition. In another embodiment, in the above method, when the number of game contents arranged within the game space is larger than the number of game contents for which position are defined by the template, the computer moves the game contents arranged within the game space for which the moving distance to the positions of the game contents defined by the template is the smallest, to the positions. In another embodiment, in the above method, when a template is created for a predetermined area within the game space based on a command from the player, the computer stores positions of game contents arranged within the predetermined area, as the template, in the storage unit. Yet in another embodiment, in the above method, when a template is created by combining a plurality of templates based on a command from the player or a different player, or commands from the player and the different player, the computer stores the positions of the game contents defined by the plurality of templates, as the template, in the storage unit. Provided is a non-transitory computer-readable recording medium having recorded thereon a program for a computer that is provided with a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and that progresses a game by arranging the game contents within the game space based on a command by a player. The program causes the computer to execute a process. The process includes when the template is applied to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player, moving, by the computer, the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. Provided is a computer that progresses a game by arranging game contents within a game space based on a command by a player. The computer includes a storage unit configured to store game contents arranged within a game space, positions of the game contents, and a template defining positions of one or more of game contents, and a processing unit configured to apply the template to a predetermined area within the game space based on the command by the player. When the template is applied, the processing unit moves the game contents arranged within the game space to the positions of the game contents defined by the template. The above method, recording medium and computer make it possible to improve the usability of city building games and continuously attract players to the game by making game contents and the arrangement of the game contents changeable by using templates. | A63F13537 | 20170629 | 20171019 | 63073.0 | A63F13537 | 1 | AHMED, MASUD | COMPUTER CONTROL METHOD, CONTROL PROGRAM AND COMPUTER | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A63F | 2,017 |
|
15,637,325 | ACCEPTED | BULK MATERIAL SHIPPING CONTAINER | A bulk material shipping container including a pallet, a compartment mounted on the pallet, a material unloading assembly, and a material loading assembly. | 1. A material shipping container comprising: a pallet defining spaced apart tine receiving openings extending from a front side of the pallet to a back side of the pallet, the pallet including: (i) a first bottom corner leg, (ii) a second bottom corner leg, (iii) a third bottom corner leg, (iv) a fourth bottom corner leg, wherein the first bottom corner leg, the second bottom corner leg, the third bottom corner leg, and the fourth bottom corner leg have a first footprint, (v) a front connection member connected to the first bottom corner leg and the second bottom corner leg, (vi) a back connection member connected to the third bottom corner leg and the fourth bottom corner leg, (vii) a first side connection member connected to the second bottom corner leg and the third bottom corner leg, (viii) a second side connection member connected to the first bottom corner leg and the fourth bottom corner leg, wherein the front connection member, the back connection member, the first side connection member, and the second side connection member have a second footprint, and wherein the first footprint is greater than the second footprint; a compartment mounted on the pallet, the compartment having a first top corner, a second top corner, a third top corner, and a fourth top corner, the compartment including: (a) a top wall, (b) a front exterior wall, (c) a back exterior wall spaced apart from the front exterior wall, (d) a first exterior side wall, (e) a second exterior side wall spaced apart from the first exterior side wall, (f) a front exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the front exterior wall, (g) a back exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the back exterior wall, (h) a first side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the first exterior side wall, (i) a second side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the second exterior side wall, (j) an interior bottom wall including: (i) a front downwardly angled section attached to the front exterior wall and having a lower edge, (ii) a back downwardly angled section attached to the back exterior wall and having a lower edge, (iii) a first side downwardly angled section attached to the first exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge, and (iv) a second side downwardly angled section attached to the second exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge, (k) a first nesting support positioned at the first top corner of the compartment, (l) a second nesting support positioned at the second top corner of the compartment, (m) a third nesting support positioned at the third top corner of the compartment, and (n) a fourth nesting support positioned at the fourth top corner of the compartment, the first, second, third, and fourth tubular nesting supports configured to at least partially support a pallet of a second material shipping container such that a second compartment of the second material shipping container is spaced apart from the top wall of the compartment, said compartment further defining a material release opening at a bottom of the compartment; a material unloading assembly positioned at the bottom of the compartment, the material unloading assembly including: (i) spaced apart guide rails, and (ii) a slidable gate including a closure member and an engagable member extending in an area lower than the closure member and attached to and supported by the closure member, the closure member at least partially supported by the spaced apart guide rails, the engagable member movable in a first direction toward the front side of the pallet to cause the closure member to allow material in the compartment to flow through the material release opening, and the engagable member movable in a second different direction toward the back side of the pallet to cause the closure member to prevent material in the compartment from flowing through the material release opening; and a material loading assembly attached to the top wall of the compartment, the material loading assembly including a cover hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment along an axis transverse to an axis extending from the front side of the pallet to the back side of the pallet, the cover rotatable from a closed position to an open position, the cover remaining hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment in the open position. 2. The material shipping container of claim 1, which includes: (i) a front wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the front downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the front downwardly angled section, (ii) a back wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the back downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the back downwardly angled section, (iii) a first side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the first side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the first side downwardly angled section, and (iv) a second side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the second side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the second side downwardly angled section. 3. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein each of the nesting supports includes a generally rectangular tubular section. 4. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein: (a) the front exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped first corner section, (b) the front exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped second corner section, (c) the back exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped third corner section, and (d) the back exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped fourth corner section. 5. The material shipping container of claim 1, wherein the compartment is entirely supported by the pallet. 6. A material shipping container comprising: a pallet defining spaced apart tine receiving openings extending from a front side of the pallet to a back side of the pallet, the pallet including: (i) a first bottom corner leg, (ii) a second bottom corner leg, (iii) a third bottom corner leg, (iv) a fourth bottom corner leg, wherein the first bottom corner leg, the second bottom corner leg, the third bottom corner leg, and the fourth bottom corner leg have a first footprint, (v) a front connection member connected to the first bottom corner leg and the second bottom corner leg, (vi) a back connection member connected to the third bottom corner leg and the fourth bottom corner leg, (vii) a first side connection member connected to the second bottom corner leg and the third bottom corner leg, (viii) a second side connection member connected to the first bottom corner leg and the fourth bottom corner leg, wherein the front connection member, the back connection member, the first side connection member, and the second side connection member have a second footprint, and wherein the first footprint is greater than the second footprint; a compartment mounted on the pallet, the compartment having a first top corner, a second top corner, a third top corner, and a fourth top corner, the compartment including: (a) a top wall, (b) a front exterior wall, (c) a back exterior wall spaced apart from the front exterior wall, (d) a first exterior side wall, (e) a second exterior side wall spaced apart from the first exterior side wall, (f) a front exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the front exterior wall, (g) a back exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the back exterior wall, (h) a first side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the first exterior side wall, (i) a second side exterior wall support bracket connected to an exterior side of the second exterior side wall, (j) a steel interior bottom wall including: (i) a front downwardly angled section attached to the front exterior wall and having a lower edge, (ii) a back downwardly angled section attached to the back exterior wall and having a lower edge, (iii) a first side downwardly angled section attached to the first exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge, and (iv) a second side downwardly angled section attached to the second exterior side wall, the front downwardly angled section, and the back downwardly angled section, and having a lower edge, (k) a steel first nesting support positioned at the first top corner of the compartment, (l) a steel second nesting support positioned at the second top corner of the compartment, (m) a steel third nesting support positioned at the third top corner of the compartment, and (n) a steel fourth nesting support positioned at the fourth top corner of the compartment, the first, second, third, and fourth tubular nesting supports configured to at least partially support a pallet of a second material shipping container such that a second compartment of the second material shipping container is spaced apart from the top wall of the compartment, said compartment further defining a material release opening at a bottom of the compartment; a material unloading assembly positioned at the bottom of the compartment, the material unloading assembly including: (i) steel spaced apart guide rails, and (ii) a steel slidable gate including a closure member and an engagable member extending in an area lower than the closure member and attached to and supported by the closure member, the closure member at least partially supported by the spaced apart guide rails, the engagable member movable in a first direction toward the front side of the pallet to cause the closure member to allow material in the compartment to flow through the material release opening, and the engagable member movable in a second different direction toward the back side of the pallet to cause the closure member to prevent material in the compartment from flowing through the material release opening; and a material loading assembly attached to the top wall of the compartment, the material loading assembly including a steel cover hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment along an axis transverse to an axis extending from the front side of the pallet to the back side of the pallet, the cover rotatable from a closed position to an open position, the cover remaining hingedly attached to the top wall of the compartment in the open position. 7. The material shipping container of claim 6, which includes: (i) a steel front wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the front downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the front downwardly angled section, (ii) a steel back wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the back downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the back downwardly angled section, (iii) a steel first side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the first side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the first side downwardly angled section, and (iv) a steel second side wedge shaped bottom wall support which partially supports the second side downwardly angled section between opposing spaced apart side edges of the second side downwardly angled section. 8. The material shipping container of claim 6, wherein each of the nesting supports includes a generally rectangular tubular section. 9. The material shipping container of claim 6 wherein: (a) the front exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped first corner section, (b) the front exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped second corner section, (c) the back exterior wall and the first side exterior wall form a W-shaped third corner section, and (d) the back exterior wall and the second side exterior wall form a W-shaped fourth corner section. 10. The material shipping container of claim 6, wherein the compartment is entirely supported by the pallet. | PRIORITY CLAIM This application is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to, and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/634,383, filed Jun. 27, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/632,696, filed Jun. 26, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/631,737, filed Jun. 23, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/471,896, filed Mar. 28, 2017, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/516,292, filed Oct. 16, 2014, which issued on Apr. 11, 2017 as U.S. Pat. No. 9,617,065, which is a continuation patent application of, claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/249,688, filed Sep. 30, 2011, which issued on Nov. 18, 2014 as U.S. Pat. No. 8,887,914, which is a continuation-in-part patent application of, claims priority to, and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/914,075, filed Oct. 28, 2010, which issued on Dec. 31, 2013, as U.S. Pat. No. 8,616,370, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND Various bulk material shipping containers are known. Such known material bulk shipping containers, sometimes referred to herein for brevity as known containers or as known bulk containers, are used to transport a wide range of products, parts, components, items, and materials such as, but not limited to, seeds, shavings, fasteners, and granular materials. These are sometimes called loose materials. There are various disadvantages with such known bulk material shipping containers. For example, one known and widely commercially used known bulk container for shipping materials (such as shipping seeds to farms) is sold by Buckhorn Industries. This known bulk container is made from plastic, weighs about 338 pounds (151.9 kilograms), and holds a maximum of 58.3 cubic feet of material. This known container has a bottom section, a top section, and a cover. To use this known container, loaders at a bulk material supplier must remove the cover, remove the top section from the bottom section, flip the top section upside down, place the flipped top section on the bottom section, fill the container, and then place the cover on the flipped top section. This process requires at least two people and a relatively significant amount of time when filling a large quantity of these containers. In certain instances, specifically configured forklift attachments are required to fill and handle this known container. After this known container is shipped to its ultimate destination (such as a farm), the bulk material (such as seed) is unloaded from the container, and the empty container must be shipped back to the material supplier. However, prior to and for shipping back to the supplier, the cover is removed, the flipped top section is removed from the bottom section, the flipped top section is then flipped back over and placed on the bottom section, and the cover is then placed on the top section and fastened with zip ties. This process also requires at least two people and is relatively time consuming especially for a large quantity of such containers. Another disadvantage of this known container is that this container is made from plastic and if one of the three sections (i.e., the bottom, the top, or the cover) is damaged or cracked, that entire section typically must be replaced (instead of being repaired). This adds additional cost, time out of service for the damaged container, and additional material and energy waste. Another disadvantage of this known container is that when disassembled (for shipping empty), only two of these containers can be stacked on top of each other and still fit in a conventional shipping container or truck. This tends to leave wasted space in such shipping containers and trucks, and thus increases the overall cost of shipping (including related fuel costs) and energy waste. Additional disadvantages of this known container are that: (a) the cover can be easily lost or misplaced; (b) the cover can be easily damaged; (c) this known container is less weather resistant because the cover is readily removable and only attached by zip ties; (d) the insides and outside surfaces are difficult to clean; and (e) a material holding bag is not readily usable with this container, such that this container cannot be used for certain types of loose materials. For purposes of brevity, (a) the people who assemble and/or put a container in the position for receiving materials for transport and who load the material in a container are sometimes referred to herein as the “loaders,” and (b) the people who remove the materials from a container and who disassemble and/or put a container in the position for sending back to the supplier are sometimes referred to herein as the “unloaders.” Accordingly, there is a need for better bulk material shipping containers which overcome these disadvantages. SUMMARY Various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a bulk material shipping container which overcomes the above described disadvantages with previously known commercially available bulk shipping containers. One embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment and movable from a retracted position relative to the bottom compartment (for efficient shipping when not holding materials or holding a relatively small amount of materials) to an expanded position relative to the bottom compartment (for holding extra materials during shipping); (d) a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; (f) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment; and (g) an extension assembly attached to the top compartment which enables a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. The shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive a suitable plastic bag which holds the materials in the container. It should thus be appreciated that the expandable and retractable bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. It should also be appreciated that when a plastic bag is used to hold the materials in the container, the material unloading assembly includes a knife which cuts the bottom of the bag open for unloading of the materials. The bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is sometimes referred herein for brevity as the container or as the shipping container. One embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is primarily made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, except for the pallet which is made from wood. If one of the sections of this embodiment of the container is damaged or cracked, that section can typically be repaired which reduces: (a) cost; (b) time out of service for the container; and (c) additional material and/or energy waste. In alternative embodiments, the pallet of the bulk material shipping container, or certain parts thereof, can be made from a suitably strong plastic material such as a composite material or a fiber glass material. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure can also be stacked three high (when empty) for shipping in conventional transport containers or trucks. This reduces wasted space in such transport containers and trucks and decreases shipping cost and fuel consumption, and thus energy waste. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure holds 72 cubic feet of material and up to about 3125 pounds (1417.5 kilograms). This embodiment of the shipping container has several advantages over the above described known bulk container. Specifically, this embodiment of the bulk container is approximately 65 pounds (29.49 kilograms) lighter, holds approximately 14 cubic feet of additional materials which is approximately 25% more material (such as seeds), is readily repairable, can be stacked three high for more efficient transport to the supplier, and can be moved from the transport or retracted position to the loading or expanded position by one person. To load the presently disclosed container, the loaders do not need to remove a cover, remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment, flip the top compartment over, place the flipped top compartment on the bottom compartment, or place any cover on the flipped top compartment. Additionally, the unloaders do not need to remove the cover, remove the flipped top compartment, flip the top compartment, place the top compartment on the bottom compartment, and then place the cover on the top compartment for returning the empty container. In another embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment, and thus this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the single compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the single compartment. In this embodiment, since there is a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to a top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed in the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, the pallet supports the compartments, but does not directly support the material unloading assembly. In further embodiments, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is configured without the top wall to provide an open top end. It is therefore an advantage of the present disclosure to provide a new and improved bulk material shipping container. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments and the figures. DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of one embodiment of the present disclosure, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 2 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the retracted or collapsed position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 3 is a bottom perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and illustrating the legs of the pallet, the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet, and pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 4 is a front view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 5 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 6 is a top view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container in the closed position and the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. FIG. 7 is a bottom view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the legs of the pallet, the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet, and illustrating the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly in the closed position, and the knife attached to the bottom of the chute door or gate. FIG. 8 is an exploded perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with certain of the smaller components such as the tether removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 9 is an enlarged exploded perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9A is an enlarged exploded top perspective view of the sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9B is an enlarged top perspective view of the attached sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 9C is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 9D is a further enlarged fragmentary bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 9E is an enlarged top perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with the front and left exterior side walls of the bottom compartment removed to illustrate the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment, the support gussets of the bottom compartment, and the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment. FIG. 9F is an enlarged top perspective view of the bottom compartment and the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1 with the front and left exterior side walls of the bottom compartment removed to illustrate the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment, the support gussets of the bottom compartment, and the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment. FIG. 10 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container. FIG. 10A is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 11 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container, and illustrating the certain of the legs of the pallet in phantom, certain portions of the fork lift tine receiving channels of the pallet in phantom, and certain portions of the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet in phantom. FIG. 12 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and flipped upside down, and illustrating the certain of the legs of the pallet, certain portions of the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet in phantom, and the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 13 is an enlarged bottom view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating certain of the legs of the pallet, and the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. FIG. 14 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container, and illustrating the position of the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in the closed position, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 15 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in a partially open position with the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 16 is an enlarged top fragmentary perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment, in a fully open position with the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate, and in the position at which they rest on and are supported by the pallet. FIG. 17 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position and the blade of the knife in the fully closed and non-extended position. FIG. 17A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position and the blade of the knife in the fully closed and non-extended position. FIG. 18 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position and the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate. FIG. 18A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position and the blade of the knife extending partially upwardly through the gate. FIG. 19 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position and the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate. FIG. 19A is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position and the blade of the knife extending fully upwardly through the gate. FIG. 20A is an enlarged perspective view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20B is an enlarged top plan view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20C is an enlarged side view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 20D is an enlarged side view of the gate and knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 21 is an enlarged rear perspective view of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 22 is an enlarged right side view of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the of the shipping container of FIG. 1 FIG. 23 is an enlarged end view of the cutting edge of the knife of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 24 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin and the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 25 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 26 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 27A is an enlarged fragmentary exploded perspective view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners before being attached. FIG. 27B is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners after being attached. FIG. 27C is and enlarged fragmentary top plan view of the corner wall construction of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the corners after being attached. FIG. 28 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the locking pin of the assembly inserted in the pin receipt in a corner of the bottom compartment, the pin holder attached to a corner of the top compartment, and a tether connecting the locking pin to the pin holder. FIG. 29 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the locking pin holders of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment of the container. FIG. 30 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the locking pins and tethers of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 31 is an enlarged fragmentary partially cut away view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 32 is an enlarged fragmentary view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 33 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the fork lift receiving tines or lifting brackets of the extension assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1. FIG. 34 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 1, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and the cover of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 35 is a top perspective view of the top wall of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating the opening in the top wall and the lip of the material loading assembly extending from the top wall and which is configured to be securely engaged by the cover of the material loading assembly. FIG. 36 is a top perspective view of the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating in phantom the channel of the cover which is configured to receive the lip of the of the material loading assembly attached to the top compartment for secure engagement by the cover. FIG. 37 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the locking assembly of the material loading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown in the closed position. FIG. 38 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the nesting or stacking guides of the shipping container of FIG. 1, shown removed from the top compartment and illustrating the bag end holders defined by the nesting or stacking guides. FIG. 39 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 1 and a portion of the pallet and lower compartment of a second shipping container of FIG. 1 shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 40 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 1 and a pallet of a second shipping container of FIG. 1 shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 41 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag positioned over the stacking guides, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 42 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag positioned with its ends extending through the stacking guides, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 43 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and a bag holder of one embodiment of the present disclosure which is configured to hold a roll of bags. FIG. 44 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and the bag holder of FIG. 43, and illustrating how the bag holder of FIG. 41 holds one of the bags over the shipping container during the material loading process, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 45 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and another embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure. FIG. 46 is a perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 1 and the bag holder of FIG. 45, and illustrating how the bag holder of FIG. 43 holds one of the bags over the shipping container during the material loading process, and with the cover of the material loading assembly removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 47 is a perspective view of another example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 48 is a top perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the retracted or collapsed position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 49 is a bottom perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and illustrating the pallet of this embodiment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 50 is a front view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 51 is a left side view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment. FIG. 52 is a top view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the cover of the material loading assembly of the shipping container in the closed position and the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. FIG. 53 is a bottom view of the shipping container of FIG. 47, illustrating the pallet, and further illustrating the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly in the closed position. FIG. 54 is an exploded perspective view of the shipping container of FIG. 47 with certain of the smaller components removed for ease of illustration. FIG. 55 is an enlarged exploded perspective view of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 56 is an enlarged exploded top perspective view of the sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 57 is an enlarged top perspective view of the attached sections of the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 58 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 59 is a further enlarged fragmentary bottom perspective view of the lower exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the material unloading assembly attached to the bottom of the lower exterior bottom wall. FIG. 60 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in their position relative to the pallet. FIG. 61 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and without the gate of the material unloading assembly, but with the guide rails of the material unloading assembly shown in their position relative to the pallet. FIG. 62 is an enlarged top perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container, and illustrating certain portions of the pallet in phantom. FIG. 63 is an enlarged bottom perspective view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and flipped upside down, and illustrating the certain portions of the pallet in phantom. FIG. 64 is an enlarged bottom view of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container. FIG. 65 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container, and illustrating the position of the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in the closed position. FIG. 66 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in a partially open position. FIG. 67 is an enlarged fragmentary top perspective view of a part of the central portion of the pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment of the container and illustrating the guide rails and the gate of the material unloading assembly detached from the bottom compartment and with the gate in a fully open position. FIG. 68 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position. FIG. 69 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully closed position. FIG. 70 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position. FIG. 71 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of a part of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a partially open position. FIG. 72 is an enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position. FIG. 73 is an even further enlarged fragmentary cross-sectional view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the gate of the material unloading assembly in a fully open position. FIG. 74 is an enlarged perspective view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 75 is an enlarged top view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 76 is an enlarged side view of the gate of the material unloading assembly of the shipping container of FIG. 47. FIG. 77 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin and the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly in an open position. FIG. 78 is an enlarged fragmentary front perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 79 is an enlarged fragmentary rear perspective view of the central portion of the pallet and a part of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the handle of the gate of the material unloading assembly. FIG. 80 is an enlarged fragmentary exploded perspective view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the sections of the corner before being attached. FIG. 81 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating sections of the corner after being attached. FIG. 82 is an enlarged fragmentary top view of the corner wall construction of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the sections of the corner after being attached. FIG. 83 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of part of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin of the assembly inserted in the pin receipt in a corner of the bottom compartment. FIG. 84 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the combined support bracket and pin holders of one of the top compartment support assemblies of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the top compartment of the container. FIG. 85 is an enlarged fragmentary partially cut away side view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 86 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of one of the locking pins of one of the top compartment support assemblies inserted in a pin receipt of one of the corners of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the locking pin in a locked position and supporting the corner of the top compartment. FIG. 87 is a perspective view of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the bottom compartment and with a sleeve attached to the interior surfaces of the top compartment. FIG. 88 is an enlarged perspective view of one of the nesting or stacking guides of the shipping container of FIG. 47, shown removed from the top compartment. FIG. 89 is an enlarged fragmentary perspective view of one of the corners of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, and illustrating the nesting or stacking guide and the nesting supports attached at that corner. FIG. 90 is an enlarged fragmentary side view of a portion of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 47 and a portion of the pallet and bottom compartment of a second shipping container of FIG. 47, where the portion of the pallet is shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 91 is a further enlarged fragmentary perspective view of the top compartment of a first shipping container of FIG. 47 and a portion of the pallet of a second shipping container of FIG. 47, where the portion of the pallet is shown stacked on the top compartment of the first shipping container. FIG. 92 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner of the bottom compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47 resting on a corner of pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the top compartment of the shipping container is in the retracted or collapsed position and the shipping container is empty. FIG. 93 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner of the bottom compartment of the first shipping container of FIG. 47 resting on a corner of pallet of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the top 19 compartment of the shipping container is in the retracted or collapsed position and the shipping container is empty. FIG. 94 is an enlarged fragmentary side perspective view of a corner and side wall of the bottom compartment, a corner and side wall of the top compartment, and a side wall of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full, and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 95A is a fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is empty. FIG. 95B is a fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 96A is an enlarged fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is empty. FIG. 96B is an enlarged fragmentary cross section view of two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the bottom compartment, and two of the side walls and the corner between those side walls of the top compartment of the shipping container of FIG. 47, where the shipping container is full and the side walls are bowed outwardly. FIG. 97 is a fragmentary perspective view of another example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS Referring now to the drawings, FIGS. 1 to 40 illustrate one example embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. This shipping container, which is generally indicated by numeral 50, has an expanded position for holding materials during shipping and a retracted position for efficient shipping when the container is not holding materials or when the container is holding a smaller amount of materials. More specifically, FIG. 2 illustrates the shipping container 50 in the retracted position, and FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 34 illustrate the shipping container 50 in the expanded position. It should thus be appreciated that in the retracted position (as shown in FIG. 2), the shipping container 50 can be used for efficient transport as further described below, and that this provides substantial savings in shipping cost and energy use. Generally, as shown in FIGS. 1 to 9B, this illustrated embodiment of the shipping container 50 includes: (a) a pallet 100 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, and 9F, and as best shown in FIGS. 10, 10A, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 24, 25, and 26) configured for supporting the container 50 and to facilitate movement and of the container 50 as well as the stacking of multiple containers; (b) a bottom compartment 200 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, and 34) mounted on the pallet 100 and configured to hold materials; (c) a top compartment 300 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 34) mounted on the bottom compartment 200 and configured to hold materials; (d) a plurality of top compartment support assemblies 400 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 8, and as best shown in FIGS. 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32) configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment and configured to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly 500 (as partially shown in FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 8, 9E, and 9F and as best shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 10, 10A, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26) attached to the bottom compartment and supported by the pallet 100 and configured to facilitate the unloading of materials from the top and bottom compartments; (f) a material loading assembly 600 (as partially shown in FIGS. 1, 2 4, 5, 6, and 8, and as best shown in FIGS. 34, 35, 36, and 37) mounted on the top compartment and configured to facilitate the loading of material into the top and the bottom compartments; and (g) a top compartment extension assembly 700 (as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 33, and 34) attached to the top compartment 300 and configured to enable a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. It should also be appreciated that generally the container includes a front side or face, a back side or face opposite the front side, a right side or face, and a left side or face as further discussed below. In this illustrated embodiment, (a) the pallet 100 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 6 inches (15.24 centimeters); (b) the bottom compartment 200 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters); and (c) the top compartment 300 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters). When the container is in the retracted position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 35 inches (88.90 centimeters). When the container is in the expanded position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 62 inches (157.48 centimeters). However, it should be appreciated that the container and the components thereof may be other suitable sizes. This embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive and hold a large plastic bag which holds the materials in the interior areas defined by bottom and top compartments. In one embodiment, the bag: (a) is approximately 60 inches (15.40 centimeters) by approximately 55 inches (139.70 centimeters) by approximately 110 inches (279.40 centimeters); (b) has a flat bottom with no bottom seal and hermetic side seals; (c) is FDA compliant; (d) has an approximately 2 millimeter thickness; (e) is clear; and (f) is made from a low density recyclable polyethylene plastic. In one alternative embodiment, the bag is also or alternatively bio-degradable. It should be appreciated that each of the bags is thus suited to hold one load of materials. However, it should be appreciated that the plastic bag may be of any suitable size, configuration, and material, provided that it fits inside of the top and bottom compartments of the container and that the bottom of the bag is able to be readily opened for unloading of the materials. It should be appreciated that the bag will be appropriately folded so that when the bag is placed above and partially in the container for filling the bag (and the container) with the materials, that the bag will properly unfold and be suitably seated in the top and bottom compartments of the container. The filling and un-filling of the bag is further discussed below. More specifically, as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 9, 9A, 9B, 9C, 9D, 9E, and 9F, the bottom compartment 200 includes: (a) a lower exterior bottom wall or panel 202 defining a material release opening or chute 204; (b) an upper interior bottom wall 210 defined by four attached downwardly angled sections or chute ramps 212, 214, 216, and 218; (c) four wedge shaped interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228; (d) spaced apart first and second or front and back exterior walls 232 and 236; and (e) spaced apart third and fourth or left and right exterior side walls 234 and 238. The four sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 234 and 238 define a bottom compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly toward and to the material release opening or chute 204. In this illustrated embodiment, the lower exterior bottom wall 202, the upper interior bottom wall 210, the interior bottom wall supports 222, 224, 226, and 228, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 234 and 238 are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. The exterior bottom wall 202 of the bottom compartment 200 is suitably attached to the pallet 100 of the container 50 by suitable fasteners; however, it should be appreciated that the exterior bottom wall can be attached in other suitable manners. More specifically, the lower exterior bottom wall 202 includes: (a) a rectangular substantially flat base 206 which defines the centrally located rectangular material release opening or chute 204; and (b) an upwardly extending lip 208 extending upwardly from each of outer edges of the base 206. This material release opening or chute 204 enables materials in the top and bottom compartments (or in a bag therein) to flow out of bottom compartment 200 when the chute door or gate 510 of the material unloading assembly for the opening or chute 204 (and the bag therein) is opened as further discussed below. The opening 204 in this illustrated embodiment is approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) by approximately 11 inches (27.94 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. This size of the opening relative to the size of the bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of unloading of the material from the top and bottom compartments (or in a bag therein) without sacrificing structure or strength of the bottom compartment. The interior bottom wall supports 222, 224, 226, and 228 are attached in spaced apart locations to the top of the base 206 by fasteners, although they can also or alternatively be attached by welding. Each of the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228 are of a wedge shape such that they are configured to be engaged by and support a respective one of the downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210. The gusset 222 is wider than the other gussets 224, 226, and 228 in this illustrated embodiment to distribute the weight of the materials supported by gusset 222 to the pallet 100 at further spaced apart locations which are not directly over the gate 510 of the material unloading assembly 500 (which is further described below). The upper interior bottom wall 210, and specifically the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 are respectively attached to the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228 by welding, although they can also or alternatively be attached by fasteners. The interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222 and 226 are some what shorter (as best seen in FIGS. 8, 9, 9E, 9F, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, and 19A) than the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 224 and 288 to prevent too much weight from being placed on the material unloading assembly 500 and particularly on the gate 510. The four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 each have a lower edge such that when such sections are attached, such sections form an opening 211 adjacent to and substantially aligned with the opening 204 of the base wall 206. In particular, the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 extend downwardly approximately adjacent to the material release opening or chute 204 of the base 206 of the bottom compartment. The lower edges of one or more of these four downwardly angled sections are each configured to be supported by the pallet adjacent to the top shelf of the pallet. In other words, this construction enables the central area of the pallet to provided support for part of the weight of the materials held in the top and bottom compartments. The upper interior bottom wall 210, and specifically upper portions of the four downwardly angled sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 are also respectively attached to and supported by the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 of the bottom compartment 200 is supported at multiple locations including multiple points of support by the various different portions of the pallet 100. More specifically, the sections 212, 214, 216, and 218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210 are supported: (a) at their top ends by the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 200; (b) centrally by interior bottom wall supports or gussets 222, 224, 226, and 228; (c) by attachment to each other; and (d) by the central portion of the pallet 100. The exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 200 also each includes a skirt that extends downwardly along a respective side of the pallet 100. Suitable fasteners such as screws are used to attach each skirt to the respective side of the pallet 100 to support these exterior walls. Thus, it should be appreciated that this attachment to the side walls of the pallet 100 provides another set of support points for the bottom compartment 200. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 is suitably angled and supported to hold the materials without deforming and to facilitate unloading of the bulk material from the material holding area of the bottom compartment. Each of the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 210 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of an adjacent exterior wall as generally shown in FIGS. 27A, 27B, and 27C. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall: (a) are preferably connected by welding; (b) add structural rigidity to the bottom compartment; and (c) in conjunction with the top compartment support assemblies 400 provide support the support of the top compartment in the expanded position as further described below. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 27A, 27B, and 27C, exterior side wall 232 includes panel 252 and corner 262 which includes corner sections 262a and 262b, and exterior side wall 234 includes panel 254 and corner 264 which includes corner sections 264a and 264b. Corner sections 264a is mated with and attached to corner section 262a, and corner section 264b is mated with and attached to corner section 262b to form this corner of the bottom compartment 200. It should be appreciated that each corner of the bottom compartment is configured in a similar manner; however, it should be appreciated that one or more of the corners can be differently configured. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 232, 234, 236, and 238 of the bottom compartment 210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the bottom compartment and to minimize interference with movement of the top compartment 300 relative to the bottom compartment 200. The top compartment 300 of the container 50, as best shown in FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, and 35, includes an exterior top wall 302, spaced apart exterior front and back side walls 312 and 316, spaced apart exterior side walls 316 and 318, and exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 respectively attached to the exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318. In this illustrated embodiment, the exterior top wall 302, exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318, and exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 are also all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected in any suitable manner. The upper interior base wall 306 and the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 define a top compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly to the bottom compartment material holding area or cavity. The exterior top wall 302 includes a rectangular substantially flat base 306 which defines the centrally located rectangular material receipt or loading opening or chute 304. This material receipt or loading opening or chute 304 enables materials to flow into the top and bottom compartments when the cover of the material loading assembly is opened as further discussed below. The opening 304 in this illustrated embodiment is 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) by 18 inches (45.72 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. This size opening relative to this size bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of loading of the material into the top and bottom compartments without sacrificing structure or strength of the top compartment 300. The upper interior base wall 306 is suitably attached to the upper portions of the exterior walls 312,314,316, and 318 by welding. The exterior wall support brackets 322, 324, 326, and 328 are respectively attached to the exterior side walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 by welding, although they can be attached by rivets or other suitable fasteners. It should be appreciated that for embodiments of the container which will employ a bag, it is preferable to maximize the amount of welding for connecting or attaching components to reduce possible spots or points for snagging or cutting the bag. It should also be appreciated that for a container that will not employ a bag, more rivets or other fasteners can be employed. Similar to the configuration of the bottom compartment, each of the exterior walls 312, 314, 316, and 318 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of the adjacent exterior wall similar to the bottom compartment. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall of the top compartment are preferably connected by welding and add structural rigidity to the top compartment. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the top compartment can include one or more interior walls. These interior walls in certain embodiment are used to protect the exterior walls, and to add further structural rigidly to the top compartment. The pallet 100 of this illustrated embodiment of the shipping container 50 of the present disclosure is specifically configured to take in account that various different lifting and moving vehicles or equipment may be used to lift and move the container 50: (a) when the container is manufactured; (b) when the container is transported to a material loading facility; (c) when the container is at a material loading facility; (d) when the container is moved and positioned in a transport vehicle at the material loading facility after loading materials in the container; (e) when the container is removed from a transport vehicle at a material unloading facility; (f) when the container is at an unloading facility; and (g) when the container is moved and positioned in a transport vehicle at the material unloading facility after unloading the materials from the container. More specifically, these facilities will typically have either a conventional pallet jack and/or a conventional fork lift. One widely commercially used conventional pallet jack has spaced apart non-movable tines or forks, where each fork is approximately 7.75 inches (19.69 centimeters) wide and the space between the tines is approximately 8.50 inches (21.59 centimeters). One widely commercially used conventional fork lift has adjustably spaced apart tines or forks, where each fork is approximately 5 inches (12.70 centimeters) wide, and the space between that tines is adjustable from approximately 4 inches (10.16 centimeters) to approximately 24 inches (60.96 centimeters). As further described below, the container 50 and specifically the pallet 100 of the container 50 is configured to account for the use of such fork lifts which can: (a) lift the containers off of the ground; (b) move the containers; (c) stack the containers on top of each other; and (d) un-stack stacked containers from each other. As also further described below, the container 50 and specifically the pallet 100 of the container 50 is also configured to account for the use of such pallet jacks which can: (a) lift the containers off of the ground; and (b) move the containers, but can not stack or unstack stacked containers. More specifically, turning now to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 10A, 11, 12, and 13, the pallet 100 of this illustrated embodiment of the container 50 of the present disclosure includes: (a) a rectangular body 102 having an upper surface 104, a lower surface 106, a front edge 112, a back edge 116, and opposite side edges 114 and 118; and (b) a plurality of legs 122, 124, 126, and 128 extending downwardly from the body 102. The legs 122 and 126 each respectively extend the entire width of the body 102 of the pallet 100 in this illustrated embodiment. It should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments the legs 122 and 126 do not need to extend the entire width of the body and that each of these legs can be separated into multiple legs. The legs or islands 124 and 128 extend downwardly from the central portions of the side ends of the body 102. In this illustrated embodiment, the body and the legs of the pallet are all formed from one piece of a suitable wood to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; and (b) minimize overall weight of the container. In this illustrated embodiment, the wood pallet is one piece of wood which is suitably formed by suitable cutting, milling and/or routing processes. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the pallet can be made from multiple components which are suitably attached and that one or more of these components can be made from other suitably strong materials such as composite or fiber glass materials. It should also be appreciated that different parts of the pallet may be made from different materials. For instance, the shelves may be made from a plastic, composite or fiber glass inlay part. The pallet 100 includes or defines: (a) a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a in the legs 122 and 126, respectively; (b) a second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b in the legs 122 and 126, respectively; (c) a first pallet jack tine receiving channel 140 extending from side to side; and (d) a second pallet jack tine receiving channel 142 extending from side to side. The first set of fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a and the second set of fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels of the pallet 100 of the container 50 which is stacked on top of another container, the tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should thus be appreciated that the pallet 100 is configured to enable a fork lift to move these containers when one container is stacked on another container without damaging the lower container, and particularly the cover or the extension assembly. The first pallet jack tine receiving channel 140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 142 are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a pallet jack are inserted into these channels defined by the pallet 100 of the container 50, they can lift and move the container. It should be appreciated that a typical pallet jack does not operate like a fork lift so that the pallet jack will only be used when the container is on the floor or ground and not with stacked containers. Therefore, the tines or forks of a pallet jack will not be in a position to engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of stacked containers or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of stacked containers. It should be appreciated that the first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a and the second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b are not configured to receive the forks or tines of a pallet jack because they are spaced apart further then the tines on a conventional pallet jack (as described above). Specifically, they are spaced apart approximately 34 inches (86.36 centimeters) in this illustrated embodiment. It should further be appreciated that although not preferred, a fork lift with adjustable forks or tines can be inserted into the first pallet jack tine receiving channels 140 and 142 to lift and move the container 50. The pallet 50 and the channels 140 and 142 are also configured to take this into account, and specifically to account for this situation when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels 140 and 142 of the pallet 100 of a container stacked on another container, these tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should further be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment, the legs 124 and 128 of the pallet 100 are also configured to direct the tines or forks of the pallet jack through the channels 140 and 142 if they are inserted at an angle with respect to these channels. Specifically, leg 124 includes four angled tine directing surfaces 154a, 154b, 154c, and 154d, and leg 128 includes four angled tine directing surfaces 158a, 158b, 158c, and 158d. It should further be appreciated that the legs 124 and 128 do not block the fork lift tine receiving channels 132a and 136a or the fork lift tine receiving channels 132b and 136b. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the pallet can include indicator which direct a user on how to insert the tines of a fork lift into the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142. It should also be appreciated, that although not shown, the pallet can include hinged or pivoting flaps in the ends of the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142 to further direct a user on how to insert the tines of a fork lift into the pallet jack receiving channels 140 and 142. It should also be appreciated that the shape of the legs of the pallet, which rest on the ground, and particularly the flat surfaces of the pallet, prevent the build-up of contaminants on the pallet. Specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the bottom of the pallet does not include a series of cavities in which contaminants such as mud or dirt can build up. Therefore, the pallet provides a less contaminable bulk material container while still being relatively strong and light weight. Turning now to FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 10A, 11, 12, and 13, as mentioned above, the body 102 of the pallet 100 also functions: (a) to support the upper interior bottom wall of the bottom compartment 200; and (b) to support the material unloading assembly 500. More specifically, the body 102 of the pallet 100 defines multi-level shelves including a first or bottom shelf 150 and a second or top shelf 160, and an opening or chute 170. The first or bottom shelf 150 includes front shoulder 152, left side shoulder 154, and right side shoulder 158. These shoulders 152, 154, and 158 are sized and configured to support a bottom portion of each of the guide rails and the door or gate of the material unloading assembly which is further described below. The door or gate includes a closure member or portion and the handle member or portion (as further discussed below). The shoulders 152, 154, 32 and 158 support the guide rails (attached to the bottom compartment as described below) which in turn support the side edges of the closure member as well as the handle portion of the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly. The shoulders 152, 154, and 158 are positioned at the same level to co-act to support the chute door or gate of the material unloading assembly such that the chute door or gate moves or slides relative to the bottom shelf 150 from a closed position to an open position for respectively closing and opening the chute 202 in the exterior bottom wall of the bottom compartment 100 as well as the opening or chute 170 in the pallet 100 as further discussed below. The second or top shelf of the pallet 100 includes left side shoulder 164, rear shoulder 166, and right side shoulder 168 which are configured at the same level to co-act to also support a top portion of each of the guide rails and the door or gate of the material unloading assembly which is further described below. It should also be appreciated that this configuration enables the pallet to support the bottom compartment and the material unloading assembly and specifically the chute door or gate. This support reduces the amount of weight placed on the gate from the materials held in the top and bottom compartments (or the bag therein). In the illustrated embodiment, and as particularly illustrated in FIGS. 9C and 9D, the container 50 and in particular the material unloading assembly 500 includes a plurality of guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171. Guide rail 163 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the front portions of shoulders 154 and 164. Guide rail 165 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the central and rear portions of the shoulders 154 and 164. Guide rail 167 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the rear shoulders 156 and 166. Guide rail 169 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the central and rear portions of shoulders 158 and 168. Guide rail 171 is secured to the exterior bottom wall 206 and is configured and positioned to be supported by the front portions of the shoulders 158 and 168. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 10A, 14, 15, and 16 illustrate these guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171 detached from or without the exterior bottom wall 206 and in the positions where they rest on and are supported by these shoulders of the pallet 100. It should also be appreciated that these guide rails function in multiple ways. The guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171 support and guide the movement of closure portion and the handle portion of the chute door or gate 510 of the material unloading assembly 500. The gate slides or moves on or above these guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171, and these guide rails prevent the downward movement of the chute door or gate and also prevent loose materials being held in the top and bottom compartments from accumulating on or adjacent to the chute door or gate or the shoulders. The guide rails 165, 167, and 169 also rest on the shoulders to provide additional support for the bottom compartment. The body 102 of the pallet 100 also includes defines a handle chamber 180 and a stopping wall 182 for the handle of the material unloading assembly (as described below). The handle chamber 180 and the stopping wall 182 of the pallet 100 are further discussed below in conjunction with the discussion of the material unloading assembly 500. Turning now to FIGS. 3, 4, 7, 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 14, 15, 16, 17, 17A, 18, 18A, 19, 19A, 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, and 26, the material unloading assembly 500 of the container 50 is supported by both bottom wall 206 of the bottom compartment 200 and the body 102 of the pallet 100 under and adjacent to the opening or chute 204 in the bottom compartment 200 and above the opening or chute 170 in the pallet 100. The material unloading assembly 500 includes a chute door or gate 510 slidably positioned on the guide rails 163, 165, 167, 169, and 171, and partially supported by the shoulders 152, 154, and 158 defined by the body 102 of the pallet 100 as discussed above. The gate 510 includes a handle member or portion 512 and a closure member or portion 516 extending from the handle member or portion 512. The gate 510 is movable or slidable from a closed position as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 9E, 9F, 14, 17, and 17A to a plurality of different partially open positions (such as the partially open position shown in FIGS. 15, 18 and 18A), and then to a fully open position shown in FIGS. 16, 19, and 19A. It should also be appreciated that the body 102 of the pallet 100 defines a plurality of stopping walls that prevent the gate 510 from moving too far outwardly and also keeps the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 relatively close to the pallet 100. In this embodiment, the gate and the guide rails are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; (b) facilitate ease of cleaning; (c) facilitate ease of repair; (d) prevent rusting; (e) minimize overall weight of the container; and (f) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the gate and the guide rails can be made from other suitable materials. The material unloading assembly 500 further includes a knife 520 attached to the bottom surface of the gate 510. Specifically, the knife 520 includes a biasing member in the form of a leaf spring 522 having an attachment end 524 attached to the bottom surface of the gate 510 and a fin shaped blade 530 attached to the top side of the opposite or free end 526 of leaf spring 522. As best shown in FIGS. 17A, 18A, 19A, 21, 22, and 23, the fin shaped blade 530 includes: (a) an attachment base 532 attached to the top of the free end 526 of the leaf spring 522; and (b) a cutting member 534 attached to and extending from the attachment base 532. The cutting member 534 includes an accurate shaped cutting edge 536 and back edge 538 opposite the cutting edge 536. The leaf spring 522 biases the blade 530 upwardly such that the blade 530 is biased upwardly and the cutting member 534 and extends through a vertically extending slot 518 (see FIGS. 20A and 20B) in the closure portion 516 of the gate 510 toward a fully expanded position. In this illustrated embodiment, the knife is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) facilitate ease of cleaning; (c) facilitate ease of repair; (d) prevent rusting; (e) minimize overall weight of the container; and (f) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the knife can be made from other suitable materials. In this illustrated embodiment, the leaf spring is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel; however, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the leaf spring can be made from other suitable materials and in other configurations. The knife 520 (including the leaf spring 522 and the blade 530) moves as the gate 510 moves, and specifically is configured to move from a retracted position as shown in FIGS. 14, 17, 17A, and 20D to a plurality of different extended positions such as the partially extended position shown in FIGS. 15, 18, and 18A and to a fully extended position shown in FIGS. 16, 19, and 19A. The gate 510 is configured to be opened by an unloader such that pulling the handle portion 512 of the gate (and particularly the handle 513) from the closed position to an open position, causes the blade 530 of the cutting member 534 of the knife 520 to extend through the slot 518 and to engage the bottom of the bag (not shown) in the container 50 which holds the material, and to cut a hole in the bottom of the bag to release the material in the bag. When the gate 510 is in the fully closed position, the cutting member 534 of the blade 530 rests below the guide rail 167 as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 17, and 17A. When the gate 510 is in the fully open position, the cutting member 534 of the blade 530 is adjacent to the front section 212 of the interior bottom wall 210 as shown in FIGS. 19 and 19A. It should further be appreciated that as the gate 510 is moved from the fully open position to the closed position, the knife 520 (including the leaf spring 522 and the blade 530) moves with the gate 510 from the fully extended position to a partially retracted position to a fully retracted position. More specifically, the back edge 538 of the cutting member 534 is configured such that when the back edge 538 of the cutting member 534 contacts the bottom of the guide rail 167, the entire blade 520 and the free end 526 of the leaf spring 522 is forced downwardly against the upward bias of the leaf spring 522 and back into the retracted position as shown in FIGS. 9C, 9D, 17, and 17A. It should also be appreciated that the knife 520 does not interfere with the opening of the gate in the embodiments where a bag is not employed to hold the materials in the container. The material unloading assembly 500 also includes a locking assembly 550 configured to enable a user to lock the gate 510, and specifically the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 to the stopping wall 182 of the pallet 510 to prevent the handle portion 512 and the gate 510 from being accidentally opened at undesired points in time such as: (a) during loading of the container 50; (b) during transit of the container 50; or (c) at any other point in time prior to an unloader opening the gate 510. More specifically, as best seen in FIGS. 10A, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 20A, 20B, 20C, 20D, 24, 25, and 26, the handle portion 512 of the gate 510 includes a downwardly extending handle 513 which is configured to be gripped by a user to open and close the gate 510. The downwardly extending handle 513 defines a centrally located opening 514 (as best shown in FIG. 20A). The material unloading assembly 500 also includes a stopping plate 560 attached to the outside surface of the stopping wall 182. The stopping plate 560 includes an opening 561 aligned with the centrally located opening 514 of the handle 513 of the handle portion 512 of the gate 510. The stopping wall 182 also includes a hole which is larger than the hole 561 in the stopping plate 560 and is configured to receive a locking pin 590. More specifically, the material unloading assembly 500 further includes a locking pin 590 configured to be inserted through: (a) the centrally located opening 514 of the handle 513 of the handle portion 512 of the gate 510; (b) the opening 561 in the stopping plate 560; and (c) an opening 183 in the stopping wall 182, when the gate 510 is in the closed position. This locking pin 590 engages the rear surface of the stopping plate 560 to prevent unwanted opening of the gate 510. When the user desires to open the gate 510, the user activates the locking pin 590 and fully or partially removes the locking pin 590 from the stopping wall 182 and the stopping plate 560. It should be appreciated that as shown in the various figures, the locking pin 590 can be left in the handle 513 of the gate 510. It should also be appreciated that the locking pin can be placed in a different hole in the handle of the gate 510. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the material unloading assembly can further include one or more guides for holding the locking pin 590 level or otherwise in position for easy re-insertion when the gate 510 is in a fully open or partially open position. It should be appreciated that the locking pin can be commercially obtained from MCMASTER-CARR, and that any other suitable locking pin may be employed. It should also be appreciated that by pushing the handle back toward the closed position, the chute can be closed or partially closed. It should also be appreciated that placing the handle in a partially open or partially closed positioned enables the user to control the rate of emptying the materials from the container 50. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 28, 29, 30, 31, and 32, the top compartment 300 is supported by a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d which are each configured to support a different one of the corners of the top compartment 300 and to hold the top compartment 300 in the expanded position. In the illustrated embodiment, each top compartment support assembly 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these support assemblies may be different. Support assembly 400a is discussed herein as an example. Support assembly 400a includes a support pin 410a configured to be inserted through a pin receipt or pin receipt hole 450a (at least shown in FIGS. 8 and 27B) in the corner of the bottom compartment 200 and into a tubular support pin receiver or sleeve 412a of the support assembly 400a which is suitably attached (such as by welding) to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment 200 as best illustrated in FIG. 31. It should be appreciated that the configuration and size of the support pin receiver can vary in accordance with the present disclosure. For example, the support pin receiver can be in the form of a flat plate (not shown) attached to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment. The support assembly 400a further includes a support pin holder 430a and a tether 460a attaching the support pin 420a to the support pin holder 430a. It should be appreciated that the support pin holder 430a and the tether 460a are employed to prevent the support pin 410a from being lost and to hold the support pin 410a out of the way of the bottom compartment 200 when the support pin 410a is not in use, and that in alternative embodiments, the shipping container of the present disclosure does not employ the support pin holders or the tethers. It should also be appreciated that FIGS. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 8, 34, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, and 46 either have a line representing the tether or that the tether is removed from these figures for ease of illustration. More specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the support pin holder 430a includes an L-shaped body having a mounting member 432a attached to the corner of the top compartment 300 and a pin holder 434a connected to the mounting member 432a. The pin holder 464a defines a first hole 436a for attachment of the one end of the tether 430a and a second hole 438a for removably holding the support pin 410a when the support pin 410a is not in use. This support pin holder 430a is made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, and welded to the corner of the top compartment 300. It should be appreciated that the pin holder 434a could be made from other suitable materials, could be suitably attached to the top compartment in other suitable manners or locations and could be alternatively configured. In this illustrated embodiment, the pin holder is made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of this part by welding and/or suitable fasteners to the top compartment; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the pin holder can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected to the top compartment in other suitable manners The tether 460a includes two end loops 462a and 464a. End loop 462a is attached to the support pin holder 430a and end loop 464b is attached to the support pin 410a. The tether 460a may be any suitable length and made from any suitable material such as steel or a high strength plastic. The support pin 410a in the illustrated embodiment includes a handle 413a, a tubular body 414a attached to the handle 412a, and a locking mechanism 416a extending through the handle 413a and tubular body 414a. The locking mechanism 416a includes a release button 418a in and extending from the handle 413a, an actuation shaft (not shown) connected to the release button 418a, and a plurality of locking balls 422a and 422b extending transversely from the from the tubular body 414a adjacent to the end of the tubular body 414a opposite the handle 413a. The locking mechanism 416a is configured such that the locking balls 422a and 422b are normally biased by a spring (not shown) toward the outwardly extending locked position as shown in FIG. 31, and such that when the release button 418a is pressed, the locking balls 422a and 422b are allowed to recede inwardly into the tubular member 414a and specifically into cavities (not shown) in the actuation shaft 420a to enable the support pin 410a to be removed. The locking balls 422a and 422b are configured to engage the inner surface of the tubular support pin receiver 412a of the support assembly 400a to prevent the support pin 410a in the locked position from being easily removed or removed without actuation of the locking mechanism 416a and specifically the release button 418a. Pins of this type are readily commercially available such as from MCMASTER-CARR. It should be appreciated that other suitable support pins may be employed with the container in accordance with the present disclosure. The container 50 includes an extension assembly 700 which enables a user or loader to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position to enable insertion of these support pins as further described below. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, and 33, the extension assembly 700 of the container 50 includes a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 702 and 704 and a second set of aligned forklift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 706 and 708. Each of the lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 702, 704, 706, and 708 are identical in this illustrated embodiment, but it should be appreciated that these components can be different. FIG. 33 illustrate example fork lift tine receiving loop or lifting bracket 702, which includes a crossbar 720a, end bars 722a and 724a attached to the opposite ends of the crossbar 720a and mounting bars 726a and 728a respectively attached to the opposite ends of the end bars 722a and 724a. In this embodiment, these loops or lifting brackets are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel and the mounting bars are each suitably welded to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300. The loops or lifting brackets are suitably aligned to form two slots configured to receive forklift forks or tines. These loops enable a loader operating a fork lift to insert the forks of the forklift through the loops and to lift the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. These aligned slots enable a forklift to lift the top compartment of the container from either the front or back. It should be appreciated that the outside surfaces of the container can include suitable markings to indicate to the loader the appropriate expanded position of the top compartment. As mentioned above, in this illustrated embodiment, these loop are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these loops can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. As further described below, when the operator lifts the top compartment upwardly from the retracted position to the expanded position, the locking assemblies described above can then be employed to support and lock the top compartment in the expanded position and to prevent the top compartment from moving back into the retracted position. More specifically, when a user such as a loader of the shipping container 50 desires to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position, the user uses a fork lift or other lifting apparatus to engage the extension assembly 700 to lift the top compartment 300 such that the bottom corners of the top compartment 300 are above the pin receipt holes in the four corners of the bottom compartment 200. The user then sequentially takes each support pin out of the respective pin holder, presses the button on the support pin and inserts the support pin in the respective pin receipt hole. It should be appreciated that this is easily and quickly performed by a single person. Thus, it should be appreciated that: (a) a single loader can move the top compartment into the expanded position by lifting the top compartment (using a fork lift); (b) the single loader can engage the support pins of the top compartment supporting assemblies to lock the top compartment in the expanded position; and (c) that prior to unloading the materials, a single un loader can disengage the support pins from the bottom compartment to un-lock the top compartment from the expanded position and release the top compartment from the expanded position, which enables the top compartment to slowly move to the retracted position as the materials empties from the top and bottom compartments. This also prevents the top compartment from rapidly dropping if the support pins are released when no materials are in the compartments. It should further be appreciated that enabling a single person to perform this operation provide a significant advantage in terms of time and cost over certain prior known bulk material shipping containers. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, 35, 36, and 37, the material loading assembly 600 is generally attached to the top compartment 300 and generally includes: (a) an upwardly extending lip 602 attached to and extending from the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300; (b) a cover 610 configured to securely engage the upwardly extending lip 602 and pivotally attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300 by a plurality of hinges 630, 632, and 634; (c) a lock assembly 650 including a first portion 652 attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300 and a second portion or lid latch 654 pivotally attached to the cover 610; (d) and a gasket (not shown) mounted in the cover 610 to seal out contaminants. The cover 610 defines a channel 612 configured to receive the lip 602. The gasket is mounted in the channel 612 to facilitate the seal between the cover 610 and the lip 602. It should be appreciated that although the illustrated lip 602 is shown in sections with spaces there between, additional material is preferably welded to the illustrated sections of the lip 602 to form a continuous lip. The locking assembly 650 includes a suitable lock (not shown) which is used to lock the cover 610 in the closed position, and specifically to lock the second portion or lid latch 654 attached to the cover to the first portion 652 attached to the top wall 302 of the top compartment 300. It should be appreciated that any suitable lock may be employed and that alternative configurations for the locking assembly may be employed in accordance with the present disclosure. In this illustrated embodiment, these components (except the gasket and the lock) are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. It should further be appreciated that the shape of the cover may vary in accordance with the present disclosure. Turning now to FIGS. 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 34, 38, 39, and 40, the container 50 includes a plurality of nesting or stacking or guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d which are configured to facilitate secure stacking of the containers of the present disclosure as well as stacking of other known bulk material containers. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these stacking guides may be different. As generally shown in FIGS. 39 and 40, the stacking guides assist in positioning one container of the present disclosure on top of another container of the present disclosure. More specifically, stacking guide 800a is discussed herein as an example stacking guide. As best shown in FIG. 38, stacking guide 800a include mounting walls 802a and 804a configured to be attached to the corner of the top compartment 300 and guide wall 812a and 814a respectively attached to and extend from the mounting walls 802a and 804a. In this illustrated embodiment, the guide wall 812a and 814a each respectively define bag holding slots 820a and 822a. These slots are configured to receive and hold a top section of a bag during the filling process to secure the bag in the desired position as the loader fills the bag and the container with materials to the desired height (as generally illustrated in FIG. 42 and as further described below). In this illustrated embodiment, the stacking guides are all made of stainless steel to: (a) facilitate attachment or connection of these parts to the top compartment by welding and/or suitable fasteners; (b) provide structural strength and rigidity; (c) facilitate ease of cleaning; (d) facilitate ease of repair; (e) prevent rusting; (f) minimize overall weight of the container; and (g) prevent contamination. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these stacking guides can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. It should be appreciated that the container 50 and the nesting or stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d of the container 50 are configured to receive or be stacked with known bulk material containers such as the known bulk material container described in the background section of this document. It should be appreciated that as shown in FIGS. 39 and 40, the container of the present disclosure is configured such that a fork lift can be employed to place one container on top of another container and to lift one container from another container without damaging the material loading assembly attached to the top compartment of the lower container, and without damaging the extension assembly attached to the top compartment of the lower container. Turning now to FIG. 41, the container 50 is illustrated with a bag 850 shown draped over the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 850 during the loading process. It should be appreciated that the center of the bag 852 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should also be appreciated that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIG. 42, the container 50 is illustrated with a bag 850 shown with each end respectively extending through the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 850 during the loading process. Again, in this FIG. 42, the center of the bag 852 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIGS. 43 and 44, one example embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure is generally illustrated and indicated by numeral 1000. The bag holder 1000 is configured to hold a supply roll of bags 900 and to sequentially provide each of the bags from the supply roll 900 for positioning over the shipping container during the material loading processes. The first bag 860 of the supply roll of bags 900 is shown draped over the stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d. The stacking guides 800a, 800b, 800c, and 800d act as holders and guides for the bag 860 during the loading process. The center 862 of the bag 860 is positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. The bag holder 1000 in this embodiment includes a pallet jack 1010, a bag guide 1020 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010, and a supply roll support holder 1030 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010. The bag guide 1020 is sized and configured to hold a bag over the container 50 during the loading process and to prevent the bag from engaging the various components of the container and thus prevent the bag from catching on or ripping from contact with the components of the container. In FIG. 44, the bag holder 1000 holds the bag 860 over the container 50 with the center of the bag 862 positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated with respect to FIG. 44 that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. Turning now to FIGS. 45 and 46, another example embodiment of a bag holder of the present disclosure is generally illustrated and indicated by numeral 1100. The bag holder 1100 is similar to the bag holder 1000 in that it is configured to hold a bag over the shipping container 50 during the material loading process. However, unlike bag holder 1000, bag holder 1100 is not configured to hold a roll of bags and does not include a supply roll support holder. The bag holder 1100 in this embodiment includes a pallet jack 1010 and a bag guide 1120 connected to and supported by the pallet jack 1010. The bag guide 1120 is sized and configured to hold a bag over the container 50 during the loading process and to prevent the bag from engaging the various components of the container and thus prevent the bag from catching on or ripping from contact with the components of the container. In FIG. 46, the bag holder 1000 holds the bag 870 over the container 50 with the center of the bag 872 positioned over the opening in the top compartment and under a loading tube 890. It should be appreciated with respect to FIG. 46 that the cover of the material loading assembly has been removed for ease of illustration. It should be appreciated that in both of these bag holder embodiments, the pallet jack 1010 is configured to be positioned underneath the container 50, and specifically that the forks are positioned in the pallet jack tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. It should also be appreciated that the bag holder could alternatively include a fork lift instead of a pallet jack and that in such embodiments, the forks are preferably positioned in the fork lift tine receiving channels defined by the pallet. It should further be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the bag guides and supply roll support holder can be alternatively supported and positionable. It should be appreciated that the bag guide and supply roll support holder are made from any suitable materials. It should also be appreciated that the present disclosure contemplates alternative embodiments (not shown) where the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a top compartment securely mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment. This embodiment does not include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment (not shown) where the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. It should be appreciated that suitable instructional marking or labels may be placed on or attached to the container of the present disclosure to instruct the users on how to load, unload, move, retract, and/or expand the container. It should also be appreciated that suitable reflective tape strips can be attached to the container. It should further be appreciated that the container of the present disclosure can be suitably coated such as by painting with a clear or colored protective coating. It should be appreciated that such coating may include a UV protective agent. It should also be appreciated that one or more sections of the container may be reinforced with a suitable plating to provide additional protection and strength. It should further be appreciated that the attachment of the various components of the container can be performed in any suitable way such as by welding (including but not limited to laser welding) and by suitable fasteners (such as but not limited to rivets). FIGS. 47 to 96B illustrate another example embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. Similar to the example container 50 described above, this illustrated example shipping container, which is generally indicated by numeral 2050, has an expanded position for holding materials during shipping and a retracted position for efficient shipping when the container 2050 is not holding materials or when the container 2050 is holding a smaller amount of materials. More specifically, FIG. 48 generally illustrates the shipping container 2050 in the retracted or collapsed position, and FIGS. 47, 49, 50, and 51 generally illustrate the shipping container 2050 in the expanded position. In this illustrated embodiment, the shipping container 2050 generally includes: (a) a pallet 2100 which is different than pallet 100 as further described below; (b) a bottom compartment 2200 which is different than bottom compartment 200 as further described below; (c) a top compartment 2300 which is different than top compartment 300 as further described below; (d) a plurality of top compartment support assemblies 2400a, 2400b, 2400c (not shown), and 2400d which are different than top compartment support assemblies 400a, 400b, 400c, and 400d as further described below; (e) a material unloading assembly 2500 which is different than material unloading assembly 500 as further described below; (f) a material loading assembly 2600 which is substantially similar to material loading assembly 600 described above; and (g) a top compartment extension assembly 2700 which is substantially similar to top compartment extension assembly 700 described above. It should be appreciated that the following description of the shipping container 2050 will primarily focus on these respective differences. In this illustrated embodiment: (a) the pallet 2100 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 6 inches (15.24 centimeters); (b) the bottom compartment 2200 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters); and (c) the top compartment 2300 is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 27 inches (68.58 centimeters). In this illustrated embodiment, when the container 2050 is in the retracted position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 35 inches (88.90 centimeters). In this illustrated embodiment, when the container 2050 is in the expanded position, the container is approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters) by approximately 44 inches (111.76 centimeters) by approximately 62 inches (157.48 centimeters). It should be appreciated that this alternative container of the present disclosure can be made in other suitable dimensions. More specifically, turning now to FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 53, 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 90, 91, 92, and 93, the pallet 2100 of this illustrated embodiment of the container 2050 of the present disclosure includes: (a) a rectangular body 2102 having an upper surface 2104, a lower surface 2106, a front edge 2112, a back edge 2116, and opposite side edges 2114 and 2118; (b) a plurality of legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 attached to and extending downwardly from the body 2102; (c) a footing 2101 attached to and extending downwardly from each of the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128, and having an upper surface 2103, a lower surface 2105, a front edge 2111, a back edge 2115, and opposite side edges 2113 and 2117; (d) a gate head 2150 formed at the front of the body 2102; and (e) a plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d respectively attached to the corners of the upper surface 2104 of the body 2102. As further described below, the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 functions to directly support the bottom compartment 2200 and indirectly the top compartment 2300. In this illustrated embodiment, the body, legs, and footing of the pallet are each formed from multiple pieces of a suitable wood to: (a) provide structural strength and rigidity; and (b) minimize the overall weight of the pallet and the container. More specifically, in this illustrated embodiment: (a) the rectangular body 2102 is constructed from several individual pieces of wood (such as 2×4s in this example illustrated embodiment); (b) the legs 2121,2122,2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 are each an individual piece of wood (such as 4×45 and 4×6s in this example illustrated embodiment); and (c) the footing 2101 is constructed from several individual pieces of wood (such as 2×2s in this example illustrated embodiment). In this example illustrated embodiment, these individual pieces of wood are suitably attached by fastening mechanisms such as adhesive, nails, and screws. It should be appreciated that these parts may alternatively be formed from more or less pieces, may be formed from other materials, and may be otherwise suitably attached. It should also be appreciated that the pallet may be painted or otherwise protected by other suitable coatings. The gate head 2150 is formed at the front of the body 2102. In this illustrated example embodiment, the front portion of the body 2102 is formed from three pieces of wood including a bottom piece with a cut-out and two spaced-apart top pieces such that the cut-out and the space between the two pieces provide room for the handle of the gate and which limit movement of the gate as further discussed below and as best seen in FIGS. 54, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66, 67, 77, 78, and 79. More specifically, the gate head 2150 of the pallet 2100 includes a handle chamber 2180 and a stopping wall 2182 for the handle 2513 of the gate 2510 material unloading assembly 2500. The handle chamber 2180 and the stopping wall 2182 of the pallet 2100 are further discussed below in more detail in conjunction with the discussion of the material unloading assembly 2500. The pallet 2100 further includes or defines: (a) a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 2132a and 2136a, respectively; (b) a second set of aligned fork lift tine receiving channels 2132b and 2136b, respectively; (c) a first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 extending across the pallet 2500 from side to side; and (d) a second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142 extending across the pallet 2500 from side to side. Similar to the pallet 100 described above, the first set of fork lift tine receiving channels 2132a and 2136a and the second set of fork lift tine receiving channels 2132b and 2136b are positioned and spaced apart such that when the forks or tines of a fork lift are inserted into these channels of the pallet 2100 of the container 2050 which is stacked on top of another container, the tines or forks do not engage the material loading assembly on the top compartment of the lower container or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container. It should thus be appreciated that the pallet 2100 is configured to enable a fork lift to move these containers when one container is stacked on another container without damaging the lower container, and particularly the cover or the extension assembly of the lower container. Also, similar to the pallet 100 described above, the first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142 are positioned such that when the forks or tines of a pallet jack are inserted into these channels defined by the pallet 2100 of the container 2050, they can lift and move the container. As mentioned above, a typical pallet jack does not operate like a fork lift so that the pallet jack will only be used when the container is on the floor or ground and not with stacked containers. Therefore, the tines or forks of a pallet jack will not be in a position to engage the material loading assembly or the extension assembly on the top compartment of the lower container of a set of stacked containers. It should also be appreciated that this illustrated embodiment does not include any legs between the first pallet jack tine receiving channel 2140 and the second pallet jack tine receiving channel 2142, but that alternative embodiments could include one or more legs or separators between these two channels. It should further be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment the footing 2101 has a smaller rectangular footprint than the body 2102 and the legs 2121, 2122, 2123, 2124, 2125, 2126, 2127, and 2128 to enable the pallet 2100, and specifically legs 2121, 2124, 2125, and 2128 of the pallet 2100, to sit on another container, and specifically to respectively sit on the nesting supports 2840a, 2842a, 2840b, 2842b, 2840c, 2842c, 2840d, and 2842d of the top compartment 2300 of another container as best illustrated in FIGS. 89, 90, and 91 and as further described in detail below. The plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d are attached to the respective corners of the body 2102 and are each formed from a suitable stainless steel in this illustrated embodiment. It should be appreciated that the compression guards or plates may alternatively be formed from other suitable materials and in other suitable sizes and configurations. The plurality of compression guards or plates 2160a, 2160b, 2160c, and 2160d prevent the corners of the bottom compartment 2200 from digging into the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 as best illustrated in FIGS. 92 and 93. It should also be appreciated that this configuration of the pallet enables the pallet (and thus the entire container) to sit on top of known commercially available containers such as the one or more of commercially available Buckhorn containers which are generally described above. The bottom compartment 2200 of this example illustrated embodiment includes: (a) a lower exterior bottom wall or panel 2202 defining a material release opening or chute 2204; (b) an upper interior bottom wall 2210 defined by four attached downwardly angled sections or chute ramps 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218; (c) four wedge shaped interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228; (d) spaced apart first and second or front and back exterior walls 2232 and 2236; and (e) spaced apart third and fourth or left and right exterior side walls 2234 and 2238, as generally illustrated in FIGS. 47, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, and 59. The four sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 210, the front and back exterior walls 232 and 236, and the exterior side walls 2234 and 2238 define a bottom compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly toward and to the material release opening or chute 2204. In this illustrated embodiment, the lower exterior bottom wall 2202, the upper interior bottom wall 2210, the interior bottom wall supports 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228, the front and back exterior walls 2232 and 2236, and the exterior side walls 2234 and 2238 are all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel, and are attached by rivets. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and that these components can be attached or connected in other suitable manners. The exterior bottom wall 2202 of the bottom compartment 2200 is suitably attached to the pallet 2100 of the container 2050 by suitable fasteners as further described below; however, it should be appreciated that the exterior bottom wall can be attached in other suitable manners. More specifically, the lower exterior bottom wall 2202 includes: (a) a rectangular substantially flat base 2206 which defines the centrally located rectangular material release opening or chute 2204; and (b) an upwardly extending lip 2208 extending upwardly from each of outer edges of the base 2206. The material release opening or chute 2204 enables materials in the top and bottom compartments to flow out of bottom compartment 2200 when the chute door or gate 2510 of the material unloading assembly for the opening or chute 2204 is opened as further discussed below. The opening 2204 in this illustrated embodiment is approximately 8 inches (20.32 centimeters) by approximately 11 inches (27.94 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. The opening has four corners which each may have a suitable radius or curve. This size of the opening relative to the size of the bottom and top compartments maximizes the rate of unloading of the material from the top and bottom compartments without sacrificing structure or strength of the bottom compartment. The interior bottom wall supports 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 are attached in spaced apart locations to the top of the base 2206 by rivets, although they can also or alternatively be otherwise attached. Each of the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 are of a wedge shape such that they are configured to be engaged by and support a respective one of the downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 2210. The gusset 2222 is wider than the other gussets 2224, 2226, and 2228 in this illustrated embodiment to distribute the weight of the materials supported by gusset 2222 to the pallet 2100 at further spaced apart locations which are not directly over the gate 2510 of the material unloading assembly 2500 (which is further described below). The upper interior bottom wall 2210, and specifically the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 are respectively attached to the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228 by rivets, although they can also or alternatively be otherwise attached. The interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222 and 2226 are some what shorter than the interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2224 and 2288 to prevent too much weight from being placed on the material unloading assembly 500 and particularly on the gate 2510. The four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 each have a lower edge such that when such sections are attached, such sections form an opening 2211 adjacent to and slightly smaller than but generally substantially aligned with the opening 2204 of the base wall 2206. In particular, the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 extend downwardly slightly further than the material release opening or chute 2204 of the base wall 2206 of the bottom compartment 2200. FIGS. 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, and 73 best illustrate that the lower edges of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 define a slightly smaller opening than the opening 2204 defined by the base wall 2206. This prevents materials stored in the container from getting trapped or positioned between the upper bottom wall and the lower bottom wall. The upper interior bottom wall 2210, and specifically upper portions of the four downwardly angled sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 are also respectively attached to and supported by the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238. It should thus be appreciated that the upper interior bottom wall 210 of the bottom compartment 2200 is supported at multiple locations including multiple points of support by the various different portions of the pallet 2100. More specifically, the sections 2212, 2214, 2216, and 2218 of the upper interior bottom wall 2210 are supported: (a) at their top ends by the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2200; (b) centrally by interior bottom wall supports or gussets 2222, 2224, 2226, and 2228; (c) by attachment to each other; and (d) overall by the pallet 2100. As seen in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 54, 55, 77, and 90, and as best seen in FIGS. 92 and 93, the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2200 also each includes a skirt that extends downwardly along a respective different side of the pallet 2100. Each skirt includes a plurality of fastener slots or oval screw holes which are configured to facilitate movement of each exterior wall and particularly the skirt relative to the fasteners. More specifically, as seen in FIGS. 92 and 93, suitable fasteners such as screws are used to attach each skirt to the respective side of the pallet 2100 and particularly the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 to support these exterior walls. In FIG. 92, the container 2050 is collapsed and is empty and the skirt is positioned such that the screws are respectively at the bottom of the slots. In FIG. 93, the container 2050 is collapsed and is filled and the skirt has moved downwardly relative to the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 and is positioned such that the screws are at the top of the slots. The skirts of the exterior walls, and thus the entire the exterior walls of the bottom container have moved downwardly relative to the pallet and particularly relative to the body 2102 of the pallet 2100. It should be appreciated that the bottom compartment is thus configured to move relative to the pallet when filled. It should also be appreciated that the slots may be of different sizes such that in these positions, the screws are adjacent to but not at the tops or bottoms of the slots. As generally illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55 and as best illustrated in FIGS. 80, 81, 82, 83, 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, each of the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2210 each include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the rectangular panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of an adjacent exterior wall. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall: (a) are preferably connected rivets; (b) add structural rigidity to the bottom compartment; and (c) in conjunction with the top compartment support assemblies (discussed below) provide support for the top compartment when the top compartment is in the expanded position as further described below. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 80, 81, 82, 83, 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, exterior side wall 2232 includes panel 2252 and corner 2262 which includes corner sections 2262a and 2262b, and exterior side wall 2234 includes panel 2254 and corner 2264 which includes corner sections 2264a and 2264b. Corner sections 2264a is mated with and attached to corner section 2262a, and corner section 2264b is mated with and attached to corner section 2262b to form this corner of the bottom compartment 2200. It should be appreciated that each corner of the bottom compartment is preferably configured in a similar manner. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 2232, 2234, 2236, and 2238 of the bottom compartment 2210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the bottom compartment and to minimize interference with movement of the top compartment 2300 relative to the bottom compartment 2200. These corners and the top compartment support assemblies are further described below. Turning now to FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, and 54, the top compartment 2300 of the container 2050 includes an exterior top wall 2302, spaced apart exterior front and back side walls 2312 and 2316, spaced apart exterior side walls 2316 and 2318, and exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 respectively attached to the exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318. In this illustrated embodiment, the exterior top wall 2302, exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318, and exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 are also all made of stainless steel or galvanized steel. The upper interior base wall 2306 is suitably attached to the upper portions of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 by rivets. The exterior wall support brackets 2322, 2324, 2326, and 2328 are respectively attached to the exterior side walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 by rivets. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, one or more of these components can be made from other suitable materials and attached or connected in any suitable manner. The upper interior base wall 2306 and the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 define a top compartment material holding area or cavity which extends downwardly to the bottom compartment material holding area or cavity. As with container 50, the exterior top wall 2302 of container 2050 includes a rectangular substantially flat base which defines the centrally located rectangular material receipt or loading opening or chute (not shown in FIGS. 47 to 96B). This material receipt or loading opening or chute enables materials to flow into the top and bottom compartments when the cover of the material loading assembly is opened. The opening in this embodiment is 18 inches (45.72 centimeters) by 18 inches (45.72 centimeters), although it should be appreciated that the opening may be of other suitable sizes. As best illustrated in FIGS. 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, similar to the configuration of the bottom compartment, each of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 of the top compartment 2300 include a rectangular panel and two L-shaped corner sections attached to opposite ends of the panel. Each L-shaped corner section of each panel of each exterior wall is configured to mate with the L-shaped corner of the adjacent exterior wall similar to the bottom compartment. These L-shaped corner sections of each of the exterior side wall of the top compartment are preferably connected by welding and add structural rigidity to the top compartment. More specifically, as illustrated in FIGS. 95A, 95B, 96A, and 96B, exterior side wall 2312 includes panel 2352 and corner 2362 which includes corner sections 2362a and 2362b, and exterior side wall 2314 includes panel 2354 and corner 2364 which includes corner sections 2364a and 2364b. Corner sections 2364a is mated with and attached to corner section 2362a, and corner section 2364b is mated with and attached to corner section 2362b to form this corner of the top compartment 2300. It should be appreciated that each corner of the top compartment is preferably configured in a similar manner. In this illustrated embodiment, each of the exterior walls 2312, 2314, 2316, and 2318 of the bottom compartment 2210 also includes a top edge which is curled or bent over to provide extra strength to the top compartment 2300. FIGS. 95A and 96A illustrate the position of these walls and corners of the top and bottom compartments when the container is empty and the container is in the expanded position. It should be appreciated that the exact amount of the space between the corners of the top and bottom compartments can vary in accordance with the present disclosure and in accordance with manufacturing tolerances. The figures illustrate that when the container 2050 is empty, the corner of the top compartment can relatively easily move vertically relative to the corner of the bottom compartment. FIGS. 95B and 96B illustrate the position of these walls and corners of the top and bottom compartments when the container is full and the container is in the expanded position. These figures illustrate that when the container 2050 is full, the wall panels of the top and bottom compartment are configured to bow outwardly as very generally illustrated in FIG. 94 and that an engagement is created or formed between the sections of the corners of the top and bottom compartments as generally illustrated in FIGS. 95B and 96B. This engagement of the corners causes the corners of the top compartment to engage and grip the corners of the bottom compartment, which holds the relative position of the top compartment to the bottom compartment (in addition to the support provided by the top compartment support assemblies as further discussed below.) It should also be appreciated that this top corner to bottom corner engagement may happen at one corner, more than one corner, or all of the corners of the container. It should also be appreciated that this corner engagement may occur in the embodiment of FIGS. 1 to 46 described above. Turing now to FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 61, 65, 66,67, 68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, and 79, the material unloading assembly 2500 of the container 2050 is supported by the bottom wall 2206 of the bottom compartment 2200 adjacent to the opening or chute 2204 in the bottom compartment 2200 and above the opening 2170 in the pallet 2100. The material unloading assembly 2500 generally includes a chute door or gate 2510 slidably positioned on the guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169. In this illustrated embodiment, the gate 2510 and the guide rails are 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel. However, it should be appreciated that in alternative embodiments, the gate and the guide rails can be made from other suitable materials. The guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 are each respectively attached to the bottom exterior surface of the bottom wall 2206. It should be appreciated that FIGS. 60, 61, 65, 66, and 67 illustrate these guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169 detached from or without the exterior bottom wall 2206 to show how they are positioned with respect to the pallet 2100 and the opening 2170 defined by the pallet 2100. The guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169, support and guide the movement of closure portion 2516 and the handle portion 2512 of the chute door or gate 2510. The gate 2510 slides or moves above and on these guide rails 2163, 2165, 2167, and 2169, and these guide rails prevent the downward movement of the chute door or gate when the container is full and also prevent loose materials being held in the top and bottom compartments from accumulating on or adjacent to the chute door or gate. The guide rails 2165 and 2169 include stops or stopping members which prevent the gate from moving outwardly too far and are generally illustrated in FIGS. 65, 66, and 67. The gate 2510 includes a handle member or portion 2512 and a closure member or portion 2516 extending from the handle member or portion 2512 as best illustrated in FIGS. 74, 75, and 76. The gate 2510 is movable or slidable from a closed position as shown in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 68, and 69, to a plurality of different partially open positions (such as the partially open position shown in FIGS. 66, 70, and 71), and then to a fully open position shown in FIGS. 67, 72, and 73. It should be appreciated that in this illustrated embodiment, the gate does not rest on the pallet, but that in other embodiments, the gate or portions of the gate may rest on portions of the pallet. It should also be appreciated that the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 also defines a plurality of stopping walls (as best seen in FIGS. 65, 66 and 67) that would prevent the gate 2510 from moving too far outwardly and which also secondarily keep the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 relatively close to the pallet 2100. It should further be appreciated that the body 2102 of the pallet 2100 also provides a stopping walls 2182 that prevents the gate 2510 from moving too far inwardly. It should be appreciated that this illustrated example embodiment of the material unloading assembly 2500 does not include a knife as in the embodiments described above. However, it should be appreciated that an alternative of this embodiment could alternatively include one or more knives. The material unloading assembly 2500 also includes a locking assembly 2550 configured to enable a user to lock the gate 2510, and specifically the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 to the stopping wall 2182 of the pallet 2510 to prevent the handle portion 2512 and the gate 2510 from being accidentally opened at undesired points in time such as: (a) during loading of the container 2050; (b) during transit of the container 2050; or (c) at any other point in time prior to an unloader opening the gate 2510. More specifically, as seen in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 53, 54, 58, 59, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 74, 76, 77, 78 and 79, the 60 handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510 includes a downwardly extending handle 2513 which is configured to be gripped by a user to open and close the gate 2510. The downwardly extending handle 2513 defines a locking pin slot or opening 2514 (best seen in FIGS. 59, 67, and 77) configured such the locking pin 2590 can extend through the locking pin opening or slot 2514. The material unloading assembly 2500 also includes a stopping bracket 2560 attached to the bottom surface of the stopping wall 2182 as best seen in FIGS. 68, 70 and 72. The stopping bracket 2560 includes an opening aligned with the opening 2514 of the handle 2513 of the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510. More specifically, the material unloading assembly 2500 further includes a locking pin 2590 configured to be inserted through: (a) the locking pin slot or opening 2514 of the handle 2513 of the handle portion 2512 of the gate 2510; and (b) the opening in the stopping bracket 2560 when the gate 2510 is in the closed position. This locking pin 2590 engages the stopping bracket 2560 to prevent unwanted opening of the gate 2510. When the user desires to open the gate 2510, the user activates the locking pin 590 and removes the locking pin 2590 from the stopping bracket 2560. It should be appreciated that although not shown, the locking pin 2590 can be tethered to the handle 2513 of the gate 2510 by a suitable tether (not shown). It should also be appreciated that the locking pin can be placed in a different hole in the handle of the gate 2510. It should further be appreciated, that although not shown, the material unloading assembly can further include one or more guides for holding the locking pin 2590 level or otherwise in position for easy re-insertion when the gate 2510 is in a fully open or partially open position. It should be appreciated that the locking pin can be any suitable locking pin. It should also be appreciated, that although not shown a suitable tether can be employed to maintain the locking pin attached to the gate or container. It should also be appreciated that by pushing the handle back toward the closed position, the chute can be closed or partially closed. It should also be appreciated that placing the handle in a partially open or partially closed positioned enables the user to control the rate of emptying the materials from the container 2050. It should also be appreciated that the pallet or bottom container can include a loop or hole that corresponds to a hole in the handle 2513 for receiving a tamper identification seal or lock. As mentioned above, the top compartment 2300 is supported by a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies 2400a, 2400b, 2400c (not shown), and 2400d which are each configured to support a different one of the corners of the top compartment 2300 and to hold the top compartment 2300 in the expanded position as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 49, 50, 51, 83, 84, 85, 86, and 84. In the illustrated embodiment, each top compartment support assembly 2400a, 2400b, 2400c, and 2400d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these support assemblies may be different. Support assembly 2400a is discussed herein as an example. Support assembly 2400a includes a support pin 2410a configured to be inserted through a pin receipt or pin receipt hole (not shown) in the respective corner of the bottom compartment 2200 and into a tubular support pin receiver or sleeve 2412a of the support assembly 2400a which is attached to a support bracket 2413a which is suitably attached (such as by welding) to the inside of the corner of the bottom compartment 2200 as best illustrated in FIG. 85. The illustrated support pin 2410a includes a head, a collar attached to the head and a body extending from the collar, and a locking mechanism with a push button disposed in the head. The bottom edges of the corners of the top compartment are configured to rest on the bodies of these support pins. However, it should be appreciated that other support pins may be employed in accordance with the present disclosure. The support assembly 2400a further includes a combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a and a tether 2460a (shown in FIG. 94) attaching the pin 2420a to the combined support bracket and holder 2430a. It should be appreciated that the combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a and the tether 2460a are partially employed to prevent the support pin 2410a from being lost and to hold the support pin 2410a out of the way of the bottom compartment 2200 when the support pin 2410a is not in use. More specifically, in the illustrated embodiment, the combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a is substantially more robust than the support pin holder 430a of container 50 described above. Combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a includes two mounting members 2432a and 2433a suitably attached to the corner of the top compartment 2300 and a pin holder 2434a connected to the mounting members 2432a and 2433a. The pin holder 2434a defines a first hole for attachment of the one end of the tether and a second hole for removably holding the support pin when the support pin is not in use. The combined support bracket and pin holder 2430a is made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, and riveted to the corner of the top compartment 2300. It should be appreciated that the combined support bracket and holder could be made from other suitable materials, could be suitably attached to the top compartment in other suitable manners and could be alternatively configured. It should also be appreciated that each combined support bracket and pin holder is configured to provide additional support for the top compartment when the top compartment rest on the support pins. Similar to tether 460a described above, tether 2460a includes one end loop is attached to the combined support bracket and holder 2430a and another end loop is attached to the support pin. Each tether may be any suitable length and made from any suitable material such as steel or a high strength plastic. The support pin 2410a in the illustrated embodiment is similar to the pin described above. It should be appreciated that other suitable support pins may be employed with the container in accordance with the present disclosure. As mentioned above, the container 2050 includes an extension assembly 2700 which enables a user or loader to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position to enable insertion of the support pins. The extension assembly 2700 of the container 2050 is identical to the extension assembly 700 of the container 50, and thus will only generally be described. Generally, as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 52, and 54, the extension assembly 2700 includes a first set of aligned fork lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2702 and 2704 and a second set of aligned forklift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2706 and 2708. Each of the lift tine receiving loops or lifting brackets 2702, 2704, 2706, and 2708 are identical in this illustrated embodiment, but it should be appreciated that these components can be different. In this embodiment, these loops or lifting brackets are made of stainless steel or galvanized steel and the mounting bars are each suitably riveted to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300. The loops or lifting brackets are suitably aligned to form two slots configured to receive forklift forks or tines. It should be appreciated that these brackets can be made of other suitable materials and attached in other suitable manners. The material loading assembly 2600 is similar to the material loading assembly 600 of container 50 and thus will only be generally described. FIGS. 47, 48, 50, 51, 52, and 54, generally illustrate that the material loading assembly 2600 is attached to the top compartment 2300 and generally includes: (a) an upwardly extending lip (not shown) attached to and extending from the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300; (b) a cover 2610 configured to securely engage the upwardly extending lip and pivotally attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300 by hinge 2630; (c) a lock assembly 2650 including a first portion attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300 and a second portion or lid latch pivotally attached to the cover 2610; (d) and a gasket (not shown) mounted in the cover 2610 to seal out contaminants. The locking assembly 2650 includes a suitable lock (not shown) which is used to lock the cover 2610 in the closed position, and specifically to lock the second portion or lid latch attached to the cover to the first portion attached to the top wall 2302 of the top compartment 2300. As mentioned above, the container 2050 and specifically the top compartment 2300 includes a plurality of nesting or stacking or guides 2800a, 2800b, 2800c, and 2800d which are configured to facilitate secure stacking of the containers of the present disclosure as well as stacking of other known bulk material containers as illustrated in FIGS. 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 88, 89, 90, and 91. In the illustrated embodiment, each of the stacking guides 2800a, 2800b, 2800c, and 2800d is identical; however, it should be appreciated that two or more of these stacking guides may be different. More specifically, stacking guide 2800a is discussed herein as an example stacking guide. As best shown in FIG. 88, stacking guide 2800a includes mounting walls 2802a and 2804a configured to be attached to the corner of the top compartment 2300 and guide wall 2812a and 2814a respectively attached to and extend from the mounting walls 2802a and 2804a. In this illustrated embodiment, the guide wall 2812a and 2814a each respectively define openings 2820a and 2822a. As generally shown in FIGS. 90 and 91, the stacking guides assist in positioning one container of the present disclosure on top of another container of the present disclosure. FIG. 89 illustrates one corner of the top compartment 2300 of the container 2050 with a nesting guide 2800a and two nesting supports 2840a and 2842a adjacent to and attached to the nesting guide 2800a. In this illustrated example, the nesting supports 2840a and 2842a are each made from a steel tubular material and are attached by rivets to the nesting guide 2800a. It should be appreciated that the nesting supports can be made from other suitably strong materials and can be attached to the nesting guide in other suitable manners such as by welding. When a second container sits on a first container as generally illustrated in FIGS. 90 and 91, the pallet of the second or top container rests on the nesting supports 2840a and 2842a of the first or bottom container which are configured to support the pallet and specifically the legs of the pallet of the second container. The nesting supports direct the weight of the second or top container that sits on those nesting supports to the corners of the first or bottom container rather than the entire side walls or edges of the first or bottom container. This prevents the weight of the second or top container from damaging the walls of the top compartment of the first or bottom container and provides for a better nesting of compatible containers. FIG. 91 shows the leg 2124 of the pallet 2100 sitting on the nesting supports 2842a and 2840a adjacent to the nesting guide 2800a. FIG. 91 also shows a small gap under the footing 2101 attached to the bottom of the legs of the pallet 2100 and that the footing does not rest on the nesting supports and does not rest on the top wall of the top compartment. This configuration prevents too much weight from the second or top pallet from being placed on the top wall of the top compartment of the first or bottom pallet. This example embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive and hold a large plastic bag or a sleeve which holds the materials in the interior areas defined by bottom and top compartments. In one embodiment, the same bag as the bag described above can be employed. When a bag is employed with this container 2050, it is expected that a knife will also be employed in the material unloading assembly. In other embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed as generally illustrated in FIG. 87. In one such embodiment, the sleeve includes four connected walls where each wall is approximately 45 inches (114.30 centimeters) by approximately 56 inches (142.24 centimeters). In one embodiment, the sleeve has no bottom or top walls. In one embodiment, the sleeve: (a) is FDA compliant; (b) has an approximately 2 millimeter thickness; (e) is opaque or gray; and (f) is made from a low density recyclable polyethylene plastic. In one alternative embodiment, the sleeve is also or alternatively bio-degradable. It should be appreciated that in various embodiments the sleeve will be appropriately folded so that the sleeve can be unfolded and positioned in the top and bottom compartments of the container. FIG. 87 shows the top compartment 2300 removed from the bottom compartment and the generally rectangular sleeve 2900 extending downwardly from the top compartment 2300. This sleeve 2900 includes double-sided tape (not shown) on the outside walls of its top end for attachment of the sleeve to the inner surfaces of the walls of the top compartment. In practice, to install a sleeve, an operator would: (a) remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment; (b) clean the interior walls of both top and bottom compartments if necessary; (c) unfold the sleeve, and attach the sleeve to the inner wall surfaces of the top compartment; (d) move the top compartment with the sleeve hanging down over the bottom compartment; and (e) lower the sleeve into the bottom compartment and reconnect the top compartment to the bottom compartment such the sleeve is in the bottom and top compartments. In another embodiment (not shown), the bulk material shipping container is similar to container 2050 but is not expandable or retractable. This example shipping container includes: (a) a pallet similar to pallet 2100; (b) a single compartment mounted on the pallet; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and similar to material unloading assembly 2500; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the top of the compartment similar to material loading assembly 2600. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag, with a sleeve, or without a bag or sleeve. In another embodiment partially shown in FIG. 97, the bulk material shipping container is not expandable or retractable and does not include a top wall. In this embodiment, the shipping container 3050 includes: (a) a pallet (not shown) similar to pallet 2100; (b) a single compartment 3300 mounted on the pallet; and (c) a material unloading assembly (not shown) supported by the bottom compartment and similar to material loading assembly 2500. Since this embodiment includes a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag, with a sleeve, or without a bag or a sleeve. Additionally, in this illustrated embodiment, the compartment is formed without a top wall. End caps or channels 3352, 3354, 3356, and 3358 are respectively positioned over the top edges of the side walls 3312, 3314, 3316, and 3318 to protect and strengthen the top edges of the compartment. The nesting guides 3800a (not shown), 3800b, 3800c, and 3800d are configured to provide additional engagements with the corners of the top of the compartment to sufficiently support the nesting supports. In this embodiment, multiple containers with open top ends can be stacked on each other and unloaded together when the material unloading assemblies are all opened with the containers stacked on each other. It should be appreciated that the present disclosure contemplates the elimination or reduction of sharp edges in the compartment and that any sharp edges can be curved or formed with a suitable radius. It should be understood that modifications and variations may be effected without departing from the scope of the novel concepts of the present disclosure, and it should be understood that this application is to be limited only by the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Various bulk material shipping containers are known. Such known material bulk shipping containers, sometimes referred to herein for brevity as known containers or as known bulk containers, are used to transport a wide range of products, parts, components, items, and materials such as, but not limited to, seeds, shavings, fasteners, and granular materials. These are sometimes called loose materials. There are various disadvantages with such known bulk material shipping containers. For example, one known and widely commercially used known bulk container for shipping materials (such as shipping seeds to farms) is sold by Buckhorn Industries. This known bulk container is made from plastic, weighs about 338 pounds (151.9 kilograms), and holds a maximum of 58.3 cubic feet of material. This known container has a bottom section, a top section, and a cover. To use this known container, loaders at a bulk material supplier must remove the cover, remove the top section from the bottom section, flip the top section upside down, place the flipped top section on the bottom section, fill the container, and then place the cover on the flipped top section. This process requires at least two people and a relatively significant amount of time when filling a large quantity of these containers. In certain instances, specifically configured forklift attachments are required to fill and handle this known container. After this known container is shipped to its ultimate destination (such as a farm), the bulk material (such as seed) is unloaded from the container, and the empty container must be shipped back to the material supplier. However, prior to and for shipping back to the supplier, the cover is removed, the flipped top section is removed from the bottom section, the flipped top section is then flipped back over and placed on the bottom section, and the cover is then placed on the top section and fastened with zip ties. This process also requires at least two people and is relatively time consuming especially for a large quantity of such containers. Another disadvantage of this known container is that this container is made from plastic and if one of the three sections (i.e., the bottom, the top, or the cover) is damaged or cracked, that entire section typically must be replaced (instead of being repaired). This adds additional cost, time out of service for the damaged container, and additional material and energy waste. Another disadvantage of this known container is that when disassembled (for shipping empty), only two of these containers can be stacked on top of each other and still fit in a conventional shipping container or truck. This tends to leave wasted space in such shipping containers and trucks, and thus increases the overall cost of shipping (including related fuel costs) and energy waste. Additional disadvantages of this known container are that: (a) the cover can be easily lost or misplaced; (b) the cover can be easily damaged; (c) this known container is less weather resistant because the cover is readily removable and only attached by zip ties; (d) the insides and outside surfaces are difficult to clean; and (e) a material holding bag is not readily usable with this container, such that this container cannot be used for certain types of loose materials. For purposes of brevity, (a) the people who assemble and/or put a container in the position for receiving materials for transport and who load the material in a container are sometimes referred to herein as the “loaders,” and (b) the people who remove the materials from a container and who disassemble and/or put a container in the position for sending back to the supplier are sometimes referred to herein as the “unloaders.” Accordingly, there is a need for better bulk material shipping containers which overcome these disadvantages. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Various embodiments of the present disclosure provide a bulk material shipping container which overcomes the above described disadvantages with previously known commercially available bulk shipping containers. One embodiment of the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment and movable from a retracted position relative to the bottom compartment (for efficient shipping when not holding materials or holding a relatively small amount of materials) to an expanded position relative to the bottom compartment (for holding extra materials during shipping); (d) a plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies configured to support the top compartment in the expanded position relative to the bottom compartment, and to release the top compartment from the expanded position to enable the top compartment to move downwardly into the retracted position; (e) a material unloading assembly supported by bottom compartment and the pallet; (f) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment; and (g) an extension assembly attached to the top compartment which enables a user to move the top compartment from the retracted position to the expanded position. The shipping container of the present disclosure is configured to directly hold materials or to receive a suitable plastic bag which holds the materials in the container. It should thus be appreciated that the expandable and retractable bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. It should also be appreciated that when a plastic bag is used to hold the materials in the container, the material unloading assembly includes a knife which cuts the bottom of the bag open for unloading of the materials. The bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is sometimes referred herein for brevity as the container or as the shipping container. One embodiment of the shipping container of the present disclosure is primarily made from stainless steel or galvanized steel, except for the pallet which is made from wood. If one of the sections of this embodiment of the container is damaged or cracked, that section can typically be repaired which reduces: (a) cost; (b) time out of service for the container; and (c) additional material and/or energy waste. In alternative embodiments, the pallet of the bulk material shipping container, or certain parts thereof, can be made from a suitably strong plastic material such as a composite material or a fiber glass material. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure can also be stacked three high (when empty) for shipping in conventional transport containers or trucks. This reduces wasted space in such transport containers and trucks and decreases shipping cost and fuel consumption, and thus energy waste. One embodiment of the container of the present disclosure holds 72 cubic feet of material and up to about 3125 pounds (1417.5 kilograms). This embodiment of the shipping container has several advantages over the above described known bulk container. Specifically, this embodiment of the bulk container is approximately 65 pounds (29.49 kilograms) lighter, holds approximately 14 cubic feet of additional materials which is approximately 25% more material (such as seeds), is readily repairable, can be stacked three high for more efficient transport to the supplier, and can be moved from the transport or retracted position to the loading or expanded position by one person. To load the presently disclosed container, the loaders do not need to remove a cover, remove the top compartment from the bottom compartment, flip the top compartment over, place the flipped top compartment on the bottom compartment, or place any cover on the flipped top compartment. Additionally, the unloaders do not need to remove the cover, remove the flipped top compartment, flip the top compartment, place the top compartment on the bottom compartment, and then place the cover on the top compartment for returning the empty container. In another embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is not expandable or retractable. In one such embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a bottom compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a top compartment mounted on the bottom compartment; (d) a material unloading assembly supported by the bottom compartment and the pallet; and (e) a material loading assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the top compartment is fixed such as by welding to the bottom compartment, and thus this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to the top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can be used with a bag or without a bag. In another embodiment, the shipping container includes: (a) a pallet; (b) a single compartment mounted on and supported by the pallet at numerous different support points; (c) a material unloading assembly supported by the single compartment and the pallet; and (d) a material loading assembly attached to the single compartment. In this embodiment, since there is a single compartment, this embodiment does not need to include the plurality of top compartment supporting assemblies or the extension assembly attached to a top compartment. In this embodiment, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure can also be used with a bag or without a bag. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, instead of a bag, a sleeve is employed in the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure. In further multi-compartment and single compartment embodiments, the pallet supports the compartments, but does not directly support the material unloading assembly. In further embodiments, the bulk material shipping container of the present disclosure is configured without the top wall to provide an open top end. It is therefore an advantage of the present disclosure to provide a new and improved bulk material shipping container. Additional features and advantages of the present invention are described in, and will be apparent from, the following Detailed Description of Exemplary Embodiments and the figures. | B65D1906 | 20170629 | 20171128 | 20171019 | 74821.0 | B65D1906 | 1 | ATKISSON, JIANYING CUI | BULK MATERIAL SHIPPING CONTAINER | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B65D | 2,017 |
15,637,351 | PENDING | SOURCE IMAGE PROVIDING MULTIPLE ITEM VIEWS | According to example embodiments, an Image View Aggregator identifies a frontal view of an item within an image. The Image View Aggregator identifies at least one reflection view of the item within the image. Each reflection view of the item having been captured off a corresponding reflective physical surface. The image View Aggregator extracts the frontal view of the item and each reflection view of the item from the image. The Image View Aggregator generates a representation of the item based at least on the extracted frontal view of the item and each extracted reflection view of the item. | 1. A computer system, comprising: a processor; a memory device holding an instruction set executable on the processor to cause the computer system to perform operations comprising: generating an item front surface image that corresponds with a front surface of an item; generating a first surface reflection image that corresponds with a reflection, captured from a corresponding reflective physical surface, of a first additional surface of the item; and generating a single output image that includes a portion of the front surface image and a portion of the first surface reflection image. 2. The computer system of claim 1, wherein generating a single output image comprises: positioning image content from the portion of the front surface image in a first sector of the single output image; positioning image content from the portion of the first surface reflection image in a second sector of the single output image, the first sector and the second sector being exclusive of each other. 3. The computer system of claim 1, further comprising: obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface; and embedding the at least one reflective surface characteristic in a header of the single output image. 4. The computer system of claim 3, wherein obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface comprises: receiving the at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface from a physical kit that includes the corresponding reflective physical surface and a pre-defined placement for the item, the physical kit including a transmitter for transmitting the at least one reflective surface characteristic. 5. The computer system of claim 3, wherein obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface comprises: scanning an identifier from a surface of a physical kit, the physical kit including the corresponding reflective physical surface and a pre-defined placement for the item; transmitting the identifier to a server system; and receiving from the server system the at least one reflective surface characteristic. 6. The computer system as in claim 3, wherein a respective reflective surface characteristic comprises one of: a description of a curvature of the corresponding reflective physical surface; a distance between the corresponding reflective physical surface and the first additional surface of the item; and a measurement of an angle of the corresponding reflective physical surface with respect to the first additional surface of the item. 7. The computer system of claim 1, further comprising: generating metadata indicative of a sector of the single output image in which the first surface reflection image is situated; and embedding the metadata in the header in relation to the at least one reflective surface characteristic. 8. A computer implemented method, comprising: generating an item front surface image that corresponds with a front surface of an item; generating a first surface reflection image that corresponds with a reflection, captured from a corresponding reflective physical surface, of a first additional surface of the item; and generating a single output image that includes a portion of the front surface image and a portion of the first surface reflection image. 9. The computer implemented method of claim 8, wherein generating a single output image comprises: positioning image content from the portion of the front surface image in a first sector of the single output image; positioning image content from the portion of the first surface reflection image in a second sector of the single output image, the first sector and the second sector being exclusive of each other. 10. The computer implemented method of claim 8, further comprising: obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface; and embedding the at least one reflective surface characteristic in a header of the single output image. 11. The computer implemented method of claim 10, wherein obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface comprises: receiving the at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface from a physical kit that includes the corresponding reflective physical surface and a pre-defined placement for the item, the physical kit including a transmitter for transmitting the at least one reflective surface characteristic. 12. The computer implemented method of claim 10, wherein obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface comprises: scanning an identifier from a surface of a physical kit, the physical kit including the corresponding reflective physical surface and a pre-defined placement for the item; transmitting the identifier to a server system; and receiving from the server system the at least one reflective surface characteristic. 13. The computer implemented method as in claim 10, wherein a respective reflective surface characteristic comprises one of: a description of a curvature of the corresponding reflective physical surface; a distance between the corresponding reflective physical surface and the first additional surface of the item; and a measurement of an angle of the corresponding reflective physical surface with respect to the first additional surface of the item. 14. The computer implemented method of claim 8, further comprising: generating metadata indicative of a sector of the single output image in which the first surface reflection image is situated; and embedding the metadata in the header in relation to the least one reflective surface characteristic. 15. A non-transitory computer-readable medium storing executable instructions thereon, which, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to perform operations including: generating an item front surface image that corresponds with a front surface of an item; generating a first surface reflection image that corresponds with a reflection, captured from a corresponding reflective physical surface, of a first additional surface of the item; and generating a single output image that includes a portion of the front surface image and a portion of the first surface reflection image. 16. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 15, wherein generating a single output image comprises: positioning image content from the portion of the front surface image in a first sector of the single output image; positioning image content from the portion of the first surface reflection image in a second sector of the single output image, the first sector and the second sector being exclusive of each other. 17. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 15, further comprising: obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface; and embedding the at least one reflective surface characteristic in a header of the single output image. 18. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 17, wherein obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface comprises: receiving the at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface from a physical kit that includes the corresponding reflective physical surface and a pre-defined placement for the item, the physical kit including a transmitter for transmitting the at least one reflective surface characteristic. 19. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 17, wherein obtaining at least one reflective surface characteristic of the corresponding reflective physical surface comprises: scanning an identifier from a surface of a physical kit, the physical kit including the corresponding reflective physical surface and a pre-defined placement for the item: transmitting the identifier to a server system; and receiving from the server system the at least one reflective surface characteristic. 20. The non-transitory computer-readable medium as in claim 17, wherein a respective reflective surface characteristic comprises one of: a description of a curvature of the corresponding reflective physical surface; a distance between the corresponding reflective physical surface and the first additional surface of the item; and a measurement of an angle of the corresponding reflective physical surface with respect to the first additional surface of the item. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/973,936, filed. Dec. 18, 2015, which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present application relates generally to the technical field of generating one or more images. BACKGROUND Typical electronic commerce (“e-commerce) sites provide users (e.g., sellers) with computer-implemented services for selling goods or services through, for example, a website. For example, a seller may submit information regarding a good or service to the e-commerce site through a web-based interface. Upon receiving the information regarding the good or service, the e-commerce site may store the information as a listing that offers the good or service for sale. Other users (e.g., buyers) may interface with the e-commerce site through a search interface to find goods or services to purchase. For example, some typical e-commerce sites may allow the user to submit a search query that includes, for example, search terms that may be matched by the e-commerce site against the listings created by the sellers. In another example, some typical e-commerce sites may allow the user to post a listing of an item for sale along with an image of the item so that potential buyers can see a current condition of the item. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention is illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a network diagram depicting a publication system, according to one embodiment, having a client-server architecture configured for exchanging data over a network; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating components of an Image View Aggregator, according to some example embodiments. FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating an image having multiple reflection views received by the Image View Aggregator, according to some example embodiments; FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating the Image View Aggregator correcting distortion in extracted reflection views, according to some example embodiments; FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating the Image View Aggregator generating a rotatable image of an item based on the views extracted from the image, according to some example embodiments; FIG. 6 is a flow diagram illustrating an example of method operations involved in generating a representation of an item based at least on the views of the item extracted from a received image, according to some example embodiments; FIG. 7 shows a diagrammatic representation of machine in the example form of a computer system within which a set of instructions may be executed causing the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Example methods and systems directed to an Image View Aggregator are described. In the following description, for purposes of explanation, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of example embodiments. It will be evident, however, to one skilled in the art that the present invention may be practiced without these specific details. According to example embodiments, an Image View Aggregator receives an image and identifies a frontal view of an item within the image. The Image View Aggregator identifies at least one reflection view of the item within the image. Each reflection view of the item having been captured off a corresponding reflective physical surface. The Image View Aggregator extracts the frontal view of the item and each reflection view of the item from the image. The image View Aggregator generates a representation of the item based at least on the extracted frontal view of the item and each extracted reflection view of the item. Characteristics of each physical reflective surface are embedded in the image. For example, a first reflection view of the item in the image corresponds with first physical characteristics of a first reflective surface. A second reflection view of the item in the image corresponds with second physical characteristics of a second reflective surface The Image View Aggregator extracts the first and the second physical from the image. Such physical characteristics include at least one of a curvature of a physical reflective surface, a distance between the item and a physical reflective surface and an angle of a physical reflective surface with respect to the item. The characteristics of the first physical reflective surface causes distortion of the item's appearance in the first reflection view in the image. By applying image correction techniques to account for the characteristics, the Image View Aggregator reverses the distortion present in the first reflection view of the item. Upon reversing the distortion, the Image View Aggregator generates a corrected first reflection view. The Image View Aggregator thereby obtains different and accurate views of the item based on receipt of a just a single image of the item. In an example embodiment, the image of the item was captured while the item was physically placed in proximity to one or more reflective surface. For example, an end-user places a physical item in a physical kit that has a predefined placement position for the physical item itself. The physical kit further includes one or more mirrors. For example, the physical kit includes a first mirror to provide a reflection of one side of the item, a second mirror to provide a reflection of another side of the item. The physical kit can further include a third mirror to provide a reflection of a back portion of the item. Each mirror in the physical kit has various pre-defined characteristics, such as, for example: an amount of concavity, a distance from the predefined placement position and an angle at which the mirror is oriented with respect to the predefined placement position of the item. The end-user uses a computing device (for example: a mobile device, a digital camera) to capture an image of the physical item as it is situated in the physical kit partially surrounded by the physical kit's mirrors. When the end-user captures the image of a physical item placed within a physical kit with a computing device, the computing device recognizes an identifier (such as a serial number) applied to a non-reflective surface of the physical kit. For example, the computing device scans the identifier from the non-reflective surface prior to capturing the image or utilizes optical character recognition to determine presence of the identifier in the captured image. Based on the identifier, the computing device accesses a server (or a cloud computing environment) to download various characteristics of each mirror in the physical kit. The computing device embeds the various characteristics of each mirror as metadata in an image header of the image of the item. The metadata further includes an identification of which characteristics of a particular mirror correspond to a reflection captured in the image. That is, a first metadata indicates that it corresponds to a reflection of the item in a particular sector of the image while second metadata indicates that it corresponds to another reflection of the item in a different sector of the image. In another example embodiment, the computing device has the characteristics of each mirror in the physical kit pre-loaded prior to capturing the image of the item in the physical item. In another example, the physical kit has a transmitter that transmits the characteristics of each mirror to the computing device. The captured image is thereby a single source image that includes a frontal view of the item at the predefined placement position along with all the respective reflections from the physical kit's mirrors. Upon receipt of the single source image, the image View Aggregator applies edge detection to identify the frontal view of the item and each reflection view of the item in the image. The image View Aggregator extracts the frontal view of the item and each reflection view of the item from the image. The Image View Aggregator utilizes the physical characteristics of the mirrors present as metadata in the image header in order to reverse any distortion in the image caused as a reflective result of the physical characteristics. It is understood that example embodiments include the generation of a module(s) to cause a computing device(s) to perform any and/or all of the actions described herein. Once the module(s) is generated, the module(s) is sent for installation on the computing device(s). In one embodiment, the generated modules comprise source code that, when compiled by a computing device(s), creates object code that causes the computing device(s) to perform any or all of the various actions, steps, methods, and/or operations described herein. In other embodiments, the generated modules comprise object code that causes the computing device(s) to perform various actions, steps, methods, and/or operations described herein. Platform Architecture FIG. 1 is a network diagram depicting a translation system, according to one embodiment, having a client-server architecture configured for exchanging data over a network. The publication system 100 may be a transaction system where clients, through client machines 120, 122 and a third party server 140, may communicate, view, search, and exchange data with network based publisher 112. For example, the publication system 100 may include various applications for interfacing with client machines and client applications that may be used by users (e.g., buyers and sellers) of the system to publish items for sale in addition to facilitating the purchase and shipment of items and searching for items. The network based publisher 112 may provide server-side functionality, via a network 114 (e.g., the Internet) to one or more clients. The one or more clients may include users that utilize the network based publisher 112 as a transaction intermediary to facilitate the exchange of data over the network 114 corresponding to user transactions. User transactions may include receiving and processing item and item related data and user data from a multitude of users, such as payment data, shipping data, item review data, feedback data, etc. A transaction intermediary such as the network-based publisher 112 may include one or all of the functions associated with a shipping service broker, payment service and other functions associated with transactions between one or more parties. For simplicity, these functions are discussed as being an integral part of the network based publisher 112, however it is to be appreciated that these functions may be provided by publication systems remotely and/or decoupled from the network based publisher 112. In example embodiments, the data exchanges within the publication system 100 may be dependent upon user selected functions available through one or more client/user interfaces (UIs). The UIs may be associated with a client machine, such as the client machine 120, utilizing a web client 116. The web client 116 may be in communication with the network based publisher 112 via a web server 126. The UIs may also be associated with a client machine 122 utilizing a client application 118, or a third party server 140 hosting a third party application 138. It can be appreciated in example embodiments the client machine 120, 122 may be associated with a buyer, a seller, payment service provider or shipping service provider, each in communication with the network based publisher 112 and optionally each other. The buyers and sellers may be any one of individuals, merchants, etc. An application program interface (API) server 124 and a web server 126 provide programmatic and web interfaces to one or more application servers 128. The application servers 128 may host one or more other applications, such as transaction applications 130, publication applications 132, and an Image View Aggregator application 134. The application servers 128 may be coupled to one or more data servers that facilitate access to one or more storage devices, such as the data storage 136. The transaction applications 130 may provide a number of payment processing modules to facilitate processing payment information associated with a buyer purchasing an item from a seller. The publication applications 132 may include various modules to provide a number of publication functions and services to users that access the network based publisher 112. For example, these services may include, inter alia, formatting and delivering search results to a client. The Image View Aggregator application 134, may include various modules to extract various views of an item within a single image and to correct distortion present in the extracted views to create multiple sub-images of the item, in some embodiments, the Image View Aggregator application 134 automatically creates a listing of the item with the multiple sub-images—even though only a single image was received. FIG. 1 also illustrates an example embodiment of a third party application 138, which may operate on a third party server 140 and have programmatic access to the network based publisher 112 via the programmatic interface provided by the API server 124. For example, the third party application 138 may utilize various types of data communicated with the network based publisher 112 and support one or more features or functions normally performed at the network based publisher 112. For example, the third party application 138 may receive a copy of all or a portion of the data storage 136 that includes buyer shipping data and act as the transaction intermediary between the buyer and seller with respect to functions such as shipping and payment functions. Additionally, in another example embodiment, similar to the network-based publisher 112, the third party application 138 may also include modules to perform operations pertaining to payment, shipping, etc. In yet another example embodiment, the third party server 140 may collaborate with the network based publisher 112 to facilitate transactions between buyers and sellers, such as by sharing data and functionality pertaining to payment and shipping, etc. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating components of an Image View Aggregator 134, according to some example embodiments. The components communicate with each other to perform the operations of the Image View Aggregator 134. The Image View Aggregator application 134 is shown as including an input-output module 210, a view extraction module 220, a distortion correction module 230 and an image aggregation module 240, all configured to communicate with each other (e.g., via a bus, shared memory, or a switch). Any one or more of the modules described herein may be implemented using hardware (e.g., one or more processors of a machine) or a combination of hardware and software. For example, any module described herein may configure a processor among one or more processors of a machine) to perform the operations described herein for that module. Moreover, any two or more of these modules may be combined into a single module, and the functions described herein for a single module may be subdivided among multiple modules. Furthermore, according to various example embodiments, modules described herein as being implemented within a single machine, database, or device may be distributed across multiple machines, databases, or devices. The input-output module 210 is a hardware-implemented module which manages, controls, stores, and accesses information regarding inputs and outputs. An input can be an image of an item, which includes a frontal view of the item and one or more reflection views of the item. An output can be a rotatable image based on an aggregation of the frontal view and the one or more reflection views. Such a rotatable image is composed on the extracted frontal view and the one or more reflection views. The output can also be multiple images, wherein a first image is based on the frontal view of the item and a second image is based on a distortion-corrected reflection view of the item. The view extraction module 220 is a hardware-implemented module which manages, controls, stores, and accesses information regarding extracting from the image a frontal view of the item and the one or more reflection views of the item. The view extraction module 220 applies edge detection techniques to the image in order to identify the frontal view and each reflection view. The distortion correction module 230 is a hardware-implemented module which manages, controls, stores, and accesses information regarding correcting distortions in each reflection view caused by characteristics of a physical reflective surface. The distortion correction module 230 retrieves characteristics of a physical reflective surface that caused distortion of an appearance of the item in a corresponding reflection view. The distortion correction module 230 applies image correction techniques to the corresponding reflection view to reverse the distortion caused by the characteristics of a physical reflective surface. The image aggregation module 240 is a hardware-implemented module which manages, controls, stores, and accesses information regarding generating a representation of an item based at least on an extracted frontal view of the item and one or more reflection views of the item. FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating an image having multiple reflection views received by the Image View Aggregator 134, according to some example embodiments. The Image View Aggregator 134 receives an image 300 having an image header 304. The image 300 includes a frontal view 300-1 of an item, a first reflection view 300-2 of the item and a second reflection view 300-3 of the item. When the image was captured, the item was physically proximate to a first and second physical reflective surface. The first and second reflection views 300-2, 300-3 are therefore reflections captured off of each physical reflective surface. The image header 304 includes tnetadata 304-1, 304-2 indicating characteristics of each physical reflective surface. Metadata 304-1 includes characteristics of a first physical reflective surface that corresponds to the first reflection view 300-2. Metadata 304-1 indicates the physical distance between the item and first physical reflective surface, any curvature of the first physical reflective surface and an angle (or orientation) of the first physical reflective surface with respect to the item. Metadata 304-1 further includes an indication as to which sector of the image it applies. That is, metadata 304-1 includes an identification that it applies to the first reflection view 300-2. that appears mostly in the left side (or leftmost third portion) of the image 300. Metadata 304-2 includes characteristics of a second physical reflective surface that corresponds to second reflection view 300-3. Metadata 304-2 indicates the physical distance between the item and second physical reflective surface, any curvature of the second physical reflective surface and an angle (or orientation) of the second physical reflective surface with respect to the item. Metadata 304-2 further includes an indication as to which sector of the image it applies. That is, metadata 304-2 includes an identification that it applies to the second reflection view 300-3 that appears mostly in the right side (or rightmost third portion) of the image 300. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating the Image View Aggregator 134 correcting distortion in extracted reflection views, according to some example embodiments. The Image View Aggregator 134 extracts the frontal view 300-1, the first reflection view 300-2 and the second reflection view 300-3 by utilizing edge detection techniques that identify a representation of the item in the image versus a background and foreground of the image. In one example embodiment, the Image View Aggregator 134 applies one or more edge detection techniques to identify a difference between pixels in the image's 300 background and the pixels in the frontal view 300-1, the first reflection view 300-2 and the second reflection view 300-3. That is, the Image View Aggregator 134 identifies that the background of the image consistently includes pixels having a certain color value range, whereas the portions of the image 300 that include the frontal view 300-1, the first reflection view 300-2 and the second reflection view 300-3 have pixels with color value ranges that differ significantly from the background's pixel color value range. By identifying when the pixel color values change abruptly, the Image View Aggregator 134 distinguishes the edges of the frontal view 300-1, the first reflection view 300-2 and the second reflection view 300-3 versus the background of the image 300. In another example of edge detection, the Image View Aggregator 134 extracts the metadata 304-1, 304-2 embedded in the image header 304 and the metadata 304-1, 304-2 indicates which portions of the image 300 itself includes the frontal view 300-1, the first reflection view 300-2 and the second reflection view 300-3. The Image View Aggregator 134 then applies the pixel color range value comparisons discussed above to further distinguish the boundaries of the frontal view 300-1, the first reflection view 300-2 and the second reflection view 300-2. Based on identifying the boundaries of each respective view 300-1, 300-2, 300-2, the Image View Aggregator crops the views 300-1, 300-2, 300-3 from the image 300, or copies the pixels from the views 300-1, 300-2., 300-3, in order to extract the views from the image 300. The metadata 304-1, 304-2 further includes the pre-defined characteristics of the various reflective surfaces. For example, the characteristics of the first physical reflective surface caused distortion of the item's appearance in the first reflection view 300-2 in the image 300. The characteristics of the second physical reflective surface caused distortion of the item's appearance in the second reflection view 300-3 in the image 300. The distortion correction module 230 of the Image View Aggregator 134 applies image correction techniques to the first and second reflection view 300-2, 300-3 to reverse the distortions caused by the respective characteristics of the first and second physical reflective surfaces. For example, the distortion correction module 230 receives the extracted reflection view 300-2 and the metadata. 304-1 that includes an angle of the reflective surface that corresponds to reflection view 300-2 and a distance between the physical item and that reflective surface. Using the angle and the distance, the distortion correction module 230 calculates the angle of incidence of the reflective surface with respect to the physical item when the image 300 was captured. The distortion correction module 230 reverses the reflective result of the angle of incidence in the reflection view 300-2 so as to create a corrected first reflection view 404. The distortion correction module 230 further receives the extracted reflection view 300-3 and the metadata 304-2 that includes an amount of a concavity of the reflective surface that corresponds to reflection view 300-3 and a distance between the physical item and that reflective surface. Using the amount of concavity and the distance, the distortion correction module 230 identifies curved portions of the reflection view 300-3 that can be straightened so as to create a corrected second reflection view 406. FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating the Image View Aggregator 134 generating a rotatable image of an item based on the views extracted from the image, according to some example embodiments. The image aggregation module 240 of the Image View Aggregator 134 receives the extracted frontal view 300-1, the corrected first reflection view 404 and the corrected second reflection view 406. The image aggregation module 240 of the Image View Aggregator 134 combines the views 300-1, 404, 406 to generate a rotatable image 504 of the item that provides an end-user with different, selectable vantage points of portions of the item. Each selectable vantage point of the rotatable image 504 is based in part on at least one of the extracted frontal view 300-1, the corrected first reflection view 404 and the corrected second reflection view 406. FIG. 6 is a flow diagram illustrating an example of method 600 operations involved in generating a representation of an item based at least on the views of the item extracted from a received image, according to some example embodiments. The Image View Aggregator 134 receives a request from a client device associated with a member account in the publisher system 112. The request includes a serial number identifying a particular physical kit in which a physical item can be placed such that it is partially surrounded by reflective surfaces (such as mirrors). The Image View Aggregator 134 accesses a database that has a listing of physical kits stored according to their respective serial numbers in relation to data of reflective surface characteristics. The Image View Aggregator 134 locates the received serial number in the listing of physical kits. The Image View Aggregator 134 accesses the data of reflective surface characteristics stored in relation to the received serial number and sends the accessed data back to the requesting client device. The client device will thereby use the accessed data to generate metadata to be inserted into a header of an image of an item. The Image View Aggregator 134 receives an image from the client device associated with the member account. At operation 604, the Image View Aggregator 134 identifies a frontal view of an item within the image. For example, a member account in the publisher system 112 creates a listing for display on the publisher system 112. The listing describes the item. The publisher system 112 receives a single source image from the member account. The Image View Aggregator 134 applies edge detection techniques to identify the frontal view of the item. At operation 606, the Image View Aggregator 134 identities at least one reflection view of the item within the image. It is understood that the at least one reflection view of the item captured off a corresponding reflective physical surface. The Image View Aggregator 134 further applies edge detection techniques to identify one or more reflection views of the item in the image received from the member account. At operation 608, the Image View Aggregator 134 extracts the frontal view of the item and the at least one reflection view of the item from the image. For example, the Image View Aggregator 134 clips the frontal view and the reflection view(s) out of the image such that the clipped frontal view and the clipped reflection views(s) are themselves distinct images. Image View Aggregator 134 extracts, from the image header, characteristics of a physical reflective surface that corresponds with each extracted reflection view. Such characteristics include at least one of a curvature of the physical reflective surface, a distance between the item and the physical reflective surface and an angle of the physical reflective surface with respect to the item. The characteristics caused a reflective result present in the corresponding extracted reflection view. The reflective result distorts an actual appearance of the item in the extracted reflection view. In another example embodiment, the received single source image includes an image header that provides only an identifier. The identifier corresponds to a physical kit having one or more mirrors. The Image View Aggregator 134 extracts the identifier embedded in the image header. The Image View Aggregator 134 accesses the listing of physical kits to locate pre-defined characteristics of the one or more mirrors of the physical kit associated with the extracted identifier. The Image View Aggregator applies image correction to the extracted reflection views to reverse the reflective result caused by the characteristics (i.e. distance, curvature, angle) of the corresponding physical reflective surface. The image correction generates a corrected reflection views which include the same content as the corresponding extracted reflection view minus distortion. At operation 610, the Image View Aggregator 134 generates a representation of the item based at least on the extracted frontal view of the item and the at least one extracted reflection view of the item. The Image View Aggregator 134 includes the extracted frontal view of the item and each corrected reflection view of the item in the listing created by the member account. The Image View Aggregator 134 thereby creates a listing for an item in the publisher system 112 that provides multiple, different views of the item based on receipt of a single image of the item. Exemplary Computer Systems FIG. 7 shows a diagrammatic representation of machine in the example form of a computer system 700 within which a set of instructions may be executed causing the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein. In alternative example embodiments, the machine operates as a standalone device or may be connected (e.g., networked) to other machines. In a networked deployment, the machine may operate in the capacity of a server or a client machine in server-client network environment, or as a peer machine in a peer-to-peer (or distributed) network environment. The machine may be a personal computer (PC), a tablet PC, a set-top box (STB), a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), a cellular telephone, a web appliance, a network router, switch or bridge, or any machine capable of executing a set of instructions (sequential or otherwise) that specify actions to be taken by that machine. Further, while only a single machine is illustrated, the term “machine” shall also be taken to include any collection of machines that individually or jointly execute a set (or multiple sets) of instructions to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein. The example computer system 700 includes a processor 702 (e.g., a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU) or both), a main memory 704 and a static memory 706, which communicate with each other via a bus 508. The computer system 700 may further include a video display unit 710 (e.g., a liquid crystal display (LCD) or a cathode ray tube (CRT)). The computer system 700 also includes an alphanumeric input device 712 (e.g., a keyboard), a user interface (UI) navigation device 714 (e.g., a mouse), a disk drive unit 716, a signal generation device 718 (e.g., a speaker) and a network interface device 720. The disk drive unit 716 includes a machine-readable medium 722 on which is stored one or more sets of instructions and data structures (e.g., software 724) embodying or utilized by any one or more of the methodologies or functions described herein. The software 724 may also reside, completely or at least partially, within the main memory 704 and/or within the processor 702. during execution thereof by the computer system 700, the main memory 704 and the processor 702 also constituting machine-readable media. The software 724 may further be transmitted or received over a network 726 via the network interface device 720 utilizing any one of a number of well-known transfer protocols (e.g., HTTP). While the machine-readable medium 722 is shown in an example embodiment to be a single medium, the term “machine-readable medium” should be taken to include a single medium or multiple media (e.g., a centralized or distributed database, and/or associated caches and servers) that store the one or more sets of instructions. The term “machine-readable medium” shall also be taken to include any medium that is capable of storing, encoding or carrying a set of instructions for execution by the machine and that cause the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies of the present invention, or that is capable of storing, encoding or carrying data structures utilized by or associated with such a set of instructions. The term “machine-readable medium” shall accordingly be taken to include, but not be limited to, solid-state memories, optical and magnetic media, and carrier wave signals. The Abstract of the Disclosure is provided to comply with 37 C.F.R. §1.72(b), requiring an abstract that will allow the reader to quickly ascertain the nature of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. In addition, in the foregoing Detailed Description, it can be seen that various features are grouped together in example embodiments for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed embodiments require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed embodiment. Furthermore, the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separate embodiment. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Typical electronic commerce (“e-commerce) sites provide users (e.g., sellers) with computer-implemented services for selling goods or services through, for example, a website. For example, a seller may submit information regarding a good or service to the e-commerce site through a web-based interface. Upon receiving the information regarding the good or service, the e-commerce site may store the information as a listing that offers the good or service for sale. Other users (e.g., buyers) may interface with the e-commerce site through a search interface to find goods or services to purchase. For example, some typical e-commerce sites may allow the user to submit a search query that includes, for example, search terms that may be matched by the e-commerce site against the listings created by the sellers. In another example, some typical e-commerce sites may allow the user to post a listing of an item for sale along with an image of the item so that potential buyers can see a current condition of the item. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The present invention is illustrated by way of example, and not by way of limitation, in the figures of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a network diagram depicting a publication system, according to one embodiment, having a client-server architecture configured for exchanging data over a network; FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating components of an Image View Aggregator, according to some example embodiments. FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating an image having multiple reflection views received by the Image View Aggregator, according to some example embodiments; FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating the Image View Aggregator correcting distortion in extracted reflection views, according to some example embodiments; FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating the Image View Aggregator generating a rotatable image of an item based on the views extracted from the image, according to some example embodiments; FIG. 6 is a flow diagram illustrating an example of method operations involved in generating a representation of an item based at least on the views of the item extracted from a received image, according to some example embodiments; FIG. 7 shows a diagrammatic representation of machine in the example form of a computer system within which a set of instructions may be executed causing the machine to perform any one or more of the methodologies discussed herein. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | G06T360 | 20170629 | 20171019 | 76970.0 | G06T360 | 0 | SHERALI, ISHRAT I | SOURCE IMAGE PROVIDING MULTIPLE ITEM VIEWS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06T | 2,017 |
|
15,638,150 | ACCEPTED | NON-SPILL DRINKING CONTAINER | A non-spill container having a collar and seal assembly from which drinking can occur at any location around a rim of the collar and seal assembly. The collar has an open upper end, a closed lower end, and a sidewall. The open upper end is proximate to and includes the upper end of a side wall, an upper perimeter and a rim. The closed lower end has a projection extending upward therefrom and at least one passage disposed through the closed lower end to channel a fluid. The sidewall has a tapered shape that extends from the open upper end inward toward the closed lower end and has a support surface provided along an inner surface adjacent to the open upper end. The support surface has at least one radial protrusion is disposed radially adjacent to the support surface to define at least one channel. A fastener assembly is provided on an external wall of the collar. The seal has a surface that is substantially similar to a shape of the open upper end and an aperture for receiving and securing the projection therein. | 1. A non-spill collar and seal assembly, comprising: a collar comprising: an open upper end proximate to and including an upper end of a sidewall, an upper perimeter, and a rim; a closed lower end having a projection extending upward therefrom and one or more passages disposed through the closed lower end to channel a fluid; the sidewall having a tapered shape that extends from the open upper end inward toward the closed lower end, and a support surface provided along an inner surface of the sidewall adjacent to the open upper end having one or more protrusions disposed radially adjacent to the support surface defining one or more channels; and a fastener assembly provided on an external wall of the collar; and a seal having a surface substantially similar to a shape of the open upper end, the seal having an aperture for receiving and securing the projection therein. 2. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 1, wherein the sidewall extends from the open upper end frustoconically to the closed lower end. 3. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 1, wherein the seal comprises one or more air valves adapted to communicate the transfer of air through the seal. 4. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 1, wherein the protrusions have varying sizes. 5. A non-spill collar and seal assembly, comprising: a collar comprising: an open upper end; a closed lower end having a projection extending outward therefrom and one or more passages disposed through the closed lower end; an internal wall having a frustoconical shape that extends from the open upper end to the closed lower end, and an inner surface of the internal wall adjacent to the open upper end having one or more protrusions disposed radially defining one or more channels; a fastener assembly provided opposite the internal wall; and a seal having an aperture for receiving and securing the projection therein and a seal perimeter substantially similar to a collar perimeter of the open upper end that creates a leakproof seal with the open upper end of the collar. 6. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 5, wherein the projection has at least one shoulder and the aperture has at least one flange that is engaged and locked to the shoulder on the projection therein. 7. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 5, wherein the seal comprises one or more air valves adapted to communicate the transfer of air through the seal. 8. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 5, wherein the protrusions have alternating lengths. 9. A non-spill collar and seal assembly, comprising: a collar comprising: an open upper end; a closed lower end having a projection extending outward therefrom and one or more passages disposed through the closed lower end to channel a fluid; an internal wall having a frustoconical shape that extends from the open upper end to the closed lower end, and a support surface provided along an inner surface of the internal wall adjacent to the open upper end having one or more protrusions disposed radially adjacent to the support surface defining one or more channels; and a fastener assembly provided opposite the internal wall; and a seal having an aperture for receiving and securing the projection therein and having a shape substantially similar to an inner surface of the internal wall that creates a leakproof seal with the inner surface of the internal wall. 10. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 9, wherein the projection has at least one shoulder and the aperture has at least one flange that is engaged and locked to the shoulder on the projection therein. 11. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 9, wherein the inner surface extends to an uppermost peripheral edge of the open upper end. 12. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 9, wherein the seal is biased to seal a peripheral edge against the support surface such that the channels are covered by the seal. 13. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 12, wherein when the peripheral edge of the annular seal is lifted off of the support surface in response to a suction force generated by a mouth of a user, at least one of the channels is partially exposed to form a fluid communication pathway between an interior of the peripheral edge and the support surface of the collar thereby allowing a fluid to flow through the channels into the mouth of the user. 14. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 9, wherein the seal comprises one or more air valves adapted to communicate the transfer of air through the seal. 15. A non-spill collar and seal assembly, comprising: a collar comprising: an open upper end; a closed lower end having one or more passages disposed through the closed lower end to channel a fluid and a projection extending outward from the closed lower end, the projection having at least one shoulder; an internal wall having a frustoconical shape that extends from the open upper end to the closed lower end, and a support surface provided along an inner surface of the internal wall adjacent to the open upper end having one or more protrusions disposed radially adjacent to the support surface defining one or more channels; and a fastener assembly provided opposite the internal wall; and a seal having a surface substantially similar to a shape of the open upper end and having an aperture, the aperture having at least one flange that is engaged and locked to the shoulder on the projection therein. 16. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 15, wherein the flange has at least one undercut shoulder to engage and lock at least the shoulder on the projection. 17. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 16, wherein the flange of the aperture, the undercut shoulder of the flange and the shoulder of the projection are concentric. 18. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 17, wherein the shoulder of the projection is radially wider than a neck of the projection. 19. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 15, wherein the seal is biased to seal a peripheral edge against the support surface such that the channels are covered by the seal. 20. The non-spill collar and seal assembly in claim 15, wherein the seal comprises one or more air valves adapted to communicate the transfer of air through the seal. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The application claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/980,620, filed Dec. 28, 2015, which claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/514,186, filed Oct. 14, 2014, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/891,409, filed Oct. 16, 2013, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/000,887, filed May 20, 2014; the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety into this disclosure. TECHNICAL FIELD The subject disclosure relates to a drinking container. More particularly, to a spill-proof drinking container assembly having a 360 degree sealed lip enclosure from which a user can drink along any peripheral edge of the container and withdraw fluid from within the container assembly. BACKGROUND Various types of spill-proof containers are known. As a parent attempts to wean an infant away from a conventional bottle, typically, an interim or transition spill-proof container with a spout is useful before the child can comfortably handle and use a conventional open top cup. Unfortunately, in these formative years, young children struggle with having complete control over holding and carrying a traditional open cup. Consequently, spillage frequently occurs when the infant or child knocks over their cup and causes substantial leakage onto the ground, themselves or elsewhere. Non-spill container covers for drinking containers have been long sought after for many years. Various coverings for fluid-filled containers have been manufactured for use by a person who is in motion, such as a cover for a hot coffee container to be used in a moving vehicle such as an automobile. However, traditional non-spill container covers generally required relatively complex parts and valve structures in addition to restricting the particular area from which a user can drink from the container cover. Accordingly, there is a need for the development of a transition cup which does not easily spill when knocked over. SUMMARY A non-spill container having a collar and seal assembly from which drinking can occur at any location around a rim of the collar and seal assembly. The collar has an open upper end, a closed lower end, and a sidewall. The open upper end is proximate to and includes the upper end of a side wall, an upper perimeter and a rim. The closed lower end has a projection extending upward therefrom and at least one passage disposed through the closed lower end to channel a fluid. The sidewall has a tapered shape that extends from the open upper end inward toward the closed lower end and has a support surface provided along an inner surface adjacent to the open upper end. The support surface has at least one radial protrusion is disposed radially adjacent to the support surface to define at least one channel. A fastener assembly is provided on an external wall of the collar. The seal has a surface that is substantially similar to a shape of the open upper end and an aperture for receiving and securing the projection therein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Various exemplary embodiments of this disclosure will be described in detail, wherein like reference numerals refer to identical or similar components or steps, with reference to the following figures, wherein: FIG. 1 illustrates an exploded view of an exemplary non-spill container assembly with a collar having a pair of handles according to the subject disclosure. FIG. 2 shows a side view of the non-spill container assembly. FIG. 3 depicts an exploded view of the non-spill container assembly without the handles. FIGS. 4 and 5 show upper perspective views of the non-spill container assembly capable of being consumed from any angle along its rim according to the subject disclosure. FIGS. 6-7 depict infants comfortably handling the non-spill container assembly while in use. FIG. 8 illustrates a cross section view of the upper end of the non-spill container assembly. FIG. 9 illustrates an exploded cross section view of the inward collar surface edge of the collar and the inward sealing surface edge of the annular seal. FIG. 10 depicts a cross section view of the upper end of the non-spill container assembly in use. FIG. 11 illustrates a top view of an exemplary collar. FIG. 12 shows a bottom view of the collar. FIG. 13 depicts a cross section view of the upper end of the non-spill container assembly having a plurality of raised protrusions and gaps disposed on an underside of an annular seal. FIG. 14 illustrates a cross section view of the upper end of the non-spill container assembly having a pull tab for removing the annular seal from the secure position over the projection. FIG. 15 shows a cross section view of the upper end of the non-spill container assembly having a through passage disposed through the annular seal and the collar. FIG. 16 depicts a cross section view of an air vent passage disposed offset from the center of the non-spill container assembly. FIG. 17 illustrates an exploded view of a non-spill container assembly having another exemplary annular seal according to the subject disclosure. FIGS. 18-19 show a cross section view of the upper end of the non-spill container assembly in FIG. 17 having raised protrusions and gaps disposed on the annular seal and on the collar, respectively. FIG. 20 illustrates another upper perspective view of the non-spill container. FIG. 21 shows an exploded view of the non-spill container assembly including a collar having a pair of handles. FIG. 22 depicts a cross section view of the non-spill container with an annular seal having an extended flange. FIGS. 23-24 illustrate upper and lower perspective views of the frustoconical collar of the non-spill container. FIGS. 25-26 show top and bottom views of the frustoconical collar of the non-spill container. FIG. 27 depicts a side view of the frustoconical collar of the non-spill container according to the subject disclosure. FIG. 28 shows a cross section view of the frustoconical collar of the non-spill container. FIGS. 29-30 illustrate upper and lower perspective views of the annular seal of the non-spill container. FIGS. 31-32 show top and bottom views of the annular seal of the non-spill container. FIG. 33 depicts a side view of the annular seal of the non-spill container. FIG. 34 shows a cross section view of the annular seal of the non-spill container. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Particular embodiments of the present invention will now be described in greater detail with reference to the figures. FIGS. 1 and 2 show an exploded view, and an assembled side view of an exemplary non-spill drinking container assembly 100. The drinking container assembly 100 includes a container 10, a resilient sealing ring 11, a collar 20 and an annular seal 40. The container assembly 100 is conducive to helping young children and/or adults who may lack the motor skill coordination to transition to an open cup. The container assembly 100 allows the user to sip or drink from anywhere around the rim 26 with ease. The container 10 shown in FIGS. 1-2 is substantially cylindrical in shape about a central axis (A) and has a side wall 12, a first open end 13 and a second closed end 14. The first open end 13 of the container 10 has a central opening 13a adapted to receive a fluid stored within the container 10. It is to be understood that container 10 can take any suitable size or shape capable of holding a fluid and receiving the collar 20 and the annular seal 40, such as a square shape or other suitable obtuse shape. The collar 20 may be a frustoconical cylindrical shape. The collar 20 includes an upper surface 22a that faces upward and lies within the upper end 13a of the container 10, as shown in FIG. 8. The collar 20 also includes a lower surface 22b that faces downward toward the container 10 away from the annular seal 40 in assembly. According to this embodiment, the collar 20 includes a pair of handles 17 that extend from sides 20a of the collar 20. The handles 17 extend outward and downwardly forming two curved arms. The handles 17 provide the additional advantage to an infant or person who may have difficulty holding the container 10 of the container assembly 100. The handles 17 allow a user to comfortably hold the container 10 by the arms of the handles 17 with a firm grip and in a stable manner, as shown in FIG. 7. The collar 20 includes a lower end 23 having a first diameter and an upper end 26a adjacent to the rim 26 having a second larger diameter. The upper end 26a and the lower end 23 meet at a junction defining a concentric shoulder 15. A securing fastener assembly is adapted to secure the lower end 23 of the collar 20 to the container 10. At the concentric shoulder 15, the diameter of the upper end 26a of the collar 20 expands outward to a larger diameter defining the concentric shape of the outer side 20a of the collar 20. The larger diameter of the upper end 26a of the collar 20 flares upwardly and outward from the concentric shoulder 15 to an upper rim 26 adjacent to an uppermost end or rim 26 of the collar 20. The annular seal 40 is constructed in the form of a frustoconical disc, as shown in FIGS. 1, 8, 13-16, 17-19, 21-22 and 29-34. The annular seal 40 includes a lower surface 48b that lies adjacent to the upper surface 22a of the collar 20 in assembly. The annular seal 40 also includes an upper surface 48a that faces upward away from the collar 20 in assembly. The lower surface 48b of the annular seal 40 has a frustoconical shape that substantially mirrors the frustoconical shape of the upper surface 22a of the collar 20 that it is attached to in assembly. In assembly, the annular seal 40 is secured to an open upper surface 22a of the collar 20. The lower end 23 of the collar 20 is fastened via a fastener assembly to the upper open end 13 of the container 10. Assembled, the resilient seal ring 11 is disposed between the upper open end 13 of the container 10 and the concentric shoulder 15 of the collar 20. The concentric shoulder 15 is constructed to constrict inwardly from the outer surface 20a of the upper end 26a of the collar 20 to an inner surface having a smaller diameter defining the lower end 23. The fastener assembly provided at the lower end 23 of the collar are male threads 24. The male threads 24 may make up the fastener assembly connection disposed adjacent to the lower end 23 of the collar 20 to mate with, and secure against various female threads 16 disposed on an inside surface of the upper end 13 of the container 10, as shown in FIG. 8. Although a threaded assembly attachment is shown here, it is to be understood that various other suitable constructions for the secure assembly connection mechanism between the collar 20 and the container 10 may be used. FIG. 3 shows an alternative collar 20 design without handles attached to the collar 20 in accordance with the subject matter of this disclosure. Ideally, this design is adapted for use by a more mature child or individual with better motor skills capable of securely gripping the outer surface of the container 10 of the container assembly 100 according to the subject disclosure. FIGS. 4-5 depict one of the advantages of this drinking container assembly 100. That is, according to this subject disclosure, a user is able to drink from the rim 26 of the drinking container assembly 100 at any location (as shown by the arrows) concentrically around the rim 26 of the top end of the collar 20. For a young child, drinking from this container 100 simulates the idea of drinking from a regular adult drinking cup since it does not include the conventional construction of a protruding spout as its non-spill valve assembly. As shown in FIGS. 6-7, the container assembly 100 is particularly useful and beneficial for a young child transitioning from a bottle to a regular cup container. During this transition, the toddler can conveniently place their lips at any point against the rim 26 of the collar 20 and can draw fluid from any position along the rim 26, as would an adult with a conventional cup. Positive reinforcement of the use of the spill-proof container assembly 100 encourages the confidence and the child's ability to move into using a conventional cup. Although shown used with young children, it is to be understood that the non-spill container assembly 100 may be used by any individual at any age. FIG. 8 depicts a detailed cross section view of a portion of the non-spill drinking container assembly 100. As shown, the fastener assembly includes male threads 24 disposed at the lower end 23 of the collar 20 being threadedly attached to the female threads 16 provided about an inner surface at the upper end 13 of the container 10. The threaded connection between the container 10 and the collar 20 is fluidly sealed by the resilient sealing ring 11 disposed between the concentric shoulder 15 and the upper end 13 of the container 10 to prevent any leakage of fluid contained within the container 10. As shown in a partially enlarged view in FIG. 9, the collar 20 may be constructed to include an outer wall 31 whose upper end terminates at the upper rim 26. Just below the upper rim 26, an abutment or supporting surface 21a is provided on an inward facing collar surface edge of the collar 20 juxtaposed to the inward facing sealing edge 41 is adapted to come into sealing engagement with the inward facing sealing edge 41 of the annular seal 40. As shown, FIG. 9 depicts an unsealed open configuration between the supporting surface 21a at the inward facing collar surface edge of the collar 20 and the inward facing sealing edge 41 of the annular seal 40 in which a fluid is allowed to flow out of the container 10 as will be shown in more detail in FIG. 10. The lower end 23 of the collar 20 defines the lower cylindrical wall with a smaller diameter having male threads 24 disposed on an outer surface thereof. The collar 20 may be constructed as a frustoconical support member covering a central opening of the upper end 13 of the container 10. In general, various walls extend inwardly from a concentric inner surface 21 of the collar to an internal lower wall 33 that covers the central portion of the opening 13 to the container 10. Adjacent to the rim 26 disposed proximal to the upper end 26a of the collar 20, the upper end 26a of the collar 20 forms an outwardly flared contour. An intermediate lower wall 32 extends radially inward in a downwardly stepped fashion defining the central internal lower wall 33 over the opening 13 in the container 10. The lowermost internal lower wall 33 is positioned at a substantially central position within the collar 20 and over the opening 13. In other words, the lower wall 33 expands radially outward from a base 28 of a projection 27 to a peripheral edge 33a. The projection 27 may be positioned substantially central to the collar 20 opening. An intermediate wall 32 extends radially upward from the peripheral edge 33a, outward and away from the lower wall 33 at a predetermined angle towards a second radial ledge 37. The radial ledge 37 then expands radially outward a predetermined distance into the concentric inner surface 21. The concentric inner surface 21 extends upward and flares outward toward the upper end 26a of the collar 20 and terminates at the rim 26. The projection 27 extends upward from the internal lower wall 33 at the central position in the collar 20. The projection 27 includes an upward post 28 that terminates to define an upright mushroom-shaped bulbous head 29. Outer edges 30 of the bulbous head 29 extend radially outward beyond an outer surface of the post 28. The outer edges 30 of the bulbous head 29 define a concentric shoulder 30 that extends radially outward beyond an outer surface of the post 28. The projection 27 may be made as a single integrated part of the lower wall 33 or can be made as a separate part and permanently attached to the lower wall 33. The projection 27 may be secured to the lower wall 33 in a variety of different ways, such as by securely over-molded onto the lower wall 33 and/or any other suitable manner. As shown in FIG. 8, the projection 27 may include a vent hole 36 to allow air to vent from an external environment back into the drinking container assembly 100 when a negative vacuum pressure has built up inside of the container assembly 100. The vent hole 36 may be aligned with, and in fluid communication with a one-way air check valve aperture 42 provided in the annular seal 40 as will be discussed in more detail later. The lower wall 33 of the collar 20 radially expands outward laterally from the base of the central projection 27 to a first predetermined radial position over the opening 13a of the container 10. The lower wall 33 turns at an angle at the first predetermined radial position and extends radially upward along an intermediate wall 32 toward an outer end of the collar 20 to a second predetermined radial position. At this second position, the collar 20 further expands radially outward at a second radial ledge 37 to the concentric inner surface 21 of the outer wall 31 of the collar 20. The concentric inner surface 21 of the outer wall 31 extends upward and away from the second radial ledge 37 towards the outwardly flared rim 26. The concentric inner surface 21 may be constructed to curve outwardly along an arc of a predetermined radius. FIGS. 8 and 9 show protrusions 38 on the supporting surface 21a at the inner collar surface edge of the collar 20 adjacent to the rim 26. A plurality of evenly spaced raised protrusions 38 and adjacent gaps 39 are provided concentrically along the upper end of the collar 20 to ensure that the flow of fluid from inside of the container 10 can freely flow between the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 and the supporting surface 21a at the inner collar surface edge of the collar 20 of the container assembly 100. The spaced raised protrusions 38 and adjacent gaps 39 form a fluid communication pathway through which the fluid may flow from inside of the container 10 outward from the annular seal 40. The height of the raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39 are constructed to optimize the amount of minimum suction force required by the user to lift the outermost radial edge 45 of the annular seal 40 resting against the supporting surface 21a at the upper inward collar surface edge of the collar 20 away from the collar 20 so that the seal can be broken without undue difficulty when a suction force is applied by the user. The height of the raised protrusions 38 can be varied to vary the amount of suction force required to break the seal and lift the outermost radial edge 45 away from the supporting surface 21a. FIGS. 8 and 10 show the instance when a suction force is applied with a predetermined negative suction pressure to the rim 26 of the collar 20, the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 will be lifted under the suction force with enough height to break the seal and allow the liquid to flow through the gaps 39 constructed on the supporting surface 21a and the lifted inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 on the inner surface of the rim 26. FIGS. 8 and 11 show a plurality of radially apertures 34 disposed concentrically on the collar 20. The radial apertures 34 create various passageways to allow the fluid in the container 10 to flow out of the container 10 and through the collar 20 into a reservoir cavity 35 provided above the apertures 34 and below the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40. The various apertures 34 may be constructed of a variety of different sizes and/or shapes. For example, the apertures 34 may be made smaller to reduce the flow rate of the fluid exiting from the container 10. Likewise, the apertures 34 may be made larger to increase the flow rate of the fluid exiting from the container 10. Alternatively, in a single container, the apertures 34 may be varied, some may be smaller and/or larger to selectively vary the flow rate of the fluid exiting from the container 10. At least one air vent aperture 36 is provided in the collar 20 to allow the venting of air from the external atmosphere back into the container assembly 100. Entry of the air from the external atmosphere will allow the pressure within the container 10 to come to an equilibrium state with the pressure outside of the container assembly 100 as the user sucks fluid out from within the container 10. As the user sucks the fluid out of the container a negative vacuum pressure is created within the container assembly 100 that causes the air from the external environment to be drawn into the container 10 through a one-way air valve 42 and the vent hole 36. The annular seal 40 is constructed to be disposed over the collar 20, opposite the container 10. The annular seal 40 has a frustoconical shape constructed similar in shape to a suction cup. The fluid seal between the annular seal 40 and the collar 20 occurs between the outermost radial edge 45 and the supporting surface 21a at the inward facing collar surface edge adjacent to the rim 26 of the collar 20. As shown in FIG. 8, the lower end of the frustoconical shape of the annular seal 40 substantially mirrors the upper side of the inner frustoconical shape of the collar 20. In position, the annular seal 40 attaches to and substantially butts up against an upper portion of the collar 20 of the container assembly 100 to form a seal. A recess 43 is provided in a lower side surface of the annular seal 40 that faces the upper surface of the collar 20. A concentric flange 44 extends inwardly at the entry end of the recess 43 in the annular seal 40 in order to provide an engagement and locking mechanism to attach to a concentric shoulder 30 defined by the bulbous head 29 of the projection 27. That is, the recess 43 of the annular seal 40 is pushed down over the bulbous head 29 until the concentric flange 44 slides over the bulbous head 29 and locks onto the concentric shoulders 30 below the bulbous head 29. FIG. 12 shows a bottom view of the collar 20. As shown in FIGS. 8 and 12, an off-center opening 25 is provided in the lower wall 33 and partially disposed in the intermediate wall 32. The off-center opening 25 is provided to enable a user to insert (such as with a finger) through the off-center opening 25 from below to push the annular seal 40 off of, and away from the projection 27. In this way, a user can efficiently disassemble the component parts of the container assembly 100 and thoroughly clean the various components in the container assembly 100. An advantage of providing the off-center opening 25 is for the user to be able to push their finger against a thicker portion of the annular seal 40 that can endure the repetitive pushing without causing damage to other sensitive portions of the annular seal 40 which could jeopardize the sealing capabilities of the annular seal 40 itself. For example, pushing against the annular seal 40 adjacent to the one-way air vent aperture 42 or pulling against the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 can potentially permanently deform and/or tear the annular seal 40 at various locations. Some of those sensitive locations being the concentric flange 44, the inward sealing surface edge 41 and/or the one-way air vent aperture 42 which could rupture its sealing capabilities. Referring back to FIG. 8, the annular seal 40 includes a one-way air valve 42 that communicated with the vent hole 36. The one-way air valve 42 is adapted to allow air to pass from the external environment through the annular seal 40 and into the air vent hole 36. The air vent hole 36 is in fluid communication with an internal volume within the container 10 into which the fluid is stored. As will be described later, a one-way air valve(s) may be provided in a variety of different locations to communicate with a vent hole 36 that can also be disposed in a variety of different locations on the collar 20. FIG. 10 depicts the container assembly 100 in operation. In use, when the user has tipped the rim 26 of the container assembly 100, over toward their lips, the fluid within the container 10 flows through the radially disposed apertures 34 in the collar 20 and collects in the reservoir cavity 35 adjacent to the upper end of the annular seal 40. As the user sucks at the edge of the container assembly 100, the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 is lifted off of the supporting surface 21a at the concentric inner surface of the collar 20 and the fluid inside of the container 10 is allowed to be drawn out of the container assembly 100 under the suction force applied to the rim of the container assembly 100. That is, the internal pressure within the container assembly 100 is reduced and a vacuum is created inside of the container assembly 100 relative to the atmospheric pressure outside of the container assembly 100. As a result, atmospheric air is drawn into the container assembly 100 through the one-way air valve 42 and back into the container assembly 100 through the vent hole 36 located in center of the annular seal 40 and the collar 20 respectively in an attempt to reestablish an equilibrium pressure state between the internal pressure within the container assembly 100 and the atmospheric pressure surrounding the container assembly 100. Referring back to FIG. 8, the material construction of the annular seal 40 surrounding the projection 27 may be substantially built up and/or thickened, as shown by the thickened raised portion 46 surrounding the projection 27, to provide the rigidity necessary to enable the interior cavity defined by the recess 43 and the concentric flange 44 to securely receive, hold and lock onto the extended outer edges 30 of the projection 27. The raised portion 46 is substantially large enough to comfortably support a finger, such as a thumb depressing downward the raised portion 46 onto and over the projection 27. The raised portion 46 may take various ergonomically comfortable configurations suitable to receive various parts of a user's hand. FIGS. 11, 13-15, 18-19, 22-23, 25 and 28 depict various views of the upper end of the non-spill container assembly 100 including a collar 20 and an annular seal 40 having a plurality of raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39. The raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39 are disposed concentrically on either an underside of the annular ring 40 or on an inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 or the supporting surface 21a of the collar 20. It is to be understood that the raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39 may be interchangeably located on the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 or integrated as part of the supporting surface 21a of the collar 20 as shown in FIGS. 8, 17-19, 22-23, 25 and 28. The raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39 define various channels through which the fluid within the container 10 may flow out of an opening between the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 and the supporting surface 21a of the collar 20. FIGS. 13-16 and 22 show various configurations for the projection 27. In particular, the projection 27 may be embodied as solid projection 27a structure as shown in FIGS. 13-14 and 22, or as a partially hollowed projection 27b having an open structure as shown in FIG. 15, or a recessed hollow closed structure as shown in FIG. 16. As before, the various projections 27a, 27b are constructed to be disposed and fastened within a recess 43 in the annular seal 40 as described above. In FIGS. 13-14, 16 and 28, an air vent aperture 36a may be provided offset from an axial center of the container assembly 100 to allow air to vent from an external environment back into the drinking container assembly 100. As shown, the air vent apertures 36a are provided offset from the center of the collar 20. For example, and as shown in FIG. 16, the air vent aperture 36a may be provided in intermediate wall 32 and a one-way air vent valve aperture 42a may be aligned with and in fluid communication with the air vent aperture 36a to allow the entry of air in from the external atmosphere. The lower end of the annular seal 40 may include various channels 44 as shown in FIGS. 13-14 and 16. The channels 44 may be concentric and may be provided in fluid communication with the air vent aperture 36a and the one-way valve aperture 42a. One of more air vent aperture 36a may be provided around the center of the container assembly 100. As shown in FIG. 22, the radially disposed apertures 34 may be optimally positioned to function as the air vent apertures 36a in which the radially disposed aperture 34 is positioned below the one-way air vent valve aperture 42a to fluidly communicate with atmospheric air outside of the container assembly 100 when a vacuum is built up with in the container assembly 100. FIG. 14 illustrates a cross section view of the upper end of the non-spill container assembly 100 having an upwardly extended pull tab 50 constructed into the upper surface of the annular seal 40. The upwardly extended pull tab 50 is adapted for removing the annular seal 40 from the secure position over the projection 27. The pull tab 50 is sufficiently pronounced and extends a predetermined distance above the upper surface of the valve 40 to receive a user's finger to grab onto the pull tab 50 and pull up with enough force to lift the annular seal 40 from the projection 27a of the container assembly 100. FIG. 16 shows an alternative embodiment in which the annular seal 40a is provided with a central aperture 46. A concentric flange 44 defines an undercut shoulder 47 provided at the central aperture 46. In use, in order to engage and lock the annular seal 40a onto and over the bulbous head 29a of the projection 27b, the concentric flange 44 of the central aperture 46 of the annular seal 40a is pushed down over the bulbous head 29 until the concentric flange 44 slides over a mating concentric shoulder 30 extending outward from the bulbous head 29a and locks its undercut shoulder 47 onto the extended concentric shoulder 30 below the bulbous head 29a. FIG. 17 depicts an exploded view of a non-spill container assembly 100 having another exemplary annular seal 40b according to the subject disclosure. The annular seal 40b is positioned and secured within the container assembly 100 between the collar 20 and the container 10 as shown in FIGS. 18-19. FIGS. 18-19 show the annular seal 40b secured between an inward projecting ledge 37 and an upper open end 13 of the container 10. The annular seal 40b also includes various raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39 disposed between the supporting surface 21a of the collar 20, and the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40, respectively. In one instance shown in FIG. 18, the raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39 are integrated onto the annular seal 40b. As shown in FIG. 19, the raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39 are integrated onto the supporting surface 21a at the inward collar surface edge of the collar 20. As shown in FIGS. 18-19, the male 24 and female 16 threads may be reversed to effect a secure mating connection between the container 10 and the collar 20. As shown, the collar 20 includes a side wall 31 with a pair of handles 17 extending there from. As before, the collar 20 also includes an inward projecting ledge 37 that extends from the inward facing collar surface wall 21 of the collar 20. Fluid passages 34 are disposed in the projecting ledge 37 and are adapted for alignment with fluid passages 34a in a concentric outermost end wall 54 extending from a lower wall 53 of the annular seal 40b. Fluid in the container 10 may flow out of the container 10 through the fluid passages 34 and 34a and into the reservoir cavity 35 between the annular seal 40b and the collar 20. The concentric outermost end wall 54 that branches off of and extends from the lower wall 53 of the annular seal 40b extends across the upper open end 13a of the container 10. The concentric outermost end 54 of the lower wall 53 may be comprised of a leak-proof material capable of sealing the connection between the container 10 and the collar 20 adjacent to the threaded attachment as shown in FIGS. 18-19. As before, the annular seal 40b includes an inward sealing surface edge 41 that applies a sealing pressure against the supporting surface 21a at the inwardly facing collar surface edge of the collar 20 to prevent spillage of the fluid from inside of the container 10 when no suction pressure is applied to the annular seal 40. When a suction pressure is applied to any location along the rim 26, the inward sealing surface edge 41 is lifted off of the supporting surface 21a at the inwardly facing collar surface edge of the collar 20 so that the fluid within the container 10 may flow out of the container assembly 100. The concentric outermost end 54 of the annular seal 20b and the inward projecting ledge 37 extending from the collar 20 include aligned fluid passages 34, 34a. An air vent aperture 36 is provided in the lower wall 53 to allow air to vent from the external environment back into the drinking container assembly 100 when a negative vacuum pressure has built up inside of the container assembly 100. The size, shape, orientation of the annular seal annular seal 40, 40a, 40b may be configured in a variety of different ways. The annular seal 40, 40a, 40b may be constructed of any type of suitable elastic resilient sealing material adapted to provide a leak proof seal between the collar and the annular seal. Likewise, one or more portions of the container assembly 100 may be co-molded to include various materials of various rigidity or strength. For example, the annular seal 40b may be comprised of a various resilient materials at different locations along the annular seal 40b, such as various durometers at various locations on the annular seal. For example, the inward sealing surface edge 41 and concentric outermost edge 54 may be made from a softer more resilient material and the remainder of the annular flange 40b, may be made of a harder resilient material or durometer. FIGS. 20, 21 and 22 show another upper perspective, an exploded view and a cross section view of the non-spill drinking container assembly 100. The construction for the container assembly 100 is similar to the embodiments described above and functions similarly with only relatively minor changes. The annular seal 40c includes a projecting raised portion 46 having a radially outward extending flange 46a at the uppermost peripheral end of the projecting raised portion 46. FIG. 22 depicts a cross section of the container assembly 100. As shown in more detail, the collar 20 has an internal frustoconical shape wall. Likewise, the annular seal 40 includes a mating frustoconical shape having an upwardly projecting bulb configuration in the center. Like the frustoconical shape walls of the various previous embodiments, the collar 20 has a circular upper rim 26 end that extends downwardly and inwardly from the rim 26 to a stepped intermediate wall 32. The intermediate wall 32 extends inward to a closed lower wall 33. And, the closed lower wall 33 has a projection 27 that extends outward from its center. As before, a circular upper rim abutment surface and/or the supporting surface 21a is provided at an upper edge of the inward collar surface edge 21 and is adapted to form a fluid seal when an inward sealing edge 41 of the annular seal 40 lies against the supporting surface 21a at the inner collar surface edge. As shown in FIGS. 23 and 25, a plurality of raised protrusions 38 and adjacent gaps 39 are disposed radially adjacent to the supporting surface 21a defining various fluid channels along the supporting surface 21a. Likewise, a plurality of radially disposed apertures 34 are disposed radially around the projection 27 throughout the internal frustoconical shape walls 32, 33, 37 of the collar 20 to allow the fluid in the container 10 to flow out of the container 10 and across the collar 20 into the reservoir cavity 35 provided above the apertures 34 and below the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40c. As mentioned previously, the various apertures 34, 34a may be constructed of a variety of different size openings and/or shapes. That is, the apertures 34 may be made smaller to reduce the flow rate of the fluid exiting from the container 10. Likewise, the apertures 34, 34a may be made larger to increase the flow rate of the fluid exiting from the container 10. Alternatively, in a single container such as shown in FIGS. 25-26, the apertures 34 may be varied in opening size and shape, some may be smaller and/or larger to selectively vary the flow rate of the fluid exiting from the container 10 as the user draws in the fluid by a suction action around the the rim 26 of the collar 20. Various modifications to the structure of the collar 20 and annular seal 40 affect the fluid flow properties of the fluid out of the container assembly 100. For example, the various raised protrusions 38 and adjacent gaps 39 can be raised or lowered and will affect the suction force required to lift the inward sealing surface edge 41 from the inward facing collar surface 20 edge. Likewise, the number and size of the various apertures 34 will affect the flow rate of the fluid out of the container assembly 100. The surface area contact made between the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40c and the supporting surface 21a of the collar 20 will also affect the amount of suction required to lift the the inward sealing surface edge 41 away from the supporting surface 21a of the collar 20. Various other features can also affect the use and operation of the container assembly 100. As shown in FIG. 22, the various apertures 34 also act as an air vent passage to communicate air from a one-way air vent valve aperture 42a back into the container 10 of the container assembly 100. The apertures 34 allow the pressure within the container 10 to come to an equilibrium state with the pressure outside of the container assembly 100. That is, after the user has sucked fluid out from within the container 10 and has caused a negative vacuum pressure within the container assembly 100, the apertures 34 allow air to flow back into the container 10 under a negative pressure drawing in air through the one-way air vent aperture 42a. As before, the plurality evenly spaced raised protrusions 38 and adjacent gaps 39 are provided to ensure that the flow of fluid from inside of the container 10 can freely flow between the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 and the supporting surface 21a at the upper inward facing collar surface edge of the collar 20. The raised protrusions 38 and gaps 39 are constructed to optimize the amount of minimum suction force required by the user to lift the outer edge of the annular seal 40 resting against the supporting surface 21a away from the collar 20 so that the seal can be broken without undue difficulty when a suction force is applied by the user. When a suction force is applied with a predetermined negative suction pressure to the rim 26 of the collar 20, the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 will be lifted under the suction force. The inward sealing surface edge 41 will lift off of the supporting surface 21a at the collar surface edge with enough height to break the seal and allow the liquid to flow between the raised protrusions 38 and in the gaps 39 on the supporting surface 21a. The annular seal 40 as shown in FIGS. 22 and 29-34 is composed of a flexible valve constructed in a form of a frustoconical disc. As shown in cross section in FIG. 22, the shape of the annular seal 40 is substantially similar to a shape of internal frustoconical shape wall 32, 33, 21a of the collar 20. A lower surface 49 of the annular seal 40 has a recess 43 with a blind bore construction on its lower surface 49 and at its center. The blind bore recess 43 is constructed to receive and secure a concentric flange 44 disposed at the lower surface 49 of the annular seal 40 onto the outer extending edge 30 of the projection 27 in the collar 20. As with the other embodiments described, threads 16, 24 are provided at the bottom end of the collar 20 to securely fasten the collar 20 in the container 10. In assembly, the annular seal 40 is positioned over an upper surface of the collar 20, opposite a lower surface facing the container 10. The frustoconical shape of the annular seal 40 is also constructed similar in shape and function to a suction cup. The fluid seal of the annular seal 40 occurs between the outermost radial edge 41 of the annular seal 40 and a concentric supporting surface 21a provided at the inward facing collar surface edge of the collar 20 adjacent to the rim 26. The frustoconical shape of the annular seal 40 substantially mirrors the inner frustoconical shape of the collar 20. In position, the outermost radial edge 41 of the annular seal 40 and the collar 20 butt up against each other to form a seal. As shown in FIG. 34, the concentric outermost radial edge 41 of the annular seal 40 may be made thinner than the other portions of the annular seal 40 in order to provide a wall with enough of an optimal thickness that will seal the outermost radial edge 41 to the collar 20, albeit a thin enough outermost radial edge 41 that can be easily lifted off to break the seal with a predetermined amount of suction force provided by a user to allow the fluid within the container 10 to flow out of the container assembly 100. As shown in FIG. 22, the concentric flange 44 extends inwardly at the lower surface 49 entry end of the recess 43 in the annular seal 40. The concentric flange 44 is constructed to provide an engagement and locking mechanism onto which a concentric shoulder 30 of the bulbous head 29 of the projection 27 may be secured. That is, the recess 43 at the lower surface 49 of the annular seal 40 is aligned with and pushed down over the bulbous head 29 until the concentric flange 44 slides over the bulbous head 29 and locks onto the concentric shoulders 30 defining the lower end of the bulbous head 29. To remove annular seal 40 from the collar 30, the user may grab onto the radially extending flange 46a and pull it upward away from the collar 20. In this manner, the concentric flange 44 is lifted off of the shoulder 30 on the projection 27 thereby disengaging the annular seal 40 from collar 30. Removing the annular seal 40 from the collar is an advantage when a user desires to wash and/or clean the various component parts of the container assembly 100. The embodiment provided in FIGS. 20-34 function similar to the various other embodiments provided in this subject disclosure. Likewise, an advantage of providing the radially extending flange 46a is to enable the user to pull the annular seal 40 away from the collar 20 without jeopardize the sealing capabilities of the annular seal 40 itself as a consequence of repetitive removal and installation of the annular valve 40. For example, pushing against the annular seal 40 adjacent to the one-way air vent aperture 42 or pulling against the inward sealing surface edge 41 of the annular seal 40 can potentially permanently deform and/or tear the annular seal 40 at various locations. Some of those sensitive locations being the concentric flange 44, the inward sealing surface edge 41 and/or the one-way air vent aperture 42a which could rupture its sealing capabilities. As shown in more detail in FIGS. 22 and 33-34, the annular seal 40 includes one-way air valve apertures 42a aligned with, and in fluid communication with the various radially disposed apertures 34. The one-way air vent valve apertures 42a may include a recess 60 on an inner upper surface 61 of the annular seal 40. The valve apertures 42a may also include a complimentary recess 62 on a lower surface 63 of the annular seal 40. The complementary recess 62 is adapted to allow the entry of air in from the external atmosphere as the volume of fluid in the container 10 is drawn out to replace the absence of the volume displaced and the vacuum created by the displacement of fluid. The depth of the two recesses 60, 62 are constructed to provide an optimum thickness through which the one-way valve aperture 42a in the container assembly 100 is disposed. The illustrations and examples provided herein are for explanatory purposes and are not intended to limit the scope of the appended claims. It will be recognized by those skilled in the art that changes or modifications may be made to the above described embodiment without departing from the broad inventive concepts of the invention. It is understood therefore that the invention is not limited to the particular embodiment which is described, but is intended to cover all modifications and changes within the scope and spirit of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Various types of spill-proof containers are known. As a parent attempts to wean an infant away from a conventional bottle, typically, an interim or transition spill-proof container with a spout is useful before the child can comfortably handle and use a conventional open top cup. Unfortunately, in these formative years, young children struggle with having complete control over holding and carrying a traditional open cup. Consequently, spillage frequently occurs when the infant or child knocks over their cup and causes substantial leakage onto the ground, themselves or elsewhere. Non-spill container covers for drinking containers have been long sought after for many years. Various coverings for fluid-filled containers have been manufactured for use by a person who is in motion, such as a cover for a hot coffee container to be used in a moving vehicle such as an automobile. However, traditional non-spill container covers generally required relatively complex parts and valve structures in addition to restricting the particular area from which a user can drink from the container cover. Accordingly, there is a need for the development of a transition cup which does not easily spill when knocked over. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A non-spill container having a collar and seal assembly from which drinking can occur at any location around a rim of the collar and seal assembly. The collar has an open upper end, a closed lower end, and a sidewall. The open upper end is proximate to and includes the upper end of a side wall, an upper perimeter and a rim. The closed lower end has a projection extending upward therefrom and at least one passage disposed through the closed lower end to channel a fluid. The sidewall has a tapered shape that extends from the open upper end inward toward the closed lower end and has a support surface provided along an inner surface adjacent to the open upper end. The support surface has at least one radial protrusion is disposed radially adjacent to the support surface to define at least one channel. A fastener assembly is provided on an external wall of the collar. The seal has a surface that is substantially similar to a shape of the open upper end and an aperture for receiving and securing the projection therein. | A47G192272 | 20170629 | 20180213 | 20171019 | 99490.0 | A47G1922 | 1 | SMALLEY, JAMES N | NON-SPILL DRINKING CONTAINER | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A47G | 2,017 |
15,638,198 | ACCEPTED | SYSTEM AND METHOD OF CONTROL OF ELECTRONIC PARCEL LOCKERS | A system, apparatus, and method for use in delivery of items to a storage unit. The storage unit can include one or several storage receptacles and a control unit that controls and monitors the status of the one or several storage receptacles. The storage unit may be included in a storage unit system that can include one or several storage units and a central control unit. The central control unit can communicate with the one or several storage units, and can receive status and availability updates from the one or several storage units. | 1. A storage system comprising: a plurality of storage units comprising a plurality of receptacles; an input device configured to automatically receive item information from an item to be stored, and to automatically transmit the received item information; and a control unit configured to receive the transmitted item information, the control unit comprising: a storage element comprising user account preferences including preference information identifying comparative preferences of the plurality of storage units as delivery locations; and a processor configured to: determine, based on the received item information, whether one of the plurality of receptacles at a first one of the storage units is available to receive the item, if no receptacle at the first storage unit is available to receive the item, to determine, based on the received item information and upon the preference information, a second one of the storage units which is remote from the first storage unit and which has a receptacle available to receive the item; and to notify a user regarding the second storage unit having the receptacle available to receive the item. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein access to one of the receptacles is granted in response to providing verification to the control unit of user age or user identity. 3. The system of claim 2, wherein access to one of the receptacles to remove a deposited item is granted in response to receipt of item identification information and user identification information matching the item identification information and user identification information associated with the item. 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the item information comprises a type or dimensions of the item, and wherein the control unit is configured receive the type or dimensions of the item and is configured to determine, based on the type or size of the item, whether one of the plurality of receptacles at the first storage unit of the correct type or size is available to receive the item, and granting access to the available receptacle at the first storage unit. 5. The system of claim 4, wherein if no receptacle at the first storage unit is available to receive the item, based on the type or dimensions of the item, the processor is configured to determine the location of the second storage unit having the receptacle of the correct type or size available to receive the item and to provide access to the available receptacle in the second storage unit. 6. A method of operating a plurality of storage units comprising a plurality of receptacles, the method comprising: receiving a user input to deposit an item to be stored; receiving via a reader, from the item to be stored, item information; automatically transmitting the received item information indication to a control unit in communication with at least one of the plurality of storage units; querying a database in a storage element, wherein the storage element comprises user account preferences including preference information identifying different storage units of the plurality of storage units and their comparative preferences as delivery locations, in order to identify a first storage unit based on the preference information and to identify an available receptacle in the first storage unit; if no receptacle of an appropriate type is available to receive the item at the first storage unit, querying, based on the item information and upon the preference information, a database for a second storage unit which is remote from the first storage unit and which has an available receptacle of the appropriate type to receive the item; and displaying information regarding the second storage unit having the available receptacle. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the item information comprises size or type information of the item to be stored. 8. The method of claim 6, wherein querying a database in a storage element comprises determining if one of the receptacles at the first storage unit is of an appropriate type or size for receiving the item according to the size or type information. 9. The method of claim 6, wherein receiving the user input comprises receiving a user input at the first storage unit. 10. The method of claim 6, wherein the user input or item information is received via a mobile device. 11. A system for selectively receiving, storing, and dispensing one or more items, the system comprising: a plurality storage units comprising a plurality of receptacles each configured to receive at least one item; means for automatically receiving, from an item to be stored, item information and for automatically transmitting the received information; means for receiving the transmission of the received item information means for storing user account preferences including preference information identifying different storage units and their comparative preference as delivery locations; means for determining, based on the item information, whether one of the plurality of receptacles at a first one of the storage units is available to receive the item; means for determining, based on the received item information and upon the preference information, if no receptacle of the appropriate type is available to receive the item at the first storage unit, a second one of the storage units which is remote from the first storage unit and which has an available receptacle able to receive the item; and means for displaying information regarding the second storage unit having the available receptacle. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/706,281, filed Dec. 5, 2012, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application 61/567,048, filed Dec. 5, 2011, the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. This application is related to U.S. application Ser. Nos. 13/706,255 and 13/706,234, entitled “System and Method of Coordinating Electronic Parcel Locker Availability,” and “System and Method of Controlling Item Delivery to an Electronic Parcel Locker,” having serial numbers U.S. Pat. Nos. 9,052,992 and 9,223,315 respectively. This application is related to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/733657, entitled “A Lock Mechanism for Securing a Lockable Volume,” the entire contents of which are herein incorporated by reference. This application is related to U.S. application Ser. No. ______, (to be filed in following filing) entitled “System and Method of Control of Electronic Parcel Lockers,” having attorney docket number USPS.053C1, filed concurrently herewith. Any and all applications for which a foreign or domestic priority claim is identified in the Application Data Sheet as filed with the present application are hereby incorporated by reference under 37 CFR 1.57. BACKGROUND Field of the Development This disclosure relates to the field of the transportation, delivery, and/or receipt of one or several items and the field of communication, tracking, and control of the transportation, delivery, and/or receipt of one or several items. SUMMARY Some embodiments described herein include a system for selectively receiving, storing, and dispensing one or more items, the system comprising a first receptacle comprising a securement feature a second receptacle comprising a securement feature; and a control unit comprising a storage device comprising stored instructions which, when executed, cause a processor to provide and deny access to the receptacles, and to track the availability of each of the receptacles, wherein an identifier indicative of the availability of the receptacles is stored in the storage element when the receptacle does not contain an item, and wherein an identifier indicative of the unavailability of the receptacles is stored in the storage element when the receptacle contains an item. In some embodiments, the first receptacle further comprises a feature indicating when the first receptacle is unlocked. In some embodiments, the feature indicating when the first receptacle is unlocked comprises a light. In some embodiments, the securement features are controlled by the control unit and access to one of the receptacles is granted to deposit an item or to remove a deposited item. In some embodiments, access to one of the receptacles is granted in response to providing verification to the control unit of user age or user identity. In some embodiments, access to one of the receptacles to remove a deposited item is granted in response to receipt of item identification information and user identification information matching the item identification information and user identification information associated with the item. In some embodiments, the control unit is configured receive dimensions of an item to be deposited and configured to determine which of the receptacles having a size sufficient to receive the item to be deposited is available, and granting access to the receptacle having a size sufficient to receive the item to be deposited. In some embodiments, the first receptacle and the second receptacle are of different types or sizes, and the control unit is configured to receive input of a user preference as to type or size of the receptacle, and to provide access to the available receptacle matching the user's preferences. In some embodiments, the system further comprises a database containing user information accessible by the control unit, wherein the control unit is configured to select the receptacle which corresponds to the user information. Some embodiments described herein include a method of operating a storage unit comprising a plurality of receptacles and a control unit, the method comprising receiving a user input at the control unit of the storage unit; querying a database for a receptacle corresponding to the user input; displaying the location of a receptacle; receiving a user input selecting the indicated receptacle; unlocking the selected receptacle; receiving confirmation that the user has completed a transaction; and locking the receptacle following completion of the transaction. In some embodiments, the user instruction comprises a request for retrieval of an item that is located in one of the receptacles. In some embodiments, the storage unit displays the location of the receptacle containing the item. In some embodiments, the user instruction comprises a request for depositing an item in one of the receptacles. In some embodiments, the method further comprises requesting size information of the item. In some embodiments, the method further comprises determining if one of the receptacles is available for receiving the item and displaying the location of at least one available receptacle. In some embodiments, the method further comprises receiving user or item identification information. In some embodiments, the user or item identification information is received via a scanner. In some embodiments, the method further comprises receiving proof of postage purchase. In some embodiments, the method further comprises printing postage. Some embodiments described herein include a system for selectively receiving, storing, and dispensing one or more items, the system comprising a plurality of receptacles each configured to receive at least one item means for selectively controlling access to each of the plurality of receptacles in response to a user input; means for indicating which of the plurality of receptacles corresponding to the user input is available; and means for confirming whether an item has been deposited in or removed from one of the plurality of receptacles. Some embodiments disclosed herein include a method of depositing an item comprising, issuing an item identification code configured to be read by a control unit which controls access to a plurality of receptacles, the item identification code associated to an item parameter, the item identification code and the item parameter being stored in a database; receiving the item identification code at the control unit; requesting user identification to initiate a deposit transaction; receiving user identification in the form of an electronic signature; receiving the identity of the intended recipient for the item; determining which of the plurality of receptacles is available to receive the item,; determining which of the available receptacles is configured to receive the item, based on the received item identification code and the associated item parameter; indicating which of the plurality of receptacles is available and is configured to receive the item; receiving user input selecting one of the indicated receptacles; generating and sending a control signal to a lock on the user selected receptacle thereby unlocking the user selected receptacle; receiving the item in the user selected receptacle; requesting deposit confirmation at the control unit; receiving deposit confirmation at the control unit; generating and sending a control signal to the lock on the selected receptacle in response to the receipt of the deposit confirmation, thereby locking the selected receptacle; and issuing a receipt documenting the deposit transaction. In some embodiments, determining which of the plurality of receptacles is available to receive the item comprises the control unit querying a receptacle availability database. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing and other features of the present disclosure will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. Understanding that these drawings depict only several embodiments in accordance with the disclosure and are not to be considered limiting of its scope, the disclosure will be described with additional specificity and detail through use of the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 depicts a perspective view of one embodiment of a storage unit. FIG. 1A depicts a perspective view of one embodiment of a storage receptacle. FIG. 1B depicts a perspective view of one embodiment of An interchangeable storage receptacle module with individual storage receptacles, and a module receiving area. FIG. 1C depicts a perspective view of one embodiment of a control unit. FIG. 1D depicts an exploded view of an embodiment of a storage unit. FIG. 1E depicts a front view of an embodiment of a control unit having additional accessibility features. FIG. 2 depicts a schematic illustration of one embodiment of a storage unit. FIGS. 3-3F depict flow charts of different embodiments of operation of the control of a storage unit. FIGS. 4-4A depict functional layouts of one embodiment of a storage unit system. FIGS. 5-5F depict flow charts of different embodiments of operation of the control of the storage unit system. FIGS. 6-6A depict flow charts of different embodiments of a method of item delivery utilizing a storage unit system. FIG. 7 depicts a flow chart of one embodiment of a method of registering for use of storage unit system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description, reference is made to the accompanying drawings, which form a part hereof In the drawings, similar symbols typically identify similar components, unless context dictates otherwise. The illustrative embodiments described in the detailed description, drawings, and claims are not meant to be limiting. Other embodiments may be utilized, and other changes may be made, without departing from the spirit or scope of the subject matter presented here. It will be readily understood that the aspects of the present disclosure, as generally described herein, and illustrated in the Figures, may be arranged, substituted, combined, and designed in a wide variety of different configurations, all of which are explicitly contemplated and make part of this disclosure. Some embodiments disclosed herein relate generally to a storage unit configured for use in item distribution. The storage unit may be an electronic parcel locker which acts as a parcel exchange point where customers send paid parcels or retrieve delivered parcels from electronic parcel lockers located in convenient locations. The customers may be customers who have registered to use the storage unit system, or may be guest users who perform one or more discrete transactions without registration. In some embodiments, the storage unit includes, for example, a plurality of storage receptacles. In some embodiments, access to the storage receptacles of the storage unit is controlled by a control unit. The control unit, in some embodiments, is configured to communicate information to, and receive inputs from a user, which may be a customer or an agent, and may, in response to those inputs, provide user access to one or more of the storage receptacles. In some embodiments, the control unit of the storage receptacle may be further configured to allow the creation of labeling for placement on an item. This may include, for example, creation of identification labeling, mailing labeling, such as, for example, destination and/or return address, postage, or any other desired labeling. Some embodiments disclosed herein relate to an item delivery system that includes a plurality of storage units. In some embodiments, the plurality of storage units each communicate with a central control unit. These communications relate to, for example, the availability of storage receptacles at each of the storage units. In some embodiments, the control unit uses this information relating to the availability of storage receptacles to direct the flow of items to thereby maximize usage of the storage receptacles. A person of skill in the art, having the instant specification, will appreciate that a storage unit, and a delivery system disclosed herein may be used with diverse items and in diverse ways. Storage Unit As used herein, the term storage unit denotes a place which facilitates pick-up and drop-off of items. In some embodiments, the storage unit is intended to provide a location for short term storage of an item after an item is dropped off or while the item is waiting to be picked up or received by an agent or customer. FIG. 1 depicts one embodiment of a storage unit 100. As depicted in FIG. 1, a storage unit has a top 110, a bottom 112, a front 114, a back (not shown), a first end 118, and a second end 120. Some embodiments of a storage unit 100 include features to facilitate placement of the storage unit 100 and protection of the storage unit 100 from the elements. In some embodiments, the storage unit 100 comprises a base 122. The base 122 is located at the bottom 112 of the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the base 122 is configured for securing the storage unit 100 to a placement location, and is constructed of steel, concrete, aluminum, metal, a synthetic material, a natural material, or any other desired material. In some embodiments, the base 122 may include features for securement, such as, for example, screws, bolts, nuts, clips, hooks, or any other desired securement feature. These features may include any features capable of securing the storage unit 100 to the location at which the storage unit 100 is placed. In some embodiments, the base 122 is integrally formed as a non-removable portion of the storage unit 100, and provides a foundation or support for the storage unit as the storage unit 100 is installed or located at a site. In some embodiments, the base 122 comprises an elevated base. An elevated base is configured to elevate the storage unit 100 above the surrounding ground level to thereby protect the storage unit 100 and the contents of the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the elevated base is sized to prevent water from entering the storage unit 100. Specifically, the elevated base is sized to prevent water from precipitation, such as, from rain, or snow, from entering the storage unit 100, as well as to prevent any other liquids from flowing into or from entering into the storage unit 100. As depicted in FIG. 1, some embodiments of the storage unit 100 include a roof 124. The roof 124 is positioned above the top 110 of the storage unit 100. The roof 124 is sized to cover some or all of the top 110 of the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the roof 124 is sized so that the roof 124 covers a larger area than that occupied by the storage unit 100. The roof 124 may be made of a variety of materials, including, for example, metal, man-made materials, natural materials, or any other desired material. The roof 124 may comprise a variety of shapes. In some embodiments, the roof 124 may comprise one or several substantially planar surfaces, rounded or curved surfaces, or surfaces having any other desired shape. The roof 124 may be positioned in any desired angular position relative to the top 110 of the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the roof 124 is positioned parallel to the top 110 of the storage unit 100, or the roof is positioned non-parallel to the top 110 of the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, when the roof comprises a plurality of pieces, some pieces of the roof may be positioned parallel to the top 110 of the storage unit 100, and some pieces of the roof 124 is positioned non-parallel to the top 110 of the storage unit 100. The roof 124 as depicted in FIG. 1 comprises three substantially planar pieces angularly positioned relative to the top 110 of the storage unit 100, a first substantially planar piece 126, a second substantially planar piece 128, and a third substantially planar piece 130. As depicted in FIG. 1, a plurality of planar pieces are arranged so as to allow complete coverage of the top 110 of the storage unit 100. The storage unit 100 may comprise one or several receptacle units each comprising a plurality of storage receptacles 132. Each storage receptacle 132 comprises a plurality of sides 134 and a door 136. The combination of the sides 134 and the door 136 defines a receiving volume configured to receive and hold a deposited item. The storage receptacles 132 may comprise a variety of shapes and sizes. In some embodiments, the storage unit 100 comprises a plurality of storage receptacles 132 of different sizes. Thus, as depicted in FIG. 1, the storage unit 100 includes a first storage receptacle 132a, a second storage receptacle 132b that is smaller than the first storage receptacle 132a, and a third storage receptacle 132c that is larger than the first storage receptacle 132a. In some embodiments, the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is dynamically connected to the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is dynamically connected to the storage unit 100 so as to allow rotation of the door 136 relative to the storage unit 100, so as to allow sliding movement of the door 136 relative to the storage unit 100, or to allow any other desired movement of the door 136 relative to the storage unit 100. As depicted in FIG. 1A, in one embodiment, the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is rotationally connected to one of the walls 134 of the storage receptacle 132. In one specific embodiment, the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is rotationally connected to one of the walls 134 of the storage receptacle 132 via one or more hinges 138. As depicted in FIG. 1A, the connection of the door 136 to one of the walls of the storage receptacle 134 allow rotational displacement of the door 136 relative to the storage receptacle 134 and the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the storage receptacle 132 includes features configured to secure the door 136 of the storage receptacle. These features may include, for example, a lock, a latch, or any other securement feature. In some embodiments, the lock is one of a mechanical lock, an electrical lock, and magnetic lock, or any other type of lock. The securement feature may interact with cooperating structures to secure the door 136. The securement feature may be located in any desired position on the storage receptacle. FIG. 1A shows one embodiment of a location of a securement feature 140 on the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132. As depicted in FIG. 1A, the securement feature 140 located on the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 cooperates with features of the walls 134 of the storage receptacle 132 to secure the door. In some embodiments, the securement feature 140 may comprise a purpose built securement feature. In some embodiments, the securement feature may comprise a latching feature and a latch engagement and disengagement feature. The latching feature may be configured to obstruct movement of a locked item. In the case of a storage receptacle 132, the latch lockingly engages the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 and obstructs movement of the door 136. In some embodiments, the latch engagement and disengagement feature may comprise components and/or a mechanism interacting together to selectively allow the engagement and/or disengagement of the latch. In some embodiments, the latch engagement and disengagement feature is a rotatable cylinder of a lock. In some embodiments, the latch engagement and disengagement feature may comprise an electrical actuator connected to the latch. A person of skill in the art will recognize that the present disclosure is not limited to any specific form of locking or any specific locking mechanism, but broadly encompasses any lock or form of locking used in connection with the storage unit. In some embodiments, the securement feature is configured for remote operation. Specifically, in some embodiments, the securement feature 140 is controllable in response to received signals, such as, for example, electric, light, optical, radio, or any other signal. The received signals may come from a control unit including a controller as will be further described in more detail below. In some embodiments, for example, the securement feature 140 is controllably disengaged so as to allow access to the securement receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the storage receptacles 132 may be configured with features to expedite recognition of an accessible storage receptacle 132. Thus, in some embodiments, the storage receptacle 132 may comprise one or several receptacle designating features that facilitate recognition of which of the several storage receptacles is accessible. In some embodiments, these receptacle features may include, for example, a feature configured to open the door 136 of the storage receptacle when the securement feature of the storage receptacle is disengaged such as, for example, a spring, a motor, or any other feature, a designator, such as, for example, a light, or any other desired feature. In some embodiments, a storage receptacle includes a light 142. This light 142 may be any desired type of light emitting object, such as, for example, a light bulb, a LED, or any other light emitting object. In some embodiments, the operation of the light 142 changes based on the accessibility of any of the storage receptacles 132. Thus, if the light 142 is normally on, the light 142 may be turned off to indicate that the storage receptacle 132 is accessible. Similarly, if the light 142 light 142 is normally turned off, the light 142 light 142 may be turned on to indicate that the storage receptacle 132 is accessible. Similar techniques may be used with other indicators to designate which, if any, of the storage receptacles 132 are accessible. In some embodiments the light is located, for example, on one of the outside edges of the one of the walls 134 of the storage receptacle 136. In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 1A, the light 142 is located along the outside edge of the wall 134 opposite the wall to which the hinges 138 are attached. In some embodiments, light 142 may be disposed in the interior of storage receptacle 132. light 142 The light 142 is mounted on or within one of the walls 134 or the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132. As depicted in FIG. 1B, the light 142 is mounted on the wall 134 opposite the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132. The light 142 is configured for lighting when the storage receptacle 132 is accessible, and/or, when the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is opened, thereby linking the operation of the light 142 to the position of the door. Advantageously, the linking between the light 142 and the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 allows lighting of the receiving area of the storage receptacle 132 when the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is opened, and thereby facilitate a user's ability to see the contents of the storage receptacle 132 when they are accessing the storage receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the light 142 may be used in connection with other features to allow easy identification of an accessible storage receptacle 132. Thus, in some embodiments, the light 142 is visible to a user when the storage receptacle is accessible. In some embodiments the light 142 is disposed on an outer surface the door 136, such that the light 142 is visible to a user standing in front of the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the light is a receptacle designating feature. The light 142 may indicate which of the storage receptacles 132 is available or is activated for use. The light 142 In some embodiments the storage receptacle 132 further includes, a feature configured to detect the position of the door 136, such as, for example, whether the door 136 is open or closed. In some embodiments, the door position detection feature comprises, for example, a sensor, a switch, or any other feature capable of detecting if the door 136 is open. In some embodiments, the door position detection feature is integrated into another feature of the storage receptacle, such as, for example, the securement feature 140, or a switch associated with the light 142. The storage receptacle 132 further includes features configured to detect the presence or absence of an item within the receiving area of the storage receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the item detection feature configured to detect the presence or absence of an item within the receiving area of the storage receptacle 132 comprises, for example, a sensor 145. The sensor 145 may be a camera, or any other feature possessing the desired capabilities. The sensor 145 may be located on one of the walls 134 or on the door 136. In one embodiment, for example, the sensor comprises for example, a load cell or a strain gauge configured to sense when a load is applied to the storage receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the storage receptacle 132 may be configured to maintain climatic conditions within the storage receptacle 132. Specifically, in some embodiments, the storage receptacle may be configured to allow maintenance of a temperature and relative humidity level that are different than the levels of the area in which the storage unit 100 containing the storage receptacle 132 is placed. In some such embodiments, the storage receptacle 132 may be climate controlled by connection to an HVAC system and/or air humidifier to facilitate the maintenance of desired climate conditions within the storage receptacle 132. Additionally, in some embodiments, the storage receptacle 132 is sealed and/or insulted to facilitate the maintenance of desired climatic conditions within the storage receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the storage unit 100 is configured for collection of items deposited by a customer for delivery. In some embodiments, these features may include, for example, a storage receptacle 132 comprising a mail slot 141, disposed in the door 136, to allow collection of envelopes, postcards, flats, or any other thin item. In some embodiments, these features may comprise a storage receptacle associated with a collection bin 143. The collection bin 143 may be located inside the storage receptacle such that items placed in the storage receptacle 132 are deposited in the collection bin. In some embodiments, a storage receptacle module is modularly installed into a storage unit 100. In some embodiments, a storage receptacle module comprises one or several connected storage receptacles 132. Advantageously, a storage receptacle module may facilitate adaptation of a storage unit 100 to meet a range of customer needs. In some embodiments, for example, a first storage receptacle module may be removed from the storage unit 100 and replaced by a second storage receptacle module having storage receptacles 132 different storage area dimensions. The dimensions of the storage receptacles 132 of the second storage receptacle module may be selected based on customer demand for specific sizes of storage receptacles 132 in a particular storage unit 100 depending on use patterns, specific customer requests, and the location of the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the storage sets are configured with features configured for modular use with the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, these features cooperatively interact with features of the storage unit 100 to selectively secure the storage set in the storage unit 100. In one embodiment, and as depicted in FIG. 1B, a storage receptacle module 131 is shown removed from the module receiving area 133 of the storage unit 100. As seen, the storage receptacle module 131 and the module receiving area 133 comprise corresponding shapes and dimensions, such that the storage receptacle module 131 fits within the module receiving area 133. In some embodiments, the storage receptacle module 131 is secured within the module receiving area 133. In some embodiments, the storage receptacle module 131 is secured within the module receiving area 133 through the interaction of features of the storage receptacle module 131 with features of the module receiving area 133. In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 1B, the storage receptacle module 131 comprises a plurality of features 137 configured to securingly connect to an attachment or connection mechanism 135 of the module receiving area 133. In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 1B, the storage receptacle module features 137 comprises a plurality of hooks attached to the back of the storage receptacle modules 131, configured to engage the attachment or connection mechanism 135 disposed in the module receiving area 133. The first and second set of storage receptacles have the same features 137, such that each storage set, although it may comprise variously sized storage receptacles 132, each fits the standardized installing hardware. In some embodiments, one or both of the storage receptacle module 131 and the module receiving area 133 comprise features to facilitate engagement between the plurality of features of the storage receptacle module 131 and the plurality of features of the module receiving area 133. The storage receptacle modules 131 may comprise varying types and/or sizes of individual storage receptacles 132. The storage receptacle modules are configured to be interchangeable within storage unit 100. For example, if desired, a storage receptacle module 131 having small storage receptacles 132 may be removed, and interchanged with a storage receptacle module 131 having large storage receptacles 132. To facilitate interchangeability, the varying storage receptacle modules 131 have identical mounting hardware and electrical connections such that each storage receptacle module 131 fits within any module receiving area 133 and provides electrical connection to the control unit 144. To facilitate interchanging the storage receptacle modules 131, each storage receptacle module 131 has features configured to attach or connect the storage receptacle module 132 with the attachment or connection mechanism 135 disposed within the module receiving area 133. As was indicated above, in some embodiments, as the storage receptacle module 131 is inserted into module receiving area 133, the storage receptacle module features 137 engage with attachment or connection points 135. A slidable plate 139 is attached to a vertical surface within module receiving area 133, and is vertically displaceable between a first position in which the storage receptacle module features 137 do not securingly engage the module receiving area features 135, and a second position in which the storage receptacle module features 137 do securingly engage the module receiving area features 135 within the module receiving area 133. In one embodiment, the storage receptacle module 131 is installed into the module receiving area 133 when the slidable plate 139 is located in its first position. After installation of the storage receptacle module 131 into the module receiving area 133, the slidable plate 139 is moved into its second position, during which movement, the storage receptacle module features 137 engage with the module receiving area features 135 and secure the storage receptacle module 131 in the module receiving area 133. In some embodiments, the slidable plate is moved from a first position to a second position, or vice versa, by operating, for example, a screw, a ratchet, a jack, a mechanical lift, a hydraulic lift, a pneumatic lift, or any other mechanism, feature, or system capable of facilitating engagement between the plurality of features 137 on the storage receptacle module 131 and the plurality of features 135 in the module receiving area 133. In one embodiment, and as depicted in FIG. 1B, the module receiving area features 135 are located in a slidable plate 139. The slidable plate 139 is positioned substantially planar with any of the walls of the module receiving area 133. In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 1B, the slidable plate 139 is located on the wall opposite to the open side of the module receiving area 133. Referring again to FIG. 1, some embodiments of a storage unit 100 further include a control unit 144. As more clearly depicted in FIG. 1C, the control unit 144 includes, for example, a control cabinet 146 including a screen 148, a scanner 150, a printer 152, a payment feature 154, a security camera 155, and a service door 156. In some embodiments, the control cabinet 146 of the control unit 144 is connected to the plurality of storage receptacles 132 of the storage unit 100. The storage cabinet has a front 158, back 160, top 162, bottom 164, first side (not shown), and second side 165. In some embodiments, the control cabinet 146 is integrally formed with portions of some of the plurality of storage receptacles 132 of the control unit 144. In some embodiments, the first side and the second side 165 of the control cabinet 146 is adjacent to and/or affixed to a plurality of the storage receptacles 132. The control cabinet 146 may comprise a variety of shapes and sizes, and may be made of a variety of materials. In some embodiments, the control cabinet 146 includes features and is made of materials to protect the contents of the control cabinet 146 from man-made and natural risks. In some embodiments the control cabinet 146 is configured to allow selective access to the contents of the control cabinet 146. In some embodiments, such configuration may advantageously allow the maintenance, repair, and general upkeep of the contents of the control cabinet 146. In some embodiments, access to the control cabinet 146 is provided through, for example, the service door 156. The service door 156 is configured for movement between a first open position and a second closed position. In some embodiments, the service door 156 is connected with the control cabinet 146 so as to allow movement to and between the first open position and the second closed position. In some embodiments, the dynamic connection of the service door 156 to the control cabinet 146 is achieved, for example, through the use of hinges, clasps, lips, protrusion, engaging members, or a variety of other features. In some embodiments, these features may cooperate with corresponding features on the control cabinet 146 to secure the service door 156. In some embodiments, the service door 156 further includes one or more locking mechanisms. The locking mechanism is configured to secure the service door 156 when the service door is in its second, closed position. The locking mechanism may comprise a variety of mechanisms, including, for example, a mechanical lock, an electric lock, a magnetic lock, or any other type of locking mechanism. In some embodiments, the lock is controlled via the control unit 144, with a key, or in any other desired fashion. In some embodiments, the control cabinet 146 includes, for example, a service door 156. The service door 156 is located, for example, on an exposed face of the control cabinet 146. In one embodiment, the service door 156 is located, for example, on the front of the control cabinet 146. In some embodiments, the front 158 of the control cabinet 146 is openable to reveal the internal components of the control cabinet 146. The front 158 of the control cabinet 146 may be attached to the control cabinet 146 via a hinge or a plurality of hinges, Thus, as the front 158 of the control cabinet 146 opens on the hinge or plurality of hinges, each of the components disposed on the front 158 of the control cabinet 146 moves with the front 158 of the control cabinet 146. In some embodiments, a lock or plurality of locks (not shown) is located on the front 158 of the control cabinet 146 configured to lock and secure the front 158 and prevent unauthorized access into the internal area of the control cabinet 146. The control unit 144 depicted in FIG. 1C includes a screen 148. The screen 148 is configured to display information to a user. The screen 148 may comprise a CRT screen, a plasma screen, a LCD screen, or any other desired screen type. In some embodiments the screen 148 is paired with other output features configured to transmit information to a user, such as, for example, a speaker, a display, or any other information transmitting feature. In some embodiments the screen 148 has a touch-screen functionality. In some embodiments, the screen 148 is configured to receive an electronic signature from a user using a signature capture process. In some embodiments, the screen 148 is paired with an input feature configured to allow a user to input information and/or commands to the control unit 144. In some embodiments, the input feature may comprise, for example, a touch-screen, a keypad, a microphone, or any other user input device. Referring now to FIG. 1D, in some embodiments, the roof 124 comprises a plurality of planar pieces attached to the top 110 of storage unit 100, and positioned close together. The roof 124 extends past the vertical plane of the front 114 of the storage unit 100. The roof 124 may comprise an overhang canopy which is resistant to weather. For example, the roof 124 may be constructed of a material which is impervious to water or wind, such that storage unit 100 is not subjected to rain or snow falling onto the roof 124. In some embodiments, roof 124 is supported by legs 125. In some embodiments, the roof 124 may comprise solar panels configured to generate electricity for storage in a battery or to provide electrical energy to the storage unit 100, or both. In some embodiments, and as shown in FIG. 1E, the control cabinet 146 may comprise additional features which increase user accessibility to using control cabinet 146. For example, the control cabinet 146 may comprise an easy access keypad 190, a headset jack for TDD/TTY communication 192, braille labels 194, a near field communication module 195, a printer 152 for printing receipts and/or postage, and an audio system comprising external speakers (not shown). In some embodiments, a receipt is generated for every transaction, which may be emailed or otherwise sent to the customer or user. In some embodiments, a customer or user can elect to receive a receipt, for example following a drop-off or deposit transaction, which may be printed by the printer 152. The control unit 144 further includes a scanner 150. A scanner 150 may comprise features configured to read a visual identifier including, for example, a text string, a computer readable code such as, for example, a barcode, a 1-D barcode, a 2-D barcode, a QR-code, an RFID tag, or any other desired computer readable code, a biometric identification feature, a color pattern, and image, or any other visual identifier. A scanner may comprise a reader such as, for example, a barcode reader, a pen-type reader, a laser scanner, a CCD reader, a camera based reader, an omni-directional barcode scanner, or any other reader type. The scanner 150 is configured to receive control signals and to transmit signals corresponding to information from the scanned item. In some embodiments, the scanner 150 may comprise a near field communication (NFC) module. In this embodiment, the NFC module facilitates using a mobile device to provide information to the storage unit 100. The control unit 144 further comprises a printer 152. The printer is configured to print any desired items, including, for example, text strings, images, computer readable codes, or any other desired item. In some embodiments, the printer 152 is configured to print labels, such as, for example, address labels, postage, description labels, computer-readable code labels, or any other desired label. The printer 152 is configured to for printing in response to received control signals. In some embodiments printer 152 may be configured to print receipts. In various steps of the processes described herein, for example, upon payment of postage or insurance on a package, a printed receipt may be generated and provided to the user. A receipt may also be generated with confirmation of pick-up or delivery of an item. The control unit 144 further comprises a payment feature 154. The payment feature 154 is configured to receive payment from a user. The payment feature may comprise features configured to receive cash from a user, to conduct an electronic transaction with a user, including, for example, credit card, bank card, or any other form of electronic payment, or to conduct any other desired transaction with the user. The payment feature 154 may be configured to receive control signals and to transmit signals relating to the transaction. In some embodiments, the payment feature 154 may comprise a credit card reader such as, for example, the Dynamag Magnetic Stripe Credit Card Reader by Magtek. In some embodiments, the payment feature 154 comprises a near field communication module, which facilitates payments using a mobile/digital wallet, a tablet computer, a smart phone, or other similar devices with NFC capability. The control unit 144 further comprises a camera 155. The camera 155 may be configured to provide photographic and/or video documentation of the users of the control panel. In some embodiments, the camera 155 is configured to capture and save all recorded images. In one embodiment, the camera 155, and associated picture memory, is configured to capture and record one or several images taken when a user enters, for example, their user identification or user password. In some embodiments, the camera 155 is configured to capture and record one or several images when a user confirms deposit of an item to the storage receptacle 132, or removal of an item from the storage receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the camera 155 may comprise a plurality of cameras located on different positions on the storage unit 100. These cameras are positioned and directed to provide complete camera coverage of the entire storage unit. Similar to camera 155, the images recorded by these cameras are constantly stored, or specific images are stored from these cameras. In some embodiments, a camera may be installed on the roof 124. The roof camera may be positioned such that the roof camera's field of vision encompasses the front of the storage unit 100, including the control cabinet 146 and the storage receptacles 132. This positioning of the roof camera allows for photographic and video monitoring of the storage receptacles themselves, including recording user's access to the storage receptacles. This may provide evidence that a pick-up or drop off occurred, or evidence of the identity of a user who picks up or drops off an item. In some embodiments, the features of the storage unit 100 may be configured so as to allow identification of a user based on a driver's license or other government issued form of identification. Beneficially, this capability may allow the storage unit 100 to determine the identity of the user and the age of the user. In some embodiments, the picture of the owner of the government issued identification that is found on the identification may be compared with the image of the user taken at log-in. Facial recognition techniques may be used to determine if the user is the same person identified by the government issued identification. In some embodiments, the use of government issued identification to identify the user may allow non-registered users to use the storage unit to send and/or receive items. In some embodiments, use of government issued identification to identify the user may be used to enable delivery of restricted delivery items which require that the person identified on the item is the only recipient of the item, and age-restricted items such as, for example, alcohol, tobacco, ammunition, weapons, medication, or any other age restricted items. The features of the storage receptacles 132 and the control unit 144 communicatingly interact. FIG. 2 depicts a schematic illustration showing one exemplary embodiment of the communicating interactions within the storage unit 100. The storage unit 100 shown in FIG. 2 includes a receptacle unit 102 and a control unit 144. The receptacle unit 102 may comprise a plurality of storage receptacles 132. The receptacle unit 102 depicted in FIG. 2 comprises three storage receptacles 132. The storage receptacles 132 each comprise a plurality of features that may include, for example, securement feature 140, light 142, and/or any other desired features, such as, for example, an interior light, a door position detection feature, and/or an item detection feature. The control unit 144 may comprise a variety of features performing a variety of functions. In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 2, the control unit 144 comprises, for example, a processor 168, memory 170, a communication feature 172, a screen 148, a scanner 150, a printer 152, and a payment feature 154. The control unit 144 may include a central bus 117 linking the several features together. The processor 168 may comprise or be a component of a processing system implemented with one or more processors. The one or more processors may be implemented with any combination of general-purpose microprocessors, microcontrollers, digital signal processors (DSPs), field programmable gate array (FPGAs), programmable logic devices (PLDs), controllers, state machines, gated logic, discrete hardware components, dedicated hardware finite state machines, or any other suitable entities that may perform calculations or other manipulations of information. The processor 168 may comprise, for example, a microprocessor, such as a Pentium® processor, a Pentium® Pro processor, a 8051 processor, a MIPS® processor, a Power PC® processor, an Alpha® processor, or the like. The processor 168 typically has conventional address lines, conventional data lines, and one or more conventional control lines. The processor 168 is in communicating connection with memory 170. The memory 170 may include, for example, RAM memory, flash memory, ROM memory, EPROM memory, EEPROM memory, registers, hard disk, a removable disk, a CD-ROM, or any other form of storage medium known in the art. The memory may include, for example, software, at least one software module, instructions, steps of an algorithm, or any other information. In some embodiments, the processor 168 performs processes in accordance with instruction stored in the memory 170. These processes may include, for example, controlling features and/or components of the receptacle unit 102, controlling features and/or components of the control unit 144, requesting information from features and/or components of the receptacle unit 102, requesting information from features and/or components of the control unit 144, transmitting instruction and/or control signals to the features and/or components of the receptacle unit 102, transmitting instructions and/or control signals to features and/or components of the control unit, requesting information from the user, transmitting information to the user, processing information received from features and/or components of the receptacle unit 102 and/or of the control unit 144, processing information received from the user, and/or any other desired processes. In some embodiments, memory 170 comprises one or more databases 171. In one embodiment, the database may contain register user identification information, including, for example, the user identification and user password for registered users, storage receptacle information, including whether a storage receptacle 132 is available, and the location, item identification, and recipient identification of items stored in the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the processor 168 is in communicating connection with a communication feature 172. The communication feature 172 is configured for wired, and/or wireless communication. In some embodiments, the communication feature 172 communicates via telephone, cable, fiber-optic, or any other wired communication network. In some embodiments, the communication feature 172 may communicate via cellular networks, WLAN networks, or any other wireless network. The communication feature 172 is configured to receive instructions and to transmit and receive information. This information may relate to, for example, required maintenance of the storage unit 100, availability of storage receptacles 132 in the storage unit 100, status of items in the storage receptacles 132, such as, for example, whether an item is awaiting retrieval, transaction information, and/or any other desired information. In some embodiments, the communication feature 172 communicates via a wired or wireless communication network with one or more network services (e.g., web services) on one or more network servers (not shown). For example, some of the functionality described with respect to the control unit and other functionality as described further below may be performed by a remote network service, remote from the control unit 144. The control unit 144 may communicate via the communication feature 172 with the remote network service to exchange data and provide the interactivity necessary with a user of the storage unit 100. In one embodiment, the network service may be cloud service that may include processors, memory, and the like as described above. In one embodiment, the network service may include NFC modules configured to communicate information from mobile devices, such as smart phones, as described above. As depicted in FIG. 2, the processor 168 is in communicating connection with the screen 148. In some embodiments, the processor 168 is configured to transmit control signals to the screen 148 to control the transmission of information to the user, and to receive signals corresponding to user inputs from the screen 148. The processor 168 is further in communicating connection with each of the scanner 150, the printer 152, and the payment feature 154. The processor 168 is configured to transmit control signals to the scanner 150 and to receive information relating to a scanned item from the scanner 150, to transmit control signals to the printer 152 corresponding to, for example, to instructions to print a label, and to transmit control signals to the payment feature 154 and receive information relating to the transaction from the payment feature 154. In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 2, the processor 168 communicates via a communication link with some or all of the storage receptacles 132 for sending control signals to the storage receptacles 132. In some embodiments, the communication with some or all of the storage receptacles 132 may comprise sending control signals to control the features of each of the storage receptacles 132, including, for example, the securement feature 140, and the light 142. In some embodiments, the processor 168 is configured to send control signals to the securement feature 140 to secure and/or to unsecure the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132, and to receive signals from the securement feature 140 relating to the securement status of the securement feature 140, such as, whether the securement feature is securing the storage receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the processor 168 is configured to send control signals to the light 142. In some embodiments, these control signals correspond to turning the light 142 on, or to shutting the light 142 off In some embodiments, the processor 168 is configured to send control signals to the sensor 145, or the climate control equipment. In some embodiments, the processor 168 is configured to send control signals to the receptacle designating feature 166 or the light 142. These signals may correspond to activating the receptacle designating feature 166 or the light 142 when the associated storage receptacle 132 is unsecured, and to de-activating the receptacle designating feature 166 or the light 142 when the associated storage receptacle has been re-secured. In some embodiments, an address is provided for the storage unit 100. This address may be a text string, standard address comprising a street and a number, or a modified address that may identify the storage unit 100 without reference to a standard address. In some embodiments, this modified address may comprise a unique number, the zip-code in which the storage unit 100 is located and a unique number. In some embodiments, each of the storage receptacles may comprise a unique address. This address may be the same as the address for the storage unit 100, plus additional digits to allow unique identification of the storage receptacle 132. In some further embodiments, and using similar principals, customers registered for use of the storage unit may be assigned a storage unit address. This address may be tied to a preferred storage unit, such that the user's address is the address of the storage unit 100 plus additional text, or may be independent of any storage unit. In some embodiments, this storage unit address may allow deliveries addressed, not to the recipient, but to the recipient's storage unit address. Advantageously, such addressing may prevent the originator of the item from knowing the identity and physical address of the recipient. In some embodiments, the address may be utilized by a user associated with a social media network. For example, the address may be assigned to a user of a social network site, such as Facebook, or Twitter, or a dating service, and may facilitate physical delivery of items to the social media user, while maintaining anonymity of the social media user. In some embodiments, the address may facilitate the physical exchange of items between more than one user of a social media network. In some embodiments, the address may be assigned to a user who buys from vendors who cater or sell to users of social media networks. This mechanism allows for vendors or businesses to interact and deliver items through social media while maintaining the anonymity of the users who buy from such vendors or businesses. A person of skill in the art will recognize that the processor 168 is configured for communicating interaction with other features of the receptacle unit 102 and/or of the control unit 144. The memory 170 of the control unit 144 may comprise a variety of instructions configured for different item delivery scenarios. Processes for Operating and Using Storage Units FIGS. 3-3C illustrate different methods of operating a storage unit 100. FIG. 3 depicts one embodiment of a process 300 of controlling a storage unit 100. The process 300 begins by displaying a prompt to a user as depicted at block 301. This prompt or message may be a request for input such as, for example, user identification, item identification, task identification, item delivery, item retrieval, payment, an instruction, storage receptacle selection, or any other input, or may be an information display. The process 300 continues to block 302 and receives a user input. In some embodiments, this input is in response to the prompt displayed in block 300. This input may correspond to, for example, user identification, item identification, task identification, payment, item delivery, item retrieval, storage receptacle selection, or any other input. The process 300 continues to block 304 and executes stored instructions corresponding to the user input. These instructions may correspond to, for example, the functions of the storage unit 100, including, for example, requesting information, transmitting information, disengaging a lock, engaging a lock, receiving an input, scanning an identifier, and receiving payment. After execution of stored instructions corresponding to the user input at block 304, the process 300 moves to decision state 306 and determines whether additional user input is required. If additional user input is required, the process moves to block 300. If no additional user input is required, the process terminates at block 308. The general method of operation outlined in FIG. 3 is generally applied in all of the other processes performed with the storage unit 100. Thus, this general method is applied in, for example, the process of FIG. 3A which depicts one embodiment of a process 300A of controlling the storage unit 100 during item pickup and item delivery. The process 300A begins at block 301A, when an item is deposited in a storage unit, which triggers a sending notification to a user or the intended recipient of the item. The notification may be sent as an email, an SMS text message, a written notice, or by any other notification method. After notification is sent, process 300A moves to block 302A when control unit 144 receives identification information from the user. The identification may comprise a broad range of information and may be received by the control unit in a variety of formats. In some embodiments, the identification comprises, for example, a username and password, a unique account number, and unique information stored in a computer readable medium. In some embodiments, the identification information provides input to the control unit by a user action, such as, typing, speaking, selecting, or scanning. In some embodiments, for example, a user can enter a username and password by typing the username and password, by speaking his username and password into a microphone, by spelling his username and password into a microphone, by scanning a computer readable code, or by any other desired method. After receiving identification information from the user, the process 300A moves to decision state 303A and determines whether the information identifies a user. In some embodiments, this step can comprise a comparison of received identification information with stored user identification information. If the identification information does not identify a user, the process 300A terminates as depicted at block 304A. If the identification information identifies a user, the process 300A moves to block 306A and the storage unit 100 displays the availability and location of items scheduled for pickup by the user. In some embodiments, these items may be at the instant storage unit 100, and in other embodiments, these items may be located at a different storage unit 100. After displaying the availability and location of an item scheduled for pickup by the user, in some embodiments, the process 300A moves to decision state 308A and determines whether the item is located at the present storage unit 100. If the item is not at the present storage unit 100, then the process ends at block 310A. If the item is at the present storage unit 100, the process 300A moves to block 312A and the user is prompted to pick-up the item. The process 300A moves to decision state 314A and determines if the user has elected to pick-up the item. If the user has elected to pick-up the item, then the user is allowed to pick-up the item at block 316A. After the user picks-up the item at block 316A, or if the storage unit determines at decision state 314A that the user has not elected to pick-up the item, the process moves to block 318A, where the user is prompted to indicate whether they will deposit an item for delivery. The process 300A moves to decision state 320A and determines if the user elected to deposit the item for delivery. If it is determined that the user elected to deposit the item for delivery, the user is allowed to deposit the item at block 322A. After the user has deposited the item at block 322A, or if the storage unit 100 determines that the user did not elect to deposit the item for delivery, the process ends at block 324A. Although the processes herein are described with regard to a single item, the processes could be carried out with multiple items and multiple users. The process of controlling the storage unit during item pick-up and/or delivery may include further sub-processes. These sub-processes may include, for example, processing further steps relating to the item pick-up and relating to the item delivery. FIG. 3B depicts one embodiment of a process for item pick-up 300B. The process 300B begins at block 302B when the storage unit 100 receives a user input indicating intent to pick-up an item. After receiving this input, the process 300B moves to decision state 304B to determine if there is an item available for pick-up by the user. This determination can, in some embodiments, be performed locally at the storage unit 100, or in some embodiments, this determination may comprise transmitting a request to the storage unit system control unit for whether the user has an item available for pick-up at the storage unit. If no item is available for pick-up, the process terminates at block 306B If an item is available for pick-up at the storage unit 100, the process 300B indicates the storage receptacle 132 containing the item available for pick-up. This indication may be achieved in a variety of ways. In some embodiments, for example, the screen 148 shows a depiction of the storage unit 100, and visually indicates the storage receptacle 132 in which the item is being stored. In some embodiments, the visual indication of the location of the item may include, for example, a schematic illustration of the storage unit with a visual indication, such as highlighting, one or several storage receptacles containing items for pick-up. In some other embodiments, the position of storage receptacles 132 containing an item available for pick-up may be indicated through, for example, activation of a light, or any other desired method. The process continues at step 310B, where control unit sends a signal to open the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132, and the door 136 of the receptacle 132 opens or is made accessible to the user by the control unit 114. In some embodiments, opening of the door comprises, for example, unlocking of the securement feature 140, or causing the door 136 of the receptacle to move to an opened position. After opening the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 as depicted in block 310B, the process moves to block 312B, and the storage unit 100 requests confirmation by the user that he picked-up the item in the designated storage receptacle 132. The storage unit 100 receives confirmation that the user picked-up the item in the designated storage receptacle 132 at block 314B. In some embodiments, for example, the user provides a signature if required for pick-up, and additionally confirms the pick-up via signature, or other input to the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the user signs in a signature capture space located on a touch screen, and the signature is electronically captured. In some embodiments, storage receptacle 132 comprises a scale or other device to detect a change in the weight within the volume of the storage receptacle. If a user picks up an item, the scale senses the reduction in weight, and the reduction in weight may be a pick-up confirmation provided to the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, sensor 145 may provide a sensing function to sense when an item has been removed from the storage unit 132, and may provide confirmation of item pickup to storage unit 100. Upon receiving confirmation that the user picked-up the item in the designated storage receptacle 132 as depicted in block 314B, the process 300B, advances to block 316B, where the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is closed and/or secured. In some embodiments, the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is configured to automatically close. In some embodiments, the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 is configured to controllably close. In some embodiments, the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 may not be configured to controllably or automatically close. In some embodiments, the securement feature 140 of the storage receptacle 132 is configured for activation upon user confirmation of pick-up, or upon the elapsing of a specified time, such as an automatic log-off In some embodiments, the securement feature 140 is activated as depicted in block 314B to re-secure the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132. After the door 136 of the storage receptacle 132 has been closed and/or secured as depicted in FIG. 3B, the process 300B advances to decision state 318B, where it determines if another item is available for pick-up by the user. If another item is available for pick-up by the user, the process returns to block 308B. If another item is not available for pick-up by the user, then the process 300B terminates at block 320B. FIG. 3C provides further detail into the steps of some processes used in picking-up an item from a storage unit. Specifically, FIG. 3C depicts one embodiment of a process 300C for requesting confirmation of item pick-up as depicted in Block 312B of FIG. 3B. Accordingly, the steps of the present process 300C occur within block 312B of FIG. 3B. As depicted in FIG. 3C, the process 300C for requesting confirmation of item pick-up begins at block 322C by prompting the user to pick-up the item. This prompt may be, for example, in addition to an indication of which storage receptacle 132 contains the item, and in addition to opening of the storage receptacle 132 containing the item. After prompting the user to pick-up the item, the process 300C advances to block 324C where the user is prompted to scan an identifier on the item. In some embodiments, this may comprise, for example, scanning a computer readable code, receiving a radio frequency transmission, scanning a text string, or scanning any other identifying feature of the item. After prompting the user to scan the identifier as depicted in block 324C, the process 300C advances to block 326C, where the storage unit 100 receives data from the scanning of the identifier. After receiving data from the scanning of the identifier as depicted in block 326C, the storage unit 100 prompts the user to confirm the pick-up of the item at block 328C. The process 300C then advances to decision state 330C where it determines whether a user signature is required. If a signature is required, the storage unit 100 prompts the user to provide a signature as depicted in block 332C. The storage unit then receives the signature as depicted in block 334C. After receiving the signature as depicted in block 334C, or after determining that no signature is required in decision state 330C, the process 300C terminates at block 336C. The steps of process 300C as depicted are illustrative, and need not be performed in the order described. For example, steps 324C and 325C may be performed prior to step 322C. FIG. 3D depicts one embodiment of a process 300D for deposit of an item. The process 300D begins at block 302D when the storage unit 100 receives a user input indicating a user's intent to deposit an item at the storage unit 100. The process 300D then moves to block 304D, where the user input is requested relating to the size of the item for deposit. In some embodiments, the user may respond to this request by inputting, for example, the dimensions of the item for deposit, or specifying the general item size, such as, for example, small, medium, or large. In some embodiments, the request to input the size of the item for deposit may provide general guidance as to how to classify an item as small, medium, or large. In some embodiments, a scale, a sensor, or measuring device may be located at the storage unit 100, or may be incorporated into storage unit 100, providing a user with an opportunity to measure the size and weight of an item and provide the measurements to the storage unit 100. A user may manually input the measured item dimensions into the control unit 144, or the scale, sensor, or measuring device may communicate the measured item dimensions to control unit 144. In some embodiments, the item may be provided in a flat-rate box, or one of a set of standard size boxes. In this embodiment, the user may select or input an identifier from the flat-rate or standard size box. The control unit 144 recognizes the identifier for the flat rate or standard size box, and selects appropriately sized storage receptacles 132 for deposit of the item in the flat-rate or standard size box. After requesting that the user input information relating to the dimensions of the item for deposit, the process 300D moves to decision state 306D and determines whether the user indicated the item size. In some embodiments, the item size may be indicated to the control unit 144 according to the postage required or paid, where the postage required corresponds to a flat-rate or standard size box. If the user indicated the item size, the process 300D advances to decision state 308D, and determines whether any storage receptacles 132 of adequate size to hold the deposited item are available. In some embodiments, this determination includes, for example, a query of the receptacle database 171 to determine which receptacles are available and the sizes of the available receptacles. If no storage unit of adequate size is available, the process moves to block 310D and communicates to the user that no storage receptacles 132 of adequate size are available in the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the control unit 144 may display on screen 148 the location of the nearest storage unit 100 having an available storage receptacle 132 appropriate to the item or item size. In some embodiments, screen 148 may display the location of the nearest delivery or pick-up points, such as the nearest post offices to the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, this information may be provided on a print out, a receipt, email, or SMS message to the user. If storage units of adequate size are available, or if the user does not indicate the item size as determined at decision state 306D, the process 300D moves to block 312D and communicates the location of available storage receptacles. In some embodiments, for example, the screen 148 shows a depiction of the storage unit 100, and visually indicate, by, for example, highlighting, available storage receptacles 132. The process 300D then moves to block 314D where the user is prompted to select a storage receptacle. After receiving the user selection of the storage receptacle 132 as depicted in block 316D, the door to the selected storage receptacle is opened as depicted in block 318D. The process 300D then proceeds to block 320D, where the user is prompted to deposit the item in the storage receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the door 136 may automatically shut after the item is deposited, or the door may be controllably shut after the item is deposited. In some embodiments, the user may be additionally prompted to shut the door 136. In some embodiments, a sensor incorporated into securement feature 140 provides confirmation to the control unit 144 that the door has been secured and locked. In some embodiments, sensor 145 provides a signal to the control unit 144 that the door is closed, secured, and/or locked. The process then moves to block 322D, and the door 136 is secured. In some embodiments in which the presence of an item in the storage receptacle is not automatically detected, after the door is secured, the user is prompted, as depicted in block 324D, to confirm that the item was deposited in the storage receptacle 132. After receiving the user confirmation that the item was deposited in the storage receptacle as depicted in block 326D, or after receiving sensing information indicating that the item was deposited in the storage receptacle, the process moves to block 328 where the user is asked if he has another item to deposit. After receiving the user input as to whether he has another item for deposit as depicted in block 330D, the process 300D moves to decision state 322 and determines whether the user has another item for deposit. If the user has another item for deposit, the process 300D moves to block 302D and continues through the flow chart. If the user does not have another item for deposit, then the process 300D ends at block 334D. FIG. 3E depicts one embodiment of the process 300E associated with prompting the user to deposit an item in the storage receptacle 132 as depicted in block 320D of FIG. 3D. As depicted in FIG. 3E, the process 300E moves to decision state 302E and determines if postage is required. In some embodiments, determining if postage is required may comprise evaluating whether a certain item or identifier input by a user qualifies for deposit into storage unit 100. For example, a user may generate an identifier, such as a postage bar code, and provide the barcode to the storage unit 100 via scanner 150. The process, in decision state 302E may evaluate whether the provided postage barcode is eligible for use at the storage unit 100. This determination may be based on the identification of the user and an input from the user identifying the item is a mail item to be sent to a particular recipient or location. In decision block 302E, the determination of whether postage is required may also be made based on input or scanned dimensions and weight of the item. In some embodiments the user inputs a description of the item, any special delivery instructions, delivery destination, value of item being deposited, and other similar parameters. Based on these parameters, control unit may determine how much postage is required for the item to be deposited. In some embodiments in which the user is the agent, no postage may be required. In contrast, in some embodiments in which the customer is the user, postage may be required. If postage is required, the process 300E moves to block 304E and requests and receives User indication of payment of postage. In some embodiments, this comprises completion of a postage purchase transaction at the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, this may provide providing an indication of a previously completed postage purchase transaction. In some embodiments, this indication may comprise scanning a unique identifier associated with the postage purchase transaction, entering a unique identifier associated with the postage purchase transaction, scanning postage located on the item, or any other method of identifying a completed postage transaction. Upon each transaction, control unit 144 may update a database maintained on a central controller or server, which will be described in more detail below. The process 300E then moves to decision state 306E and determines if an indication of payment has been received from the control unit 144. If the indication of payment has not been received, then the process terminates at block 308E. If the indication of payment has been received, then the process moves to decision state 310E and determines if scanning of an item identifier is required. Advantageously, the scanning of a unique item identifier may allow the storage unit 100 to track each individual item that is placed in a storage receptacle. This identifier may comprise a range of identifiers, and may include a computer readable code, a barcode, a text string, a radio-frequency emitter such as an RFID tag, or any other identifier. If scanning of an identifier is required, the process 300E moves to block 312E and prompts the user to scan the identifier. The process 300E then moves to decision state 314E and determines if the user scanned the identifier. If the user did not scan the identifier, then the process returns to block 312E and prompts the user again to scan the identifier. If the user scanned the identifier, or if no identifier scan was required, the process 300E moves to decision state 316E and determines if an item deposit date is required. If an item deposit date is required, the process 300E moves to block 318E and records the deposit date. In some embodiments, the storage unit 100 is configured to track the date, and so will be able to store the deposit date without user input. In other embodiments in which the storage unit 100 is not configured to track the date, the user may be prompted to input a deposit date, which entered date is stored at block 318E. After the deposit date has been stored in block 318E, or if no deposit date is required, the process 300E moves to decision state 320E and determines if recipient identification is desired. In some embodiments in which an agent is depositing an item in a storage unit, the recipient information may be requested so that the recipient is notified that his item is in the storage unit 100 and so that the recipient can identify himself to retrieve the item from the storage unit 100. In other embodiments in which the customer is depositing an item in the storage unit 100, the identification of the recipient may not be requested. If the recipient information is desired, the process 300E moves to block 322E and the user is prompted to input recipient information. In some embodiments, the user may manually input the recipient information, may scan an identifier containing the recipient information, or may use any other technique to enter the recipient information. The process 300E then moves to decision state 324E and determines if the recipient identification information has been received. If the recipient identification information has not been received, the process moves to block 322E and the user is again prompted to enter the recipient identification information. If the recipient identification information has been entered, or if the recipient identification information is not required, then the process moves to block 326E and the deposit information is stored at the storage unit 100. The process then moves to block 328E and transmits the item deposit information. In some embodiments, this transmission is from the storage unit 100 and to the storage unit system 400. Specifically, this transmission is from the storage unit 100 and to the central management system 404. The process then terminates at block 330E. In some embodiments of a storage unit 100, the storage unit is configured to track the amount of time that an item has been in a storage receptacle 132, and designate the item for removal from the storage receptacle 132 if the item has been in the storage receptacle 132 in excess of some duration. FIG. 3F depicts one embodiment of a process 300F for determining whether an item should be classified for removal based on the time it has been in the storage receptacle 132. In some embodiments, the time an item may be stored in the storage unit 132 may be input by a user into control unit 144 upon deposit. In some embodiments, the time an item may be stored may be determined by the storage unit 100 based on the category of the item, input by the user at time of deposit. In some embodiments, when time an item may be stored is not specified, control unit 144 may select a default time for storage of a unit such as 1 hour, 2 hours, 4 hours, 12 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 1 week, 2 weeks, 1 month, 2 months, or any other amount of time. In some embodiments, the control unit 144 records the time of deposit regardless of user input. The time of deposit may initiate a standard allowed time for an item to remain in a storage receptacle 132 according to a pre-determined storage time. The process 300F depicted in FIG. 3F starts at block 302F by determining the classification of the item. This classification may relate to a characteristic of the delivery service provided for the item, such as, for example, mail class and/or mail type, the nature of the item, such as, for example, its degree of perishability or size, economic or market factors, such as the relative demand for the storage receptacle occupied by the item, or any other factor relevant to the time that an item should be allowed to remain in the storage receptacle 132. The process 300F moves to block 304F and determines the date that the item was placed in the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, the storage unit 100 is configured to track the date, and so this date may be retrieved from storage unit 100 resources. In other embodiments in which the storage unit 100 is not configured to track the date, this date may be retrieved from remote resources located within a storage unit system. After determining the date that the item was placed in the storage unit 100 at block 304F, the process 300F moves to decision state 306F and determines if the initial time for item pick-up has passed, or if the item has been stored longer than input or predetermined time for an item to be stored in the storage receptacle 132 has elapsed. If the initial time period for item pick-up has not passed, the process 300F terminates at block 308F. If the initial time period for item pickup has passed, the process 300F proceeds to block 310F and a notice is sent to the intended recipient of the item to pick-up the item. In some embodiments, this notice provides the address of the storage unit 100, identify the storage receptacle 132 holding the item within the storage unit 100, provide a date before which the item must be picked-up, provide notice procedures if the item is not retrieved, and any other desired information. In some embodiments, this notice comprises an electronic communication to, for example, an email account, a telephone number, a social network homepage, or any other electronic communication. In some embodiments, the notice comprises a voice communication sent to a telephone number or other account capable of receiving a voice communication. In some embodiments, the notice comprises a paper communication sent to the address of the intended recipient of the item. The notice may be generated upon a user request, or automatically by the storage unit 100. After sending the notice to the user at block 310F, the process 300F advances to block 312F and waits until the designated time period has passed. After the time period has passed, the process 300F advances to decision state 314F and determines whether the item has been picked-up. If the item has been picked-up, the process 300F terminates at block 316F. If the item has not been picked-up, the process 300F moves to block 318F and determines if any additional time is available for picking-up the item. In some embodiments, the user may specify whether there is an extended time for pick-up of the item, or that the item may be stored in the storage unit 132. In some embodiments, the storage unit 100 may determine two time periods, the first period being the initial time for storage, and the second period being an extended or additional time for item pickup, which may be available upon payment of an additional fee. In some embodiments, the user may indicate whether the item should be provided to another storage unit 100 upon the first period elapsing. If additional time is available to pick-up the item, the process 300F moves to block 310F, and continues through the flow-chart until the process is terminated. If the item is not picked up within a first time period, the above notice is sent. If the item is not picked up within the second extended or additional time period, a second notice is sent. If there is no additional time period available for picking-up of the item, the process 300F advances to block 320F where the item is identified as being held beyond its allowed retention period. In some embodiments, this designation is stored in a local database at the storage unit 100, and in other embodiments, this designation is stored at a central database in a storage unit system. In addition to designating the item as being held beyond its allowed retention period at block 320F, the process 300F designates the item for removal from the storage unit at block 322F. In some embodiments, this designation is stored in a local database at the storage unit 100, and in other embodiments, this designation is stored at a central database in a storage unit system. In some embodiments, once the allowed storage time has elapsed, the item is returned to the sender, or the depositor is notified to come retrieve the item. Storage Unit System As discussed above, in some embodiments, the storage unit 100 is a standalone unit. In some embodiments, however, a plurality of storage units 100 may be integrated into a single storage unit system. FIGS. 4 through 4D depict schematic illustrations of embodiments of storage unit systems 400. As depicted in FIG. 4, a storage unit system 400 comprises a storage unit 402. In one embodiment, the storage unit 402 of the storage unit system 400 comprises a storage unit 402 as described with respect to item 100 in FIGS. 1-2. In some embodiments, the storage unit system 400 comprises a plurality of storage units 402. The storage units 402 are configured for communication with other features of the storage unit system 400 across a network 406. In some embodiments, the network may comprise a local area network (LAN) or a wide-area network (WAN). The storage units 402 is wired to or wirelessly communicate with the network, via, for example, a cellular network. The storage unit system 400 further comprises computing and memory resources. These computing resources may include one or several processors, computers, servers, or other computing resources. The memory resources may include, for example different types of volatile or non-volatile memory. A user or customer may sign up or register to be a user of the storage unit system 400. By doing so, a customer can select that particular items the customer orders be sent to a specific location. A customer may also provide pick-up and delivery preferences at the time of registration. The information provided at registration may be stored in a customer database as described herein. A customer may sign up by accessing the network, establishing user identification and password, and other information that may be useful to facilitate pick-up and delivery of items. Vendors, sellers, merchants, and other similar parties may also register to use the storage unit system 400. By so doing, they can provide a convenient delivery option for a customer or user who orders an item from them. The vendors may establish preferences for pick-up and delivery items for users of the storage system 400. In some embodiments, the customer may not be a registered user, but may be identified as a guest user. A guest user may be provided with a unique code or identifier, appropriate for a single or limited number of uses, and provide this code at a storage unit 100 in order to complete a transaction. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 4, the computing and memory resources include, for example, a central management system 404, one or several engineering support servers 408, and an agent directory 410. In some of embodiments, each of these computing resources may comprise memory including stored instructions and one or more databases. In some embodiments the central management system 404 comprises a computing resource such as, for example, a computer, a computer system, a server, one or several processors, or any other feature configured to receive and transmit information and instructions to and from the storage units 402, receive and transmit information and instructions relating to item status and delivery, and receive and transmit information and instructions to and from other components of the storage unit system 400. In some embodiments, and as depicted FIG. 4, the central management system 404 comprises a database 414 comprising information relating to the storage unit 100 and the item status. In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 4, the central management system 404 comprises memory 416 comprising instructions for the operation of the aspects of the storage unit system 400. As depicted in FIG. 4, the storage unit system 400 further comprises one or more engineering support servers 408. The engineering support servers may comprise a computing resource such as, for example, a computer, a computer system, a server, one or several processors, or any other desired computing resource capable. The engineering support servers may comprise software located on the computing resource configured to maintain the functionality, security, and updatedness of storage unit software. In some embodiments, the engineering support servers 408 may utilize commercial security products to maintain the security of the storage unit system 400. These products may include anti-virus products, anti-malware products, firewalls, and any other product or software configured to provide or improve security. In some embodiments, the engineering support servers 408 comprise software configured to monitor the functionality of software in different components of the storage unit system 400, and specifically in the storage units 402. In some embodiments, the software configured to monitor the functionality of software throughout the storage unit system 400 is configured to detect and repair issues in individual components of the storage unit system 400 or across the entire storage unit system 400. Thus, in some embodiments, this feature is used to repair, upgrade, or replace the software used by components of the storage unit system 400. The storage unit system may additionally comprise an agent directory 410. The agent directory 410 may comprise stand-alone computing capability, or the information of the agent directory 410 is located in computing capability shared with one or more other components of the storage unit system 400. In one embodiment, the agent directory 410 comprises a database 418 of individuals. In one embodiment, these individuals are affiliated through the operation and maintenance of the storage unit system 400. In one embodiment, these individuals may be employees or contractors of the entity owning and controlling the storage unit system 400. In some embodiments, the database 418 comprises information relating to the access provided to each individual. Thus, individuals within the database 418 are provided with different levels of access to the components of the storage unit system 400 or to the storage unit system 400 based on, for example, their responsibilities or any other factor. The storage unit system 400 further comprises a customer directory 412. The customer directory 412 may comprise stand-alone computing capability, or the information of the customer directory 412 may be located in computing capability shared with one or more other components of the storage unit system 400. In one embodiment, the customer directory 412 comprises a database 420 of individuals. In one embodiment, the individuals is, for example, individuals who have successfully completed the registration process for use of the storage unit system 400, individuals who have begun the registration process for use of the storage unit system 400, or individuals who have been invited to register for use of the storage unit system 400. In some embodiments, information stored in the database 420 may include, for example, account and customer identification information, account preferences, payment information, and any other information associated with the customer and/or the account. In some embodiments, the customer identification information may include, for example, an account number, a user name, a password, a name, an address, or any other user identifying information. In some embodiments, the account preferences may include, for example, preferred delivery method, contact information, preferred contact method, preferred delivery locations, including, for example, a preference list identifying different storage units 402 and their comparative preference as delivery locations, and any other account preferences. In some embodiments, the information stored on database 420 is received from customer 422 during the registration process. In one embodiment, and as depicted in FIG. 4, the customer 422 provides this information during the registration process across a network 424, such as the internet. In some embodiments, the customer 422 may provide this information to a web-site during the registration process. A person of skill in the art will recognize that a customer 422 will be able to access a web-site using a range of technologies and devices, including, for example, a computer, a Smartphone, a tablet, or any other device configured for internet access. In some embodiments, a web-site may handle customer related interactions such as customer registration, electronic parcel locker selection, contact information, and access management. In some embodiments in which the database 420 is associated with a network, the customer directory 412 and the associated database 420 is separated from other components of the network by a security feature 426. In some embodiments, the security feature may comprise, for example, a firewall, a filter, or any other feature, product, or software stored on the hardware configured to allow controlled and secure access of information from the database 420 by components of the storage unit system 400. The storage unit system 400 further comprises an agent access point 428. An agent access point 428 is configured to allow an agent to access the storage unit system 400. The agent access point 428 may comprise a variety of devices, including a PC, a laptop, a mobile device, a handheld device, a Smartphone, or any other device capable of requesting and receiving information across a network. In some embodiments, the agent access point 428 is configured to transmit information to the central management system 404 relating to items for delivery to a storage unit 402. The agent access point 428 is further configured to receive information from the storage unit system 402 relating to capacity for receiving the item at one or several storage units. In some embodiments, the agent access point 428 is configured to send a request to the storage unit system 400 to reserve a storage receptacle 132 for delivery at a storage unit 402. The different components of the storage unit system 400 may communicate via a communication link with each other. In some embodiments, the communication link is a wired or wireless connection. In some embodiments, the different components of the storage unit system 400 is redundantly connected, with a combination of different wired and/or wireless connections and links. FIG. 4A depicts a schematic illustration of one embodiment of the storage unit system 400. As depicted in FIG. 4A, the storage unit system 400 comprises a first storage unit 402a, a second storage unit 402, and a central server 430. The central server 430 depicted in FIG. 4A comprises a variety of features, including the databases and capabilities of the system as discussed in relation to FIG. 4. Central server 430 provides a central control station for the system 400. For example, as requests for storage receptacle availability are received either at individual storage units 100 or via the network 424, the request may be provided to are received As further depicted in FIG. 4A, the storage units 402a, 402b and the central server 430 are communicatingly connected. This communicating connection is wired or wireless, or a combination thereof. As depicted in FIG. 4A, this connection includes a transmission feature 434 capable of sending and receiving wireless communications. As further depicted in FIG. 4A, the storage unit system 400 is communicatingly connected with a plurality of customers 422a, 422b, 422c, and an agent 432. As further depicted, the communication to the customers 422a, 422b, and 422c may be achieved through a variety of means, including, for example, an electronic communication such as an email 422c or an SMS 422b, or through delivery of written notification 422a. In some embodiments, the customer 422 receives and transmits information to the storage unit system 422. In some embodiments, the customer 422 accesses the storage unit system 422 using a computing device via the network and request information relating to the status of a delivery, the location of an item, the availability of specified storage units 402, locations of storage units 402, or any other desired information. In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 4A, an agent 432 delivering items can communicate with customers 422a, 422b, 422c, with a central server 430 and with other components of the storage unit system 400. In some embodiments, this communication is via a wireless device, such as, for example, a handheld device, a Smartphone, a mobile device, or any other device capable of wireless network communications. In some embodiments, the wireless device communicates with the storage unit system via, for example, a transmission feature 434. Advantageously, such communication may allow an agent to receive and transmit real-time information relating to the availability status of storage units 402 and relating to the delivery of items. In some embodiments, the customer 422 may access the central server 430 via network 424 via a user interface existing on network 424. Using the user interface, the customer 422 may check availability of one or more storage receptacles 132 in one or more storage units 100 located in a user-specified geographic area, capable of receiving a particular item. The customer 422 receives a report of storage units available to receive the particular item. The customer 422 may reserve a particular storage receptacle 132 via the user interface over the network, and then the customer 422 may physically go to the particular storage receptacle 132 and deposit an item as described herein. In some embodiments, a storage unit 100 containing an item designated for an intended recipient can send a notification or information about the item to the central server 430, which can then route the notification or information to the customer 422 for whom the item is designated or intended. In some embodiments, the agent 432 may communicate its position continuously or at periodic intervals to the central server 430. The central server may also receive periodic updates about deposits and items in storage receptacles 132. When the central server 430 receives information regarding an item to be picked-up from or delivered to a particular storage unit 100, the central server 430 sends a notification to the agent 432 directing the agent to pick up an item from or deliver an item to a particular storage unit 100. This notification may be coordinated by the central server 430 such that notifications are preferably sent to the agents 432 who are nearest in proximity to the storage unit containing the item to be picked-up or the storage unit to which the item is to be delivered. In some embodiments, the central server notifies the agent 432 whose planned route passes in proximity to the storage unit 100 where the item is to be picked up or delivered. FIG. 5 depicts one embodiment of a process 500 of controlling a storage unit system 100. In some embodiments, the process 500 is performed at the storage unit 100, and a cooperating process is performed by computing resources elsewhere in the storage unit system 400. Although FIG. 5 depicts steps specifically performed by the storage unit, a person of skill in the art will recognize that any other component of the storage unit system 400 can perform similar or identical steps. As described herein, when messages are sent and/or received, the messages may originate in the control unit 144 or in the central server 430, as the circumstances require. The central server 430 may control the process 500, and may direct the operations of other components, including the sending of messages by the control units 144. The central server 430 may facilitate message and information sending between various components of the storage unit system 400 according to the processes and methods described herein. The process 500 moves to decision state 502 and determines if a designated time interval has passed. The time interval may be any specified time interval. In some embodiments, the time interval may be, for example, 1 second, 1 minute, 5 minutes 15 minutes, 30 minutes 1 hour, 12 hours, 1 day, 1 week, or any other desired time interval. The time interval may be determined by a number of factors, including, for example, the frequency with which customers use the storage unit 100, the frequency with which software updates of hardware maintenance is required, the location of the storage unit 100, the system bandwidth and/or processing capabilities, and/or any other factor. If the time interval has passed, an alive message is sent as depicted at block 504. This message indicates that the storage unit 100 is properly functioning, and has no specific needs. After sending the alive message at block 504, the process 500 moves to block 506 and await receipt of a response to the alive message. Once the response to the alive message is received, the process 500 moves to decision state 508 and determines if the response is an acknowledgement. An acknowledgement may comprise a message indicating that the alive message was received. In some embodiments, an acknowledgement may include further instructions for execution by the storage unit. In some embodiments, the acknowledgement may not include any instructions. If the response is an acknowledgment, then the process terminates at block 510. If the response is not an acknowledgement, then the process moves to decision state 512 and determines if the response is a configuration update. A configuration update may provide a software update or software patch to maintain and improve the operating system of the storage unit 100. If the response is not a configuration update, the process moves to decision state 514 and determines if the response is a status or statistics request message. In some embodiments, a status or statistics request message is periodically requested to provide an update on usage of the storage unit 100, usage of the individual storage receptacles 132 of the storage unit 100, any maintenance requests, present availability of storage receptacles, and/or any other information relating to the storage unit. If the message is not a status or statistics request message, the process moves to decision state 516 and determines if the response is a customer update message. A customer update message may provide, for example, an update relating to customers who have used the storage unit 100. This may include, for example, user identification information, user passwords, user pictures, and identification of user transactions with the storage unit 100 such as, for example, the picking-up or depositing of one or several items. If the message is a customer update message, the process moves to block 518 and a customer update is provided. After providing the customer update, the process terminates at block 520. Returning again to block 516, if the response is not a customer update message, the process moves to block 522 and requests a new response as the response was not of an expected type, in an expected format, or otherwise not readable. After requesting a new response, the process terminates at block 524. Returning again to block 514, if the response is a status or statistics request message, the process moves to block 526 and determines the status of the storage unit 100. This may include, for example, determining the availability of storage receptacles 132, determining whether any maintenance or updates are required, determining how many storage receptacles 132 are occupied, determining how many storage receptacles 132 are reserved, and making any other determination relating to the status of the storage unit 100. The process then moves to block 528 and determines storage unit 100 statistics. These statistics may include, for example, the average number of available storage receptacles 132, the average number of occupied storage receptacles 132, the average number of reserved storage receptacles, the number of customers who have used the storage receptacle, the average number of customers using the storage receptacle in a specified time period, the actual number of customers using the storage receptacle in a specified time period, the average amount of time an item is left in the storage receptacle 132 before being picked-up, or any other desired statistic relating to the storage unit 100. The process 500 then moves to block 530 and the status and statistics message is sent. In some embodiments, the status and statistics messages are sent to the central server 430. The process 500 then terminates at block 532. Returning again to block 512, if the process determines that the response is a configuration update, then the process moves to block 534 and creates a local backup of the old software configuration. This backup may be of the entire software configuration, or portions of the software configuration that will be replaced by the present configuration update. After backing-up the old configuration, the process 500 moves to block 536 and evaluates the new configuration. This evaluation may be configured to determine which portions of the software configuration will be updated, to detect any obvious errors in the new configuration, and to screen the new configuration for security threats, such as, malware and/or viruses. The process then moves to decision state 544 and determines if the new configuration may be activated. If the new configuration may be activated, the process moves to block 546 and the new configuration is activated. The process then terminates at block 548. If the process determines that the new configuration cannot be activated, the process moves to block 538 and the old, backup configuration is activated. After activating the backup configuration, the storage unit transmits an error message indicating that the new configuration cannot be activated at block 540. The process 500 then moves to block 542 and the storage unit 100 receives a new configuration message. The process then returns to block 536 and the new configuration is evaluated. From this block, the process moves to block 544 and proceeds as described above. Returning again to block 502, if the designated time interval has not passed, the process moves to decision state 550 and determines if a new software configuration is required. If no new software configuration is required, then the process moves to decision state 552 and determines if a status message should be sent. A status message may comprise information relating to, for example, the status of the storage unit 100 and the status of the storage receptacles 132. This may include information relating to any required maintenance, the availability of storage receptacles 132, the number and identification of storage receptacles 132 occupied by an item, the number and identification of storage receptacles 132 reserved for receiving an item, the length of time that items have been in the occupied storage receptacles 132, and any other desired status information. If the process 500 determines that a status message should be sent, then the message is sent at block 554, and the process terminates at block 556. If a status message should not be sent, as decided at decision state 552, the process moves to decision state 558 and determines if a statistics message should be sent. A statistics message may include, for example, the average number of available storage receptacles 132, the average number of occupied storage receptacles 132, the average number of reserved storage receptacles, the number of customers who have used the storage receptacle, the average number of customers using the storage receptacle in a specified time period, the actual number of customers using the storage receptacle in a specified time period, the average amount of time an item is left in the storage receptacle 132 before being picked-up, or any other desired statistic relating to the storage unit 100. If the statistics message should be sent, then the process moves to block 560 and the message is sent and the process terminates at block 556. If a statistics message should not be sent, then the process moves to decision state 562 and determines if an error message should be sent. An error message may report a malfunction of the hardware or software of the storage unit 100. In some embodiments, for example, an error message is sent when a door 136 of a storage receptacle 132 cannot be shut and/or re-secured. Similarly, in some embodiments, an error message is sent when some aspect of the software fails to properly operate. If an error message should be sent, then the process moves to decision state 564 and the error message is sent, after which the process terminates at block 566. An error message may be sent if a printer is out of paper, a scanner fails, a storage receptacle 132 fails, high heat or humidity are detected, vandalism detected, power failure, or other error conditions. Returning again to block 550, if a new configuration is required, the process moves to block 568 and a request configuration message is sent. The process then moves to block 570 and a configuration message is received. The process then proceeds to back up the old configuration as depicted at block 534 and to evaluate the new configuration at block 536. The process then proceeds to decision state 544 and proceeds through the flow-chart as discussed above. Some embodiments of a storage unit system 400 include security features to protect deposited items and to avoid accidental removal of the wrong item. One of these features is the user identification system. One process 500A used for user identification is depicted in FIG. 5A. In some embodiments, the storage unit system 400 includes security features. For example, a storage unit 100 may comprise an accelerometer configured to identify an abrupt, sharp, or other unexpected movement of the storage unit 100, and communicate this acceleration as evidence of tampering or attempted tampering. The cameras associated with storage unit 100, including the camera on the control cabinet 146 and on the roof 124 may be motion activated and provide monitoring of transactions. These security measures may be provided to meet stringent standards as requested or required by a particular organization, such as, for example, the United States Postal Service. In some embodiments, the storage unit system, specifically the storage units 100, may be configured to meet underwriting laboratory (UL) requirements, ergonomic requirements, or specific industry standard requirements. Process 500A begins at block 502A when the user identification and password are received. At block 504A the entered user identification and picture captured at the time of entry of the user identification are stored. The process then proceeds to decision state 506A and determines whether the customer identification is a default agent identification. The decision may be based on a list of agent identification stored on database 171 in memory 170. If the identification is an agent identification, then the process moves to block 508A and the identification and entered password are locally authenticated by the storage unit 100 where the identification and password were entered. The process then proceeds to decision state 510 and determines if the entered password is correct. If the password is incorrect, the process moves to block 512A and access to the storage unit 100 is denied. If the entered password is correct for the entered agent identification, then the process moves to block 514A and access is allowed. The process then moves to block 516A and the storage unit 100 transmits a logged-in message to the central management system 404. The logged-in message may include the date and time the user logged in to the storage unit. In some embodiments, the logged-in message may include the user identification, password, and/or image captured at the time of user log-in. The process 500A then moves to block 518A and the storage unit performs the operations requested by the agent and outlined throughout the present specification. The process 500A then ends at block 520A. Returning again to block 506A, if the user identification is not a default agent identification, then the process moves to block 522A and transmits the user identification and password to the customer directory 412 and requests verification of the identification and password by the customer directory 412. The process then moves to block 524A and receives the response transmission. The process then moves to decision state 526A and determines if the identification and password are verified. If the identification and password are not verified, the process moves to block 528A and access to the storage unit is denied. In some embodiments, the identification and password are verified by comparing the transmitted user identification and password to prestored user identification and password contained in customer directory 412. A user may provide the prestored user identification and password upon signing up to use the storage system 400, or by registering as a customer of the storage system 400. If the identification and password are verified, the process moves to block 530A and access to the storage unit is allowed. The process then moves to block 532A and the storage unit 100 sends a logged-in message to the central management system 404. The logged-in message may include the date and time the user logged in to the storage unit. In some embodiments, the logged-in message may include the user identification, password, and/or image captured at the time of user log-in. The process 500A then moves to block 534A and the storage unit performs the operations requested by the user and outlined throughout the present specification. The process 500A then ends at block 536A. FIG. 5B depicts one embodiment of the process 500B of customer verification performed using the customer directory 412. The process 500B begins at block 502B when the customer identification and password and a request for authentication of the customer identification and password are received. The process 500B moves to block 504B and the customer directory 412 is queried. The process 500B then moves to decision state 506B and determines if the customer identification and password match information stored in the customer directory 412. If the customer identification and password do not match the information stored in the customer directory, then the process 500B moves to block 508B and a response is transmitted to the storage unit 100 that indicates that the identification and password combination are incorrect. If the customer identification and password match information in the customer directory 412, then the process 500B moves to block 510B, and the response is transmitted to the storage unit 100 indicating that the identification and password combination is correct. The process 500B then moves to block 512B and a logged-in message is received from the storage unit 100 indicating that the customer has successfully logged-in. The logged-in message may include information relating to the user and the log-in, including, for example, the customer password, customer identification, customer image captured during log-in, date of log-in, time of log-in, or any other information related to the log-in. The process 500B then moves to block 514B and the logged-in message is stored, and then the process terminates at block 516B. FIG. 5C provides further detail into the steps of some processes used in picking-up an item from a storage unit 100 when the storage unit 100 is functioning as part of a storage unit system 400. Specifically, FIG. 5C depicts one embodiment of a process 500C for requesting confirmation of item pick-up as depicted in block 312B of FIG. 3B. Accordingly, the steps of the present process 500C occur within block 312B of FIG. 3B. As depicted in FIG. 5C, the process 500C for requesting confirmation of item pick-up begins at block 522C by prompting the user to pick-up the item. This prompt may be, for example, in addition to an indication of which storage receptacle 132 contains the item, and in addition to opening of the storage receptacle 132 containing the item. After prompting the user to pick-up the item, the process 500C advances to block 524C where the user is prompted to scan an identifier on the item. In some embodiments, this may comprise, for example, scanning a computer readable code, receiving a radio frequency transmission, scanning a text string, or scanning any other identifying feature of the item. After prompting the user to scan the identifier as depicted in block 524C, the process 500C advances to block 526C, where the storage unit 100 receives data from the scanning of the identifier. After receiving data from the scanning of the identifier as depicted in block 526C, the storage unit 100 prompts the user to confirm the pick-up of the item at block 528C. The process 500C then advances to decision state 530C where it determines whether a user signature is required. If a signature is required, the storage unit 100 prompts the user to provide a signature as depicted in block 532C. The storage unit then receives the signature as depicted in block 534C. After receiving the signature as depicted in block 534C, or after determining that no signature is required in decision state 530C, the process 500C moves to block 536C and stores pick-up-information. This information may include, for example, the user identification, the user password, the image captured at the time of log-in, the user image captured at the time of pick-up or pick-up confirmation, the item number, and/or any other information relating to the item pick-up. The process 500C then moves to block 538C and requests and receives information relating to the communications status of the storage unit 100. The process then proceeds to decision state 540C and determines whether the storage unit is online and able to communicate with other components of the storage unit system 400. If the storage unit is not online, the process moves to block 542C and waits until the communications with the storage unit system 400 have been reestablished and the storage unit 100 is online. After the storage unit 100 returns online, or if the storage unit is online in decision state 540C, the process moves to block 544C and the storage unit transmits the confirmation to the other components of the storage unit system 400. The process then terminates at block 546C. FIG. 5D depicts one embodiment of aspects of the process 500D for depositing items at a storage unit 100 that is functioning as part of a storage unit system 400. The process 500D begins at block 502D when the storage unit 100 receives a user input indicating intent to deposit an item. The process 500D moves to block 504D and requests and receives information relating to the storage unit 100 communications status, and specifically to the ability of the storage unit 100 to communicate with other components of the storage unit system 400. The process then moves to decision state 506D and determines if the storage unit 100 is online and may communicate with other components of the storage unit system 400. If the storage unit is online, the process moves to block 508D, and the user continues with the deposit of the item following processes outlined in this specification. If the storage unit 100 is not online and cannot communicate with other components of the storage unit system 400, then the process moves to block 510D and communicates to the user that items cannot be presently deposited. The process then terminates at block 512D. FIG. 5E depicts one embodiment of a process 500E for registering users to allow access to the storage units 402 of the storage unit system 400. Process 500E moves to block 502E and receives user registration information. In some embodiments, user registration information may be received in electronic or non-electronic form. In some embodiments, a user may fill out a registration form. This form may be, for example, delivered to an agent of the storage unit system 400 who can verify the user information. In another embodiment, the user can fill out and submit an electronic form located, for example, on a website. This user information may include, for example, a desired username, a desired password, the user's name, the user's address, the user's preferred storage unit 402 locations, the user's email address, the user's telephone number, and any other desired information. The process then moves to block 504E and requests user authentication and completion of registration. The request may be made via any form of communication, including electronic communication, such as, for example, email, SMS, telecommunications, mail, or any other desired form of communication. The request for authentication and completion of registration may request verification of the already received information, further information about the user, and that the user contacts an agent of the storage unit system 400 for verification of user provided information. The process then moves to block 506E and receives the completed and authenticated registration information from the user. The process then moves to decision state 508E and determines if the user information may be validated. In some embodiments, the user information is validated by comparison of user submitted information to public or secure information relating to the user. In some embodiments, the user information is validated by a comparison to secure information maintained by a postal agency such as, for example the United States Postal Service. If the user information cannot be validated, the process 500E moves to block 510E and follow-up is requested from an agent 432 in order to determine whether the user information was correct, or whether there is an error in the system. If the used information is validated, process 500E proceeds to block 512E and the user account is designated as active. The process then moves to block 514E and notification of account activation is sent to the user. Following notification, the process ends in block 516E. In some embodiments, this may include sending a user identification and user password for accessing the storage units 400. In some embodiments, this includes providing a computer readable card or object containing information uniquely identifying the user. A person of skill in the art will recognize that a variety of methods of identifying a user may be used and the present disclosure is not limited to any specific form of user identification. In some embodiments, the storage unit system 400 facilitates the delivery of an item by tailoring delivery to a recipient's delivery preferences. The delivery preferences of a recipient may be provided to the storage unit system 400 upon deposit of the item. In some embodiments, the delivery preferences of a recipient may be provided upon registering as a customer or user of the storage unit system 400, and the delivery preferences may be stored in the customer data 412. FIG. 5F depicts one embodiment of process 500F used in connection with a storage unit system for delivering an item. The process 500F begins at block 502F and receives a request for delivery of an item to a storage unit 402. The process 502F then proceeds to block 504F and requests and receives information relating to a preferred storage unit 402. The preferred storage unit may be indicated by a user or customer upon depositing the item, or by the user when registering or signing up to use the storage unit system 412. In some embodiments, a customer may specify one or more preferred storage units 402 for receiving item delivery. In some embodiments, these preferences are ranked from most preferential to least preferential. In some further embodiments, a user is assigned a default storage unit 402. The default storage unit 402 may comprise a vast number of storage receptacles 132, and may be located, at, for example, a post office. Advantageously, evaluation of the availability of preferred storage units 402 based on their preference rank results in placement of the item in the most preferred storage unit 402 with an available storage receptacle 132 of adequate size to hold the item. The process 500F then moves to block 506F and determines if the preferred storage unit can receive the item. If the evaluated storage unit 100 cannot hold the item, the process 500F moves to decision state 508F and determines if the customer has an additional preferred storage unit 402. If the customer has an additional preferred storage unit, then the process returns to block 506F and determines if that next preferred storage unit 402 can receive the item. Returning to decision state 508F, if there are no additional preferred storage units, the process 500F moves to decision state 510F and determines if a default storage unit 402 is available. If a default storage unit 402 is available, then the process 500F moves to decision state 512F and determines if the default storage unit 402 can receive the item. If the default storage unit 402 cannot receive the item, or if there is no default storage unit 402, then the process moves to block 514F and the item is designated for alternate delivery. In some embodiments, alternate delivery may comprise in person delivery, or delayed delivery when one of the preferred or default storage units 402 can receive the item. Returning again to decision state 512F, if the default storage unit can receive the item, or if one of the preferred storage units can receive the item, then the process moves to block 516F and the item is designated for delivery to the available storage unit 402. The process then proceeds to block 518F and reserves the required storage receptacle 132 in the desired storage unit 402 for receipt of the item. In some embodiments, this reservation may be made through communication with the central management system 404. In some embodiments, the reservation is made by communication with the storage unit 402 to which the item will be delivered. In some embodiments, the reservation is made by a communication to both the storage unit 402 to which the item will be delivered and to the central management system 404. The reservation is communicated to central server 430, which maintains a database of the status of each storage receptacle 132 within storage unit system 400. The status includes which storage receptacles 132 are available, which are occupied, and which have been reserved, thus preventing the storage unit system 400 from reserving a particular storage receptacle 132 to more than one user or customer. The process 500F then proceeds to block 520F and requests updated capacity status from the storage unit 402 to which the item will be delivered. The updated capacity status is then stored in the database 414 in the central management system 404, updating the capacity information for the storage unit as depicted in block 522F. The process then moves to block 524F and communicates delivery information to the recipient. This information may be communicated with any communication method, including, for example, electronic communication, telecommunication, or postal communication, and the process terminates at block 526F. In some embodiments, the use of a storage unit system may affect methods of delivery an item. In some embodiments, the method of delivery is tailored to a customer preference. FIG. 6 depicts one exemplary process 600 for matching delivery to a customer's preference. The process 600 begins at block 602 and receives item recipient information. This information may include item information, recipient identification, recipient delivery preferences, recipient physical address, recipient storage unit address, and any other recipient information. The information may be provided by the user who deposits the item, or by a vendor or merchant who requests that an item be delivered via the storage unit system 400. The process then moves to decision state 604 and determines if the recipient is registered for storage unit delivery. If the recipient is not registered for storage unit delivery, the process is terminated at block 606. If the recipient is registered for storage unit delivery, the process moves to decision state 608 and determines if the recipient has requested first attempt personal delivery. First attempt personal delivery occurs when the agent delivering the item makes a first attempt to deliver the item to the physical address or other specified location associated with the recipient. If the recipient wants first attempt personal delivery, then the process moves to block 610 and the agent attempts to deliver the item to the recipient. The process then moves to decision state 612 and determines if the recipient received the item by accessing pick-up confirmation information of control unit 144 or central server 430. If the recipient received the item, then the process terminates at block 614. If the recipient did not receive the item, or if the recipient has noted that they do not desire first attempt personal delivery, then the process moves to block 616 and prepares for item delivery to a storage unit 402. In some embodiments, this may include placing a unique identification feature on the item, scanning the identification feature to enter the item into the system, entering the recipient information into the system so as to associate the recipient information with the item, and any other steps. In some embodiments, this information relating to the item identification and the recipient information is stored in the database 414 of the central management system 404. The process then proceeds to block 618 and the customer is notified of the pending delivery to the storage unit 402. As mentioned above, this notification may be provided electronically, by telephone, or by writing. The process then proceeds to block 620 and the delivery procedure continues as outlined throughout this specification. After completion of the delivery procedure, the process terminates as depicted at block 622. FIG. 6A depicts one embodiment of a process 600A used by an agent in delivering an item. The process 600A may be performed by the agent with a device configured to network communication such as, for example, a computer, a Smartphone, a tablet, a handheld device with network access, a wireless device with network access, or any other device with network communication capability. The process 600A begins at block 602A when item recipient information is received. The process 600A continues to block 604A and requests and receives information relating to whether the recipient receives storage unit deliveries. The process 600A continues at decision state 606A and determines if the recipient receives storage unit deliveries. If the recipient does not receive storage unit deliveries, the process 600A terminates at block 608A. If the recipient receives storage unit deliveries, the process 600A continues at block 610A and requests and receives information relating to whether the recipient receives first attempt deliveries. The process 600A continues to decision state 612A and determines if the recipient receives first attempt deliveries. If the recipient receives first attempt deliveries, the process 600A continues to block 614A when delivery of the item is attempted. At decision state 616A, the process 600A determines if the delivery of the item was successful based on delivery status provided by an agent 432. If the delivery was successful, the process 600A terminates at block 618A. If the delivery attempt was unsuccessful, then the process 600A moves to block 620A and the recipient is notified of the pending delivery to the storage unit 402. After notifying the recipient of the pending delivery to the storage unit 402, or if the recipient does not receive first attempt deliveries, the process 600A continues to block 622A and sends a request for the location of the preferred and available storage unit 402. At block 624A, the process 600A receives information relating to the location of the preferred and available storage unit 402. The process 600A continues to block 626A and sends a request to reserve an available storage receptacle 132. The process 600A continues at block 628A where the item is delivered to the reserved storage receptacle 132 at the designated storage unit 402. At block 630A, the recipient is notified of the successful delivery of the item to the storage unit 402 and provided information relating to picking-up of the item from the storage unit 402. In some embodiments, this information may include a time frame in which pick-up is required, item identification information, any other information required to retrieve the item, and/or any other desired information. The process 600A then terminates at block 632A In some embodiments, the storage unit is configured for the sale of postage to facilitate customer deposit of items for delivery. In some embodiments, the storage unit 402 may be configured to receive indicia of a purchase of postage and to dispense postage to facilitate customer deposit of items for delivery. Some embodiments relate to a system in which the purchase of postage is remote from the storage unit 402, such as, for example over the internet, and postage is dispensed at the postage in response to inputting an identifier of the postage purchase to the storage unit 402. FIG. 7 depicts one embodiment of a process 700 that may be used in purchasing and obtaining postage. The process 700 begins at block 702 with the receipt of the selection of postage for purchase. This selection may comprise the designation of the item size and the desired time frame for delivery, the selection of postage of a specific value, or any other designation of postage type. The process 700 continues at block 704 and receives shipping information. This information may include, for example, the recipient name, the recipient address, the mailer name, the mailer address, and any other information required for transport of the item. The process 700 continues at block 706 with the selling of the postage. This step may require payment processes, such as providing electronic payment information such as credit card or bank card number, payment of cash, or any other payment process. The process 700 continues at block 708 with the distribution of a purchased postage identifier. In some embodiments, the purchased postage identifier may comprise a unique identifier that identifies the specific transaction, the type of postage purchased, and, in some embodiments, other shipping details. In some embodiments, the identifier may comprise a text string, or a computer readable code such as, for example, a bar code, including linear barcodes, 2D barcodes, or any other barcode. In some embodiments, the identifier is printable, transmitted, such as, by email. The process 700 continues at block 710 when the system receives the identifier of the postage purchase at a location capable of printing the postage. In some embodiments, this location is at, for example, a storage unit. In some embodiments, the identifier is entered into the postage printing components, for example, into the storage unit. In some embodiments, the identifier is manually entered into the storage unit 402. In some embodiments in which the identifier comprises a computer readable code, the identifier is scanned into the storage unit 402 via the scanner 150. In response to receipt of the identifier of the postage purchase, the postage printing component may dispense the printed postage. In embodiments in which the storage unit 402 is the postage printing component, the printer 152 of the storage unit may print the postage. After printing the postage, the process may terminate at block 714. In some embodiments, the method of FIG. 7 is used to make other payments associated with an item, such as, for example, payment of customs, payment of taxes, post office box payments, or any other payments. As shown above, these payments may be made at a location separate from the storage unit 402 and the storage unit 402 is used to print labeling indicative of the completion of these payments. Further Uses In some embodiments, the storage unit 402 and/or storage unit system 400 is used to facilitate new types of deliveries. In one embodiment, for example, a customer storage unit address is used to facilitate anonymous delivery of items. As the customer storage unit address does not identify the customer or their physical address, the customer storage unit address may allow delivery of items to a customer without disclosing the identity of the customer to the originator of the item. This anonymity may facilitate customer safety and privacy in all transactions, and may be particularly beneficial in electronic transactions, or transaction of sensitive items. In some embodiments, a storage unit 402 may be used as an unmanned sales merchant office. In one such embodiment, a storage unit 402 may be wholly or partly assigned for use to a merchant, and items ordered from the merchant are delivered to the storage unit 402. In some embodiments, these deliveries are available to registered users of the storage unit. In other embodiments, these deliveries are available to unregistered recipients of the storage unit 402. In embodiments in which a recipient is unregistered, a unique identifier is be used to identify the recipient to allow the recipient to pick-up the delivered item. In some embodiments, a government issued identification is be used as the unique identifier. In other embodiments, the merchant provides a unique identifier, such as a transaction number, a code, a password, a computer readable identifier, or any other unique identifier to the item recipient. Upon inputting of the unique identifier, the storage unit 402 allows the recipient to access their item. In another embodiment, the storage unit 402 is be used in connection with day- and/or time-specific deliveries. In such an embodiment, the storage unit includes instruction not to allow access to the contents of storage receptacles containing the items for day- and/or time-specific delivery until the designated day and/or time has passed. Delivery capability may beneficially facilitate sales and deliveries of items having a particular release date, such as the release date of a product, including, for example, a book, a video, a device, a toy, or any other item. In one embodiment, the storage unit system 400 is configured to enable proactive inventory management at the storage unit 402 and/or to enable customers to determine availability of storage receptacles at the delivery location before sending an item. Advantageously, such inventory management increases efficiency of operations. In one embodiment, the storage unit system 400 is configured to provide a vendor, business entity, or other entity the ability to reserve a particular storage receptacle 132 on a one-time basis or on a subscription basis. In one embodiment, a portion or all of the storage receptacles 132 at a given storage unit 402 may be assigned to a specific customer. In this embodiment, a customer may be assigned a specific storage receptacle 132, and only items for that customer are delivered to that receptacle 132. Those of skill will recognize that the various illustrative logical blocks, modules, circuits, and algorithm steps described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented as electronic hardware, software stored on a computer readable medium and executable by a processor, or combinations of both. To clearly illustrate this interchangeability of hardware and software, various illustrative components, blocks, modules, circuits, and steps have been described above generally in terms of their functionality. Whether such functionality is implemented as hardware or software depends upon the particular application and design constraints imposed on the overall system. Skilled artisans may implement the described functionality in varying ways for each particular application, but such implementation decisions should not be interpreted as causing a departure from the scope of the present invention. The logical blocks, modules and flow chart sequences are illustrative only. A person of skill in the art will understand that the steps, decisions, and processes embodied in the flowcharts described herein may be performed in an order other than that described herein. Thus, the particular flowcharts and descriptions are not intended to limit the associated processes to being performed in the specific order described. The various illustrative logical blocks, modules, and circuits described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be implemented or performed with a general purpose processor, a digital signal processor (DSP), an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a field programmable gate array (FPGA) or other programmable logic device, discrete gate or transistor logic, discrete hardware components, or any combination thereof designed to perform the functions described herein. A general purpose processor may be a microprocessor, but in the alternative, the processor may be any conventional processor, controller, microcontroller, or state machine. A processor may also be implemented as a combination of computing devices, e.g., a combination of a DSP and a microprocessor, a plurality of microprocessors, one or more microprocessors in conjunction with a DSP core, or any other such configuration. The steps of a method or algorithm described in connection with the embodiments disclosed herein may be embodied directly in hardware, in a software module executed by a processor, or in a combination of the two. A software module may reside in RAM memory, flash memory, ROM memory, EPROM memory, EEPROM memory, registers, hard disk, a removable disk, a CD-ROM, or any other form of storage medium known in the art. An exemplary storage medium is coupled to the processor such the processor reads information from, and write information to, the storage medium. In the alternative, the storage medium may be integral to the processor. The processor and the storage medium may reside in an ASIC. While the above detailed description has shown, described, and pointed out novel features of the invention as applied to various embodiments, it will be understood that various omissions, substitutions, and changes in the form and details of the device or process illustrated may be made by those skilled in the art without departing from the spirit of the invention. As will be recognized, the present invention may be embodied within a form that does not provide all of the features and benefits set forth herein, as some features may be used or practiced separately from others. The scope of the invention is indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. A person skilled in the art will recognize that each of these sub-systems may be inter-connected and controllably connected using a variety of techniques and hardware and that the present disclosure is not limited to any specific method of connection or connection hardware. The technology is operational with numerous other general purpose or special purpose computing system environments or configurations. Examples of well-known computing systems, environments, and/or configurations that may be suitable for use with the invention include, but are not limited to, personal computers, server computers, hand-held or laptop devices, multiprocessor systems, microprocessor-based systems, a microcontroller or microcontroller based system, programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers, distributed computing environments that include any of the above systems or devices, and the like. As used herein, instructions refer to computer-implemented steps for processing information in the system. Instructions may be implemented in software, firmware or hardware and include any type of programmed step undertaken by components of the system. A microprocessor may be any conventional general purpose single- or multi-chip microprocessor such as a Pentium® processor, a Pentium® Pro processor, a 8051 processor, a MIPS® processor, a Power PC® processor, or an Alpha® processor. In addition, the microprocessor may be any conventional special purpose microprocessor such as a digital signal processor or a graphics processor. The microprocessor typically has conventional address lines, conventional data lines, and one or more conventional control lines. The system may be used in connection with various operating systems such as Linux®, UNIX® or Microsoft Windows®. The system control may be written in any conventional programming language such as C, C++, BASIC, Pascal, .NET (e.g., C#), or Java, and ran under a conventional operating system. C, C++, BASIC, Pascal, Java, and FORTRAN are industry standard programming languages for which many commercial compilers may be used to create executable code. The system control may also be written using interpreted languages such as Perl, Python or Ruby. Other languages may also be used such as PHP, JavaScript, and the like. The foregoing description details certain embodiments of the systems, devices, and methods disclosed herein. It will be appreciated, however, that no matter how detailed the foregoing appears in text, the systems, devices, and methods may be practiced in many ways. As is also stated above, it should be noted that the use of particular terminology when describing certain features or aspects of the invention should not be taken to imply that the terminology is being re-defined herein to be restricted to including any specific characteristics of the features or aspects of the technology with which that terminology is associated. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and changes may be made without departing from the scope of the described technology. Such modifications and changes are intended to fall within the scope of the embodiments. It will also be appreciated by those of skill in the art that parts included in one embodiment are interchangeable with other embodiments; one or more parts from a depicted embodiment may be included with other depicted embodiments in any combination. For example, any of the various components described herein and/or depicted in the Figures may be combined, interchanged or excluded from other embodiments. With respect to the use of substantially any plural and/or singular terms herein, those having skill in the art may translate from the plural to the singular and/or from the singular to the plural as is appropriate to the context and/or application. The various singular/plural permutations may be expressly set forth herein for sake of clarity. It will be understood by those within the art that, in general, terms used herein are generally intended as “open” terms (e.g., the term “including” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” the term “having” should be interpreted as “having at least,” the term “includes” should be interpreted as “includes but is not limited to,” etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is intended, such an intent will be explicitly recited in the claim, and in the absence of such recitation no such intent is present. For example, as an aid to understanding, the following appended claims may contain usage of the introductory phrases “at least one” and “one or more” to introduce claim recitations. However, the use of such phrases should not be construed to imply that the introduction of a claim recitation by the indefinite articles “a” or “an” limits any particular claim containing such introduced claim recitation to embodiments containing only one such recitation, even when the same claim includes the introductory phrases “one or more” or “at least one” and indefinite articles such as “a” or “an” (e.g., “a” and/or “an” should typically be interpreted to mean “at least one” or “one or more”); the same holds true for the use of definite articles used to introduce claim recitations. In addition, even if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is explicitly recited, those skilled in the art will recognize that such recitation should typically be interpreted to mean at least the recited number (e.g., the bare recitation of “two recitations,” without other modifiers, typically means at least two recitations, or two or more recitations). Furthermore, in those instances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, and C, etc.” is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (e.g., “a system having at least one of A, B, and C” would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and C together, etc.). In those instances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, or C, etc.” is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (e.g., “a system having at least one of A, B, or C” would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and C together, etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that virtually any disjunctive word and/or phrase presenting two or more alternative terms, whether in the description, claims, or drawings, should be understood to contemplate the possibilities of including one of the terms, either of the terms, or both terms. For example, the phrase “A or B” will be understood to include the possibilities of “A” or “B” or “A and B.” All references cited herein are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. To the extent publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference contradict the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and/or take precedence over any such contradictory material. The term “comprising” as used herein is synonymous with “including,” “containing,” or “characterized by,” and is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps. All numbers expressing quantities of ingredients, reaction conditions, and so forth used in the specification and claims are to be understood as being modified in all instances by the term “about.” Accordingly, unless indicated to the contrary, the numerical parameters set forth in the specification and attached claims are approximations that may vary depending upon the desired properties sought to be obtained by the present invention. At the very least, and not as an attempt to limit the application of the doctrine of equivalents to the scope of the claims, each numerical parameter should be construed in light of the number of significant digits and ordinary rounding approaches. The above description discloses several methods and materials of the present invention. This invention is susceptible to modifications in the methods and materials, as well as alterations in the fabrication methods and equipment. Such modifications will become apparent to those skilled in the art from a consideration of this disclosure or practice of the invention disclosed herein. Consequently, it is not intended that this invention be limited to the specific embodiments disclosed herein, but that it cover all modifications and alternatives coming within the true scope and spirit of the invention as embodied in the attached claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Some embodiments described herein include a system for selectively receiving, storing, and dispensing one or more items, the system comprising a first receptacle comprising a securement feature a second receptacle comprising a securement feature; and a control unit comprising a storage device comprising stored instructions which, when executed, cause a processor to provide and deny access to the receptacles, and to track the availability of each of the receptacles, wherein an identifier indicative of the availability of the receptacles is stored in the storage element when the receptacle does not contain an item, and wherein an identifier indicative of the unavailability of the receptacles is stored in the storage element when the receptacle contains an item. In some embodiments, the first receptacle further comprises a feature indicating when the first receptacle is unlocked. In some embodiments, the feature indicating when the first receptacle is unlocked comprises a light. In some embodiments, the securement features are controlled by the control unit and access to one of the receptacles is granted to deposit an item or to remove a deposited item. In some embodiments, access to one of the receptacles is granted in response to providing verification to the control unit of user age or user identity. In some embodiments, access to one of the receptacles to remove a deposited item is granted in response to receipt of item identification information and user identification information matching the item identification information and user identification information associated with the item. In some embodiments, the control unit is configured receive dimensions of an item to be deposited and configured to determine which of the receptacles having a size sufficient to receive the item to be deposited is available, and granting access to the receptacle having a size sufficient to receive the item to be deposited. In some embodiments, the first receptacle and the second receptacle are of different types or sizes, and the control unit is configured to receive input of a user preference as to type or size of the receptacle, and to provide access to the available receptacle matching the user's preferences. In some embodiments, the system further comprises a database containing user information accessible by the control unit, wherein the control unit is configured to select the receptacle which corresponds to the user information. Some embodiments described herein include a method of operating a storage unit comprising a plurality of receptacles and a control unit, the method comprising receiving a user input at the control unit of the storage unit; querying a database for a receptacle corresponding to the user input; displaying the location of a receptacle; receiving a user input selecting the indicated receptacle; unlocking the selected receptacle; receiving confirmation that the user has completed a transaction; and locking the receptacle following completion of the transaction. In some embodiments, the user instruction comprises a request for retrieval of an item that is located in one of the receptacles. In some embodiments, the storage unit displays the location of the receptacle containing the item. In some embodiments, the user instruction comprises a request for depositing an item in one of the receptacles. In some embodiments, the method further comprises requesting size information of the item. In some embodiments, the method further comprises determining if one of the receptacles is available for receiving the item and displaying the location of at least one available receptacle. In some embodiments, the method further comprises receiving user or item identification information. In some embodiments, the user or item identification information is received via a scanner. In some embodiments, the method further comprises receiving proof of postage purchase. In some embodiments, the method further comprises printing postage. Some embodiments described herein include a system for selectively receiving, storing, and dispensing one or more items, the system comprising a plurality of receptacles each configured to receive at least one item means for selectively controlling access to each of the plurality of receptacles in response to a user input; means for indicating which of the plurality of receptacles corresponding to the user input is available; and means for confirming whether an item has been deposited in or removed from one of the plurality of receptacles. Some embodiments disclosed herein include a method of depositing an item comprising, issuing an item identification code configured to be read by a control unit which controls access to a plurality of receptacles, the item identification code associated to an item parameter, the item identification code and the item parameter being stored in a database; receiving the item identification code at the control unit; requesting user identification to initiate a deposit transaction; receiving user identification in the form of an electronic signature; receiving the identity of the intended recipient for the item; determining which of the plurality of receptacles is available to receive the item,; determining which of the available receptacles is configured to receive the item, based on the received item identification code and the associated item parameter; indicating which of the plurality of receptacles is available and is configured to receive the item; receiving user input selecting one of the indicated receptacles; generating and sending a control signal to a lock on the user selected receptacle thereby unlocking the user selected receptacle; receiving the item in the user selected receptacle; requesting deposit confirmation at the control unit; receiving deposit confirmation at the control unit; generating and sending a control signal to the lock on the selected receptacle in response to the receipt of the deposit confirmation, thereby locking the selected receptacle; and issuing a receipt documenting the deposit transaction. In some embodiments, determining which of the plurality of receptacles is available to receive the item comprises the control unit querying a receptacle availability database. | G05D300 | 20170629 | 20180501 | 20171019 | 65764.0 | G05D300 | 0 | AKHTER, SHARMIN | SYSTEM AND METHOD OF CONTROL OF ELECTRONIC PARCEL LOCKERS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G05D | 2,017 |
15,638,955 | PENDING | RABIES GLYCOPROTEIN VIRUS-LIKE PARTICLES (VLPS) | The present invention is generally related to virus-like particles (VLPs) comprising rabies virus (RV) glycoproteins (G proteins) and methods for making and using them, including immunogenic compositions such as vaccines for the treatment and/or prevention of rabies virus infection. | 1-30. (canceled) 31. A method of making a micelle particle comprising rabies virus (RV) glycoprotein (G protein), wherein the G proteins form a trimer, comprising: (a) transforming an Sf9 cell to express a nucleic acid encoding a RV G protein; and (b) culturing said Sf9 cell under conditions conducive to the production of said RV G protein trimers; and (c) purifying a micelle particle comprising the RV G protein trimers in the presence of NP-9 detergent. 32. (canceled) 33. The method according to claim 31, wherein said Sf9 cell is transfected with a baculovirus vector comprising a nucleic acid comprising SEQ ID NO: 1. 34. The method according to claim 31, wherein said Sf9 cell is transfected with a baculovirus vector comprising a nucleic acid that encodes a RV G protein comprising SEQ ID NO:2. 35. The method according to claim 31, wherein step (c) comprises lentil lectin affinity chromatography. 36. The method according to 31, wherein step (c) comprises: (a) anion exchange chromatography; (b) cation exchange chromatography; and (c) lentil lectin affinity chromatography. 37. The method according to claim 36, wherein the anion exchange chromatography utilizes an elution buffer comprising 25 mM Tris pH 8.0, 180 mM NaCl, and 0.02% NP-9. 38. The method according to claim 36, wherein the cation exchange chromatography utilizes an elution buffer comprising 25 mM NaHPO4 pH 6.8, 300 mM NaCl, and 0.02% NP-9. 39. The method according to claim 36, wherein the lentil lectin affinity chromatography utilizes an elution buffer comprising 25 mM NaHPO4 pH 6.8, 50 mM NaCl, 500 mM Methyl-α-D-mannopyranoside and 0.02% NP-9. 40. The method according to claim 31, wherein the G protein trimer forms spikes on the surface of the micelle particle. 41. The method according to claim 31, wherein the RV G protein is derived from an RV strain selected from human, canine, bat, raccoon, skunk, and fox. 42. The method according to claim 31, wherein the micelle particle is stored in a buffer comprising 25 mM NaHPO4 pH 6.8, 300 mM NaCl, and 0.02% NP-9. 43. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the micelle particle comprising rabies virus (RV) glycoprotein (G protein), wherein the G proteins form a trimer; 25 mM NaHPO4 pH 6.8, 300 mM NaCl, and 0.02% NP-9. 44. The composition of claim 43 further comprising an adjuvant. 45. The composition of claim 44, wherein the adjuvant is alum. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation of U.S. Ser. No. 13/883,745, filed Feb. 28, 2014, which is the U.S. national stage application of International Application No. PCT/US2011/059602, which was filed on Nov. 7, 2011 and claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/410,767, filed Nov. 5, 2010, the disclosures of each are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. DESCRIPTION OF THE TEXT FILE SUBMITTED ELECTRONICALLY The contents of the text file submitted electronically herewith are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety: A computer readable format copy of the Sequence Listing (filename: NOVV_047_02US_SeqList.txt, date recorded: Jun. 29, 2017, file size 7 kilobytes). TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention is generally related to virus-like particles (VLPs) comprising rabies virus (RV) glycoproteins (G proteins) and methods for making and using them, including immunogenic compositions such as vaccines for the treatment and/or prevention of rabies virus infection. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Rabies virus (RV) is a non-segmented negative-stranded RNA virus of the Rhabdoviridae family and induces a fatal neurological disease in humans and animals. More than 70,000 human fatalities are reported annually and millions of others require post-exposure treatment. Although significant advances have been made in rabies prevention and control, the disease remains a major threat to public health and continues to cause numerous human deaths around the world. Canines remain the most important reservoir in Asia, Africa and Latin America where most human rabies cases occur. In the developed countries, human rabies has declined significantly during the past 50 years, primarily as a result of routine vaccination of pet animals. However, rabies transmission via exposure to wild-life has emerged as a major cause of the disease. In the United States, more than 90% of animal rabies cases have been reported in wildlife, representing continual public health threats. Most human cases in the past decade have been associated with RV found in bats, particularly silver-haired bats. Rhabdoviruses have two major structural components: a helical ribonucleoprotein core (RNP) and a surrounding envelope. The rabies genome encodes five proteins: nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), glycoprotein (G) and polymerase (large protein) (L). The order of the genes in the wild-type rabies genome is 3′-N-P-M-G-L-5′. The N, L and P proteins are associated with the core RNP complex. The RNP complex consists of the RNA genome encapsidated by the N in combination with polymerase L and the P protein. This complex serves as a template for virus transcription and replication. The viral envelope component of RV is composed of a transmembrane glycoprotein (G) and a matrix (M) protein. The glycoprotein forms approximately 400 trimeric spikes which are tightly arranged on the surface of the virus. The M protein is associated both with the envelope and the RNP and may be the central protein of rhabdovirus assembly. As noted above, rabies remains a major public health threat around the world. Controlling rabies and protecting humans from rabies requires several control strategies, such as routine immunization of pet animals and wildlife carriers, pre-exposure immunization of people at risk, and post-exposure treatment of people bitten by rabid animals. Although inactivated rabies virus (RV) vaccines prepared from cell culture are safe and well-tolerated, they have multiple disadvantages. They are difficult to manufacture, difficult to store, have low immunogenicity, and require multiple injections. Moreover, they are expensive and thus beyond the reach of most people who need the vaccines in the developing countries. In addition, these inactivated vaccines typically include adjuvants which may cause unwanted side effects. Thus, safer, cheaper, and more efficacious RV vaccines are needed. The present application addresses this need through the development of a novel method for the production of virus-like particles (VLPs) comprising the rabies glycoprotein (G). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to rabies virus (RV) virus-like particles (VLPs) for use in vaccines for the treatment and prevention of rabies virus infection. The RV VLPs of the invention have the potential to induce potent immune responses in mammalian subjects against the rabies virus. In a first aspect, the present invention provides RV VLPs comprising one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). The RV G proteins may be derived from any suitable RV strain, including, but not limited to, human, canine, bat, raccoon, skunk, and fox strains of RV. In one embodiment, the RV VLPs comprising one or more RV G proteins may be in the form of micelles. In some embodiments, the RV VLPs may comprise one or more additional RV proteins, selected from the nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), and polymerase (large protein) (L). In a specific embodiment, the RV VLPs of the present invention may comprise the RV matrix protein (M). In one embodiment, the M protein is derived from a human strain of RV. In another embodiment, the M protein is derived from a canine strain of RV. In yet another embodiment, the M protein is derived from a bat strain of RV. In other embodiments, the matrix protein may be an M1 protein from an influenza virus strain. In one embodiment, the influenza virus strain is an avian influenza virus strain. In other embodiments, the M protein may be derived from a Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) strain. In one embodiment, the coding sequence of the RV G protein is further optimized to enhance its expression in a suitable host cell. In one embodiment, the host cell is an insect cell. In an exemplary embodiment, the insect cell is an Sf9 cell. The RV VLPs of the present invention may be used for the prevention and/or treatment of RV infection. Thus, in another aspect, the invention provides a method for eliciting an immune response against RV. The method involves administering an immunologically effective amount of a composition containing a RV VLP to a subject, such as a human or animal subject. In another aspect, the present invention provides pharmaceutically acceptable vaccine compositions comprising an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In one embodiment, the invention comprises an immunogenic formulation comprising at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In another embodiment, the invention provides for a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprising one or more containers filled with one or more of the ingredients of the vaccine formulations of the invention. In another embodiment, the invention provides a method of formulating a vaccine or antigenic composition that induces immunity to an infection or at least one disease symptom thereof to a mammal, comprising adding to the formulation an effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In a preferred embodiment, the infection is an RV infection. The RV VLPs of the invention are useful for preparing compositions that stimulate an immune response that confers immunity or substantial immunity to infectious agents. Thus, in one embodiment, the invention provides a method of inducing immunity to infections or at least one disease symptom thereof in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of inducing substantial immunity to RV infection or at least one disease symptom in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). Compositions of the invention can induce substantial immunity in a vertebrate (e.g. a human or a canine) when administered to the vertebrate. Thus, in one embodiment, the invention provides a method of inducing substantial immunity to RV infection or at least one disease symptom in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In another embodiment, the invention provides a method of vaccinating a mammal against RV comprising administering to the mammal a protection-inducing amount of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). The prophylactic vaccine formulation is systemically administered, e.g., by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection using a needle and syringe, or a needle-less injection device. In an exemplary embodiment, the vaccine formulation is administered intramuscularly. In another embodiment, the invention comprises a method of inducing a protective antibody response to an infection or at least one symptom thereof in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In another embodiment, the invention comprises a method of inducing a protective cellular response to RV infection or at least one disease symptom in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In yet another aspect, the invention provides an isolated nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein). In an exemplary embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein) protein is SEQ ID NO: 1. In yet another aspect, the invention provides an isolated cell comprising a nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein). In an exemplary embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein) protein is SEQ ID NO: 1. In yet another aspect, the invention provides a vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein). In an exemplary embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein) protein is SEQ ID NO: 1. In one embodiment, the vector is a baculovirus vector. In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of making a RV VLP comprising one or more rabies glycoproteins (G proteins), comprising (a) transforming a host cell to express a nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein); and (b) culturing said host cell under conditions conducive to the production of said RV VLPs. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein) is SEQ ID NO: 1. In another embodiment, the host cell is an insect cell. In a further embodiment, the host cell is an is an insect cell transfected with a baculovirus vector comprising a rabies glycoprotein (G protein). BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 depicts the plasmid map for the pFastBac1 vector comprising the rabies virus G nucleic acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1). FIG. 2 depicts the results of western blotting for RV G proteins using anti-RV rabbit sera under both reducing (FIG. 2A) and non-reducing conditions (FIG. 2B). FIG. 3 depicts images of purified recombinant RV G protein particles in the forms of micelles taken using negative stain electron microscopy at a magnification of 150,000×. FIG. 4 depicts the results of antibody-induction assays in rabbits administered increasing dilutions of RV G particles. FIG. 5 shows the protein sequence for the pFastBac1 vector comprising the rabies virus G nucliec acid sequence (SEQ ID NO: 1) (top) and the RV G protein sequence (SEQ ID NO: 2) (bottom). FIG. 6 is a graph showing the anti-rabies virus antibody titers at different days, plotted as the geometric mean for each immunization regimen (n=5 for each immunization group). DETAILED DESCRIPTION Definitions As used herein the term “adjuvant” refers to a compound that, when used in combination with a specific immunogen (e.g. an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins)) in a formulation, will augment or otherwise alter or modify the resultant immune response. Modification of the immune response includes intensification or broadening the specificity of either or both antibody and cellular immune responses. Modification of the immune response can also mean decreasing or suppressing certain antigen-specific immune responses. As use herein, the term “antigenic formulation” or “antigenic composition” refers to a preparation which, when administered to a vertebrate, especially a bird or a mammal, will induce an immune response. As used herein the term “avian influenza virus” refers to influenza viruses found chiefly in birds but that can also infect humans or other animals. In some instances, avian influenza viruses may be transmitted or spread from one human to another. An avian influenza virus that infects humans has the potential to cause an influenza pandemic, i.e., morbidity and/or mortality in humans. A pandemic occurs when a new strain of influenza virus (a virus in which human have no natural immunity) emerges, spreading beyond individual localities, possibly around the globe, and infecting many humans at once. As used herein an “effective dose” generally refers to that amount of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) sufficient to induce immunity, to prevent and/or ameliorate an infection or to reduce at least one symptom of an infection or disease, and/or to enhance the efficacy of another dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). An effective dose may refer to the amount of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) sufficient to delay or minimize the onset of an infection or disease. An effective dose may also refer to the amount of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) that provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment or management of an infection or disease. Further, an effective dose is the amount with respect to an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) alone, or in combination with other therapies, that provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment or management of an infection or disease. An effective dose may also be the amount sufficient to enhance a subject's (e.g., a human's) own immune response against a subsequent exposure to an infectious agent or disease. Levels of immunity can be monitored, e.g., by measuring amounts of neutralizing secretory and/or serum antibodies, e.g., by plaque neutralization, complement fixation, enzyme-linked immunosorbent, or microneutralization assay, or by measuring cellular responses, such as, but not limited to cytotoxic T cells, antigen presenting cells, helper T cells, dendritic cells and/or other cellular responses. T cell responses can be monitored, e.g., by measuring, for example, the amount of CD4+ and CD8+ cells present using specific markers by fluorescent flow cytometry or T cell assays, such as but not limited to T-cell proliferation assay, T-cell cytotoxic assay, TETRAMER assay, and/or ELISPOT assay. In the case of a vaccine, an “effective dose” is one that prevents disease and/or reduces the severity of symptoms. As used herein, the term “effective amount” refers to an amount of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) necessary or sufficient to realize a desired biologic effect. An effective amount of the composition would be the amount that achieves a selected result, and such an amount could be determined as a matter of routine experimentation by a person skilled in the art. For example, an effective amount for preventing, treating and/or ameliorating an infection could be that amount necessary to cause activation of the immune system, resulting in the development of an antigen specific immune response upon exposure to an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). The term is also synonymous with “sufficient amount.” In another embodiment, the effective amount is the amount by weight of a RV G micelle that enduces seroprotection in a relevant animal model, animal or human patient in a desired number of days, e.g. 7, 10, 14 or more days. As used herein, the term “expression” refers to the process by which polynucleic acids are transcribed into mRNA and translated into peptides, polypeptides, or proteins. If the polynucleic acid is derived from genomic DNA, expression may, if an appropriate eukaryotic host cell or organism is selected, include splicing of the mRNA. In the context of the present invention, the term also encompasses the yield of RV G gene mRNA and RV G proteins achieved following expression thereof. As used herein, the term “G protein” or “G glycoprotein” or “G protein polypeptide” refers to a polypeptide or protein having all or part of an amino acid sequence of an RV G protein polypeptide. As used herein, the terms “immunogens” or “antigens” refer to substances such as proteins, peptides, peptides, nucleic acids that are capable of eliciting an immune response. Both terms also encompass epitopes, and are used interchangeably. As used herein the term “immune stimulator” refers to a compound that enhances an immune response via the body's own chemical messengers (cytokines). These molecules comprise various cytokines, lymphokines and chemokines with immunostimulatory, immunopotentiating, and pro-inflammatory activities, such as interferons (IFN-γ), interleukins (e.g., IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-12, IL-13); growth factors (e.g., granulocyte-macrophage (GM)-colony stimulating factor (CSF)); and other immunostimulatory molecules, such as macrophage inflammatory factor, Flt3 ligand, B7.1; B7.2, etc. The immune stimulator molecules can be administered in the same formulation as VLPs of the invention, or can be administered separately. Either the protein or an expression vector encoding the protein can be administered to produce an immunostimulatory effect. As use herein, the term “immunogenic formulation” refers to a preparation which, when administered to a vertebrate, e.g. a mammal, will induce an immune response. As use herein, the term “infectious agent” refers to microorganisms that cause an infection in a vertebrate. Usually, the organisms are viruses, bacteria, parasites, protozoa and/or fungi. As used herein, the term “multivalent” refers to compositions which have one or more antigenic proteins/peptides or immunogens against multiple types or strains of infectious agents or diseases, e.g. more than one RV G protein type, strain, sequence, etc. As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable vaccine” refers to a formulation which contains an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins), which is in a form that is capable of being administered to a vertebrate and which induces a protective immune response sufficient to induce immunity to prevent and/or ameliorate an infection or disease, and/or to reduce at least one symptom of an infection or disease, and/or to enhance the efficacy of another dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). Typically, the vaccine comprises a conventional saline or buffered aqueous solution medium in which the composition of the present invention is suspended or dissolved. In this form, the composition of the present invention can be used conveniently to prevent, ameliorate, or otherwise treat an infection. Upon introduction into a host, the vaccine is able to provoke an immune response including, but not limited to, the production of antibodies and/or cytokines and/or the activation of cytotoxic T cells, antigen presenting cells, helper T cells, dendritic cells and/or other cellular responses. As used herein, the phrase “protective immune response” or “protective response” refers to an immune response mediated by antibodies against an infectious agent or disease, which is exhibited by a vertebrate (e.g., a human), that prevents or ameliorates an infection or reduces at least one disease symptom thereof. An RV VLP of the present invention which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) can stimulate the production of antibodies that, for example, neutralize infectious agents, blocks infectious agents from entering cells, blocks replication of the infectious agents, and/or protect host cells from infection and destruction. The term can also refer to an immune response that is mediated by T-lymphocytes and/or other white blood cells against an infectious agent or disease, exhibited by a vertebrate (e.g., a human), that prevents or ameliorates infection or disease, or reduces at least one symptom thereof. As use herein, the term “vertebrate” or “subject” or “patient” refers to any member of the subphylum cordata, including, without limitation, humans and other primates, including non-human primates such as chimpanzees and other apes and monkey species. Farm animals such as cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses; domestic mammals such as dogs and cats; laboratory animals including rodents such as mice, rats (including cotton rats) and guinea pigs; birds, including domestic, wild and game birds such as chickens, turkeys and other gallinaceous birds, ducks, geese, and the like are also non-limiting examples. The terms “mammals” and “animals” are included in this definition. Both adult and newborn individuals are intended to be covered. In particular, humans, domestic mammals, and farm animals are appropriate recipients of an RV vaccine or therapeutic. As used herein, the term “virus-like particle” (VLP) refers to a structure that in at least one attribute resembles a virus but which has not been demonstrated to be infectious. Virus-like particles in accordance with the invention do not carry genetic information encoding for the proteins of the virus-like particles. In general, virus-like particles lack a viral genome and, therefore, are noninfectious. In addition, virus-like particles can often be produced in large quantities by heterologous expression and can be easily purified. As used herein, the term “chimeric VLP” refers to VLPs that contain proteins, or portions thereof, from at least two different infectious agents (heterologous proteins). Usually, one of the proteins is derived from a virus that can drive the formation of VLPs from host cells. Examples, for illustrative purposes, are the avian influenza M protein and/or the RV G protein. The terms RV VLPs and chimeric VLPs can be used interchangeably where appropriate. As used herein, the term “vaccine” refers to a preparation of dead or weakened pathogens, or of derived antigenic determinants that is used to induce formation of antibodies or immunity against the pathogen. A vaccine is given to provide immunity to the disease, for example, influenza, which is caused by influenza viruses. In addition, the term “vaccine” also refers to a suspension or solution of an immunogen (e.g. an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins)) that is administered to a vertebrate to produce protective immunity, i.e., immunity that prevents or reduces the severity of disease associated with infection. The present invention provides for vaccine compositions that are immunogenic and may provide protection against a disease associated with infection. Rabies Virus (RV) Virus-Like Particles (VLPs) In one aspect, the invention relates RV virus-like particles (VLPs) comprising one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) that can be formulated into vaccines or antigenic formulations for protecting vertebrates (e.g. humans and domestic animals) against RV infection or at least one disease symptom thereof. In some embodiments, the VLP comprising one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) further comprises additional RV proteins, such as N, P, M, and L. In other embodiments, the VLP comprising one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) further comprises proteins from heterologous strains of virus, such as influenza virus proteins HA, NA, and M1. In one embodiment, the influenza virus protein M1 is derived from an avian influenza virus strain (see U.S. application Ser. No. 13/280,043, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). RV Vaccines Since RV infection can be prevented by providing neutralizing antibodies to a vertebrate, a vaccine comprising an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) may induce, when administered to a vertebrate, neutralizing antibodies in vivo. The RV VLPs which comprise one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) are favorably used for the prevention and/or treatment of RV infection. Thus, another aspect of this disclosure concerns a method for eliciting an immune response against RV. The method involves administering an immunologically effective amount of a composition containing an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) to a subject (such as a human or animal subject). Administration of an immunologically effective amount of the composition elicits an immune response specific for epitopes present on the RV G protein. Such an immune response can include B cell responses (e.g., the production of neutralizing antibodies) and/or T cell responses (e.g., the production of cytokines). Preferably, the immune response elicited by the RV G protein includes elements that are specific for at least one conformational epitope present on the RV G protein. In one embodiment, the immune response is specific for an epitope present on an RV G protein found in the micelle conformation. The RV G proteins and compositions can be administered to a subject without enhancing viral disease following contact with RV. Preferably, the RV G proteins disclosed herein and suitably formulated immunogenic compositions elicit a Th1 biased immune response that reduces or prevents infection with a RV and/or reduces or prevents a pathological response following infection with a RV. In one embodiment, the RV G proteins of the present invention are found in the form of micelles (e.g. rosettes). See example 2. In one embodiment, the micelles are purified following expression in a host cell. When administered to a subject, the micelles of the present invention preferably induce neutralizing antibodies. In some embodiments, the micelles may be administered with an adjuvant. In other embodiments, the micelles may be administered without an adjuvant. In another embodiment, the invention encompasses RV virus-like particles (VLPs) comprising a RV G protein that can be formulated into vaccines or antigenic formulations for protecting vertebrates (e.g. humans) against RV infection or at least one disease symptom thereof. The present invention also relates to RV VLPs and vectors comprising wild-type and mutated RV genes or a combination thereof derived from different strains of RV virus, which when transfected into host cells, will produce virus like particles (VLPs) comprising RV proteins. In some embodiments, RV virus-like particles may further comprise at least one viral matrix protein (e.g. an RV M protein). In one embodiment, the M protein is derived from a human strain of RV. In another embodiment, the M protein is derived from an alternative strain of RV, such as a canine, bat, raccoon, or skunk strain of RV. In other embodiments, the matrix protein may be an M1 protein from a strain of influenza virus. In one embodiment, the strain of influenza virus is an avian influenza strain. In an exemplary embodiment, the avian influenza strain is the H5N1 strain A/Indonesia/5/05. In other embodiments, the matrix protein may be from Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV). In further embodiments, VLPs of the invention may comprise one or more heterologous immunogens, such as influenza hemagglutinin (HA) and/or neuraminidase (NA). In some embodiments, the invention also comprises combinations of different RV G, N, P, M, and L proteins from the same and/or different strains in one or more VLPs. In addition, the VLPs can include one or more additional molecules for the enhancement of an immune response. In another embodiment of the invention, the RV VLPs can carry agents such as nucleic acids, siRNA, microRNA, chemotherapeutic agents, imaging agents, and/or other agents that need to be delivered to a patient. VLPs of the invention are useful for preparing vaccines and immunogenic compositions. One important feature of VLPs is the ability to express surface proteins of interest so that the immune system of a vertebrate induces an immune response against the protein of interest. However, not all proteins can be expressed on the surface of VLPs. There may be many reasons why certain proteins are not expressed, or be poorly expressed, on the surface of VLPs. One reason is that the protein is not directed to the membrane of a host cell or that the protein does not have a transmembrane domain. As an example, sequences near the carboxyl terminus of influenza hemagglutinin may be important for incorporation of HA into the lipid bilayer of the mature influenza enveloped nucleocapsids and for the assembly of HA trimer interaction with the influenza matrix protein M1 (Ali, et al., (2000) J. Virol. 74, 8709-19). Thus, one embodiment of the invention comprises chimeric VLPs comprising a G protein from RV and at least one immunogen which is not normally efficiently expressed on the cell surface or is not a normal RV protein. In one embodiment, the RV G protein may be fused with an immunogen of interest. In another embodiment, the RV G protein associates with the immunogen via the transmembrane domain and cytoplasmic tail of a heterologous viral surface membrane protein, e.g., MMTV envelope protein. Other chimeric VLPs of the invention comprise VLPs comprising a RV G protein and at least one protein from a heterologous infectious agent. Examples of heterologous infectious agent include but are not limited to a virus, a bacterium, a protozoan, a fungi and/or a parasite. In one embodiment, the immunogen from another infectious agent is a heterologous viral protein. In another embodiment, the protein from a heterologous infectious agent is an envelope-associated protein. In another embodiment, the protein from another heterologous infectious agent is expressed on the surface of VLPs. In another embodiment, the protein from an infectious agent comprises an epitope that will generate a protective immune response in a vertebrate. In one embodiment, the protein from another infectious agent is co-expressed with a RV G protein. In another embodiment, the protein from another infectious agent is fused to a RV G protein. In another embodiment, only a portion of a protein from another infectious agent is fused to a RV G protein. In another embodiment, only a portion of a protein from another infectious agent is fused to a portion of a RV G protein. In another embodiment, the portion of the protein from another infectious agent fused to a RV G protein is expressed on the surface of VLPs. The invention also encompasses variants of the proteins expressed on or in the VLPs of the invention. The variants may contain alterations in the amino acid sequences of the constituent proteins. The term “variant” with respect to a protein refers to an amino acid sequence that is altered by one or more amino acids with respect to a reference sequence. The variant can have “conservative” changes, wherein a substituted amino acid has similar structural or chemical properties, e.g., replacement of leucine with isoleucine. Alternatively, a variant can have “nonconservative” changes, e.g., replacement of a glycine with a tryptophan. Analogous minor variations can also include amino acid deletion or insertion, or both. Guidance in determining which amino acid residues can be substituted, inserted, or deleted without eliminating biological or immunological activity can be found using computer programs well known in the art, for example, DNASTAR software. Natural variants can occur due to mutations in the proteins. These mutations may lead to antigenic variability within individual groups of infectious agents, for example influenza. Thus, a person infected with, for example, an influenza strain develops antibody against that virus, as newer virus strains appear, the antibodies against the older strains no longer recognize the newer virus and re-infection can occur. The invention encompasses all antigenic and genetic variability of proteins from infectious agents for making VLPs. General texts which describe molecular biological techniques, which are applicable to the present invention, such as cloning, mutation, cell culture and the like, include Berger and Kimmel, Guide to Molecular Cloning Techniques, Methods in Enzymology volume 152 Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif. (Berger); Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning—A Laboratory Manual (3rd Ed.), Vol. 1-3, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 2000 (“Sambrook”) and Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, F. M. Ausubel et al., eds., Current Protocols, a joint venture between Greene Publishing Associates, Inc. and John Wiley & Sons, Inc., (“Ausubel”). These texts describe mutagenesis, the use of vectors, promoters and many other relevant topics related to, e.g., the cloning and mutating of RV G molecules, etc. Thus, the invention also encompasses using known methods of protein engineering and recombinant DNA technology to improve or alter the characteristics of the proteins expressed on or in the VLPs of the invention. Various types of mutagenesis can be used to produce and/or isolate variant nucleic acids that encode for protein molecules and/or to further modify/mutate the proteins in or on the VLPs of the invention. They include but are not limited to site-directed, random point mutagenesis, homologous recombination (DNA shuffling), mutagenesis using uracil containing templates, oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis, phosphorothioate-modified DNA mutagenesis, mutagenesis using gapped duplex DNA or the like. Additional suitable methods include point mismatch repair, mutagenesis using repair-deficient host strains, restriction-selection and restriction-purification, deletion mutagenesis, mutagenesis by total gene synthesis, double-strand break repair, and the like. Mutagenesis, e.g., involving chimeric constructs, is also included in the present invention. In one embodiment, mutagenesis can be guided by known information of the naturally occurring molecule or altered or mutated naturally occurring molecule, e.g., sequence, sequence comparisons, physical properties, crystal structure or the like. The invention further comprises protein variants which show substantial biological activity, e.g., able to elicit an effective antibody response when expressed on or in VLPs of the invention. Such variants include deletions, insertions, inversions, repeats, and substitutions selected according to general rules known in the art so as have little effect on activity. Methods of cloning the proteins are known in the art. For example, the gene encoding a specific RV protein can be isolated by RT-PCR from polyadenylated mRNA extracted from cells which had been infected with rabies virus. The resulting product gene can be cloned as a DNA insert into a vector. The term “vector” refers to the means by which a nucleic acid can be propagated and/or transferred between organisms, cells, or cellular components. Vectors include plasmids, viruses, bacteriophages, pro-viruses, phagemids, transposons, artificial chromosomes, and the like, that replicate autonomously or can integrate into a chromosome of a host cell. A vector can also be a naked RNA polynucleotide, a naked DNA polynucleotide, a polynucleotide composed of both DNA and RNA within the same strand, a poly-lysine-conjugated DNA or RNA, a peptide-conjugated DNA or RNA, a liposome-conjugated DNA, or the like, that is not autonomously replicating. In many, but not all, common embodiments, the vectors of the present invention are plasmids or bacmids. Thus, the invention comprises nucleotides that encode proteins, including chimeric molecules, cloned into an expression vector that can be expressed in a cell that induces the formation of VLPs of the invention. An “expression vector” is a vector, such as a plasmid that is capable of promoting expression, as well as replication of a nucleic acid incorporated therein. Typically, the nucleic acid to be expressed is “operably linked” to a promoter and/or enhancer, and is subject to transcription regulatory control by the promoter and/or enhancer. In one embodiment, the nucleotides encode for a RV G protein (as discussed above). In another embodiment, the vector further comprises nucleotides that encode the RV M protein. In another embodiment, the vector further comprises nucleotides that encode the M and/or N RV proteins. In another embodiment, the vector further comprises nucleotides that encode the M, L and/or N RV proteins. In an exemplary embodiment, the expression vector is a baculovirus vector. In some embodiments of the invention, proteins may comprise mutations containing alterations which produce silent substitutions, additions, or deletions, but do not alter the properties or activities of the encoded protein or how the proteins are made. Nucleotide variants can be produced for a variety of reasons, e.g., to optimize codon expression for a particular host (change codons in the human mRNA to those preferred by insect cells such as Sf9 cells. See U.S. Patent Publication 2005/0118191, herein incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. In addition, the nucleotides can be sequenced to ensure that the correct coding regions were cloned and do not contain any unwanted mutations. The nucleotides can be subcloned into an expression vector (e.g. baculovirus) for expression in any cell. The above is only one example of how the RV viral proteins can be cloned. A person with skill in the art understands that additional methods are available and are possible. The invention also provides for constructs and/or vectors that comprise RV nucleotides that encode for RV structural genes, including G, M, N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any chimeric molecule described above. The vector may be, for example, a phage, plasmid, viral, or retroviral vector. The constructs and/or vectors that comprise RV structural genes, including G, M, N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any chimeric molecule described above, should be operatively linked to an appropriate promoter, such as the AcMNPV polyhedrin promoter (or other baculovirus), phage lambda PL promoter, the E. coli lac, phoA and tac promoters, the SV40 early and late promoters, and promoters of retroviral LTRs are non-limiting examples. Other suitable promoters will be known to the skilled artisan depending on the host cell and/or the rate of expression desired. The expression constructs will further contain sites for transcription initiation, termination, and, in the transcribed region, a ribosome-binding site for translation. The coding portion of the transcripts expressed by the constructs will preferably include a translation initiating codon at the beginning and a termination codon appropriately positioned at the end of the polypeptide to be translated. Expression vectors will preferably include at least one selectable marker. Such markers include dihydrofolate reductase, G418 or neomycin resistance for eukaryotic cell culture and tetracycline, kanamycin or ampicillin resistance genes for culturing in E. coli and other bacteria. Among vectors preferred are virus vectors, such as baculovirus, poxvirus (e.g., vaccinia virus, avipox virus, canarypox virus, fowlpox virus, raccoonpox virus, swinepox virus, etc.), adenovirus (e.g., canine adenovirus), herpesvirus, and retrovirus. Other vectors that can be used with the invention comprise vectors for use in bacteria, which comprise pQE70, pQE60 and pQE-9, pBluescript vectors, Phagescript vectors, pNH8A, pNH16a, pNH18A, pNH46A, ptrc99a, pKK223-3, pKK233-3, pDR540, pRIT5. Among preferred eukaryotic vectors are pFastBac1 pWINEO, pSV2CAT, pOG44, pXT1 and pSG, pSVK3, pBPV, pMSG, and pSVL. Other suitable vectors will be readily apparent to the skilled artisan. In one embodiment, the vector that comprises nucleotides encoding for RV genes, including RV G genes, as well as genes for M, N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any chimeric molecule described above, is pFastBac. The recombinant constructs mentioned above could be used to transfect, infect, or transform and can express RV proteins, including a RV G protein and at least one immunogen. In one embodiment, the recombinant construct comprises a RV G, M, N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any molecule described above, into eukaryotic cells and/or prokaryotic cells. Thus, the invention provides for host cells which comprise a vector (or vectors) that contain nucleic acids which code for RV structural genes, including a RV G; and at least one immunogen such as but not limited to RV N, L, and P, or portions thereof, and/or any molecule described above, and permit the expression of genes, including RV G, N, L, or P or portions thereof, and/or any molecule described above in the host cell under conditions which allow the formation of VLPs. Among eukaryotic host cells are yeast, insect, avian, plant, C. elegans (or nematode) and mammalian host cells. Non limiting examples of insect cells are, Spodoptera frugiperda (Sf) cells, e.g. Sf9, Sf21, Trichoplusia ni cells, e.g. High Five cells, and Drosophila S2 cells. Examples of fungi (including yeast) host cells are S. cerevisiae, Kluyveromyces lactis (K. lactis), species of Candida including C. albicans and C. glabrata, Aspergillus nidulans, Schizosaccharomyces pombe (S. pombe), Pichia pastoris, and Yarrowia lipolytica. Examples of mammalian cells are COS cells, baby hamster kidney cells, mouse L cells, LNCaP cells, Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, human embryonic kidney (HEK) cells, and African green monkey cells, CV1 cells, HeLa cells, MDCK cells, Vero and Hep-2 cells. Xenopus laevis oocytes, or other cells of amphibian origin, may also be used. Examples of prokaryotic host cells include bacterial cells, for example, E. coli, B. subtilis, Salmonella typhi and mycobacteria. Vectors, e.g., vectors comprising polynucleotides of a RV G protein; and at least one immunogen including but not limited to RV N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any chimeric molecule described above, can be transfected into host cells according to methods well known in the art. For example, introducing nucleic acids into eukaryotic cells can be by calcium phosphate co-precipitation, electroporation, microinjection, lipofection, and transfection employing polyamine transfection reagents. In one embodiment, the vector is a recombinant baculovirus. In another embodiment, the recombinant baculovirus is transfected into a eukaryotic cell. In a preferred embodiment, the cell is an insect cell. In another embodiment, the insect cell is a Sf9 cell. This invention also provides for constructs and methods that will increase the efficiency of VLP production. For example, the addition of leader sequences to the RV G, M, N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any chimeric or heterologous molecules described above, can improve the efficiency of protein transporting within the cell. For example, a heterologous signal sequence can be fused to the RV G, M, N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any chimeric or heterologous molecule described above. In one embodiment, the signal sequence can be derived from the gene of an insect cell and fused to the RV G, M, N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any chimeric or heterologous molecules described above. In another embodiment, the signal peptide is the chitinase signal sequence, which works efficiently in baculovirus expression systems. Another method to increase efficiency of VLP production is to codon optimize the nucleotides that encode RV including a RV G protein, M, N, L, P, or portions thereof, and/or any chimeric or heterologous molecules described above for a specific cell type. In one embodiment, nucleic acids are codon optimized for expression in insect cells. In an exemplary embodiment, the insect cells are Sf9 insect cells. The invention also provides for methods of producing VLPs, the methods comprising expressing RV genes including a RV G protein under conditions that allow VLP formation. Depending on the expression system and host cell selected, the VLPs are produced by growing host cells transformed by an expression vector under conditions whereby the recombinant proteins are expressed and VLPs are formed. In one embodiment, the invention comprises a method of producing a VLP, comprising transfecting vectors encoding at least RV G protein into a suitable host cell and expressing the RV G protein under conditions that allow VLP formation. In another embodiment, the eukaryotic cell is selected from the group consisting of, yeast, insect, amphibian, avian or mammalian cells. The selection of the appropriate growth conditions is within the skill of one of ordinary skill in the art. Methods to grow cells engineered to produce VLPs of the invention include, but are not limited to, batch, batch-fed, continuous and perfusion cell culture techniques. Cell culture means the growth and propagation of cells in a bioreactor (a fermentation chamber) where cells propagate and express protein (e.g. recombinant proteins) for purification and isolation. Typically, cell culture is performed under sterile, controlled temperature and atmospheric conditions in a bioreactor. A bioreactor is a chamber used to culture cells in which environmental conditions such as temperature, atmosphere, agitation and/or pH can be monitored. In one embodiment, the bioreactor is a stainless steel chamber. In another embodiment, the bioreactor is a pre-sterilized plastic bag (e.g. Cellbag®, Wave Biotech, Bridgewater, N.J.). In other embodiment, the pre-sterilized plastic bags are about 50 L to 1000 L bags. The VLPs are then isolated using methods that preserve the integrity thereof, such as by gradient centrifugation, e.g., cesium chloride, sucrose and iodixanol, as well as standard purification techniques including, e.g., ion exchange and gel filtration chromatography. The following is an example of how VLPs of the invention can be made, isolated and purified. Usually VLPs are produced from recombinant cell lines engineered to create VLPs when the cells are grown in cell culture (see above). A person of skill in the art would understand that there are additional methods that can be utilized to make and purify VLPs of the invention, thus the invention is not limited to the method described. Production of VLPs of the invention can start by seeding Sf9 cells (non-infected) into shaker flasks, allowing the cells to expand and scaling up as the cells grow and multiply (for example from a 125-ml flask to a 50 L Wave bag). The medium used to grow the cell is formulated for the appropriate cell line (preferably serum free media, e.g. insect medium ExCell-420, JRH). Next, the cells are infected with recombinant baculovirus at the most efficient multiplicity of infection (e.g. from about 1 to about 3 plaque forming units per cell). Once infection has occurred, the RV G protein, and/or any chimeric or heterologous molecule described above, are expressed from the virus genome, self assemble into VLPs and are secreted from the cells approximately 24 to 72 hours post infection. Usually, infection is most efficient when the cells are in mid-log phase of growth (4-8×106 cells/ml) and are at least about 90% viable. VLPs can be harvested approximately 48 to 96 hours post infection, when the levels of VLPs in the cell culture medium are near the maximum but before extensive cell lysis. The Sf9 cell density and viability at the time of harvest can be about 0.5×106 cells/ml to about 1.5×106 cells/ml with at least 20% viability, as shown by dye exclusion assay. Next, the medium is removed and clarified. NaCl can be added to the medium to a concentration of about 0.4 to about 1.0 M, preferably to about 0.5 M, to avoid VLP aggregation. The removal of cell and cellular debris from the cell culture medium containing VLPs of the invention can be accomplished by tangential flow filtration (TFF) with a single use, pre-sterilized hollow fiber 0.5 or 1.00 μm filter cartridge or a similar device. Next, VLPs in the clarified culture medium can be concentrated by ultra-filtration using a disposable, pre-sterilized 500,000 molecular weight cut off hollow fiber cartridge. The concentrated VLPs can be diafiltrated against 10 volumes pH 7.0 to 8.0 phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) containing 0.5 M NaCl to remove residual medium components. The concentrated, diafiltered VLPs can be furthered purified on a 20% to 60% discontinuous sucrose gradient in pH 7.2 PBS buffer with 0.5 M NaCl by centrifugation at 6,500×g for 18 hours at about 4° C. to about 10° C. Usually VLPs will form a distinctive visible band between about 30% to about 40% sucrose or at the interface (in a 20% and 60% step gradient) that can be collected from the gradient and stored. This product can be diluted to comprise 200 mM of NaCl in preparation for the next step in the purification process. This product contains VLPs and may contain intact baculovirus particles. Further purification of VLPs can be achieved by anion exchange chromatography, or 44% isopycnic sucrose cushion centrifugation. In anion exchange chromatography, the sample from the sucrose gradient (see above) is loaded into column containing a medium with an anion (e.g. Matrix Fractogel EMD TMAE) and eluded via a salt gradient (from about 0.2 M to about 1.0 M of NaCl) that can separate the VLP from other contaminates (e.g. baculovirus and DNA/RNA). In the sucrose cushion method, the sample comprising the VLPs is added to a 44% sucrose cushion and centrifuged for about 18 hours at 30,000 g. VLPs form a band at the top of 44% sucrose, while baculovirus precipitates at the bottom and other contaminating proteins stay in the 0% sucrose layer at the top. The VLP peak or band is collected. The intact baculovirus can be inactivated, if desired. Inactivation can be accomplished by chemical methods, for example, formalin or β-propiolactone (BPL). Removal and/or inactivation of intact baculovirus can also be largely accomplished by using selective precipitation and chromatographic methods known in the art, as exemplified above. Methods of inactivation comprise incubating the sample containing the VLPs in 0.2% of BPL for 3 hours at about 25° C. to about 27° C. The baculovirus can also be inactivated by incubating the sample containing the VLPs at 0.05% BPL at 4° C. for 3 days, then at 37° C. for one hour. After the inactivation/removal step, the product comprising VLPs can be run through another diafiltration step to remove any reagent from the inactivation step and/or any residual sucrose, and to place the VLPs into the desired buffer (e.g. PBS). The solution comprising VLPs can be sterilized by methods known in the art (e.g. sterile filtration) and stored in the refrigerator or freezer. The above techniques can be practiced across a variety of scales. For example, T-flasks, shake-flasks, spinner bottles, up to industrial sized bioreactors. The bioreactors can comprise either a stainless steel tank or a pre-sterilized plastic bag (for example, the system sold by Wave Biotech, Bridgewater, N.J.). A person with skill in the art will know what is most desirable for their purposes. Expansion and production of baculovirus expression vectors and infection of cells with recombinant baculovirus to produce recombinant RV VLPs can be accomplished in insect cells, for example Sf9 insect cells as previously described. In one embodiment, the cells are Sf9 infected with recombinant baculovirus engineered to produce RV VLPs. Pharmaceutical or Vaccine Formulations and Administration The pharmaceutical compositions useful herein contain a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, including any suitable diluent or excipient, which includes any pharmaceutical agent that does not itself induce the production of an immune response harmful to the vertebrate receiving the composition, and which may be administered without undue toxicity and an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). As used herein, the term “pharmaceutically acceptable” means being approved by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a state government or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopia, European Pharmacopia or other generally recognized pharmacopia for use in mammals, and more particularly in humans. These compositions can be useful as a vaccine and/or antigenic compositions for inducing a protective immune response in a vertebrate. The invention encompasses a pharmaceutically acceptable vaccine composition comprising an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In one embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable vaccine composition comprises VLPs comprising at least one RV G protein and at least one additional immunogen. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable vaccine composition comprises VLPs comprising at least one RV G protein and at least one RV M protein. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable vaccine composition comprises VLPs comprising at least one RV G protein and at least one influenza M protein. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable vaccine composition comprises VLPs comprising at least one RV G protein and at least one avian influenza M1 protein. The invention also encompasses a kit for immunizing a vertebrate, such as a human subject, comprising VLPs that comprise at least one RV G protein. In one embodiment, the invention comprises an immunogenic formulation comprising at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). The immunogenic formulation of the invention comprises an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins), and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient. Pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include but are not limited to saline, buffered saline, dextrose, water, glycerol, sterile isotonic aqueous buffer, and combinations thereof. A thorough discussion of pharmaceutically acceptable carriers, diluents, and other excipients is presented in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (Mack Pub. Co. N.J. current edition). The formulation should suit the mode of administration. In a preferred embodiment, the formulation is suitable for administration to humans, preferably is sterile, non-particulate and/or non-pyrogenic. The composition, if desired, can also contain minor amounts of wetting or emulsifying agents, or pH buffering agents. The composition can be a solid form, such as a lyophilized powder suitable for reconstitution, a liquid solution, suspension, emulsion, tablet, pill, capsule, sustained release formulation, or powder. Oral formulation can include standard carriers such as pharmaceutical grades of mannitol, lactose, starch, magnesium stearate, sodium saccharine, cellulose, magnesium carbonate, etc. The invention also provides for a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprising one or more containers filled with one or more of the ingredients of the vaccine formulations of the invention. In one embodiment, the kit comprises two containers, one containing an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins), and the other containing an adjuvant. Associated with such container(s) can be a notice in the form prescribed by a governmental agency regulating the manufacture, use or sale of pharmaceuticals or biological products, which notice reflects approval by the agency of manufacture, use or sale for human administration. The invention also provides that the formulation be packaged in a hermetically sealed container such as an ampoule or sachette indicating the quantity of composition. In one embodiment, the composition is supplied as a liquid, in another embodiment, as a dry sterilized lyophilized powder or water free concentrate in a hermetically sealed container and can be reconstituted, e.g., with water or saline to the appropriate concentration for administration to a subject. In an alternative embodiment, the composition is supplied in liquid form in a hermetically sealed container indicating the quantity and concentration of the composition. Preferably, the liquid form of the composition is supplied in a hermetically sealed container at least about 50 μg/ml, more preferably at least about 100 μg/ml, at least about 200 μg/ml, at least 500 μg/ml, or at least 1 mg/ml. As an example, RV VLPs comprising one or more RV G proteins are administered in an effective amount or quantity (as defined above) sufficient to stimulate an immune response, each a response against one or more strains of RV. Administration of the RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) elicits immunity against RV. Typically, the dose can be adjusted within this range based on, e.g., age, physical condition, body weight, sex, diet, time of administration, and other clinical factors. The prophylactic vaccine formulation is systemically administered, e.g., by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection using a needle and syringe, or a needle-less injection device. In an exemplary embodiment, the vaccine formulation is administered intramuscularly. Thus, the invention also comprises a method of formulating a vaccine or antigenic composition that induces immunity to an infection or at least one disease symptom thereof to a mammal, comprising adding to the formulation an effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In one embodiment, the infection is an RV infection. While stimulation of immunity with a single dose is possible, additional dosages can be administered, by the same or different route, to achieve the desired effect. In neonates and infants, for example, multiple administrations may be required to elicit sufficient levels of immunity. Administration can continue at intervals throughout childhood, as necessary to maintain sufficient levels of protection against infections, e.g. RV infection. Similarly, adults who are particularly susceptible to repeated or serious infections, such as, for example, health care workers, day care workers, family members of young children, the elderly, and individuals with compromised cardiopulmonary function may require multiple immunizations to establish and/or maintain protective immune responses. Levels of induced immunity can be monitored, for example, by measuring amounts of neutralizing secretory and serum antibodies, and dosages adjusted or vaccinations repeated as necessary to elicit and maintain desired levels of protection. Methods of administering a composition comprising an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) (e.g. vaccine and/or antigenic formulations) include, but are not limited to, parenteral administration (e.g., intradermal, intramuscular, intravenous and subcutaneous), epidural, and mucosal (e.g., intranasal and oral or pulmonary routes or by suppositories). In a specific embodiment, compositions of the present invention are administered intramuscularly, intravenously, subcutaneously, transdermally or intradermally. The compositions may be administered by any convenient route, for example by infusion or bolus injection, by absorption through epithelial or mucocutaneous linings (e.g., oral mucous, colon, conjunctiva, nasopharynx, oropharynx, vagina, urethra, urinary bladder and intestinal mucosa, etc.) and may be administered together with other biologically active agents. Vaccines and/or immunogenic formulations of the invention may also be administered on a dosage schedule, for example, an initial administration of the vaccine composition with subsequent booster administrations. In particular embodiments, a second dose of the composition is administered anywhere from two weeks to one year, preferably from about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5 to about 6 months, after the initial administration. Additionally, a third dose may be administered after the second dose and from about three months to about two years, or even longer, preferably about 4, about 5, or about 6 months, or about 7 months to about one year after the initial administration. The third dose may be optionally administered when no or low levels of specific immunoglobulins are detected in the serum and/or urine or mucosal secretions of the subject after the second dose. In a preferred embodiment, a second dose is administered about one month after the first administration and a third dose is administered about six months after the first administration. In another embodiment, the second dose is administered about six months after the first administration. In another embodiment, the compositions of the invention can be administered as part of a combination therapy. For example, compositions of the invention can be formulated with other immunogenic compositions, antivirals and/or antibiotics. The dosage of the pharmaceutical composition can be determined readily by the skilled artisan, for example, by first identifying doses effective to elicit a prophylactic or therapeutic immune response, e.g., by measuring the serum titer of virus specific immunoglobulins or by measuring the inhibitory ratio of antibodies in serum samples, or urine samples, or mucosal secretions. The dosages can be determined from animal studies. A non-limiting list of animals used to study the efficacy of vaccines include the guinea pig, hamster, ferrets, chinchilla, mouse and cotton rat. Most animals are not natural hosts to infectious agents but can still serve in studies of various aspects of the disease. For example, any of the above animals can be dosed with a vaccine candidate, e.g. an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins), to partially characterize the immune response induced, and/or to determine if any neutralizing antibodies have been produced. For example, many studies have been conducted in the mouse model because mice are small size and their low cost allows researchers to conduct studies on a larger scale. In addition, human clinical studies can be performed to determine the preferred effective dose for humans by a skilled artisan. Such clinical studies are routine and well known in the art. The precise dose to be employed will also depend on the route of administration. Effective doses may be extrapolated from dose-response curves derived from in vitro or animal test systems. As also well known in the art, the immunogenicity of a particular composition can be enhanced by the use of non-specific stimulators of the immune response, known as adjuvants. Adjuvants have been used experimentally to promote a generalized increase in immunity against unknown antigens (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,877,611). Immunization protocols have used adjuvants to stimulate responses for many years, and as such, adjuvants are well known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Some adjuvants affect the way in which antigens are presented. For example, the immune response is increased when protein antigens are precipitated by alum. Emulsification of antigens also prolongs the duration of antigen presentation. The inclusion of any adjuvant described in Vogel et al., “A Compendium of Vaccine Adjuvants and Excipients (2nd Edition),” herein incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes, is envisioned within the scope of this invention. Exemplary, adjuvants include complete Freund's adjuvant (a non-specific stimulator of the immune response containing killed Mycobacterium tuberculosis), incomplete Freund's adjuvants and aluminum hydroxide adjuvant. Other adjuvants comprise GMCSP, BCG, aluminum hydroxide, MDP compounds, such as thur-MDP and nor-MDP, CGP (MTP-PE), lipid A, and monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL). RIBI, which contains three components extracted from bacteria, MPL, trehalose dimycolate (TDM) and cell wall skeleton (CWS) in a 2% squalene/Tween 80 emulsion also is contemplated. MF-59, Novasomes®, MHC antigens may also be used. In one embodiment of the invention the adjuvant is a paucilamellar lipid vesicle having about two to ten bilayers arranged in the form of substantially spherical shells separated by aqueous layers surrounding a large amorphous central cavity free of lipid bilayers. Paucilamellar lipid vesicles may act to stimulate the immune response several ways, as non-specific stimulators, as carriers for the antigen, as carriers of additional adjuvants, and combinations thereof. Paucilamellar lipid vesicles act as non-specific immune stimulators when, for example, a vaccine is prepared by intermixing the antigen with the preformed vesicles such that the antigen remains extracellular to the vesicles. By encapsulating an antigen within the central cavity of the vesicle, the vesicle acts both as an immune stimulator and a carrier for the antigen. In another embodiment, the vesicles are primarily made of nonphospholipid vesicles. In other embodiment, the vesicles are Novasomes®. Novasomes® are paucilamellar nonphospholipid vesicles ranging from about 100 nm to about 500 nm. They comprise Brij 72, cholesterol, oleic acid and squalene. Novasomes have been shown to be an effective adjuvant for influenza antigens (see, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,629,021, 6,387,373, and 4,911,928, herein incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes). The compositions of the invention can also be formulated with “immune stimulators.” These are the body's own chemical messengers (cytokines) to increase the immune system's response. Immune stimulators include, but not limited to, various cytokines, lymphokines and chemokines with immunostimulatory, immunopotentiating, and pro-inflammatory activities, such as interleukins (e.g., IL-1, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-12, IL-13); growth factors (e.g., granulocyte-macrophage (GM)-colony stimulating factor (CSF)); and other immunostimulatory molecules, such as macrophage inflammatory factor, Flt3 ligand, B7.1; B7.2, etc. The immunostimulatory molecules can be administered in the same formulation as the compositions of the invention, or can be administered separately. Either the protein or an expression vector encoding the protein can be administered to produce an immunostimulatory effect. Thus in one embodiment, the invention comprises antigentic and vaccine formulations comprising an adjuvant and/or an immune stimulator. Methods of Stimulating an Immune Response The RV VLPs which comprise one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins) are useful for preparing compositions that stimulate an immune response that confers immunity or substantial immunity to infectious agents. The invention encompasses a method of inducing immunity to infections or at least one disease symptom thereof in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In one aspect, the invention comprises a method to induce immunity to RV infection or at least one disease symptom thereof in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In one embodiment, the subject is a vertebrate. In another embodiment, the vertebrate is a mammal. In yet another embodiment, the mammal is a human. In yet another embodiment, the mammal is a domestic animal. In another embodiment, the method comprises inducing immunity to RV infection or at least one disease symptom by administering the formulation in one dose. In another embodiment, the method comprises inducing immunity to RV infection or at least one disease symptom by administering the formulation in multiple doses. Compositions of the invention can induce substantial immunity in a vertebrate (e.g. a human) when administered to the vertebrate. The substantial immunity results from an immune response against compositions of the invention that protects or ameliorates infection or at least reduces a symptom of infection in the vertebrate. In some instances, if the vertebrate is infected, the infection will be asymptomatic. The response may not be a fully protective response. In this case, if the vertebrate is infected with an infectious agent, the vertebrate will experience reduced symptoms or a shorter duration of symptoms compared to a non-immunized vertebrate. In another embodiment, the invention comprises a method of inducing a protective antibody response to an infection or at least one symptom thereof in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). As used herein, an “antibody” is a protein comprising one or more polypeptides substantially or partially encoded by immunoglobulin genes or fragments of immunoglobulin genes. The recognized immunoglobulin genes include the kappa, lambda, alpha, gamma, delta, epsilon and mu constant region genes, as well as myriad immunoglobulin variable region genes. Light chains are classified as either kappa or lambda. Heavy chains are classified as gamma, mu, alpha, delta, or epsilon, which in turn define the immunoglobulin classes, IgG, IgM, IgA, IgD and IgE, respectively. A typical immunoglobulin (antibody) structural unit comprises a tetramer. Each tetramer is composed of two identical pairs of polypeptide chains, each pair having one “light” (about 25 kD) and one “heavy” chain (about 50-70 kD). The N-terminus of each chain defines a variable region of about 100 to 110 or more amino acids primarily responsible for antigen recognition. Antibodies exist as intact immunoglobulins or as a number of well-characterized fragments produced by digestion with various peptidases. In one embodiment, the invention comprises a method of inducing a protective cellular response to RV infection or at least one disease symptom in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). As mentioned above, the immunogenic compositions of the invention prevent or reduce at least one symptom of RV infection in a subject. Symptoms of RV are well known in the art. They include fever, headache, and general weakness or discomfort. As the disease progresses, more specific symptoms appear and may include insomnia, anxiety, confusion, slight or partial paralysis, excitation, hallucinations, agitation, hypersalivation (increase in saliva), difficulty swallowing, and hydrophobia (fear of water). Thus, the method of the invention comprises the prevention or reduction of at least one symptom associated with RV infection. A reduction in a symptom may be determined subjectively or objectively, e.g., self assessment by a subject, by a clinician's assessment or by conducting an appropriate assay or measurement (e.g. body temperature), including, e.g., a quality of life assessment, a slowed progression of a RV infection or additional symptoms, a reduced severity of a RV symptoms or a suitable assays (e.g. antibody titer and/or T-cell activation assay). The objective assessment comprises both animal and human assessments. This invention is further illustrated by the following examples that should not be construed as limiting. The contents of all references, patents and published patent applications cited throughout this application, as well as the Figures and the Sequence Listing, are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. EXAMPLES Example 1 Purification of Rabies G Particles for Animal Study The purpose of this Example is to demonstrate how RV G virus-like particles were purified following expression from baculovirus vectors in Sf9 insect cells. To construct RV VLPs, the nucleic acid sequence encoding the RV G protein (SEQ ID NO: 2) was expressed from the baculovirus vector (pFastBac1 Rabies G) shown in FIG. 1. Sf9 insect cells were infected at 2.5×106 cell/ml with a MOI of 0.2. Cells were harvested at 69 hrs post-infection by centrifuge at 4000 g for 15 mins. Cells were washed with 1×PBS, spun again, and frozen at −70° C. A 23 gram cell pellet was used obtained from an approximately 2 L cell culture. The cell pellet was resuspended with 200 ml 25 mM TrisCL pH 8.0, 50 mM NaCl, 0.5% NP9, 4 ug/mL leupeptin. It was stirred at room temperature for 1 hr, spun at 7000 g for 60 mins at 4° C., and 200 ml supernatent was saved for chromatography. Upon completion of Rabies G839 extraction from cell pellet, the soluble proteins were loaded onto a Fractogel EMD TMAE Hicap (M) chromatography column. The specifications of the column were as follows: Column manufacturer: GE Healthcare; Column type: XK50f20; Resin manufacturer: EMD Chemicals; Resin type: Fractogel EMD TMAE Hicap (M); Packed column dimensions: approximately 10 cm height×5.0 cm diameter; Packed column volume: 200 ml; Packing flow rate: 30 ml/min; Packing buffer: 25 mM Tris pH 8.0/300 mM NaCl. The specifications of the anion exchange process were as follows: Running flow rate: 20 ml/min; Column equilibration buffer: 25 mM Tris pH 8.0, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Eluent A: 25 mM Tris pH 8.0, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Eluent B1: 25 mM Tris pH 8.0, 180 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Eluent B2: 25 mM Tris pH 8.0, 500 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Eluent B3: 25 mM Tris pH 8.0, 1500 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Column load: 200 ml of Rabies G VLP extraction supernatant; Column wash after load: 2 CV eluent A; Column elution: 2 CV eluent BI, 2 CV eluent B2, 2 CV eluent B3. The major fraction collection and volumes were as follows: Flow-through fraction: 250 mL; B1 180 mM NaCl elution: 175 ml (product); B2 500 mM NaCl elution: 100 ml; B3 1500 mM NaCl elution: 100 ml. The 180 mM NaCl elution fraction of the TMAE column was loaded onto a lentil lectin column. The specifications of the column were as follows: Column manufacturer: GE Healthcare; Column type: XKI6/20; Resin manufacturer: GE Healthcare; Resin type: Lentil Lectin Sepharose 4B; Resin catalog #: 17-0444-01; Packed column dimensions: 2.5 cm height×1.6 cm diameter; Packed column volume: approximately 5 ml; Packing flow rate: 2.5 ml/min; Packing buffer: 25 mM NaHPO4 pH6.8, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Running flow rate: 2 mL/min; Column equilibration buffer: 25 mM NaHPO4 pH6.8, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Eluent A: 25 mM NaHPO4 pH6.8, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9, Eluent B: 25 mM NaHPO4 pH6.8, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9, 500 mM Methyl-alpha-Dmannopyronoside (Fisher Scientific); Column load: 175 ml of Rabies G839 TMAE 180 mM NaCl elution; Column wash after load: 5 CV with eluent A; Column elution: 10 CV with eluent B; The major fraction collection and volumes were as follows: Flow-through fraction: 180 ml; Elution fraction: 30 ml (product). The lentil lectin elution was loaded onto a Fractogel EMD SO3—Hicap (M) chromatography column. The specifications of the column were as follows: Column manufacturer: GE Healthcare; Column type: XK16/20; Resin manufacturer: EMD Chemicals; Resin type: Fractogel EMD SO3—Hicap (M); Packed column dimensions: 5 cm height×1.6 cm diameter; Packed column volume: 10 ml; Packing flow rate: 7.5 ml/min; Packing buffer: 25 mM NaHPO4 pH 6.8, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9 The specifications of the cation exchange process were as follows: Running flow rate: 5 mL/min; Column equilibration buffer: 25 mM NaHPO4 pH 6.8, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Eluent A: 25 mM NaHPO4 pH 6.8, 50 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Eluent B: 25 mM NaHPO4 pH 6.8, 300 mM NaCl, 0.02% NP9; Column load: 30 mL of Rabies G839 lectin lectin elution; Column wash after load: 3 CV with eluent A; Column elution: 4 CV step elution eluent B; Major fraction collection and volumes: Elution fraction: 9 ml (final product); Filter 9 ml SO3—column 300 mM NaCl elution product with 0.2 μm filter: Filter manufacture (0.2 μm): Corning; Filter type: 28 mm syringe filter with a 0.2 micron SFCA membrane. Western blotting using anti-RV G rabbit sera were performed (FIG. 2). The purity of RV G particles using the above-conditions was 86%. The total protein amount was 0.39 mg/ml, and the concentration of RV G particles was 0.33 mg/ml, with a total of 2.97 mg RV G particles from a 2 L cell culture, with a a yield of approximately 1.5 mg/L cell culture. Importantly, RV G particles were stable at 4° C. for at least one month (data not shown). Example 2 Electron Microscopy for Analysis of RV G Protein Conformation Purified RV G protein was analyzed by negative stain electron microscopy (see FIG. 3). The average molecular weight of the RV G particles with 0.02% NP9 was 1.04×10−6. The protein trimers exhibited a molecular weight of 175.5 kDa and the average number of trimers in a particle was 5.9. The RV G proteins aggregated in the form of micelles (rosettes). The fact that the G spikes exhibit micelle morphology under electron microscopy suggests that the G protein particles have the correct 3-dimensional structure of a native protein. Example 3 RV G Particles Induce High Antibody Levels in Rabbits To test the ability of RV G particles to induce an immune response, rabbits were administered RV G particles at varying concentrations. The results of these experiments are illustrated in FIG. 4. RV G particles were able to induce high levels of antibodies in rabbits. Example 4 RV Neutralization Assay and RV Challenge Studies in Mice To test the efficiency of a vaccine comprising RV VLPs comprising one or more G proteins in protecting against RV infection, neutralization assays are conducted in mice. Briefly, groups of mice are injected intramuscularly with RV VLPs or RV VLPs+an adjuvant, such as aluminum. In addition, mice are injected with Rabipur®, a commercially available inactivated rabies virus vaccine, which is used as a comparative vaccine agent. RV VLPs comprising one or more G proteins (i.e. RV G micelles) are generally expected to induce higher titers of neutralizing antibodies when compared with Rabipur®. Example 5 Comparison of Anti-Rabies Titer in Balb/c Mice Injected with Either RV G Particles or Commercial Rabies Vaccine Rabipur® The immunogenecity of the VLPs of the present invention was compared to the commercial rabies vaccine Rabipur® in a Balb/c mouse model. RV G VLP particles were constructed and purified as described in Example 1. The VLPs aggregated in the form of micelles (FIG. 3). The study included four groups (n=5 for each group): Group I: positive control (commercial rabies vaccine Rabipur®) Group II: RV G VLP (5 μg) Group III: RV G VLP (2 μg) Group IV: RVG VLP (1 μg) Mice were administered the respective immunogen at 0.1 mL at days 0, 3 and 7. Serum samples were taken from the mice at days 0, 4, 7, 10, 14, 21, 28, 35. Serum was tested for neutralizing anti-rabies antibodies by ELISA. A summary of the study design is given in table 1 below. TABLE 1 Study design Parameter Anti-rabies titer in serum by ELISA (neutralizing) Analytes Serum Identification Group I Group II Group III Group IV Positive control Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 Number of mice 5 5 5 5 Immunogen Commercial RV G VLP (5 μg) RV G VLP (2 μg) RV G VLP (1 μg) rabies vaccine Rabipur ® Schedule for 0.1 mL, I/D, Day 0, 3, 7 immunication Bleeds (days) 0, 4, 7, 10, 14, 21, 28, 35 Analyte Serum for neutralizing anti-rabies virus titer As discussed above, anti-rabies neutralizing antibodies were measured in mouse sera at the time points provided above. The titers were plotted as the geometric mean for each measurement (FIG. 6). As FIG. 6 shows, the VLP micelles of the present invention, at each dosage, provide more rapid and higher antibody titers than the commercially available vaccine, Rabipur®. Specifically, the RV G VLP provided a sero-protection titer (0.5 EU/mL) days earlier than the Rabipur® vaccine (FIG. 6, Table 2). Table 2 also shows the percent sero-protection (i.e., a neutralizing antibody titer of ≧0.5 EU/mL) for each immunization group. The table indicates that sero-protection occurs more rapidly in animals treated with the RV G VLP of the present invention (at all three dosages), compared to animals administered Rabipur® vaccine. TABLE 2 Percent sero-protection for each immunization group. % Sero-protection on day (n = 5) Identification 0 7 10 14 21 28 35 Rabipur ® alone 0 0 40 60 60 60 60 (Group I) RV G VLP (5 μg) 0 0 60 100 100 100 100 (Group II) RV G VLP (2 μg) 0 40 80 100 100 100 100 (Group III) RV G VLP (1 μg) 0 0 60 100 100 100 100 The foregoing detailed description has been given for clearness of understanding only and no unnecessary limitations should be understood therefrom as modifications will be obvious to those skilled in the art. It is not an admission that any of the information provided herein is prior art or relevant to the presently claimed inventions, or that any publication specifically or implicitly referenced is prior art. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although the application has been broken into sections to direct the reader's attention to specific embodiments, such sections should be not be construed as a division amongst embodiments. The teachings of each section and the embodiments described therein are applicable to other sections. While the invention has been described in connection with specific embodiments thereof, it will be understood that it is capable of further modifications and this application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following, in general, the principles of the invention and including such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practice within the art to which the invention pertains and as may be applied to the essential features hereinbefore set forth and as follows in the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Rabies virus (RV) is a non-segmented negative-stranded RNA virus of the Rhabdoviridae family and induces a fatal neurological disease in humans and animals. More than 70,000 human fatalities are reported annually and millions of others require post-exposure treatment. Although significant advances have been made in rabies prevention and control, the disease remains a major threat to public health and continues to cause numerous human deaths around the world. Canines remain the most important reservoir in Asia, Africa and Latin America where most human rabies cases occur. In the developed countries, human rabies has declined significantly during the past 50 years, primarily as a result of routine vaccination of pet animals. However, rabies transmission via exposure to wild-life has emerged as a major cause of the disease. In the United States, more than 90% of animal rabies cases have been reported in wildlife, representing continual public health threats. Most human cases in the past decade have been associated with RV found in bats, particularly silver-haired bats. Rhabdoviruses have two major structural components: a helical ribonucleoprotein core (RNP) and a surrounding envelope. The rabies genome encodes five proteins: nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), glycoprotein (G) and polymerase (large protein) (L). The order of the genes in the wild-type rabies genome is 3′-N-P-M-G-L-5′. The N, L and P proteins are associated with the core RNP complex. The RNP complex consists of the RNA genome encapsidated by the N in combination with polymerase L and the P protein. This complex serves as a template for virus transcription and replication. The viral envelope component of RV is composed of a transmembrane glycoprotein (G) and a matrix (M) protein. The glycoprotein forms approximately 400 trimeric spikes which are tightly arranged on the surface of the virus. The M protein is associated both with the envelope and the RNP and may be the central protein of rhabdovirus assembly. As noted above, rabies remains a major public health threat around the world. Controlling rabies and protecting humans from rabies requires several control strategies, such as routine immunization of pet animals and wildlife carriers, pre-exposure immunization of people at risk, and post-exposure treatment of people bitten by rabid animals. Although inactivated rabies virus (RV) vaccines prepared from cell culture are safe and well-tolerated, they have multiple disadvantages. They are difficult to manufacture, difficult to store, have low immunogenicity, and require multiple injections. Moreover, they are expensive and thus beyond the reach of most people who need the vaccines in the developing countries. In addition, these inactivated vaccines typically include adjuvants which may cause unwanted side effects. Thus, safer, cheaper, and more efficacious RV vaccines are needed. The present application addresses this need through the development of a novel method for the production of virus-like particles (VLPs) comprising the rabies glycoprotein (G). | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to rabies virus (RV) virus-like particles (VLPs) for use in vaccines for the treatment and prevention of rabies virus infection. The RV VLPs of the invention have the potential to induce potent immune responses in mammalian subjects against the rabies virus. In a first aspect, the present invention provides RV VLPs comprising one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). The RV G proteins may be derived from any suitable RV strain, including, but not limited to, human, canine, bat, raccoon, skunk, and fox strains of RV. In one embodiment, the RV VLPs comprising one or more RV G proteins may be in the form of micelles. In some embodiments, the RV VLPs may comprise one or more additional RV proteins, selected from the nucleoprotein (N), phosphoprotein (P), matrix protein (M), and polymerase (large protein) (L). In a specific embodiment, the RV VLPs of the present invention may comprise the RV matrix protein (M). In one embodiment, the M protein is derived from a human strain of RV. In another embodiment, the M protein is derived from a canine strain of RV. In yet another embodiment, the M protein is derived from a bat strain of RV. In other embodiments, the matrix protein may be an M1 protein from an influenza virus strain. In one embodiment, the influenza virus strain is an avian influenza virus strain. In other embodiments, the M protein may be derived from a Newcastle Disease Virus (NDV) strain. In one embodiment, the coding sequence of the RV G protein is further optimized to enhance its expression in a suitable host cell. In one embodiment, the host cell is an insect cell. In an exemplary embodiment, the insect cell is an Sf9 cell. The RV VLPs of the present invention may be used for the prevention and/or treatment of RV infection. Thus, in another aspect, the invention provides a method for eliciting an immune response against RV. The method involves administering an immunologically effective amount of a composition containing a RV VLP to a subject, such as a human or animal subject. In another aspect, the present invention provides pharmaceutically acceptable vaccine compositions comprising an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In one embodiment, the invention comprises an immunogenic formulation comprising at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In another embodiment, the invention provides for a pharmaceutical pack or kit comprising one or more containers filled with one or more of the ingredients of the vaccine formulations of the invention. In another embodiment, the invention provides a method of formulating a vaccine or antigenic composition that induces immunity to an infection or at least one disease symptom thereof to a mammal, comprising adding to the formulation an effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In a preferred embodiment, the infection is an RV infection. The RV VLPs of the invention are useful for preparing compositions that stimulate an immune response that confers immunity or substantial immunity to infectious agents. Thus, in one embodiment, the invention provides a method of inducing immunity to infections or at least one disease symptom thereof in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of inducing substantial immunity to RV infection or at least one disease symptom in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). Compositions of the invention can induce substantial immunity in a vertebrate (e.g. a human or a canine) when administered to the vertebrate. Thus, in one embodiment, the invention provides a method of inducing substantial immunity to RV infection or at least one disease symptom in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In another embodiment, the invention provides a method of vaccinating a mammal against RV comprising administering to the mammal a protection-inducing amount of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). The prophylactic vaccine formulation is systemically administered, e.g., by subcutaneous or intramuscular injection using a needle and syringe, or a needle-less injection device. In an exemplary embodiment, the vaccine formulation is administered intramuscularly. In another embodiment, the invention comprises a method of inducing a protective antibody response to an infection or at least one symptom thereof in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In another embodiment, the invention comprises a method of inducing a protective cellular response to RV infection or at least one disease symptom in a subject, comprising administering at least one effective dose of an RV VLP which comprises one or more RV glycoproteins (G proteins). In yet another aspect, the invention provides an isolated nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein). In an exemplary embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein) protein is SEQ ID NO: 1. In yet another aspect, the invention provides an isolated cell comprising a nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein). In an exemplary embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein) protein is SEQ ID NO: 1. In yet another aspect, the invention provides a vector comprising a nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein). In an exemplary embodiment, the isolated nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein) protein is SEQ ID NO: 1. In one embodiment, the vector is a baculovirus vector. In yet another aspect, the invention provides a method of making a RV VLP comprising one or more rabies glycoproteins (G proteins), comprising (a) transforming a host cell to express a nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein); and (b) culturing said host cell under conditions conducive to the production of said RV VLPs. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid encoding a rabies glycoprotein (G protein) is SEQ ID NO: 1. In another embodiment, the host cell is an insect cell. In a further embodiment, the host cell is an is an insect cell transfected with a baculovirus vector comprising a rabies glycoprotein (G protein). | A61K39205 | 20170630 | 20180125 | 94577.0 | A61K39205 | 0 | HORNING, MICHELLE S | RABIES GLYCOPROTEIN VIRUS-LIKE PARTICLES (VLPS) | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,639,014 | PENDING | SECURE END-TO-END TRANSPORT THROUGH INTERMEDIARY NODES | A communication network encrypts a first portion of a transaction associated with point-to-point communications using a point-to-point encryption key. A second portion of the transaction associated with end-to-end communications is encrypted using an end-to-end encryption key. | 1. A method for independently encrypting channels of data in a transaction, comprising: encryption of a first data channel in the transaction using a first security association; encryption of a second data channel in the transaction using a second security association; and encryption of an arbitrary number of additional data channels contained within the transaction using a unique security association for each channel. 2. A method according to claim 1 wherein the first data channel consists of point-to-point control data and the second data channel consists of end-to-end content data. 3. A method according to claim 2 wherein the control data in the first data channel includes transaction authentication and routing information, and the end-to-end content data in the second data channel includes the contents of email messages, electronic files, or other electronic data. 4. A method according to claim 1 including: negotiation of a first encryption key and security association for the first data channel between a mobile device and a server operating as a transfer agent for the transaction; and negotiation of a second encryption key and security association for the second data channel between a mobile device and a computer operating as an endpoint for the transaction; and negotiation of a third encryption key and security association for the first data channel between the server and an endpoint. 5. A method according to claim 4 including: decryption of the first data channel at the server using the first encryption key; and re-encryption of the first data channel at the server using the third encryption key. 6. A method according to claim 5 including leaving the second data channel in the transaction at the server encrypted and unmodified. 7. A method according to claim 1 including leaving a third data channel in the transaction unencrypted. 8. A method according to claim 1 including: assigning each item in the transaction to one of the data channels; separating the different items in the transaction according to the assigned data channel; encoding the separated items into data groups; encrypting some or all of the data groups using the security associations assigned to the data channel corresponding to each data group; and encoding the processed data groups into one or more packets. 9. A method according to claim 7 including: receiving the packets; separating the contents of the packets according to the different data channels; decrypting only the separated contents which correspond to known security associations; decoding the decrypted contents into items; and processing the transaction according to the decoded items while the contents of data channels with unknown security associations remain encrypted and unmodified. 10. A method according to claim 1 including: encoding a first set of packets containing only the data encrypted using the first security association; encoding a second set of packets containing only the data encrypted using the second security association; and encoding a packet header that contains unencrypted data, the packet header identifying a data size for the first set of packets and the second set of packets; and transporting the first set of packets and then transporting the second set of packets immediately after the first set of packets. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION(S) This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/140,284 filed Apr. 27, 2016, entitled “SECURE END-TO-END TRANSPORT THROUGH INTERMEDIARY NODES”, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/043,772 filed Oct. 1, 2013, entitled “SECURE END-TO-END TRANSPORT THROUGH INTERMEDIARY NODES”, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,344,393 which issued May 17, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/396,464 filed Feb. 14, 2012, entitled “SECURE END-TO-END TRANSPORT THROUGH INTERMEDIARY NODES”, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,549,587 which issued Oct. 1, 2013, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/889,252, filed Sep. 23, 2010, entitled “SECURE END-TO-END TRANSPORT THROUGH INTERMEDIARY NODES”, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,127,342 which issued Feb. 28, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/875,785 filed Oct. 19, 2007, titled “SECURE TRANSPORT FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION NETWORK” now U.S. Pat. No. 7,827,597 which issued Nov. 2, 2010, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/339,369 filed Jan. 8, 2003, titled “SECURE TRANSPORT FOR MOBILE COMMUNICATION NETWORK”, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,305,700 which issued Dec. 4, 2007, which claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/346,881 filed Jan. 8, 2002, titled “MOBILE DATA SERVICES” and claims benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/403,249 filed Aug. 12, 2002, titled “MOBILE DATA SERVICES”. The disclosure of each of the aforementioned applications is incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND Security is a concern when information is transferred over the Internet. Encryption technology may be used to protect data transferred between two nodes communicating across a network such as the Internet. The Internet infrastructure involved in transferring a particular set of data may include one or more intermediary network processing nodes that need to process different portions of the data in order to correctly route the packets between the two endpoints. The intermediary network processing nodes may be given access to the encryption key used to encrypt the data. However, decrypting the packets at the intermediary points presents a security risk. For example, an eavesdropper may be able to access the data after being decrypted at the intermediary network processing nodes. The present invention addresses this and other problems associated with the prior art. SUMMARY A communication node encrypts a first portion of a transaction associated with point-to-point communications using a point-to-point encryption key corresponding to a first security association. A second portion of the transaction associated with end-to-end communications is encrypted using an end-to-end encryption key corresponding to a second security association. The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will become more readily apparent from the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment of the invention which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a block diagram showing how encryption keys are exchanged in a communication network. FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing how data is encrypted according to the encryption keys. FIG. 3 is a block diagram showing how multiple encryption keys are exchanged between different servers in the communication network. FIG. 4 is a diagram showing how different types of data are encrypted using different encryption keys. FIG. 5 is a diagram showing an encryption schema used for encrypting transactions. FIGS. 6-8 are block diagrams showing how different devices in the communication network use the encryption schema to encrypt and decrypt transactions. FIG. 9 shows how a large transaction is encoded into multiple packets. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The transfer of different types of data may be referred to below generally as a transaction. These transactions can be used for transferring email data, calendars, contacts, tasks, notes, electronic documents, files or any other type of control or content data. FIG. 1 shows one embodiment of a communication network 12 that includes a mobile network 14, an enterprise network 18, and a communication management system 16 that manages communications between the mobile network 14 and the enterprise network 14. The mobile network 14 includes mobile devices 21 that communicate with an IP infrastructure through a wireless or landline service provider. Since mobile networks 14 are well known, they are not described in further detail. The enterprise network 18 can be any business network, individual user network, or local computer system that maintains local email or other data for one or more users. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the enterprise network 18 includes an email server 34 that contains a user mailbox 44 accessible using a Personal Computer (PC) 38. In one example, the email server 34 may be a Microsoft® Exchange® server and the PC 38 may access the mailbox 44 through a Microsoft® Outlook® software application. The mailbox 44 may contain emails, contact lists, calendars, tasks, notes, or any other type of data or electronic document. The PC 38 is connected to the email server 34 over a Local Area Network (LAN) 35. The PC 38 includes memory 39 for storing local files that may include personal email data as well as any other types of electronic documents. Personal client software 40 is executed by a processor 37 in the PC 38. The personal client 40 enables access to email, calendars, and contact information as well as local files for mobile device 21. The communication management system 16 includes at least one management server 28 that includes a processor 33. The processor operates a transfer agent 31 that manages the transactions between the mobile device 21 and the enterprise network 18. A user database 42 includes configuration information for different users of a mobile communication server. For example, the user database 42 may include login data for user of the mobile communication server. While referred to as a management system 16 and management server 28, this can be any intermediary system that includes one or more intermediary servers that operate between the mobile network 14 and the enterprise or private network 18. The personal client 40 makes an outbound connection 25 to the management server 28. The personal client 40 registers the presence of a particular user to the management server 28 and negotiates a security association specifying a cryptographic ciphersuite (including encryption cipher, key length, and digital signature algorithm) and a unique, secret point-to-point encryption key 29 over connection 25. In one example, the key 29 is an Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) key, which is negotiated using the Diffie-Hellman cryptographic algorithm. Of course, encryption ciphers other than AES can also be used. The encryption key 29 enables secure communication between management server 28 and PC 38 over connection 25. The mobile device 21 negotiates a point-to-point security association, specifying a cryptographic ciphersuite and a unique encryption key 27, with the management server 28. In one example, the point-to-point encryption key 27 is an AES encryption key. The negotiated security association that includes encryption key 27 enables secure point-to-point communication between the mobile device 21 and the management server 28 over connection 23. Each different mobile device 21 must negotiate a different security association that includes a unique encryption key 27 with the management server 28. The point-to-point encryption key 27 may be used for encrypting control data that needs to be transferred between the mobile device 21 and management server 28. The point-to-point encryption key 29 may be used for encrypting control data that needs to be transferred between the management server 28 and personal client 40. For example, the control data may include login information and transaction routing information. An end-to-end security association, specifying a cryptographic ciphersuite and a unique encryption key 46, is negotiated between the mobile device 21 and the personal client 40. In one example, the end-to-end encryption key 46 is an AES encryption key. The end-to-end encryption key 46 is used for encrypting transaction payloads transferred between personal client 40 and mobile device 21. For example, the end-to-end encryption key 46 may be used for encrypting the content of emails, files, file path names, contacts, notes, calendars, electronic documents and any other type of data that needs to be securely transferred between mobile device and the PC. The end-to-end encryption key 46 is only known by the mobile device 21 and the personal client 40. Data encrypted using the end-to-end key 46 cannot be decrypted by the management server 28. FIG. 2 shows an example of a synchronization transaction 60A sent by the mobile device 21 requesting retrieval of the latest email messages in mailbox 44. One portion 63A of the synchronization transaction 60A is encrypted by the mobile device 21 using the point-to-point encryption key 27 (FIG. 1). Another portion 65 of synchronization transaction 60A is encrypted using the end-to-end encryption key 46. Another third portion 61A of the synchronization transaction 60 may not be encrypted at all. The mobile device 21 sends the synchronization transaction 60A to the management server 28 over connection 23. The management server 28 decrypts the portion 63A of the transaction 60 encrypted using the point-to-point encryption key 27. Since server 28 does not have encryption key 46, portion 65 is not decrypted. The management server 28 decodes any unencrypted data 61A and the decrypted point-to-point data 63A to determine how to process the synchronization transaction 60A. Part of the processing may include re-encrypting some or all of the decrypted data 63A back into point-to-point encrypted data 63B using encryption key 29. The management server 28 may also modify or add to the unencrypted data 61A to generate new unencrypted data 61B. The unencrypted data 61B and the re-encrypted point-to-point data 63B are combined with the end-to-end encrypted data 65 to generate new synchronization transaction 60B. The transaction 60B is transported to personal client 40 over the connection 25. The personal client 40 decrypts the point-to-point encrypted data 63B using the encryption key 29 and decrypts the end-to-end encrypted data 65 using the encryption key 46. The personal client 40 obtains email messages 62 from the mailbox 44 pursuant to the decrypted instructions in synchronization transaction 60B. The personal client 40 encrypts the content of the email messages 62 using the end-to-end encryption key 46. The personal client 40 generates a response transaction 66A that may attach an envelope 64A to the end-to-end encrypted email messages 62. The envelope 64A may contain communication parameters identifying transaction 66A as a response to the synchronization transaction 60B and may contain other message parameters such as the size of the email messages 62. Some or all of the envelope 64A may be encrypted using the point-to-point encryption key 29. The personal client 40 then sends message 66A to the management server 28. The management server 28 decrypts the envelope 64A using the point-to-point encryption key 29 and processes the decrypted data necessary for forwarding the response transaction 66A to the mobile device 21. The payload 62 in the response transaction 66A is not decrypted since the management server 28 does not have access to end-to-end key 46. The management server 28 re-encrypts some or all of the information in envelope 64A into envelope 64B. The envelope 64B is re-encrypted using the point-to-point key 27. A response message 66B is generated that includes the envelope 64B and end-to-end encrypted payload 62. The response message 66B is transported to mobile device 21 over connection 23. The mobile device 21 decrypts the envelope 64B using encryption key 27 and decrypts the payload 62 using the encryption key 46. The decrypted payload 62 is then displayed on the mobile device 21. For example, emails from the mailbox 44 are displayed on the mobile device 21. FIG. 3 shows another embodiment of the invention. The communication management system 16 may include multiple servers 70, 72 and 74 that each perform different communication management tasks. Transactions 71 and 73 sent between mobile device 21 and PC 38 may need to be processed by different combinations of servers 70, 72 and 74. Encryption key 76 is negotiated between server 70 and server 74, encryption key 78 is negotiated between server 70 and server 72, and encryption key 80 is negotiated between server 72 and server 74. The negotiated encryption keys 76, 78 and 80 are used when processing the transactions 71 and 73. For example, the transaction 73 may be sent from personal client 40 to server 74. The personal client 40 encrypts some or all of the envelope 75 in transaction 73 using the encryption key 29 and encrypts a payload 77 using encryption key 46. After receiving transaction 73, server 74 decrypts envelope 75 using encryption key 29. Server 74 may then need to send the transaction 73 to server 70. Server 74 re-encrypts the decrypted envelope 75 using encryption key 76. Upon receiving message 73, server 70 decrypts envelope 75 using encryption key 76. After processing the contents, the server 70 re-encrypts the envelope 75 using the encryption key 27 previously negotiated with mobile device 21. The transaction 73 is then sent from server 70 to mobile device 21. Similar to FIG. 2, the servers 70, 72 and 74 never have access to the encrypted payload 77 in transaction 73. A synchronization transaction 71 on the other hand may need to be processed by all three servers 70, 72 and 74. A portion of the synchronization transaction 71 is encrypted using encryption key 27 when transported from mobile device 21 to server 70. Encryption key 78 is used for encrypting a portion of transaction 71 when transported from server 70 to server 72. Encryption key 80 is used to encrypt a portion of synchronization transaction 71 when transported from server 72 to server 74. Encryption key 29 is then used when the transaction 71 is transported from server 74 to PC 38. Algorithms exist that allow secure negotiation of encryption keys between two nodes that are communicating directly with each other or that are communicating through intermediary nodes. One example of an encryption algorithm that allows secure key negotiation regardless of network topology is Elliptic Curve Cryptography Diffie-Hellman (ECC-DH). FIG. 4 shows how encryption is performed differently for different types of data or for data associated with different destinations. Transaction 82 includes content data 88 such as the contents of an email message, an electronic document, or any other type of information that should only be accessed by two endpoints. The content data 88 is encrypted using an end-to-end encryption key. A second portion 86 of transaction message 82 may include control information that only needs to be processed by one particular server. In this case, control data 86 is encrypted using a first point-to-point encryption key. A third portion of data 84 in transaction 82 may have other control information, for example, error checking data, that needs to be processed by a different server. Accordingly, the error checking data 84 is encrypted using a second point-to-point encryption key different than either of the other two encryption keys used for encrypting data 88 and 86. FIG. 5 explains in more detail how an encryption scheme is used by the mobile device 21, management server 28, and personal client 40 when processing transactions between a source and a target device. In the example below, the mobile device 21 is operating as a source for sending a transaction 90. The transaction 90 requests personal client 40 to send a document 92 located in a personal directory in local memory 39 of PC 38. The personal client 40 operates as a target for the transaction 90 and the management server 28 operates as the transfer agent for transferring the transaction 90 from the mobile device 21 to the personal client 40. It should be understood that this is only an example, and the devices shown in FIG. 5 can process many different types of transactions. For example, the transaction 90 may request synchronization of emails in the PC 38 with emails in the mobile device 21. Further, any device can operate as a source or target for the transaction. For example, the personal client 40 operates as a source and the mobile device 21 operates as a target when a transaction 91 is sent as a reply to request 90. The mobile device 21, management server 28, and the personal client 40 are all configured with an encryption schema 94 that identifies how specific items in the transaction 90 are to be encrypted. Each device is also configured with different security associations as described above in FIGS. 1-3. For example, the mobile device 21 has both Point-to-Point (PP) key 27 and End-to-End (EE) key 46. Management server 28 has PP key 27 and PP key 29, and the PC 38 has PP key 29 and EE key 46. Referring to FIGS. 5 and 6, the mobile device 21 in block 100 forms the request transaction 90. One example of a request is as follows. Request: {auth_token = “abc”, device_id = “xyz”, method_id = “GetDocument”, args = {path = “/docs”} } Mobile device 21 attaches an auth_token to transactions sent to the management server 28. For example, the mobile device 21 may be required to authenticate to the management server 28 by transmitting a username and password prior to being permitted to submit other transactions for processing. The server 28 issues the mobile device 21 an auth_token after successfully validating the username and password against information in the user database 42. The mobile device 21 then attaches the auth_token to subsequent transactions sent to the management server 28. The management server 28 uses the auth_token to identify and authenticate the source of each transaction and to determine where to route the transaction. The device_id identifies the particular mobile device 21 sending the request 90. The device_id may be necessary for example when a user has more than one mobile device. The personal client 40 can use different device_id values to track when synchronization information was last sent to each of multiple different mobile devices. The device_id can also be used by either the management server 28 or the personal client 40 to determine how to format data sent to particular types of mobile devices 21. For example, data may need to be formatted differently for a cell phone as opposed to a personal computer. The device_id can also be used to correlate a known security association with a particular mobile device. The method_id item in the example identifies a particular function GetDocument associated with request 90. The method_id item also requires the inclusion of related argument items that identify the parameters for the GetDocument function. For example, the argument items might include the expression path=“/docs” identifying the pathname where the requested documents are located. Block 102 in FIG. 6 establishes the encryption schema 94 previously shown in FIG. 5. One example of an encryption schema 94 is shown below illustrating how the example GetDocument request shown above would be handled in the specific case of communication between the mobile device 21 and the management server 28. Encryption schema: {GetDocument = {clear = [“device id”], pp = [“auth_token”, “user_id”], ee = [“args.path”] } default = { pp } } Any items that do not require encryption are assigned to the data channel labeled “clear”. For example, the device_id item in the example is assigned to the channel “clear”. Items requiring the use of point-to-point encryption are assigned to data channel “pp” and therefore are encrypted using the PP key 27 as shown in FIG. 5. In this example the auth_token is assigned to the “pp” channel and encrypted using the PP key 27. Items requiring end-to-end encryption are assigned to the “ee” channel and encrypted using the EE key 46 shown in FIG. 5. In this example the “args.path” item is assigned to the “ee” channel and encrypted using the EE key 46. In this example, any item that is not explicitly declared in the encryption schema 94 is assigned by default to the “pp” channel. Since the method id item has not been specifically declared in the encryption schema 94, it is assigned to the “pp” channel by default and encrypted using the PP key 27. It is important to note that the context of the communication determines the specific security association selected for encryption of a channel. For example, the first “pp” channel between mobile device 21 and management server 28 uses a security association different from the one established for the second, independently established “pp” channel between management server 28 and personal client 40. In this example, the first “pp” channel would employ the PP key 27 in FIG. 5 for transactions between device and server, while the second “pp” channel would use the PP key 29 for transactions between server and client. Because each security association is independently negotiated, the differences between the two aforementioned “pp” channels could extend beyond each channel having a unique key to include different key lengths (i.e. 256 bit vs. 128 bit), encryption ciphers (i.e. Triple DES vs. AES), digital signature algorithm (i.e. SHA1 vs. MD5), or other security parameters. In order to prepare the request 90 for transmission, the mobile device 21 in block 104 of FIG. 6 performs a pattern match of the request 90 using the encryption schema 94. This pattern match separates the items in request 90 into different channels. One example of the different channels is shown below. In this example, the items in each channel are associated with predefined security associations: clear, pp, and ee. Channels: {clear = { device_id = “xyz”} pp = {auth_token = “abc”, method id = “GetDocument”} ee = {args = {path = {path = “/docs”} } } } In block 106, the channel contents are encoded (via a process commonly known as serialization) into arrays of bits or bytes referred to as data groups. These groupings of bits or bytes are referred to generally below as arrays but can be any type of partition, group, etc. The contents of the clear channel are encoded into an array of bits referred to as data_group_1, the contents of the pp channel are encoded into an array of bits referred to as data_group_2, and the contents of the ee channel are encoded into an array of bits referred to as data_group_3. The contents of each channel need to be encoded into bit arrays so that they can be encrypted. The contents of the channels after being encoded into bit arrays are represented as follows. Encoded Channels: {clear=data_group_1 pp=data_group_2 ee=data_group_3} The bit arrays are then encrypted in block 108 according, to, the security association parameters for each channel. According to the encryption schema 94, bits in the clear channel (data_group_1) are not encrypted. The bits in the pp channel data_group_2 are encrypted using the point-to-point security association between mobile device 21 and management server 28, using PP key 27, and are referred to after encryption as pp_data_group_2. The bits in the ee channel data_group_3 are encrypted using the end-to end security association between mobile device 21 and personal client 40, using EE key 46, and are referred to after encryption as ee_data_group_3. The data groups are represented as follows after encryption: Encoded Channels: {clear=data_group_1 pp=pp_data_group_2 ee=ee_data_group_3} The bits making up the encrypted and unencrypted channels are then encoded into one or more packets in block 110. For clarity, the description below will refer to a single packet, however, the data from the channels may be contained in multiple packets. Some of the contents of the packet are shown below. Packet Header length version flags Payload count = 3 “clear” data_group_1 “pp” pp_data_group_2 “ee” ee_data_group_3 Information in the packet header may include the packet length, a version number, and other flags. The packet payload includes a count identifying 3 pairs of items. The three items include the non-encrypted contents in the clear channel, the pp encrypted contents of the pp channel, and the ee encrypted contents of the ee channel. The packet is then transported by mobile device 21 in block 112 to the management server 28. Referring to FIGS. 5 and 7, the transfer agent operating in server 28 receives the packet in block 114. The bits in the packet are separated in block 116 back into the different channels clear=data_group_1, pp=pp_data_group_2, and ee=ee_data_group_3. The data in the clear channel does not need to be decrypted. The transfer agent in block 118 decrypts the only bits in channels for which it has a known security association. The transfer agent, as a member of the point-to-point security association between mobile device 21 and management server 28, possesses the PP key 27 and therefore decrypts the contents of the pp channel. The transfer agent is not a member of the end-to-end security association between mobile device 21 and personal client 40, does not have the EE key 46 and therefore does not decrypt the data in the ee channel. Decryption produces the following data groups: clear ′=data_group_1, pp=data_group_2, and ee=ee_data_group_3. The transfer agent in block 120 decodes the contents of the clear and pp channels. The contents of the encrypted ee channel are not decoded, but instead are maintained in an unmodified state for eventual transport to the personal client 40. Decoding produces the following contents. Decoded Channels: 0 {clear = {device id = “xyz”} pp = {auth token = “abc”, method id = “GetDocument”} ee=ee_data_group_3 } In block 122 a partial request is formed by merging the items of the clear and pp channels. The partial request in this example could look similar to the following: Partial Request: {auth_token = “abc”, device_id = “xyz”, method_id = “GetDocument”, args = { } encrypted = {ee=ee_data_group_3} } The transfer agent in block 124 processes the partial request. In this example, the transfer agent may verify the request is authorized by matching the value of auth token (“abc”) with contents in the user database 42 (FIG. 5). The auth_token and the method_id (“GetDocument”) indicate that the transaction 90 is a document request directed to the personal client 40. The transfer agent may identify a user_id=“joe” associated with the auth_token=“abc” and generate the following new request. New Request: {user_id = “joe”, device_id = “xyz”, method_id = “GetDocument”, args = { } encrypted = {ee=ee_data_group_3} } In block 126 the transfer agent performs another pattern match of the new request with the encryption schema 94 to reform the channel contents associated with the different security associations. In this example, the items in the clear, pp, and ee channels are fairly similar to the items originally sent by the mobile device 21. The reformed channel contents are shown below. Channels Reformed by Transfer Agent: {clear = device_id = “xyz”} pp = {user_id = “joe”, method_id = “GetDocument”} ee = ee_data_group_3 } The transfer agent in block 128 encodes the contents of the clear channel into a bit array (clear=data_group_1). Since the encryption schema 28 defines no encryption for the clear channel, the bit array data_group_1 is not encrypted. The contents of the pp channel are encoded into a bit array pp=data_group_2 and then encrypted using the point-to-point security association between the management server 28 and the personal client 40, using PP key 29, forming the encrypted bit array pp=pp_data_group. The contents of the ee channel have never been decrypted or decoded by the transfer agent and therefore do not need to be re-encoded or encrypted. The following represents the bit arrays for reformed transaction. Encoded/Encrypted Channels: {clear=data_group_1 pp=pp_data_group_2 ee=ee_data_group_3} The transfer agent in block 130 encodes the channel contents into a packet format similar to that shown above. The packet is then transported to the personal agent 40 in block 132. Referring to FIGS. 5 and 8, the personal client 40 is the target of the transaction 90. The personal client 40 receives the packet in block 140 and separates the bits in the packet back into channels in block 142. Encoded/Encrypted Channels: {clear=data_group_1 pp=pp_data_group_2 ee=ee_data_group_3} The personal client 40 has the PP key 29, the EE key 46, and knowledge of the relevant security associations. Therefore the contents of both the pp channel and the ee channel are decrypted in block 144 generating the following decrypted bit arrays. Decrypted Channels: {clear=data_group_1 pp=data_group_2 ee=data_group_3} The contents of the channels are then decoded in block 146 generating the following request items. Decoded Channels: {clear = { device_id = “xyz”} pp = {user_id = “joe”, method_id = “GetDocument”} ee = {args = {path = “/docs”} } The contents of the channels are then merged together in block 148 forming the reformed request 90 with the auth_token replaced with the user_id. Request 90: {device_id = “xyz”, user_id = “joe”, method_id = “GetDocument”, args = {path = “/docs”} } The personal client 40 processes the request 90 in block 150. Pursuant to the request 90, the personal client 40 retrieves the identified documents and then creates a reply transaction 91 (FIG. 5) in a manner similar to mobile device 21 formed request 90. For example, the retrieved documents are encrypted using the end-to-end security association between the personal client 40 and the mobile device 21, using EE key 46. Some or all of the control information in the reply 91 is encrypted using the point-to-point security association between the personal client 40 and the management server 28, which includes PP key 29. The reply 91 may look similar to the following. Request 91: {method_id = “GetDocumentResponse”, args = {document = xxx, size = 5123, content_type = “text/plain”, name = “readme.txt”} } According to the encryption schema, the method id may be encrypted using the PP key 29 and the remainder of the contents in reply 91 may be encrypted using the EE key 46. Data Streaming Referring to FIG. 9, multiple packets 162-174 are used for transporting different portions of the same transaction 160. The multipacket transaction 160 may be used when one or more large documents are transferred between personal client 40 and the mobile device 21. In one example, predetermined maximum packet length is configured to be 1000 bytes. If the transaction 160 is determined to be less than 1000 bytes, the contents of the clear, pp, and ee channels are encoded into a single packet. However, in this example, it is determined that 500 bytes of data exist in the pp channel and 4500 bytes of data exist in the ee channel. All the contents of the pp channel are encoded into a 500 byte packet 164. The data from the ee channel is encoded into four separate 1000 byte packets 166-174 and one 500 byte packet 174. A header packet 162 is formed that identifies all the packets 162-174 as part of the same transaction 160. The data in the header packet 162 is unencrypted. Since the header packet 162 is unencrypted, it can also contain data from the clear channel. Alternatively, data from the clear channel can be encoded into a separate unencrypted packet. The header packet 162 identifies 500 bytes of data encrypted using the PP encryption key and 4,500 bytes of data encrypted using the EE encryption key. The node receiving the message 160 reads the header 162 and determines the transaction 160 is a multipacket message (streaming=true). In one embodiment, the clear packet header 162 always comes first and is immediately followed by the pp packet 164. The pp packet 164 is immediately followed by .ee packets 166-174. This order can be guaranteed using protocols such as Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP). Transmitting the packets in this predetermined order eliminates having to attach labels to each packet to identify the type of encryption. Alternatively, sequence numbers can be assigned to the packets 162-174. The node receiving transaction 160 may receive, decrypt and decode different portions of the transaction 160 at a time. For example, the processing node may first process the unencrypted clear data in the header packet 162 to determine if the transaction 160 is unauthorized. If the transaction is not authorized, the processing node can discard the remainder of the transaction 160 without having to decrypt and decode the pp packet 164 and ee packets 166-174. If the information in the header packet 162 is authorized, the processing node decrypts and decodes data in the pp packet 164. If the data in the pp packet 164 is invalid or has been tampered with, the remaining ee packets 166-174 can be discarded without being further processed. The system described above can use dedicated processor systems, micro controllers, programmable logic devices, or microprocessors that perform some or all of the operations. Some of the operations described above may be implemented in software and other operations may be implemented in hardware. For the sake of convenience, the operations are described as various interconnected functional blocks or distinct software modules. This is not necessary, however, and there may be cases where these functional blocks or modules are equivalently aggregated into a single logic device, program or operation with unclear boundaries. In any event, the functional blocks and software modules or features of the flexible interface can be implemented by themselves, or in combination with other operations in either hardware or software. Having described and illustrated the principles of the invention in a preferred embodiment thereof, it should be apparent that the invention may be modified in arrangement and detail without departing from such principles. We claim all modifications and variation coming within the spirit and scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Security is a concern when information is transferred over the Internet. Encryption technology may be used to protect data transferred between two nodes communicating across a network such as the Internet. The Internet infrastructure involved in transferring a particular set of data may include one or more intermediary network processing nodes that need to process different portions of the data in order to correctly route the packets between the two endpoints. The intermediary network processing nodes may be given access to the encryption key used to encrypt the data. However, decrypting the packets at the intermediary points presents a security risk. For example, an eavesdropper may be able to access the data after being decrypted at the intermediary network processing nodes. The present invention addresses this and other problems associated with the prior art. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>A communication node encrypts a first portion of a transaction associated with point-to-point communications using a point-to-point encryption key corresponding to a first security association. A second portion of the transaction associated with end-to-end communications is encrypted using an end-to-end encryption key corresponding to a second security association. The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the invention will become more readily apparent from the following detailed description of a preferred embodiment of the invention which proceeds with reference to the accompanying drawings. | H04L630471 | 20170630 | 20171019 | 92395.0 | H04L2906 | 1 | SMITHERS, MATTHEW | SECURE END-TO-END TRANSPORT THROUGH INTERMEDIARY NODES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04L | 2,017 |
|
15,639,027 | PENDING | PANEL FOR SHEATHING SYSTEM AND METHOD | The panel includes a water resistant barrier layer secured atop its outward facing surface. The water resistant barrier layer includes a skid resistant surface. The panels are made of lignocellulosic material. The water resistant and skid resistant surface may include indicia for aligning strips of tape or for aligning fasteners. A method for manufacturing the water resistant building panels is also disclosed and includes the steps of feeding paper onto a forming belt, depositing lignocellulosic material and the binding agent onto the forming belt so as to form a lignocellulosic mat, applying heat and pressure so as to impart the skid resistant surface on the paper, and cutting panels to predetermined sizes. | 1-18. (canceled) 19. A structural panel for use in sealed-joint panel system also including an adjacent structural panel and a sealant, the structural panel comprising: a structural layer comprising a wood composite material, wherein the structural layer has a first edge positioned opposite from a second edge and a third edge positioned opposite from a fourth edge, the first and second edges being parallel to one another, the third and fourth edges being parallel to one another, and the third and fourth edges being perpendicular relative to the first and second edges; and a water resistant and water vapor permeable layer secured to and coextensive with the structural layer, wherein in use the structural panel can be positioned adjacent the adjacent structural panel to define a joint therebetween and the sealant can be applied to the two structural panels to cover the joint to form the sealed-joint panel system. 20. The structural panel of claim 19, wherein the structural panel has a liquid water transmission rate from about 1 to about 28 grams/100 in2/24 hr, via Cobb ring in accordance with ASTM D5795. 21. The structural panel of claim 19, wherein the structural panel has a water vapor transmission rate from about 0.7 to about 7 grams/m2/24 hr, as determined by ASTM E96 procedure A (73° F.-50% RH), and/or a water vapor permeance from about 0.1 to about 12 perms, as determined by ASTM E96 procedure B (73 ° F.-50% RH). 22. The structural panel of claim 19, wherein the structural panel is configured for use as an external wall panel secured to a wall frame structure. 23. The structural panel of claim 19, wherein the structural panel is configured for use as an external roof panel secured to a roof frame structure. 24. The structural panel of claim 19, wherein the structural panel has a thickness of from about 0.25 inches to about 1.25 inches. 25. The structural panel of claim 19, wherein the structural panel is produced by a process comprising securing the water resistant and water vapor permeable layer to the structural layer with an adhesive. 26. The structural panel of claim 19, wherein the structural layer comprises oriented strand board, plywood, particleboard, medium density fiberboard, or wafer board. 27. The structural panel of claim 19, wherein the structural layer comprises oriented strand board. 28. A structural panel consisting essentially of: a wood composite panel comprising oriented strand board; and a bulk water resistant barrier layer secured to an exterior surface of the wood composite panel with an adhesive; wherein: the structural panel has a water vapor transmission rate from about 0.7 to about 7 grams/m2/24 hr, as determined by ASTM E96 procedure A (73° F.-50% RH); and/or the structural panel has a water vapor permeance from about 0.1 to about 12 perms, as determined by ASTM E96 procedure B (73° F.-50% RH). 29. The structural panel of claim 28, wherein the structural panel has a liquid water transmission rate from about 1 to about 28 grams/100 in2/24 hr, via Cobb ring in accordance with ASTM D5795. 30. The structural panel of claim 28, wherein the wood composite panel has a thickness of from about 0.25 inches to about 1.25 inches. 31. The structural panel of claim 28, wherein the barrier layer substantially covers the exterior surface of the wood composite panel. 32. The structural panel of claim 28, wherein the structural panel comprises a polymer. 33. A structural panel consisting of: a wood composite panel comprising oriented strand board or plywood; and a bulk water resistant barrier layer secured to an exterior surface of the wood composite panel with an adhesive; wherein: the structural panel has a water vapor transmission rate from about 0.7 to about 7 grams/m2/24 hr, as determined by ASTM E96 procedure A (73° F.-50% RH), and/or a water vapor permeance from about 0.1 to about 12 perms, as determined by ASTM E96 procedure B (73 ° F.-50% RH): and the structural panel has a liquid water transmission rate from about 1 to about 28 grams/100 in2/24 hr, via Cobb ring in accordance with ASTM D5795. 34. The structural panel of claim 33, wherein the structural panel has a water vapor permeance in a range from about 0.1 U.S. perms to about 1.0 U.S. perms, as determined by ASTM E96 procedure A (73 ° F.-50% RH). 35. The structural panel of claim 33, wherein the wood composite panel has a thickness of from about 0.25 inches to about 1.25 inches. 36. The structural panel of claim 33, wherein the barrier layer substantially covers the exterior surface of the wood composite panel. 37. The structural panel of claim 33, wherein the structural panel comprises a polymer. 38. The structural panel of claim 33, wherein the wood composite panel comprises oriented strand board. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/326,401, filed Dec. 15, 2011, which is a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 8,112,950 issued Feb. 14, 2012. The '950 patent is a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 7,877,938 issued Feb. 1, 2011, which is a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 7,658,040 issued Feb. 9, 2010, which claims the priority benefit of U.S. Patent Application No. 60/547,029 filed Feb. 23, 2004, and U.S. Patent Application No. 60/547,031 filed Feb. 23, 2004. The '950 patent is also a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 7,870,694 issued Jan. 18, 2011, which is a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 7,721,506 issued May 25, 2010, which claims the priority benefit of U.S. Patent Application No. 60/547,029 filed Feb. 23, 2004, and U.S. Patent Application No. 60/547,031 filed Feb. 23, 2004. And the '950 patent is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Pat. No. 7,866,100 issued Jan. 11, 2011, which is a continuation of U.S. Pat. No. 7,677,002 issued Mar. 16, 2010, which claims the priority benefit of U.S. Patent Application No. 60/547,029 filed Feb. 23, 2004, and U.S. Patent Application No. 60/547,031 filed Feb. 23, 2004. The disclosures of all of the above priority documents are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to sheathing systems and, more particularly, to sheathing systems for roofs and walls utilizing moisture resistant and skid resistant panels. BACKGROUND The roof of a residential or commercial building is typically constructed by attaching several roofing panels to the rafters of an underlying supporting structural frame; the panels are most often placed in a quilt-like pattern with the edge of each panel contacting the edges of adjacent panels so as to form a substantially continuous flat surface atop the structural frame. However, problems with roofs constructed according to this method may present themselves. In particular, small gaps along the edges of adjoining roofing panels remain after roof assembly. Because the roofing panels are typically installed days or even weeks before shingles are installed, it is important to have a panel system that minimizes leakage resulting from exposure to the elements until such time as the roof is completed. To prevent water from leaking through the gaps between panels, it is commonly known in the industry to put a water resistant barrier layer on top of the roofing panels (e.g., felt paper). Accordingly, there is a need in the art for roofing panels, which can be conveniently fit together and yet are constructed to minimize the gaps or allow the gaps to be sealed between adjacent roofing panels to prevent or minimize the penetration of bulk water through the roof as it travels over the roof's surface. It is desirable for roofing panels to shed precipitation, such as rain and snow, during construction so that the interior remains dry. While it is important that the barrier layer shed bulk water, it should also allow for the escape of water vapor. If the barrier were to trap water vapor in a roofing panel, the build-up of moisture could lead to rot or mold growth that is undesirable. As mentioned previously, it is known in the art that substantial bulk water-impermeability of installed roofing panels is achieved by adding a layer of impermeable material, such as asphalt-impregnated roofing paper or felt over the external surface of the roof panels. However, while this provides additional protection against bulk water penetration, it has the disadvantage of being difficult and time-consuming to install because the paper or felt must be first unrolled and spread over the roof surface and then secured to those panels. Further, the use of a felt paper overlay often results in a slick or slippery surface, especially when wet. Additionally, when the felt paper is not securely fastened to the roof panels or becomes loose due to wind and other weather conditions or because of poor construction methods, the roof system can become very slippery and leak bulk water. Accordingly, a worker walking atop the felt paper must be careful to avoid slipping or sliding while thereon. To that end, the present invention provides a panel for a roof sheathing system comprising structural panels, a mass-transfer barrier, and seam sealing means that is advantageously bulk water resistant and that exhibits adequate anti skid characteristics. In addition to roof panel systems, wall panel construction systems of residential or commercial buildings do not typically provide simple, efficient, and safe means of installation. Known wall systems are frequently slick and do not provide adequate traction to securely support a ladder leaning thereon. Further, most often in these systems, an extra step must typically be added to the installation process to prevent liquid moisture and air from passing through the wall. Specifically, constructing a wall with a weather barrier requires not only that panels be attached to framing members, but also a house wrap is unrolled and spread over the walls. The house wrap is attached to the sheathing panels with staples or button cap nails and fenestration openings for windows or doors must be cut out of the wrap and the flaps from these openings folded back and stapled down. The house wrap is often difficult to install because it is typically in nine-ft wide rolls, which can be difficult to maneuver by workers on scaffolding or in windy conditions. Accordingly, there is also need in the art for wall-sheathing panels, which are moisture vapor permeable, skid-resistant and which create a simplified, safe, and time-saving installation process by means of a surface overlay member or coating permanently bonded thereon. To that end, the present invention also provides a panel for a wall sheathing system comprising structural panels, a mass-transfer barrier, and seam sealing means. Accordingly, another general object of this invention is to provide a wall system that provides a barrier to bulk water, water vapors, air and heat transfer, irritants, insects and mold that can be permeable to moisture movement and is suitable for use behind numerous exterior finishes, such as siding, EIFS, brick, stucco, lap siding, vinyl, and the like. Furthermore, the wall assembly consists of a simple process. Panels are affixed with a barrier layer and fastened to a building frame in a side-by-side manner, with or without a tongue and groove connection. Next, a sealing means, such as tape, laminate, caulk, foam, spray, putty, mechanical means, or any other suitable sealing mechanism, is used to seal the joints or seams between adjoining panels, thus completing the moisture barrier. Given the foregoing, there is a continuing need to develop improved panels for roof and wall construction that prevent or minimize the penetration of bulk water, that come pre-equipped with a water permeable barrier layer applied during manufacture, and that have a skid resistant surface. The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of preferred embodiments of the invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there is shown in the drawings embodiments which are presently preferred. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities shown in the drawings, and that for purposes of illustration, these figures are not necessarily drawn to scale. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a panelized roofing system utilizing the panel of the present invention. FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view of a first embodiment of one panel of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a view of a panel and barrier layer according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is an exploded perspective view of a panel, showing a detailed exploded view of the textured surface, according to the present invention. FIG. 4A is a cross-sectional view of the textured surface taken along the line 4A-4A of FIG. 4. FIG. 5 is a partial cross-sectional view of two adjacent panels according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a panel according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a three-dimensional wall sheathing system utilizing the panel according to another embodiment of the present invention showing adjacent wall panels with lengths of tape sealing the joints therebetween, each of the lengths of tape overlapping at least one of the joints. FIG. 8 is an exploded view of an embodiment of the structural panel according to the present invention and a view of the glueline for permanent bonding of the surface overlay member to the panel. FIG. 9A is a partial cross-sectional view of two adjacent panels according to one embodiment of the present invention with tongue-and-groove connected panels after seam sealing. FIG. 9B is a cross-sectional view of two adjacent panels according to one embodiment of the present invention in a wall sheathing system with edge abutting connected panels after seam sealing. FIG. 10 is a flow diagram of the steps included in the manufacture of a panel for roof or wall sheathing system according to the present invention. FIG. 11 is a plan view of a panel, according to the invention. FIG. 12A is a partial plan view of a pair of panels; each according to the invention, aligned for engagement. FIG. 12B is a partial plan view of a pair of panels, each according to the invention, engaged. FIG. 13 is a diagram of box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with smooth and textured surfaces, oriented strand board with a textured surface, oriented strand board with a sanded surface and plywood in the dry condition. FIG. 14 is a diagram of box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with smooth and textured surfaces, oriented strand board with a textured surface, oriented strand board with a sanded surface and plywood in the dry condition. FIG. 15 is a diagram of box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with a smooth and textured surface and plywood in the wet condition. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENTS All parts, percentages and ratios used herein are expressed by weight unless otherwise specified. All documents cited herein are incorporated by reference. As used herein, “wood” is intended to mean a cellular structure, having cell walls composed of cellulose and hemicellulose fibers bonded together by lignin polymer. “Wafer board” is intended to mean panels manufactured from reconstituted wood wafers bonded with resins under heat and pressure. By “wood composite material” it is meant a composite material that comprises wood and one or more other additives, such as adhesives or waxes. Non-limiting examples of wood composite materials include oriented strand board (“OSB”), waferboard, particleboard, chipboard, medium-density fiberboard, plywood, and boards that are a composite of strands and ply veneers. As used herein, “flakes” and “strands” are considered equivalent to one another and are used interchangeably. A non-exclusive description of wood composite materials may be found in the Supplement Volume to the Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology, pp. 765-810, 6th edition. As used herein, “structural panel” is intended to mean a panel product composed primarily of wood which, in its commodity end use, is essentially dependent upon certain mechanical and/or physical properties for successful end use performance such as plywood. A non-exclusive description may be found in the PS-2-92 Voluntary Product Standard. The following describes preferred embodiments of the present invention which provides panels for a panelized roofing system, attached to the rafters of a timber frame structure to form a roof, and that is suitable for use in the construction of residential and commercial buildings. In addition, an alternate embodiment of the present invention, which provides panels for a panelized wall sheathing system that is suitable for use in the construction of residential and commercial buildings is shown and described. Use of Panel for Roof Sheathing FIG. 1 illustrates a panelized roof sheathing construction system 10 for a building having a plurality of panels 20 attached to a building frame structure in substantially abutting relationship. The panels 20 have an inward facing surface 22, an outward facing surface 24 and at least one peripheral edge. The system 10 also includes a plurality of water resistant barrier layers 30 adhesively secured to at least one of the surfaces 22, 24 of the panels 20, each barrier layer 30 providing a substantially skid-resistant and bulk water resistant surface. One example of a paper overlaid wood board is shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,737,155 entitled “Paper Overlaid Wood Board and Method of Making the Same” which is incorporated herein by reference. Additionally, the system 10 preferably includes a plurality of water-resistant sealing means 40, each of the means 40 sealing at least one of the joints 25 between the adjacent panels 20. The panels 20 prepared according to the present invention may be made from a variety of different materials, such as wood or wood composite materials. As shown in FIG. 2, the panels 20 are preferably comprised of an oriented strand board substrate (“OSB”) having at least two surfaces 22, 24 with at least one core layer 26 disposed between them. OSB panels are derived from a starting material that is naturally occurring hard or soft woods, singularly or mixed, whether such wood is dry (preferably having a moisture content of between 2 wt % and 12 wt %) or green (preferably having a moisture content of between 30 wt % and 200 wt %) or of moisture content in between dry and green (preferably having a moisture content of between 12 wt % and 30 wt %). Typically, the raw wood starting materials, either virgin or reclaimed, are cut into veneers, strands, wafers, flakes, or particles of desired size and shape, which are well known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Each of the surface layers 22, 24 of the panel 20 are preferably oriented in parallel with the long dimension of the panel 20, and the oriented strand board core 26 preferably includes a plurality of substantially parallel strands 23 that are oriented perpendicular to the strands of the surface layers 22, 24. The panels 20 of the panelized roof system 10 may be selected from a number of suitable materials that provide adequate protection against the penetration of bulk water. Preferably, the panels of the present invention are comprised of reconstituted lignocellulosic furnish. More preferably, the panels 20 are comprised of structural wood such as OSB or plywood. Types of wood material used to manufacture the panels 20 may be, but are not limited to particle board, medium density fiber board, waferboard or the like. The presently described panels 20 are preferably of a thickness T in a range from about 0.635 cm (0.25 inches) to about 3.175 cm (1.25 inches). The panels 20 may also comprise a radiant barrier material attached to the lower face of the panel, i.e., the face of the panel facing inwardly, toward the interior of the building. The radiant barrier material preferably includes a reflective surface that reflects infrared radiation that penetrates through the roof back into the atmosphere. The combination of this reflective function, as well as the foil's low emissivity, limits the heat transfer to the attic space formed in the interior of the building in the space under the roof. By limiting the heat transfer, the attic space temperature is reduced, which in turn reduces the cost of cooling the house. The radiant barrier material may simply be a single layer radiant barrier sheet, such as metal foil, such as aluminum foil. Alternatively, the radiant barrier material may be composed of a radiant barrier sheet adhered to a reinforcing backing layer made from a suitable backing material, such as polymeric film, corrugated paper board, fiber board or kraft paper. The backing material makes the foil material easier and more convenient to handle. The multi-layered material may be a laminate in which a backing material is laminated to a radiant barrier sheet. Methods of manufacturing the radiant barrier material are discussed in greater detail in U.S. Pat. No. 5,231,814, issued Aug. 3, 1993 to Hageman and U.S. Pat. No. 3,041,219, issued Jun. 26, 1962, to Steck et al. Other suitable radiant barrier material is manufactured under the name SUPER R™ by Innovative Insulation, Inc. of Arlington, Tex. These SUPER R™ products have two layers of aluminum foil each of which have an aluminum purity of 99%, and a reinforcing member located inside, between the two layers. The reinforcing member may be a reinforcing scrim or a polymer fabric. Both the radiant barrier material and the barrier layer can be applied to the panel by spreading a coat of adhesive to the surface of the panel, applying the heat-reflecting material (or the barrier layer) over the adhesive onto the panel and pressing the radiant barrier material (or barrier layer) onto the panel. After the adhesive dries or cures, the panel is ready for use. Additionally, the radiant barrier may be a coating on either side of the panel 20, which could be used facing into or out from the attic. Additionally, some panels 20 may also provide protection against ultraviolet light per ASTM G53, G154, which does not delaminate, does not reduce slip resistance, and does not promote fading. Referring now to FIG. 3, the panel for the panelized roof or wall system 10 includes a barrier layer 30 secured to the outward facing surface of panel 20, with each barrier layer 30 providing a substantially skid-resistant surface 35. These barrier layers 30 may optionally be comprised of a resin-impregnated paper 32 having a paper basis weight of 21.772 kg (48 lbs.) to about 102.058 kg (225 lbs.) per ream or a dry weight of about 78.16 gm/m2 (16 lbs./msf) to about 366.75 gm/m2 (75 lbs./msf), and they preferably substantially cover the outward facing surface 24 of the panels 20. The paper 32 is preferably resin-impregnated with a resin such as, but not limited to a phenol-formaldehyde resin, a modified phenol-formaldehyde resin, or other suitable resin. Preferably, the paper has a resin content of about greater than 0% to about 80% by dry weight, most preferably from a range of about 20% to about 70% by dry weight. The resin-impregnated paper for the panel in the panelized roof or wall sheathing construction system of the present invention also preferably includes a glueline layer 50 in a range from about 9.77 gm/m2 (2 lbs./msf) to about 244.5 gm/m2 (50 lbs./msf), and more preferably of a range from about 9.77 gm/m2 (2 lbs./msf) to about 177.24 gm/m2 (12 lbs./msf). The glueline layer 50 may be formed from a phenol-formaldehyde resin, and isocycanate, or the like. Further optionally, the barrier layer may comprise an applied coating layer. One such coating is an experimental acrylic emulsion coating from Akzo-Nobel. Another suitable coating is Valspar's Black Board Coating. It is understood that by those skilled in the art that other classes of coatings may serve as an appropriate barrier layer. Coatings may be used with paper overlays to add the desired functions to the panel. The barrier layer 30 is resistant to bulk water but permeable to water vapor. These panels with barrier layers 30 are optionally characterized by water vapor permeance in a range from about 0.1 U.S. perms to about 1.0 U.S. perms, and have a water vapor transmission rate from about 0.7 to about 7 g/m2/24 hrs (at 73° F.-50% RH via ASTM E96 procedure A), and have a water vapor permeance from about 0.1 to about 12 U.S. perms (at 73° F.-50% RH via ASTM E96 procedure B), and a liquid water transmission rate from about 1 to about 28 (grams/100 in2/24 hrs via Cobb ring), per ASTM D5795. This test method allows the quantification of liquid water that passes through the underlayment to the underlying substrate and can be easily done on specimens where the underlayment cannot be removed for visual inspection. An embodiment of this invention suggests that a non-skid surface that has a coefficient of friction equal to or better than plywood or oriented strand board when dry and/or wet can be achieved in a primary process that is both quick and relatively inexpensive. Specifically, the water-resistant barrier layers 30 of the present invention advantageously provide a textured surface 35 to the structural panels 20. Specifically, the textured surface 35 is adapted to provide a wet coefficient of friction in a range of from about 0.8 to about 1.1 (English XL Tribometer) and a dry coefficient of friction in a range of from about 0.8 to about 1.1 (English XL Tribometer). Examples of methodology used to measure wet surfaces may be found at pg. 173 in “Pedestrian Slip Resistance; How to Measure It and How to Improve It.” (ISBN 0-9653462-3-4, Second Edition by William English). Referring now to FIG. 4A, the textured surface 35 is characterized by an embossed pattern of features or indentations. As used herein, “embossing” can mean embossing, debossing, scoring, or any other means to alter the texture of the panel other than adding grit or the like to the surface. The texture preferably has a number of features or elements disposed in a first direction and a number of features or elements disposed in a second direction. For example, a first group of elements may be disposed in a direction across the width of a panel and a second group of elements may be disposed in a direction along the length of a panel. These elements or features disposed in first and second directions may be of similar or may be of different sizes. The elements similarly may be of different or of similar shapes. Non-limiting examples of similarly sized features include a embossed herringbone or a embossed basketweave configuration. A herringbone pattern may be very tightly disposed or may be somewhat “spread-out” in such a manner so that major channels with minor indentations are created. The embossed textured surface preferably is more preferably comprised of a plurality of major or primary textured features and a plurality of minor or secondary textured features. Preferably, the minor or secondary textured features are at least partially disposed on one or more corresponding major feature. To illustrate, and although the general appearance of the preferred textured surface 35 appears to be a random pattern of raised areas, a closer examination of the preferred textured surface reveals finer detail. Specifically, the preferred textured surface 35 includes a plurality of major channels 33 that are disposed substantially parallel with a pair of opposing edges (preferably the shorter pair of opposing edges) of the panel. Additionally, a plurality of minor indentations 34 are disposed within the major channels 33 and run generally orthogonally to the major channels. It should be appreciated that the exploded magnified view of FIG. 4, showing the minor indentations 34 and major channels 33 in detail, is illustrative and does not necessarily represent the preferred density of minor indentations or major channels. Although it is within the scope of the present invention to provide for advantageous slip-resistance by providing any number of major channels, preferably, the density of the major channels is about 5 to about 15 major channels per 2.54 cm (inch) as measured in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the major channels. More preferably, the density of the major channels is about 9 to about 12 major channels per 2.54 cm (inch) as measured in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the major channels. On a typical 1.219 m×2.438 m (4′×8′) sheathing panel, the major channels will preferably run generally across the 1.219 m (four-foot) or short direction. It should be appreciated that it is not necessary nor required that the major channels be exactly parallel and may undulate slightly from side to side in a somewhat serpentine fashion rather than being straight. Although it is within the scope of the present invention that the minor indentations 34 may vary in length and width, the minor indentations 34 have a preferably elongated shape that measures preferably about 0.0508 cm (0.020 inches) to about 0.254 cm (0.100 inches) in length and about 0.0254 cm (0.010 inches) to about 0.254 cm (0.100 inches) wide. Although it is within the scope of the present invention to provide for advantageous slip-resistance by providing any number of minor indentations, preferably, the density of the minor indentations is about 15 to about 35 of the minor indentations per inch as measured along the direction of the major channels. The long direction of the minor indentations preferably extends generally across the eight-foot (or long) direction of a typical panel. The textured surface may also, alternatively, be created via a plurality of raised protrusions and grooves. The protrusions may have a height in a range of about 0 mils to about 25 mils, preferably from a range of about 3.0 to about 13.0 mils as measured by profilometry (Mitutoyo SJ201P). In accordance with the preferred configuration of the textured surface 35, in a typical roof sheathing application using 1.219 m×2.438 m (4′×8′) panels where the 2.438 m (eight-foot) edge of the sheathing panel is parallel to the floor of the home, the major channels 33 will generally be oriented up and down, while the long direction of the minor indentations 34 will generally run across the roof. Preferred depth of the major channels and minor indentations have been found to be in a range of about 5 to about 13 mils as measured by the Mitutoyo Surface Profiler. It should be appreciated that at least some of the major channels and minor indentations may be of a depth greater or deeper than the thickness of the paper (i.e., some of the major channels and minor indentations may be of a depth that would project into the surface of the panel). The anti-skid surface of the present system advantageously reduces the potential for a ladder leaning thereon to slip. A worker who is applying house wrap or taping house wrap is currently exposed to the risk of his ladder skidding against the slippery surface of house wrap. Current house wrap products create the opportunity for a worker to fall from a ladder that skids against house wrap. The surface of current house wrap products promotes the likelihood of “ladder slip.” Workers have complained that ladders will slide unless they apply a skid resistant product to their ladders As shown in FIG. 3, the barrier layers 30 may further include indicia 37 for positioning fasteners. U.S. Pat. App. Pub. 2003/0079431 A1 entitled “Boards Comprising an Array of Marks to Facilitate Attachment”, incorporated herein by reference, provides additional detail regarding fastener indicia 37. Additionally, the barrier layers are preferably adapted to receive fasteners in a substantially moisture-proof manner. FIG. 5 illustrates the cross-sectional profile of a further aspect of the panel for a panelized roof or wall sheathing construction system 10. When attached to a building frame, joints 25 form between the panels 20. Particularly, shown is a water-resistant sealing means comprised of strips of water-resistant tape 42 with backing 44 and an adhesive layer 46. Each of the strips of tape 42 may be applied by a hand held tape applicator to at least one joint between adjacent panels 20 to form a substantially moisture-resistant seam with roofing accessory materials such as skylights, ventilation ducts, pipe boots, felt, flashing metals, roofing tapes, and various building substrates. The tape 42 of the present invention may have no backing or a backing 44 with a thickness of about ½ to about 1/30 the thickness of the adhesive layer 46. Optionally, the strips of tape 42 may have a backing of a thickness of about 1.0 mils to about 4.0 mils and an adhesive layer disposed on the backing of a thickness of about 2.0 mils to about 30.0 mils. The dry coefficient of friction for the tape is preferably of at least about 0.6. As shown in FIG. 3, alignment guides 43 on the panel for applying the tape strips 42 are also contemplated to facilitate installation. Preferably, the alignment guides 43 are placed approximately a distance of about ½ the width of the tape from the panel edge. The tape strips 42 are preferably installed by means of a handheld tape applicator. The panels 20 of the panelized roof sheathing construction system 10 preferably have a first edge which is parallel with a corresponding second edge of a panel 20 and are preferably linked together via one of a tongue 27 and groove 28 configuration (FIG. 5), an H-clip configuration, or a mating square edge configuration, as would be understood by one skilled in the art. Referring now to FIG. 6, each of the first and second edges preferably have contiguous sections of equal length, with each section potentially including a groove 28 and a tongue 27 compatible with a corresponding groove 28 (and tongue 27). An example of one such tongue and groove panel is shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,772,569 entitled “Tongue and Groove Panel” which is incorporated herein by reference. Another such example is shown and described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/308,649 entitled “Composite Wood Board having an Alternating Tongue and Groove Arrangement along a Pair of Edges” which is incorporated herein by reference. The length of the first edge of each panel 20 is preferably a multiple of the length of a section, with the multiple being at least two. The length of the tongue 27 in each section measured in the longitudinal direction of an edge is preferably less than or equal to the length of the grooves 28, or the longest groove 28 in each section. Referring to FIG. 11, panel 20 may have a first edge A, a second edge B, a third edge C and a fourth edge D. Edges A and B may be parallel. Edges C and D may be parallel and substantially perpendicular to edges A and B. Each of the edges A and B of panel 20 may include an alternating tongue and groove arrangement. Specifically, edge A includes perpendicularly extending tongues 27 and grooves 28. Edge B is similarly constructed. It includes tongues 27 and grooves 28. Edge C is in contact with tongue 27 of edge B and groove 28 of edge A. Edge D is in contact with groove 28 of edge B and tongue 27 of edge A. Thus, the tongues and grooves of panel 20 are directly opposite each other. Referring to FIGS. 12A and 12B, the tongues 27 and grooves 28 along edge A of panel 20 can be brought into engagement with the grooves 28 and tongues 27 of edge B of adjacent panel 20. Similarly, if one of the boards 20 is rotated one hundred and eighty degrees, the tongues 27 and grooves 28 along abutting edges can be brought into engagement. As a general summary shown in FIG. 10, producing skid-resistant and water-resistant building panels of the present invention comprises the steps of providing a roll of dry paper, feeding a leading edge of a sheet of paper from said roll of dry paper onto a forming belt, and depositing reconstituted lignocellulosic furnish with an applied binding agent atop the dry paper sheet so as to form a lignocellulosic mat having first and second lateral edges. The flake mat and the dry paper sheet are cut into a segment of a predetermined length. Preferably, the top surface of the flake mat is compressed and the first and second lateral edges of the flake mat are packed prior to the cutting step. The segments are transferred onto a loading screen and then into a hot press. Sufficient heat and pressure are provided in order to set the panel structure and to form a skid-resistant surface resulting from the screen imprint on said paper. The segments are cut into panels of predetermined sizes. The paper sheet is preferably wet prior to transferring the segment onto the loading screen. Additionally, indicia 37 for positioning fasteners or tape alignment guides 43 are preferably marked onto the panel. As a person becomes accustomed to walking on sloped surfaces such as roof systems, a small change in the coefficient of friction can cause someone to easily lose his or her footing. This is illustrated in Table 1, which shows the coefficient of friction of plywood, OSB, those panels with securely fastened roofing felt and OSB and plywood with loose felt paper applied. The significant differences seen in the coefficient of friction of systems between felt paper being securely fastened and loose, is more than enough to cause a slipping hazard. The present system 10 has an advantage over felt paper in that the coefficient of friction does not change since the barrier layer 30 is securely fastened to the panel 20 prior to installation thus virtually eliminating the occurrence of paper coming loose in the field. It is important that the panels used in roof applications are not slippery in service. It has also been observed that the coefficient of friction can vary among roof sheathing products of similar types from different sources. Further, the coefficient of friction of panels from one manufacturer can change dramatically, such as when the panels get wet from a change in weather conditions or morning dew. Further, the change in coefficient of friction can be inconsistent among manufacturers. This may be the result of process conditions, wood species, and raw materials used to manufacture these products. Sanding does not improve friction for sheathing panels even though it removes a top layer of wood that may be partially degraded by the process conditions, but it does promote adhesion for secondary lamination. Flat laminated products are perceived to be more slippery than textured products, and water on many substrates makes them slippery when wet. An anti-skid coating can be added to improve the coefficient of friction, but these coatings add additional manufacturing steps, equipment, and cost. Indeed, when plywood or OSB panels are overlaid with paper to create a smooth surface, the coefficient of friction drops compared to regular plywood and OSB. Adding texture to the surface of OSB has been suggested as a method of improving friction or skid-resistance of these panels, but testing of OSB sheathing using the English XL Tribometer showed that the coefficient of friction of the smooth and textured sides of OSB were very similar under dry conditions and that the texture could decrease the coefficient of friction in the wet condition, which is shown in Table 2. Thus, another notable advantage of the present invention is retained skid resistance when wet. When texture is added to the surface of an overlaid wood composite panel of the present invention, the coefficient of friction unexpectedly increased above that of standard plywood and OSB. An embodiment of the present invention is illustrated in Tables 3 & 4 and Plots 2 & 3, which shows the coefficient of friction of the screen imprinted overlaid panel vs. smooth overlaid panels, oriented strand board with a screen imprint, oriented strand board that has been sanded and plywood in dry and wet conditions. Paper basis weights (per ream) of 31.751 kg (70 lbs.), 44.906 kg (99 lbs.) and 59.874 kg (132 lbs.) were also tested and compared to show that the range of paperweights mentioned in the embodiment of this record of invention will satisfy the coefficient of friction requirements. From testing conducted using the English XL Tribometer, the coefficient of friction, as can be seen from Table 3, is significantly higher when a screen imprint is embossed on the surface of the panels as compared to the smooth surface of paper-overlaid panels. From Table 4, it can be seen that the coefficient of friction of the overlaid panels with the textured surface does not significantly decrease when wet and is much better than the coefficient of friction of plywood when wet. As one example of this invention, a roll of Kraft paper of 44.9 kg (99 lb.) basis weight (per ream), saturated to about 28% by weight resin content with a glue line of phenolic glue of about 4.536 kg/304.8 m2 (10-lbs/1000 ft2) applied to one side of the paper was mounted onto a paper feeding apparatus so that the paper could be fed onto the forming line of an oriented strand board. The paper was then fed onto the forming line belt with the glue line side of the paper facing up away from the belt. To prevent wrinkling or tearing of the paper, the paper roll must be un-wound at a speed that is consistent with the speed of the forming line. To maintain complete coverage of the paper overlay onto the wood composite substrate, the paper is aligned with the forming line belt as it carries the mat toward the press. Once the paper is fed onto the forming line, a wood mat is formed on top of the paper as it moves toward the press. The wood mat is formed with the first and second layers being the surface layers composed of strands oriented in a direction parallel to the long dimension of the panels and a third core layer composed of strands oriented in a direction perpendicular to the first and second layers. FIG. 13 illustrates box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with smooth and textured surfaces, oriented strand board with a textured surface, oriented strand board with a sanded surface and plywood in the dry condition. “Level” is expressed as paper basis weight per ream for overlay panels. CoF=Coefficient of friction. FIG. 14 illustrates box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with smooth and textured surfaces, oriented strand board with a textured surface, oriented strand board with a sanded surface and plywood in the dry condition. “Level” is expressed as paper basis weight per ream for overlay panels. CoF=Coefficient of friction. FIG. 15 illustrates box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with a smooth and textured surface and plywood in the wet condition. “Level” is expressed as paper basis weight per ream for overlay panels. CoF=Coefficient of friction. During this process, flakes can be pushed underneath the paper overlay and can be pressed on to the surface of the panel, giving the panel a low quality look and hindering the performance of the final product. Therefore, air wands are used at the nose of the forming line to remove the excessive flakes between the paper overlay and the forming line belt. The mat is then cut into a predetermined size for placing into press. The cut mats are then moved over the nose on the forming line (where the flakes are removed from the paper's surface using the air wands) and picked up by a screen embossed transfer mat. If appropriate, in the production of oriented strand board, the screen embossed transfer mat is sprayed with a release agent to keep the flakes from sticking to the press. However, given that there is a Kraft paper overlay between the flakes and the mat, the release agent is not needed. To prevent the wood mat from slipping off the transfer mat during acceleration, water is sprayed on the surface of the transfer mat prior to the transfer mat picking up the wood mat. The screen embossed transfer mat and wood mat are then placed in a hot press at a temperature preferably greater than 360° F. for a period long enough to cure the binders on the wood flakes. The transfer mat then moves the pressed master mat out of the press, removing the screen embossed transfer mat from the wood master mat, leaving an embossed pattern on the surface of the paper overlay. The embossed pattern has hills and valleys with a distance between the valleys and hills of preferably about 0.03048 cm (1/1000 inch) to about 0.3048 cm (10/1000 inch). The pattern is enough to provide needed skid resistance without puncturing the paper overlay, compromising the water-resistant quality of the panel. Once the master mat is removed from the press, it can be cut into any dimension to meet the needs of the final user and the edges of the panels sealed with an edge seal coating. It is understood by those skilled in the art that a continuous press could be used to manufacture overlay panels. One obvious change in the method would be that mastermats would be cut to size after leaving the press. Use of Panel for Wall Sheathing According to an alternate embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 7 shows wall panels 120 joined to a building frame structure 115. Similar to the roof panels, the wall panels 120 have barrier layers bonded on one surface, and are generally attached to the building frame 115 in substantially abutting relationship with a plurality of fasteners such as nails, screws, or any other suitable fastener known on the art (not shown) so as to form joints therebetween. Also similar to the roof panel, the wall panel also preferably comprises a textured surface as described previously in the roof panel discussion. Depending on the size of the panels 120 selected, the panels 120 may be installed with a horizontal or vertical orientation. In FIG. 7, panels 120 are installed vertically and horizontally and may typically be, but are not limited to a 1.219 m×2.438 m (4 ft.×8 ft.) construction. Additionally, a panel may be 1.219 m×3.048 m (4 ft.×10 ft.), 1.219 m×3.658 m (4 ft.×12 ft.), or of any desired size for the particular build. As is well known in the field, the panels 120 may be structural, and may comprise a wood composite, such as veneers, strands, wafers, particles, fibers, and binders, or may be made from any building grade material as required for the particular build. The preferred dimensions of the wall panels 120, including the length L, width W, and thickness T of the panel may be designed to fit the particular application. Optionally, a one half inch thick panel T is used, however a 0.635 cm (quarter inch) to 3.175 cm (1.25-inch) thick panel 120 or thicker may be used if heavier construction is desired. Turning now to FIG. 8, the structural panels 120 are quadrilateral in shape comprising an inward facing surface 121, an outward facing surface 122 and a peripheral edge, the peripheral edge defining a first 123, second 124, third 125 and fourth 126 edge of the panel 120. The first edge 123 of the panel is parallel with the corresponding third edge 125 of the panel, each of the first 123 and third 125 edges having opposing sections of equal length, and the second edge 124 of the panel is parallel with the corresponding fourth edge 126 of the panel, each of the second 124 and fourth 126 edges having opposing sections of equal length. Further, the first 123 and third 125 edges of the panel are substantially perpendicular with adjacent second 124 and fourth 126 edges. As illustrated in FIG. 9A, one or more of the edges of the panel 120 may provide at least one tongue-and-groove 129 shape for joining and securing panels 120 together. Where the tongue-and-groove configuration is utilized, opposing edges have a groove or tongue compatible with an opposing corresponding edge and the length of the tongue in each section measured in the longitudinal direction of an edge is less than or equal to the longest grooves in each section. However, as shown in FIG. 9B, the panels 120 may have flat surfaces 128 and be planar on all four peripheral edges 123, 124, 125, 126. As depicted in FIG. 8, a barrier layer 130 is comprised of a paper 132 with at least two sides. During the construction stage of the panels 120, a barrier layer 130 is bonded to each panel 120 to form the barrier. Optionally, the barrier layer 130 may comprise an UV-resistant overlay, a radiant reflective layer or the like. The barrier layer 130 is preferably comprised of three parts: paper 132, at least one of a resin 134 and a glueline layer 136, each of which may affect the durability and the final permeability of the panel 120. Preferably, the paper 132 has a paper basis weight of about 21.772 kg (48 lbs.) to about 102.058 kg (225 lbs.) per ream or a dry weight about 78.16 gm/m2 (16 lbs./msf) to about 366.75 gm/m2 (75 lbs./msf), however various basis weight papers 132 may be utilized for barrier layer 130. The paper 132 is preferably resin-impregnated with a resin 134 such as, but not limited to a phenol-formaldehyde resin, a modified phenol-formaldehyde resin, or other suitable resin. Preferably, the paper has a resin content in a range of about 0% to about 80% by dry weight. More preferably, the paper has a resin content in a range of about 20% to about 70% by dry weight. The resin 134 may be saturated on 152 and then partially cured 153 to the paper 132. This enables the paper 132 to retain the resin 134 and makes the resin-impregnated paper 132 easier to handle. Further optionally, the barrier layer may comprise an applied coating layer. One such coating is an experimental acrylic emulsion coating from Akzo-Nobel. Another suitable coating is Valspar's Black Board Coating. It is understood that by those skilled in the art that other classes of coatings may serve as an appropriate barrier layer. Coatings may be used with paper overlays to add the desired functions to the panel. An adhesive 136 is used to bond 155 the surface overlay member 130 to the outward facing surface of each of the plurality of panels 120. Optionally, the adhesive 136 is a glueline applied to 154 one side of the barrier layer 130 to facilitate attachment to the panels 120 during manufacture. Preferably, a glueline layer 136 is of a range from about 4.885 gm/m2 (1 lbs./msf) to about 244.5 gm/m2 (50 lbs./msf). More preferably, the glueline layer 136 has of a range from about 34.18 gm/m2 (7 lbs./msf) to about 58.59 gm/m2 (12 lbs./msf), creating a very efficient and durable bond. As mentioned previously, the glueline layer 136 may be composed from the group phenol-formaldehyde resin, hot-melt or PVA resin. Further optionally, the glueline layer may be isocynate-based. As the plurality of resin-impregnated overlay bonded panels 120 are affixed to a building frame 115 in substantially abutting relationship, joints or seams are formed there between. Referring again to FIGS. 9A and 9B, enlarged cross sectional views of the system 110 show a plurality of strips of water-resistant pressure-sensitive seam sealant 140 for sealing the joints or seams between adjacent panels 120. Seam sealant 140 may, as understood by one in art, consist of laminate, caulk, foam, spray, putty, or other mechanical means. Preferably, a plurality of strips of permeable tape 140 are used to seal seams between adjacent panels 120. The permeability of the tape used at the seams can be altered for the climatic zone (cold, mixed or hot/humid) and the building design used. In some climates in building designs, the tape may not need to be permeable since adequate permeability is available through the building envelope. In other climates in building designs, the tape will have to have a high level of permeability such that the moisture escapes from the interior spaces of the wall, and mold, fungus, etc. is not supported by the trapped moisture. Where a vapor barrier is required, the tape used will have a permeance of less than 1.0 US Perm. In one example, the tape 140 is polyolefin (polyethylene preferred) backing of a thickness of about 2.5 mils. to about 4.0 mils. Adhesive (butyl preferred) layered deposed on said backing is of a thickness of about 8.5 mils. to about 30 mils. Where a permeable barrier is required, the tape has water vapor permeance of greater than 1.0 US perm at 73 ° F.-50% RH via ASTM E96 procedure B) and possibly, as high as 200 US perms or more. Whether the tape 140 is impermeable or permeable to water vapor, it must be able to resist liquid water from entering into the building envelope. Since the seam tape will need to seal against the liquid water as traditional house wraps do, it is reasonable to require the tape to meet standards currently employed to measure liquid water penetration through house wraps, as would be readily known by one skilled in the art. The technologies that are used to make films or fabrics with water vapor permeance greater than 1.0 US Perm are well known. Tapes that have high permeance are often used in medical applications. Permeable tapes are made from a variety of processes and such tapes may be made bonding a pressure sensitive adhesive to a permeable layer. To improve strength, the permeable layer may be bonded to a woven or non-woven backing. Tapes may have in their structure permeable fabrics, coatings, membranes, or combinations thereof According to the preferred construction of the invention, the installation method 150 is shown in FIG. 10. The panels 120 are attached to the exterior facing sides of the building frame 115. The attachment pattern may be edge to edge, tongue-and-groove or any other appropriate construction alignment. Conventional fastening means such as nails, ring-shank nails, screws, or approved fastening means are used to attach the panel 120 to the frame 115. According to the invention, the structure is sealed by injecting, spreading or otherwise applying 157 a moisture proofing seam sealant to each seam between adjoining panels 120 so as to create an impervious seam. There is no need for the seam sealant to be flush with the exterior major panel surfaces or to bind it into the gap between the panels. Rather it is suggested that the seam sealant be applied over the exterior surfaces as shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B to assure that a sufficient seal occurs given possible panel thermal or strain cycling with changes in temperature or humidity. The seam sealant is of various lengths as required for the building. The presently described panels may also comprise a radiant barrier material attached to the lower face of the panel, i.e., the face of the panel facing inwardly, toward the interior of the building. The radiant barrier material has a reflective surface that reflects infrared radiation that penetrates through the roof back into the atmosphere. The combination of this reflective function, as well as the foil's low emissivity, limits the heat transfer to the attic space formed in the interior of the building in the space under the roof. By limiting the heat transfer, the attic space temperature is reduced, which in turn reduces the cost of cooling the house. The radiant barrier material may simply be a single layer radiant barrier sheet, such as metal foil, such as aluminum foil. Alternatively, the radiant barrier material may be composed of a radiant barrier sheet adhered to a reinforcing backing layer made from a suitable backing material, such as polymeric film, corrugated paper board, fiber board or kraft paper. The backing material makes the foil material easier and more convenient to handle. The multi-layered material may be a laminate in which a backing material is laminated to a radiant barrier sheet. Yet further alternatively, the radiant barrier may be a coating. Both the radiant barrier material and the barrier layer can be applied to the panel by spreading a coat of adhesive to the surface of the panel, applying the heat-reflecting material (or the barrier layer) over the adhesive onto the panel and pressing the radiant barrier material (or barrier layer) onto the panel. After the adhesive dries or cures, the panel is ready for use. Another embodiment of the panel of the present invention is a panel, useful for roof and wall sheathing, that has improved friction under some common conditions normally found on construction sites. Specifically, the panel of the presently described embodiment was designed to achieve improved skid-resistance. As described previously, when installing a roof, it is very important that the surface of the sheathing panels need to have sufficient skid resistance so that a person exercising reasonable care can work on the angled surfaces of the roof without slippage. Although preferable for panels to remain dry during installation, on a construction site, the panels can be subject to moisture or wetness or have sawdust or other foreign materials deposited on their surface, which can reduce the coefficient of friction (CoF) and result in undesirable slippage. Sawdust is especially common on panel surfaces as panels often need to be cut to fit the roof properly. Sawdust can be a significant problem as it may cause a reduction in the coefficient of friction of the sheathing panel surfaces. Accordingly, it is desired to remove as much sawdust as possible from the panel surfaces prior to walking thereon. Although construction workers may take some efforts to clean the sawdust off the surface of the panels using a broom, tapping the board while on the edge, or using a leaf blower, these measures often prove to be inadequate. Specifically, these sawdust removal methods do not always completely remove the sawdust from the surface. Accordingly, a panel that restores adequate skid-resistance after removing as much sawdust as possible using any suitable means or method such as those described above is desired. Improved performance after the removal of sawdust was achieved in either of two ways. The first method of improving performance and retaining adequate friction after the removal of sawdust is to use a saturating resin in the barrier layer which has a slightly higher fraction of volatiles. The percent volatiles can be a relative reflection of the average molecular weight of the saturating resin. Accordingly, a slight change in the percent volatiles can result in a measurable change in the depth of embossing achieved in the final cure. For example, about a 6% increase in volatiles (as measured in the present experimentation from 3.5% to about 3.7% of the total weight of the resin-saturated paper, including the glueline) resulted in improved embossing in that the measured depth of at least some of the embossed features was measured to be deeper. A thorough discussion of the overlay technology, including the measurement of volatiles, is found in U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,203. The second method of improving the frictional characteristics of the panel after the removal of sawdust was to change the type of wood furnish used to manufacture the paper in the paper overlay. It was discovered that changing the furnish used in the manufacture of the barrier layer from the typically used hardwood species to softwood species improved the retaining of friction after removal of sawdust. To measure the friction in the presence of sawdust for the present embodiment, the coefficient of friction was measured using the English XL Tribometer. The standard techniques for using this equipment are described in ASTM F1679-04 and “Pedestrian Slip Resistance; How to Measure It and How to Improve It.” (ISBN 0-9653462-3-4, Second Edition by William English). The standard methods were used to compare the various test surfaces and conditions. To test the sheathing panels with sawdust, the amount of sawdust deposited on the surface of a panel near a saw cut was measured. The sawdust deposited on a panel surface was measured by placing sheets of paper on the surface of a panel and making cuts at the edge of the paper using a circular saw with a new blade. The amount of sawdust produced by the saw was under these conditions was 2.5 g/ft2. The sawdust had a size distribution as shown in Table 6 (Runs 1-4: 20 g samples; Run 5: 60 g sample; all 15 min. on vibration screen shaker.) That amount of sawdust was applied to and spread across the test specimen surface evenly as possible, then the CoF was measured using the English XL Tribometer. The sawdust was removed by tilting on its edge and tapping it with a hammer to “knock” the sawdust off and the specimen's CoF in this state was then measured. The wet condition was measured according to the procedure described at pg. 173 in “Pedestrian Slip Resistance; How to Measure It and How to Improve It.” Since CoF can change depending on the surface, water was added in doses of about 1.54 g of water per test strike until the CoF remained constant. The CoF was measured for several configurations of sheathing panels and compared to existing sheathing materials as controls. The data are reported in Table 5. The overlay panel has a texture on the surface that imparts a satisfactory CoF on the exterior surface of the panel. As described previously in the prior described panel embodiment, the texture results from pressing a screen into the surface of the panel and comprised major channels and minor indentations. The screen pattern is not symmetric, but has large channels that are roughly orthogonal to much smaller channels that are inside the larger channels. Ideally, the larger channels run up and down and the smaller channels run side to side when the panel is installed on a roof. It was found that a small difference in CoF was measured depending on the test direction. The average of four measurements (N, E, S, and W) is reported and the testing shown in the following tables was initiated so that the first measurement was taken with respect to the textured surface. N and S is measured along the direction of the major channels and E and W is measured generally orthogonally with the major channels. It was noted that some very small differences in CoF could be measured depending on the axis (N-S vs. E-W) along which the measurements were taken. It is also expected that the conditions under which the test is conducted will have some affect on the measured CoF. Variations in temperature and humidity may also have an affect on the measured CoF. The texture preferably has a number of features or elements disposed in a first direction and a number of features or elements disposed in a second direction. These elements or features disposed in first and second directions may be of similar or may be of different sizes. The elements similarly may be of different or of similar shapes. Non-limiting examples of similarly sized features include a embossed herringbone or a embossed basketweave configuration. A herringbone pattern may be very tightly disposed or may be somewhat “spread-out” in such a manner so that major channels with minor indentations are created. The embossed textured surface preferably is more preferably comprised of a plurality of major or primary textured features and a plurality of minor or secondary textured features. Although the general appearance of the preferred textured surface 35 appears to be a random pattern of raised areas, however, a closer examination of the preferred textured surface reveals finer detail. Specifically, the preferred textured surface 35 includes a plurality of major channels 33 that are disposed substantially parallel with a pair of opposing edges (preferably the shorter pair of opposing edges) of the panel. Additionally, a plurality of minor indentations 34 are disposed within the major channels 33 and run generally orthogonally to the major channels. Although it is within the scope of the present invention to provide for advantageous slip-resistance by providing any number of major channels, preferably, the density of the major channels is about 5 to about 15 major channels per inch as measured in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the major channels. More preferably, the density of the major channels is about 9 to about 12 major channels per inch as measured in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the major channels. On a typical 4′×8′ sheathing panel, the major channels will preferably run generally across the four-foot or short direction. It should be appreciated that it is not necessary nor required that the major channels be exactly parallel and may undulate slightly from side to side in a somewhat serpentine fashion rather than being straight. Although it is within the scope of the present invention that the minor indentations 34 may vary in length and width, the minor indentations 34 have a preferably elongated shape that measures preferably about 0.0508 cm (0.020 inches) to about 0.254 cm (0.100 inches) in length and about 0.0254 cm (0.010 inches) to about 0.254 cm (0.100 inches) wide. Although it is within the scope of the present invention to provide for advantageous slip-resistance by providing any number of minor indentations, preferably, the density of the minor indentations is about 15 to about 35 of the minor indentations per inch as measured along the direction of the major channels. The long direction of the minor indentations preferably extends generally across the eight-foot (or long) direction of a typical panel. In accordance with the preferred configuration of the textured surface 35, in a typical roof sheathing application using 1.219 m×2.438 m (4′×8′) panels where the eight-foot edge of the sheathing panel is parallel to the floor of the home, the major channels 33 will generally be oriented up and down, while the long direction of the minor indentations 34 will generally run across the roof. Preferred depth of the major channels and minor indentations have been found to be in a range of about 5 to about 35 mils as measured by the Mitutoyo Surface Profiler. It should be appreciated that at least some of the major channels and minor indentations may be of a depth greater or deeper than the thickness of the paper (i.e. some of the major channels and minor indentations may be of a depth that would project into the surface of the panel). For preparation of the test panels for the presently described embodiment, the overlay papers were bonded to mats in a primary process either in the lab or on the regular manufacturing line. Then, test specimens were cut from these panels. The conditions used to prepare the test panels in the laboratory were approximately: Press time: 5 minutes; Press temp: 200° C.; panel dimensions: 40.64 cm×40.64 cm×1.27 cm (16″×16″×0.5″) thick; target density: 41.5 pcf; wood species: mixtures of pine; resin loading: face; MDI @4%; PPF @2% Core; MDI @4.5%; and wax loading: 2%. Table 5 The CoF data for improved sheathing panels. Average N-S E-W Specimen Condition CoF CoF CoF Softwood overlay paper Dry 0.83 0.79 0.87 Wet 0.77 0.76 0.78 Sawdust 0.48 0.47 0.47 After Sawdust 0.85 0.77 0.92 High volatiles overlay Dry 0.83 0.79 0.86 Wet 0.82 0.83 0.81 Sawdust 0.42 0.41 0.43 After Sawdust 0.83 0.80 0.85 OSB Dry 0.86 0.84 0.87 Wet 0.80 0.80 0.80 Sawdust 0.54 0.51 0.58 After Sawdust 0.72 0.73 0.71 Plywood Dry 1.0 >1 >1 Wet 0.84 0.83 0.85 Sawdust 0.53 0.54 0.52 After Sawdust 0.62 0.61 0.63 The measurements in Table 5 were taken under conditions of higher temperature and humidity as compared with earlier described testing conditions. TABLE 6 Particle size distribution of sawdust used to measure CoF. Opening size Sieve No. (in microns) Run #1 Run #2 Run #3 Run #4 Run #5 18 1000 0.19 0.21 0.19 0.18 0.47 30 600 0.6 0.83 0.68 0.58 2.17 60 250 3.44 4.57 3.42 3.40 9.90 80 180 3.53 3.15 2.98 2.72 8.76 100 150 1.30 2.52 4.28 1.17 3.10 140 106 4.71 5.13 3.23 2.32 9.78 200 75 1.12 1.54 1.79 2.28 6.48 325 45 4.07 1.55 4.11 3.87 10.79 pan 0 0.57 0.07 1.92 2.97 8.00 While the present invention has been described with respect to several embodiments, a number of design modifications and additional advantages may become evident to persons having ordinary skill in the art. While the illustrative embodiments have been described in considerable detail, it is not the intention of the applicant to restrict or in any way limit the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The roof of a residential or commercial building is typically constructed by attaching several roofing panels to the rafters of an underlying supporting structural frame; the panels are most often placed in a quilt-like pattern with the edge of each panel contacting the edges of adjacent panels so as to form a substantially continuous flat surface atop the structural frame. However, problems with roofs constructed according to this method may present themselves. In particular, small gaps along the edges of adjoining roofing panels remain after roof assembly. Because the roofing panels are typically installed days or even weeks before shingles are installed, it is important to have a panel system that minimizes leakage resulting from exposure to the elements until such time as the roof is completed. To prevent water from leaking through the gaps between panels, it is commonly known in the industry to put a water resistant barrier layer on top of the roofing panels (e.g., felt paper). Accordingly, there is a need in the art for roofing panels, which can be conveniently fit together and yet are constructed to minimize the gaps or allow the gaps to be sealed between adjacent roofing panels to prevent or minimize the penetration of bulk water through the roof as it travels over the roof's surface. It is desirable for roofing panels to shed precipitation, such as rain and snow, during construction so that the interior remains dry. While it is important that the barrier layer shed bulk water, it should also allow for the escape of water vapor. If the barrier were to trap water vapor in a roofing panel, the build-up of moisture could lead to rot or mold growth that is undesirable. As mentioned previously, it is known in the art that substantial bulk water-impermeability of installed roofing panels is achieved by adding a layer of impermeable material, such as asphalt-impregnated roofing paper or felt over the external surface of the roof panels. However, while this provides additional protection against bulk water penetration, it has the disadvantage of being difficult and time-consuming to install because the paper or felt must be first unrolled and spread over the roof surface and then secured to those panels. Further, the use of a felt paper overlay often results in a slick or slippery surface, especially when wet. Additionally, when the felt paper is not securely fastened to the roof panels or becomes loose due to wind and other weather conditions or because of poor construction methods, the roof system can become very slippery and leak bulk water. Accordingly, a worker walking atop the felt paper must be careful to avoid slipping or sliding while thereon. To that end, the present invention provides a panel for a roof sheathing system comprising structural panels, a mass-transfer barrier, and seam sealing means that is advantageously bulk water resistant and that exhibits adequate anti skid characteristics. In addition to roof panel systems, wall panel construction systems of residential or commercial buildings do not typically provide simple, efficient, and safe means of installation. Known wall systems are frequently slick and do not provide adequate traction to securely support a ladder leaning thereon. Further, most often in these systems, an extra step must typically be added to the installation process to prevent liquid moisture and air from passing through the wall. Specifically, constructing a wall with a weather barrier requires not only that panels be attached to framing members, but also a house wrap is unrolled and spread over the walls. The house wrap is attached to the sheathing panels with staples or button cap nails and fenestration openings for windows or doors must be cut out of the wrap and the flaps from these openings folded back and stapled down. The house wrap is often difficult to install because it is typically in nine-ft wide rolls, which can be difficult to maneuver by workers on scaffolding or in windy conditions. Accordingly, there is also need in the art for wall-sheathing panels, which are moisture vapor permeable, skid-resistant and which create a simplified, safe, and time-saving installation process by means of a surface overlay member or coating permanently bonded thereon. To that end, the present invention also provides a panel for a wall sheathing system comprising structural panels, a mass-transfer barrier, and seam sealing means. Accordingly, another general object of this invention is to provide a wall system that provides a barrier to bulk water, water vapors, air and heat transfer, irritants, insects and mold that can be permeable to moisture movement and is suitable for use behind numerous exterior finishes, such as siding, EIFS, brick, stucco, lap siding, vinyl, and the like. Furthermore, the wall assembly consists of a simple process. Panels are affixed with a barrier layer and fastened to a building frame in a side-by-side manner, with or without a tongue and groove connection. Next, a sealing means, such as tape, laminate, caulk, foam, spray, putty, mechanical means, or any other suitable sealing mechanism, is used to seal the joints or seams between adjoining panels, thus completing the moisture barrier. Given the foregoing, there is a continuing need to develop improved panels for roof and wall construction that prevent or minimize the penetration of bulk water, that come pre-equipped with a water permeable barrier layer applied during manufacture, and that have a skid resistant surface. The foregoing summary, as well as the following detailed description of preferred embodiments of the invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the appended drawings. For the purpose of illustrating the invention, there is shown in the drawings embodiments which are presently preferred. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not limited to the precise arrangements and instrumentalities shown in the drawings, and that for purposes of illustration, these figures are not necessarily drawn to scale. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a panelized roofing system utilizing the panel of the present invention. FIG. 2 is an exploded perspective view of a first embodiment of one panel of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a view of a panel and barrier layer according to the present invention. FIG. 4 is an exploded perspective view of a panel, showing a detailed exploded view of the textured surface, according to the present invention. FIG. 4A is a cross-sectional view of the textured surface taken along the line 4 A- 4 A of FIG. 4 . FIG. 5 is a partial cross-sectional view of two adjacent panels according to one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 6 is a perspective view of a panel according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a perspective view of a three-dimensional wall sheathing system utilizing the panel according to another embodiment of the present invention showing adjacent wall panels with lengths of tape sealing the joints therebetween, each of the lengths of tape overlapping at least one of the joints. FIG. 8 is an exploded view of an embodiment of the structural panel according to the present invention and a view of the glueline for permanent bonding of the surface overlay member to the panel. FIG. 9A is a partial cross-sectional view of two adjacent panels according to one embodiment of the present invention with tongue-and-groove connected panels after seam sealing. FIG. 9B is a cross-sectional view of two adjacent panels according to one embodiment of the present invention in a wall sheathing system with edge abutting connected panels after seam sealing. FIG. 10 is a flow diagram of the steps included in the manufacture of a panel for roof or wall sheathing system according to the present invention. FIG. 11 is a plan view of a panel, according to the invention. FIG. 12A is a partial plan view of a pair of panels; each according to the invention, aligned for engagement. FIG. 12B is a partial plan view of a pair of panels, each according to the invention, engaged. FIG. 13 is a diagram of box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with smooth and textured surfaces, oriented strand board with a textured surface, oriented strand board with a sanded surface and plywood in the dry condition. FIG. 14 is a diagram of box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with smooth and textured surfaces, oriented strand board with a textured surface, oriented strand board with a sanded surface and plywood in the dry condition. FIG. 15 is a diagram of box plots showing the differences in the coefficient of friction between paper overlaid wood composite panels with a smooth and textured surface and plywood in the wet condition. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | E04C2296 | 20170630 | 20171130 | 58021.0 | E04C2296 | 2 | STEPHAN, BETH A | PANEL FOR SHEATHING SYSTEM AND METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | E04C | 2,017 |
|
15,639,307 | PENDING | LINEAR ACTUATOR | A linear actuator is configured to provide the moving force for adjustable furniture, such as beds, chairs, or tables. The linear actuator includes a drive assembly, rigid arm, and linkage assembly. The rigid arm includes a pusher block with one or more attachment projections where the linkage assembly is attached. | 1. A method of assembling a linear actuator for adjustable furniture comprising: assembling an arm assembly of the linear actuator, wherein assembling the arm assembly comprises: housing a threaded spindle within a rigid arm; threadably engaging a spindle nut coupled to a pusher block with the threaded spindle; slidably engaging the pusher block with the rigid arm by inserting the rigid arm within a rigid arm passage defined by the pusher block such that the rigid arm extends through the rigid arm passage; and pivotally connecting a first end of a linkage within a linkage channel of an attachment projection of the pusher block, wherein the attachment projection extends outwardly from an outer surface of the pusher block; and connecting a drive assembly to the arm assembly, wherein the drive assembly is configured to rotate the threaded spindle within the rigid arm. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: pivotally connecting a dual angle bracket with a torque tube assembly configured to engage adjustable furniture; and pivotally connecting a second end of the linkage with the dual angle bracket. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the outer surface of the pusher block comprises a top surface and at least one side surface extending downwardly from the top surface, and wherein the attachment projection extends outwardly from the top surface of the pusher block. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the outer surface of the pusher block comprises a top surface and at least one side surface extending downwardly from the top surface, and wherein the attachment projection extends outwardly from the at least one side surface of the pusher block. 5. The method of claim 1, wherein: the attachment projection further defines a securing aperture extending transversely to the linkage channel and in communication with the linkage channel; the securing aperture extends along a securing aperture axis; the threaded spindle extends along a threaded spindle axis; and the securing aperture axis is vertically offset from the threaded spindle axis. 6. The method of claim 5, further comprising removably positioning a fastener within the securing aperture such that the fastener is engaged with the first end of the linkage positioned within the linkage channel. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the fastener is a clevis pin. 8. The method of claim 5, wherein the securing aperture axis is above the threaded spindle axis. 9. The method of claim 1, further comprising: positioning a first switch within the rigid arm and between a first end and a second end of the rigid arm; and positioning a second switch within the rigid arm and between the first switch and the second end such that the pusher block is movable between the first switch and the second switch, wherein the first switch and the second switch are communicatively coupled to the drive assembly, wherein the first switch and the second switch are configured to sense a position of the pusher block, and wherein the first switch and the second switch are configured to disrupt a power source of the drive assembly if the pusher block contacts the first switch or the second switch such that rotation of the spindle is stopped to stop movement of the pusher block along the threaded spindle. 10. The method of claim 1, further comprising attaching a holder to an end of the rigid arm. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the end of the rigid arm comprises a plurality of fastener receiving channels, wherein the holder comprises a plurality of apertures, and wherein attaching the holder to the end of the rigid arm comprises: aligning the plurality of fastener receiving channels with the plurality of apertures; and inserting fasteners through each of the aligned fastener receiving channels and apertures. 12. The method of claim 1, further comprising attaching a cover to the rigid arm such that the threaded spindle is between the rigid arm and the cover. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein connecting a drive assembly to the arm assembly comprises engaging a plurality of slots at an end of the rigid arm with a plurality of prongs on a base of the drive assembly such that the drive assembly and rigid arm are retained together. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein connecting a drive assembly to the arm assembly comprises engaging a plurality of prongs at an end of the rigid arm with a plurality of slots on a base of the drive assembly such that the drive assembly and rigid arm are retained together. 15. An arm assembly for a linear actuator for adjustable furniture comprising: a rigid arm; a threaded spindle housed within the rigid arm; a spindle nut threadably engaged with the threaded spindle; and a pusher block coupled with the spindle nut and comprising: a rigid arm passage, wherein the rigid arm extends through the rigid arm passage such that the pusher block is slidable along the rigid arm; and an attachment projection integrally formed with the pusher block and extending outwardly from an outer surface of the pusher block and defining a linkage channel, wherein the attachment projection is configured to receive an end of a linkage within the linkage channel and pivotally connect the linkage to the pusher block in the linkage channel of the attachment projection. 16. The arm assembly of claim 15, wherein the outer surface of the pusher block comprises a top surface and at least one side surface extending downwardly from the top surface, and wherein the attachment projection extends outwardly from the top surface of the pusher block. 17. The arm assembly of claim 15, wherein the outer surface of the pusher block comprises a top surface and at least one side surface extending downwardly from the top surface, and wherein the attachment projection extends outwardly from the at least one side surface of the pusher block. 18. The arm assembly of claim 15, wherein: the attachment projection further defines a securing aperture extending transversely to the linkage channel and in communication with the linkage channel; the securing aperture extends along a securing aperture axis; the threaded spindle extends along a threaded spindle axis; the securing aperture axis is vertically offset from the threaded spindle axis; and the arm assembly further comprises: a fastener removably positioned within the securing aperture, wherein the fastener is configured to engage with the end of the linkage within the linkage channel. 19. The arm assembly of claim 18, wherein the securing aperture axis extends transversely to the threaded spindle axis, and wherein the securing aperture axis is above the threaded spindle axis. 20. The arm assembly of claim 18, wherein the fastener is a clevis pin. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/445,432, filed on Jul. 29, 2014 and entitled LINEAR ACTUATOR, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/862,409, filed Aug. 5, 2013 and entitled IMPROVED LINEAR ACTUATOR, both of which are hereby incorporated by this reference in their entireties. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present disclosure reveals a new design for a linear actuator that modifies the positioning in adjustable furniture BACKGROUND A linear actuator is an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, in contrast to the circular motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are widely used within the area of adjustable furniture, such as beds, chairs, or tables, where they may be used for adjusting the position of adjustable furniture, such as the lifting and reclining of motion chairs, the height of a table, or the position of the mattress surface of a bed. The actuator is typically comprised of an electric motor drive assembly that drives a threaded spindle. The spindle is retained within a rigid arm, and the electric motor drive assembly is attached to the rigid arm with a plurality of threaded fasteners. A pusher block is threaded onto the spindle and is secured in linear recesses within the arm. As the electric motor drive assembly turns the spindle, the pusher block moves from one end of the arm to the other end. The direction of movement is determined by the direction of the spindle's rotation. One end of the prior art actuators may be secured to the adjustable furniture by a rear mounting bracket. The actuators are also attached to the furniture by a pair of levers or linkages. One end of the respective linkages is secured to the pusher block with a plurality of threaded fasteners. The other end of the respective linkages communicates with the furniture. Movement of the pusher block moves the linkages and adjusts the position of the furniture. The prior art linear actuators are costly to manufacture. Connection of the electric motor drive assembly to the rigid arm using threaded fasteners is disadvantageous because it is a time-consuming and complicated method of assembling the actuators. The prior art actuators are also difficult to mount on adjustable furniture. Use of threaded fasteners on the pusher block makes it difficult for assembly line workers to align the furniture so that the levers line up with threaded apertures in the pusher block. Accordingly, there is a need for a linear actuator that can be quickly assembled and mounted onto adjustable furniture. SUMMARY The terms “invention,” “the invention,” “this invention” and “the present invention” used in this patent are intended to refer broadly to all of the subject matter of this patent and the patent claims below. Statements containing these terms should be understood not to limit the subject matter described herein or to limit the meaning or scope of the patent claims below. Embodiments of the invention covered by this patent are defined by the claims below, not this summary. This summary is a high-level overview of various embodiments of the invention and introduces some of the concepts that are further described in the Detailed Description section below. This summary is not intended to identify key or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used in isolation to determine the scope of the claimed subject matter. The subject matter should be understood by reference to appropriate portions of the entire specification of this patent, any or all drawings, and each claim. The present invention relates to an improved linear actuator. The improved linear actuator is designed to provide the moving force for adjustable furniture, such as beds, chairs, or tables. The improved linear actuator overcomes problems with the prior art by reducing the number of necessary parts and simplifying assembly to save production costs. While the improved linear actuator is directed at use of the actuator in adjustable furniture, the improved linear actuator may be adapted for use in machine tools and industrial machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, in valves and dampers, and in many other places where linear motion is required. Various implementations described in the present disclosure can include additional systems, methods, features, and advantages, which cannot necessarily be expressly disclosed herein but will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following detailed description and accompanying drawings. It is intended that all such systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within the present disclosure and protected by the accompanying claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The features and components of the following figures are illustrated to emphasize the general principles of the present disclosure. Corresponding features and components throughout the figures can be designated by matching reference characters for the sake of consistency and clarity. FIG. 1 is a front perspective view of one embodiment of a linear actuator. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment of a linear actuator. FIG. 3 is a sectional view of the linear actuator of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is a side view of the linear actuator of FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of an alternative embodiment of a linear actuator. FIG. 6 is a sectional view of the linear actuator of FIG. 5. FIG. 7 is a rear perspective view of the linear actuator of FIG. 1. FIG. 8 is an enlarged view of the dis-assembled rigid arm and drive motor of the linear actuator of FIG. 1. FIG. 9 is an enlarged view of the dis-assembled rigid arm and holder of the linear actuator of FIG. 1. FIG. 10 is an exploded assembly view of the linear actuator of FIG. 1. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The subject matter of embodiments of the present invention is described here with specificity to meet statutory requirements, but this description is not necessarily intended to limit the scope of the claims. The claimed subject matter may be embodied in other ways, may include different elements or steps, and may be used in conjunction with other existing or future technologies. This description should not be interpreted as implying any particular order or arrangement among or between various steps or elements except when the order of individual steps or arrangement of elements is explicitly described. Directional references such as “up,” “down,” “top,” “left,” “right,” “front,” “back,” and “corners,” among others are intended to refer to the orientation as illustrated and described in the figure (or figures) to which the components and directions are referencing. FIGS. 1, 4, and 7 illustrate an embodiment of a linear actuator 16 according to the present disclosure. An electric drive motor assembly 2 is connected to a rigid arm 3. The rigid arm 3 is formed of stainless steel or other suitable material, and also includes a plastic cover 17. A threaded spindle 5 is retained inside the arm. A spindle nut 6 is threaded onto the spindle 5, and a pusher block 7 is attached to the spindle nut 6. The pusher block 7 straddles the rigid arm 3 and slides up and down the arm 3 as the electric drive motor assembly 2 turns the spindle 5. A holder 4 is attached to the other end of the rigid arm 3 to retain one end of the spindle 5 and to provide mounting points for the actuator. The pusher block 7 provides a connection point for communicating force generated by the improved linear actuator 16 to the adjustable furniture. To simplify assembly of the actuator 16 with adjustable furniture, the top of the pusher block 7 incorporates a clevis 18. Apertures in the clevis 18 are adapted to receive a clevis pin 19 or other suitable fastener. A single linkage 8 connects the pusher block 7 to a torque tube assembly 14. An aperture at the lower end of the single linkage 8 is adapted to receive the clevis pin 19. A cotter pin 20 may be used to secure the clevis pin 19. Use of a clevis pin 19 to attach the linkage 8 and pusher block 7 eliminates the need for additional brackets and threaded fasteners to facilitate the attachment. The pin 19 also eliminates the need to mold threaded screw-receiving apertures into the pusher block 7. The clevis 18 may also be incorporated onto one or more sides of the pusher block 7 (see FIGS. 2, 3, 5, and 6). FIG. 2 depicts an embodiment of the improved actuator 16 with the clevis 18 incorporated into the side of the pusher block 7. In this embodiment, a clevis pin 19 is used to secure the linkage 8. FIG. 3 is a cross sectional view of this embodiment. FIG. 5 depicts an embodiment of the improved actuator 16 with the clevis 18 incorporated into the side of the pusher block 7, with a threaded bolt 11 securing the linkage 8. FIG. 6 is a cross sectional view of this embodiment. FIG. 4 is a side view of the improved actuator 16. The single linkage 8 has a unique lever shape that may be adapted to fit specific requirements for different embodiments of adjustable furniture. A single dual angle bracket 13 is moveably attached to the upper end of the linkage 8 and may be attached to a torque tube assembly 14 that transmits the force of the actuator 16 to the adjustable furniture. FIG. 7 is a rear view of the improved linear actuator 16. A bolt 12 (see FIG. 7) or similar fastener moveably secures the upper end of the single linkage 8 to the dual angle bracket 13. Threaded fasteners 15 secure the dual angle bracket to the torque tube assembly 14. The torque tube assembly 14 communicates with the adjustable furniture (not shown). A clevis pin 19 secures the lower end of the linkage 8 to the clevis 18 at the top of the pusher block 7. A cotter pin 20 secures the clevis pin 19. The improved linear actuator 16 simplifies the process of attaching the actuator 16 to the furniture because the clevis 18 makes it easier for assembly workers to align the furniture, torque tube assembly 14, linkage 8, and pusher block 7. Additionally, assembly can be simplified through use of a single linkage 8. The improved linear actuator 16 contains other improvements that reduce time to assemble the actuator 16. FIG. 8 is a close up view of a disassembled electric drive motor assembly 2 and rigid arm 3. The end of the rigid arm 3 contains one or more slots 21. The slots 21 are adapted to receive one or more prongs 22 molded into the base of the drive motor assembly 2. The slots 21 and prongs 22 allow the drive motor assembly 2 to be pressed onto the rigid arm 3 when the improved linear actuator 16 is assembled. The prongs 22 apply pressure to the arm 3 to securely hold the drive assembly 2 and rigid arm 3 together. Use of the slots 21 and prongs 22 eliminates the use of threaded fasteners to secure the drive assembly 2 and arm 3 together, decreasing manufacturing time. FIG. 9 is a close up view of a disassembled rigid arm 3 and holder 4. The rigid arm 3 incorporates one or more fastener receiving channels 23. One or more fasteners 24 pass through one or more apertures 25 in the holder 4. In this embodiment threaded screws are used as fasteners 24, but other appropriate fasteners may be used. During assembly, the holder 4 is positioned next to the rigid arm 3 so the apertures 25 in the holder 4 align with the fastener receiving channels 23 in the arm 3. The fasteners 24 are then installed, securing the holder 4 to the rigid arm 3. The use of one or more threaded screws to secure the holder 4 to the arm 3 simplifies assembly of the improved linear actuator 16 and leads to faster production. FIG. 10 is a perspective view of the disassembled improved linear actuator 16 with the pusher block 7 already positioned on the spindle 5. The electric drive motor assembly 2 is comprised of an electric motor 26, lower assembly cover 27, and upper assembly cover 28. One or more threaded screws 29 secure the electric motor 26 to the lower assembly cover 27 and a series of threaded screws 30 secures the upper assembly cover 28 to the lower assembly cover 27. A worm gear (not shown) is attached to the output shaft 31 of the electric motor 26. The worm gear turns a worm wheel 32 attached to the end of the threaded spindle 5. One end of the worm wheel 32 rests in a worm wheel bearing 33 to facilitate rotation of the spindle 5. The spindle 5 rests within the rigid arm 3. A plastic cover 17 shields the spindle 5. The spindle nut 6 is threaded onto the spindle 5 and is attached to the pusher block 7. Switches 34 are mounted within the rigid arm 3 using threaded screws 35. The switches 34 sense the position of the pusher block 7 and are connected to the controls (not shown) and power source (not shown) for the improved linear actuator 16. When the pusher block 7 contacts a switch 34, power to the electric motor 26 is cut and travel of the pusher block 7 is stopped. The holder 4 is attached to the end of the rigid arm 3 using threaded fasteners 24 that are screwed into fastener receiving channels 23 in the rigid arm 3. The holder 4 may incorporate apertures 36 for receiving fasteners 37 that can be used to attach the actuator 16 to mounting points on the frame of a piece of adjustable furniture. The foregoing description of preferred embodiments for the improved linear actuator is presented for the purposes of illustration and description. They are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed. Obvious modifications or variations are possible in light of the above teachings. The embodiments are chosen and described in an effort to provide the best illustration of the principles of the invention and its practical applications, and to thereby enable one of ordinary skill in the art to utilize the invention in various embodiments and with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. It should be emphasized that the above-described aspects are merely possible examples of implementations, merely set forth for a clear understanding of the principles of the present disclosure. Many variations and modifications can be made to the above-described embodiment(s) without departing substantially from the spirit and principles of the present disclosure. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of the present disclosure, and all possible claims to individual aspects or combinations of elements or steps are intended to be supported by the present disclosure. Moreover, although specific terms are employed herein, as well as in the claims that follow, they are used only in a generic and descriptive sense, and not for the purposes of limiting the described invention, nor the claims that follow. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>A linear actuator is an actuator that creates motion in a straight line, in contrast to the circular motion of a conventional electric motor. Linear actuators are widely used within the area of adjustable furniture, such as beds, chairs, or tables, where they may be used for adjusting the position of adjustable furniture, such as the lifting and reclining of motion chairs, the height of a table, or the position of the mattress surface of a bed. The actuator is typically comprised of an electric motor drive assembly that drives a threaded spindle. The spindle is retained within a rigid arm, and the electric motor drive assembly is attached to the rigid arm with a plurality of threaded fasteners. A pusher block is threaded onto the spindle and is secured in linear recesses within the arm. As the electric motor drive assembly turns the spindle, the pusher block moves from one end of the arm to the other end. The direction of movement is determined by the direction of the spindle's rotation. One end of the prior art actuators may be secured to the adjustable furniture by a rear mounting bracket. The actuators are also attached to the furniture by a pair of levers or linkages. One end of the respective linkages is secured to the pusher block with a plurality of threaded fasteners. The other end of the respective linkages communicates with the furniture. Movement of the pusher block moves the linkages and adjusts the position of the furniture. The prior art linear actuators are costly to manufacture. Connection of the electric motor drive assembly to the rigid arm using threaded fasteners is disadvantageous because it is a time-consuming and complicated method of assembling the actuators. The prior art actuators are also difficult to mount on adjustable furniture. Use of threaded fasteners on the pusher block makes it difficult for assembly line workers to align the furniture so that the levers line up with threaded apertures in the pusher block. Accordingly, there is a need for a linear actuator that can be quickly assembled and mounted onto adjustable furniture. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The terms “invention,” “the invention,” “this invention” and “the present invention” used in this patent are intended to refer broadly to all of the subject matter of this patent and the patent claims below. Statements containing these terms should be understood not to limit the subject matter described herein or to limit the meaning or scope of the patent claims below. Embodiments of the invention covered by this patent are defined by the claims below, not this summary. This summary is a high-level overview of various embodiments of the invention and introduces some of the concepts that are further described in the Detailed Description section below. This summary is not intended to identify key or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used in isolation to determine the scope of the claimed subject matter. The subject matter should be understood by reference to appropriate portions of the entire specification of this patent, any or all drawings, and each claim. The present invention relates to an improved linear actuator. The improved linear actuator is designed to provide the moving force for adjustable furniture, such as beds, chairs, or tables. The improved linear actuator overcomes problems with the prior art by reducing the number of necessary parts and simplifying assembly to save production costs. While the improved linear actuator is directed at use of the actuator in adjustable furniture, the improved linear actuator may be adapted for use in machine tools and industrial machinery, in computer peripherals such as disk drives and printers, in valves and dampers, and in many other places where linear motion is required. Various implementations described in the present disclosure can include additional systems, methods, features, and advantages, which cannot necessarily be expressly disclosed herein but will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following detailed description and accompanying drawings. It is intended that all such systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within the present disclosure and protected by the accompanying claims. | F16H2524 | 20170630 | 20171019 | 86435.0 | F16H2524 | 2 | MULLINS, BURTON S | LINEAR ACTUATOR | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | F16H | 2,017 |
|
15,639,474 | PENDING | LIGHT BULB SHAPED LAMP | A light emitting module includes a base board having a first surface and a second surface opposing the first surface. A plurality of light-emitting diodes is provided on the first surface of the base board. A seal covers the plurality of light-emitting diodes, includes a wavelength conversion material, and covers the second surface of the base board | 1. A light emitting module comprising: a base board having a first surface and a second surface opposing the first surface; a plurality of light-emitting diodes provided on the first surface of the base board; and a seal including a wavelength conversion material, the seal covering the plurality of light-emitting diodes and covering the second surface of the base board. 2. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the seal further includes a translucent material. 3. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the seal covers the first surface of the base board. 4. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of light-emitting diodes is arranged in a straight line, and the seal is arranged in a continuous straight line on a row of the plurality of light-emitting diodes. 5. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of light-emitting diodes is not mounted on the second surface of the base board. 6. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the base board, the plurality of light-emitting diodes, and the seal comprise a light emitter configured to reproduce a simulated light-emitting property equivalent to a filament in an incandescent light bulb. 7. The light emitting module according to claim 1, further comprising a first power supply terminal provided on one end of the base board and a second power supply terminal provided on another end of the base board. 8. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein each of the plurality of light-emitting diodes includes a sapphire board and a plurality of nitride semiconductor layers stacked on the sapphire board, and is fixed on the base board with the sapphire board facing the first surface of the base board. 9. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of light-emitting diodes is fixed on the base board by a translucent bonding material. 10. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the plurality of light-emitting diodes is connected in series by wires, and each of the wires connects one of the plurality of light-emitting diodes to an adjacent one the plurality of light-emitting diodes. 11. The light emitting module according to claim 10, wherein a direction of each of the wires extends in a longitudinal direction of the base board, and each of the wires is covered by the seal. 12. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the base board has a length and a width and one of the length and the width is longer than another of the length and the width. 13. The light emitting module according to claim 12, wherein the base board is longer than it is wide. 14. The light emitting module according to claim 1, wherein the seal comprises a continuous line of sealing material. 15. The light emitting module according to claim 13, wherein the sealing material is dome-shaped in cross-section. 16. The light emitting module according to claim 13, wherein a width of the sealing material approximates a width of the base board. 17. The light emitting module according to claim 13, wherein a width of the sealing material is longer than a height of the sealing material in cross section. | This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/394,205, filed Mar. 5, 2012, which is a National Phase of PCT Patent Application No. PCT/JP2011/004103, filed Jul. 20, 2011 and claims the benefit of Japanese Patent Application No. 2011-047336 filed on Mar. 4, 2011, Japanese Patent Application No. 2010-162504 filed on Jul. 20, 2010. The entire disclosures of the above-identified applications, including the specifications, drawings and claims are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to LED light bulbs including light-emitting devices, and particularly relates to a light bulb shaped LED lamp having a light-emitting diode (LED). BACKGROUND ART Compared to conventional illumination light source, semiconductor light emitting devices such as LEDs are small, have high efficiency and long lifetime as a light source. Recent market needs for saving energy and resource boosts the demand for light bulb shaped lamps using LEDs (hereafter simply referred to as “LED light bulb”) and lighting apparatuses including the LED light bulbs. Meanwhile, some manufacturers stop manufacturing incandescent light bulbs using filaments (filament coils). For example, the patent literature 1 discloses a conventional LED light bulb reproducing the shape of conventional filament in an incandescent light bulb. In the LED light bulb disclosed in the patent literature 1, an optical fiber resembling the shape of a filament is housed in the globe, an end portion of the LED and the optical fiber are provided near the base, and the light emitted from the LED is coupled to the end portion of the optical fiber. With this configuration, the waves of the light emitted from the LED are guided to the inside of the optical fiber. This reproduces a state as if the filament emits light. CITATION LIST Patent Literature [Patent Literature 1] Japanese Unexamined Patent Application Publication (Translation of PCT Application) No. 2008-515158 SUMMARY OF INVENTION Technical Problem The incandescent light bulb with the filament that can be seen through the globe is mainly used for decoration. Luminance that allows directly viewing the filament and high luminous flux that would brighten up an area around the light bulb are required for the incandescent light bulb. Accordingly, when replacing the incandescent light bulb with LED light bulb, luminance and luminous flux equivalent to those of the incandescent light bulb are required for the LED light bulb. Higher efficiency and longer lifetime than those of the incandescent light bulb are required for the LED light bulb as well. Optical fiber is used in the LED light bulb disclosed in the patent literature 1. This becomes loss in coupling and loss in waveguide when coupling and guiding the light emitted from the LED to the optical fiber, which becomes a bottleneck for increasing efficiency. Furthermore, in order to compensate the coupling loss and waveguide loss for obtaining high luminous flux, it is necessary to increase the luminous flux from the LED which is the light source. However, it is necessary to increase the input power to the LED, which causes reduction in efficiency and lifetime. The present invention has been conceived in order to solve these problems, and it is an object of the present invention to provide a light bulb shaped lamp capable of reproducing the simulative light-emission of the filament in the conventional incandescent light bulb emitting light without using optical fibers. Solution to Problem In order to solve the problems described above, an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention is A light bulb shaped lamp comprising: a base board; a light-emitting device mounted on the base board; a base for receiving power from outside; at least two power-supply leads for supplying power to the light-emitting device; and a globe for housing the base board, the light-emitting device, and the power-supply leads, the globe being partially attached to the base, in which the base board is translucent, each of the two power-supply leads is extended from a side of the base toward inside of the globe and is connected to the base board, and the light-emitting device is provided between (i) a portion at which one of the two power-supply leads and the base board are connected and (ii) a portion at which the other of the two power-supply leads and the base board are connected. With this configuration, it is possible to implement, using the light-emitting device, a light bulb shaped lamp capable of reproducing the lighting status similar to an incandescent lamp in which the filament can be seen through the globe. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, the base board may be supported by the two power-supply leads. With this configuration, it is possible to simplify the component structure. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, a plurality of the light-emitting devices may be mounted in line, and are covered with a sealing material with translucent property, and the sealing material may be formed in line connecting a gap between the light-emitting devices. With this configuration, it is possible to protect the light-emitting device with the sealing material. Furthermore, by covering the light-emitting device with the translucent material, twinkling light is emitted when the electric bulb shaped lamp is turned on. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, the sealing material may include a wavelength conversion material which absorbs light emitted from the light-emitting device and converts a wavelength of the light into another wavelength. With this configuration, a linear shaped light-emitting part is formed, reproducing the lighting status of the filament in the conventional incandescent light bulb when the light bulb shaped lamp is turned on. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, the light-emitting device may not be mounted on a surface of the base board opposite to a surface on which the light-emitting device is mounted, and a second sealing material may be provided on the opposite surface, the second sealing material being provided over, in plan view, the sealing material on the surface on which the light-emitting device is mounted in plan view. With this configuration, the light emitted from a surface on which no light-emitting device is mounted (for example, blue light) is converted into another color (for example, converted into yellow light), and a synthesized light such as white light is emitted even from a surface on which no light-emitting device is mounted. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, the sealing material may be in zig-zag shape. With this configuration, it is possible to simulate the shape of the filament of the conventional incandescent light bulb. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, a surface of the base board on which the light-emitting device is mounted may be in a rectangle shape, the two power supply leads may be connected to shorter sides of the rectangle. With this configuration, it is possible to simulate the supporting status of the filament part of the conventional incandescent light bulb. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, a plurality of the light-emitting devices are mounted on at least two surfaces of the base board. With this configuration, it is possible to simulate the state of the filament of the conventional incandescent light bulb in which filaments are entwined. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, two through holes may be formed in the base board, and one of the two power supply leads may pass through one of the two through holes, and the other of the two power supply leads may pass through the other of the two through holes. With this configuration, the base board can be firmly connected to the power supply leads. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, the base board may be made of a hard-brittle material having an emissivity of 0.8 or higher. With this configuration, it is possible to promote heat dissipation from the base board. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, the base board may be made of translucent ceramic, and the two power-supply leads are copper wires. With this configuration, it is possible to promote heat dissipation from the base board toward the base through the power supply leads. Furthermore, in an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention, an electronic part electrically connected to the light-emitting device may be housed in the base. With this configuration, power is appropriately supplied to the light-emitting device. Furthermore, an aspect of the light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention includes a first series-connected group and a second series-connected group each of which is a group of a plurality of the light-emitting devices connected in series, in which the first series-connected group and the second series-connected group are electrically connected in an inverse parallel connection, AC power is supplied to the two power-supply leads, and each of the two power-supply leads is electrically connected to each end of the inverse parallel connection. With this configuration, it is possible to cause the filament part to emit light by the AC power without using the diode for rectification. Accordingly, the circuit configuration is simplified. Advantageous Effects of Invention The present invention can reproduce the simulated light-emission state of the filament in a conventional incandescent light bulb emitting light. Furthermore, in the present invention, it is not necessary to use optical fibers. Thus, no coupling loss described above occurs, implementing an LED light bulb with high efficiency and high luminous flux. Furthermore, since the light-emitting device is covered with the sealing material, the sealing material and the base board becomes the light-emitting unit, thereby implementing an LED light bulb with high efficiency and high luminous flux. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front view of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention. FIG. 2A is a diagrammatic perspective view illustrating the configuration of the filament part in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention. FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional view of the filament part in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention (cross-sectional view along X-X′ in FIG. 2A). FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view for describing the configuration of the LED chip and the peripheral part of the LED chip in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating the circuit configuration of a lighting circuit in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention. FIG. 5A is a chart illustrating a light-distribution pattern of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention in which a base board made of translucent polycrystalline alumina ceramic (total transmittance of 90% or higher) is used. FIG. 5B is a chart illustrating a light-distribution pattern of the LED light bulb according to a comparative example in which a base board made of opaque alumina ceramic is used. FIG. 6A is a diagrammatic perspective view illustrating the configuration of the filament part in the LED light bulb according to the variation of the embodiment 1 of the present invention. FIG. 6B is a cross-sectional view of the filament part in the LED light bulb according to the variation of the embodiment 1 of the present invention (cross-sectional view along A-A′ in FIG. 6A). FIG. 7 is a front view of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 8A is top view illustrating the configuration of the filament part in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 8B is a diagram illustrating the arrangement of a sealing material in the filament part of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a diagram illustrating the circuit configuration of a lighting circuit in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a diagram (diagrammatic perspective view) for describing the variation 1 of the filament part of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a diagram (diagrammatic perspective view) for describing the variation 2 of the filament part of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a diagram (diagrammatic perspective view) for describing the variation 3 of the filament part of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. FIG. 13 is a diagram (top view) for describing the variation 4 of the filament part of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS The following shall describe the light bulb shaped lamp according to the embodiment of the present invention with reference to the drawings. However, the present invention is determined based on the recitation in Claims. Accordingly, among the components in the following embodiments, the components not recited in the independent claim which illustrates the most generic concept of the present invention are not necessary for solving the problem of the present invention but included as a part of a preferable embodiment. Note that, the diagrams are schematic diagrams, and illustration is not necessarily strictly accurate. Embodiment 1 First, the light bulb shaped lamp according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention shall be described. The light bulb shaped lamp according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention is a light bulb shaped lamp in which LED is used as the light source, and is the LED light bulb replacing conventional light bulb shaped lamp such as incandescent light bulbs and light bulb shaped fluorescent lamps. (Overall Configuration of LED Light Bulb) The overall configuration of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention shall be described with reference to FIG. 1. FIG. 1 is a top view of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention. As Illustrated in FIG. 1, the LED light bulb 1 according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention uses LED chips which are semiconductor light-emitting devices as the light source. The LED light bulb 1 includes a filament part 100 composed of the LED chips and other parts, two power supply leads 140 (141 and 142) for supplying power to the LED chips, a stem 160, a globe 170, a circuit 180 including electronic parts, and a base 190. The filament part 100 is composed of the LED chips 110 (not illustrated) and a base board 120. Note that, in FIG. 1, the circuit 180 and the power supply leads 140 placed inside the base 190 are illustrated in dotted lines. The filament part 100 is a light-emitting unit (light-emitting module) reproduces the simulated light-emitting property equivalent to the filament in an incandescent light bulb, and emits light with the power supplied from the power supply leads 140. The filament part 100 includes a translucent base board 120 on which the LED chips are mounted, and is housed in the globe 170. In the embodiment 1, the filament part 100 is suspended approximately at the center of the hollow globe 170. As described above, placing the filament part 100 at the center of the globe 170 achieves light-distribution property closely similar to the incandescent light bulb using conventional filament coil when the lamp is turned on for light emission. In addition, the filament part 100 is suspended in the globe 170 with the support of the two power supply leads 140 (141, 142) at the ends of the base board 120. More specifically, the filament part 100 is off the inner surface of the globe 170 in the globe 170. The two power supply leads 140 are supported by the stem 160. The opening 171 of the globe 170 is closed by the stem 160. The base 190 is attached to hide the closed part. The circuit 180 is housed in the base 190. The two power supply leads 140 (141, 142) extend from the stem 160 to outside of the globe 170, and are connected to the circuit 180. Among the two power supply leads 140 (141, 142) connecting the circuit 180 and the base 190, one of the power supply leads 141 is electrically connected to a screw part 191 on the side surface of the base, and the other power supply lead 142 is electrically connected to the eyelet 192 at the bottom of the base. The following is the more detailed description of the components of the LED light bulb 1 according to the embodiment 1. (Filament Part) First, the filament part 100 shall be described with reference to FIGS. 2A and 2B. FIG. 2A is a diagrammatic perspective view of the filament part in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention, and FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional view of the filament part along X-X′ in FIG. 2A. As illustrated in FIGS. 2A and 2B, the filament part 100 includes a plurality of LED chips 110, a base board 120 on which the LED chips 110 are mounted, and a sealing material 130 for sealing the LED chips 110. The base board 120 is a mounting base board for mounting the LED chips 110, and is a long board having a first main surface 125 (front surface) composing the surface on which the LED chips 110 are mounted and a second main surface 126 (back surface) composing the surface opposite to the first main surface. A plurality of the LED chips 110 are arranged in a straight line and mounted on the first main surface of the base board 120. The filament part 100 is placed with the first main surface on which the LED chips 110 are mounted facing toward the top of the globe 170. The base board 120 is composed of a material translucent to visible light. The base board 120 is preferably made of a material with high light transmittance. With this, the light emitted from the LED chip 110 transmits inside the base board 120, and is emitted from a part in which no LED chip 110 is mounted. Accordingly, even when the LED chips 110 are mounted only on the first main surface of the base board 120, the light is emitted from the second main surface 126 and other parts. Thus, it is possible to omnidirectionally emit light from the filament part 100 as the center. The base board 120 may be made of inorganic material or resin material, and a translucent ceramic board made of alumina or aluminum nitride, a translucent glass substrate, or a flexible substrate made of flexible translucent resin may be used, for example. The base board 120 according to the embodiment 1 is made of ceramic composed of translucent polycrystalline alumina, and is a bar-shaped cuboid 20 mm long, 1 mm wide, and 0.8 mm thick. Accordingly, the shape of the first main surface 125 and the second main surface 126 of the base board 120 is a rectangle with a large aspect ratio. As described above, by making the shape of the base board 120 long, it is possible to reproduce the filament of the incandescent light bulb simulated more closely. Note that, the shape and the size of the base board 120 are examples, and may be in other form or size. Power supply terminals 121 and 122 for fixing the power supply leads 140 (141, 142) are provided at both ends of the base board 120 in the longer direction, and metal plating made of gold and others is made on the uppermost surface of the power supply terminals 121 and 122. At the power supply terminals 121 and 122 on the ends of the filament part 100, the tip of the power supply leads 140 are electrically and mechanically connected by solder. More specifically, the two power supply leads 140 (141 and 142) are connected to the shorter sides of the first main surface 125 of the rectangle. In the embodiment 1, the base board 120 is attached to the power supply leads 140 such that the first main surface 125 on which the LED chips 110 are mounted faces the top of the globe 170 (in a direction that the second main surface 126 faces the base). In addition, wire bonding pads 123 and 124 electrically connected to the power supply terminals 121 and 122 are provided on both ends of the first main surface 125 of the base board 120. Twelve LED chips 110 are provided in a straight line between the power supply terminals 121 and 122 on the first main surface 125 of the base board 120. More specifically, the LED chips 110 are provided between a part at which the power supply lead 141 and the base board 120 are connected and a part at which the power supply lead 142 and the base board 120 are connected. Note that, the base board 120 is preferably made of a material which is not only translucent but also has high heat conductivity and heat emissivity for increasing the heat radiation property. In this case, it is preferable that the base board 120 is made of a material generally referred to as a hard brittle material, such as glass and ceramic. Here, the emissivity is represented by a ratio with respect to heat emission on black body (full radiator), and has a value between 0 and 1, with 1 being the value of black body radiation. The emissivity of glass or ceramic is 0.75 to 0.95, and heat emission close to the black body radiation is achieved. In terms of practical use, the emissivity of the base board 120 is preferably 0.8 or higher, and is more preferably 0.9 or higher. In addition, when the volume of the filament part 100 is small compared to the entire lamp and the heat capacity is small, it is preferable to have a configuration with high emissivity so as to dissipate heat. Next, the detailed description of the LED chip 110 shall be made with reference to FIG. 3. FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view for illustrating the LED chip and the configuration around the LED chip in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention. As illustrated in FIG. 3, the LED chip 110 includes a sapphire board 111 and a plurality of nitride semiconductor layers 112 stacked on the sapphire board 111 and each having a different composition, is vertically long, and is 600 μm long, 300 μm wide, and 100 μm thick. At an end of the LED chip on a surface opposite to the sapphire board 111, a cathode electrode 113, an anode electrode 114, and wire bonding parts 115 and 116 are formed. The LED chip 110 is fixed with the chip mounting part 119 (see FIG. 2B) of the base board 120 by a translucent chip bonding material 118 such that the surface on the sapphire board 111 faces the first main surface 125 of the base board 120. Silicone resin containing a filler made of metal oxide may be used as the chip bonding material 118. Note that, using translucent material as the chip bonding material 118 reduces the loss of light emitted from the surface of the LED chip 110 on the sapphire board 111 side and side surfaces of the LED chip 110, and prevents a shadow blocked by the chip bonding material 118. In addition, the LED chips 110 are electrically connected by a gold wire 117. With this, the 12 LED chips 110 are connected in series. The LED chips 110 at the ends of the LED chips 110 connected in series are electrically connected the wire bonding pad parts 123 and 124 that are electrically connected by the gold wire 117 to the feeder terminals 121 and 122 provided at the ends of the base board 120. Note that, in the embodiment 1, one power supply terminal 121 is a cathode power supply terminal, and the other power supply terminal 122 is an anode power supply terminal. The LED chip 110 according to the embodiment 1 is a bare chip which emits visible light in one color, and a blue LED chip which emits blue light when energized may be used, for example. Note that, in the embodiment 1, an example in which 12 LED chips 110 are mounted is illustrated. However, the number of the LED chips 110 may be determined appropriately depending on the usage. For example, as a replacement for a miniature light bulb, only one LED chip may be used. The LED chips 110 and the gold wire 117 are covered with the translucent sealing material 130 in a straight line shape. The sealing material 130 is a phosphor containing resin made of a resin containing phosphor particles which are wavelength conversion material, and converts the wavelength (converts color) of light emitted from the LED chip 110 to light with another wavelength, and seals the LED chip 110 for protecting the LED chip 110. In the embodiment 1, the sealing material 130 is formed in a straight line shape covering all of the LED chips 110 arranged in a straight line. More specifically, translucent resin such as silicone resin may be used as the sealing material 130, and the sealing material 130 is composed of the translucent resin dispersed with phosphor particles (not illustrated) and light-diffusion material (not illustrated). The sealing material 130 with the configuration described above is formed by the following two processes, for example. First, in the first process, the sealing material 130 which is an uncured paste including the wavelength conversion material is applied in a continuous straight line on the row of the LED chips 110 by a dispenser. Next, in the second process, the applied paste of sealing material 130 is cured. The cross-section of the sealing material 130 formed as described above is dome-shaped, and is 1 mm wide and 0.2 mm high. Note that, it is preferable that the width of the sealing material 130 is approximately the same as the width of the base board 120. Note that, the wavelength conversion material included in the sealing material 130 may be a yellow phosphor such as (Sr, Ba)2SiO4:Eu2+, Sr3SiO5:Eu2+, for example. Alternatively, the wavelength conversion material may be a green phosphor such as (Ba, Sr)2SiO4:Eu2+, Ba3Si6O12N2:Eu2+. Alternatively, the wavelength conversion material may be a red phosphor such as CaAlSiN3:Eu2+, Sr2(Si, Al)5(N, O)8:Eu2+. The sealing material 130 may not be necessarily be made of silicone resin, and may be made of an organic material such as fluorine series resin or an inorganic material such as a low-melting-point glass or a sol-gel glass. Since the inorganic materials are more highly resistant to heat than the organic material, the sealing material 130 made of inorganic material is advantageous for increasing luminance. As phosphor particles, when the LED chip 110 is a blue LED chip which emits blue light, a material which absorbs part of the blue light and converts the wavelength of the light into another wavelength is used. For example, YAG series yellow phosphor particles such as (Y, Gd)3Al5O12:Ce3+, Y3Al5O12:Ce3+ may be used in order to obtain white light from the blue light. With this, part of the blue light emitted from the LED chip 110 is converted into yellow light by wavelength conversion of the yellow phosphor particles included in the sealing material 130. The blue light which is not absorbed by the yellow phosphor particles and the yellow light obtained by the wavelength conversion of the yellow phosphor particles are diffused and mixed in the sealing material 130, and is emitted as white light from the sealing material 130. Particles such as silica are used as the light diffusion material. In the embodiment 1, the translucent base board 120 is used. Thus, the white light emitted from the line-shaped sealing material 130 transmits the inside of the base board 120, and is emitted from the back surface and the side surfaces of the base board 120. As described above, the sealing material 130 including the wavelength conversion material is arranged in line on one of the main surfaces of the bar-shaped base board 120. Thus, the base board 120 appears shining like a filament of the conventional incandescent light bulb from any surface of the base board 120 when the light bulb shaped lamp 1 is turned on. In addition, the sealing material 130 including the wavelength conversion material may be arranged on a surface of the base board 120 on which the LED chip 110 is not mounted. More specifically, as in the embodiment 1, in a configuration in which the LED chip 110 is mounted on the first main surface 125 of the base board 120 and the LED chip 110 is not mounted on the second main surface 126 opposite to the first main surface 125, the sealing material 130 (the second sealing material) is formed on the second main surface 126, in addition to the sealing material 130 (first sealing material) on the first main surface. With this, the blue light emitted from the second main surface 126 on which the LED chip 110 is not mounted is converted into yellow light and white light is synthesized. Accordingly, it is possible to set the color of light emitted from the second main surface 126 on which the LED chip 110 is not mounted closer to the color of light directly emitted from the sealing material 130 on the first main surface 125, allowing emission of white light from both surfaces of the base board 120. As a result, a light-distribution property even more closely similar to the incandescent light bulb can be achieved. In this case, it is preferable that the sealing material 130 formed on the second main surface 126 is formed over, in plan view, the sealing material 130 formed on the first main surface 125 (in a direction orthogonal to the first and second main surfaces). With this, it is possible for the light from the LED chip to effectively enter the sealing material 130 on both of the main surfaces. Note that, the wavelength conversion material included in the sealing material 130 may be a yellow phosphor such as (Sr, Ba)2SiO4:Eu2+, Sr3SiO5:Eu2+, for example, in addition to the YAG phosphor. Alternatively, a green phosphor such as (Ba, Sr)2SiO4:Eu2+, Ba3Si6O12N2:Eu2+ may also be used. Alternatively, a red phosphor such as CaAlSiN3:Eu2+, Sr2(Si, Al)5(N, O)8:Eu2+ may be used. The sealing material 130 may not be necessarily be made of silicone resin, and an organic material such as fluorine series resin or an inorganic material such as a low-melting-point glass or a sol-gel glass may be used as the sealing material other than the silicone resin. Since the inorganic materials are more highly resistant to heat than the organic material, the sealing material 130 made of inorganic material is advantageous for increasing luminance. (Power Supply Leads and Stem) The two power supply leads 140 (141 and 142) are power supply wires for supplying power to cause the LED chip 110 in the filament part 100 to emit light. Each of the power supply leads 141 and 142 is a composite wire including an internal lead wire, a Dumet wire and an external lead wire joined in this order. The two power supply leads 141 and 142 have strength enough to support the filament part 100, and support the filament part 100 such that the filament part 100 is suspended at a constant position in the globe 170. In each of the power supply leads 141 and 142, the Internal lead wire is an electric wire extending to the inside of the globe 170, and is extended from the stem 160 toward the filament part 100. The external lead wire is an electric wire extending to outside of the globe 170, and is extended from the circuit 180 toward the stem 160. Metal wire mainly containing copper (copper wire) may be used as the internal lead wire and the external lead wire. The Dumet wire is an electric wire sealed inside of the stem 160. The internal lead wire is connected to the power supply terminals 121 and 122 on the base board 120, and the external lead wire is connected to the output terminal 182 in the circuit 180 which shall be described later. The stem 160 is provided from the opening 171 of the globe 170 toward the inside of the globe 170. More specifically, the stem 160 is formed as a rod-shaped extending part having one end extended in the proximity of the filament part 100. More specifically, the stem 160 according to the embodiment 1 is a component with a shape as if the stem used for conventional incandescent light bulb is extended toward the inside of the globe 170. Note that, the stem 160 may be a stem used for a common incandescent light bulb. The end portion of the stem 160 on the base side is joined to the opening 171 of the globe 170 so as to close the opening 171. As described above, part of the each of the power supply leads 141 and 142 are sealed in the stem 160. As a result, the filament part 100 inside of the globe 170 is electrically connected to the circuit 180 outside, while keeping the globe 170 airtight. Accordingly, with the LED light bulb 1, it is possible to prevent water or vapor from entering the globe 170 for a long period of time, and to prevent degradation of the components of the filament part 100 or degradation of the connecting part of the filament part 100 and the power supply leads 140 due to moisture. Note that, each of the power supply leads 140 are not necessarily a composite wire, but a single wire composed of a single metal wire. The stem 160 is made of soft glass transparent to visible light. With this, the LED light bulb 1 can prevent the loss of light emitted from the filament part 100 due to the stem 160. The LED light bulb 1 can also prevent the shadow formed by the stem 160. Furthermore, white light emitted from the filament part 100 illuminates the stem 160. Thus, the light bulb shaped lamp 1 can achieve visually superior appearance. Note that, the stem 160 may not have to close the opening 171 in the globe 170, and may be attached to a part of the opening 171. Note that, the power supply lead 140 is preferably metal wire containing copper with high heat conductivity. With this, it is possible to actively dissipate heat generated at the filament part 100 to the base 190 through the power supply lead 140. Furthermore, in the embodiment 1, an example in which two power supply leads 140 are included is illustrated. However, it is not limited to this example. For example, when multiple filament parts are housed in the globe and power is supplied to each of the filament parts, each of the filament parts may be supported by separate power supply lead. Note that, each of the power supply leads 140 are not necessarily a composite wire, but a single wire composed of a single metal wire. (Globe and Stem) The globe 110 has a shape with one end closed in a spherical shape, and the other end has the opening 171. In other words, the shape of the globe 170 is that the opening 171 provided in a part of hollow sphere is narrowed down while extending away from the center of the sphere. In the embodiment 1, the shape of the globe 170 is Type A (JIS C7710) which is the same as a common incandescent light bulb. The globe 170 is a hollow translucent component which houses the filament part 100 inside, and emits the light emitted from the filament part 100 to outside of the lamp. In the embodiment 1, the globe 170 is a hollow glass bulb made of transparent silica glass, and the filament part 100 arranged at the center of the globe 170 can be seen from outside of the globe 170. With this configuration, the loss of the light emitted from the filament part 100 due to the globe 170 can be suppressed. In addition, with the filament part 100 arranged at the center of the spherical globe 170, the omnidirectional light-distribution property is achieved when the light bulb shaped lamp 1 is turned on. Note that, the shape of the globe 170 does not have to be Type A. For example, the shape of the globe 170 may be Type G or Type E, and may be appropriately selected depending on the usage. The globe 170 does not have to be transparent, and diffusion treatment such as a milky white diffusion film formed by applying silica may be performed. Alternatively, the globe 170 may be colored in red, yellow, or other colors, or a pattern or picture may be drawn thereon. Alternatively, the globe 170 does not have to be made of silica glass. The globe 170 may be made of transparent resin such as acrylic. Forming the globe 170 with glass as described above allows the globe 170 to be highly resistant to heat. (Circuit and Base) The circuit 180 is a lighting circuit for causing the LED chip 110 in the filament part 100 to emit light, and is housed in the base 190. More specifically, the circuit 180 includes a plurality of circuit elements and a circuit board on which the circuit elements are mounted. In the embodiment 1, the circuit 180 converts the AC power received from the base 190 into the DC power, and the DC power is supplied to the LED chip 110 through the two power supply leads 140. FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating the circuit configuration of the lighting circuit in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention. As illustrated in FIG. 4, the circuit 180 in the embodiment 1 includes, as electronic parts (circuit elements), a diode bridge 183 for rectification, a capacitor 184 for smoothing, and a resistor 185 for adjusting current. Here, input terminals of the diode bridge 183 are input terminals 181 of the circuit 180, and an end of the capacitor 184 and an end of the resistor 185 are output terminals 182 of the circuit 180. Furthermore, the input terminals 181 are electrically connected to the base 190. More specifically, one of the input terminals 181 is connected to the screw part 191 on the side surface of the base, and the other of the input terminals 181 is connected to the eyelet 192 at the bottom of the base. The output terminals 182 of the circuit 180 are connected to the external lead wire of the power supply lead 140. More specifically, the output terminals 182 are electrically connected to a row of LED chips 186 (series-connected group) including the LED chips 110 connected in series. Note that, the LED light bulb 1 does not have to include the circuit 180. For example, when the DC power is directly supplied from a lighting equipment or a cell, the LED light bulb 1 does not have to include the circuit 180. In this case, one of the external lead wires is connected to the screw part 191, and the other of the external lead wires is connected to the eyelet 192. Note that, the circuit 180 is not limited to a smoothing circuit, but may be an appropriately selected combination of a light-adjusting circuit, a voltage booster, and others. The base 190 is provided at the opening 171 of the globe 170. More specifically, the base 190 is attached to the globe 170 using an adhesive such as cement to cover the opening 171 of the globe 170. In this embodiment, the base 190 is an E26 base. The LED light bulb 1 is attached to a socket for E26 base connected to the commercial AC power source for use. Note that, in the embodiment 1, an example using an E26 base is described. However, it is not limited to this example, and the size and the shape of the base may be appropriately selected depending on the usage. For example, an E17 base or others may be used as the base 190. In addition, the base 190 does not have to be a screw base, and may be a base in a different shape such as a plug-in base. Alternatively, the base 190 is directly attached to the opening 171 of the globe 170. However, it is not limited to this example. The base 190 may be indirectly attached to the globe 170. For example, the base 190 may be attached to the globe 170 through resin components such as a resin case. In this configuration, the circuit 180 and others may be housed in the resin case, for example. (Light Distribution Pattern) Next, as an example of the effects achieved by the base board 120 in the LED light bulb 1 according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention, light-distribution patterns of the LED light bulbs shall be described with reference to FIGS. 5A and 5B. FIG. 5A is a chart illustrating a light-distribution pattern of the LED light bulb 1 according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention in which a base board made of translucent polycrystalline alumina ceramic having a total transmittance of 90% or higher is used. FIG. 5B is a chart for comparison with FIG. 5A, and illustrates a light-distribution pattern of the LED light bulb according to a comparative example in which a base board made of opaque alumina ceramic is used. Note that, the configurations of the LED light bulbs used for the charts in FIGS. 5A and 5B are identical to the embodiment 1 except for the material composing the base board. In both charts, the light intensity is normalized using the light intensity of an angle having the highest emission intensity. Zero degree is directed toward the globe, and 180 degrees are directed toward the base. In this configuration, since the light is blocked by the metal base, no light is emitted to the 180-degree direction toward the base. Usually, an LED light bulb is attached to the ceiling. In this case, the globe is on the lower side, and the base is on the upper side (ceiling side). According to the light-distribution pattern of the LED light bulb 1 according to the embodiment 1 using a translucent base board illustrated in FIG. 5A, the light from the LED light bulb 1 is strongly emitted in the 20-degree direction on the globe side and 150-degree direction on the base side, which indicates a wide distribution angle of light. In contrast, according to the light-distribution pattern of the LED light bulb according to a comparative example using an opaque base board illustrated in FIG. 5B, the light from the LED light bulb is strongly emitted in 0-degree direction on the globe side. However, the light is sparsely emitted toward the 150-degree direction on the base side, and the intensity of the light is merely approximately 20% of the highest intensity. Furthermore, an emission angle set to be an angle at which the intensity of light is half the highest intensity is approximately 110 degrees in the light emitted from the LED light bulb in FIG. 5A, and is narrow in the radiation angle of the light emitted from the LED light bulb in FIG. 5B, at approximately 70 degrees. As described above, the LED light bulb in FIG. 5A can achieve wider light distribution angle than the distribution angle of the LED light bulb in FIG. 5B, and a light-distribution pattern closer to that of the incandescent light bulb with which the filament can be seen from any direction is achieved. Note that, the direction at which the emission intensity on the globe side of the LED light bulb in FIG. 5A should be 0 degree, but is 20 degrees. This is probably because the base board 120 is slightly tilted. (Variation of Filament Part) Next, a variation of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 of the present invention shall be described with reference to FIGS. 6A and 6B. FIG. 6A is a diagrammatic perspective view of the filament part in the LED light bulb according to the variation of the embodiment 1 of the present invention. FIG. 6B is a cross-sectional view of the filament part in the LED light bulb along A-A′ in FIG. 6A. The LED light bulb according to this variation is different from the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 1 In the configuration of the filament part, and the rest of the configuration is identical. Accordingly, in this variation, the filament part 200 shall be mainly described. The filament part 200 according to the variation includes a translucent tabular base board 220 and a plurality of rows of LED chips 210. In this variation, the base board 220 is composed of ceramic made of aluminum nitride, and is a tabular board which is a rectangle 20 mm long, 10 mm wide, and 0.8 mm thick. Two through holes 221 and 222 are provided in the base board 220. The two through holes 221 and 222 are provided at the diagonal ends of the base board 220, and the power supply leads 140 (141 and 142) passes through the two respective through holes and fixed with solder. More specifically, the power supply lead 141 passes through one of the through holes 221, and the power supply lead 142 passes through the through hole 222. The leads and the through holes are electrically and mechanically connected with solder. Furthermore, 30 LED chips 210 which emit violet light are mounted on the first main surface 225 of the base board 220. The LED chip 210 is composed as three rows of LED chip rows, and one LED chip row includes 10 LED chips 210. A part of the metal line pattern 223 plated with gold on the surface is a chip mounting part. The LED chip 210 in the variation is mounted by a process known as flip chip bonding with which the cathode electrode and the anode electrode of the LED chip 210 are connected to the chip mounting part. Each of the 10 LED chips 210 included in a row is connected in series, and the three rows are connected in series with one another. In other words, all of the 30 LED chips 210 are connected in series. Note that, the metal line pattern 223 may be formed using a transparent conductive material such as indium tin oxide (ITO). By having the metal line pattern 223 made of a transparent conductive material allows reducing the loss due to light absorption compared to the case in which the light-blocking metal material is used. In addition, the shadow caused by blocked light does not appear either. Each of the rows of LED chips of the LED chips 210 is sealed in line by the sealing material 230 including the wavelength conversion material. With this, it is possible to reproduce the LED light bulb as if there are three filaments. In this variation, the aluminum nitride composing the base board 220 is clear and transparent. Thus, when viewed from the second main surface 226 side opposite to the first main surface 225 on which the LED chip 210 is mounted, it is possible to view the shape of the sealing material 230 clearly. As in this variation, since the filament part is composed of a plurality of LED chip rows (series connected group), each row can be easily recognized from an opposite main surface side on which the LED chips are not mounted. Note that, when the LED chip 210 which emits violet light is used as in this variation, the filament part 200 which emits white light can be achieved by using blue phosphor, green phosphor, and red phosphor as the wavelength conversion material included in the sealing material 230. In addition, the power supply leads 140 support the filament part 200 at the diagonal parts of the base board 220 in a square in this variation. However, it is not limited to this example. Alternatively, the filament part 200 may be supported at the central part of opposite two sides of the rectangle base board 220, or supported at the both ends of one side. In particular, when the base board 220 is placed vertically facing the main surface of the base board on which the LED chip is mounted toward the side part of the globe 170, the part supporting the base board 220 is located at the stem side. Thus, it is possible to shorten the length of the power supply lead 140. Embodiment 2 Next, an LED light bulb 2 according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention shall be described with reference to FIGS. 7 to 9. FIG. 7 is a front view of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. As illustrated in FIG. 7, the LED light bulb 2 according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention is different form the LED light bulb 1 according to the embodiment 1 in that a spherical (Type G) globe 370 is used, that the LED chips 310 are mounted on both surfaces of the base board 320, and that the two rows of LED chips (series connected group) that were connected in series are inversely connected in parallel. FIG. 8A is a top view of the filament part 300 in the embodiment 2. The filament part 300 is formed as follows: a plurality of LED chips 310 are arranged in a zigzag line and mounted on translucent base board 320; the sealing material 330 including the wavelength conversion material is applied in zigzag shape along the LED chips 310 arranged in zigzag in an area surrounded by the broken line in FIG. 8A. The LED chips 310 are located at the inflection points of the zigzag shape. By shaping the sealing material 330 in a shape other than a straight line gives variety to the shape of the filament part. In addition, in the embodiment 2, the LED chips 310 are arranged in zigzag on both sides of the base board 320. The zigzag shaped sealing material 330 is applied on the LED chips 310 on both surfaces. In this case, the sealing materials 330 located on one of the main surfaces (first main surface) and on the other of the main surfaces (second main surface) are preferably formed such that the zigzag shapes cross each other. With this configuration, when viewing the base board 320 from one of the main surfaces, the sealing material 330 on the other main surface can be seen through. With this, the appearance of two entwined filaments can be reproduced. This configuration shall be described with reference to FIG. 8B. FIG. 8B is a diagram illustrating the arrangement of the sealing material 330 according to the embodiment 2. In FIG. 8B, the arrangement of the sealing material 330 on one of the main surfaces of the base board 320 and the other of the main surfaces of the base board 320 is illustrated in the broken line 333 and the solid line 334. Note that, in the embodiment 2, the LED chips are arranged on both surfaces of one base board. However, it is not limited to this example. For example, two boards on which the LED chips are mounted only on one main surface are prepared and the other main surfaces on which no LED chip is mounted are bonded. With this, the base board on which the LED chips are mounted on both surfaces can be made. In this case, the same effects as the embodiment described above can be achieved. FIG. 9 illustrates the circuit configuration of the circuit 380 used for the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2. As illustrated in FIG. 9, in the LED chip row 385 (first series connected group) arranged on one of the main surfaces and the LED chip row 386 (second series connected group) arranged on the other of the main surfaces, the LED chips in the rows of the LED chips are connected in series. Furthermore, the LED chip row 385 and the LED chip row 386 are electrically connected in inverse parallel connection. Furthermore, one of the connecting parts on which one end of the LED chip row 385 and the one end of the LED chip row 386 are connected, and the other connecting part on which the other end of the LED chip row 385 and the other end of the LED chip row 386, that is, both ends of the inverse parallel connection are connected to the power supply terminals 321 and 322, and electrically connected to the power supply leads 341 and 342 (in FIG. 7). Note that, the LED chips that are side-by-side belong to different LED chip rows (series connected group). In the circuit 380, the input terminals 381 are electrically connected to the base 390, and the output terminals 382 are electrically connected to the power supply terminals 321 and 322 in the filament part 300 through the power supply leads 340 (341, 342) in the stem 360. With the configuration described above, AC power is supplied from the base 390 to the power supply lead 340, and AC power is supplied to the ends of the inverse parallel connection. With this, in one cycle, one of the LED chip rows (for example, the LED chip row 385) is turned on; the other of the LED chip rows (for example, the LED chip row 386) is turned off. And it is reversed in the next cycle; thereby the two LED chip rows 385 and 386 keep alternately blinking. Accordingly, in the embodiment 2, the lighting circuit can be configured without using electronic parts for converting the AC power to the DC power such as a diode bridge for rectification. This allows composing the circuit only with the resistor 383 for adjusting current, simplifying the circuit configuration. Note that, in the embodiment 2, the power supply leads 340 (341, 342) are attached to the base board 320 in a direction that both of the main surfaces of the base board 320 on which the LED chips 310 are mounted facing the side part of the globe 370. Note that, the direction of the attachment of the power supply leads 340 (341 and 342) on the base board 320 may be appropriately determined depending on the design of the LED light bulb. In addition, in the embodiment 2, the filament part 300 is arranged in a direction that the rows of the LED chips 310 composing the filament part 300 crosses the central axis of the globe 370. The direction may be appropriately determined depending on the design of the LED light bulb. For example, the filament part 300 may be arranged in parallel with or oblique to the central axis of the globe 370. As described above, in the LED light bulb 2 according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention, the light-distribution pattern with a wide light-distribution angle can be achieved, achieving the omnidirectional light-distribution property close to that of the incandescent light bulb, in the same manner as the embodiment 1. (Variation of Filament Part) Next, a variation of the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention shall be described with reference to FIGS. 10 to 13. FIGS. 10 to 13 are diagrams for illustrating the variations 1 to 4 of the filament part in the LED light bulb according to the embodiment 2 of the present invention. Note that, for simplifying the description, illustration of the LED chips and the power supply terminals is omitted in these diagrams. Note that, the configuration of the sealing material is the same as described above, and the sealing material includes the wavelength conversion material. In the filament part 400 in the variation 1 illustrated in FIG. 10, three translucent base boards 420 (421, 422, and 423) on which the LED chips are mounted compose three side faces of a triangle pole, and the entire triangle pole is covered with the sealing material 430 including the wavelength conversion material, forming a cylindrical light-emitting unit as a whole. As described above, the filament part 400 according to the variation 1 reproduces the shape of the cylindrical filament. This configuration is advantageous because the power supply leads (not illustrated) may be inserted and fixed in the inner area 425 of the triangle pole surrounded by the three base boards 421, 422, and 423. With this, it is possible to actively radiate the heat generated at the LED chip through the power supply leads. The filament part 500 in the variation 2 illustrated in FIG. 11 is composed of three translucent base boards 520 (521, 522, and 523) on which the LED chips are mounted are arranged such that the cross-section is U-shaped with all corners in straight angles. This configuration is advantageous because the LED chip mounted surface of the base board 522 in the middle is arranged facing the top side of the globe. In addition, the LED chip mounted surfaces of the base boards 521 and 523 on both sides are arranged facing the side surface of the globe. With this configuration, the sealing material 530 can be recognized from any direction. With this, the light-emission shape of the filament part 500 is even more close to the light-emission shape of the filament of the incandescent light bulb when emitting light. The filament part 600 according to the variation 3 illustrated in FIG. 12 is composed by arranging the LED chips and the sealing material 630 wound around the translucent polygonal column base board 620. The configuration is advantageous because the shape of the filament of the conventional incandescent light bulb, that is, a spring shape can be reproduced. The filament part 700 according to the variation 4 in FIG. 13 is composed by arranging the LED chips and the sealing material 730 in a ring on the circular translucent base board 720. Note that, the shape of the arrangement of the LED chips and the sealing material 730 is not limited to a circular ring, but may be a shape that cannot be achieved by the filament of the conventional incandescent light bulb such as square, star, characters, graphic, signs, or cartoon characters. In addition, the shape of the base board 720 may also have a variety not only square or circle, but also star, characters, graphic, signs, or cartoon characters. (Other Variation of Filament Part and Others) The light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention has been described above based on the embodiments and variations. However, the present invention is not limited to the embodiments and others. In the embodiments the filament part is configured to emit white light using the LED chips and the sealing material including the wavelength conversion material as an example. However, it is not limited to this example. For example, the filament part can be configured with yellow to amber LED chips along with translucent sealing material that does not include the wavelength conversion material. Light bulb with low luminous flux is generally used for purposes that does not require high color rendition. For these purposes, the light from incandescent light bulb can be reproduced using only the light from the LED chip. Needless to say, the color of light emitted from the LED chip, whether or not the wavelength conversion material is used, or the type of the wavelength conversion material may also be selected appropriately. For example, a configuration in which LED chips of light's three primary colors, i.e., blue, green, and red are used to obtain white light, a configuration in which LED chips having a wavelength from blue-violet to a near-ultraviolet range, and phosphors of the three primary colors, i.e., blue, green, and red are used to obtain white light, or a configuration in which light in a single color such as blue only, green only, or red only is used is possible as a configuration of the filament part. In addition, although LED is used as an example of the light-emitting device in the embodiments, the light-emitting device may be a semiconductor laser, organic electro luminescence (EL), or inorganic EL. The LED light bulb according to the embodiments and the variations may be attached to the lighting equipment provided on the ceiling of a room, and can be implemented as a lighting apparatus. The lighting apparatus includes the LED light bulb and the lighting equipment (light-up equipment). The lighting equipment includes an equipment body attached to the ceiling and a lamp cover covering the LED light bulb, and a socket for attaching the base of the LED light bulb is provided in the equipment body. Power is supplied to the LED light bulb through the socket. Those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that many modifications are possible in the exemplary embodiments without materially departing from the novel teachings and advantages of this invention. Accordingly, all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of this invention. INDUSTRIAL APPLICABILITY The light bulb shaped lamp according to the present invention reproduces the simulated filament of the incandescent light bulb by the light-emitting device such as the LED chips and the base board. The present invention is particularly effective for a light bulb shaped lamp replacing conventional incandescent light bulbs, and particularly a light bulb shaped lamp replacing the incandescent light bulb for decorative purpose showing the filament. REFERENCE SIGNS LIST 1,2 LED light bulb 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 Filament part 110, 210, 310 LED chip 111 Sapphire board 112 Nitride semiconductor layer 113 Cathode electrode 114 Anode electrode 115, 116 Wire bonding part 117 Gold wire 118 Chip bonding material 120, 220, 320, 420, 421, 422, 423, 520, 521, 522, 523, 620, 720 Base board 121, 122, 321, 322 Power supply terminal 125, 225 First main surface 126, 226 Second main surface 130, 230, 330, 430, 530, 630, 730 Sealing material 140, 141, 142, 340, 341, 342 Power supply lead 160, 360 Stem 170, 370 Globe 180, 380 Circuit 181, 381 Input terminal 182, 382 Output terminal 183 Diode bridge 184 Capacitor 185, 383 Resistor 186, 385, 386 LED chip row 190, 390 Base 191 Screw part 192 Eyelet 221, 222 Through hole 223 Metal line pattern 425 Inner area | <SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>Compared to conventional illumination light source, semiconductor light emitting devices such as LEDs are small, have high efficiency and long lifetime as a light source. Recent market needs for saving energy and resource boosts the demand for light bulb shaped lamps using LEDs (hereafter simply referred to as “LED light bulb”) and lighting apparatuses including the LED light bulbs. Meanwhile, some manufacturers stop manufacturing incandescent light bulbs using filaments (filament coils). For example, the patent literature 1 discloses a conventional LED light bulb reproducing the shape of conventional filament in an incandescent light bulb. In the LED light bulb disclosed in the patent literature 1, an optical fiber resembling the shape of a filament is housed in the globe, an end portion of the LED and the optical fiber are provided near the base, and the light emitted from the LED is coupled to the end portion of the optical fiber. With this configuration, the waves of the light emitted from the LED are guided to the inside of the optical fiber. This reproduces a state as if the filament emits light. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH> | F21K9235 | 20170630 | 20171019 | 94438.0 | F21K9235 | 2 | DZIERZYNSKI, EVAN P | LIGHT BULB SHAPED LAMP | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | F21K | 2,017 |
|
15,640,991 | PENDING | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION IN MULTI-CARRIER WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS | Data transmission and reception is provided by configuring control channels in a wireless communication system using a plurality of carriers. User equipment (UE) may monitor physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) candidates within common search spaces (CSSs) and User Equipment-specific search spaces (USSs). If the UE is configured with cross-carrier scheduling, when two PDCCH candidates originating from a CSS and a USS, respectively, have cyclic redundancy check (CRC) scrambled by the same Radio Network Temporary Identifier (RNTI) and have a common payload size and the same first control channel element (CCE) index, the UE may interpret that only the PDCCH originating from the CSS is transmitted, thereby solving ambiguity of downlink control information (DCI) detection. | 1-5. (canceled) 6. A communication apparatus, comprising a memory and a processor operably coupled to the memory, to execute program instructions stored in the memory, wherein the processor, when executing the program instructions: monitors Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) candidates in Common Search Space (CSS); and selects a first PDCCH candidate in the CSS as PDCCH transmitted from an eNB if the first PDCCH candidate and a second PDCCH candidate in User Equipment specific Search Space (USS) have: (1) Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) scrambled by a same Radio Network Temporary Identifier (RNTI), (2) a same payload size, (3) a same first Control Channel Element (CCE) index, and (4) different sets of Downlink Control Information (DCI) information fields. 7. A communication apparatus, comprising: a memory and a processor operably coupled to the memory, to execute program instructions stored in the memory, wherein the processor, when executing the program instructions: generates a plurality of Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) candidates including a first PDCCH candidate; and directs to transmit the plurality of PDCCH candidates including the first PDCCH candidate in Common Search Space (CSS), wherein: the first PDCCH candidate is transmitted in the CSS, and the first PDCCH candidate and any one of the plurality of PDCCH candidates transmitted in User Equipment specific Search Space (USS) do not have a combination of: (1) Cyclic redundancy check (CRC) scrambled by a same Radio Network Temporary Identifier (RNTI), (2) a same payload size, (3) a same first Control Channel Element (CCE) index, and (4) different sets of Downlink Control Information (DCI) information fields. | RELATED APPLICATION This application is a continuation patent application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/087,928 filed on Nov. 22, 2013, which is a continuation patent application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/709,595 filed on Dec. 10, 2012, which claims priority to, and the benefit of, Korean PCT Application No. PCT/KR2011/004163 filed on Jun. 8, 2011, which claims priority to, and the benefit of, Korean Patent Application No. 10-2010-0054026 filed on Jun. 8, 2010, Korean Patent Application No. 10-2010-0063401 filed on Jul. 1, 2010, and Korean Patent Application No. 10-2011-0054501 filed on Jun. 7, 2011. The content of the aforementioned applications is incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND Embodiments of the present invention relate to a method and apparatus for configuring control channels in a wireless communication system using a plurality of carriers, and performing transmission and reception. A long Term Evolution (LTE) release 8 (Rel-8) user equipment (UE) in accordance with an LTE Rel-8 standard may receive data via a single downlink component carrier at a time. In addition, the LTE Rel-8 UE may transmit uplink control information (UCI) via an uplink component carrier corresponding to the downlink component carrier. An LTE-Advanced (A) UE in accordance with an LTE-A standard may simultaneously receive data via a single or a plurality of downlink component carriers. SUMMARY An aspect of the present invention provides a user equipment (UE) and a communication method of the UE that may solve ambiguity of downlink control information (DCI) detection. Another aspect of the present invention provides an E-UTRAN Node-B (eNB) and a communication method of the eNB that may solve ambiguity of DCI detection. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a Long Term Evolution (LTE)-Advanced user equipment (UE) to monitor physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) candidates, which are cyclic redundancy check (CRC) scrambled by Radio Network Temporary Identifier (RNTI), within common search spaces (CSSs) and User Equipment-specific search spaces (USSs), wherein when two PDCCH candidates from a CSS and a USS, respectively, are CRC scrambled by the same RNTI and have a common payload size and the same first control channel element (CCE) index, the PDCCH originating from the CSS is considered to be transmitted. The LTE-Advanced UE may be configured to use carrier indicator field (CIF). The monitoring may mean that interpretation of each of the PDCCH candidates is attempted based on all the monitored downlink control information (DCIT) formats. The PDCCH candidates may define a search space with an aggregation level L. The CSS may include a total of 16 CCEs from CCE 0 to CCE 15, CCEs corresponding to an mth PDCCH candidate may be given by L{(Yk+m′)mod └NCCE,k/L┘}+. CCEs corresponding to an mth PDCCH candidate of a USS may be given by L{(Yk+m′)mod └NCCE,k/L┘}+i. Here, i=0, . . . , L−1. NCCE,k may denote a total number of CCEs. m′=m in case of the CSS. In case of the USS, when the monitoring UE is not configured with CIF, m′=m. In case of the USS, when the monitoring UE is configured with CIF, m′=m+M(L)·nCI, M(L) may denote the total number of PDCCH candidates, nCI may denote the value of the CIF, m=0, . . . , M(L)−1, and Yk may correspond to zero for the CSSs and be defined for the USSs according to Yk=(A·Yk-1)mod D. Here, Y−1=nRNTI≠0, A=39827, D=65537, k=└ns/2┘, ns may denote a slot number, and nRNTI may denote an RNTI value. The CSS may correspond to a CSS with aggregation level 4 or 8. The USS may correspond to a USS with aggregation level 1, 2, 4, or 8. The CSS and the USS may overlap each other. The PDCCH candidates may have a predetermined DCI format(s) and are CRC scrambled by an RNTI. Among the PDCCH candidates, PDCCH candidates originating from the USS may have at least one possible CIF value for the DCI format. Among the PDCCH candidates originating from the USS, a PDCCH candidate with a given DCI format size may be transmitted from any USS corresponding to any value of the possible CIF values for the given DCI format size. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an LTE-Advanced eNB configured to transmit PDCCH in the CSSs and USSs, wherein when two PDCCH candidates from a CSS and a USS, respectively, are CRC scrambled by the same RNTI and have a common payload size and the same first CCE index, only the PDCCH candidate from the CCS is transmitted. The PDCCH candidates may define a search space with aggregation level L. The PDCCH candidates may have a predetermined downlink control information (DCI) format(s) and are CRC scrambled by an RNTI. Among the PDCCH candidates, PDCCH candidates originating from the USS may have at least one possible CIF value for the DCI format. Among the PDCCH candidates originating from the USS, a PDCCH candidate with a given DCI format size may be transmitted from any USS corresponding to any value of the possible CIF values for the given DCI format size. According to still another aspect, there is provided a communication method of a UE, the method comprising: monitoring PDCCH candidates with CRC scrambled by an RNTI, within CSSs and USSs; and receiving PDSCH via a plurality of downlink control carriers (CCs). The monitoring may include receiving only PDCCH originating from the CSSs when the PDCCH candidates have a common payload size and the same first CCE index. The PDCCH candidates may have a predetermined downlink control information (DCI) format(s) and are CRC scrambled by an RNTI, the PDCCH candidates originating from the USSs may have at least one possible CIF value for the DCI format, and the plurality of downlink CCs may be identified based on the CIF. The monitoring may further include receiving PDCCH originating from the CSSs and the USSs when the PDCCH candidates have different payload sizes or different first CCE indices. The monitoring may further include interpreting each of the PDCCH candidates based on all the DCI formats that the UE needs to monitor. The method may further include transmitting physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH) to an E-UTRAN Node-B (eNB) via a plurality of uplink CCs. Each of the PDCCH candidates may include at least one CCE. An aggregation level may correspond to the number of CCEs constituting each of the PDCCH candidates. A search space may be defined independently for each aggregation level. According to embodiments of the present invention, there may be provided a user equipment (UE) and a communication method of the UE that may solve ambiguity of downlink control information (DCI) detection. Also, according to embodiments of the present invention, there may be provided an E-UTRAN Node-B (eNB) and a communication method of the eNB that may solve ambiguity of downlink control information (DCI) detection. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a table showing properties of physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) candidates to be monitored by a user equipment (UE) according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a case where a common search space (CSS) and a User Equipment-specific search space (USS) corresponding to aggregation level 2 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a case where a USS corresponding to aggregation level 2 and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 4 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating a communication method of an E-UTRAN Node-B (eNB) and a UE in a Long Term Evolution (LTE)-Advanced system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 1 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 2 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 4 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 8 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention; DETAILED DESCRIPTION Reference is now made in detail to embodiments of the present invention, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings, wherein like reference numerals refer to the like elements throughout. The embodiments are described below in order to explain the present invention by referring to the figures. FIG. 1 is a table showing properties of physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) candidates to be monitored by a user equipment (UE) according to an embodiment of the present invention. Hereinafter, a structure of PDCCH according to Long Term Evolution (LTE) Release-8/9 (Rel-8/9) is described. A single PDCCH may include a single or a plurality of control channel elements (CCEs). The number of CCEs constituting a single PDCCH may also be referred to as aggregation level. According to a 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) Technical Specification (TS) Rel-8/9, a set of PDCCH candidates to be monitored by the UE may be defined in terms of search space. The search space may be independently defined for each PDCCH aggregation level. That is, PDCCH candidates may define a search space with aggregation level L. Also, the defined search spaces may overlap each other. According to an LTE Rel-8/9 standard, the UE may detect control information delivered to the UE by monitoring common search spaces (CSSs) and User Equipment-specific search spaces (USSs). The monitoring means that interpretation of each of PDCCH candidates is attempted based on all the downlink control information (DCI) formats that the UE needs to monitor. PDCCH candidates to be monitored by the UE may be located within the search spaces. If a search space corresponding to aggregation level L is denoted Sk(L), CCEs corresponding to an mth PDCCH candidate of the search space Sk(L) may be given by Equation 1: L−{(Yk+m)mod └NCCE,k/L┘}+i [Equation 1] Here, NCCE,k denotes the total number of CCEs available that an E-UTRAN Node-B (eNB) can use for transmitting PDCCHs. i=0, . . . , L−1, and m=0, . . . , M(L)−1. M(L) denotes the total number of PDCCH candidates to be monitored by the UE in the given search space. The UE may need to monitor a CSS for each of aggregation level 4 and aggregation level 8, and may need to monitor a USS for each of aggregation level 1, aggregation level 2, aggregation level 4, and aggregation level 8. The CSSs and USSs may have an overlapping area. Also, CCEs corresponding to an mth PDCCH candidate of the search space Sk(L) may be given by Equation 2: L{(Yk+m′)mod └NCCE,k/L┘}+i [Equation 2] Here, m′=m for the CSSs. For the USSs, when the monitoring UE is not configured with CIF, m′=m. For the USSs, when the monitoring UE is configured with CIF, for a serving cell where PDCCH is monitored, the following Equation 3 may hold. That is, for the UE configured with CIF, the following Equation 3 may hold. m′=m+M(L)(L)·nCI [Equation 3] Here, nCI denotes the CIF value. FIG. 1 shows Table 9.1.1-1 in 3GPP TS 36.213. The table in FIG. 1 shows aggregation levels L to be monitored by the UE, the sizes of the search spaces with aggregation level L (in CCEs), and the number of PDCCH candidates M(L) to be monitored by the UE in the search space Sk(L). In the case of the CSSs, Yk may be set to 0. Thus the CSS corresponding to aggregation level 4 and the CSS corresponding to aggregation level 8 may exactly overlap each other. That is, each CSS may consist of a total of 16 CCEs from CCE 0 to CCE 15. In the case of the USSs, Yk may be defined by Equation 4: Yk=(A·Yk-1)mod D [Equation 4] Here, Y−1=nRNTI≠0, A=39827, D=65537, and k=└ns/2┘. ns denotes the slot number, and nRNTI denotes the Radio Network Temporary Identifier (RNTI) value. In the LTE-Advanced system, DCI may include carrier indicator field (CIF). The CIF may indicate which downlink CC or uplink CC is targeted by the downlink assignment information or uplink grant information. Specifically, downlink CCs may be identified based on the CIF. i.e., based on downlink assignment information of the CIF and uplink CCs may be identified based on uplink grant information of the CIF. The PDCCH candidates may have a predetermined DCI format(s) and have cyclic redundancy check (CRC) scrambled by an RNTT, for example, Cell (C)-RNTT or semi-persistent scheduling (SPS) C-RNTI, and may have one or more possible CTF values for the DCI format. Among the PDCCH candidates originating from the USSs, a PDCCH candidate with a given DCI format size may be transmitted from any USS corresponding to any value of the possible CIF values for the given DCI format size. FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 are diagrams to describe why ambiguity of DCI detection may occur in an LTE Rel-8/9 standard not using carrier aggregation and a method of avoiding the ambiguity. The LTE may use a circular buffer for PDCCH channel coding and rate matching. Accordingly, a codeword obtained after the channel coding may be repeated in a circular manner. When considering a single PDCCH including a total of M CCEs from CCE k to CCE (k+M−1), the contents of the starting CCE, which is CCE k, may repeat in CCE i (k<i<k+M). In this case, if CCE i corresponds to one of the starting CCEs of a UE's USS with aggregation level L, when the UE attempts PDCCH detection with respect to L CCEs from CCE i to CCE (i+L−1) with CCE i as the starting CCE, it may be possible that the detection result passes the CRC test. In this case, the UE may recognize CCE i as the starting CCE. However, the eNB has actually transmitted CCE k as the starting CCE. Especially, the index of the starting CCE may be used for mapping of PUCCH acknowledgement (ACK)/negative-acknowledgement (NAK) channel resources. Accordingly, when the UE erroneously recognizes the starting CCE, it may cause erroneous mapping of ACK/NAK resources. FIG. 2 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS 210 and a USS 220 corresponding to aggregation level 2 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention. In a case where the CSS 210 and the USS 220 corresponding to aggregation level 2 are formed as shown in FIG. 2, even though an eNB actually transmits a PDCCH using CCE 0 through CCE 3 of the CSS 210, a UE may attempt PDCCH detection for the shaded part 230. In this case, it may be possible that the demodulation result for the shaded part 230 passes the CRC test. In contrast, when the eNB transmits a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 2 using (CCE 2, CCE 3), even though the UE attempts to detect a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 4 with respect to CCE 0 through CCE 3 of the CSS 210, it may be possible that the CRC test for the detection is passed. In the above example, “(CCE 2, CCE 3)” indicates CCE 2 and CCE 3. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating a case where a USS 310 corresponding to aggregation level 2 and a USS 320 corresponding to aggregation level 4 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention. In a case where an overlapping area occurs between the USS 310 corresponding to aggregation level 2 and the USS 320 corresponding to aggregation level 4 as shown in FIG. 3, even though an eNB actually transmits a PDCCH using CCE 8 through CCE 11, that is, a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 4, the UE may succeed in detecting a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 2 for the shaded part (CCE 10. CCE 11) 330. In contrast, even though the eNB actually transmits a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 2 using (CCE 10, CCE 11), the UE may succeed in detecting a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 4 with respect to CCE 8 through CCE 11. In order to avoid the aforementioned problem explained by referring to FIG. 2 and FIG. 3, in LTE Rel-8/9, the contents of CCE k corresponding to the starting CCE is not allowed to be repeated in other subsequent CCEs. Specifically, a single CCE may transmit a total of 72 bits. Also, tail-biting convolutional coding with a coding rate of 1/3 may be used for PDCCH encoding. Information may go through 16-bit CRC coding before being input to a channel encoder. The basic output length of the channel encoder may be 3×(payload size+16) bits. The bits may sequentially fill in a number of CCEs corresponding to the aggregation level of PDCCH. That is, when a PDCCH transmits a length longer than the basic length, the contents of the basic length may be sequentially repeated. Further details of the method for preventing the aforementioned repetition are disclosed in 3GPP TS 36.212 5.1.4.2. Considering that the aggregation level 8 for the CSS is the maximum aggregation level, that is, considering that a single PDCCH may use up to 8 CCEs, a set of payload sizes having ambiguity may be expressed by Equation 5: {a>0|common multiple(3×(a+16),72)<72×8} [Equation 5] Excluding the payload sizes which are not used in the specification because they are too short or too long, the payload sizes having ambiguity are given in Table 1. Table 1 corresponds to Table 5.3.3.1.2-1 in 3GPP TS 36.212. That is. Table 1 shows payload sizes causing ambiguity. The payload sizes of Table 1 are not used in the LTE Rel-8/9 since the contents of the starting CCE may repeat in a subsequent CCE(s) with those payload sizes. TABLE 1 {12, 14, 16, 20, 24, 26, 32, 40, 44, 56} In the following, the embodiment of FIG. 2 is reviewed for the case where the aforementioned method is applied. In a case where the eNB actually transmits a PDCCH using CCE 0 through CCE 3 of the CSS 210, even though the UE attempts PDCCH detection for the shaded part 230, a case where the demodulation result for the shaded part 230 passes the CRC test may rarely occur. That is, the demodulation result for the shaded part 230 may pass the CRC test at a usual undetected error rate. In addition, when the eNB transmits a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 2 using (CCE 2, CCE3) of the USS 220, and when the UE attempts to detect a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 4 with respect to CCE 0 through CCE 3 of the CSS 210, the demodulation result with respect to CCE 0 through CCE 3 may pass the CRC test at a usual undetected error rate. The aforementioned description may be similarly applicable to the embodiment of FIG. 3. According to the LTE Rel-8/9 standard, DCI formats 0, 1, 1A, 1B, 1D, 2, 2A, and 2B may be CRC scrambled by a C-RNTI. These DCI formats can be transmitted in the USSs. The DCI formats 0 and 1A may be also transmitted in the CSSs. The DCI formats 0, 1, 1 A, 2, 2A, and 2B may be CRC scrambled by an SPS C-RNTI, and may be transmitted in the USSs. The DCI formats 0 and 1A may be also transmitted in the CSSs. The DCI formats 0, 1, and 1A may be CRC scrambled by a temporary C-RNTI. In this case, the DCI format 0 may be transmitted in the CSSs and the DCI format 1 may be transmitted in the USSs, and the DCI format 1A may be transmitted in both the CSSs and the USSs. Because of the aforementioned reasons described above with reference to FIG. 2 and FIG. 3, all the DCI formats, for example, the DCI formats 1, 1A, 1B, 1D, 2, 2A, and 2B, which are transmitted in the USSs and are associated with downlink resource allocation, may avoid transmission with the payload sizes shown in Table 1. In LTE-Advanced Rel-10 standard and later versions, the ambiguity of PDCCH detection may be avoided by applying the above scheme for all the DCI formats (i.e., the existing DCI formats of Rel-8/9 and newly defined DCI formats) that are transmitted in the USSs and are used for downlink resource allocation. FIG. 4 is a diagram to describe a communication method of an eNB 410 and a UE 400 in an LTE-Advanced system according to an embodiment of the present invention. In operation 420, the UE 400 may monitor PDCCH search spaces. A PDCCH may transmit DCI information which is downlink assignment information or uplink grant information. That is, the UE 400 may be configured to monitor PDCCH candidates with CRC scrambled by an RNTI and the like, within CSSs and USSs. In operation 430, the eNB 410 may transmit physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH) to the UE 400 via a plurality of downlink CCs. In operation 440, the UE 400 may transmit physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH) to the eNB 410 via a plurality of uplink CCs. The PDCCH search spaces to be monitored by the UE 400 may be divided into CSSs and USSs. The USSs may be defined for each CC. For example, when the UE 400 is configured to use N downlink CCs, the UE 400 may have N individual USS sets. When the UE 400 does not use cross-carrier scheduling, search spaces may be defined on each CC. When the UE 400 uses cross-carrier scheduling, a plurality of search space sets may be defined on a single CC. For example, two USS sets corresponding to two CCs may be defined within a single CC. The CSS size may be configured to be the same, regardless of the number of downlink CCs configured for the UE 400. For example, the CSS may include 16 CCEs from CCE 0 through CCE 15 as in LTE Rel-8/9. The CSS size may be configured to vary depending on the number of downlink CCs configured for the UE 400. In this case, the size of the CSS may be configured to increase with an increase in the number of configured CCs. Hereinafter, the ambiguity of DCI detection that may occur due to cross-carrier scheduling is described. Specifically, a CSS and USS configuration method of the UE 400 using cross-carrier scheduling is described and a method of solving the ambiguity of DCI detection is described. In the following description, it may be assumed that the method of avoiding the ambiguity of DCI detection in LTE, described in the above with reference to FIG. 2 and FIG. 3, is applied to an LTE-Advanced system. For the UE 400 using cross-carrier scheduling, the eNB 410 may include CIF within DCI formats transmitted in the USSs. The eNB 410 may inform the UE 400 of which CC is scheduled for the UE using the CIF value. A DCI format to be transmitted in the CSSs may not have CIF. A DCI format transmitted in the USS of the UE 400 using cross-carrier scheduling may generally have CIF. 16 bit CRC may be added to DCI transmitted by PDCCH. When 16 bits of CRC is added, CRC scrambling may be performed using an RNTI. The DCI format 0 and the DCI format 1A may be CRC scrambled by a C-RNTI or an SPS C-RNTI. The DCI format 0 and the DCI format 1A may be transmitted in a CSS or USS. DCI transmitted in the CSSs may not include CIF. DCI that is transmitted only in the USSs and is scrambled by the C-RNTI or the SPS C-RNTI may include CIF at all times. First DCI that is transmitted only in the USSs and is scrambled by the C-RNTI or the SPS C-RNTI, and second DCI that is transmitted only in the CSSs and is CRC scrambled by the C-RNTI or the SPS C-RNTI may have the same payload size. Also, an overlapping area may occur between the CSSs and the USSs. In an area where search spaces overlap each other, even though the UE 400 succeeds in PDCCH detection, the UE 400 may not be able to determine which format between the two DCI formats having the same payload size is actually transmitted. Here, that the UE 400 has succeeded in the PDCCH detection means that the information bits obtained by the UE 400 after performing PDCCH demodulation and decoding have passed the CRC test. The aforementioned issue that the UE 400 may not be able to determine which DCI format is transmitted may occur only when two DCI formats originating from a CSS and a USS, respectively, are scrambled by the same RNTI and have the same payload size in the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS. The DCI format 0 and the DCI format 1A may be transmitted in the CSS and the DCI format 0 and the DCI format 1 A may have the same payload size. If a USS DCI format, among the USS DCI formats to be monitored by the UE 400, has the same payload size and is CRC scrambled by the same RNTI, for example, a C-RNTI or an SPS C-RNTI as the DCI format 0 and the DCI format 1A originating from the CCS, the aforementioned issue may occur. The above cases where the UE 400 may not be able to determine which DCI format is transmitted may be examined by classifying them into the following cases 1) through 4): Case 1) where a CSS and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 1 overlap each other: Case 2) where a CSS and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 2 overlap each other: Case 3) where a CSS and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 4 overlap each other; and Case 4) where a CSS and a USS corresponding to aggregation level 8 overlap each other. The CSS size may be designed to change depending on the number of downlink CCs configured for the UE 400. Solutions to be described below may assume that the structure and the size of the CSSs is the same as the structure and the size of the CSSs used in the LTE Rel-8/9. However, the solutions may also be applicable to CSSs having different structures and sizes. FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS 510 and a USS 520 corresponding to aggregation level 1 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention. When the UE 400 attempts detection with respect to CCE 4, the UE 400 may successfully demodulate a PDCCH. However, the UE 400 may not be able to determine from which search space between the CSS 510 and the USS 520 the detected DCI originates. Accordingly, even though the UE 400 successfully detects the PDCCH, a problem may occur in interpreting the contents of the DCI format. In contrast, even though the UE 400 attempts to detect a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 4 with respect to CCE 4 through CCE 7 and thereby succeeds in the PDCCH detection, the UE 400 may not be able to determine from which search space between the CSS 510 and the USS 520 the detected DCI originates. FIG. 6 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS 610 and a USS 620 corresponding to aggregation level 2 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention. The UE 400 may attempt detection with respect to (CCE 4, CCE 5) and thereby may succeed in PDCCH demodulation. However, even though the UE 400 successfully demodulates the PDCCH, the UE 400 may not be able to determine from which search space between the CSS 610 and the USS 620 the detected DC originates. Accordingly, regardless of the UE 400 succeeding in the PDCCH detection, a problem may occur in interpreting the contents of the DCI format. The same problem may also occur for (CCE 8, CCE 9) and (CCE 12, CCE 13). In contrast, even though the UE 400 attempts to detect a PDCCH corresponding to aggregation level 4 with respect to CCE 4 through CCE 7. CCE 8 through CCE 11, or CCE 12 through CCE 15 and thereby succeeds in the PDCCH detection, the UE 400 may not be able to determine from which search space between the CSS 610 and the USS 620 the detected DCI originates. FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS 710 and a USS 720 corresponding to aggregation level 4 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention The same problem described above with reference to FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 may also occur for CCE 12 through CCE 15. FIG. 8 is a diagram illustrating a case where a CSS 810 and a USS 820 corresponding to aggregation level 8 overlap each other according to an embodiment of the present invention The same problem described above with reference to FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 may also occur for CCE 8 through CCE 15. Hereinafter, the description made above with reference to FIG. 5 through FIG. 8 is summarized. When the UE 400 attempts PDCCH detection by employing, as the starting CCE, one of the possible starting CCEs, for example, CCE 0, CCE 4, CCE 8, or CCE 12, of the CSS 510, 610, 710, or 810 in an area where the CSS 510, 610, 710, or 810, and the USS 520, 620, 720, or 820 overlap each other, a problem may occur in interpreting DCI detected by the UE 400. Therefore, to solve the above problem, when the UE 400 attempts detection by employing, as the starting CCE, CCE 0, CCE 4, CCE 8, or CCE 12 in the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS, a constraint may be applied so that the detected DCI may be interpreted to originate from the CSS or the USS at all times. Hereinafter, description is made about a constraint in which the detected DCI is interpreted to originate from the CSS. The above constraint may be defined by 1) and 2): 1) When the eNB 410 transmits the DCI, the eNB 410 may transmit the DCI in the CSS without any constraint; and 2) In the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS, the eNB 410 may transmit USS DCI only when the starting CCE of DCI originating from the USS does not correspond to any of the possible starting CCEs, for example, CCE 0, CCE 4, CCE 8, and CCE 12 of CSS PDCCH candidates. Compared to the scheme allowing only DCI transmission originating from the CSS for the whole overlapping area between the CSS and the USS, the above scheme may have an advantage in that USS DCI may be transmitted in some parts of the overlapping area. When the above constraint is applied to the USS corresponding to aggregation level 4 or USS corresponding to aggregation level 8, the DCT transmission originating from the USS may not be allowed in the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS. This is because the starting CCE of a PDCCH candidate of the USS always corresponds to a starting CCE of a PDCCH candidate of the CSS. However, even though the above constraint is applied to the USS corresponding to aggregation level 1 or the USS corresponding to aggregation level 2, a CCE not overlapping with the starting CCEs of the PDCCH candidates of the CSS may be present in the USS corresponding to aggregation level 1 or in the USS corresponding to aggregation level 2. Accordingly, when the starting CCE does not correspond to one of possible starting CCEs of the CSS DCI, the USS DCI may be transmitted even in the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS. For example, in FIG. 5, each of CCE 2. CCE 3, CCE 5, CCE 6, and CCE 7 excluding CCE 4 may be a valid PDCCH candidate of the USS. In addition, in FIG. 6, (CCE 2, CCE 3), and (CCE 6, CCE 7) may be valid PDCCH candidates of the USS. Alternatively, in the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS, when the UE 400 attempts detection by employing, as the starting CCE, CCE 0, CCE 4, CCE 8, or CCE 12, a constraint may be applied so that a detected DCI is to be interpreted to originate from the USS at all times. That is, when the eNB 410 transmits DCI, and when the starting CCE corresponds to one of the possible starting CCEs of the CSS PDCCH candidates, for example, CCE 0, CCE 4, CCE 8, and CCE 12 in the overlapping area of the CSS and the USS. the eNB 410 may transmit only USS DCI. In this case, the UE 400 may consider only the USS DCI is transmitted in the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS in detecting and interpreting a PDCCH. Summarizing the aforementioned description, the following two methods (1) and (2) may be employed. (1) In the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS, the UE 400 may interpret a PDCCH, which is considered to have DCI format ambiguity, as a CSS DCI format. That is, when PDCCH candidates have a common payload size and the same first CCE index, the eNB 410 may transmit only a PDCCH from the CSS and the UE 400 may interpret or consider that only the PDCCH from the CSS is transmitted. In this example, PDCCH candidates from the CSS may be referred to as first PDCCH candidates and PDCCHI candidates from the USS may refer to as second PDCCH candidates. When the first PDCCH candidates and the second PDCCH candidates have a common payload size and the same first CCE index, the UE 400 may determine that a PDCCH among the first PDCCH candidates is transmitted. (2) In the overlapping area between the CSS and the USS, the UE 400 may interpret, a PDCCH, which is considered to have DCI format ambiguity, as a USS DCI format. Hereinafter, methods of fundamentally removing the ambiguity of DCI detection, different from the aforementioned (1) and (2) are described. 1) As a first method, different scrambling sequences may be applied to the whole payload for the CSS DCI format and the USS DCI format. The payload may include information bits and 16 bit CRC. When CRC is generated for information bits, the payload may be generated by adding the generated CRC to the information bits. Bit-level scrambling may be applied to the whole generated payload. Even though the bit-level scrambling may be applied in the same form as in the 3GPP standard TS 36.211 v 8.7.0 6.3.1, different initialization values cinit for the scrambling sequence generator may need to be applied for the CSS DCI formats and the USS DCI formats. Since the initialization values for the scrambling sequence generator are different for CSS DCI formats and USS DCT formats, the CSS DCT formats and the USS DCT formats may be scrambled by different scrambling sequences. Therefore, the UE 400 may be able to determine which DCI format is transmitted. 2) As a second method, cyclic shifts with different offsets for the CSS DCI format and the USS DCI format can be applied for the bit stream of the whole payload. That is, when the bit stream of the payload of the DCI format is “x(1), x(2), . . . x(N)”, x(i) may be changed to x((i+q) mod N)) by applying offset q(0<q<N) to the bitstream. Here, x(i) denotes the ith bit. For example, if q=3, the bit order may be changed to x(4), x(5), . . . x(N), x(1), x(2), x(3). If the offset value of the CSS DCI format and the offset value of the USS DCI format are set to be different, the UE 400 may be able to determine which format is transmitted. 3) As a third method. CRC scrambling may be performed by applying different RNTIs for the CSS DCI format and the USS DCI format. If different RNTIs are allocated and are used for the CSS DCI format and the USS DCI format, ambiguity between the CSS DCI format and the USS DCI format may not occur. 4) As a fourth method, the payload size of the CSS DCI format and the payload size of the USS DCI format may be maintained to be different from each other at all times. For example, the CSS DCI format and the USS DCI format may have different payload sizes by applying bit padding. The above-described exemplary embodiments of the present invention may be recorded in computer-readable media including program instructions to implement various operations embodied by a computer. The media may also include, alone or in combination with the program instructions, data files, data structures, and the like. Examples of computer-readable media include magnetic media such as hard disks, floppy disks, and magnetic tape; optical media such as CD ROM disks and DVDs; magneto-optical media such as floptical disks; and hardware devices that are specially configured to store and perform program instructions, such as read-only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), flash memory, and the like. Examples of program instructions include both machine code, such as produced by a compiler, and files containing higher level code that may be executed by the computer using an interpreter. The described hardware devices may be configured to act as one or more software modules in order to perform the operations of the above-described exemplary embodiments of the present invention, or vice versa. Although a few exemplary embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, the present invention is not limited to the described exemplary embodiments. Instead, it would be appreciated by those skilled in the art that changes may be made to these exemplary embodiments without departing from the principles and spirit of the invention, the scope of which is defined by the claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Embodiments of the present invention relate to a method and apparatus for configuring control channels in a wireless communication system using a plurality of carriers, and performing transmission and reception. A long Term Evolution (LTE) release 8 (Rel-8) user equipment (UE) in accordance with an LTE Rel-8 standard may receive data via a single downlink component carrier at a time. In addition, the LTE Rel-8 UE may transmit uplink control information (UCI) via an uplink component carrier corresponding to the downlink component carrier. An LTE-Advanced (A) UE in accordance with an LTE-A standard may simultaneously receive data via a single or a plurality of downlink component carriers. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>An aspect of the present invention provides a user equipment (UE) and a communication method of the UE that may solve ambiguity of downlink control information (DCI) detection. Another aspect of the present invention provides an E-UTRAN Node-B (eNB) and a communication method of the eNB that may solve ambiguity of DCI detection. According to an aspect of the present invention, there is provided a Long Term Evolution (LTE)-Advanced user equipment (UE) to monitor physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) candidates, which are cyclic redundancy check (CRC) scrambled by Radio Network Temporary Identifier (RNTI), within common search spaces (CSSs) and User Equipment-specific search spaces (USSs), wherein when two PDCCH candidates from a CSS and a USS, respectively, are CRC scrambled by the same RNTI and have a common payload size and the same first control channel element (CCE) index, the PDCCH originating from the CSS is considered to be transmitted. The LTE-Advanced UE may be configured to use carrier indicator field (CIF). The monitoring may mean that interpretation of each of the PDCCH candidates is attempted based on all the monitored downlink control information (DCIT) formats. The PDCCH candidates may define a search space with an aggregation level L. The CSS may include a total of 16 CCEs from CCE 0 to CCE 15, CCEs corresponding to an m th PDCCH candidate may be given by L{(Y k +m′)mod └N CCE,k /L┘}+. CCEs corresponding to an m th PDCCH candidate of a USS may be given by L{(Y k +m′)mod └N CCE,k /L┘}+i. Here, i=0, . . . , L−1. N CCE,k may denote a total number of CCEs. m′=m in case of the CSS. In case of the USS, when the monitoring UE is not configured with CIF, m′=m. In case of the USS, when the monitoring UE is configured with CIF, m′=m+M (L) ·n CI , M (L) may denote the total number of PDCCH candidates, n CI may denote the value of the CIF, m=0, . . . , M (L) −1, and Y k may correspond to zero for the CSSs and be defined for the USSs according to Y k =(A·Y k-1 )mod D. Here, Y −1 =n RNTI ≠0, A=39827, D=65537, k=└n s /2┘, n s may denote a slot number, and n RNTI may denote an RNTI value. The CSS may correspond to a CSS with aggregation level 4 or 8. The USS may correspond to a USS with aggregation level 1, 2, 4, or 8. The CSS and the USS may overlap each other. The PDCCH candidates may have a predetermined DCI format(s) and are CRC scrambled by an RNTI. Among the PDCCH candidates, PDCCH candidates originating from the USS may have at least one possible CIF value for the DCI format. Among the PDCCH candidates originating from the USS, a PDCCH candidate with a given DCI format size may be transmitted from any USS corresponding to any value of the possible CIF values for the given DCI format size. According to another aspect of the present invention, there is provided an LTE-Advanced eNB configured to transmit PDCCH in the CSSs and USSs, wherein when two PDCCH candidates from a CSS and a USS, respectively, are CRC scrambled by the same RNTI and have a common payload size and the same first CCE index, only the PDCCH candidate from the CCS is transmitted. The PDCCH candidates may define a search space with aggregation level L. The PDCCH candidates may have a predetermined downlink control information (DCI) format(s) and are CRC scrambled by an RNTI. Among the PDCCH candidates, PDCCH candidates originating from the USS may have at least one possible CIF value for the DCI format. Among the PDCCH candidates originating from the USS, a PDCCH candidate with a given DCI format size may be transmitted from any USS corresponding to any value of the possible CIF values for the given DCI format size. According to still another aspect, there is provided a communication method of a UE, the method comprising: monitoring PDCCH candidates with CRC scrambled by an RNTI, within CSSs and USSs; and receiving PDSCH via a plurality of downlink control carriers (CCs). The monitoring may include receiving only PDCCH originating from the CSSs when the PDCCH candidates have a common payload size and the same first CCE index. The PDCCH candidates may have a predetermined downlink control information (DCI) format(s) and are CRC scrambled by an RNTI, the PDCCH candidates originating from the USSs may have at least one possible CIF value for the DCI format, and the plurality of downlink CCs may be identified based on the CIF. The monitoring may further include receiving PDCCH originating from the CSSs and the USSs when the PDCCH candidates have different payload sizes or different first CCE indices. The monitoring may further include interpreting each of the PDCCH candidates based on all the DCI formats that the UE needs to monitor. The method may further include transmitting physical uplink shared channel (PUSCH) to an E-UTRAN Node-B (eNB) via a plurality of uplink CCs. Each of the PDCCH candidates may include at least one CCE. An aggregation level may correspond to the number of CCEs constituting each of the PDCCH candidates. A search space may be defined independently for each aggregation level. According to embodiments of the present invention, there may be provided a user equipment (UE) and a communication method of the UE that may solve ambiguity of downlink control information (DCI) detection. Also, according to embodiments of the present invention, there may be provided an E-UTRAN Node-B (eNB) and a communication method of the eNB that may solve ambiguity of downlink control information (DCI) detection. | H04W72042 | 20170703 | 20171019 | 62845.0 | H04W7204 | 3 | HOM, SHICK C | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR TRANSMISSION AND RECEPTION IN MULTI-CARRIER WIRELESS COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04W | 2,017 |
|
15,641,018 | PENDING | Hand Attachable Animal Washing Apparatus | A hand attachable animal washing apparatus, attachable upon the hand of a user, is provided enabling singlehanded control of water flow and application of water into the coat of an animal. Control of water flow though a molded body portion is effective by singlehanded operation of a valve assembly disposed interiorly within the molded body portion. A user is enabled to open and close the valve assembly by compressing a compressible portion disposed proximally overlying the user's palm when wearing the apparatus upon one hand. A user may thereby control and apply to water applied to an animal with one hand while securing and comforting the animal with the other hand. | 1. A hand attachable animal washing apparatus attachable to a hand of a user for singlehanded control of water emitted therefrom, said hand attachable animal washing apparatus comprising: a molded body member; a reverse surface disposed upon the molded body member and configured to overlie a palm of a hand of a user when the body member is attached to the hand of the user; an obverse surface; a plurality of outlets disposed upon the obverse surface, each of the plurality of outlets having an opening thereatop; a proximal inlet in open communication with each of the plurality of openings, said proximal inlet connectable to a connecting line for conveyance of water therethrough; and a valve assembly disposed interiorly within the body member in a position enabling singlehanded operation thereof by manual action of the same hand of the user to which the body member is fitted, said valve assembly thereby operational between an open configuration and a closed configuration to control water flow therethrough; wherein action of the valve assembly is controllable by the same hand of the user upon which the molded body is worn whereby singlehanded application of water when washing an animal is controllable at one hand. 2. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 1 wherein the valve assembly comprises: a compressible portion disposed against the action of a first spring member, said compressible portion compressible between a compressed position and an uncompressed position; a switch member in operational communication with the compressible portion, said switch member rotatably alternately positionable between a first position and a second position when the compressible portion is compressed; a second spring member tensioned against the switch member when the switch member is moved from the first position to the second position; and a stop member disposed to prevent rebound of the second spring member returning the switch member to the first position until the compressible portion is again compressed and the switch member is rotatably disengaged from the stop member; wherein sequential compression of the compressible portion alternately renders the valve assembly in an open configuration and a closed configuration whereby control of water flow though the valve assembly is effective by singlehanded use of a user. 3. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 2 wherein each of the plurality of outlets is conical and projected perpendicularly from the obverse surface. 4. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 3 wherein a plurality of protuberances is disposed perpendicularly projected from the obverse surface proximal the plurality of outlets. 5. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 4 wherein the molded body member is polymeric and flexible, said molded body member further comprising: a first side apex; a second side apex; a strap member endwise disposed at the first side apex; and a connecting portion endwise disposed at the second side apex, said connecting portion configured for securable connection with the strap member; wherein the strap member and connecting portion enable securement of the molded body member to the hand of the user. 6. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 5 wherein the molded body member further comprises a connect housing disposed at the proximal inlet whereby the connecting line is securable into the connect housing. 7. A hand attachable animal washing apparatus comprising: a molded body member attachable overtop the palm of a user, said molded body member having: an obverse surface, a reverse surface, a first side apex, a second side apex, a distal arced edge, and a proximal arced edge; a strap member endwise disposed at the first side apex; a connection portion endwise disposed at the second side apex, said to connection portion securable to the strap member; a plurality of outlets disposed upon the obverse surface; each of a plurality of openings disposed endwise upon each of the plurality of outlets; a proximal inlet disposed in the proximal arced edge, said proximal inlet disposed in open communication with each of the plurality of openings; a connecting line disposed attachable at the proximal inlet, said connecting line distally attachable to an existing water outlet; and a valve assembly disposed interiorly within the molded body member between the proximal inlet and each of the plurality of openings, said valve assembly operable between a first position and a second position to selectively control water flow to each of the plurality of openings; wherein action of the valve assembly is controllable by one hand of a user upon which the molded body is worn, whereby singlehanded application of water when washing an animal is controllable at one hand. 8. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 7 wherein the valve assembly comprises: a compressible portion disposed against the action of a first spring member, said compressible portion compressible between a compressed position and an uncompressed position; a switch member in operational communication with the compressible portion, said switch member rotatably alternately positionable between a first position and a second position when the compressible portion is compressed; a second spring member tensioned against the switch member when the switch member is moved from the first position to the second position; and a stop member disposed to prevent rebound of the second spring member returning the switch member to the first position until the compressible portion is again compressed and the switch member is rotatably disengaged from the stop member; wherein sequential compression of the compressible portion alternately renders the valve assembly in an open configuration and a closed configuration whereby control of water flow though the valve assembly is effective by singlehanded use of a user. 9. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 8 wherein the molded body member further comprises a connect housing disposed at the proximal inlet whereat the connecting line is attachable. 10. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 9 wherein the molded body member is polymeric and flexible. 11. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus of claim 10 wherein the plurality of outlets is disposed upon the obverse surface in a central cluster surrounded by a plurality of protuberances assistive in brushing an animal's coat. 12. A hand attachable animal washing apparatus comprising: a generally ovoid, polymeric and flexible molded body member attachable overtop the palm of a user, said molded body member having: an obverse surface, a reverse surface, a first side apex, a second side apex, a distal arced edge, and a proximal arced edge; a strap member endwise disposed at the first side apex; a connection portion endwise disposed at the second side apex, said connection portion securable to the strap member; a plurality of elongate, conical outlets disposed upon the obverse surface in a central cluster; a plurality of protuberances disposed upon the obverse surface approximal and surrounding the central cluster of the plurality of outlets; each of a plurality of openings disposed endwise upon each of the plurality of outlets; a proximal inlet medially disposed in the proximal arced edge, said proximal inlet disposed in open communication with each of the plurality of openings; a connect housing disposed at the proximal inlet; a connecting line disposed attachable at the connect housing, said connecting line distally attachable to an existing water outlet; a valve assembly disposed interiorly within the molded body member, said valve assembly disposed between the proximal inlet and each of the plurality of openings in a position to proximally overlie the palm of a user wearing the molded body portion, said valve assembly operable between a closed configuration and an open configuration to selectively control water flow through each of the plurality of openings, said valve assembly including: a compressible portion disposed against the action of a first spring member, said compressible portion compressible between a compressed position and an uncompressed position; a switch member in operational communication with the compressible portion, said switch member rotatably alternately positionable between a first position and a second position when the compressible portion is compressed; a second spring member tensioned against the switch member when the switch member is moved from the first position to the second position; and a stop member disposed to prevent rebound of the second spring member returning the switch member to the first position until the compressible portion is again compressed and the switch member is rotatably disengaged from the stop member; wherein action of the valve assembly is controllable by one hand of a user upon which the molded body is worn, whereby singlehanded application of water when washing an animal is controllable at one hand. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This nonprovisional application claims the benefit of provisional application No. 62/396,123 filed on Sep. 13, 2016 FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not Applicable INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE OF MATERIAL SUBMITTED ON A COMPACT DISK Not Applicable BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Washing animals can be troublesome and time consuming. Animals often shy away from water ejected from a hose pipe, which is sometimes noisy. Moreover, use of a hose to wash an animal, which is typical in the art, frequently applies more water than is necessary, ejects water somewhat uncontrollably, and often results in the user getting wet as well. This renders washing an animal an unpleasant experience for all involved. What is needed is a hand attachable animal washing apparatus that enables singlehanded control of water flow through a plurality of openings to direct application of controlled water flow to an animal while maintaining the user's other hand unencumbered to comfort the animal in question, or secure said animal in place, or otherwise administer additional accouterments desirably wielded during washing. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus therefore prevents the user from getting wet, enables more controlled application of water to the animal, and lessens discontent of the animal by operating less visibly and quieter than a hose, while enabling the user to coax and comfort the animal with said user's free hand. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a hand attachable animal washing apparatus devised to secure to the hand of a user and enable singlehanded control of water flow therethrough. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus further enables direct application of water into the fur of an animal without effecting an uncontrolled spray of water. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus, therefore, enables controlled release of water for direct application to an animal for washing, while allowing a user to maintain one hand free for interaction with the animal or for use wielding additional accouterments desirable during washing. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus, therefore, includes a molded body member, formed of polymer which is pliable and yielding to the touch. The molded body member includes an obverse surface having a plurality of outlets and a plurality of protuberances projected perpendicularly therefrom. Each of the plurality of outlets has each of a plurality of openings disposed apically thereatop. Water is enabled passage through the molded body member for controlled emission through each of the plurality of openings by manual action controlling a valve assembly disposed interior to the molded body member. The valve assembly is controllable by manual depression of a compressible portion, disposed interior to the molded body member at a position appropriate to proximally overlie the center of a user's palm to which the present device is attached. A user may, therefore, actuate the device and alternately enable and disable controlled emission of water by action of clenching one hand, wherein said user's fingers depress the compressible portion. Thus a user is enabled singlehanded control of water for direct and controlled application directly into the animal's coat. Moreover, the plurality of protuberances and plurality of outlets are devised to penetrate into the animal's fur and contact the animal's epidermis, whereby the animal is brushed and stroked during the act of washing, which may comfort the animal even while water and soap is being applied into the animal's coat. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus, described subsequently in greater detail, has been devised to enable control of outflow of water singlehandedly while washing an animal, such as a dog or horse, for example. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus enables use of one hand when applying water whereby the other hand may be used to secure or comfort that animal being washed. The animal is therefore more receptive to washing than is typically the case when a hose, sponge, and soap are more haphazardly applied absent the present invention. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus includes a molded body member attachable overtop the palm of a hand of a user. In the example embodiment set forth herein, the molded body member is generally ovoid and formed, or otherwise molded, of an impermeable polymer, such as, for example, silicone. The molded body member is therefore pliable and flexible. The molded body member includes an obverse surface and a reverse surface. The reverse surface is generally smooth and devised for comfortable fit overtop a user's palm, as will be described subsequently. The obverse surface includes a plurality of openings disposed to emit water when the molded body member is connected to a water outlet and a valve assembly, disposed interior to the molded body member, is toggled between a closed situation and an open situation, as will be described subsequently. In the example embodiment herein described, each of the plurality of openings is disposed apically atop each of a plurality of outlets. Each of the plurality of outlets is elongate, conical, and perpendicularly disposed atop the obverse surface. The plurality of outlets is disposed in a central cluster, essentially overtop the valve assembly interior to the molded body member, and in open communication therewith, whereby flow of water through the molded body member is effective through the central cluster. Surrounding the central cluster is a plurality of protuberances, each of which plurality of protuberances is perpendicularly disposed atop the obverse surface, there devised to penetrate into the fur of an animal, stimulate the epidermis, and brush the animal's coat during washing. The molded body member is delimited by a distal arced edge, a proximal arced edge, a first side apex, and a second side apex. The molded body member may taper in thickness towards each of the first side apex and the second side apex. A strap member is disposed upon the first side apex and devised to releasably secure to a connection portion disposed upon the second side apex. The strap member and connection portion may resemble a watch strap, for example, and releasable securement may be effective by action of a buckle member disposed to interconnect said strap member with the connection portion. The molded body member is therefore postionable upon the palm of a user's hand and then securable by engagement of each of the strap member and connection portion connectable around the dorsal of said user's hand. A connecting line is disposed at the proximal arced edge, said connecting line devised for distal attachment to a water outlet, such as a tap, wherein water is introducible into the molded body member and therein controllable by action of the valve assembly. The valve assembly includes a compressible portion disposed against the action of a first spring member. The compressible portion is disposed interior to the molded ii body portion proximally located in a position appropriate to overlie the center of a user's palm when said user is wearing the device. The compressible portion is depressible when a user effects a first with the hand wearing the device, and inwardly clenches said user's fingers to engage the compressible portion against the action of the first spring member. The compressible portion toggles outflow of water from the plurality of openings by moving a switch member alternately between each of a first position and a second position whereby throughflow of water is enabled and alternately disabled. In the example embodiment depicted herein, and described subsequently in more detail below, the switch member is disposed against the action of a second spring member. When moved to the first position, the switch member is first forced in a first direction and compresses the second spring member. The second spring member is thus tensioned against the switch member, but is prevented from rebounding due to the switch member being oriented against a stop member. Throughflow of water through a valve outlet disposed in the valve assembly is now enabled, and water is thus emitted from the plurality of openings for controlled application to an animal. Subsequent depression of the compressible portion thence disengages the switch member from the stop member, whereby the second spring member rebounds and forces the switch member to the second position whereby the valve outlet is closed and the valve assembly subsequently rendered in the closed situation. Throughflow of water is thus disabled. A user is thus enabled expedient control of throughflow of water when washing an animal, and may expediently toggle the present device to wet the animal and then rinse subsequent application of soap, for example. The polymeric molded body member is pliable and yielding, and therefore enables direct application of water into the animal's coat, and further acts as an applicator brushing the water and any applied soap into the animal's coat. The user may also use said user's other hand for holding the animal, comforting the animal, or for other actions useful in expediting washing an animal due to singlehanded operation of the present device controlling application of water for washing and rinsing said animal, as desired. Thus has been broadly outlined the more important features of the present hand attachable animal washing apparatus so that the detailed description thereof that follows may be better understood and in order that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. For better understanding of the hand attachable animal washing apparatus, its operating advantages and specific objects attained by its uses, refer to the accompanying drawings and description. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGURES FIG. 1 is a plan elevation view of an example embodiment. FIG. 2 is a longitudinal cross-section view of an example embodiment. FIG. 3 is an exploded view of an example embodiment. FIG. 4 is an in-use view of an example embodiment attached to a user's hand. FIG. 5 is an side elevation exploded view of an example embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS With reference now to the drawings, and in particular FIGS. 1 through 5 thereof, example of the instant hand attachable animal washing apparatus employing the principles and concepts of the present hand attachable animal washing apparatus and generally designated by the reference number 10 will be described. Referring to FIGS. 1 through 5 a preferred embodiment of the hand attachable animal washing apparatus 10 is illustrated. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus 10 has been devised to enable controlled emission of water through a plurality of openings 40 disposed in an obverse surface 36 of a molded body member 20 effected by singlehanded operation of a user wearing the device. The hand attachable animal washing apparatus 10 is attachable overlying the palm of a user whereby the molded body member 20 is disposed against the palm of the user. The plurality of openings 40 disposed in the obverse surface 36 of the molded body member 20 enables controlled outflow of water when an interior valve assembly 48 is activated between a closed situation and an open situation, whereby throughflow of water from a connecting line 62 is directable out each of the plurality of openings 40 for controlled application directly to an animal contacted with the obverse surface 36. Singlehanded operation of the valve assembly 48 enables a user to secure the animal in appropriate position with their other hand during the act of washing. Discussing now the drawings of an example embodiment of the present device depicted herein, the present hand attachable animal washing apparatus 10, therefore, includes a generally ovoid molded body member 20 attachable overlying the palm of a user's hand. The molded body member 20 is contemplated to by polymeric and flexible, and includes a first side apex 22, a second side apex 24, a distal arced edge 26, and a proximal arced edge 28. A strap member 30 is disposed extended from the first side apex 22, said strap member 30 attachable to a connection portion 32 disposed at the second side apex 24. The strap member 30 and connection portion 32 may resemble a wrist watch strap, for example, and include a buckle member 34 disposed to releasably secure the strap member 30 and connection portion 32 together. Additional means of releasable securement of said strap member 30 and connection portion 32 are contemplated as part of this disclosure. The molded body member 20 includes an obverse surface 36 and a reverse surface 38. The reverse surface 38 is disposed to overlie the palm of a user's hand to which the device is attached by action of the strap member 30 securing to the connection portion 32 around the dorsal side of the user's hand. The plurality of openings 40 is disposed endwise upon each of a plurality of outlets 42. Each of the plurality of outlets 42 may be elongate, conical, and disposed in a central cluster 44, as depicted herein, or otherwise disposed upon the obverse surface 36. In the example embodiment shown, a plurality of protuberances 46 is disposed surrounding the central cluster 44, each of said plurality of protuberances 46 disposed to contact through the fur of the animal to which the device is applied when washing. The plurality of protuberances 46, and each of the plurality of outlets 42, act to effect brushing of the animal's coat as well as to apply water into the fur and against the epidermis. A valve assembly 48 is disposed interiorly within the molded body member 20 in open communication with each of the plurality of openings 40. The valve assembly 48 includes a compressible portion 50 devised to alternately open and close a valve outlet 52 when depressed. The compressible portion 50 is situated in a position interior to the molded body member 20 proximally overlying the center of the user's palm when wearing the device on a hand, whereby said user may effect depression of the compressible portion 50 with said user's fingers by making a fist, and pressing centrally toward said user's palm. The compressible portion 50 is disposed against the action of a first spring member 54, said first spring member 54 disposed to return the compressible portion 50 to an uncompressed position once released. When compressed, the compressible portion 50 enables reorientation of a switch member 56 between a first position and a second position. When moved to the first position, the switch member 56 is forced in a first direction against the action of a second spring member 58, whereby the switch member 56 tensions said second spring member 58. The second spring member 58 is prevented from rebounding, however, by action of a stop member 60 against which the switch member 56 is oriented, whereby the valve outlet 52 is maintained open and the valve assembly 48 is rendered in the open situation. Subsequent depression of the compressible portion 50 reorients the switch member 56 by effecting movement in a second direction, whereby the switch member 56 is disengaged with the stop member 60, and the second spring member 58 is enabled rebound to return the switch member 56 to the second position wherein the valve outlet 52 is closed and the valve assembly 48 is rendered in the closed situation. Alternate depressions of the compressible portion 50 therefore toggle the valve assembly 48 between the open situation and closed situation. The connecting line 62 is disposed attached at a proximal inlet 64 medially disposed in the proximal arced edge 28 of the molded body member 20 and may be secured thereat by means of a connect housing 66. The connecting line 62 may be detachable from the connect housing 66. The connecting line 62 is distally attachable to a water outlet, such as an existing hose pipe or tap, for example. Opening said tap, or hose pipe, enables flow of water into the connecting line 62 and into the molded body member 20. Water is prevented from exiting through the plurality of openings 40 disposed upon the obverse surface 36 until the valve assembly 48 is disposed in the open situation. Compression of the compressible portion 50 therefore enables selective opening and closing of the valve assembly 48 between the open and closed situations whereby outflow of water is controllable singlehandedly while washing an animal. A user may, therefore, use their free hand for holding the animal in position, for coaxing or comforting the animal, or otherwise to participate in the act of washing, as desired. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Washing animals can be troublesome and time consuming. Animals often shy away from water ejected from a hose pipe, which is sometimes noisy. Moreover, use of a hose to wash an animal, which is typical in the art, frequently applies more water than is necessary, ejects water somewhat uncontrollably, and often results in the user getting wet as well. This renders washing an animal an unpleasant experience for all involved. What is needed is a hand attachable animal washing apparatus that enables singlehanded control of water flow through a plurality of openings to direct application of controlled water flow to an animal while maintaining the user's other hand unencumbered to comfort the animal in question, or secure said animal in place, or otherwise administer additional accouterments desirably wielded during washing. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus therefore prevents the user from getting wet, enables more controlled application of water to the animal, and lessens discontent of the animal by operating less visibly and quieter than a hose, while enabling the user to coax and comfort the animal with said user's free hand. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus, described subsequently in greater detail, has been devised to enable control of outflow of water singlehandedly while washing an animal, such as a dog or horse, for example. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus enables use of one hand when applying water whereby the other hand may be used to secure or comfort that animal being washed. The animal is therefore more receptive to washing than is typically the case when a hose, sponge, and soap are more haphazardly applied absent the present invention. The present hand attachable animal washing apparatus includes a molded body member attachable overtop the palm of a hand of a user. In the example embodiment set forth herein, the molded body member is generally ovoid and formed, or otherwise molded, of an impermeable polymer, such as, for example, silicone. The molded body member is therefore pliable and flexible. The molded body member includes an obverse surface and a reverse surface. The reverse surface is generally smooth and devised for comfortable fit overtop a user's palm, as will be described subsequently. The obverse surface includes a plurality of openings disposed to emit water when the molded body member is connected to a water outlet and a valve assembly, disposed interior to the molded body member, is toggled between a closed situation and an open situation, as will be described subsequently. In the example embodiment herein described, each of the plurality of openings is disposed apically atop each of a plurality of outlets. Each of the plurality of outlets is elongate, conical, and perpendicularly disposed atop the obverse surface. The plurality of outlets is disposed in a central cluster, essentially overtop the valve assembly interior to the molded body member, and in open communication therewith, whereby flow of water through the molded body member is effective through the central cluster. Surrounding the central cluster is a plurality of protuberances, each of which plurality of protuberances is perpendicularly disposed atop the obverse surface, there devised to penetrate into the fur of an animal, stimulate the epidermis, and brush the animal's coat during washing. The molded body member is delimited by a distal arced edge, a proximal arced edge, a first side apex, and a second side apex. The molded body member may taper in thickness towards each of the first side apex and the second side apex. A strap member is disposed upon the first side apex and devised to releasably secure to a connection portion disposed upon the second side apex. The strap member and connection portion may resemble a watch strap, for example, and releasable securement may be effective by action of a buckle member disposed to interconnect said strap member with the connection portion. The molded body member is therefore postionable upon the palm of a user's hand and then securable by engagement of each of the strap member and connection portion connectable around the dorsal of said user's hand. A connecting line is disposed at the proximal arced edge, said connecting line devised for distal attachment to a water outlet, such as a tap, wherein water is introducible into the molded body member and therein controllable by action of the valve assembly. The valve assembly includes a compressible portion disposed against the action of a first spring member. The compressible portion is disposed interior to the molded ii body portion proximally located in a position appropriate to overlie the center of a user's palm when said user is wearing the device. The compressible portion is depressible when a user effects a first with the hand wearing the device, and inwardly clenches said user's fingers to engage the compressible portion against the action of the first spring member. The compressible portion toggles outflow of water from the plurality of openings by moving a switch member alternately between each of a first position and a second position whereby throughflow of water is enabled and alternately disabled. In the example embodiment depicted herein, and described subsequently in more detail below, the switch member is disposed against the action of a second spring member. When moved to the first position, the switch member is first forced in a first direction and compresses the second spring member. The second spring member is thus tensioned against the switch member, but is prevented from rebounding due to the switch member being oriented against a stop member. Throughflow of water through a valve outlet disposed in the valve assembly is now enabled, and water is thus emitted from the plurality of openings for controlled application to an animal. Subsequent depression of the compressible portion thence disengages the switch member from the stop member, whereby the second spring member rebounds and forces the switch member to the second position whereby the valve outlet is closed and the valve assembly subsequently rendered in the closed situation. Throughflow of water is thus disabled. A user is thus enabled expedient control of throughflow of water when washing an animal, and may expediently toggle the present device to wet the animal and then rinse subsequent application of soap, for example. The polymeric molded body member is pliable and yielding, and therefore enables direct application of water into the animal's coat, and further acts as an applicator brushing the water and any applied soap into the animal's coat. The user may also use said user's other hand for holding the animal, comforting the animal, or for other actions useful in expediting washing an animal due to singlehanded operation of the present device controlling application of water for washing and rinsing said animal, as desired. Thus has been broadly outlined the more important features of the present hand attachable animal washing apparatus so that the detailed description thereof that follows may be better understood and in order that the present contribution to the art may be better appreciated. For better understanding of the hand attachable animal washing apparatus, its operating advantages and specific objects attained by its uses, refer to the accompanying drawings and description. | A46B11063 | 20170703 | 20180322 | 80148.0 | A46B1106 | 1 | WALCZAK, DAVID J | HAND ATTACHABLE ANIMAL WASHING APPARATUS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | A46B | 2,017 |
|
15,641,254 | PENDING | Horizontal Axis Rotary Separation Apparatus and Process | A horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus is deployed in a process for separating resinous trichomes rich in flavoring, aromatic and/or medicinal components produced in plant trichome glands from unwanted plant matter. The process physically separates resin rich beads at the trichome gland head from extraneous plant matter by one or move separation sieves. The sieves are provided in or as a casing over a rigid frame member. The sieves are mesh fabric bags or screen that are easily opened and replenished in a batch operating mode, and are removable from the frame for cleaning and maintenance. Other aspects of the invention include processes that improve process efficiency and speed, and yield products of superior quality. | 1. A horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus comprising: a) a cylindrical chamber having; i) a lower half cylindrical basin with an upper rim and having a first and second circular end plates coupled to opposing end of lower half cylindrical basin that extend above the upper rim, ii) an upper half cylindrical lid with a lower rim, adapted for connecting to the upper rim and an upper periphery of the first and second circular end plates that extends above the upper rim, b) a rotating filter support frame adapted to rotate about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, c) a removable filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame, d) a rotary drive means adapted to rotate the opposing ends of the rotary support frame in the first and second circular end plates, and e) a rotary drive coupling to support opposing ends of the rotary support frame in the first and second circular end plates. 2. The horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus of claim 1 wherein the upper half of the cylindrical lid is coupled to the lower half cylindrical base by one or more hinges disposed at an adjacent portion of the upper and lower rims thereof, the hinge being disposed for adjacent placement of the upper half to the lower half. 3. The horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus of claim 1 wherein the removable filter member has longitudinal side zipper that extends substantially between the upper and lower cylindrical base. 4. The horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus of claim 1 wherein the removable filter member has a circumferential reinforcement band disposed between opposing ends. 5. A method of plant matter separation comprising the steps of: a) providing at least a first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, having; i) a chamber having an inlet port and an outlet at a bottom, ii) a rotating filter support frame adapted to rotate about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, iii) a filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame, iv) wherein the inlet port is adopted to deliver product to be separated into the enclosed space v) a rotary drive means adapted to turn the rotating filter support frame while a primary axis thereof is disposed in a horizontal orientation, b) admitting plant matter to the enclosed space of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, c) turning the rotating filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, d) admitting at least one of water, dry ice, liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen to the enclosed space, e) collecting a purified effluent from the outlet at the bottom of the chamber of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. 6. The method of claim 5 wherein said step of admitting at least one of water, dry ice, liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen to the enclosed space occurs before the step of turning the rotating filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. 7. A method of plant matter separation comprising the steps of : a) providing a first and second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, each having; i) a chamber having an inlet port at the side and an outlet at a bottom, ii) a rotating filter support frame adapted to turn in rotary motion about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, iii) a filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame, iv) wherein the inlet port is adopted to deliver product to separated into the enclosed space v) a rotary drive means adapted to rotate the rotating filter support frame about a primary axis thereof that is disposed in a horizontal plane, vi) wherein the outlet port of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus is connect to the inlet port of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, b) admitting plant matter to the enclosed space of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, c) turning the rotating filter support frame of the first and second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, d) collecting a purified effluent from the outlet at the bottom of the chamber of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. 8. The method of plant matter separation according to claim 7 wherein the filter member of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus has a larger opening size than the filter member of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. 9. The method of plant matter separation according to claim 7 wherein a liquid freezing agent is injected into an enclosed space over the filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus and water is then injected to flush a product from the first outlet port to an inlet port of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. 10. The method of plant matter separation according to claim 9 further comprising using a one or more of dry ice and balls to improve agitation in enclosed space over the filter support frame of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. 11. A method of processing plant matter, the process comprising; a) providing a mixture of plant matter that includes flowers and flower buds and at least one of leaves, bracts and bracteoles, flowers and buds containing calyxes and sugar leaves. b) placing the mixture in a contained spaced bounded on at least one side by a mesh member, wherein the mesh member has a spacing sufficient to retain the mixture of plant matter, c) tumbling the mixture within the closed space, d) introducing a liquid freezing agent into the closed space, e) wherein residual moisture in the one or more of the leaves, bracts and bracteoles freezes causing the fragmentation thereof such that the fragmented plant matter traverses the mesh member and the closed space retains a residual portion of the flowers. 12. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 wherein the plant matter is from the species cannabis and the residual portion is primarily calyxes. 13. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 wherein the fragmented plant matter includes one or more of fan leaves and sugar leaves. 14. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 wherein the contained space is a cylinder having a first circular plate at a top and a spaced apart second circular plate as a bottom, wherein the first and second circular plate are connected by a cylindrical wall that is at least partially covered by the mesh member. 15. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 wherein the circular top and bottom are connected by spaced apart rods disposed between a center of the cylinder and the cylindrical wall. 16. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 further comprising a step of adding balls to the contained space to facilitate the tumbling of the mixture 17. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 wherein one of the liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen are introduced to the enclosed space as a jet from a center of one of the first and second circular plate wherein the jet of an expanding gas impinges on the other circular plate to disperse within the plant matter. 18. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 wherein the cylinder is rotated to tumble the plant matter. 19. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 wherein the mesh member has holes with a diameter of about 0.25 inches to about 0.5 inches. 20. The method of processing plant matter according to the claim 11 further comprising the additional steps of: a) terminating the tumbling of the plant matter, b) removing the remaining plant matter that consists essentially buds and flower, and c) further processing the buds and flower to remove resin bearing trichomes there form. 21. The method of plant matter separation according to claim 5 further comprising the steps of proving a second filter member in suspension within the filter support frame and said step admitting plant matter to the enclosed space of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus comprises admitting the plant matter in the second filter member. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims the benefit of priority to the U.S. Provisional Patent Application of the same title that was filed on Jul. 6, 2017, having application no. 62/358,988 and is incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF INVENTION The field of the present invention is the extraction of resins containing organic compounds from resinous plants, and more particularly to the separation of resin from resin-bearing glandular trichomes bearing from plants buds and flower, which tend to be high in trichome as a weight and/or volume, as well lower weight resin bearing plant matter, such as leaves and stem materials. A number of plant varieties produce commercially valuable isoprene derivatives and phenolic compounds such as terpenoids in cell assemblies know as trichomes or more specifically, in the glands of glandular trichomes. Portions of different plants are rich in trichomes containing compounds of interest in commercial and medicinal applications. Conventional extractive processes may not be adequate in preserving volatile and/or oxidation-sensitive compounds. Conventional extraction and separation methods utilize solvents which may be polar, non-polar or combinations thereof in order to extract and separate desirable substances. Conventional extraction methods are expensive to conduct safely and may introduce undesired compounds by collateral extraction. Commonly extracted undesirable compounds may include pigments such as anthocyanin, chlorophyll, tannins, saponins and lipids from cellulosic materials. Further, as plants mature, many glands of glandular trichomes increase in size, mass and chemical composition. Plant cells associated with the trichomes biosynthesize phenolic compounds including terpenoids such as cannabinoids and humulones, However, at harvest time, when the plant is deemed to have reached a peak in the content of desired compounds, trichome assemblies may be in a range of sizes. Trichome and trichome gland assemblies can be separated from the bulk of undesirable plant material by sieving procedures. Larger trichomes can be harder to separate from undesirable plant matter that does not contain desired chemical species. However, as resin bearing trichomes are sticky, physical separation by dry or wet sieving processes are problematic because a large fraction of plant matter fragments of comparable size to the desired trichomes are generated from the mechanical force of agitation, chopping or grinding of the plant matter to release the desirable trichomes and/or trichome glands. In any physical separation process, it is necessary to not only collect the resin product, but remove residue and clean the filter. It is an object of the present invention to provide an improved process and device to remove residue and clean the filter, as well as collect the product under conditions discovered most conducive to rapid and efficient separation. The above and other objects, effects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of the embodiments thereof taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings SUMMARY OF INVENTION In the present invention, the first object is achieved by providing Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods A horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus comprising a cylindrical chamber having a lower half cylindrical basin with an upper rim and having a first and second circular end plates coupled to opposing end of lower half cylindrical basin that extend above the upper rim, an upper half cylindrical lid with a lower rim, adapted for connecting to the upper rim and an upper periphery of the first and second circular end plates that extends above the upper rim, a rotating filter support frame adapted to rotate about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, a removable filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame, a rotary drive means adapted to rotate the opposing ends of the rotary support frame in the first and second circular end plates, and a rotary drive coupling to support opposing ends of the rotary support frame in the first and second circular end plates. A second aspect of the invention is such a horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus wherein the upper half of the cylindrical lid is coupled to the lower half cylindrical base by one or more hinges disposed at an adjacent portion of the upper and lower rims thereof, the hinge being disposed for adjacent placement of the upper half to the lower half. Another aspect of the invention is any such a horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus wherein the removable filter member has longitudinal side zipper that extends substantially between the upper and lower cylindrical base. Another aspect of the invention is any such a horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus wherein the removable filter member has a circumferential reinforcement band disposed between opposing ends. Another aspect of the invention is a method of plant matter separation comprising the steps of providing at least a first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, having a chamber having an inlet port and an outlet at a bottom, a rotating filter support frame adapted to rotate about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame wherein the inlet port is adopted to deliver product to be separated into the enclosed space, a rotary drive means adapted to turn the rotating filter support frame while a primary axis thereof is disposed in a horizontal orientation, admitting plant matter to the enclosed space of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, rotating the rotating filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, admitting at least one of water, dry ice, liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen to the enclosed space during, collecting a purified effluent from the outlet at the bottom of the chamber of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a such a method wherein the at least one of water, dry ice, liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen is admitted to the enclosed space during occurs before the step of turning the rotating filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a method of plant matter separation comprising the steps of providing a first and second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, each having; a chamber having an inlet port at the side and an outlet at a bottom, a rotating filter support frame adapted to turn in rotary motion about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, a filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame, wherein the inlet port is adopted to deliver product to separated into the enclosed space, a rotary drive means adapted to rotate the rotating filter support frame about a primary axis thereof that is disposed in a horizontal plane, wherein the outlet port of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus is connect to the inlet port of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, admitting plant matter to the enclosed space of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, turning the rotating filter support frame of the first and second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, collecting a purified effluent from the outlet at the bottom of the chamber of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the filter member of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus has a larger opening size than the filter member of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein a liquid freezing agent is injected into enclosed space over the filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus and water is then injected to flush a product from the first outlet port to an inlet port of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods further comprising using a one or more of dry ice and balls to improve agitation in enclosed space over the filter support frame of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention method of processing plant matter, the method comprising providing a mixture of plant matter that includes flower and flower buds and at least one of leaves, bracts and bracteoles, flowers and buds containing calyxes and sugar leaves, placing the mixture in a contained spaced bounded on at least one side by a mesh member, wherein the mesh member has a spacing sufficient to retain the mixture of plant matter, tumbling the mixture within the closed space, introducing a liquid freezing agent into the closed space, wherein residual moisture in the one or more of the leaves, bracts and bracteoles freezes causing the fragmentation thereof such that the fragmented plant matter traverses the mesh member and the closed space retains a residual portion of the flowers. Another aspect of the invention is any of the aforesaid methods wherein the plant matter is from the species cannabis and the residual portion is primarily calyxes. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the fragmented plant matter includes one or more of fan leaves and sugar leaves. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the contained space is a cylinder having a first circular plate at a top and a spaced apart second circular plate as a bottom, wherein the first and second circular plate are connected by a cylindrical wall that is at least partially covered by the mesh member. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the circular top and bottom are connected by spaced apart rods disposed between a center of the cylinder and the cylindrical wall. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods further comprising a step of adding balls to the contained space to facilitate the tumbling of the mixture Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein one of the liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen are introduced to the enclosed space as a jet from a center of one of the first and second circular plate wherein the jet of an expanding gas impinges on the other circular plate to disperse within the plant matter. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the cylinder is rotated to tumble the plant matter. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the mesh member has holes with a diameter of about 0.25 inches Another aspect of the invention is any of the aforesaid methods further comprising the additional steps of: terminating the tumbling of the plant matter, removing the remaining plant matter that consists essentially buds and flower, and further processing the buds and flower to remove resin bearing trichomes there form. The above and other objects, effects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of the embodiments thereof taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1A is a perspective view of the separator with the lid in place, whereas FIG. 1B shows the inside of the lid in a removed inverted position from FIG. 1A. FIG. 2A is a top perspective view of the lower portion of the separator with the lid removed to illustrate an embodiment of the frame, whereas FIG. 2B is a perspective view of the separator showing the frame and lid removed. FIG. 3A is a side elevation view of the separator with a transparent lid, FIG. 3B shows the separator in an orthogonal side elevation view with the lid open and inverted. FIG. 4A is a perspective view of an embodiment of the filter, with FIG. 4B illustrating the frame, and FIG. 4.C showing the filter installed over the frame. FIG. 4D illustrates the filter in a disassembled condition in a plan view. FIG. 5A is a perspective view of an embodiment of the filter installed over the frame while FIG. 5B illustrates the filter in a disassembled condition in a plan view. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional elevation view of another embodiment of the filter shown attached the ends of the support frame. FIG. 7 is a cross-section elevation view through a central portion of the filter that is transverse to a cord showing the surrounding reinforcing strip. FIG. 8A is a side elevation view of another embodiment of the filter, while FIG. 8B is a cross-sectional elevation view of a portion of the filter that attaches to the frame, whereas FIG. 8C illustrates the filter in a disassembled condition in a plan view. FIG. 9 is a plan view of a portion of another embodiment of the disassembled filter. FIG. 10A is a perspective view of an internal filter bag whereas FIG. 10B and 10C illustrate in a perspective view and cross-sectional view respectively how the bag is mounted within the frame to be surrounded by the larger filter that fits over the frame. FIG. 11 is a partial cut away elevation view of a preferred embodiment of the motor. FIG. 12 is a schematic diagram illustrating an alternative embodiment of the invention using 2 or more of the inventive apparatus in a variety of inventive processes or methods. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring to FIGS. 1A through 12, wherein like reference numerals refer to like components in the various views, there is illustrated therein a new and improved Horizontal Axis Rotary Separation Apparatus and Process, generally denominated 1000 herein. In accordance with an aspect of the present invention the horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus 1000 comprises a chamber 100 which may have a half cylindrical basin 110 having an upper rim 111 and a half cylindrical lid 120 having a lower rim 121. The basin 110 preferably includes at a bottom a drain portal 113 to remove fluid used in the separation process and/or the resinous product of the separation process. The basin 110 is preferably disposed above a support surface by feet or frame edges 119. In such an embodiment the chamber 110 is cylindrical. However, the chamber 110 can be other shapes so long as it accommodates the internal rotating filter support frame 200, described further below. Other aspects of the invention will be described with respect to the preferred cylindrical chamber 100. A pair of side end plates 131 and 132 is connected to opposing ends of the basin 110 and extends upward above the upper rim 111 thereof. The lid 120 is configured to fit over the edge of the side plates 131 and 132 so the straight side of the lower rim 121 meet the corresponding straight sides of the upper rim 111 and generally provide a closed cylindrical cavity 1001. The sides 131 and 132 may have upward extending handles 125 and 125′. The lid 120 preferably has handles 125L just above the opposing lower rims 121. Handles 125 and 125′ are also optionally placed on the adjacent portion of the lid 120, as illustrated when the lid is inverted in FIG. 3B. In either embodiment, the lid 120 may also have handles 125L just above the opposing lower rims 121. The junctions between the basin 110 edges and the edges of the side end plates 131 and 132 that mate with the edge of the lid are preferably at least partially sealed during processing with a gasket or conforming elastic material, which is optionally discrete pieces of convention weather stripping material. The cylindrical cavity 1001 between the basin 110 and lid 120 also contains a rotating filter support frame 200. The filter support frame 200 has attached spaced apart support disks 231 and 232 that are connected by a series of posts 240 to form a rigid support assembly. Three or more posts 240 extend about the periphery 231p of each disk 231 and 232 to form a rigid support for a generally but not exclusively flexible filter bag member 300, of which an embodiment is illustrated in perspective view in FIG. 3A. The support frame 200 optionally includes a central post or support 241, which in select embodiments provide a conduit to 241b feed fluid, such as gas or liquid into the cavity 1001 via side holes 241h to aid in the separation process. Post 241 is disposed along the cylindrical axis of the frame 200, which becomes the rotary axis in the process of separation. The rotating filter support frame 200 is adapted to rotate about a cylindrical axis 201 of the device 1000 and the cylindrical cavity 1001. A rotary drive means 400 is adapted to couple to at least one end of the rotary support frame 200. The filter frame support 200 has portions 242 and 243 that extend beyond spaced apart support disks 231 and 232 that engage a rotary drive couplings 500 supported by the by the side plates 131 and 132. At least one of the rotary drive couplings is preferably a rotary bearing with an intermeshing or rotary tooth structure 410 at one side to engage a complimentary structure in the outward extending portion 242 or 243. The rotary drive means 400 is coupled to the rotary tooth structure 410, such as by a drive shaft that is support by a bearing at the interface to the side plates 131 or 132. The opposing side plate also has a rotary bearing for supporting the other extending post 242 or 243. The rotary tooth structure 410 is preferably disposed inside the cavity 1001. It is also preferably to deploy a rotary bearing and quick disconnect on one end outside of support disks 231 or 232. The removable filter member 300 extends over the support frame 200 and is adapted to be filed with plant matter from a side opening having a zipper 310. In the process of use, plant matter is inserted in the removable filter member 300 and with the lid 120 removed. The lid 120 is closed to seal the cavity 1001 and the latching hinges 126 are engaged to secure the lid 120 in place. Then the filter support 200 is rotated by the rotary drive means 400. Plant resin particles escape through the filter openings and tumble to the bottom of the basin 120. The lid 120 is opened and the rotary filter support frame 200 is removed from the rotary coupling, such as the rotary tooth structure 410 in the lower cylindrical base 120, and then placed in the inverted half cylindrical lid 120. When the frame 200 is removed solid product is optionally removed from the bottom of the basin 120 via the rim 121, or via the drain portal 113. Fluid can be used to continuously flush product through the drain portal 113. In a more preferred embodiment illustrated in FIG. 3B, the lid 120 is in hinged engagement to the side of the basin 120 to provide a work station for removing and replacing the filtered plant matter with new plant matter while the product is being removed from the basin 120. As illustrated in FIG. 3B, the latches on one side of the rim 111 are preferably double axis hinges 127 to space the upper shell or lid 120 laterally away from the lower shell or basin 110. The lid 120 has handles 125 and 125′, which support the lid 120 in the inverted position used to support the filter member 300 as disposed over the support frame 200. The rims 121 and 111 opposite the hinges 126 and 127 are connected by clamps prior to engaging the rotational drive means 400. Another aspect of the invention are preferred and alternative embodiments of the removable filter member 300, which are adapted to fit over the rotating filter support frame 200, which more particularly can be readily removed or replaced from the support for cleaning or maintenance, or simply to facilitate the removal of spent plant matter after resin product is removed. It should be appreciated that the filter member 300, such as is illustrated in FIG. 4A-4D, is a generally cylindrical mesh bag generally conforming with the shape of the frame 200 to fill cavity 1001, but configured to not interfere with the rotation of the frame 200, as well as to provide a tight seal to the support disks 231 and 232 for maintaining plant matter therein during the separation process. The bag or filter 300 has a rectangular central portion 305 that is formed into a tube sealed by circular ends or bases 331 and 332. As illustrated in FIG. 5A and 5B, when the filter 300 extends over the support disks 231 and 232 the circular ends 331 and 332 are preferably annular to provide an aperture 335 for extending post 242 or 243. The annular ends 331 and 332 are optionally tightened over the support disks 231 and 232 by a cinch cord 383 or elongated elastic member that passes through a channel formed in the inner annular end of each of end 331 and 332. The filter member on the support frame 200 defines within the closed interior surface thereof and disks 231 and 232 a container or containment vessel 311 for materials to be processed of which a smaller component, or a component produced or released during processing will exit the container 311 and enter the surrounding portion of the closed cylindrical cavity 1001, for eventual collection with the lid and filer frame 200 removed or by exiting by drainage port 113. In some processes of use it is desirable to add fluid or gases in to cavity 1001 or the container 311 while the cover is in placed and optionally when the support frame 200 is turning or rotating. Such inlet for fluid and gases can be in the center of the end 131 or 132, passing through the adjacent end of disk 231 and 323 at the center thereof to introduce gas or fluid into the container 311 to aid in the process of the matter therein. Fluid can be introduced by the same method or any other penetration in the chamber 100 to flush material that exit the container 311 via the drainage portal 113. It should be appreciated that the longitudinal side zipper 310, which is deployed for side filling access to the frame supported filter 300, can be replaced with an alternative sealing means, such as loop and hook fasteners, button, loops, snaps and the like. Side zipper 310 is generally formed by attaching the engaging side teeth 310a and 310b at sides 301a and 301a′ of the rectangular screen or mesh sheet 305. As shown in FIG. 6, the filter 300 can be formed by attaching the rectangular filter sheet 305 to the annular flange like ends 231f of the disks 231 and 232 by a clamp means, such as a strap or tightened belt member 601 that compresses the edge 301b of the rectangular sheet 305 into a foam member 502 that is either adhered to or supported by disk 231/232. The compressed foam 502 prevents leakage of product from inside the filter 300 at edges 301b and 301b′. The ends of the belt 601 can be attached with a buckle, hook and loop fasteners, snaps and the like. The filter member or bag 300 of FIG. 4-6 has the aforementioned zipper 310 along a longitudinal side may also include one transverse reinforcing band, such as a fabric strip 320 extending around the circumference of the bag disposed between opposing ends. As shown in FIG. 7, the fabric strip 320 is preferably two adjacent strips 321 and 321′ sewn together at the edge to the mesh 305 to form an interior channel that receives an elastic cord 323 that is tightened when the zipper 310 is closed. The cord 323 is tightened by drawing the opposing ends through a common clamp member that is closed. It should be appreciated that all zipper pulls preferably have a means to be secured in a closed state, such as a locking zipper, button, snap, loop and hook fabric cover and the like. Another configuration of the filter 300 is shown in FIG. 8A-C in which a rectangular sheet 305 with side zipper 310 halves at sides 301a and 301a′ has attached at each orthogonal ends 301b and 301b′ a pairs of clamps members 801, each having a groove 802 adapted to snap into the end support disks 231/232 of the filter support frame 200. A belt 803 is wrapped around the flat portion of the gasket 802 to and tightened around the flange edge 231f such that the filter 300 and support frame 200 becomes an integrated unit. The ends of the belt 803 can be attached with a buckle, hook and loop fasteners, snaps and the like. FIG. 9 is a top plan view of the filter 300 as in FIG. 8A-C, with a second curved zipper 325 that enables side access to the filter screen sheet 305 when installed integral to the frame 200 via ends 231 and 232, such as when disposed as shown in FIG. 3B, or within the cavity 1001. It should be appreciated that the posts 240 of the support frame 200 also aid in stirring, tumbling and agitating the plant matter mixture during the separation process, preventing clumping that would lower extraction efficiency and yield. Depending on the nature of the plant matter, and the size of the separation device 1000, the number and shape of the support posts 240 may be varied to further minimize the potential for such clumping. For example, the support posts 240 also may have axially radiating planar fins, cylinder and related protuberances beyond the primary envelope of the post's circular or non-circular shaft diameter to better facility agitation, mixing, tumbling and mechanical disintegration of plant matter to release resin bearing trichromes The drain 113 can also have an external screw thread to accept a removable internally threaded cap 113c, and this cap 113c can be replaced with a hose via a threaded hose coupling to direct the flow of product to different containers or control the output flow rate via valves, such as to match the input rate of rinse water or other fluid. It should also be appreciated that the outer housing 110 and cover 120 can deviate from the generally cylindrical shape support the inventive filter support assembly 120 that is rotated therein. For example the housing 110 and cover 120 can be an elongated member with any shape linear and curvilinear cross section, including rectangular and square. The inventive device can also be used to produce compost tea by a least partially filing the chamber portion 12 with water and filing the filter enclosure 300 with composted materials. After sufficient brewing of the compost with agitation by rotating the filter 300 the composted tea is drawn out of the lower exit portal or drain 1131, which during the soaking process, is closed with a valve, cap or plug 113c. The strap or tightened belt member 601 can be used with the other embodiments of the filter 300, and beneficially reduce stress on the primary or side zipper 310, in the embodiment of FIGS. 4d, 5b and 8c, which depending on the size filter can minimize or eliminate the needs for the circumferential cord 323. The second zipper 329 of FIG. 9 facilities loading and unloading of plant material, as it avoids the strain on the filter bag 300, which would occur if the primary zipper 310 is opened when the separate sides at zipper halves 310a and 310b are pushed away. Further, it facilitates creating a larger opening, as the area circumscribed by the zipper arc 328 opens as a flap. FIG. 10A is a perspective view of an internal filter bag 701 whereas FIG. 10B and 10C illustrate in a cut-away and cross-sectional view respectively how the bag 701 is mounted within the frame 200 with hooks 705 to be surround by the larger filter 300 that fits over the frame support 200. Bag 701 is a mesh filter with a zipper closure 710. When the outer filter 300 has a finer mesh than the bag 701, the resulting resin particles of a given size are containing within the filter 300, and the bags 701 are repeatedly filled with plant matter until the resin in the filter 300 is ready for removal from the separator 1000. FIG. 11 is a partial cut away elevation view of the preferred embodiment of the drive motor 400 that is a multi process capable motor with wide speed and torque range and motor cooling features. By multi-process we mean capable of carrying out the aforementioned separation processes either dry or wet using an added fluid (generally water, but also ice water slurries) or with the assistance of gas, including adiabatic expansion of carbon dioxide gas to form “dry ice” crystals. The motor's rotor 1103 and stator 1102 are cooled to prevent over heating during use by the fan blades 1101 that coupled to the motor drive shaft, with the fan blades adjacent to intake apertures 1005 formed in the motor housing 1106. The drive shaft that supports the rotor 1103 is connected to the filter support coupling via a gear box 1109. Arrows 1150 show the direction of air flow around the rotor 1003 and between the stator 1102 from the lower intake apertures 1005 to exit at the upper apertures 1007. The forced air cooling is important for providing a single motor that can accommodate the range of speeds and torques needed in the potential separation processes noted above. The inventive apparatus can be used to separate a wide range and type of materials. Many plant and herb species have the highest concentrations of terpene and cyclic terpene bearing aromatic and medicinal resins in the flowering portions of the plant, and in particular in glandular or secreting trichomes. The flowers typically form at the tips of growing shoots. The flowers, flower buds and leaves have hair like outgrowths that are referred to as trichomes. The glandular trichomes secrete plant resins as a small bulb or head at the end of a stalk like hair. A range of methods have been developed in attempts to efficiently and economically process Cannabaccae plant matter to extract glandular trichome to yield high concentrations of the resin by separating the plant matter acquired in the harvesting of the flowers, flower buds and leaves from cannabis plants. Some prior art sieving method use water as a medium to suspend the plant matter, while other methods sieve the plant matter without water, while others do so in the dry state. Generally speaking, such wet or water based sieving extraction processes for Cannabaceae trichomes yield an inseparable mix of desirable trichomes and undesirable plant debris, based on size as well as the duration and intensity of agitation. Such a process is generally disclosed in the International Patent Application with publication no. WO 2014/00919A2 (to J. P. Love, which published (Jan. 2014), and is incorporated herein by reference. Another prior art separation method is disclosed in issued U.S. Pat. No. 8,640,877 (Pastorius, Feb. 4, 2014) for a pollen separator, which is incorporated herein by reference. Various raw plant materials are processed via such a water and ice agitation method. It further suggests that small diameter mixtures of plant pollen and plant debris are separated by eight sieves, having progressively smaller holes from 220, 190, 160, 120, 90, 73, 45 to 25 microns. However, the patent is silent on separating the desired pollen or other components from plant debris of the same size, other than by solvent extraction. Similarly, U.S. Pat. No. 4,051,771 (Miyata , et al., Oct. 4, 1977), which is also incorporated herein by reference discloses an apparatus for obtaining lupulin-rich products from hops, in which lupulin glands or trichomes are extracted by a combination of crushing and dry sieving in a frozen state. The inventive apparatus can be used to separate the trichomes from various plant and herb species. The method of using the apparatus, and variants on the apparatus that might be already known to one of ordinary skill in the art can be adapted to improve the separation rate and efficiency for a particular plan species of separation objective. For example, the inventive apparatus can be used in different ways to obtain either the isolated trichomes, or plant matter having the highest concentration of trichomes. The tips of growing plans that are beginning the flowering process may have multiple flower buds or flower interspersed with fine leaves. These fine leaves are known as bracts and bracteoles. In the case of cannabis and related species, such as hops, the flower region contain multiple buds, also known as calyx's, as well as pistils, seeds, bracts and bracteoles. The bracts and bracteoles in Cannabis are referred to as sugar leaves. While the sugar leaves have higher concentrations of trichomes and the desirable resins than larger or bigger leaves, often referred to as palm leaves, which are lower down the shoots from the flower region, the highest density of trichomes and hence concentration of resins are in the calyx's and pistils of the flowers and buds. Thus, it is desirable in processing Cannabis plants to isolate the flowers from plants, but remove the seeds, if any, and sugar leaves. These sugar leaves, when removed or “trimmed” are frequently referred to as “trim”. Another aspect of the invention is a method of rapidly removing the “trim” or “trimming” while leaving the other desirable portions of the plant, which is the flower and buds largely intact. Another aspect of the invention is further processing the “trim” to extract and isolate the trichomes there from. In such a process it is also desirable to minimize the extraction of cellulosic debris from the trim, as well as leaf cells components, such as chlorophyll. It is a common practice in harvesting Cannabis to cut growing shoot or stalks having palm leaves and flowers, and then dry these shoots or stalk. The palm leaves can be removed, such as by cutting or manual pulling, before or after drying. The sugar leaves are typically removed after drying. Another aspect of the invention is a method for trimming sugar leaves, other leaves and other undesirable plant matter the entire plant without drying. Avoiding drying saves space and time, as well as manual labor. It can also produce a Cannabis extract that retains essentially all the Cannabidiol (CBD) produced by the plants. CBD is one of at least 113 active cannabinoids identified in cannabis and can account for up to 40% of extracted plant resin. However it deteriorates rapidly with further processing, such as drying of the plants. CBD does not have any intoxicating effects and is component of several drugs under development or undergoing regulatory approval. Further, since such a Cannabis extract will also contain the A form of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), which is not psychoactive (in contrast to the Δ9 form of THC) it can be used for medicinal purposes without the need to separate the THC. The A form of THC converts to the Δ9 form rapidly as freshly cut Cannabis plant matter starts to dry. The preferred modes of conducting these processes are described below with respect to versions of the inventive apparatus in which the filter 300 as supported on the support frame 200 has an internal capacity or volume of about 5-20 gallons, which respectively can be used to contain and process about 3-15 lbs. of plant matter, in the case of Cannabis, as well as any other plant species in which the glandular trichome produce resin that is desirable to separate for further processing or direct use. To accommodate such loads of materials and sizes support frames the motor can have a speed range of about 10 to 40 RPM. A preferred apparatus has 3 discrete speeds of 15, 25 and 35 rpm, and deploys a motor is capable of providing the same torque at these speed to accommodate partially filling the chamber with water or another liquid, that is up to about 5-15 gallons, as well as the above weights of plant matter. More preferably the motor is capable being selectively operative to spin in opposite directions, and not in just a single direction. It has been discovered that for the above capacity ranges, rotation speeds lower than about 10-15 rpm are not effective, while speed higher than about 35-40 rpm apply excessive centrifugal force. This excessive centrifugal urges the plant material toward the filter member 300 where it is retained. It is desirable to deploy a speed range in which the plant matter mixes and tumbles with each rotation of the filter member 300. The mixing and tumbling are beneficially enhanced by several means. One such means is the spacing of the posts 240 of the support frame 200 as described above. Another means to improve agitation, mixing and tumbling is to add discrete pieces of non-plant matter that is inert and durable. Golf ball sizes spheres with a diameter of 0.5 to 2 inches are effective. In particular ordinary golf balls have both the desired size and density, which is mass, as well as inertness to be used in the various separation processes disclosed herein. It has been discovered that about 3 to 6 golf balls or similar size tumbling agent are effective in a 5 gallon chamber, while about 6-9 are effective in a 20 gallon chamber. The tumbling aids should not be so hard and/or massive that at the desired speed they would damage the material that forms the filter 300. The balls or tumbling agents aid not only in breaking up material but also liberates any buildup of trichomes on the mesh or screen. In a preferred trimming process while the plant matter is tumbling within the closed space of the filter 300 an inert freezing agent, such as one of liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen, is introduced therein in a quantity, rate and volume sufficient to rapidly reduce the temperature to about zero ° F. When an inert gas such as liquid carbon dioxide is introduced at a temperature of about −100 to −110° F. this temperature drop occurs in about 20 seconds to 2 minutes. The rapid temperate drop from injecting liquid CO2 is believed to both purge oxygen and rapidly freeze residual moisture in the one or more of the leaves, bracts and bracteoles causing the fragmentation thereof to separate it from the desirable portions of the plant matter, which are the buds and flowers. When the filter 300 has mesh opening of about ¼ in. to ½ in, this fragmented plant matter on continued tumbling then traverses the mesh opening of the filter while the filter 300 retains a residual portion of the flowers. The use of liquid freezing agents also removes surface molds and fungus, and is believed to kills E. Coli bacteria. The expanding gas also purges oxygen, preventing degradation of the cannabinoids during processing, and in the case of freshly cut cannabis, that is uncured plant matter, also prevents the conversion of the A form of THC to Δ9 THC, as well as the loss of the desirable CBD and potentially other cannabinoids of medicinal value. It been discovered that after such trimming to remove sugar leaves, the residual flowers can then be processed again by changing the filter 300 to one having a smaller mesh size of less than about 25 to 200 microns to separate the trichome glands that are swollen the large resin content from the cellulosic plant matter in the buds and flower. The mesh is selected in accordance with the trichomes or other plant matter size that is intended to be separated from the other plant matter, which can be larger or smaller depending on the plant species and state of maturity, as well as if the intent is to separate other plant materials, such as pollens or seeds. In the case of processing the flower and buds that have been trimmed form Cannabis plants, the inert freezing agent is preferably introduced at a quantity, rate and volume sufficient to rapidly reduce the temperature to about −60° F. When an inert gas such as liquid carbon dioxide is introduced at a temperature of about −1100 to −110° F. this temperature drop occurs in about 2-3 minutes. The rapid temperate drop from injecting liquid CO2 rapidly freezes the flowers and bud such that the resin filled trichomes break free and separate, and also become harden and less sticky as the viscous resins therein solidify. This process can be completed in additional 5-15 minutes of turning or rotating the container 311, after the initial 2-3 of turning or rotating the container 311 during the phase of cooling about −60° F. More specifically it generally requires about 1-3 minutes of additional turning or rotating per lb. of material. The process generates a resin, or at least a resin rich concentrate, commonly known as kief for Cannabis resin extracts. The prior trimming process of the uncured leaves takes only about 30 seconds to a minute of additional turning or rotating per lb. When desired, dry or cured plant matter can also be trimmed or sugar and palm leaves by the first step as described above for green or uncured plant matter. It should be noted that an unexpected result of using a liquid freezing agent is the discovery of temperature ranges that can selectively fracture sugar and palm leaves, for removal, without significantly disintegrating the flower and buds, while a lower temperature is effective in disintegrating the flower and buds to the extent necessary to liberate the resin bearing trichomes. This enables full processing of Cannabis and other plant species immediately after harvest when in the uncured state to extract useful materials, such as CDB and THC-A without degradation. Liquid CO2 can be used or metered from compressed gas tanks with the manually opening of the main gas valve, which is preferably connect to an insulated high pressure rated hose line leading to the chamber 100, and more preferred fed to the chamber via a coupling or portal in the chamber 100, the support frame 200, but preferably directly into the container 311 of the plan matter. Sufficient freezing rates to reduce the environment of the plant matter to about −60° F. can be obtained with about 15 lbs of plant matter in a 20 gallon capacity chamber in about 3 minutes from a tank of liquid CO2 compressed to about 800 psi, utilizing about 25 lbs. of the CO2. Such tanks can be used even when the pressure drops to about 250 psi from prior process use. An adequate flow rate of liquid CO2 can be obtained by measuring the tank weight loss, which for the above parameters is about 8 lbs./minute. Alternatively, or additionally the temperature can be monitored inside the chamber. Approximately about 5-8 lbs. of liquid CO2 would be sufficient for “trimming” about 3 lbs. of plant matter in a 5 gallon capacity chamber. Alternatively, about 8-15 lbs. of liquid CO2 can be used for trimming about 5 to 10 lbs. of plant matter in a 20 gallon capacity chamber. Trimming separation vs. the production of trichome resin glands, kief, from the separated flower and bud, requires about 70-75 percent less liquid CO2 Thus, it is likely that about 1.5 to 4 lbs. of liquid CO2 are required per pound of plant matter. It should be appreciated as a smaller capacity chamber has a larger surface area to volume ratio, the higher consumption of liquid CO2 may be due to heat losses. It is expected that the consumption of the CO2 could be reduced to improve efficiency at lower environmental chamber, but more preferably with thermal insulation of the chamber and/or using larger chambers. Colder inert liquids, such as liquid nitrogen may also require less inert freezing agent relative to the consumption of CO2 reported above. Preferred rates of temperature drop and liquid freezing agent consumption can be readily developed using the above ranges as general guidelines. Liquid nitrogen and liquid CO2 are examples of preferred liquid freezing agents, being compressed gases, they disperse on heating toward room temperature, and readily available. Other compressed gases can be used to provide liquid freezing agents, such as argon, helium, neon and the like. It should be appreciated that if a gasket is used to seal the chamber, it should either be configures to slowly vent the expanding gas, or more preferably a safety pressure release valve should be deployed on the chamber 100. In another embodiment of the invention, an inert freezing agent may be solid CO2, commonly known as dry ice. However, it is less desirable because it does not provide the rapid chilling that causes fragmentation of the sugar leaves, which enables the novel trimming process discussed above. Dry ice can be used in the inventive apparatus to the extent one is processing material that is already trimmed, or using trimmed sugar and/or palm or big leaves to further extract the trichome that a represent at a lower density, The various embodiments of the inventive apparatus can be used with dry ice, which for most forms of plant matter in which it is desirable to have cold processing, are preferably in the form of pellets or chips up to about a 0.5 in. in the maximum dimension, as well as with larger circa 0.5 to 2 inch square size cubes or comparable or larger sized balls. Smaller pellets or chips are more effective in chilling material rapidly, such as to solidify and harden viscous or sticky resin components, such as the product of the glandular trichomes which remain attached thereto, while larger ball or cubes are helpful agitating agents. Small pellets and larger cubes or balls of dry ice can be used together. Balls and other agitation means also adding in precluding a gradual build up of the resin on the exterior of the mesh or filter, as more trichome resin particles pass through the holes therein. Having made these discoveries, it will now be appreciated that other agitation means can also accomplish this goal, such as vibration and/or impact with balls or other instruments on the exterior of the filter mesh where the buildup can occur. Further, any of the above methods of using solid or liquid freezing agents can be uses to fracture plant matter and harden trichome resin before adding water and other fluids to enhance the tumbling and mixing of material in the rotating chamber that improves the sieving efficiency. Another preferred aspect of any of the above processes is process and apparatus illustrated in FIG. 12, in which first and second extractor are connected for use in series. As a non-limiting example of such use, fragmented leaves, bracts and bracteoles, which may be primary sugar leaves of Cannabis, separated in a first rotary extractor 1001 undergoes further processing in a second rotary separator 1002 to extract the trichomes there from. In such an embodiment it is also preferred that the separation method deploy a first and second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, each having a chamber 100 or 100′ having an inlet port 10013 or 10023 at the side and an outlet or drainage port 113 and 113′ at the bottom, a rotating filter support frame 200 adapted to rotate about a cylindrical axis 201 thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, a filter member 300 or 301′ adapted to form an enclosed space or container 311 over the filter support frame 200 and 200′ a rotary drive means adapted to turn or rotate the rotating filter support frame 200 and 200′ about a primary axis 201 thereof that is disposed in a horizontal plane. The rotary drive means in any embodiment can be a separate motor on each apparatus, or one motor connected by gears, chains, pulleys and/or direct to both chambers, such as but not limited or embodiment in FIG. 1-11. The outlet port of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus is connect to the inlet port of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. The inlet port is through a side wall for admitting effluent, namely fracture “trim” into the second enclosed space of the second cylindrical cavity. In using this configuration of apparatus 2000, A method of plant matter separation may comprise the steps of admitting plant matter to the enclosed space or container 311 of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, rotating the rotating filter support frame of the first and second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus and collecting a purified effluent from the outlet 113′ at the bottom of the chamber 100′ of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus 1002. In this method and apparatus, the filter member 300 of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus 1001 has a larger opening size than the filter member 300′ of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus 1002, such as to enable the release of fractured trim. Water or another fluid is used to flush fragmented matter into the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, via a connecting conduit 1500. The conduit 1500 can connect to the side entry portal 10023 to directly feed material separated in chamber 100 the container 311′ of chamber 100′. Alternatively the conduit can be configured as 1500′ to add fluid or gas to the cavity 1001′ of chamber 100′, such as via the lid. Similarly fluid or gas can be added to chamber 100 via portal 10013, directly to container 311, or via an upper portal 10014. Chamber 100′ is shown with an optional upper penetration 10014′ for the same purpose, as well as to optionally connect conduit 1500′.The filter member 300′ of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus may have a circa 25 to 200 micron mesh opening size to retrain the fractured trim, but allow the passage through the mesh of the smaller glandular trichomes that were on the sugar and/or palm leaves (or some small fraction that may have been released from the flowers and bud in the trimming process) and had been released there form by the combination of additional agitation and or fragmentation in the tumbling process such as from inert balls and/or dry ice. Any combination of dry tumbling, tumbling with mixtures of water or other fluid and agitation balls or dry ice, liquid CO2 or liquid nitrogen can be used in either the first or second chamber, and can be introduced at any inlet port or via the open bag. The configuration of FIG. 12 can also be used when it is desired to separate plant or other matter into materials of 2 or 3 size ranges, such as when the objective of the separation process is to separate trichomes by size range, or separate trichomes from “trim” or extract additional trichomes from “trim” or larger leaves. The filters 300 and 300′ are selected to provide the desired size of the opening in the mesh thereof. It should also be understood it is not essential to dry the plant matter before the “trimming” process. A potential advantage of not drying or using so called “green”, “wet” or uncured plant matter, is that the inventive process avoid the loss of CBD and the decarboxylation of A type THC, which converts it to more psychoactive form; trans-Δ9THC. Avoiding this decarboxylation results in product that is richer in non-psychoactive cyclic terpenes, such a CBD, which have other medicinal properties being mimetic of endocannabinoids and their activity with cannabinoids receptors. The use of liquid CO2 in various embodiments of the extraction process yielded unexpected improvements. First, when trimming at the preferred temperatures, the sugar leaves would fragment without damaging the plant buds and flowers. Hence, using mesh screen with opening in the range form about ¼ inch (6 mm) to about ½ inch (12 mm) these plant fragments would exit the container, while the buds and flower that are rich in trichomes would remain in the chamber defined by the mesh screen. While some trichomes are released in the process and separate out of the container 311 with the fragmented leaves, this material can be processed again using smaller mesh screens of about 25 to 200 microns holes to separate out the solid trichome resin glands. As different plants and stages of growth result in different size and shape trichome, the size of the holes in the mesh is selected according the size of the desired product to maximize speed, yet minimize and transfer of undesirable material. The liquid CO2 or liquid freezing agent process also significantly reduces the process times, compared with a comparable manual dry trimming process, which might run for 2 to 24 hours to achieve the desired separation. With the liquid CO2 or other liquid freezing agent process, equivalent yields from the same plant material are achieved in 15 minutes. It should be appreciated that while the liquid CO2 or other liquid freezing agent process has the greatest advantage in trimming green (uncured) or cured (dry) plant matter, it can be used in any other separation method. For example, the flowers and buds can be further processed in the same type apparatus in a manner that deliberately release trichome resin beads from this material, where the undesired plant material remains in the drum, but the small free glandular trichomes exit the chamber through a screen having a mesh size of about 25 microns to about 200 microns. The inventive apparatus can also be used to remove the remaining trichomes on the “trim” material produced by manual, that is hand trimming or the inventive liquid freezing agent process. Manual or such processed trimmed leaves, that is sugar and/or the bigger palm leaves of can be reprocessed with the above liquid freezing agent method. Further water, dry ice, tumbling balls can also be used as a medium to release the trichome beads that are resin rich from any type of plant matter. Another surprising improvement with the inventive apparatus compared with liquid wet sieving with bags is the faster speed of draining water through a fine mesh bag can take 30 minutes to about 12 hours, while in the inventive apparatus the flush an equivalent amount of water in 5 to 10 minutes for an about 6 to ×24 advantage in speed. While the invention has been described in connection with a preferred embodiment, it is not intended to limit the scope of the invention to the particular form set forth, but on the contrary, it is intended to cover such alternatives, modifications, and equivalents as may be within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF INVENTION <EOH>The field of the present invention is the extraction of resins containing organic compounds from resinous plants, and more particularly to the separation of resin from resin-bearing glandular trichomes bearing from plants buds and flower, which tend to be high in trichome as a weight and/or volume, as well lower weight resin bearing plant matter, such as leaves and stem materials. A number of plant varieties produce commercially valuable isoprene derivatives and phenolic compounds such as terpenoids in cell assemblies know as trichomes or more specifically, in the glands of glandular trichomes. Portions of different plants are rich in trichomes containing compounds of interest in commercial and medicinal applications. Conventional extractive processes may not be adequate in preserving volatile and/or oxidation-sensitive compounds. Conventional extraction and separation methods utilize solvents which may be polar, non-polar or combinations thereof in order to extract and separate desirable substances. Conventional extraction methods are expensive to conduct safely and may introduce undesired compounds by collateral extraction. Commonly extracted undesirable compounds may include pigments such as anthocyanin, chlorophyll, tannins, saponins and lipids from cellulosic materials. Further, as plants mature, many glands of glandular trichomes increase in size, mass and chemical composition. Plant cells associated with the trichomes biosynthesize phenolic compounds including terpenoids such as cannabinoids and humulones, However, at harvest time, when the plant is deemed to have reached a peak in the content of desired compounds, trichome assemblies may be in a range of sizes. Trichome and trichome gland assemblies can be separated from the bulk of undesirable plant material by sieving procedures. Larger trichomes can be harder to separate from undesirable plant matter that does not contain desired chemical species. However, as resin bearing trichomes are sticky, physical separation by dry or wet sieving processes are problematic because a large fraction of plant matter fragments of comparable size to the desired trichomes are generated from the mechanical force of agitation, chopping or grinding of the plant matter to release the desirable trichomes and/or trichome glands. In any physical separation process, it is necessary to not only collect the resin product, but remove residue and clean the filter. It is an object of the present invention to provide an improved process and device to remove residue and clean the filter, as well as collect the product under conditions discovered most conducive to rapid and efficient separation. The above and other objects, effects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of the embodiments thereof taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings | <SOH> SUMMARY OF INVENTION <EOH>In the present invention, the first object is achieved by providing Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods A horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus comprising a cylindrical chamber having a lower half cylindrical basin with an upper rim and having a first and second circular end plates coupled to opposing end of lower half cylindrical basin that extend above the upper rim, an upper half cylindrical lid with a lower rim, adapted for connecting to the upper rim and an upper periphery of the first and second circular end plates that extends above the upper rim, a rotating filter support frame adapted to rotate about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, a removable filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame, a rotary drive means adapted to rotate the opposing ends of the rotary support frame in the first and second circular end plates, and a rotary drive coupling to support opposing ends of the rotary support frame in the first and second circular end plates. A second aspect of the invention is such a horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus wherein the upper half of the cylindrical lid is coupled to the lower half cylindrical base by one or more hinges disposed at an adjacent portion of the upper and lower rims thereof, the hinge being disposed for adjacent placement of the upper half to the lower half. Another aspect of the invention is any such a horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus wherein the removable filter member has longitudinal side zipper that extends substantially between the upper and lower cylindrical base. Another aspect of the invention is any such a horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus wherein the removable filter member has a circumferential reinforcement band disposed between opposing ends. Another aspect of the invention is a method of plant matter separation comprising the steps of providing at least a first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, having a chamber having an inlet port and an outlet at a bottom, a rotating filter support frame adapted to rotate about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame wherein the inlet port is adopted to deliver product to be separated into the enclosed space, a rotary drive means adapted to turn the rotating filter support frame while a primary axis thereof is disposed in a horizontal orientation, admitting plant matter to the enclosed space of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, rotating the rotating filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, admitting at least one of water, dry ice, liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen to the enclosed space during, collecting a purified effluent from the outlet at the bottom of the chamber of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a such a method wherein the at least one of water, dry ice, liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen is admitted to the enclosed space during occurs before the step of turning the rotating filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a method of plant matter separation comprising the steps of providing a first and second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, each having; a chamber having an inlet port at the side and an outlet at a bottom, a rotating filter support frame adapted to turn in rotary motion about a cylindrical axis thereof to provide a cylindrical cavity defined by a connected upper and lower cylindrical base, a filter member adapted to form an enclosed space over the filter support frame, wherein the inlet port is adopted to deliver product to separated into the enclosed space, a rotary drive means adapted to rotate the rotating filter support frame about a primary axis thereof that is disposed in a horizontal plane, wherein the outlet port of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus is connect to the inlet port of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, admitting plant matter to the enclosed space of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, turning the rotating filter support frame of the first and second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus, collecting a purified effluent from the outlet at the bottom of the chamber of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the filter member of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus has a larger opening size than the filter member of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein a liquid freezing agent is injected into enclosed space over the filter support frame of the first horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus and water is then injected to flush a product from the first outlet port to an inlet port of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods further comprising using a one or more of dry ice and balls to improve agitation in enclosed space over the filter support frame of the second horizontal axis rotary separation apparatus. Another aspect of the invention method of processing plant matter, the method comprising providing a mixture of plant matter that includes flower and flower buds and at least one of leaves, bracts and bracteoles, flowers and buds containing calyxes and sugar leaves, placing the mixture in a contained spaced bounded on at least one side by a mesh member, wherein the mesh member has a spacing sufficient to retain the mixture of plant matter, tumbling the mixture within the closed space, introducing a liquid freezing agent into the closed space, wherein residual moisture in the one or more of the leaves, bracts and bracteoles freezes causing the fragmentation thereof such that the fragmented plant matter traverses the mesh member and the closed space retains a residual portion of the flowers. Another aspect of the invention is any of the aforesaid methods wherein the plant matter is from the species cannabis and the residual portion is primarily calyxes. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the fragmented plant matter includes one or more of fan leaves and sugar leaves. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the contained space is a cylinder having a first circular plate at a top and a spaced apart second circular plate as a bottom, wherein the first and second circular plate are connected by a cylindrical wall that is at least partially covered by the mesh member. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the circular top and bottom are connected by spaced apart rods disposed between a center of the cylinder and the cylindrical wall. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods further comprising a step of adding balls to the contained space to facilitate the tumbling of the mixture Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein one of the liquid carbon dioxide and liquid nitrogen are introduced to the enclosed space as a jet from a center of one of the first and second circular plate wherein the jet of an expanding gas impinges on the other circular plate to disperse within the plant matter. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the cylinder is rotated to tumble the plant matter. Another aspect of the invention is a any of the aforesaid methods wherein the mesh member has holes with a diameter of about 0.25 inches Another aspect of the invention is any of the aforesaid methods further comprising the additional steps of: terminating the tumbling of the plant matter, removing the remaining plant matter that consists essentially buds and flower, and further processing the buds and flower to remove resin bearing trichomes there form. The above and other objects, effects, features, and advantages of the present invention will become more apparent from the following description of the embodiments thereof taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | A61K36185 | 20170704 | 20180111 | 63230.0 | A61K36185 | 1 | KIM, SUN U | Horizontal Axis Rotary Separation Apparatus and Process | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,641,692 | PENDING | Pants With Biasing Crotch Opening | Pants with novelty crotch opening. The pants include leg encircling portions and a crotch area with two overlapping panels that bias toward a closed position. Each panel includes a free edge that is pulled laterally to place the crotch area in an open position. When the crotch area is not being held open or has no interposing object holding it open, the crotch area immediately returns to a closed position. The crotch panel does not include fasteners such as buttons or snaps and to an outside observer does not appear to have an opening. | 1. An article of clothing comprising: a body-encircling portion having a right leg portion, a left leg portion, and a crotch portion; said crotch portion has an outer perimeter with a first side, a second side, a third side, and a fourth side, said crotch portion includes a first panel and a second panel, said crotch portion is fastenerless; said first panel has a free edge, said second panel has a free edge; wherein all of said first and second sides are attached to said first panel, and wherein a portion of said third side and a portion of said fourth side are attached to said first panel, and wherein said first panel free edge extends from said third side to said fourth side; wherein all of said third and fourth sides are attached to said second panel, and wherein a portion of said first side and a portion of said second side are attached to said second panel, and wherein said second panel free edge extends from said first side to said second side; and wherein said first and second panels are capable of biasing to a closed position to form a covering for an external vaginal area of a user. 2. The article of claim 1, said outer perimeter of said crotch portion substantially defines a kite shape. 3. The article of claim 1, said first and second panels are symmetrical to one another. 4. The article of claim 1, said right leg portion defines said first and second sides of said crotch portion, wherein all adjacent portions of said right leg portion and said first panel have parallel grain lines. 5. The article of claim 4, said left leg portion defines said third and fourth sides of said crotch portion, wherein all adjacent portions of said left leg portion and said first panel have parallel grain lines. 6. The article of claim 5, said first and second panels have parallel grain lines. 7. The article of claim 1, said crotch portion biases to a closed position regardless of the leg position of the wearer. 8. The article of claim 1, said crotch portion and said right and left leg portions are all made of the same material, said material is stretchable and resilient. 9. The article of claim 8, said material is a combination of 92% polyester and 8% spandex. 10. The article of claim 1, said crotch portion biases to a closed position when the wearer is standing or walking, said crotch portion is in an open position when the wearer's legs are spread. 11. The article of claim 1, said crotch portion outer perimeter has only four sides. 12. The article of claim 1, said first and second panels each have fleece lining on one side. 13. The article of claim 1, said crotch portion is positionable to an open position by an external force. 14. The article of claim 13, said crotch portion returns to said closed position when said external force is removed. 15. An article of clothing comprising: a body-encircling portion having a right leg portion, a left leg portion, and a crotch portion; said crotch portion has an outer perimeter with a first side, a second side, a third side, and a fourth side, said crotch portion includes a first panel and a second panel, said crotch portion is fastenerless, said crotch portion is positionable between an open position and a closed position; said first panel has a free edge, said second panel has a free edge, wherein said first panel free edge extends from said third side to said fourth side, wherein said second panel free edge extends from said first side to said second side; and wherein said crotch biases to said closed position to form a covering for an external vaginal area of a user when the user is standing or walking. 16. The article of claim 15, wherein a majority of the area of said first and second panels do not overlap. 17. The article of claim 15, said first panel free edge is arcuate, said second panel free edge is arcuate. 18. The article of claim 15, said first panel free edge is straight, said second panel free edge is straight. 19. The article of claim 15, said first panel free edge and said second panel free edge do not intersect with the external vaginal area of the user when said crotch is in said closed position. 20. An article of clothing comprising: a body-encircling portion having a right leg portion, a left leg portion, and a crotch portion; said crotch portion has an outer perimeter consisting of a first side, a second side, a third side, and a fourth side, said crotch portion includes a first panel and a second panel, said crotch portion is fastenerless, said crotch portion is positionable between an open position and a closed position, said crotch portion is substantially kite-shaped; said first panel has a free edge, said second panel has a free edge, wherein said first panel free edge extends from said third side to said fourth side, and wherein said second panel free edge extends from said first side to said second side; and wherein said crotch portion biases to a closed position. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of provisional Application No. 62/358,724, filed Jul. 6, 2016. STATEMENT REGARDING FEDERALLY SPONSORED RESEARCH OR DEVELOPMENT Not Applicable. BACKGROUND 1. Field of Invention This invention pertains to pants. More particularly, this invention pertains to women's pants that allow the wearer to engage in sexual intercourse or have a gynecological exam while fully clothed, without the use of snaps, buttons, zippers, hook-and-loop, or other fasteners. The pants include a flexible crotch opening that biases in a closed position regardless of the wearer's stance or body position. However, once the crotch portion is pulled into an open position and the wearer is engaged in sexual intercourse, the crotch portion easily maintains its open position without the wearer or the wearer's partner needing to hold the crotch portion open. The crotch portion is configured to feel to the wearer's partner like a physical extension of the wearer. 2. Description of the Related Art There is related prior art clothing for women designed to allow the wearer to urinate without removing the clothing. However, this prior art is not optimal for allowing the wearer to engage in discreet sexual intercourse while fully clothed. U.S. Pat. No. 7,100,214, titled “Article of Clothing With a Crotch Portion Positionable Between Open and Closed Positions,” by Murray, discloses an article of clothing with a crotch portion that can be opened. The crotch portion includes an overlapping first and second flap that are held together with buttons or other fasteners. Murray's invention is for use by women who need to urinate without removing their clothing, for example when it is cold outside or during outdoor athletic events when there is no restroom readily available. While Murray's pants may work well for their intended purpose, they would not be useful as pants for discreet sexual intercourse. Murray's fasteners would take time to open and close and would cause discomfort to the wearer's partner. Patent application publication 2010/0269243, titled “Pant Garment Having an Opening for Female Urination,” by Paree, discloses pants with a flap frame in the crotch portion. The flap frame has overlying flaps that the wearer pulls apart to allow the wearer to urinate while in a front stance position. While Paree's invention may work for its intended purpose, it would not be useful for sexual intercourse. Paree's flaps are overlapped too great an extent and would cause extreme discomfort to the wearer's sexual partner, unless the flaps were manually held open during intercourse. BRIEF SUMMARY According to one embodiment of the present invention, a pair of pants with a flexible crotch opening is provided. The pants include a body-encircling portion having a right leg portion, a left-leg portion, and a crotch portion. In one embodiment, the crotch portion is kite-shaped and has a perimeter that encircles at least the entrance portion of the wearer's external vaginal area. The crotch portion is positionable between open and closed positions. The crotch portion includes a first cover and a second cover, each of which are attached to the crotch portion perimeter. The first cover and the second cover each have a free edge. When the crotch portion is in a closed position, the first and second covers overlap one another to form a covering of the external vaginal area of the wearer. Neither free edge intersects the centerline of the external vaginal area of the wearer. The crotch portion biases in a closed position regardless of the position of the wearer. Thus, the crotch portion covers the wearer completely even when a wearer is running, stretching, sitting spread-legged, or doing yoga. In another embodiment, the crotch biases to a closed position during normal activities such as walking or sitting. The crotch edges are configured to spread apart sufficiently to allow for a gynecological exam, e.g., examination with the use of a speculum, without requiring removal of the pants. In one embodiment, the crotch portion does not include any fasteners, such as zippers, snaps, or a hook and loop fastening system. The crotch portion is placed in an open position by pulling apart the free edges of the first and second covers. Once the crotch portion is in an open position, a member inserted into the wearer's vaginal opening will be sufficient to hold the crotch in an open position. The first and second covers press against the member with a force and pressure configured to feel like an extension of the wearer's vagina. In one embodiment, the internal lining of the first and second covers are soft and smooth material, such as thin fleece. In one embodiment, the pants are made of a uniform material. In one embodiment, the pants are yoga pants. In one embodiment, the pants are made of a combination of polyester and spandex. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The above-mentioned features will become more clearly understood from the following detailed description read together with the drawings in which: FIG. 1 is a front view of a user wearing one embodiment, with the user in a sitting position with the user's legs spread open. FIG. 2 is the same front view as FIG. 1, with the embodiment's crotch held in an open position. FIG. 3 is the same front view as FIG. 1, during use with the wearer's partner. FIG. 4 is a front view of a crotch portion of an embodiment. FIG. 5 is an inside view of a crotch portion of an embodiment. FIG. 6 is a front view of a second variation of a crotch portion of an embodiment. FIG. 7 is an inside view of the second variation of a crotch portion of an embodiment. FIG. 8 is bottom view of an embodiment with the wearer standing in an open stance. FIG. 9 is a top view of an embodiment. FIG. 10 is a top view of an embodiment, with the crotch portion held in an open position. FIG. 11 is a front view of an embodiment. FIG. 12 is a rear view of an embodiment. FIG. 13A is a pattern piece for a left crotch panel of an embodiment. FIG. 13B is a pattern piece for a right crotch panel of an embodiment. FIG. 13C is a pattern piece for leg fronts of an embodiment. FIG. 13D is a pattern piece for leg backings of an embodiment. FIG. 14 is a front view of a third variation of a crotch portion of an embodiment. FIG. 15 is an inside view of the third variation of a crotch potion of an embodiment. FIG. 16 is a front view of a fourth variation of a crotch portion of an embodiment. FIG. 17 is an inside view of the fourth variation of a crotch portion of an embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Apparatus for discreet sexual intercourse is disclosed. The pants are generally indicated as 100. Certain elements, such as crotch panels 102, include a right-side designation 102-R or left-side designation 102-L. Other elements, such as the sides 406 of crotch opening 150, include both upper/lower and right/left designations, e.g., 406-UR, 406-UL, 406-LR, and 406-LL. In the illustrated embodiments, the apparatus is shown as full-length pants 100. However, other embodiments include shorts, jeans, slacks, tights, body-suits, bathing suits, leotards, foundation garments, panty hose, and costumes. FIG. 1 shows a wearer 190 wearing pants 100, which includes front leg pieces 106-R, 106-L, back leg pieces 108-R, 108-L, waist band front piece 104, and crotch panels 102-R and 102-L. Right leg pieces 106-R, 108-R collectively encircle the right leg of the wearer. Left leg pieces 106-L, 108-L collectively encircle the left leg of the wearer. Right and left leg pieces 106-R, 108-R, 106-L, 108-L collectively encircle the wearer's body. All pieces of the pants 100 are made of the same stretchable material, for example, a combination of 92% polyester and 8% spandex. In other embodiments, some pieces are made of a different material for ornamental or functional purposes. Front leg pieces 106-R, 106-L and back leg pieces 108-R, 108-L are configured to join in a manner to define crotch area 150. Crotch area 150 is kite-shaped. Due to the elastic nature of the material used in the pants, in some embodiments the crotch area 150 is substantially kite-shaped even if crotch area 150 does not define a kite with perfectly straight edges. Left crotch panel 102-L overlaps right crotch panel 102-R. Left and right crotch panel 102-L, 102-R bias to a closed position. As shown in FIG. 1, crotch panels 102-L, 102-R completely cover crotch area 150 even when the wearer 190 is in a spread-legged position. FIG. 2 displays the pants with the crotch area 150 in an open position. Left crotch panel 102-L is pulled to the left at 202-FL and right crotch panel 102-R is pulled to the right at 202-FR, creating opening 204 and exposing the wearer's 190 vaginal entrance. FIG. 3 displays the pants configuration when the wearer 190 engaged in sexual intercourse in the sitting position of FIGS. 1 and 2. The sitting position of wearer 190 in FIG. 3 is not limiting, as the pants 100 are operable to be used in other positions, which do not require elaboration. Once member 300 is inserted, left crotch panel 102-L right crotch panel 102-R press against member 300 with respective forces 302-FR and 302-FL, thereby reducing the size of opening 204 and limiting the exposure of the wearer 190. Free edges 402-L, 502-R become defined by member 300, thereby further limiting the wearer's 190 exposure. Because crotch panels 102-L, 102-R do not require a great amount of distention to allow for member 300, forces 302-FR and 302-FL are not so great as to cause discomfort or impediment to the wearer's 190 partner. Forces/pressures 302-FR, 302-FL are sufficiently low so as to not create a static/kinetic friction that would pull a condom off the wearer's partner. Once member 300 is removed, crotch panels 102-L, 102-R immediately return to their original closed position as shown in FIG. 1, without the wearer 190 needing to take any action such as closing or fastening the crotch panels 102-L, 102-R. FIG. 4 displays a detailed view of the outside of crotch opening 150, and FIG. 5 displays a detailed view of the inside of crotch opening 150. Crotch opening 150 is kite-shaped and includes upper right side 406-UR, upper left side 406-UL, lower right side 406-LR, and lower left side 406-LL. The ratio of the length l to the width w of each panel 102-L, 102-R is 6 to 2.5. Other embodiments have different length to width ratios. Left crotch panel 102-L is attached to all of upper left side 406-UL and all of lower left side 406-LL. Left crotch panel 102-L is attached to only a portion of upper right side 406-UR and a portion of lower right side 406-LR. Free edge 402-L extends from upper right side 406-UR to lower right side 406-LR, parallel to the seam 410 joining the front leg pieces 106-R, 106-L. Right crotch panel 102-R is attached to all of upper right side 406-UR and all of lower right side 406-LR. Right crotch panel 102-R is attached to only a portion of upper left side 406-UL and a portion of lower left side 406-LL. Free edge 502-R extends from upper left side 406-UL to lower left side 406-LL, parallel to the seam 410 joining the front leg pieces 106-R, 106-L. Free edges 402-L, 502-R are parallel to, and located on either side of, the centerline of the wearer's external vaginal area. Free edges 402-L, 502-R include respective overloop stitching 404-L, 504-R that prevent the edges 402-L, 502-R from rolling or bunching during intercourse. By spacing the free edges 402-L, 502-R from the centerline of the wearer's external vaginal area, the stitching 404-L, 504-R is impeded from entering the labia majora or causing irritation to the sensitive areas of the wearer's external vaginal area. Left and right panel inner faces are lined with a smooth, soft material 506-L, 506-R that is comfortable for both the wearer and her partner. The material 506-L, 506-R is sufficiently smooth such that the force/pressure 302-FR, 302-FL will not create a static or kinetic friction of sufficient strength remove a condom from the wearer's partner. In one embodiment, the lining is thin fleece. In one embodiment, the interior of leg portions 106-R, 106-L, 108-R, 108-L are lined with the same smooth, soft material. Free edges 402-L, 502-R are sufficiently flat that, combined with the inner lining 506-L, 506-R, the wearer does not feel the free edges 402-L, 502-R. Free edges 402-L, 502-R are not attached to any fasteners, such as buttons, snaps, or hook-and-loop combinations. A user of the pants 100 may engage in sexual intercourse without the additional step of getting undressed. In addition, a user is able to cease sexual intercourse at a moment's notice and be fully dressed immediately thereafter. In addition, a user is able to engage in sexual intercourse in cold weather without exposing skin to the elements. A user is able to engage in sexual intercourse without exposing to view any portion surrounding the wearer's crotch area, including the legs, waist, and buttocks. FIGS. 6 and 7 displays another embodiment of crotch portion 150. Left panel 600-L free edge 602-L is arcuate and concave in shape with overloop stitching 604-L. Right panel 600-R free edge 702-R is also arcuate and concave in shape and has overloop stitching 704-R. Panels 600-L, 600-R overlap to completely cover the wearer's crotch area. Both panel free edges 702-R and 602-L are displaced from the centerline of, and do not intersect, the wearer's external vaginal area. However, the overlap is least close to the respective center points of free edges 602-L, 702-R, thereby reducing the encircling force/pressure 302-FR, 302-FL against the wearer's partner when the wearer and her partner are engaged in intercourse. FIG. 8 displays the pants 100 being worn in a standing position. Panels 102-R, 102-L maintain a closed position despite the wearer 190 standing spread-legged. Free edges 402-L, 502-R are symmetrical relative to the midline of the wearer 190. FIGS. 9 and 10 illustrates a top inside view of the pants 100 being worn in a standing position. Panels 102-R, 102-L are essentially symmetrical and a mirror image of the outside view seen in FIGS. 1 and 2, whether in a closed position as in FIG. 9 or an open position as in FIG. 10. FIG. 11 illustrates a front view of the pants 100 in a standing position. FIG. 12 illustrates a rear view of the pants 100 in a standing position. Panels 102-R, 102-L are closed. To an outside observer, crotch area 150 does not even appear to have an opening. The only visible feature on crotch area 150 is left panel free edge 402-L, which presses flat against right panel 102-R. Bunching 1202 is a design feature. FIGS. 13A-13D show crotch panel and leg pattern pieces for a sample pants embodiment. Modifications of the pieces to accommodate for different shapes and sizes of wearers may be done without limiting the effectiveness of the pant's 100 intended uses. Such modifications will be obvious to those with ordinary skill in the art. Pattern pieces 13A, 13B, 13C, 13D have notch markings 1300. When two adjacent pieces are properly stitched together, their respective notch markings 1300 are superposed. The top line of the “T” of each notch marking 1300 indicates a stitch line. FIG. 13A shows a pattern piece for right crotch panel 102-R. FIG. 13B shows a pattern piece for left crotch panel 102-L. FIG. 13C shows a pattern piece to be used for right and left leg front pieces 106-R, 106-L. FIG. 13D shows a pattern piece to be used for right and left back leg pieces 108-R, 108-L. When crotch panels 102-L, 102-R and leg pieces 106-R, 106-L, 108-R, 108-L are sewn together, their adjacent portions have grainlines 1302, 1304, 1306, 1308 that are parallel such that the crotch 102 and leg pieces 106, 108 stretch in the same direction. As a result, crotch area 150 is less likely to bunch and disclose any opening 204 unless the wearer holds crotch area 150 in an open position. FIG. 14 is an outside view of the crotch portion 150 attached to another embodiment of a left crotch panel 1400-L and a right crotch panel 1400-R. FIG. 15 is an inside view of the crotch portion 150 attached to left crotch panel 1400-L and right crotch panel 1400-R. The left crotch panel 1400-L includes a free edge 1402-L that extends from upper right 406-UR to lower right 406-LR. Left crotch panel 1400-L and right crotch panel 1400-R overlap such that the external vaginal area of the user is between free edges 1402-L, 1502-R. The free edge 1502-R of right crotch panel 1400-R is not visible from the outside. A majority of the area of the crotch panels 1400-L, 1400-R do not overlap one another. The length to width ratio of each panel 1400-R, 1400-L is approximately 6:2. The crotch panels 1400-L, 1400-R bias to a closed position such that the crotch portion 150 will not open during everyday activities such as walking or sitting. The free edges 1402-L, 1502-R of the crotch panels 1400-L, 1400-R are sufficiently close to the center such that crotch portion 150 is capable of being opened large enough for medical examination purposes, for example, inserting a speculum, or conducting a fertility treatment procedure. The forces 302-FR, 302-FL pressing against an inserted speculum would not be in direct opposition; however, the forces 302-FR, 302-FL are not sufficient to dislodge a speculum or cause a torque in the speculum that would discomfort the patient. Thus, a patient may wear the pants while traveling to a medical appointment, wear the pants 100 during the medical appointment, undergo an exam or treatment, and leave the medical appointment without ever having had to remove the pants 100. The patient would remained clothed during an examination, thereby making the patient feel more comfortable and relaxed during pelvic examinations and procedures. FIG. 16 is an outside view of the crotch portion 150 attached to another embodiment of a left crotch panel 1600-L and a right crotch panel 1600-R. FIG. 17 is an inside view of the crotch portion 150 attached to left crotch panel 1600-L and right crotch panel 1600-R. The panels 1600-L, 1600-R have different widths and are not symmetrical. The left crotch panel 1600-L includes a free edge 1602-L that extends from upper right 406-UR to lower right 406-LR. Left crotch panel 1400-L and right crotch panel 1600-R overlap such that the external vaginal area of the user is between free edges 1602-L, 1702-R. The free edge 1702-R of right crotch panel 1600-R is not visible from the outside. A majority of the area of the crotch panels 1600-L, 1600-R do not overlap one another. The length to width ratio of the left panel 1600-L is approximately 6 to 2. The length to width ratio of the right panel 1600-R is approximately 6 to 2.5. In another embodiment, the length to width ratio of the left panel 1600-L is approximately 6 to 2.5, and the length to width ratio of the right panel 1600-R is approximately 6 to 2. The crotch panels 1600-L, 1600-R bias to a closed position such that the crotch portion 150 will not open during everyday activities such as walking or sitting. The free edge 1602-L of the crotch panels 1600-L is sufficiently close to the center such that crotch portion 150 is capable of being opened large enough for medical examination purposes, for example, inserting a speculum, or conducting a fertility treatment procedure. While the present invention has been illustrated by description of several embodiments and while the illustrative embodiments have been described in considerable detail, it is not the intention of the applicant to restrict or in any way limit the scope of the appended claims to such detail. Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to those skilled in the art. The invention in its broader aspects is therefore not limited to the specific details, representative apparatus and methods, and illustrative examples shown and described. Accordingly, departures may be made from such details without departing from the spirit or scope of applicant's general inventive concept. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>According to one embodiment of the present invention, a pair of pants with a flexible crotch opening is provided. The pants include a body-encircling portion having a right leg portion, a left-leg portion, and a crotch portion. In one embodiment, the crotch portion is kite-shaped and has a perimeter that encircles at least the entrance portion of the wearer's external vaginal area. The crotch portion is positionable between open and closed positions. The crotch portion includes a first cover and a second cover, each of which are attached to the crotch portion perimeter. The first cover and the second cover each have a free edge. When the crotch portion is in a closed position, the first and second covers overlap one another to form a covering of the external vaginal area of the wearer. Neither free edge intersects the centerline of the external vaginal area of the wearer. The crotch portion biases in a closed position regardless of the position of the wearer. Thus, the crotch portion covers the wearer completely even when a wearer is running, stretching, sitting spread-legged, or doing yoga. In another embodiment, the crotch biases to a closed position during normal activities such as walking or sitting. The crotch edges are configured to spread apart sufficiently to allow for a gynecological exam, e.g., examination with the use of a speculum, without requiring removal of the pants. In one embodiment, the crotch portion does not include any fasteners, such as zippers, snaps, or a hook and loop fastening system. The crotch portion is placed in an open position by pulling apart the free edges of the first and second covers. Once the crotch portion is in an open position, a member inserted into the wearer's vaginal opening will be sufficient to hold the crotch in an open position. The first and second covers press against the member with a force and pressure configured to feel like an extension of the wearer's vagina. In one embodiment, the internal lining of the first and second covers are soft and smooth material, such as thin fleece. In one embodiment, the pants are made of a uniform material. In one embodiment, the pants are yoga pants. In one embodiment, the pants are made of a combination of polyester and spandex. | A41D1065 | 20170705 | 20180111 | 94510.0 | A41D106 | 1 | COLLIER, JAMESON D | Pants With Biasing Crotch Opening | MICRO | 0 | ACCEPTED | A41D | 2,017 |
|
15,642,437 | ACCEPTED | PROTECTIVE COVER FOR ELECTRONIC DEVICE | A protective cover for an electronic devices includes a protective shell base having an inner surface, an outer surface, and side members. The protective cover also includes a cushioning member configured for cushioning the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover also includes a first opening configured to align with and expose at least a portion of a capacitance-sensing interactive touch screen display when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover also includes a second opening configured to align with a camera feature of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover further includes an access port positioned to be proximate an electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. | 1. A protective cover for an electronic device having a capacitance-sensing interactive touch screen display, at least one control button, a camera feature, and an electrical interface, the protective cover comprising: a protective shell base having an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of side members defining a perimeter of the protective shell base, the perimeter at least partially covering a side of the electronic device and having one or more compliant portions configured to flexibly engage a portion of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base, the electronic device being a separate unit from the protective shell base; a cushioning member coupled with at least the inner surface of the protective shell base, the cushioning member configured for cushioning the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base; a first opening in the protective shell base, the first opening configured to align with and expose at least a portion of the capacitance-sensing interactive touch screen display of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base; a second opening in the protective shell base, the second opening configured to align with the camera feature of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base; and an access port in at least one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell base, the access port positioned to be proximate the electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. 2. The protective cover of claim 1 wherein the cushioning member is molded with the inner surface of the protective shell base. 3. The protective cover of claim 1 further comprising a movable door that covers the access port. 4. The protective cover of claim 1 further comprising an access hole in one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell base, the access hole for accessing the at least one control button of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. 5. The protective cover of claim 1 further comprising a sealing member, the sealing member configured to seal at least one of the first opening and the second opening to a surface of the installed electronic device. 6. The protective cover of claim 5 wherein the cushioning member comprises the sealing member. 7. The protective cover of claim 1 wherein the protective shell base includes four corners and the cushioning member is positioned in at least the four corners of the protective shell base. 8. A protective cover for an electronic device having a front surface including a touch screen display, a camera feature, a back surface, and a plurality of sides, at least one of the plurality of sides of the electronic device having one or more control buttons, the protective cover comprising: a protective shell base having an inner surface and an outer surface bounded by a plurality of side members that define a perimeter of the protective shell base, the perimeter adapted to at least partially cover the sides of the electronic device, the protective shell base adapted to flexibly engage and retain the electronic device, the protective shell base further adapted to at least partially cover the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base, the electronic device being a separate unit from the protective shell base; a cushioning member affixed to the inner surface of the protective shell base, the cushioning member adapted to receive at least a portion of the back surface of the electronic device; a first opening in protective shell base, the first opening adapted to expose at least a portion of the touch screen display of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base; a second opening passing through the protective shell base, the second opening adapted to provide optical access to the camera feature of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base; and an access hole in one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell base, the access hole adapted to provide access to at least one of the one or more control buttons of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. 9. The protective cover of claim 8 further comprising an optically clear insert affixed to the protective shell base and overlaying at least a portion of the second opening. 10. The protective cover of claim 9 wherein the optically clear insert comprises an optical lens. 11. The protective cover of claim 10 wherein the optically clear insert is overmolded with the protective shell base. 12. The protective cover of claim 8 further comprising an access port in at least one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell base, the access port positioned proximate an electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. 13. The protective cover of claim 8 further comprising a sealing member, the sealing member adapted to seal the access hole and adapted to engage the at least one control button of the electronic device. 14. A protective cover for use with an electronic device, the electronic device having a housing, an interactive touch screen display, a control button, a camera feature, and an electrical interface, the protective cover comprising: a protective shell having an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of side members defining a perimeter of the protective shell, the protective shell configured to receive at least a portion of the electronic device and cover at least a portion of the housing of the electronic device when the electronic device is installed in the protective shell, the protective shell having a cushioning member for cushioning at least a portion of the installed electronic device in the protective shell, the electronic device being a separate unit from the protective shell; a first opening in the protective shell, the first opening configured to align with and provide access to at least a portion of the interactive touch screen display of the installed electronic device; a second opening in the protective shell, the second opening configured to align with the camera feature of the installed electronic device and provide optical access between the camera feature of the installed electronic device and an area outside of the protective shell; and an access port in at least one of the plurality of the side members, the access port positioned to be proximate the electrical interface of the installed electronic device and configured to provide access to the electrical interface of the installed electronic device from the area outside the protective shell. 15. The protective cover of claim 14 further comprising a door for covering the access port, the door movable between a closed position and an open position for accessing the electrical interface of the installed electronic device from the area outside of the protective shell. 16. The protective cover of claim 15 wherein the door forms a watertight seal to the protective shell when the door is in the closed position. 17. The protective cover of claim 14 further comprising an access hole in one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell, the access hole configured to permit actuation of the control button of the installed electronic device from the area outside of the protective shell. 18. The protective cover of claim 17 further comprising a pliable molded surface covering the access hole and configured to transmit a mechanical pressure applied at an exterior surface of the pliable molded surface to the control button of the installed electronic device for actuation of the control button. 19. The protective cover of claim 18 wherein the cushioning member includes the pliable molded surface covering the access hole. 20. The protective cover of claim 14 further comprising a lens that covers at least a portion of the second opening. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/379,777, filed Dec. 15, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/798,562 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,560,435), filed Jul. 14, 2015, which is which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/631,740 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,114,923), filed Feb. 25, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/283,055 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,995,127), filed May 20, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/031,700 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,922,985), filed Sep. 19, 2013, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/560,621 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,599,547), filed Sep. 16, 2009, which is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/456,157 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,609,512), filed Jul. 7, 2006, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/937,048 (now U.S. Pat. No. 7,158,376), filed Sep. 8, 2004, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/645,439 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,995,976), filed Aug. 20, 2003, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/300,200 (now U.S. Pat. No. 6,646,864), filed Nov. 19, 2002, which claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/335,865, filed Nov. 19, 2001. The entire contents of the above mentioned applications and patents are hereby specifically incorporated by reference in their entireties. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Portable electronic devices (PEDs), such as PDAs, computers, MP3 players, music players, video players, smart phones, GPS receivers, telematics devices, cell phones, satellite phones, pagers, monitors, etc., are being very widely used, and are being deployed in industrial as well as office environments. PEDs are being used in industrial environments for data collection, such as service information on an airplane, or for data delivery such as maps for fire fighters and other emergency personnel. When PEDs are deployed in such industrial applications, the data that is collected and displayed on the PED can be extremely valuable and can be lifesaving. The industrial environments impose harsh conditions that typical PEDs are not designed to accommodate. For example, damage can be done to the PED through rough handling and dropping. Further, industrial chemicals, grease, water, dirt, and grime may damage or destroy a functioning PED and inhibit the use of the PEDs valuable data. It is common to hold the PEDs inside a protective case for transport. However, PEDs are usually removed for use since most cases used for transport are not interactive. Interactive cases are also useful for non-industrial applications to provide protection for PEDs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, a protective cover is disclosed for an electronic device having a capacitance-sensing interactive touch screen display, at least one control button, a camera feature, and an electrical interface. The protective cover includes a protective shell base having an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of side members defining a perimeter of the protective shell base. The protective cover also includes a cushioning member coupled with at least the inner surface of the protective shell base. The cushioning member is configured for cushioning the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover also includes a first opening defined by the perimeter of the protective shell base. The first opening is configured to align with and expose at least a portion of the capacitance-sensing interactive touch screen display when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover also includes a second opening passing through the inner and outer surfaces of the protective shell base and configured to align with the camera feature of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover further includes an access port in at least one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell base. The access port is positioned to be proximate the electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. In another aspect, a protective enclosure for a mobile computing device is provided. The protective enclosure includes a first case member, a second case member, a plurality of pliable areas, an electrical connector, audio headphones, and a headphone cable. The first and second case members each have an exterior surface, and interior surface, and a perimeter portion. The second case member is removably attachable to the first case member with one or more latching mechanisms. The attachment of the second case member to the first case member forms a protective interior of the protective enclosure for receiving the mobile computing device. The plurality of pliable areas are disposed in the first case member and/or the second case member, and each align with a corresponding control button of the mobile computing device. The pliable areas transmit at least a portion of a force applied at an external surface of one of the pliable areas to the corresponding control button of the mobile computing device to actuate the corresponding control button of the mobile computing device when the mobile computing device is in the protective interior of the protective enclosure. The electrical connector is attached to the interior surface of the second case member, and is structured to mate with a corresponding electrical connector of the mobile computing device when the mobile computing device is inside the protective enclosure. The audio headphones are connected to the exterior surface of one of the first case member and the second case member via a headphone cable. The headphone cable electrically interconnects the audio headphones to the electrical connector of the protective enclosure such that audio signals generated by the mobile computing device inside the protective interior are transmitted through the electrical connector of the mobile computing device through the electrical connector of the protective enclosure and through the headphone cable to the headphones outside the protective enclosure. In another aspect, the disclosure describes a protective case for a portable electronic device, including first and second case portions, a pliable molded surface, an electrical connector, and audio headphones. The first case portion may have an exterior surface, an interior surface, and a perimeter portion. The second case portion may also have an exterior surface, an interior surface, and a perimeter portion, and may be removably attachable to the first case portion to form a protective shell. Such protective shell may include a cavity for the portable electronic device inside the shell, the cavity defined by at least a portion of the interior surface of the first case portion and at least a portion of the interior surface of the second case portion. The pliable molded surface may be disposed in an opening of one of the first case portion and the second case portion, and may align with a corresponding control button of the portable electronic device. The pliable molded surface may transmit a mechanical pressure applied at an exterior surface of the pliable molded surface to the control button of the portable electronic device to actuate the control button of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the shell. The electrical connector may be attached to the interior surface of the first or second case portion, and may mate with an electrical interface of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the shell. The audio headphones may have a headphone cable connected to the exterior surface of the first or second case portion. The headphone cable may be electrically interconnected through a wall of the first or second case portion to the electrical connector of the protective case. This interconnection permits electrical audio signals generated by the portable electronic device inside the shell to be transmitted from the electrical interface of the portable electronic device through the electrical connector and through the headphone cable to the headphones. In another disclosed aspect a protective case for a portable electronic device may include a protective shell, audio headphones, and a headphone cable. The protective shell may include a first case portion, a second case portion, a pliable surface, and an electrical pass-through. The first case portion and the second case portion may each have an exterior surface and an interior surface. The second case portion may be removably attachable to the first case portion, where attachment of the second case portion to the first case portion forms a protective cavity for the portable electronic device. The pliable surface may be disposed in an opening of one of the first case portion and the second case portion. The pliable surface may align with a control feature of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the protective cavity. The pliable surface may also be structured to transmit at least a portion of a mechanical force applied at an external surface of the protective shell to the control feature of the portable electronic device to actuate the control feature. The electrical pass-through provides electrical access to a headphone jack of the portable electronic device from outside the protective shell when the portable electronic device is inside the protective cavity in the protective shell. The audio headphones are affixed, and electrically connected, to the headphone cable. The headphone cable electrically connects the audio headphones to the headphone jack of the portable electronic device inside the protective shell through the electrical pass-through such that audio signals from the portable electronic device inside the protective shell are conducted to the audio headphones through the headphone cable. In yet another example, a protective case for use with a portable electronic device includes a protective shell including a cavity for receiving the portable electronic device and a pliable surface disposed in an opening of the protective shell. The pliable surface being adapted to transmit at least a portion of a mechanical force applied at an external surface of the protective shell to the control feature of the installed portable electronic device to actuate the control feature of the installed portable electronic device. The protective case also includes an electrical pass-through disposed in a wall of the protective shell for accessing an electrical connector of the installed portable electronic device from outside the protective shell and an electrical cable configured to electrically connect a peripheral device to the electrical connector of the installed portable electronic device through the electrical pass-through. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the drawings, FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention shown in the closed position. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention shown in the open position. FIG. 3 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention shown in an exploded state. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention shown from the rear. FIG. 5 is a front view of an embodiment of the invention, showing a section line. FIG. 6 is a section view of an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 is a detailed view of a section shown in FIG. 6. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of another embodiment comprising a single piece encapsulating cover. FIGS. 9 and 9A to 9C show a perspective view of a third embodiment comprising a non-encapsulating snap over cover and various close-up and cross-sectional views. FIG. 10 is a perspective view of an embodiment that comprises a belt clip. FIG. 11 is a second perspective view of an embodiment that comprises a belt clip. FIG. 12 is a perspective view of another embodiment of the present invention of a protective cover for a PED or other device. FIG. 13A is a perspective top view of another embodiment of a protective enclosure for a tablet PC. FIG. 13B is a view of the protective enclosure lid of FIG. 13A. FIG. 14 is a perspective top view of the embodiment of FIG. 13A with an open lid. FIG. 15 is a perspective bottom view of the embodiment of FIG. 13A. FIG. 16 is a perspective view of the base of the embodiment of FIG. 13A FIG. 17 is an exploded view of an embodiment of a protective enclosure for an interactive flat-panel controlled device. FIG. 18 is an exploded view of another embodiment of a protective enclosure for an interactive flat-panel controlled device. FIG. 19 is an exploded view of another embodiment of a protective enclosure with an open lid for a laptop computer device. FIG. 20 is an exploded view of a protective enclosure with an open lid for a laptop computer device positioned inside the enclosure. FIG. 21 is a perspective top view of a protective enclosure with a closed lid for a laptop computer device. FIG. 22 is a perspective bottom view of the protective enclosure FIG. 21. FIG. 23 is a perspective front view of the embodiment of FIG. 21. FIG. 24 is a perspective end view of the embodiment of FIG. 21. FIG. 25 is a perspective back view of the embodiment of FIG. 21. FIG. 26 is a perspective view of the USB hub. FIG. 27 is a perspective view of the USB hub mounted inside the enclosure of FIG. FIG. 28 is a perspective view of the USB hub mounted inside the enclosure of FIG. 14. DETAILED DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 is a perspective view of an embodiment of the invention. Embodiment 100 comprises a rigidly molded front case 102 and rear case 104. An overmolded grommet 106 forms a receptacle for stylus 108 and also aids in sealing membrane 110. A flexible hand strap 112 attaches to the rear case 104. A hinge 114 joins front case 102 and rear case 104. A ring 124 for a lanyard is shown as an integral feature of rear case 104. Embodiment 100 is designed to hold a conventional personal digital assistant (PED) in a protective case. A PED, such as a Palm Pilot, Handspring Visor, Compaq Ipaq, Hewlett Packard Jornada, or similar products, use a touch screen for display and data entry. The touch screen display comprises either a color or black and white liquid crystal display with a touch sensitive device mounted on top of the display. The display is used for displaying graphics, text, and other elements to the user. The touch screen is used with a stylus 108 to select elements from the screen, to draw figures, and to enter text with a character recognition program in the PED. The stylus 108 generally resembles a conventional writing implement. However, the tip of the writing implement is a rounded plastic tip. In place of a stylus 108, the user may use the tip of a finger or fingernail, or a conventional pen or pencil. When a conventional writing implement is used, damage to the touch screen element may occur, such as scratches. For the purposes of this specification, the term PED shall include any electronic device that has a touch screen interface. This may include instruments such as voltmeters, oscilloscopes, logic analyzers, and any other hand held, bench top, or rack mounted instrument that has a touch screen interface. Hand held devices, such as cell phones, satellite phones, telemetric devices, and other hand held devices are also to be classified as PEDs for the purposes of this specification. The term PED shall also include any computer terminal display that has a touch screen interface. These may comprise kiosks, outdoor terminal interfaces, industrial computer interfaces, commercial computer interfaces, and other computer displays. Additionally, the term PED may comprise barcode scanners, hand held GPS receivers, and other handheld electronic devices. The foregoing description of the term PED has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise forms disclosed, and other modifications and variations may be possible in light of the teachings of this specification. In addition, the PEDs typically have a handful of additional buttons as part of the user interface. These buttons are generally on the front of the device, near the touch screen element. The additional buttons may be used as shortcut buttons to instantly call up a certain program on the PED, may comprise a method of scrolling, may be used to select items from a list, or may have any function that the designer of the PED software may assign to the button or set of buttons. The button size, layout, and function may vary for each manufacturer and model of PED. Further, PEDs typically have at least one method of connecting to another computer. This may be through a direct electrical connection, such as through a wire cable or fiber optic, or through another medium such as infrared communication or through a radio communication. Additionally, the PEDs typically have an electrical source. The electrical source may be a rechargeable or non-rechargeable battery or solar cells. The electrical source may be a remote source of electricity that is transmitted to the PED through a wire cable or through other methods of electrical transmission. Further, PEDs may have indicator lights, such as status lights for power, communication, battery status, or other functions. The lights may be located on any of the sides of the PED and may be viewable on one or more sides. Front case 102 and rear case 104 form a protective cover for the PED. The protective cover may be designed for rugged industrial use, recreational use, commercial use, or many other uses. An industrial use may require the protective cover to be watertight, chemically resistant, protect the unit when dropped, and be crush proof. A typical application may be for fire fighters to use a PED for a display of maps for directions to an emergency scene or for a building plan at the scene of a fire. Another example may be a maintenance mechanic in a chemical plant using a PED to record maintenance records in the plant that processes. A recreational use may require the cover to be watertight, afford some protection against dropping and being crushed, float in water, and be dust resistant. A recreational use may be to take the PED during kayaking, diving, or other water sport activity. Further, the case may be used when the PED is taken camping, hiking, or other outdoor activity. A commercial use may additionally require the protective cover to be elegant, but may also require the cover to be replaceable so that scratches and other signs of wear and tear can be easily and cheaply replaced. The protective cover for the PED may take on many embodiments. The embodiment 100 comprises a front case 102 and rear case 104 that are joined by a hinge 114 and a clasp mechanism that is on the side of the cases opposite the hinge 114. Other embodiments may have a small door into which the PED slides, or the protective cover may not completely enclose the PED and only cover the face where the user interface exists, leaving one or more sides of the PED exposed. Those skilled in the art may use other designs of protective covers without deviating from the scope and intent of the present invention. The protective cover may be constructed of rigid plastic, metal, flexible rubber, or any other type of material that could be adapted to afford the protection of the PED desired for the application. For example, a metal cover may be used in an application where an elegant style is necessary but watertightness is not. A flexible rubber cover may be selected for an application in a wet environment. A rigid plastic cover may be selected for an application where dropping the PED is a concern. Those skilled in the art may use other types of materials and constructions without deviating from the spirit of the present invention. The PED may be mounted in the protective cover using many different mounting techniques. For example, the PED may be mounted using open or closed cell foam inserts in the protective cover. In another embodiment, the PED may be mounted by attaching the PED to the cover with a fastener. In another embodiment, the PED may be mounted by snapping into the protective waterproof cover. In another embodiment, the PED may be held in place by resting in molded features of two halves of a protective case that clamps onto the PED. Those skilled in the art may use other types of locating and holding mechanisms without deviating from the spirit of the present invention. The overmolded grommet 106 of the present embodiment is constructed by injection molding a thermoplastic polymerized rubber (TPR) over the front case 102. The grommet 106 has molded features 116 and 118 adapted to retain the stylus 108. Features 116 and 118 capture the stylus 108 during transportation, but allow the user to remove the stylus 108 to operate the PED. In other embodiments of the present invention, the stylus 108 may be constrained to the PED with a tether or lanyard, or the constraining features may be incorporated into other components that make up the protective cover. Further, the stylus 108 may not be present in the embodiment, rather, the PED be adapted to be used with the user's fingernail or with another implement similar to the stylus 108. The membrane 110 of the present embodiment is constructed by thermoforming a sheet of thin plastic. The plastic is selected to be thin enough that the deformation of a stylus conducts the touch to the touch screen, but thick enough to have enough rigidity that the stylus does not catch and rip the membrane. Additionally, the membrane 110 should have enough thickness to endure scratches and other wear and tear without breaking and sacrificing the protective function. Polyvinylchloride material at 0.010 inches to 0.015 inches thickness gives acceptable results. Alternatively, membrane 110 may be constructed by injection molding or other methods. Alternative materials may be used by those skilled in the art to achieve the same results while maintaining within the spirit and intent of the present invention. The membrane 110 in the present embodiment may be translucent or at least partially transparent, so that the images displayed on the PED may be visible through the membrane 110. The membrane 110 may be tinted or colorized in some applications. For example, a protective cover designed as a decorative cover may incorporate a colorized membrane 110. Further, the membrane may be selectively colorized and the opaqueness may vary. For example, the protective membrane may be printed or painted in the areas not used for the touch screen. A printing process may incorporate a logo, graphics, or labeling for individual buttons for the PED. The printing process may further incorporate features, such as text or graphics, that are used by the software on the PED for a purpose such as simplifying data input or for designating an area on the touch screen for a specific function, such as a help function. The printing or painting processes used on the membrane 110 may be purely decorative and may be for aesthetic purposes only. The printing process may also comprise logos or graphics for the brand identity of the PED cover. Other processes, such as colorizing the raw material for the membrane 110 or adding other components to the raw material, such as metal flakes or other additives, may be used to change the optical features of the membrane 110. The optical performance of the membrane 110 may be changed or enhanced by changing the texture of the area of the touch screen. For example, the membrane may be frosted on the outside to hide scratches or may be imprinted with a lens or other features that change the optical characteristics of the membrane 110. The membrane 110 may have optical features that are used in conjunction with the software of the PED. For example, all or a portion of the membrane may comprise a lens that magnifies an image to a user. When the user touches the image on the membrane 110 and the touch is transferred to the touch screen, the software in the PED may have to compensate for the positional differences between the image and actual area that was touched by the user. In another example, if a specific portion of the membrane 110 had a specific optical characteristic, the software of the PED may be constructed to display a specific graphic for the area for an intended effect. The membrane 110 in the present embodiment has a recessed portion 120 and a raised portion 122. The recessed portion 120 may be adapted to press flat against the touch screen area of a specific PED. The raised portion 122 may be adapted to fit over an area of the specific PED where several buttons are located. The raised portion 122 allows the user to operate the buttons on the PED. The raised portion 122 is adapted such that the buttons on the PED are easily operated through the protective membrane 110. The raised portion 122 may have special features to aid the user in pressing the buttons. For example, the raised portion 122 may comprise a dimpled area for the user's finger located directly over the button. Further, a feature to aid the user may comprise a section of membrane 110 defined by a thinner area around the section, enabling the user to more easily deflect the section of membrane over the button. The area of thinner material may comprise a large section or a thin line. Further, tactile elements, such as small ribs or bumps may be incorporated into the membrane 110 in the area of the buttons so that the user has a tactile sensation that the user's finger is over the button. The tactile element may be particularly effective if the button was a power switch, for example, that turned on the PED. The configuration of the membrane 110 may be unique to each style or model of PED, however, the front case 102 and rear case 104 may be used over a variety of PEDs. In the present embodiment, the changeover from one PED variety to another is accomplished by replacing the membrane 110 without having to change any other parts. The present embodiment may therefore be mass-produced with the only customizable area being the membrane 110 to allow different models of PEDs to be used with a certain front case 102 and rear case 104. The hand strap 112 in the present embodiment allows the user to hold the embodiment 100 securely in his hand while using the PED. The hand strap 112 may be constructed of a flexible material, such as rubber or cloth webbing, and may have an adjustment, such as a buckle, hook and loop fastener, or other method of adjustment. In other embodiments, a hand strap may be a rigid plastic handle, a folding handle, or any other method of assisting the user in holding the embodiment. Further, the embodiment may be adapted to be fix-mounted to another object, like a piece of machinery, a wall, or any other object. A fix-mounted embodiment may have other accoutrements adapted for fixed mount applications, such as receptacles for a stylus adapted to a fix-mount, specialized electrical connections, features for locking the PED inside the case to prevent theft, or designs specifically adapted to shed water when rained upon. FIG. 2 illustrates a perspective view of the embodiment 100 shown in an open position. The front case 102 and rear case 104 are shown open about the hinge 114. Membrane 110 is shown installed into gasket 106, and the recessed portion 120 and raised portion 122 of membrane 110 is illustrated looking from the inside of the case. The clasp mechanisms are not shown in this illustration. Hand strap 112 is shown attached to rear case 104. FIG. 3 illustrates a perspective view of the embodiment 100 shown in an exploded state. The hand strap 116 attaches to the rear cover 104. The overmolded grommet 106 holds the stylus 108 and is attached to front cover 102. The membrane 110 attaches to the grommet 106 and is held in place with an o-ring 302. FIG. 4 illustrates a perspective view of the embodiment 100 shown from the rear. The hand strap 116 is shown, along with rear cover 104 and front cover 102. The stylus 108 is shown inserted into the overmolded grommet 106. FIG. 5 illustrates a top view of the embodiment 100. The front cover 102, membrane 110, stylus 108, and hinge 114 are all visible. FIG. 6 illustrates a section view of the embodiment 100 taken through the section line shown in FIG. 5. The front cover 102, rear cover 104, overmolded gasket 106, stylus 108, membrane 110, hand strap 112, and o-ring 302 are all shown hatched in this view. FIG. 7 illustrates a detail view of the embodiment 100 shown in FIG. 6. Front case 102 and rear case 104 are joined at hinge 114. Overmolded gasket 106 traps membrane 110 and o-ring 302 locks membrane 110 in place. Overmolded gasket 106 may be formed by molding thermoplastic polymerized rubber over the front cover 102. The replacement of the membrane 110 is accomplished by removing o-ring 302, pushing the membrane 110 from the overmolded gasket 106, snapping a new membrane 110 into place, and replacing the o-ring 302. The ease of replacement of the present embodiment allows a user to quickly replace a damaged membrane 110, allows a user to upgrade their case to a newer model PED, and may allow a user to select from various membranes 110 for the particular application. One embodiment may have a single case packaged with a small variety of several types of membranes 110. In such an embodiment, the user may purchase the packaged set, select the membrane 110 that suits the user's particular PED, and install the selected membrane 110 with ease. The protective cover of the present invention may have direct connections through the cover for connecting through the case. Such a connection is known as pass through. The connections may be for power, communication, heat dissipation, optical transmissions, mechanical motion, or other reasons. Electrical connections may require an insulated metal conductor from the PED through the wall of the protective cover so that a flexible cable may be attached or so that the PED in its protective case may be placed in a cradle for making the electrical connection. Inside the protective cover, the electrical connections may be made with a flexible cable that is plugged into the PEDs electrical connector before the PED is secured in the protective cover. Alternatively, a fixed connector may be attached to the protective cover and the PED is slid into contact with the fixed connector. Another embodiment may be for a compliant, yet fixed mounted electrical connector to be rigidly mounted inside the protective cover. A compliant, yet fixed mounted electrical connector 1830 may comprise spring loaded probes, commonly referred to as pogo pins. Another embodiment may comprise spring fingers that engage the PEDs electrical contacts. On the outside of the protective cover, the electrical contacts may be terminated into a fix-mounted connector adapted to receive a cable from a computer. The connector may be designed to receive a cable that plugs directly into the PED or it may be adapted to receive a different connector. Further, the electrical connection to the PED may be permanently attached to a cable that extends out of the protective cover. Another embodiment may be to have a small trap door that opens in the protective cover to allow access to the electrical connections. While the trap door exposes the PED to the elements the cover is designed to protect against, a direct electrical connection may eliminate a potential cabling connection problem. Connections for fiber optics can be handled in similar fashions as the electrical connections. An embodiment with a power connection may comprise the use of inductive coils, such as inductive coil 1840, located in proximity to each other but on opposite sides of the protective cover. Those skilled in the art of may devise other embodiments for connecting through the protective cover without deviating from the scope and intent of the present invention. Through the air communications, such as infrared and over the air radio frequency (RF) communications may pass through the protective cover. The material for the front case 102 and rear case 104 may be selected to be clear plastic, such as polycarbonate. The infrared transceiver of the PED can communicate through a clear plastic case to another infrared transceiver outside of the case. Further, the appropriate selection of material for the protective case can thereby enable various RF transmissions, such as cellular phone communications or other wireless communication protocols. An infrared transmission through the protective case of an embodiment of the invention may be accomplished by making the entire protective case out of a clear material. Alternatively, a selected area of the protective case may be clear while the remainder of the case is opaque. The selected area may be constructed of a separate piece that allows the infrared light through the protective case. Alternatively, the selected area may be constructed of a portion of the protective case that was manufactured in a way so as not to be opaque, such as selectively not painting or plating the area of a plastic protective case. Further, the clear material through which the transmission occurs may be tinted in the visual spectrum but be translucent or at least partially transparent in the infrared spectrum of the device. A protective case may allow RF transmissions to and from the PED while the case is closed. Such a case may be constructed of a non-metallic material. In some embodiments, the material of the protective case may be tuned to allow certain frequencies to pass through the protective cover and tune out other frequencies, through loading the material used in the protective cover with conductive media or through varying the thickness of the case and other geometries of the case in the area of the PED transmission and reception antenna. In a different embodiment, it may be desirable to shield the PED from outside RF interference. In this case, the protective cover may be a metallic construction or may be plastic with a metallized coating. Further, membrane 110 may have a light metallized coating applied so that membrane 110 is slightly or fully conductive. An application for such an embodiment may be the use of the PED in an area of high RF noise that may interfere with the operation of the PED, or conversely, the use may be in an area that is highly susceptible to external RF interference and the PEDs RF noise may be interfering with some other device. The PED may be equipped with a camera or other video capture device. A protective cover may have provisions to allow a clear image to be seen by the video capture device through the case. Such provisions may include an optically clear insert assembled into the protective case. Other embodiments may have a sliding trap door whereby the user of the PED may slide the door open for the camera to see. Additionally, other embodiments may comprise a molded case that has an optically clear lens integrally molded. Such an embodiment may be additionally painted, plated, or overmolded, with the lens area masked so that the painting, plating, or overmolding does not interfere with the optics of the lens. An optically clear area may be used for a barcode scanner portion of a PED to scan through the case to the outside world. In such an embodiment, a barcode scanner may be protected from the elements while still maintaining full functionality in the outside world. The PED may have indicator lights that indicate various items, such as power, battery condition, communication, and other status items. The indicator lights may be in positions on the PED that are not readily viewable through the protective membrane 110. The indicator lights may be made visible through the protective case by using light pipes that transmit the light from the PEDs status light to the outside of the protective case. Such light pipes may be constructed of clear or tinted plastic, or other translucent or semi-transparent material. The light pipes may be formed as an integral feature to the protective case or may be separate parts that are formed separately and assembled to the protective case. The PED may have a speaker or other element that makes noise and/or the PED may have a microphone for receiving audio signals. The speaker may be an audio quality device for reproducing sound or it may be a simple buzzer for indicating various functions of the PED. The microphone may be an audio quality device or it may be a low performance device. Special provisions may be made for transmitting sound through a protective case. Such provisions may range from a single hole in the case to a tuned cavity that would allow sound to pass through with minimum distortion. Other embodiments may include a transmissive membrane adapted to allow sound to pass through the protective case with a minimum of distortion. Such membranes may be located near the speaker and microphone elements of the PED. Such membranes may be watertight membranes known by the brand name Gore-Tex. The PED may generate heat during its use and provisions for dissipating the heat may be built into the protective cover. A heat-dissipating device may be integral to the protective cover or may comprise one or more separate parts. For example, a metallic protective cover may be adapted to touch the PED in the area of heat generation and conduct the heat outwardly to the rest of the protective cover. The protective cover may thereby dissipate the heat to the external air without overheating the PED. In another example, a separate heat sink may be applied to the PED and allowed to protrude through a hole in the protective cover. The heat sink may thereby transfer the heat from the PED to the ambient environment without overheating the PED. The heat sinks may be attached to the PED with a thermally conductive adhesive. Other embodiments may include vent holes for heat dissipation and air circulation. The PED may have a button that may not be located underneath the membrane 110. An embodiment may include a flexible, pliable, or otherwise movable mechanism that may transmit mechanical motion from the outside of the case to a button on the PED. Such an embodiment may have a molded dimpled surface that is pliable and allows a user to activate a button on a PED by pressing the dimpled surface. Another embodiment may have a rigid plunger that is mounted on a spring and adapted to transmit the mechanical movement from the exterior of the case to a button on the PED. The buttons on the PED may be located on any side of the PED and an embodiment of a case may have pliable areas adapted to allow the user to press buttons that are not on the front face of the PED. FIG. 8 is an illustration of embodiment 800 of the present invention wherein the PED 802 is encapsulated by a protective cover 804. The installation of the PED 802 is to slide PED 802 into the opening 808, then fold door 806 closed and secure with flap 810, which is hinged along line 812. Areas 814 and 816 may comprise a hook and loop fastener system or other fastening device. Recessed area 818 is adapted to fit against touch screen 820 of PED 802. Embodiment 800 may be comprised of a single molded plastic part that may be very low cost. As shown, embodiment 800 may not be completely weathertight, since the door 806 does not completely seal the enclosure. However, such an embodiment may afford considerable protection to the PED 802 in the areas of dust protection, scratch protection, and being occasionally rained upon. Further, the low cost of the embodiment 800 may be changed often during the life of the PED 802. Embodiment 800 may have custom colors, logos, or designs that allow a user to personalize their PED with a specific cover that is suited to their mood or tastes. The colors, logos, and designs may be integrally molded into the cover 804. Alternatively, different colors, logos, and designs may be applied in a secondary operation such as printing, painting, plating, or other application process. FIG. 9 is an illustration of embodiment 900 of the present invention wherein a decorative cover 902 is snapped over a PED 904. The ends 906 and 908 snap over the PED ends 910 and 912 as an attachment mechanism for cover 902 to PED 904. Recessed area 914 is adapted to fit against touch screen 916. Embodiment 900 may be a cover for decorative purposes only, or may be for protective purposes as well. Cover 902 may be emblazoned with logos, designs, or other visual embellishments to personalize the PED 904. The colors, logos, and designs may be integrally molded into the cover 904. Alternatively, different colors, logos, and designs may be applied in a secondary operation such as printing, painting, plating, or other application process. For example, FIGS. 9A-9C illustrate close-up (9A, 9B) and cross-sectional (9C) views of the cover 902 in which the material of the cover 902 may incorporate various additives, plating, coating, etc. FIG. 9A illustrates an embodiment in which metal flakes 920 are included in the material from which the cover 902 is formed. The drawing is not to scale, and it will be appreciated by those in the art that the metal flakes may take any shape or size, including very small. FIG. 9B illustrates an embodiment that incorporates fibers 930 such as glass fibers, carbon fibers, metal fibers, polyamide fibers, and mixtures thereof. Those having ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the size and orientation of the fibers may vary. FIG. 9C is a cross-sectional view of an protective cover embodiment, such as shown in FIG. 9, that incorporates a coating 940, such as a metallic coating that coats an exterior portion of the protective cover 902. The coating, plating, or painted material, including metallic coating, may be implemented in one or several of a range of thicknesses. Although not shown specifically, one of ordinary skill in the art may appreciate that a coating such as shown in FIG. 9C may itself incorporate metal flakes, fibers, and/or other additives. Those of skill in the art will appreciate that a coating may alternatively or additionally be applied to an interior portion of the cover 902. In some instances the additives and/or coatings may provide shock absorption characteristics to the cover. Although the close-up and cross-sectional views provided in FIGS. 9A-9C are shown in association with decorative cover 902 of FIG. 9, it will be appreciated that the construction material of other embodiments disclosed herein may employ flakes, fibers, coatings, and other additives in like manner. Embodiment 900 may be attached by snapping the cover 902 onto PED 904. Special provisions in the case of PED 904 may be provided for a snapping feature of cover 902, or cover 902 may be adapted to hold onto PED 904 without the use of special features in PED 904. The features used to secure cover 902 to PED 904 may be any mechanism whereby the cover 902 can be secured. This includes snapping, clamping, fastening, sliding, gluing, adhering, or any other method for securing two components together. FIG. 10 illustrates a perspective view of an embodiment of a receiver 1002 for holding the protective case 100. The protective case 100 is held into receiver 1002 in such a manner that the touch screen display is facing into the receiver 1002, to afford the touch screen display with protection. FIG. 11 illustrates a perspective view of the embodiment of a receiver 1002 shown from the opposite side as FIG. 10. Receiver 1002 is comprised of a back 1102, a belt clip mechanism 1104, and four clip areas 1106, 1108, 1110, and 1112. The protective case 100 is placed into the receiver 1002 by inserting one end into the receiver, then rotating the protective case 100 into position such that the snapping action of clip areas 1106, 1108, 1110, and 1112 are engaged to hold protective case 100 securely. Receiver 1002 may be adapted to clip onto a person's belt or may be adapted to be mounted on a wall or other location where the PED may be stored. The orientation of the protective case 100 is such that the touch screen element of the PED is protected during normal transport and storage, since the touch screen interface is facing the back 1102 of the receiver 1002. Receiver 1002 may be made of compliant plastic that allows the clip areas 1106, 1108, 1110, and 1112 to move out of the way and spring back during insertion or removal of the protective case 100. In the present embodiment, receiver 1002 may be constructed of a single part. In alternative embodiments, receiver 1002 may be constructed of multiple parts and of multiple materials, such as a metal back with spring loaded clips. In other embodiments, special features may be included in the protective case 100 where the receiver 1002 may engage a special feature for securing the protective case 100. FIG. 12 illustrates an embodiment 1200 of the present invention of a protective cover for a PED or other device. A rigid front cover 1202 and a rigid rear cover 1204 are held together with a series of latches 1206, 1208, 1210, and 1212. The protective membrane 1214 protects the touchscreen of the enclosed PED. A folding rigid cover 1216 operates as a rigid shield to prevent the membrane 1214 from any damage. The stylus holder 1220 is formed from an overmolded flexible material in which the membrane 1214 is mounted. Embodiment 1200 illustrates yet another embodiment of the present invention wherein a rigid protective cover may be used to contain and protect an electronic device, but provide full usable access to a touchscreen. The protective membrane 1214 and case may be watertight in some embodiments. FIG. 13A illustrates an embodiment of a protective enclosure 1300 that encloses and protects a tablet PC 1302. PEDs that have touch screens, as described above, have an interactive flat-panel control, i.e., the touch screen display. Tablet PCs are portable electronic computing devices that have a high-resolution interactive flat-panel control that accepts smooth stylus strokes such as handwriting. The embodiment of FIG. 13A is crush-resistant, impact-resistant, watertight, and simultaneously allows interactive stylus strokes and other sensitive user inputs to be accurately and easily transmitted through a protective screen membrane 1306 to the interactive flat-panel control of tablet PC 1302. A watertight and shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310 may be fixed and sealed to the underside of the lid 1304 around the interactive flat-panel control opening. The protective screen membrane 1306 is fixed and sealed to the shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310. The shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310 maintains the water tightness of the enclosure. The cushion 1310 also cushions the flat-panel control of the tablet PC 1302 and protects it against breakage if the enclosure and tablet PC are dropped or otherwise subjected to shock. In accordance with the embodiment of FIG. 13A, the shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310 has a thickness of approximately 0.25 inches and extends approximately 0.060 inches below the underside of the interactive flat-panel control opening of the lid 1304. One source of suitable watertight shock-absorbing foam is E.A.R. Specialty Composites of 7911 Zionville Rd., Indianapolis, Ind., 46268. Cushion 1310 allows the protective screen membrane to move a distance of up to 0.125 inches during an impact to the enclosure or when pressure is applied to protect membrane 1306 while pushing the tablet PC control buttons 1308 or writing on the interactive flat-panel control with a stylus through the membrane. The shock-absorbing foam cushion 1310 also pushes the protective screen membrane 1306 flatly against the surface of the interactive flat-panel control of the tablet PC 1302 so that sensitive user stylus strokes and other inputs are accurately transmitted. The pressure of the cushion 1310 on the protective screen membrane 1306 which holds the protective screen membrane 1306 flatly against the interactive flat-panel control of the tablet PC 1302 also keeps display images, viewed through the protective screen membrane, clear and distortion-free. In embodiments of the protective enclosure to protect a touch-screen device, the protective membrane may be adjacent to the touch screen but does not exert mechanical pressure on the touch screen so that mechanical inputs such as style strokes are sensed only when intended. In embodiments of the protective enclosure to protect a tablet PC that has an RF stylus or to protect a handheld device that a capacitance-sensing interactive flat-panel control, the protective membrane may be pressed flat against the interactive flat-panel control which allows undistorted viewing but does not adversely affect the control since the interactive control uses capacitance or radio frequencies for interactive input instead of mechanical pressure. The protective screen membrane 1306 in the embodiment of FIG. 13A is at least partially transparent and has a thickness of approximately 0.010 inches. The thickness of the protective screen membrane 1306 should be typically in the range of 0.001 inches to 0.020 inches so that stylus strokes on the upper surface of protective screen membrane 1306 are transmitted accurately to the interactive flat-panel control of the tablet PC 1302. Likewise, protective screen membrane 1306 may be flexible or semi-rigid and may be made of polyvinylchloride or other suitable transparent thermoplastic, such as, for example, polyvinylchloride, thermoplastic polycarbonate, thermoplastic polypropylene, thermoplastic acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, thermoplastic polyurethane, which has a hardness and texture that permits the stylus to smoothly glide across the surface without skipping, grabbing, or catching against the surface. Some tablet PCs utilize a stylus which transmits strokes to the PC by way of radio frequency transmission. Protective screen membrane 1306 may be made of a rigid, clear, engineered thermoplastic such as, for example, thermoplastic polycarbonate or other thermoplastics as described above, for enclosing a tablet PC. A protective screen membrane 1306 that is rigid may include watertight access ports that allow operation of mechanical buttons or switches of the tablet PC 1302, such as, for example, control buttons 1308. The watertight access ports may include holes that have a moveable watertight plug, or any type of watertight button or lever. Protective screen membrane 1306 may include an anti-glare coating or can be made with an anti-glare texture so that display images are clearly viewable without distortion through the protective screen membrane 1306. In the embodiment of FIG. 13A, the lid 1304 of the protective enclosure 1300 may have an external stylus holder 1324 that securely holds a stylus used with the tablet PC 1302. As described above with respect to FIG. 1, the lid 1304 and the base 1312 may have air-permeable watertight vents 1318, 1326 that permit the cooling fans of the tablet PC 1302 to force air exchange to dissipate heat by convection so that the tablet PC 1302 does not overheat. Watertight vents 1318, 1326 may comprise holes in the lid 1304 and base 1312 that are made watertight by covering and sealing the holes with an air-permeable watertight membrane such as, for example, a fabricated expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membrane. One source of expanded polytetrafluoroethylene (ePTFE) membranes is W.L. Gore & Associates, Inc. of 555 Papermill Road, Newark, Del., 19711. The embodiment of FIG. 13A may also comprise a pod door 1322 that allows access to table PC interfaces such as, for example, PCMCIA or Smart Card slots. The pod door 1322 is attached to the lid 1304 so that it may be removed or opened. In the embodiment of FIG. 13A, the pod door 1322 is hingedly connected to a portion of the base 1312 at a location of the base 1312 that has an opening that allows access to the tablet PC interfaces. The opening can be covered by a watertight seal 1320, such as, for example, an O-ring that is part of pod door 1322. The underside of the lid 1304 also has a watertight seal, such as an O-ring, so that when compound latches 1328, 1330, 1332, and 1334 are closed, the O-ring or seal of the lid 1304 forms a watertight seal against the base 1312. The protective enclosure 1300 protects the tablet PC 1302 from water and dust intrusion sufficient to comply with Ingress Protection (IP) rating of IP 67, i.e., the protective enclosure totally protects the enclosed tablet PC from dust and protects the enclosed tablet PC from the effects of immersion in one meter of water for 30 minutes. The protective enclosure of the embodiment of FIG. 13A may further comprise protective overmolding 1316 attached to the lid 1304. A similar overmolding may be attached to the base 1312. The protective overmolding 1316 may be made of material that is easily gripped in slippery conditions and provides additional shock absorption such as, for example, rubber or silicone. The protective overmolding 1316 extends above the surface of the lid in pre-determined areas to provide protrusions that are easily gripped even in slippery conditions. The protective enclosure of the embodiment of FIG. 13 may further comprise watertight plugs such as access port plug 1314 that fit snugly into openings in the base 1312 that provide access to various interfaces, connectors, and slots of the tablet PC 1302. FIG. 13B illustrates a shell lid 1304 of the embodiment of FIG. 13A. Shell lid 1304 and base 1312 may be made of impact/crush resistant material such as glass-fiber reinforced engineered thermoplastic, such as for example, glass reinforced polycarbonate. Alternatively, the shell lid 1304 and shell base may be made of thermoplastic polycarbonate, thermoplastic polypropylene, thermoplastic acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, and thermoplastic compositions containing one or more thereof, or other engineered thermoplastics that provide a shock-resistant and impact resistant shell may be used. The engineered thermoplastics may be reinforced with glass fibers, carbon fibers, metal fibers, polyamide fibers, and mixtures thereof. Shell lid 1304 may be further reinforced with stiffeners 1334, 1336, 1338, 1340 that are integrally embedded into the shell lid around the perimeter of an opening in the shell that is directly over the interactive flat-panel control portion of the tablet PC. The stiffeners may be made of steel or other hard material so that the stiffeners provide additional strength and prevent flexing of the lid 1304 which enhances the watertightness and the impact/crush resistance. FIG. 14 is an illustration of the embodiment of FIG. 13A with the lid 1404 detached from the base 1412. To protect the tablet PC 1402 using the protective enclosure 1400, the tablet PC 1402 is disposed to fit snugly into the base 1412. The lid is oriented so that hooks 1436, 1438 area aligned with pin 1440 that is connected to a portion of the base 1412 and the lid is closed so that hooks 1436, 1438 are retained by pin 1440. Compound latches 1428, 1430, 1432, and 1434 are then snapped onto the lid so that the lid is compressed tightly against the base providing a watertight seal. FIG. 15 is a bottom view of the embodiment of FIG. 13. The base 1516 of protective enclosure 1500 includes watertight vents such as watertight vent 1506 for air exchange to permit heat and sound dissipation from the enclosed tablet PC while at the same time maintaining watertightness. Pod release knobs 1512, 1518 are attached to the base 1516 so that the knobs can be rotated clockwise to securely wedge against an edge of pod door 1522 to close the pod door 1522 tightly against a rim around the pod opening in base 1516 to create a watertight seal. Knobs 1512, 1518 can be rotated counter-clockwise to release pod door 1522 to access the interfaces of the tablet PC covered by pod door 1522. To provide additional protection against mechanical shock, heavy-duty corner bumpers such as bumper 1504 may be securely attached to the corners of base 1516. As shown in FIG. 15, an adjustable heavy-duty handle may be attached to the base 1516 of the protective enclosure 1500 to allow easy and reliable transportation of the protective enclosure 1500 that encloses a tablet PC. In some circumstances, it is convenient to hold the protective enclosure using hand strap 1514 that is made of strong slightly stretchable fabric. Hand strap 1514 attaches to four points of the base 1516 to that a user's hand or wrist can be inserted along the either the longer or shorted length on the protective enclosure 1500 and enclosure tablet PC. Hand strap 1514 may be made of neoprene or other strong stretchable material to securely hold the protective enclosure to the user's arm even in slippery conditions. The protective enclosure may further include a neck strap to provide a comfortable solution for using the tablet PC while standing. FIG. 16 illustrates a top view of the protective enclosure base 1600. Watertight vents such as watertight vent 1616 allow air exchange for heat dissipation and sound transmission from an enclosed tablet PC. Seal rim 1614 is an integrally formed part of the protective enclosure 1600 which is compressed against an O-ring in the protective enclosure lid to provide a watertight seal when compound latches 1628, 1630, 1632, and 1634 are closed onto the lid. Internal bumpers 1602, 1604, 1608, 1610 attach to the interior corners of protective enclosure base 1600 to provide cushion and mechanical shock protection to an enclosed tablet PC. The L-shape and non-solid interior of internal bumpers 1602, 1604, 1608, 1610 allows the bumpers to deflect and absorb the shock if the enclosed tablet PC is dropped or otherwise subjected to mechanical shock. The protective enclosure provides shock absorption sufficient to meet MIL-STD 810F, Method 516.5, Procedure 4, which is a Transit Drop Test. In the Transit Drop Test, the protective enclosure encloses a tablet PC or a mass equivalent to a tablet PC. The protective enclosure is sequentially dropped onto each face, edge, and corner for a total of 26 drops over plywood from a height of 48 inches. The protective enclosure is visually inspected after each drop and a functional check for leakage is performed after all drops are completed. Some tablet PCs have a docking connector disposed on the underside of the tablet PC so that the tablet PC can connect to power and signals. For example, emergency vehicles such as ambulances, fire trucks, or patrol cars, may have a docking station installed near the driver's seat onto which the driver may dock a tablet PC. The embodiment of protective enclosure base 1600, as illustrated in FIG. 1, may comprise a docking connector channel 1624 that is recessed with respect to the upper surface of the base that allows a docking connector to run from a docking connector that is disposed in the center underside of the tablet PC to access port 1626. Alternatively, a docking pass-through connector 1620 may be made an integral and watertight part of the protective enclosure base 1600 so that the tablet PC docking connector attaches to the docking pass-through connector 1620 which, in turn, connects to the docking station in substantially the same manner as an unenclosed tablet PC. FIG. 17 illustrates another embodiment of protective enclosure 1700 for a handheld electronic device 1702 that has an interactive flat-panel control such as, but limited to, a capacitance-sensing interactive flat panel control, a touch screen or other interactive control. Handheld electronic devices that have an interactive flat-panel control benefit from being enclosed in a rugged protective enclosure that is crush-resistant, watertight, and shock-resistant and that simultaneously allows the user to interact with a sensitive interactive flat-panel control. Handheld electronic devices that have interactive flat-panel control may include music players, MP3 players, audio player/recorders, video players, computers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), GPS receivers, cell phones, satellite phones, pagers, monitors, etc. For example, Apple Computer Ipod is a popular handheld interactive device that plays MP3 or otherwise digitally-encoded music/audio. The Apple Ipod has an interactive flat-panel control in which a portion of the front panel is a flat-panel display and portion of the front panel is an interactive flat-panel control, called a touch wheel in some versions of the Ipod and click wheel in other versions of the Ipod, that has capacitive touch/proximity sensors. One function of such an interactive flat-panel control, i.e. touch wheel, is that the control can emulate a rotary control knob by sensing circular motion of a user's finger using capacitive sensors. The click wheel has the same function with the additional feature of sensing proximity of a user's finger and emulating button presses by a user's finger at pre-determined areas. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the shell lid 1706 and the shell base 1704 are made of polycarbonate or other engineered thermoplastics such as polyethylene, polypropylene, etc. that are crush-resistant and impact resistant. Shell base 1704 has a watertight seal 1718, which may be an overmolded gasket, o-ring, liner or other seal that prevents water from entering the protective enclosure 1700 when the handheld interactive device 1702 is enclosed inside the protective enclosure 1700. Shell base 1704 and shell lid 1706 may include watertight vents, electrical connectors, see-through areas or features as disclosed with respect to FIG. 1. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, shell lid 1706 includes apertures over predetermined portions of the handheld interactive device 1702, such as the areas directly over the display screen 1714 and the interactive flat-panel control 1712, or other designated areas, as desired. A protective screen membrane 1710, that is at least partially transparent, is permanently or removably fixed in a watertight manner to the underside of shell lid 1706 in the aperture that is over the display screen 1714. The protective screen membrane 1710 may be recessed with respect to the upper surface of the shell lid 1706 which provides protective elevated rim that protects the display screen 1714 from breakage. Protective screen membrane 1710 may be PVC, silicone, polyethylene or other material that is watertight and rugged. In the case that display screen 1714 is a touch screen, the protective screen membrane 1710 should be smooth enough and thin enough that stylus strokes and other inputs are transmitted accurately to the touch screen as disclosed above with respect to FIG. 1, FIG. 12, and FIG. 13. Alternatively, it may be desirable not to have an aperture in shell lid 1706 for a protective membrane 1710. In another embodiment, the shell lid 1706 can be made of a transparent material so that a transparent window can be formed in the shell lid 1706 in place of the protective screen membrane 1710. The transparent window is aligned with the display screen 1714 so that the user can view the display screen 1714. In this case, a protective elevated rim that is aligned with the display screen 1714 is not required in the shell lid 1706 to protect the display screen 1714 from damage since there is no protective screen membrane 1710. If the display screen 1714 is a touch screen, the material of the shell lid 1706 that is aligned with the display screen 1714 to provide a window can be made thinner to allow the touch screen to properly operate. As also shown with respect to the embodiment of FIG. 17, a protective control membrane 1708 is permanently or removably fixed in a watertight manner to the underside of shell lid 1706 in an aperture that is aligned with the interactive flat-panel control 1714 of the handheld device 1702. The protective screen membrane 1710 is recessed with respect to the upper surface of the shell lid 1706 which provides protective elevated rim that protects the display screen 1714 from breakage and provides tactile feedback that guides a user's finger to the desired area, even in slippery conditions. Of course, the protective elevated rim may simply comprise the portion of the shell lid 1706 that is formed as a result of making an aperture in the shell lid 1706 and overmolding a protective touch-control membrane 1708 on an inside surface of the shell lid 1706. In other words, the thickness of the shell lid 1706 creates a protective rim since the protective touch-control membrane 1708 is overmolded or otherwise attached to the back side of the shell lid 1706. In that case, the rim is not elevated with respect to the surface of the shell lid 1706, but rather, is elevated with respect to the membrane to form a protective rim. Interactive flat-panel control 1712 has capacitive sensors, which are part of a proximity/touch detector circuit. When a grounded object, such as a person's finger, which has free air capacitance of several hundred picofarads, is brought close to the capacitive sensors, the total capacitance measured by the detector circuit increases because the capacitance of the object with free air capacitance adds to the capacitance of the sensors since the total capacitance of two capacitors in parallel is additive. Multiple sensors may also be arranged so that movement of an object with free air capacitance can be detected, for example, movement of a person's finger in a circular motion analogous to turning a mechanical control knob. Some examples of interactive flat-panel controlled PEDs include Ipod and Ipod Mini music and audio players from Apple Computer. In some PEDs, such as the Apple Ipod, capacitive sensors may be disposed below a front panel made from a dielectric such as polycarbonate, which has a dielectric constant in the range of 2.2-3.8. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the protective control membrane 1708 is made of thin polycarbonate that is slightly flexible or other engineered thermoplastics that provide the rugged watertight protection and at the same time permit the capacitive sensors of the interactive flat-panel control 1712 to function correctly. Likewise, a protective control membrane 1708 with a dielectric constant that is too high may retain an electric charge long enough to reduce the response rate of the sensor to motion of a user's finger from one capacitive sensor zone of the interactive flat-panel control 1712 to another. A protective control membrane 1708 that is conductive or has a dielectric constant that is too low may diminish the sensitivity of the capacitive sensor by combining in series the capacitance of the protective membrane and the dielectric front panel of the PED which results in a lowering of the overall capacitance. Total capacitance between an object, such as a finger touching the protective control membrane 1708, and interactive flat-panel control 1712 is a function of the thickness and the dielectric constant of the protective control membrane 1708. The capacitance between the object, such as a finger, and the capacitive sensors of the interactive flat-panel control 1712 is proportional to the distance between the object and the sensors. The sensitivity of the capacitive sensors to the object may be diminished or completely eliminated if the protective control membrane 1708 is too thick. In the embodiment of FIG. 17, the thickness of the protective control membrane is approximately 0.020 inches. The protective control membrane 1708 may be any thickness in the range of 0.003 inches to 0.020 inches that is adequate to provide a rugged watertight membrane through which capacitance can be correctly sensed by the interactive flat-panel control 1712. The upper surface of the protective control membrane 1708 has a velvet/matte texture with a texture depth of 0.0004 to 0.003 inches that reduces the surface area of the membrane that is in frictional contact with the user's finger and permits a user's finger to glide rapidly upon the surface of the membrane without catching or sticking as a result of the reduced friction. The hardness of the polycarbonate material, or other hard engineered thermoplastic, also reduces the friction. Headphones or other accessories may be electrically connected to handheld device 1702 the through the protective enclosure 1700 by disposing the wire of the headphone or accessory in an insertable gasket 1716 which fits snugly into one end of the shell base 1704. FIG. 18 illustrates another embodiment of protective enclosure 1800 which is substantially the same as protective enclosure 1700 of FIG. 17. However, protective enclosure 1800 has an alternative electrical pass-through for accessories. In the embodiment of FIG. 18, shell base 1804 includes an adapter cable 1816 that has an adapter plug 1812 at one end which plugs into a jack of handheld device 1802. At the other end of the adapter cable 1816 is an adapter jack 1814 that is molded into, or otherwise integrally made part of, shell base 1804. An external accessory, such as a pair of headphones, may then be plugged into the adapter jack 1814 while the handheld device 1802 in enclosed in protective enclosure 1800. Alternatively, a one-piece adapter that includes both a jack 1814 and a plug 1812 without a cable 1816 may be integrally disposed into shell base 1804. Shell lid 1806 is adapted to retain an O-ring 1808 that seals the protective enclosure 1800 when shell lid 1806 is latched tightly onto shell base 1804 so that water cannot enter protective enclosure 1800. FIG. 19 illustrates in the open position a crush-resistant, impact-resistant, watertight, protective enclosure 2000 for an electronic device such as a laptop computer. The protective enclosure 2000 may be manufactured in a manner similar to the enclosure of FIG. 13 comprising an impact/crush resistant material such as glass-fiber reinforced engineered thermoplastic, such as for example, glass reinforced polycarbonate. It may also be made of thermoplastic polycarbonate, thermoplastic polypropylene, thermoplastic acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene, and thermoplastic compositions containing one or more thereof, or other engineered thermoplastics that provide a shock-resistant and impact resistant shell. The inside of the enclosure is covered with a hook and loop liner 2002. Shock absorbing corner bumpers 2004 have hook and loop type bases so that they may attach at any point on the liner inside the enclosure at the corners of the electronic device to secure electronic devices of various sizes and provides a shock absorbent suspension system for the devices. The shape of the bumpers may vary in size and in depth. They may also vary such that the laptop is raised a predetermined height for the bottom of the enclosure so that there may be access to the ports and external drives such as CD and DVD. These bumpers allow the enclosure to be adaptable to any size laptop computer by placing it inside the enclosure and securing it into position with the bumpers 2004. Straps 2006 also secures the laptop into position. FIG. 20 illustrates a laptop 2008 secured in position as described above. An opening for a door or docking position 2010 may be provided that allows the case to be prewired for power or other USB connections. The watertight access ports may include holes that have a moveable watertight plug, or any type of watertight button or lever. The liner 2002 may also have some cushioning that cushions the laptop and protects it against breakage if the enclosure and laptop are dropped or otherwise subjected to shock. Normally, however, most of the cushioning is provided by the corner bumpers and the liner is not cushioned. In accordance with the embodiment of FIG. 19, the liner 2002 has a thickness of approximately 0.25. This enclosure is also adaptable to protect PC tablets of the type illustrated in FIG. 13A. The hook and loop liner may be adjacent to the touch screen but does not exert mechanical pressure on the touch screen so that mechanical inputs such as style stokes are sensed only when intended. The engineered thermoplastics may be reinforced with glass fibers, carbon fibers, metal fibers, polyamide fibers, and mixtures thereof. Referring to FIG. 21 the enclosure 2000 may have an elevated protective rim 2012 substantially surrounding a perimeter of the enclosure. This rim may be further reinforced with stiffeners made of steel or other hard material that are integrally embedded into the enclosure so that the stiffeners provide additional strength and protection to the enclosed devices, as shown in FIG. 13B. An adjustable heavy-duty handle 2016 may be attached to or integrally designed into protective enclosure 2000 to allow easy and reliable transportation. FIG. 22 illustrates the top of the enclosure wherein heavy-duty corner bumpers, such as bumper 2016, provide additional protection against mechanical shock and are securely attached to the corners of the base. The ribs 2012 also substantially surround a perimeter of the base of the enclosure. FIG. 23 illustrates a front view of the protective enclosure 2000. An addition protective rib 2018 is provided along the front of the case and extends around the case on the ends, as shown in FIG. 24. FIG. 25 illustrates the back of the protective enclosure wherein an opening 2010 is provided in the protective enclosure 2000 which is sealed with a rubber plug 2020. The plug 2020 of the USB hub is shown in more detail in FIG. 26. The USB cable hub allows the protective enclosure 2000 to be wired for both power as well as USB connections. In addition, provisions may be made to provide ventilation for the enclosure through opening 2010. FIG. 26 illustrates the USB hub 2021. The hub has mounting apertures such as 2022 that are disposed to receive fasteners to mount the hub inside of the protective enclosure 2000. A USB connecter 2024, that is disposed to connect to a USB slot in a computer laptop or PC tablet computer, is connected by a cable 2026 to the hub 2020. FIG. 27 illustrates the integrated USB hub 2021 mounted in the enclosure 2000. The cable 2026 and USB connector 2024 allow a laptop computer or other computer to be connected to the USB hub 2021. The corner bumpers 2004 are disposed to be removably attached to the enclosure lining 2002 so that the computer may be moved to a new location or the inside of the protective enclosure 2000 to facilitate the making of a connection between a laptop computer and the hub 2020. The hook and loop liner 2005, that is attached to the base of the shock absorbing corner bumpers 2004, extends beyond the base dimensions by a predetermined amount to increase the adhesion between the bumpers 2004 and liner 2002 of the enclosure 2000. FIG. 28 illustrates how the USB assembly comprising the hub 2021, cable 2026, and connector 2026 may be mounted in an enclosure for a PC tablet protective enclosure such as 1400 shown in FIG. 14. The foregoing description of the invention has been presented for purposes of illustration and description. It is not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the invention to the precise form disclosed, and other modifications and variations may be possible in light of the above teachings. The embodiment was chosen and described in order to best explain the principles of the invention and its practical application to thereby enable others skilled in the art to best utilize the invention in various embodiments and various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. It is intended that the appended claims be construed to include other alternative embodiments of the invention except insofar as limited by the prior art. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Portable electronic devices (PEDs), such as PDAs, computers, MP3 players, music players, video players, smart phones, GPS receivers, telematics devices, cell phones, satellite phones, pagers, monitors, etc., are being very widely used, and are being deployed in industrial as well as office environments. PEDs are being used in industrial environments for data collection, such as service information on an airplane, or for data delivery such as maps for fire fighters and other emergency personnel. When PEDs are deployed in such industrial applications, the data that is collected and displayed on the PED can be extremely valuable and can be lifesaving. The industrial environments impose harsh conditions that typical PEDs are not designed to accommodate. For example, damage can be done to the PED through rough handling and dropping. Further, industrial chemicals, grease, water, dirt, and grime may damage or destroy a functioning PED and inhibit the use of the PEDs valuable data. It is common to hold the PEDs inside a protective case for transport. However, PEDs are usually removed for use since most cases used for transport are not interactive. Interactive cases are also useful for non-industrial applications to provide protection for PEDs. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, a protective cover is disclosed for an electronic device having a capacitance-sensing interactive touch screen display, at least one control button, a camera feature, and an electrical interface. The protective cover includes a protective shell base having an inner surface, an outer surface, and a plurality of side members defining a perimeter of the protective shell base. The protective cover also includes a cushioning member coupled with at least the inner surface of the protective shell base. The cushioning member is configured for cushioning the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover also includes a first opening defined by the perimeter of the protective shell base. The first opening is configured to align with and expose at least a portion of the capacitance-sensing interactive touch screen display when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover also includes a second opening passing through the inner and outer surfaces of the protective shell base and configured to align with the camera feature of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. The protective cover further includes an access port in at least one of the plurality of side members of the protective shell base. The access port is positioned to be proximate the electrical interface of the electronic device when the electronic device is disposed in the protective shell base. In another aspect, a protective enclosure for a mobile computing device is provided. The protective enclosure includes a first case member, a second case member, a plurality of pliable areas, an electrical connector, audio headphones, and a headphone cable. The first and second case members each have an exterior surface, and interior surface, and a perimeter portion. The second case member is removably attachable to the first case member with one or more latching mechanisms. The attachment of the second case member to the first case member forms a protective interior of the protective enclosure for receiving the mobile computing device. The plurality of pliable areas are disposed in the first case member and/or the second case member, and each align with a corresponding control button of the mobile computing device. The pliable areas transmit at least a portion of a force applied at an external surface of one of the pliable areas to the corresponding control button of the mobile computing device to actuate the corresponding control button of the mobile computing device when the mobile computing device is in the protective interior of the protective enclosure. The electrical connector is attached to the interior surface of the second case member, and is structured to mate with a corresponding electrical connector of the mobile computing device when the mobile computing device is inside the protective enclosure. The audio headphones are connected to the exterior surface of one of the first case member and the second case member via a headphone cable. The headphone cable electrically interconnects the audio headphones to the electrical connector of the protective enclosure such that audio signals generated by the mobile computing device inside the protective interior are transmitted through the electrical connector of the mobile computing device through the electrical connector of the protective enclosure and through the headphone cable to the headphones outside the protective enclosure. In another aspect, the disclosure describes a protective case for a portable electronic device, including first and second case portions, a pliable molded surface, an electrical connector, and audio headphones. The first case portion may have an exterior surface, an interior surface, and a perimeter portion. The second case portion may also have an exterior surface, an interior surface, and a perimeter portion, and may be removably attachable to the first case portion to form a protective shell. Such protective shell may include a cavity for the portable electronic device inside the shell, the cavity defined by at least a portion of the interior surface of the first case portion and at least a portion of the interior surface of the second case portion. The pliable molded surface may be disposed in an opening of one of the first case portion and the second case portion, and may align with a corresponding control button of the portable electronic device. The pliable molded surface may transmit a mechanical pressure applied at an exterior surface of the pliable molded surface to the control button of the portable electronic device to actuate the control button of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the shell. The electrical connector may be attached to the interior surface of the first or second case portion, and may mate with an electrical interface of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the shell. The audio headphones may have a headphone cable connected to the exterior surface of the first or second case portion. The headphone cable may be electrically interconnected through a wall of the first or second case portion to the electrical connector of the protective case. This interconnection permits electrical audio signals generated by the portable electronic device inside the shell to be transmitted from the electrical interface of the portable electronic device through the electrical connector and through the headphone cable to the headphones. In another disclosed aspect a protective case for a portable electronic device may include a protective shell, audio headphones, and a headphone cable. The protective shell may include a first case portion, a second case portion, a pliable surface, and an electrical pass-through. The first case portion and the second case portion may each have an exterior surface and an interior surface. The second case portion may be removably attachable to the first case portion, where attachment of the second case portion to the first case portion forms a protective cavity for the portable electronic device. The pliable surface may be disposed in an opening of one of the first case portion and the second case portion. The pliable surface may align with a control feature of the portable electronic device when the portable electronic device is inside the protective cavity. The pliable surface may also be structured to transmit at least a portion of a mechanical force applied at an external surface of the protective shell to the control feature of the portable electronic device to actuate the control feature. The electrical pass-through provides electrical access to a headphone jack of the portable electronic device from outside the protective shell when the portable electronic device is inside the protective cavity in the protective shell. The audio headphones are affixed, and electrically connected, to the headphone cable. The headphone cable electrically connects the audio headphones to the headphone jack of the portable electronic device inside the protective shell through the electrical pass-through such that audio signals from the portable electronic device inside the protective shell are conducted to the audio headphones through the headphone cable. In yet another example, a protective case for use with a portable electronic device includes a protective shell including a cavity for receiving the portable electronic device and a pliable surface disposed in an opening of the protective shell. The pliable surface being adapted to transmit at least a portion of a mechanical force applied at an external surface of the protective shell to the control feature of the installed portable electronic device to actuate the control feature of the installed portable electronic device. The protective case also includes an electrical pass-through disposed in a wall of the protective shell for accessing an electrical connector of the installed portable electronic device from outside the protective shell and an electrical cable configured to electrically connect a peripheral device to the electrical connector of the installed portable electronic device through the electrical pass-through. | H04B13888 | 20170706 | 20180227 | 20171026 | 71259.0 | H04B13888 | 1 | AMINZAY, SHAIMA Q | PROTECTIVE COVER FOR ELECTRONIC DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04B | 2,017 |
15,643,403 | PENDING | LIGHT EMITTING DIODE AND METHOD OF FABRICATING THE SAME | Exemplary embodiments of the present invention disclose a light emitting diode including an n-type contact layer doped with silicon, a p-type contact layer, an active region disposed between the n-type contact layer and the p-type contact layer, a superlattice layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, the superlattice layer including a plurality of layers, an undoped intermediate layer disposed between the superlattice layer and the n-type contact layer, and an electron reinforcing layer disposed between the undoped intermediate layer and the superlattice layer. Only a final layer of the superlattice layer closest to the active region is doped with silicon, and the silicon doping concentration of the final layer is higher than that of the n-type contact layer. | 1-42. (canceled) 43. A light emitting diode, comprising: an n-type contact layer; a p-type contact layer disposed over the n-type contact layer; an active region disposed between the n-type contact layer and the p-type contact layer and comprising a multi-quantum well structure including a quantum well layer; a p-type clad layer disposed between the p-type contact layer and the active region; a superlattice layer including a plurality of layers, disposed near the active region; and a spacer layer disposed between the superlattice layer and the n-type contact layer and having a bandgap smaller than that of the barrier layer and greater than that of the quantum well layer. 44. The light emitting diode of claim 43, further comprising an un-doped intermediate layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region. 45. The light emitting diode of claim 43, wherein the spacer layer comprises a stacked structure of at least two different InGaN layers. 46. The light emitting diode of claim 43, wherein the at least one layer of the plurality of layers in the spacer layer positioned adjacent to the active region is doped with n-type impurities. 47. The light emitting diode of claim 43, wherein: the n-type contact layer includes n-type impurities; and the at least one of the plurality of layers in the spacer layer that is doped with n-type impurities is doped with the n-type impurities at a higher concentration than a concentration of the n-type impurities in the n-type contact layer. 48. The light emitting diode of claim 43, further comprising: an intermediate layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the spacer layer and including n-type impurities, wherein a concentration of the n-type impurities in the intermediate layer is higher than a concentration of n-type impurities in the n-type contact layer and lower than a concentration of n-type impurities in the spacer layer. 49. The light emitting diode of claim 48, wherein the intermediate layer includes an n-AlGaN layer. 50. The light emitting diode of claim 49, wherein the n-AlGaN layer in the intermediate layer has a gradually or stepwise reduced Al composition toward the active region than away from the active region. 51. A light emitting diode, comprising: an n-type contact layer doped with n-type impurities; a spacer layer disposed over the n-type contact layer and having a bandgap smaller than that of the barrier layer and greater than that of the quantum well layer; an active region disposed over the spacer layer and having a multi-quantum well structure including a quantum well layer and a barrier layer; a p-type contact layer disposed over the active region; and a p-type clad layer disposed between the p-type contact layer and the active region. 52. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the quantum well layer includes an InGaN layer. 53. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the active region is not doped with the n-type impurities. 54. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the spacer layer includes a first semiconductor layer not doped with the n-type impurities and a second semiconductor layer doped with the n-type impurities. 55. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the spacer layer is doped with n-type impurities at higher concentration than a concentration of the n-type impurities in the n-type contact layer. 56. The light emitting diode of claim 51, further comprising an intermediate layer formed between the n-type contact layer and the spacer layer and including n-AlGaN layer. 57. The light emitting diode of claim 56, wherein the intermediate layer is doped with the n-type impurities at a concentration that is higher than a concentration of the n-type impurities in the n-type contact layer. 58. The light emitting diode of claim 56, wherein the n-AlGaN layer has a gradually or stepwise reduced Al composition toward the active region than away from the active region. 59. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the n-type contact layer comprises at least two different n-type GaN layers and an n-type AlGaN layer disposed between the at least two different n-type GaN layers. 60. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the first and second semiconductor layers of the spacer layer include different InGaN layers. 61-64. (canceled) 65. The light emitting diode of claim 43, wherein the p-type clad layer includes an AlGaN layer. 66. The light emitting diode of claim 65, wherein Al composition of the AlGaN layer is gradually lowered toward the p-type contact layer. 67. The light emitting diode of claim 65, further comprising an intermediate layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, wherein Al composition of the AlGaN layer is greater than that of the intermediate layer. 68. The light emitting diode of claim 43, wherein the p-type clad layer includes a plurality of layers including at least one of AlGaN, GaN, or InGaN. 69. The light emitting diode of claim 43, wherein the p-type clad layer includes a first layer and a second layer, the first layer is closer to the active region than the second layer is, and the first layer has a thickness smaller than the second layer. 70. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the p-type clad layer includes an AlGaN layer. 71. The light emitting diode of claim 70, wherein Al composition of the AlGaN layer is gradually lowered toward the p-type contact layer. 72. The light emitting diode of claim 70, further comprising an intermediate layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, wherein Al composition of the AlGaN layer is greater than that of the intermediate layer. 73. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the p-type clad layer includes a plurality of layers including at least one of AlGaN, GaN, or InGaN. 74. The light emitting diode of claim 51, wherein the p-type clad layer includes a first layer and a second layer, the first layer is closer to the active region than the second layer is, and the first layer has a thickness smaller than the second layer. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/983,499, filed on Jan. 3, 2011, and claims priority from and the benefit of: Korean Patent Application No. 10-2010-0000559, filed on Jan. 5, 2010; Korean Patent Application No. 10-2010-0052860, filed on Jun. 4, 2010; Korean Patent Application No. 10-2010-0052861, filed on Jun. 4, 2010; and Korean Patent Application No. 10-2010-0113666, filed on Nov. 16, 2010, all of which are hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a light emitting diode and a method of fabricating the same, and more particularly, to a light emitting diode with improved electrostatic discharge is characteristics and/or luminous efficiency and a method of fabricating the same. Discussion of the Background Generally, a gallium nitride (GaN)-based semiconductor may be used for an ultraviolet or blue/green light emitting diode or laser diode, or the like, as a light source for a full-color display, a traffic signal lamp, a general lighting, and optical communication devices. The GaN-based light emitting device may include an active layer having an indium gallium nitride (InGaN)-based multi-quantum well structure disposed between n-type and p-type GaN semiconductor layers, and may generate and emit light by recombination of electrons and holes in the quantum well layer in the active layer. FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of a light emitting diode according to related art. Referring to FIG. 1, the light emitting diode includes a substrate 11, a low-temperature buffer layer or nucleation layer 13, an undoped GaN layer 15, an n-type contact layer 17, an active region 25, and a p type contact layer 27. The light emitting diode according to the related art includes the active region 25 having the multi-quantum well structure disposed between the n-type contact layer 17 and the p-type contact layer 27, which may improve luminous efficiency. Further, the light emitting diode controls indium content of an InGaN well layer within the multi-quantum well structure, which may allow light emission of a desired wavelength. The n-type contact layer 17 generally may have a doping concentration (i.e. number density) ranging from 1018 cm−3 to 1019 cm−3 and may serve to supply electrons in the light emitting diode. The current spreading performance within the light emitting diode may have a large effect on the luminous efficiency of the light emitting diode. When the n-type contact layer 17 and the p-type contact layer 27 are respectively provided with an n-electrode and a p-electrode (not shown), current concentration may occur according to a size of an area and a position in which the n-electrode and p-electrode contact the contact layers 17 and 27. When high voltage such as electrostatic discharge (ESD) is applied to the light emitting diode, ESD breakdown of the light emitting diode may easily occur due to the current concentration. In addition, thread dislocations may be generated from the low-temperature buffer layer 13 and may be transferred to the undoped GaN layer 15, the n-type contact layer 17, the active region 25, and the p-type contact layer 27. Since current may flow intensively through these thread dislocations, the ESD characteristics may lead to further deterioration of the light emitting diode. In addition, since there may be about 11% of lattice mis-match between GaN and InN, an interfacial strain may occur between a quantum well layer and a barrier layer in the InGaN-based multi-quantum well structure. This strain may cause a piezoelectric field in the quantum well layer, thereby leading to degradation of internal quantum efficiency. In particular, in the case of a green light emitting diode, since the amount of In contained in the quantum well may be greater compared to other wavelengths, the internal quantum efficiency may be further reduced by the piezoelectric field. In the InGaN light emitting diode, the active region having the multi-quantum well structure may generally be formed by alternately stacking the InGaN well layer and the InGaN barrier layer. The well layer is formed of a semiconductor layer having a smaller bandgap than that of the barrier layer and electrons and holes are recombined in the well layer. In addition, the barrier layers may be doped with silicon (Si) in order to lower a forward voltage Vf. However, the Si doping may have a negative effect on the crystal quality of the active region. Further, due to the limitations of epitaxial growth technology, the multi-quantum well structure may be relatively thick according to the doping of Si. In particular, when Si is doped in the active region including In, crystal defects may frequently occur on the surface of the active region and in the active region and a wavelength shift may be easily generated due to a space charge separation generated by a polarization field. Meanwhile, the external quantum efficiency of the light emitting diode may increase with an increase in the injection current under low current conditions, while the external quantum efficiency may be degraded with an increase in the injection current under high current conditions. This phenomenon is referred to as an efficiency droop, which may limit the efficiency of a high-output light emitting diode. Factors that may cause efficiency droop are thermal vibration, Auger recombination, internal field within the multi-quantum well structure, non-recombination rate due to the crystal structure, etc. Electrons and holes may not stay long in the active layer region due to the thermal vibration according to thermal or Joule heating, thereby making it possible to cause the efficiency droop. The efficiency droop may be caused by the occurrence of the Auger recombination due to the increase in carrier concentration when high current is injected. Further, the efficiency droop may be caused with the increase in non-recombination rate due to electron overflow during application of high voltage, and the efficiency droop may be caused with increase of the non-radiative recombination rate due to the defects in a semiconductor crystal. Meanwhile, an AlGaN electron blocking layer (EBL) may be formed on the active layer in order to prevent electrons from flowing out the active layer. However, an internal field may be generated by spontaneous polarization and piezo polarization in the active layer and the electron blocking layer. Due to the internal field within the active layer and the electron blocking layer, high voltage should be applied in order to pass electrons through the active layer having the multi-quantum well structure. In particular, if the applied voltage is larger than a built-in voltage in a 350 mA high-output diode, a conduction band at an n-type side may have a higher energy level than a conduction band at a p-type side, based on the center of the active layer. The energy level of the electron blocking layer may be lowered, which may increase leakage current. In order to increase the energy level of the electron blocking layer, an aluminum (Al) composition may be added to or be increased within the electron blocking layer; however, the increase may degrade crystal quality of the light emitting diode. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Exemplary embodiments of the present invention provide a light emitting diode with improved electrostatic discharge characteristics. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention also provide a light emitting diode with low current leakage. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention also provide a method for manufacturing a light emitting diode with improved current spreading performance. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention also provide a light emitting diode capable of lowering a forward voltage by reducing the generation of an internal field. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention also provide a light emitting diode capable of reducing efficiency droop. Additional features of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be apparent from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention discloses a light emitting diode including an n-type contact layer doped with silicon, a p-type contact layer, an active region disposed between the n-type contact layer and the p-type contact layer, a superlattice layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, the superlattice layer including a plurality of layers, an undoped intermediate layer disposed between the superlattice layer and the n-type contact layer, and an electron reinforcing layer disposed between the undoped intermediate layer and the superlattice layer, wherein only a final layer of the superlattice layer closest to the active region is doped with silicon, and the silicon doping concentration of the final layer is higher than that of the n-type contact layer. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention also discloses a method of fabricating a light emitting diode including forming a buffer layer on a substrate, forming an n-type contact layer doped with silicon on the buffer layer, forming an undoped intermediate layer on the n-type contact layer, forming an electron reinforcing layer on the undoped intermediate layer, forming a superlattice layer on the electron reinforcing layer, the superlattice layer including a plurality of layers, and forming an active region on the superlattice layer, wherein only a final layer of the superlattice layer is doped with silicon, and the silicon doping concentration of the final layer is higher than that of the n-type contact layer. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention also discloses a light emitting diode including an n-type contact layer doped with silicon, a p-type contact layer, an active region disposed between the n-type contact layer and the p-type contact layer, a superlattice layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, the superlattice layer including a plurality of layers, an undoped intermediate layer disposed between the superlattice layer and the n-type contact layer, and an electron reinforcing layer disposed between the undoped intermediate layer and the superlattice layer, wherein the n-type contact layer has at least two n-type GaN layers and an n-type AlGaN layers disposed between the at least two n-type GaN layers. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention also discloses a light emitting diode, including an n-type contact layer, a p-type contact layer disposed on the n-type contact layer, an active region having a multi-quantum well structure, the active region disposed between the n-type contact layer and the p-type contact layer, and a spacer layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, wherein the spacer layer is doped with n-type impurities, and the n-type impurity doping concentration is relatively higher than the impurity doping concentration of the n-type contact layer, and the active region is undoped. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments of the invention, and together with the description serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to the related art. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram showing a silicon doping profile of a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a schematic temperature profile showing a method for manufacturing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 is a schematic diagram showing a silicon doping profile of a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 is a cross-sectional view showing a spacer layer structure of a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a schematic diagram showing a silicon doping profile of a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 13 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE ILLUSTRATED EMBODIMENTS The invention is described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which exemplary embodiments of the invention are shown. This invention may, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the exemplary embodiments set forth herein. Rather, these exemplary embodiments are provided so that this disclosure is thorough, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. In the drawings, the size and relative sizes of layers and regions may be exaggerated for clarity. Like reference numerals in the drawings denote like elements. It will be understood that when an element or layer is referred to as being “on” or “connected to” another element or layer, it can be directly on or directly connected to the other element or layer, or intervening elements or layers may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly on” or “directly connected to” another element or layer, there are no intervening elements or layers present. FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view showing a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention, and FIG. 3 shows a schematic silicon doping profile of the light emitting diode. Referring to FIG. 2 and FIG. 3, the light emitting diode is configured to include an n-type contact layer 57, an undoped intermediate layer 59, an electron reinforcing layer 61, a superlattice layer 63, an active region 65, and a p-type contact layer 69. Further, the light emitting diode may include a substrate 51, a low-temperature buffer layer or nucleation layer 53, a buffer layer 55, and a p-type clad layer 67. The substrate 51 is a substrate for growing a GaN-based semiconductor layer. The substrate may be made of sapphire, SiC, spinel, or the like, but is not specifically limited thereto. For example, the substrate may be a patterned sapphire substrate (PSS). The nucleation layer 53 may be formed of (Al, Ga)N at a temperature of 400 to 600° C. in order to grow the buffer layer 55 on the substrate 51. The nucleation layer 53 may be made of GaN or AlN. The nucleation layer may have a thickness of about 25 nm. The buffer layer 55, which may reduce defect occurrences such as dislocations between the substrate 51 and the n-type contact layer 57, is grown at a relatively higher temperature than the nucleation layer 53. The buffer layer 55 may be made of, for example, undoped GaN. The n-type contact layer 57 is formed of an n-type impurity, and may be, for example, an Si-doped GaN-based semiconductor layer. The n-type contact layer 57 may include a GaN layer and may be formed of a single layer or a multi-layer. As shown in FIG. 4, the n-type contact layer 57 may be configured to include an n-type first GaN layer 57a, an n-type AlGaN layer 57b, and an n-type second GaN layer 57c. That is, the AlGaN layer 57b is interposed between the GaN layers 57a and 57c. A Si doping concentration doped on the n-type contact layer may be in the range of 1018 cm−3 to 1019 cm−3. For example, as shown in FIG. 4, when the first n-type GaN layer 57a is grown and then the n-type AlGaN layer 57b is grown, biaxial stress may occur by the n-type AlGaN layer 57b. In addition, when the second n-type GaN layer 57c is grown, the biaxial stress may be reduced by compression stress, thereby making it possible to reduce thread dislocations due to the change in stress. Therefore, it is possible to prevent the thread dislocations transferred through the nucleation layer 53 and the high-temperature buffer layer 55 from being transferred to the active region 65 by disposing the n-type AlGaN layer 57b between the n-type GaN layers 57a and 57c. The undoped intermediate layer 59 may be made of GaN, which is not intentionally doped with impurities, to have a thickness of 100 to 5000 {acute over (Å)}. Since the undoped intermediate layer 59 is not doped with impurities, it may have relatively higher specific resistance as compared to the n-type contact layer 57. Therefore, electrons introduced into the active layer 65 from the n-type contact layer 57 may be uniformly spread within the n-type contact layer 57 before passing through the undoped intermediate layer 59. The electron reinforcing layer 61 is formed on the undoped intermediate layer 59. The electron reinforcing layer 61 may be made of GaN doped with Si at high concentration to have a thickness of 10 to 2000 {acute over (Å)}, thereby making it possible to lower the forward voltage Vf of the light emitting diode. As shown in FIG. 3, the doping concentration of Si doped in the electron reinforcing layer 61 is greater than the silicon doping concentration of the n-type contact layer 57. The Si doping concentration within the electron reinforcing layer 61 may be at least four times greater than the Si doping concentration of the n-type contact layer 57. The n-type contact layer 57, the undoped intermediate layer 59, and the electron reinforcing layer 61 may be continuously grown by supplying a metal source gas and a nitrogen source gas to a growth chamber. As a raw material of the metal source gas, metal-organic gasses containing Al, Ga, and In, for example, trimethylaluminum (TMA), trimethylgallium (TMG), and/or trimethylindium (TMI), or the like, may be used. As a raw material of the nitrogen source gas, ammonia, or the like, may be used. These layers may be grown at a temperature of 1050° C. to 1150° C., for example. The superlattice layer 63 is formed on the electron reinforcing layer 61. The superlattice layer 63 may be formed by alternately stacking the GaN layer and the InGaN layer at a thickness of, for example, 20{acute over (Å)}. A first layer of the superlattice layer 63 may be made of GaN or InGaN, but the final layer may be made of GaN. The first layer of the superlattice layer 63 directly contacts the electrode reinforcing layer 61, and the final layer of the superlattice layer 63 directly contacts the active layer 65. The final layer of the superlattice layer 63 is doped with high-concentration Si. The doping concentration of Si doped on the final layer may be about four times to five times higher than the concentration of Si doped on the n-type contact layer 57. The Si concentration doped on the final layer of the superlattice layer 63 may be approximately the same as the Si doping concentration of the electron reinforcing layer 61. Therefore, the final layer of the superlattice layer 63 and the electron reinforcing layer 61 below the superlattice layer 63 are formed of a high-concentration Si doped layer and the remaining layers of the superlattice layer 63 positioned therebetween are formed of substantially undoped GaN or InGaN. Most layers of the superlattice layer 63 may be formed of substantially undoped GaN or InGaN, thereby possibly reducing the leakage current of the light emitting diode. Further, the final layer of the superlattice layer 63 is doped at high concentration, thereby possibly improving junction characteristics between the superlattice layer 63 and the active region 65. The superlattice layer 63 may be grown at a relatively lower temperature as compared with the electron reinforcing layer 61. As shown in FIG. 5, before the superlattice layer 63 is grown, the electron reinforcing layer 61 is grown at a first temperature T1 and then the supply of metal source gas is stopped for a first time t1, and the grown electron reinforcing layer 61 is maintained on the substrate 21 at the first temperature T1. The first time t1 may be a time sufficient for discharging the metal source gas remaining in the chamber, that is, about 3 to 10 minutes, and may be, about 5 to 7 minutes. In addition, during the first time t1, the n-type contact layer 57 and the intermediate layer 59 may be heat-treated, including the electron reinforcing layer 61, thereby improving the crystal quality of the n-side semiconductor layer. Then, the temperature of the substrate 21 may be decreased from the first temperature T1 to a second temperature T2. The second temperature T2 is set to a temperature suitable to grow the superlattice layer 63. The second temperature T2 may be in the range of, for example, 650° C. to 800° C. After the growth of the superlattice layer 63 is completed, the active region 65 is grown on the superlattice layer 63. The active region 65 may be grown at the same temperature as the superlattice layer 63 or a relatively lower temperature than for the growth of the superlattice layer 63, for example, 650° C. to 750° C. For simplification, FIG. 5 shows the case in which the active region 65 is grown at the same growth temperature as the superlattice layer 63, i.e., the second temperature T2. The active region 65 may have the multi-quantum well structure in which the barrier layer and the InGaN quantum well layer are alternately stacked. The barrier layer may be formed of a GaN-based semiconductor having a wider bandgap than that of the quantum well layer, for example, GaN, InGaN, AlGaN, or AlInGaN. The In composition ratio within the InGaN quantum well layer is determined by the desired optical wavelength. The active region 65 may directly contact the final layer of the superlattice layer 63. The barrier layer and the quantum well layer of the active region 65 may be formed of the undoped layer in which impurities are not doped, in order to improve the crystal quality of the active region or may be doped with impurities within some of or the entire active region in order to lower the forward voltage Vf. A p-type contact layer 69 is disposed on the active region 65 and a p-type clad layer 67 may be interposed between the active region 65 and the p-type contact layer 69. For example, after the growth of the active region 65 is completed, the supply of the metal source gas is stopped and the temperature of the substrate 51 increases to a third temperature T3 for the second time t2. The second time t2 is set to a time in which the metal source gas remaining in the chamber can be sufficiently discharged. For example, the second time t2 may be in the range of 5 to 15 minutes. Alternatively, after the growth of the active region 65 is completed, the supply of metal source gas may stop, and the temperature of the substrate 51 may be maintained at the active region growth temperature for a third time (not shown), for example, at the second temperature T2 for a third time. The third time may be, for example, in the same range as the first time t1, i.e., 3 to 10 minutes. After the growth of the active region 65 is completed, the temperature may be maintained at the second temperature T2 for the third time or increased from the second temperature T2 to the third temperature T3 for the second time t2, but is not limited thereto. These methods may also be used together, in complement with each other. Then, the metal source gas is supplied to the chamber and the p-side GaN-based semiconductor layer, for example, the p-type clad layer 67 or the p-type contact layer 69 are grown, at the third temperature T3. The p-type clad layer 67 may be AlGaN. In addition, the p-type GaN-based semiconductor layer 69 may be a multi-layer structure including a single layer or a GaN layer. After the growth of the epitaxial layers of the light emitting diode is completed, the individual light emitting diode chips are manufactured. Experimental Example 1 The epitaxial layers having the above-mentioned structure were grown with reference to FIG. 2 and FIG. 3 by using a metal-organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) device. In the present experimental example, all the other conditions were the same as described above, and the Si doping position was different at the GaN/InGaN superlattice layer 63. The n-type GaN contact layer 57, the undoped GaN intermediate layer 59, the high-concentration doped GaN electron reinforcing layer 61 were sequentially grown on the undoped GaN buffer layer 55, the superlattice layer 63 was grown on the electron reinforcing layer 61, and the active region 65 having the multi-quantum well structure, the p-type AlGaN clad layer 67, and the p-type GaN contact layer 69 were sequentially grown on the superlattice layer 63. In a Comparative Example, Si was doped on all of the GaN layers in the superlattice layer 63, and, in the Experimental Example 1, Si was doped only in the final layer of the superlattice layer 63, i.e., the GaN layer with Si at the same high concentration as the electron reinforcing layer 61. The grown epitaxial layers were separated, together with the substrate, and the optical characteristics and the electrical characteristics were measured. The results are shown in Table 1. In this configuration, the electrostatic discharge (ESD) test was performed by applying a reverse voltage of 1000 V to functional light emitting diodes manufactured on the same wafer. Then, failures of the light emitting diodes were checked and the ESD characteristics were represented by ESD pass ratio. For the optical output and the electrical characteristic values, the values measured before the ESD test was performed were represented by percentage based on the Comparative Example. TABLE 1 Reverse ESD Peak Forward Leakage Voltage Pass Wavelength Voltage Optical Current (Vr) @ Ratio (nm) (Vf) Output @−5 V 10 μA Comparative 0% 456.6 100 100 100 100 Example Example 92% 451.5 100.6 97.4 11.61 118.6 Referring to Table 1, Experimental Example 1 according to the present exemplary embodiment showed a slightly reduced peak wavelength, a slightly increased forward voltage Vf and a slightly reduced optical output, as compared to the Comparative Example. However, the Experimental Example 1 showed an unexpectedly reduced leakage current compared to the Comparative Example. Therefore, Experimental Example 1, exhibits a significant improvement of the ESD characteristics of the light emitting diode according to the present exemplary embodiment. Experimental Example 2 The light emitting diode having a structure according to the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 4 was grown by a MOCVD process. In the present exemplary embodiment, all the other conditions were the same as in the exemplary embodiment shown in FIG. 2, but the Comparative Example had an n-type contact layer 57 formed only n-type GaN while the Experimental Example 2 had an n-type contact layer 57 including n-type AlGaN layer interposed between n-type GaN layers. The grown epitaxial layers were separated, together with the substrate, and the optical characteristics and the electrical characteristics were measured. The results are shown in Table 2. In this configuration, the ESD test was performed by applying a reverse voltage of 1000 V to functional light emitting diodes manufactured on the same wafer. Then, the failures of the light emitting diodes were checked, and the ESD characteristics were represented by an ESD pass ratio. The optical output and the leakage current were measured for the functional light emitting diodes that passed the ESD test and the values measured in the functional light emitting diodes were represented by percentage, based on Comparative Example. TABLE 2 ESD Pass Peak Wavelength Optical Leakage Current Ratio (nm) Output @ −5 V Comparative 69.34% 454.0 100 100 Example Example 87.68% 453.64 98.9 100 Referring to Table 2, Experimental Example 2 according to the present exemplary embodiment showed a slightly reduced peak wavelength and a slightly reduced optical output, as compared to Comparative Example. However, Experimental Example 2 showed significantly improved ESD characteristics as compared to Comparative Example, and the leakage current of the light emitting diodes that passed the ESD test showed no difference between Comparative Example and Experimental Example 2. FIG. 6 is a cross-sectional view of a light emitting diode according to an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 7 shows a schematic silicon doping profile of the light emitting diode, and FIG. 8 shows a spacer layer structure of the light emitting diode. Referring to FIG. 6, FIG. 7, and FIG. 8, the light emitting diode of the present exemplary embodiment includes a substrate 121, an n-type contact layer 126, a spacer layer 128, an active region 129 having a multi-quantum well structure, and a p-type contact layer 133. In addition, a nucleation layer 123 and an undoped GaN layer 125 (u-GaN) may be interposed between the substrate 121 and the n-type contact layer 126. On the substrate 121, a GaN-based semiconductor layer may be grown. The substrate 121 may be made of sapphire, SiC, spinel, or the like, but is not specifically limited thereto. For example, the substrate may be a patterned sapphire substrate (PSS). The nucleation layer 123 may be made of (Al, Ga)N at a temperature of 400° C. to 600° C. in order to grow the u-GaN layer 125 on the substrate 121. The nucleation layer may be formed to a thickness of about 25 nm. The u-GaN layer 125 is a layer to reduce the occurrence of defects such as dislocations between the substrate 121 and the n-type contact layer 126 and is grown at relatively high temperature, for example, 900 to 1200° C. The n-type contact layer 126 is a layer on which the n-electrode 139 is formed and may be doped with n-type impurities such as Si or Ge. For example, the impurity concentration of the n-type contact layer 126 may be, for example, 5×1018 cm−3 and may be an n-GaN layer grown at relatively high temperature, for example, to a thickness of 2 μm or less at 900° C. to 1200° C. The spacer layer 128 may be made of a (Al, In, Ga)N-based group III-nitride semiconductor layer having a smaller bandgap than that of the barrier layer of the active region 129 and a larger bandgap than that of the well layer. For example, the spacer layer 128 may include InxGa1-xN (0≦x<1). The spacer layer 128 is doped with an n-type impurity at high concentration to lower the forward voltage Vf of the light emitting diode. As shown in FIG. 7, the doping concentration of the n-type impurity doped on the spacer layer 128 is higher than the n-type impurity doping concentration of the n-type contact layer 126. The In composition ratio of the spacer layer 128 may be smaller than the In composition ratio within the InGaN quantum well layer. In this case, the spacer layer 128 may confine charges in the active region 128 quantum well layer, possibly improving the luminous efficiency of the light emitting diode. In the present exemplary embodiment, the n-type impurity is doped in at least one thickness region adjacent to the active region 129 based on the growth direction of the spacer layer 128. The remaining thickness regions other than thickness regions doped with the n-type impurity are undoped (i.e., not doped with the n-type impurity). Only some thickness region adjacent to the active region 129 among the entire thickness regions of the spacer layer 128 may be doped with the n-type impurity so that electrons may be efficiently injected from the spacer layer 128 to the active region 129. In addition, the doping concentration in the area in which the n-type impurity is doped may be relatively higher than the impurity doping concentration of the n-type contact layer 126, for example, 9×1019 cm−3. Therefore, a resistance increase of the spacer layer 128 can be prevented and the electron injection efficiency into the active region 129 can be increased due to electrons generated in the spacer layer 128. Meanwhile, as shown in FIG. 8, the spacer layer 128 may have a structure in which (Al, In, Ga)N-based group III-nitride semiconductor layers 128a and 128b having a smaller bandgap than that of the barrier layer of the active region 129 and a larger bandgap than that of the well layer are alternately stacked. For example, the spacer layer 128 may be made by alternately stacking InxGa1-xN (0≦x<1) 128a and InyGa1-yN (0≦y<1) 128b having different compositions. The InxGa1-xN (0≦x<1) 128a may be formed at, for example, a thickness of 30 {acute over (Å)} to 40 {acute over (Å)}, and the InyGa1-yN (0≦y<1) 128b may be formed at a thickness of 15{acute over (Å)} to 20{acute over (Å)}. The spacer layers 128 having a stacked structure of InxGa1-xN (0≦x<1) 128a and InyGa1-yN (0≦y<1) 128b may improve the crystallinity of the active region 129 formed thereon and reduce strain. The spacer layers 128a and 128b may be formed at seven to fifteen periods. When the spacer layers 128 are formed in fewer than 7 periods, the spacer layers 128 may weakly alleviate the strain generated in the active region 129, and when the spacer layers 128 are formed in greater than 15 periods, a process time may increase. At this time, at least one layer 128a or 128b adjacent to the active region 129 in the spacer layers 128 is doped with n-type impurities. The remaining layers other than the layers doped with the n-type impurities are undoped (i.e., not doped with the n-type impurities). Only an InGaN layer 128a and/or an InGaN layer 128b adjacent to the active region 129 of the spacer layers 128 is doped with the n-type impurities, thereby making it possible to efficiently inject electrons from the spacer layers 128 into the active region 129. In addition, the doping concentration of the InGaN layer 128a doped with the n-type impurities may be, for example, 9×1019 cm−3, which is relatively higher than the impurity doping concentration of the n-type contact layer 126. Accordingly, the increase in resistance of the spacer layers 128 may be prevented, and the efficiency of injection of the electrons into the active region 129 may increase by the charge created in the spacer layers 128. Most layers of the spacer layers 128 are formed as undoped layers, thereby making it possible to reduce leakage current of the light emitting diode. In addition, at least one layer 128a or 128b adjacent to the active region 129 is doped with the n-type impurities at a high concentration, thereby making it possible to improve junction characteristics between the spacer layer 128 and the active region 129. Meanwhile, a spacer layer 128c adjacent to the active region 129 may be an InGaN layer further including a greater amount of In compared to other semiconductor layers configuring the spacer layer 128. At this time, the amount of In included in the spacer layer 128c adjacent to the active region 129 may be higher than that in the quantum well layer of the active region 129. In the present exemplary embodiment, the n-type impurities are doped at about the same doping concentration of the n-type contact layer 126, and may be preferably doped toward the n-type contact layer 126 within the spacer layer 128c. The active region 129 has a multi-quantum well structure in which a barrier layer and a quantum well layer are alternately stacked, wherein the quantum well layer includes an InGaN layer. The quantum barrier layer may be made of a GaN-based semiconductor layer having a bandgap wider than that of the quantum well layer, for example, GaN, InGaN, AlGaN, or AlInGaN. An In composition ratio within the InGaN quantum well layer is determined by a desired optical wavelength. The active region 129 is undoped (i.e., not doped with the n-type impurities, for example, Si or Ge). A p-type contact layer 133 is disposed on the active region 129. The p-type contact layer 133 may be made of, for example, GaN. In addition, a transparent electrode (not shown) such as Ni/Au or indium tin oxide (ITO) is formed on the p-type contact layer 133, and a p-electrode 134 may be formed thereon using a liftoff process. Further, an n-electrode 135 such as Ti/Al, etc., may be formed on the n-type contact layer 126 using the liftoff process. In the exemplary embodiments as described above, the active region 129 has the barrier layer and the quantum well layer undoped (i.e., not doped with the n-type impurities) and is grown on the spacer layer 128 having the stacked structure of InxGa1-xN (0≦x<1) 128a and InyGa1-yN (0≦y<1) 128b mostly not including the n-type impurities, thereby making it possible to improve the crystallinity of the active region 129 and reduce strain. In addition, only the InGaN layer 128a and/or the InGaN layer 128b adjacent to the active region 129 of the spacer layers 128 are doped with the n-type impurities to smoothly inject electrons from the spacer layer 128 into the active region 129, thereby making it possible to increase a recombination ratio of carriers in the active region 129. As a result, it is possible to improve light emitting efficiency of the light emitting diode. FIG. 9 and FIG. 10 each are cross-sectional views for explaining a light emitting diode according to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention and show a silicon doping profile. Referring to FIG. 9 and FIG. 10, a light emitting diode according to the present exemplary embodiment has the almost same stacked structure as that of the light emitting diode described with reference to FIG. 6, FIG. 7, and FIG. 8; however, it further includes an intermediate layer 127 doped with n-type impurities between the spacer layer 128 and the n-type contact layer 126 and a p-type clad layer 131 interposed between the active region 129 and the p-type contact layer 133. The intermediate layer 127 is doped with the n-type impurities at, for example, a concentration of 2.5×1019 cm−3, which is relatively higher than the impurity doping concentration of the n-type contact layer 126 and is relative lower than the n-type impurity doping concentration of the spacer layer 128, and may include an n-AlGaN layer, as shown in FIG. 10. The n-AlGaN layer may have gradually or stepwise reduced Al composition toward the active region 129. At this time, Al has a composition range of 10% to 15% and is stacked at a thickness of 10 nm to 100 nm, and may have a thickness of 30 nm to 60 nm. The Al composition is gradually or stepwise reduced within the n-AlGaN layer, such that the intermediate layer 127 has a gradually reduced energy level toward the active region 129. Therefore, the intermediate layer 127 may have the lowest energy level at the interface between the intermediate layer 127 and the spacer layer 128. In addition, the n-AlGaN layer may be formed in a multi-layer film structure. For example, n-AlGaN layer may be configured of a multi-layer film of AlGaN/GaN or AlGaN/InGaN. When the n-AlGaN layer is configured of the multi-layer film, it is to improve the crystallinity of the AlGaN layer. For example, the n-AlGaN layer may have gradually or stepwise reduced Al composition toward the active region 129. Meanwhile, the intermediate layer 127 may include an n-GaN layer 127a stacked between an n-AlGaN layer 127b and a spacer layer 128 at a thickness of 200 {acute over (Å)} to 300 {acute over (Å)}, as shown in FIG. 11. In addition, the intermediate layer 127 may include an undoped GaN layer 127c and a low-doped n-GaN layer 127d, and be stacked between the n-AlGaN layer 127b and the n-type contact layer 126 at a thickness of 1000{acute over (Å)} to 2000Á, as shown in FIG. 12. FIG. 12 shows an exemplary embodiment in which the undoped GaN layer 127c is formed on the low-doped n-GaN layer 127d; however, the present invention is not limited thereto but the n-GaN layer 127d may be formed on the undoped GaN layer 127c, as needed. In addition, either the undoped GaN layer 127c or the low-doped n-GaN layer 127d may only be formed. In addition, the intermediate layer 127 may include the n-GaN layer 127a, the n-AlGaN layer 127b, the undoped GaN layer 127c, and the low-doped n-GaN layer 127d between the spacer layer 128 and the n-type contact layer 126, as shown in FIG. 13. The undoped GaN layer 127c may be made of GaN, which is not intentionally doped with impurities, to have a thickness of 100{acute over (Å)} to 5000{circumflex over (Å)}. Since the undoped GaN layer 127c is not doped with impurities, it may have relatively higher specific resistance as compared to the n-type contact layer 126. Therefore, electrons introduced into the active layer 129 from the n-type contact layer 126 may be uniformly spread within the n-type contact layer 126 before passing through the undoped GaN layer 127c. Since the low-doped n-GaN layer 127d is doped with impurities at a lower concentration as compared to the n-type contact layer 126, it may have relatively higher specific resistance as compared to the n-type contact layer 126. Therefore, electrons introduced into the active layer 129 from the n-type contact layer 126 may be uniformly spread within the n-type contact layer 126 before passing through the low-doped n-GaN layer 127d. Meanwhile, the p-type clad layer 131, which serves as an electron blocking layer, may be made of AlGaN and be formed in a multi-layer film structure. For example, the p-type clad layer 131 may be made of a multi-layer film of AlGaN/GaN or AlGaN/InGaN. When the p-type clad layer 131 is made of a multi-layer film, it may improve crystallinity of the AlGaN layer. For example, a layer of the p-type clad layer 131, adjacent to the active region 129, may be made of AlGaN, and the Al composition of the AlGaN layer may be gradually lowered toward the p-type contact layer 133. This is to reduce a polarization phenomenon due to the interface between the p-type clad layer 131 and the p-type contact layer 133. In addition, the first AlGaN layer, adjacent to the active region 129, may be thinner than other layers in the p-type clad layer 131. Meanwhile, the AlGaN layer of the p-type clad layer 131 may preferably have a higher energy level than that of the n-AlGaN layer 127b. In other words, in terms of the Al composition, the AlGaN layer of the p-type clad layer 131 is set to be greater than the n-AlGaN layer 127b. As the Al composition of the AlGaN layer of the p-type clad layer 131 is set be greater than that of the n-AlGaN layer 127b, a conduction band at the n-side may be larger than a conduction band at the p-side based on the active region 129 at the time of applying forward voltage Vf. As a result, the forward voltage Vf should be reduced. In addition, an InAlN layer may further be included between the active region 129 and the p-type clad layer 131. In this case, in the InAlN layer In composition may be in a range of about 0.10 to 0.20, preferably, in a range of about 0.17 to 0.18. In this case, the growth temperature of the InAlN layer may, for example, be 845° C. and have a superlattice layer of InN/AlN. In addition, the InAlN layer may have a thickness of about 10 nm to 30 nm, and may be about 18 nm to 22 nm. The InAlN layer may be formed to be thinner than the AlGaN layer of the p-type clad layer 131. For example, the InAlN layer may be formed to be thinner in a ratio of about 3:2 as compared to the AlGaN layer forming the p-type clad layer 131. The InAlN layer may have a dopant concentration of the p-type impurities of about 8×1017 cm−3. At the time of doping the p-type impurities, InN may be doped with the p-type impurities in the superlattice structure of InN/AlN. In this case, the InAlN layer may serve to increase hole concentration. The InAlN layer formed between the active region 129 and the p-type clad layer 131 may reduce effects of the temperature on the active region 129 when growing the p-type clad layer 131 functioning as the electron blocking layer. In the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, the number of layers doped with n-type impurities in the spacer layer 128, the doping concentration of n-type impurities, the stacked thickness, the stacking times, the intermediate layer 127, the undoped layer 125, and the thickness of the n-type layers may be related to each other and may be controlled, as needed. As set forth above, the present invention can improve the leakage current characteristics and the electrostatic discharge characteristics of the light emitting diode by doping the final layer with high-concentration silicon without intentionally doping most regions in the superlattice layer disposed near the active region. In addition, exemplary embodiments of the present invention interpose the undoped intermediate layer and the electron reinforcing layer between the superlattice layer and the n-type contact layer, possibly distributing the current and preventing an increase in the forward voltage. Further, after the electron reinforcing layer is grown, the electron reinforcing layer is maintained at the growth temperature for a predetermined time, thereby making it possible to improve the crystal quality of the electron reinforcing layer. In addition, the active layer is grown and then, the supply of metal source gas is stopped to relatively extend the time of increasing a substrate temperature at a temperature suitable to grow the p-side gallium nitride-based semiconductor layer, thereby making it possible to lower the leakage current. Further, the present invention interposes the n-type AlGaN layer between the n-type GaN layers to prevent thread dislocations generated from the low-temperature buffer layer from being transferred to the active region, thereby making it possible to lower the leakage current and improve the electrostatic discharge characteristics. Further, the present invention improves the crystal quality of the active region, thereby making it possible to increase the recombination rate of the carriers within the active region. In addition, the present invention forms the spacer layer formed of the plurality of layers between the contact layer and the active region, thereby making it possible to reduce strain generated in the active region. Further, the present invention can lower the forward voltage Vf in the active region through the spacer layer by selectively doping only the layer adjacent to the active region with the n-type impurity. In addition, the present invention increases the role of the electron blocking layer, thereby making it possible to increase the recombination rate of the carriers in the active region. While this invention has been described in connection with what is presently considered to be practical exemplary embodiments, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the disclosed exemplary embodiments, but, on the contrary, is intended to cover various modifications and equivalent arrangements included within the spirit and scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Exemplary embodiments of the present invention provide a light emitting diode with improved electrostatic discharge characteristics. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention also provide a light emitting diode with low current leakage. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention also provide a method for manufacturing a light emitting diode with improved current spreading performance. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention also provide a light emitting diode capable of lowering a forward voltage by reducing the generation of an internal field. Exemplary embodiments of the present invention also provide a light emitting diode capable of reducing efficiency droop. Additional features of the invention will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be apparent from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention discloses a light emitting diode including an n-type contact layer doped with silicon, a p-type contact layer, an active region disposed between the n-type contact layer and the p-type contact layer, a superlattice layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, the superlattice layer including a plurality of layers, an undoped intermediate layer disposed between the superlattice layer and the n-type contact layer, and an electron reinforcing layer disposed between the undoped intermediate layer and the superlattice layer, wherein only a final layer of the superlattice layer closest to the active region is doped with silicon, and the silicon doping concentration of the final layer is higher than that of the n-type contact layer. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention also discloses a method of fabricating a light emitting diode including forming a buffer layer on a substrate, forming an n-type contact layer doped with silicon on the buffer layer, forming an undoped intermediate layer on the n-type contact layer, forming an electron reinforcing layer on the undoped intermediate layer, forming a superlattice layer on the electron reinforcing layer, the superlattice layer including a plurality of layers, and forming an active region on the superlattice layer, wherein only a final layer of the superlattice layer is doped with silicon, and the silicon doping concentration of the final layer is higher than that of the n-type contact layer. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention also discloses a light emitting diode including an n-type contact layer doped with silicon, a p-type contact layer, an active region disposed between the n-type contact layer and the p-type contact layer, a superlattice layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, the superlattice layer including a plurality of layers, an undoped intermediate layer disposed between the superlattice layer and the n-type contact layer, and an electron reinforcing layer disposed between the undoped intermediate layer and the superlattice layer, wherein the n-type contact layer has at least two n-type GaN layers and an n-type AlGaN layers disposed between the at least two n-type GaN layers. An exemplary embodiment of the present invention also discloses a light emitting diode, including an n-type contact layer, a p-type contact layer disposed on the n-type contact layer, an active region having a multi-quantum well structure, the active region disposed between the n-type contact layer and the p-type contact layer, and a spacer layer disposed between the n-type contact layer and the active region, wherein the spacer layer is doped with n-type impurities, and the n-type impurity doping concentration is relatively higher than the impurity doping concentration of the n-type contact layer, and the active region is undoped. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. | H01L3306 | 20170706 | 20171026 | 85327.0 | H01L3306 | 3 | GOODWIN, DAVID J | LIGHT EMITTING DIODE AND METHOD OF FABRICATING THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H01L | 2,017 |
|
15,643,745 | PENDING | PHARMACEUTICAL FORMULATIONS COMPRISING HIGH PURITY CANGRELOR AND METHODS FOR PREPARING AND USING THE SAME | The present invention relates to high purity cangrelor, pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor as an active ingredient, methods for preparing such compounds and formulations, and methods for using the pharmaceutical formulations in the inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation. | 1. A pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients prepared by a method comprising: (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, wherein the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof has a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor, and wherein the selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants are one or more members selected from the group consisting of impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. 2. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein the combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor does not exceed about 1.3% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. 3. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein the amount of impurity A is less than about 0.5% by weight, the amount of impurity B present is less than about 0.2% by weight, the amount of impurity C is less than about 0.3% by weight, the amount of impurity D is less than about 0.2% by weight, and the amount of impurity E is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. 4. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein the maximum impurity level of impurities A and D is each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. 5. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein removing the solvent of (c) is through lyophilization. 6. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein the mixing of (b) is performed in the absence of light, or performed under nitrogen, or both. 7. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, further comprising sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before removal of the solvent. 8. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is a polyol. 9. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipients are mannitol and sorbitol. 10. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein the solvent is water. 11. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1, wherein the pH-adjusting agent is selected from the group consisting of acetic acid, ammonium carbonate, ammonium phosphate, boric acid, citric acid, lactic acid, phosphoric acid, potassium citrate, potassium metaphosphate, monobasic potassium phosphate, sodium acetate, sodium citrate, sodium lactate solution, dibasic sodium phosphate and monobasic sodium phosphate, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium carbonate, potassium hydroxide, potassium phosphate, dibasic potassium phosphate, sodium phosphate and sodium borate. 12. A sealed vessel containing the pharmaceutical formulation of claim 1 under a chemically inert dry gas. 13. The sealed vessel of claim 12, wherein the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. 14. A pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol and/or sorbitol as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, prepared by a method comprising: (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, wherein the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof has a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor, and wherein the selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants are one or more members selected from the group consisting of impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. 15. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14, wherein the combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor does not exceed about 1.3% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. 16. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14, wherein the amount of impurity A is less than about 0.5% by weight, the amount of impurity B present is less than about 0.2% by weight, the amount of impurity C is less than about 0.3% by weight, the amount of impurity D is less than about 0.2% by weight, and the amount of impurity E is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. 17. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14, wherein the maximum impurity level of impurities A and D is each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. 18. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14, wherein removing the solvent of (c) is through lyophilization. 19. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14, wherein the mixing of (b) is performed in the absence of light, or performed under nitrogen, or both. 20. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14, further comprising sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before removal of the solvent. 21. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14, wherein the solvent is water. 22. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14, wherein the pH-adjusting agent is selected from the group consisting of acetic acid, ammonium carbonate, ammonium phosphate, boric acid, citric acid, lactic acid, phosphoric acid, potassium citrate, potassium metaphosphate, monobasic potassium phosphate, sodium acetate, sodium citrate, sodium lactate solution, dibasic sodium phosphate and monobasic sodium phosphate, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium carbonate, potassium hydroxide, potassium phosphate, dibasic potassium phosphate, sodium phosphate and sodium borate. 23. A sealed vessel containing the pharmaceutical formulation of claim 14 under a chemically inert dry gas. 24. The sealed vessel of claim 23, wherein the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. 25. A pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol and/or sorbitol as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, prepared by a method consisting of: (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in methanol to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the methanol from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, wherein the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof has a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor, and wherein the selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants are one or more members selected from the group consisting of impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. 26. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 25, wherein the combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor does not exceed about 1.3% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. 27. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 25, wherein the amount of impurity A is less than about 0.5% by weight, the amount of impurity B present is less than about 0.2% by weight, the amount of impurity C is less than about 0.3% by weight, the amount of impurity D is less than about 0.2% by weight, and the amount of impurity E is less than about 0.5% by weight of high purity the cangrelor. 28. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 25, wherein removing the solvent of (c) is through lyophilization. 29. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 25, wherein the mixing of (b) is performed in the absence of light, or performed under nitrogen, or both. 30. The pharmaceutical formulation of claim 25, wherein the pH-adjusting agent is selected from the group consisting of acetic acid, ammonium carbonate, ammonium phosphate, boric acid, citric acid, lactic acid, phosphoric acid, potassium citrate, potassium metaphosphate, monobasic potassium phosphate, sodium acetate, sodium citrate, sodium lactate solution, dibasic sodium phosphate and monobasic sodium phosphate, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium carbonate, potassium hydroxide, potassium phosphate, dibasic potassium phosphate, sodium phosphate and sodium borate. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is generally directed towards pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor or one or more salts thereof as an active ingredient, to methods for preparing such pharmaceutical formulations where low levels of impurities are consistently achieved and maintained, and to methods for using the pharmaceutical formulations in the inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation, or antiplatelet therapy, has been recognized as a means to impact coagulation and inflammation in a way that conventional anticoagulant therapy is unable to (Bhatt, D. L.; Topol, E. J. Nat Rev Drug Disc 2003, 2, 15-28). As such, inhibitors of platelet activation and aggregation are substances that are useful during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and other catherization techniques in order to reduce bleeding complications, and in the treatment of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and clotting disorders in general. One class of antiplatelet agents is inhibitors of the P2Y12 receptor, a G-protein coupled purinergic receptor which is an important component of platelet activation (Dorsam, R. T.; Kunapuli, S. P. J Clin Invest 2003, 113, 340-345). In particular, cangrelor ([dichloro-[[[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-[6-(2-methylsulfanylethylamino)-2-(3,3,3-trifluoropropylsulfanyl)purin-9-yl]oxolan-2-yl]methoxy-hydroxyphosphoryl]oxy-hydroxyphosphoryl]methyl]phosphonic acid; the mixed mono(anhydride) of N-[2-(methylthio)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid) is a reversible inhibitor of the P2Y12 receptor which is under clinical evaluation for its potential use in PCI. Cangrelor (also referred to as ARC69931MX) is a synthetic analogue of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and a potent antagonist of the P2Y12 receptor with a pIC50 of 9.35 (Chattaraj, S. C. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2001, 2, 250-55; Diaz-Ricart, M. Drugs Future 2008, 33, 101-110; U.S. Pat. No. 5,721,219 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,447). It is being developed as the sodium salt. In light of the medical and therapeutic applications of cangrelor, it is essential that pharmaceutical formulations comprising cangrelor maintain high levels of purity. Formulations comprising cangrelor are compounded formulations, e.g., cangrelor undergoes a compounding process following its synthesis so that it is usable and stable for medical and therapeutic applications. This compounding process typically includes mixing the drug with excipients in a solution, followed by aseptic filtration and lyophilization. Impurities such as, but not exclusively, dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid, N-[2-(methylthio)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid (a product of the hydrolysis of the dichloromethylenebisphosphonate group on cangrelor), its bis(anhydride) with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid, N-[2-(methylsulfinyl)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid monoanhydride with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid and 2-(3,3,3-trifluoropropylthio)-N-(2-(methylthio)ethyl)-adenine and others may be generated during the synthesis and the compounding process. These compounds are represented in their neutral form but are generally present as salts. Methods have been developed that minimize the generation of impurities during cangrelor synthesis. However, impurities produced during the compounding process remain problematic. It has been shown that various compounding processes can result in formulations in which a significant proportion of cangrelor has been degraded, which may affect not only product stability and shelf-life, but ultimately the ability to control dosage during administration to patients. In addition, because the pharmacological impact of the degradation products has not been evaluated in clinical settings, it is critical to maintain them to a level at or below the levels used in clinical evaluation. Therefore, development of a compounding process for formulating cangrelor that consistently generates formulations having low levels of impurities is desirable. The invention disclosed herein addresses the need for pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor as the active ingredient and methods for producing the same, where low levels of impurities are consistently achieved and maintained. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to (i) high purity cangrelor, or one or more salts thereof, (ii) pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor, or one or more salts thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, (iii) methods for preparing such compounds and formulations, and (iv) methods for using compounds and the pharmaceutical formulations in the inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation. Thus in one embodiment, the invention relates to high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor (i.e., high purity cangrelor includes (i) cangrelor and (ii) selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the combination of the cangrelor and the degradants). Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the high purity cangrelor is stored in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the high purity cangrelor is stored in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to cangrelor. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a second embodiment, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is a polyol. When present, the polyol is at least one member selected from the group consisting of mannitol and sorbitol. In one aspect, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation comprises about 16-21% of high purity cangrelor, expressed in terms of the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, and about 84-79% of the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, by weight of the pharmaceutical formulation. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation is stored in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation is stored in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to a component of the pharmaceutical formulation. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a third embodiment, the invention relates to a method for preparing high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, thereby preparing high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. In one aspect, the invention relates to a method for preparing high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, consisting of (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, thereby preparing high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pH of the second solution is about 7.0, about 7.5, about 8.0, about 8.5, about 9.0, about 9.5, between about 7.0 and 8.0, between about 7.5 and 8.5, between about 8.0 and 9.0, or between about 8.5 and 9.5. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the first solution. In other aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the first solution to the pH-adjusting agent. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by simultaneous combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the first solution. In some of these aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution in portions. In other aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution at a constant rate. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing is achieved by using one or more mixing devices. When used, the mixing device is selected from the group consisting of a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Alternatively, the mixing device is a homogenizer, a bottom mount magnetic device, a paddle mixer, or a combination thereof. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing is achieved through high shear mixing. In some aspects of this embodiment, removing the solvent (c) is through lyophilization. In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed in the absence of light, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed under a chemically inert gas, in particular nitrogen, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before the removal of the solvent. In one aspect, sterilization is achieved by aseptic filtration. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to cangrelor. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a fourth embodiment, the invention relates to a method for preparing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, thereby preparing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pH of the second solution is about 7.0, about 7.5, about 8.0, about 8.5, about 9.0, about 9.5, between about 7.0 and 8.0, between about 7.5 and 8.5, between about 8.0 and 9.0, or between about 8.5 and 9.5. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the first solution. In other aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the first solution to the pH-adjusting agent. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by simultaneous combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the first solution. In some of these aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution in portions. In other aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution at a constant rate. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing is achieved by using one or more mixing devices. When used, the mixing device is selected from the group consisting of a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Alternatively, the mixing device is a homogenizer, a bottom mount magnetic device, a paddle mixer, or a combination thereof. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing is achieved through high shear mixing. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is a polyol. When present, the polyol is at least one member selected from the group consisting of mannitol and sorbitol. In one aspect, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, and the excipient is added to the first solution. In another aspect, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, and the excipient is added to the second solution. In one aspect, the invention relates to a method for preparing a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, thereby preparing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. In another aspect, the invention relates to a method for preparing a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, consisting of (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, thereby preparing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation comprises about 16-21% of high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, and about 84-79% of the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, by weight of the pharmaceutical formulation. In some aspects of this embodiment, removing the solvent (c) is through lyophilization. In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed in the absence of light, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed under a chemically inert gas, including nitrogen, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before the removal of the solvent. In one aspect, sterilization is achieved by aseptic filtration. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the formulation in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the formulation in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to a component of the pharmaceutical formulation. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a fifth embodiment, the invention relates to high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, prepared by a method comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved. In one aspect, the invention relates to high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, prepared by a method consisting of (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pH of the second solution is about 7.0, about 7.5, about 8.0, about 8.5, about 9.0, about 9.5, between about 7.0 and 8.0, between about 7.5 and 8.5, between about 8.0 and 9.0, or between about 8.5 and 9.5. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the first solution. In other aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the first solution to the pH-adjusting agent. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by simultaneous combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the first solution. In some of these aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution in portions. In other aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution at a constant rate. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing is achieved by using one or more mixing devices. When used, the mixing device is selected from the group consisting of a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Alternatively, the mixing device is a homogenizer, a bottom mount magnetic device, a paddle mixer, or a combination thereof. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing is achieved through high shear mixing. In some aspects of this embodiment, removing the solvent (c) is through lyophilization. In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed in the absence of light, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed under nitrogen, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before the removal of the solvent. In one aspect, sterilization is achieved by aseptic filtration. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to cangrelor. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a sixth embodiment, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients prepared by a method comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pH of the second solution is about 7.0, about 7.5, about 8.0, about 8.5, about 9.0, about 9.5, between about 7.0 and 8.0, between about 7.5 and 8.5, between about 8.0 and 9.0, or between about 8.5 and 9.5. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the first solution. In other aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the first solution to the pH-adjusting agent. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by simultaneous combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the first solution. In some of these aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution in portions. In other aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution at a constant rate. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing is achieved by using one or more mixing devices. When used, the mixing device is selected from the group consisting of a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Alternatively, the mixing device is a homogenizer, a bottom mount magnetic device, a paddle mixer, or a combination thereof. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing is achieved through high shear mixing. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is a polyol. When present, the polyol is at least one member selected from the group consisting of mannitol and sorbitol. In one aspect, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, and the excipient is added to the first solution. In another aspect, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, and the excipient is added to the second solution. In one aspect, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, prepared by a method comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both. In another aspect, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, prepared by a method consisting of (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation comprises about 16-21% of high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, and about 84-79% of the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, by weight of the pharmaceutical formulation. In some aspects of this embodiment, removing the solvent (c) is through lyophilization. In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed in the absence of light, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed under nitrogen, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before the removal of the solvent. In one aspect, sterilization is achieved by aseptic filtration. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the formulation in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the formulation in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to a component of the pharmaceutical formulation. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a seventh embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In an eighth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet granule release, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet granule release. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In a ninth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In a tenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In a eleventh embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet loss from the blood, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet loss from the blood. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In a twelfth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, in a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a thirteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet granule release in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet granule release in a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a fourteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation in a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a fifteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation in a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a sixteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet loss from the blood of a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet loss from the blood of a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a seventeenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of treating or preventing stent thrombosis in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby treating or preventing stent thrombosis in a subject. In some aspects of the embodiment, a second anti-thrombotic agent is administered with the pharmaceutical formulation, sequentially or concurrently. In a particular aspect, the second anti-thrombotic agent is bivalirudin. In an eighteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent implantation, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent implantation. In some aspects of the embodiment, a second anti-thrombotic agent is administered with the pharmaceutical formulation, sequentially or concurrently. In a particular aspect, the second anti-thrombotic agent is bivalirudin. In a nineteenth embodiment, the invention relates to method of treating or preventing myocardial infarction in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby treating or preventing myocardial infarction in a subject. In some aspects of the embodiment, a second anti-thrombotic agent is administered with the pharmaceutical formulation, sequentially or concurrently. In a particular aspect, the second anti-thrombotic agent is bivalirudin. In a twentieth embodiment, the invention relates to method of reducing mortality in a subject experiencing myocardial infarction, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby reducing mortality in a subject experiencing myocardial infarction. In some aspects of the embodiment, a second anti-thrombotic agent is administered with the pharmaceutical formulation, sequentially or concurrently. In a particular aspect, the second anti-thrombotic agent is bivalirudin. In a twenty-first embodiment, the invention relates to a medicament comprising an effective amount of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients useful for treating or preventing stent thrombosis, treating or preventing myocardial infarction, reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent implantation, or reducing mortality in a subject experiencing myocardial infarction. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present invention relates to (i) high purity cangrelor, or one or more salts thereof, (ii) pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor, or one or more salts thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, (iii) methods for preparing such compounds and formulations, and (iv) methods for using high purity cangrelor and the pharmaceutical formulations in the inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation and methods of medical treatment of subjects. Cangrelor (Formula I, also referred to as ARC69931MX) has the IUPAC chemical name [dichloro-[[[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-[6-(2-methylsulfanylethylamino)-2-(3,3,3-trifluoropropylsulfanyl)purin-9-yl]oxolan-2-yl]methoxy-hydroxyphosphoryl]oxy-hydroxyphosphoryl]methyl]phosphonic acid and may also be referred to the mixed mono(anhydride) of N-[2-(methylthio)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid. It is represented in its neutral form, but it is generally used in a pharmaceutical formulation as a salt, such as the tetrasodium salt. Other salts that may be used in pharmaceutical formulations include other alkali metal salts, e.g. lithium and potassium salts; ammonium salts; alkaline earth metal salts, e.g. calcium and magnesium salts and salts of the Group III elements, e.g. aluminum salts. Salts with suitable organic bases, for example, salts with hydroxylamine; lower alkylamines, e.g. methylamine or ethylamine; with substituted lower alkylamines, e.g. hydroxy substituted alkylamines; or with monocyclic nitrogen heterocyclic compounds, e.g. piperidine or morpholine; and salts with amino acids, e.g. with arginine, lysine etc, or an N-alkyl derivative thereof; or with an aminosugar, e.g. N-methyl-D-glucamine or glucosamine. Non-toxic, physiologically acceptable salts are preferred. As used herein, reference to cangrelor should be understood to include both cangrelor in a neutral form, as well as one or more salts of cangrelor. Similarly, reference herein to high purity cangrelor should be understood to include both high purity cangrelor in a neutral form, as well as one or more salts of high purity cangrelor. Methods for the synthesis of cangrelor are known in the art and described in, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,721,219 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,447, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Cangrelor is a synthetic analogue of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and a potent antagonist of the P2Y12 receptor, a G-protein coupled purinergic receptor which is an important component of platelet activation (Dorsam, R. T.; Kunapuli, S. P. J Clin Invest 2003, 113, 340-345), with a pIC50 of 9.35 (Chattaraj, S. C. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2001, 2, 250-55; Diaz-Ricart, M. Drugs Future 2008, 33, 101-110). Inhibitors of platelet activation and aggregation are substances that are useful during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and other catherization techniques in order to reduce bleeding complications, and in the treatment of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and clotting disorders in general. The inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation, or antiplatelet therapy, has been recognized as a means to impact coagulation and inflammation in a way that conventional anticoagulant therapy is unable to (Bhatt, D. L.; Topol, E. J. Nat Rev Drug Disc 2003, 2, 15-28). Cangrelor can be degraded to a number of impurities, including the following five impurities. Cangrelor can be degraded to dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid (impurity E, Formula VI) and N-[2-(methylthio)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid (impurity A, Formula II) through the hydrolysis of the methylphosphonyl phosphate group (a mixed anhydride) or to (3,3,3-trifluoropropylthio)-N-(2-(methylthio)ethyl)-adenine (impurity D, Formula V) through the hydrolysis of the ribofuranoside. The first process is expected to be base catalyzed as is the hydrolysis of an anhydride and the second process is expected to be acid catalyzed as is the hydrolysis of a glycoside. Other degradants are also postulated to be generated through hydrolysis, such as N-[2-(methylthio)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid bis(anhydride) with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid (impurity B, Formula III) which may form via the hydrolysis of cangrelor to impurity A followed by addition reaction with a second molecule of cangrelor. Other degradants result from non-hydrolytic processes, such as N-[2-(methylsulfinyl)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid monoanhydride with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid (impurity C, Formula IV) which clearly occurs by oxidation of cangrelor. These degradants are found as impurities in cangrelor. Other impurities may be generated during the synthesis and the processing of cangrelor as well. Those skilled in the art will also immediately recognize that impurities A, B, D and E are products of the hydrolysis of cangrelor whereas impurity C is the product of an oxidation of cangrelor. They will also recognize that the nature of cangrelor as an anhydride will result in some measure of reactivity towards water. These impurities will be generated from high purity cangrelor on handling and storage over time due to the presence of oxygen and water, present either as a solvent or as moisture. It is therefore critical that processes be put in place to manufacture pharmaceutical compositions of cangrelor with sufficiently high purity to be generated, stored and administered to patients. The term “drug product” herein refers to an active ingredient of a pharmaceutical formulation. Thus, as used herein a drug product includes cangrelor, high purity cangrelor and all of the salts thereof. Compounding Process for Preparing High Purity Cangrelor and Pharmaceutical Formulations Thereof High purity cangrelor, and salts thereof, and pharmaceutical formulations comprising the same are produced using a novel compounding process. 1) Dissolving Cangrelor in a Solvent to Form a Cangrelor Solution In the compounding process of the present invention, cangrelor is dissolved in a solvent or a solvent mixture to form a cangrelor solution. Cangrelor may be commercially purchased or synthesized by various procedures as exemplified in U.S. Pat. No. 5,721,219 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,447. The concentration of cangrelor in the solvent may vary but it will generally be between about 0.5 mg/mL and about 100 mg/mL, preferably between about 1 mg/mL and about 50 mg/mL. In particular aspects, the concentration of cangrelor in the solvent is about 1 mg/mL, about 5 mg/mL, about 10 mg/mL, about 20 mg/mL, about 30 mg/mL, about 40 mg/mL, about 50 mg/mL, or about 60 mg/mL. Solvents include aqueous and non-aqueous liquids, including but not limited to, mono- and di-alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and propylene glycol; polyhydric alcohols such as glycerol and polyethylene glycol; buffers; and water. In a specific aspect, a 30 mg/mL solution of cangrelor in methanol is prepared. In another specific aspect, a 17 mg/mL solution of cangrelor in water is prepared. Cangrelor can be dissolved in the solvent by methods known in the art, such as by adding cangrelor to the solvent. For example, cangrelor may be added to the solvent rapidly, slowly, in portions, at a constant rate, at a variable rate, or a combination thereof. A mixing device known in the art may be used to dissolve cangrelor. Examples of mixing devices include, but are not limited to, a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, bottom mount magnetic mixer, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Suitable mixing rates will depend on such factors as the identity of the solvent, the desired final concentration, and the identity of the mixing device. However, suitable mixing rates include between about 50 and about 2000 rpm, such as between about 300 and about 1500 rpm. Dissolution may be performed at room temperature, at elevated temperature or at decreased temperature using techniques to control temperature known in the art. Preferably, the dissolution is performed at or below room temperature. Dissolution may be performed by mixing cangrelor and the solvent in one portion or over smaller aliquots. Dissolution may also be performed over a selected period of time, for example, over 10 min to 1 h, including over 5 min to 10 min. When pharmaceutical formulations are being prepared, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients may be added to the solvent as well (also referred to herein as “acceptable excipient” and “excipient”). Excipients are components of a pharmaceutical formulation that serve to maintain, stabilize or alter the physico-chemical or physiological behavior of the active ingredient of a pharmaceutical formulation. Suitable excipients include, but are not limited to, agents that modify the lyophilization behavior of the active ingredient (e.g., cangrelor), agents that improve the rate of dissolution of the active ingredient, bulking agents and/or stabilizing agents. A bulking agent refers to any material that fills or provides volume to the active ingredient. A stabilizing agent refers to any material which serves to minimize degradation of the active ingredient. Examples of suitable excipients include, but are not limited to, polyols such as monosaccharides including glucose or fructose; a disaccharide including sucrose, maltose, or trehalose; an oligosaccharide; a polysaccharide; or a reduced sugar, such as sorbitol or mannitol. Exemplary excipients include mannitol, sorbitol, sucrose, lactose, fructose and trehalose, antioxidants, buffering agents, and preservatives. Preferred pharmaceutically acceptable excipients for cangrelor are exemplified, but not limited to, those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,114,313 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,130,208. The cangrelor solution and one or more excipients may be efficiently mixed using methods described above. When present, the quantity of excipient will depend on factors such as the desired final concentration of cangrelor in the solvent, the identity of the solvent, and the means used to remove the solvent (as discussed below). However, in one aspect of the invention, the amount of excipient included in the cangrelor solution, when present, may be adjusted to provide a cangrelor solution having a ratio of the one or more excipients to the cangrelor of between about 5:1 and about 1:10 by weight, such as between about 3:1 and about 1:2, and about 1:2. In one aspect, two excipients are added to the solvent, for example two polyols, such as both sorbitol and mannitol. The solution resulting from dissolving cangrelor in the solvent is referred to here as the “cangrelor solution” or alternatively the “first solution.” 2) Preparing a pH-Adjusting Agent The compounding process further comprises mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the cangrelor solution to form a compounding solution. The pH-adjusting agent may be prepared before, after, or simultaneously with the cangrelor solution. The pH-adjusting agent may comprise a base dissolved or mixed in a solvent, or an acid dissolved or mixed in a solvent. When the pH-adjusting agent comprises a base, the base may be neat base such as a base which is liquid at room temperature, such as triethanolamine, a base which is solid at room temperature, such as sodium hydroxide, or a volatilizable base such as ammonium carbonate. The base may be an organic base or an inorganic base. The terms “inorganic base” and “organic base”, as used herein, refer to compounds that react with an acid to form a salt; compounds that produce hydroxide ions in an aqueous solution (Arrhenius bases); molecules or ions that capture hydrogen ions (Bronsted-Lowry bases); and/or molecules or ions that donate an electron pair to form a chemical bond (Lewis bases). In certain processes, the inorganic or organic base may be an alkali metal carbonate, an alkali metal bicarbonate, an alkaline earth metal carbonate, an alkali metal hydroxide, an alkaline earth metal hydroxide, an amine, or a phosphine. For example, the inorganic or organic base may be an alkali metal hydroxide such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, cesium hydroxide, or lithium hydroxide; an alkali metal carbonate such as potassium carbonate or sodium carbonate; or an alkali metal bicarbonate such as sodium bicarbonate. Solvents in which the base is dissolved or mixed may include aqueous and non-aqueous liquids, including but not limited to, mono- and di-alcohols such as methanol, ethanol, isopropyl alcohol, and propylene glycol; polyhydric alcohols such as glycerol and polyethylene glycol; buffers; and water. The pH-adjusting agent may also comprise one or more carriers such as dissolved polyols. For instance, the sugar may be a monosaccharide such as glucose or fructose; a disaccharide such as sucrose, maltose, or trehalose; an oligosaccharide; or a polysaccharide. The polyol may also be a reduced sugar, such as sorbitol or mannitol. There may be more than one carrier in the pH-adjusting agent. The quantity of the carrier in the pH-adjusting agent may be adjusted to provide the final product as described above. The base is preferably mixed or dissolved in the solvent to form the pH-adjusting agent. The mixing or dissolution can be performed by methods known in the art. For instance, the base may be added to the solvent rapidly, slowly, in portions, at a constant rate, at a variable rate, or a combination thereof. Also, a mixing device known in the art may be used to mix the base and the solvent. Examples of mixing devices include, but are not limited to, a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Suitable mixing rates will depend on such factors as the solvent, the desired final concentration, and the identity of the mixing device. However, suitable mixing rates may include between about 100 and about 1500 rpm, or between about 300 and about 1200 rpm. The base is added/mixed with the solvent in a quantity that will result in a pH-adjusting agent that is characterized as being between about 0.01 N and about 5 N, which includes between about 0.1 N and 1 N. The skilled artisan will understand that the specific normality of the pH-adjusting agent will vary depending on the characteristics of the cangrelor solution with which the pH-adjusting agent will be combined. pH-adjusting agents are widely available and will be readily apparent to the skilled artisan. The following are non-limiting examples: acetic acid, ammonium carbonate, ammonium phosphate, boric acid, citric acid, lactic acid, phosphoric acid, potassium citrate, potassium metaphosphate, monobasic potassium phosphate, sodium acetate, sodium citrate, sodium lactate solution, dibasic sodium phosphate and monobasic sodium phosphate, sodium hydroxide, hydrochloric acid, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, potassium bicarbonate, potassium carbonate, potassium hydroxide, potassium phosphate, dibasic potassium phosphate, sodium phosphate and sodium borate. 3) Mixing the pH-Adjusting Agent with the Cangrelor Solution to Form a Compounding Solution The pH-adjusting agent may then be mixed with the cangrelor solution to form a compounding solution (also referred to herein as a “second solution”). This mixing may occur by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the cangrelor solution. Alternatively, the cangrelor solution may be added to the pH-adjusting agent, or the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution may be added simultaneously (into a separate vessel), or there may be a combination of these addition methods. It is important during the adding or mixing of the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution that pH is controlled. See below. Reference to the compounding solution can be a reference to the cangrelor solution during or after addition of the pH-adjusting agent, or it can be a reference to the pH-adjusting agent during or after addition of the cangrelor solution, or it can be a reference to the solution formed during or after combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution. The mixing of the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution may occur under controlled conditions. For example, temperature may be controlled by means known in the art, such as by mixing the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution in a vessel inside a cooling jacket. The temperature may be set between about 1° C. and about 25° C., including between about 2° C. and about 10° C. In some instances, the temperature may exceed 25° C. for limited periods of time. Also, the mixing of the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution may occur under additional controlled conditions, for example such as under an inert dry gas, such as nitrogen, and/or in the absence of light. Levels of degradants due to hydrolysis in the compounding solution are minimized by achieving and maintaining a pH of between about 7.0 and about 9.5 in the compounding solution. Additional acceptable ranges include: between about 7.0 and about 8.0, between about 7.5 and about 8.5, between about 8.0 and about 9.0, between about 8.5 and about 9.5, between about 7.5 and about 9.5, between about 8.0 and about 9.5, between about 7.0 and about 9.0, and between about 7.0 and about 8.5. In particular aspects, the pH of the compounding solution is maintained at about pH 7.0, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, 7.6, 7.7, 7.8, 7.9, 8.0, 8.1, 8.2, 8.3, 8.4, 8.5, 8.6, 8.7, 8.8, 8.9, 9.0, 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 9.4, or 9.5. While U.S. Pat. No. 6,114,313 teaches some limitations to the pH range in the final formulation of cangrelor, we have found that these limitations are insufficient to ensure the desired, low levels of degradants are reached. In addition, we have found that the pH range must be maintained throughout the process and not only in the final formulation. While not wishing to be bound by theory, the degradants may also be generated by locally different pH or “hot spots,” which are defined here as concentrated sites in the compounding solution that have much different pH levels than the surrounding environment. An example of a hot spot is a site in the compounding solution having a pH of about 12, while the surrounding solution has a pH of about 7. Degradation may also occur at such high pH levels in the compounding solution in general. It has been found that efficient and complete mixing reduces the generation of “hot spots” or high levels of pH in the compounding solution while the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution are being added or mixed. Thus, efficient mixing may control the overall pH level of the compounding solution to a level not exceeding about 10.5, or a level not exceeding about 10.0, or a level not exceeding about 9.5, or even a level not exceeding about 9.0. Efficient mixing to minimize levels of degradation in the compounding solution may be achieved through various methods. One such method is to add or combine the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution portion-wise, i.e., in portions. For instance, the pH-adjusting agent may be added to the cangrelor solution in portions of set quantities, wherein each addition is separated by a period of time. The quantity of pH-adjusting agent may be approximately equal or may vary among the portions. For example, the pH-adjusting agent may be added in four portions, wherein each portion comprises about 25% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity. As another example, the pH-adjusting agent may be added in three portions, such that the first portion comprises about 45% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity, the second portion comprises about 30% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity, and the third portion comprises about 25% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity. The pH-adjusting agent may also be added in portions such that there is a combination of equal and unequal quantities. For instance, the pH-adjusting agent may be divided into four portions, wherein the first portion comprises about 45% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity, the second portion comprises about 25% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity, and the third and fourth portions each comprise about 15% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity. The period of time between the additions of each portion may vary. This period may be a set duration of time regardless of the number of portions and/or volume of the portions to be added. Alternatively, the period of time may vary according to the number of portions and/or volume of the portions to be added. For example, the period of time between adding four equal portions may be about 5 minutes between each addition. As another example, the period of time after adding a first portion comprising about 60% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity may be about 15 minutes, while the period of time after adding a second portion comprising about 40% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity may be about 5 minutes. The period of time between the additions of each portion may also be based upon a set total time for adding the pH-adjusting agent. For instance, if the total time for adding a pH-adjusting agent is set at about 20 minutes, then the period of time after adding each portion comprising about 25% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity may be about 5 minutes. The period of time between the additions of each portion may also be based upon a set minimal time to allow for efficient mixing so as to avoid pH “hot spots”. In certain embodiments of the present invention, the minimal time between the additions of two portions of the pH-adjusting agent may be a duration of between about 5 minutes and about 10 minutes, and in one example, between about 2 minutes and about 5 minutes, and in another example, between about 2 minutes and about 3 minutes. Efficient mixing may also be achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the cangrelor solution at a constant rate. The pH-adjusting agent may be added at a rate of between about 0.5% and about 50% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity per minute; and in one example, between about 1% and about 25% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity per minute; and in another example, between about 3% and about 8% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity per minute. The pH-adjusting agent may alternatively be added at a variable rate to the cangrelor solution. As an example, the rate may increase from about 5% to about 20% of the total pH-adjusting agent quantity per minute during the addition of the pH-adjusting agent. The pH-adjusting agent may also be added to the cangrelor solution portion-wise, wherein each portion is added at a constant or variable rate. The portions may be added in equal amounts, unequal amounts, or a combination thereof. Further, each portion may be added at the same or different constant rates, or the same or different variable rates, or a combination thereof. As an example, the first portion comprising 60% of the total pH-adjusting agent may be added at 5% of the portion volume per minute, while four subsequent portions each comprising about 10% of the total pH-adjusting agent may be added at 10% of the portion volume per minute. Furthermore, efficient mixing may be achieved through the use of one or more mixing devices. Examples of mixing devices include, but are not limited to, a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. The mixing rate of, for instance, a paddle mixer may be between about 100 rpm and 1000 rpm, and in one example, between about 400 rpm and about 800 rpm. The mixing rate for, as an example, a homogenizer (i.e., high shear mixing) may be between about 300 and about 6000 rpm, and in one example, between about 1500 rpm and about 3000 rpm. The mixing device may mix continuously during the addition of the pH-adjusting agent, or at specific periods of time, e.g., between the additions of portions, after the pH-adjusting agent is added, etc. In addition, more than one mixing device may be used when the pH-adjusting agent is added to the cangrelor solution. For example, a paddle mixer may be used at the surface of the cangrelor solution and a homogenizer may be used near the bottom of the cangrelor solution. When more than one mixing device is used, they may be operated at the same mixing rate or different mixing rates, or a combination thereof. The mixing devices may also be operated at the same periods of time, at different periods of time, or a combination thereof, during the addition of the pH-adjusting agent. Similarly, a mixing device may be used with the addition of the cangrelor solution to the pH-adjusting agent, or with the addition of the pH-adjusting agent and the cangrelor solution together. Moreover, efficient mixing may be achieved through adding the pH-adjusting agent to specific sites within the cangrelor solution. For instance, the pH-adjusting agent may be added to the surface of the cangrelor solution or to the bottom of the cangrelor solution. In the cases wherein a mixing device is used, the pH-adjusting agent may be added to the site of the mixing device, e.g., at the site of the paddles of the paddle mixer or the blades of the homogenizer. The pH-adjusting agent may also be added to more than one site in the cangrelor solution; for example, the pH-adjusting agent may be added simultaneously at the top of the cangrelor solution and at the site of the mixing device. Alternatively, the cangrelor solution may be added to the pH-adjusting agent at specific sites and at more than one site within the pH-adjusting agent, as described above. Optionally, once the compounding solution is formed, the pH or the final volume of the compounding solution may be adjusted to the target level before removal of the solvent (see below). The pH or volume can be adjusted using methods known in the art, for instance, the addition of additional solvent or pH-adjusting agent as described above. When pharmaceutical formulations are being prepared, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients may be added to the compounding solution. Such additions may be in place of the addition of excipients described above during production of a cangrelor solution, or in addition to the addition of excipients described above during production of a cangrelor solution. Thus, excipients can be added during production of the cangrelor solution, during production of the compounding solution, or both. The timing and manner in which the excipients are added to the compounding solution is not critical. Thus, for example, the excipients may be added to the compounding solution before or after the pH-adjusting agent is added, or added during some or all of the period over which the pH-adjusting agent is added. Similarly, the compounding solution may be added to the excipient. Suitable excipients include an agent modifying the lyophilization behavior of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, an agent improving the rate of dissolution of the active pharmaceutical ingredient, a bulking agent or as a stabilizing agent. In some embodiments, the excipients may be polyols. For example, the polyol may be a monosaccharide such as glucose or fructose; a disaccharide such as sucrose, maltose, or trehalose; an oligosaccharide; or a polysaccharide. Alternatively, the polyol may be a reduced sugar, such as sorbitol or mannitol. The compounding solution and one or more excipients may be efficiently mixed using methods described above. The pH of the resulting solution may be checked and if it is found to be outside the desired range of between about pH 7.0 and about pH 9.5, additional pH-adjusting agent may be added to minimize generation of degradants. When present, the quantity of excipient will depend on factors such as the desired final concentration of cangrelor in the compounding solution, the identity of the solvents, and the means used to remove the solvents (as discussed below). However, in one aspect of the invention, the compounding solution may be adjusted to provide a pharmaceutical formulation having a ratio of the one or more excipients to the cangrelor of between about 5:1 and about 1:10 by weight, such as between about 3:1 and about 1:2, and about 1:2. In one aspect, two excipients are added to the compounding solution, for example two polyols, such as both sorbitol and mannitol. Stated in another fashion, the pharmaceutical formulations of the invention comprise high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, in a range of about 10-30% and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients in a range of about 90-70%, by weight of the pharmaceutical formulation. In one aspect, the pharmaceutical formulations of the invention comprise high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, in a range of about 15-25% and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients in a range of about 85-75%, by weight. In another aspect, the pharmaceutical formulations of the invention comprise high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, in a range of about 16-22% and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients in a range of about 84-78%, by weight. In a further aspect, the pharmaceutical formulations of the invention comprise high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, in a range of about 16-21% and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients in a range of about 84-79%, by weight. In certain aspects, the amount of high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid, in a pharmaceutical formulation is not more than about 30%, 29%, 28%, 27%, 26%, 25%, 24%, 23%, 22%, 21%, 20%, 19%, 18%, 17%, 16%, 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9%, 8%, 7%, 6%, 5%, 4%, 3%, 2% or 1%, by weight of the formulation, with the remainder of the weight comprising the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, moisture and counterions. When an excipient is added to the compounding solution, the pH or the volume of the solution may be determined after addition and, if needed, adjusted to the target level before removal of the solvent (see below). The pH or volume can be adjusted using methods known in the art, for instance, the addition of additional solvent or pH-adjusting agent as described above. The compounding solution may also be sterilized before the removal of solvent. The compounding solution may undergo aseptic filtration using, for example, a membrane filter, such as 0.2 μm membrane filter, to sterilize the compounding solution. Techniques of sterilizing the compounding solution are known in the art (see, e.g., Berovic, M. Biotechnol. Annu. Rev. 2005, 11, 257-279, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). When the compounding solution is sterilized, the pH or the volume of the resulting solution may be determined after sterilization and, if needed, adjusted to the target level before removal of the solvent (see below). The pH or volume can be adjusted using methods known in the art, for instance, the addition of additional solvent or pH-adjusting agent as described above. Furthermore, following sterilization, the compounding solution may be aliquoted into containers such as vials, bottles, ampoules, syringes, etc. 4) Removal of Solvent from the Compounding Solution The compounding process further comprises removing solvents from the compounding solution. Solvent removal from the compounding solution may be achieved through lyophilization, which comprises freezing the compounding solution and then reducing the surrounding pressure to allow the frozen solvent/moisture in the material to sublime directly from a solid phase to a gas phase. The lyophilization process may be performed by methods known in the art (see, e.g., Liu, J. Pharm. Dev. Technol. 2006, 11, 3-28; Tang, X.; Pikal, M. J. Pharm. Res. 2004, 21, 191-200; Nail, S. L.; Jiang, S.; Chongprasert, S.; Knopp, S. A. Pharm. Biotechnol. 2002, 14: 281-360; U.S. Pat. No. 7,351,431, and U.S. Pat. No. 6,821,515; each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety). Solvents may also be removed from the compounding solution through other techniques such as spray drying and spray-freeze drying (see, e.g., Lee, G. Pharm. Biotechnol. 2002, 13, 135-58; Maa, Y.-F.; Prestrelski, S. J. Curr. Pharm. Biotechnol. 2000, 1, 283-302; each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety), vacuum drying, super critical fluid processing, air drying, or other forms of evaporative drying, as known in the art. Lyophilization represents a process which generally comprises the steps of (a) chilling a solution to a temperature from about 5° C. to about −80° C., wherein the temperature is maintained for at least about 20 minutes to about 4 hours, (b) freezing the solution to a temperature of from about 0° C. to about −80° C., to produce a frozen mixture, wherein the temperature is maintained for at least about 30 minutes to about 20 hours, and (c) subjecting the frozen mixture to a primary drying stage, which comprises applying a vacuum to reduce the pressure by an amount effective to remove aqueous solvent from the frozen mixture, and, while applying the vacuum, changing the temperature of the frozen mixture to a primary drying temperature, wherein the primary drying temperature is from about 0° C. to about −50° C., and wherein the primary drying temperature is maintained for at least about 10 hours to about 50 hours. Lyophilization may be performed over several steps, for example by conducting a step at a temperature range of between about −15° C. and about −50° C. and a pressure of between about 0.05 torr and about 0.5 torr and conducting a second step at a temperature range of between about −10° C. and about −20° C. and a pressure of between about 0.1 torr and about 0.5 torr. In other instances, only one lyophilization step may be required. For example, the compounding solution may be frozen using such techniques as, but not limited to, mechanical refrigeration, dry ice, and liquid nitrogen. The temperature may be cooled to a range of between about 0° C. and about −80° C., and in one example, between about −10° C. and about −35° C. The primary lyophilization step may be characterized by a lowered pressure of between about 0.05 torr and about 10 torr, and in one example, between about 0.1 torr and about 1 torr. The secondary lyophilization step may be characterized by a pressure between about 0.05 torr and about 5 torr, and in one example, between about 0.1 torr and about 1 torr. In other instances, only one lyophilization step may be required. In some instances, further drying may be performed after the bulk of the solvent was removed for example by maintaining the material at a temperature range of about 10° C. and 45° C. and a reduced pressure of between 0.05 torr and 5 torr, and in one example, at a temperature range of about 20° C. and 40° C. and a reduced pressure of between 0.1 torr and 1 torr. This additional drying step may be performed for a duration of between about 1 hour and about 10 hours, and in one example, between about 3 hours and about 6 hours In certain embodiments of the invention, removal of the solvent is effected under conditions where the residual moisture in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, and in a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient, is less than about 2.0% on a weight basis to minimize the generation of degradants during further processing and storage. In other embodiments of the invention, the removal of the solvent will result in high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, and in a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient, with less than about 2.0% moisture on a weight basis and a pH of between about 7.0 and about 9.5 to minimize the generation of degradants during further processing and storage. In aspects of these embodiments, the residual moisture is less than about 3.4%, 3.3%, 3.2%, 3.1%, 3.0%, 2.9%, 2.8%, 2.7%, 2.6%, 2.5%, 2.4%, 2.3%, 2.2%, 2.1%, 2.0%, 1.9%, 1.8%, 1.7%, 1.6%, 1.5%, 1.4%, 1.3%, 1.2%, 1.1%, 1.0%, 0.9%, 0.8%, 0.7%, 0.6%, 0.5%, 0.4%, 0.3%, 0.2% or 0.1% on a weight basis. The proper combinations of temperatures, reduced pressures and durations of the processes used for solvent removal are critical in order to minimize the levels of degradants generated during the processes, and upon storage of the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof and a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. A suitable process according to the invention is a vial freeze-drying process. Such a process comprises filling sterile vials with a sterile filtered solution of the composition according to the invention, such as a compounding solution. A sterile freeze-drying stopper is partially inserted into the vial which is frozen, e.g. at a temperature from −30 to −40° C., and thereafter vacuum dried in the frozen state. After drying, the stopper is fully inserted before removing the vial from the lyophilization unit. It is possible that during solvent removal, the pH of the resulting material is altered, either as a result of the concentration of the base or as a result of the removal of a volatile base. The selected process must ensure that the pH of the compounding solution or of the resulting material remains in the range of about 7.0 to about 9.5. The presence of degradants will increase over time as the compounding solution is stored or manipulated before the removal of solvent. Therefore the length of time between the dissolution of cangrelor to form the first solution and the removal of the solvent must be kept to a minimum to minimize the levels of the degradants generated. For example, this length of time should not exceed about 48 hours, and in aspects, not exceed about 36 hours, about 30 hours, about 24 hours, about 20 hours, about 16 hours, about 12 hours, about 8 hours, or about 4 hours. To prevent oxidative processes brought about by the presence of oxygen and hydrolytic processes brought about by the presence of water, upon completion of the removal of the solvent, the resulting material obtained can be stored in an environment made of a chemically inert and moisture free gas within the storage vessel. This chemically inert and moisture free gas may be nitrogen or argon. In particular, the chemically inert dry gas can be introduced upon release of the vacuum at the end of lyophilization or vacuum drying cycles. In aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the level of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, or in pharmaceutical formulations comprising the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, is less than about 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 or 0.1% by weight of the drug product. In aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the level of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, or in pharmaceutical formulations comprising the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, is less than about 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 or 0.1% by weight of the drug product. In aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the level of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, or in pharmaceutical formulations comprising the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, is less than about 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 or 0.1% by weight of the drug product. In aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the level of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, or in pharmaceutical formulations comprising the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, is less than about 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 or 0.1% by weight of the drug product. In aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the level of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, or in pharmaceutical formulations comprising the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, is less than about 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 or 0.1% by weight of the drug product. In aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the combined level of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, or in pharmaceutical formulations comprising the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, is less than about 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 or 0.1% by weight of the drug product. In aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the level of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, or in pharmaceutical formulations comprising the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, is each less than about 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 or 0.1% by weight of the drug product. In aspects of the invention disclosed herein, the combined level of impurities A, B, C, D and E present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, or in pharmaceutical formulations comprising the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, is less than about 5.0, 4.5, 4.0, 3.5, 3.0, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0, 0.9, 0.8, 0.7, 0.6, 0.5, 0.4, 0.3, 0.2 or 0.1% by weight of the drug product. The particular impurities in the combined amount may vary in their individual concentrations or be about the same. Further, the skilled artisan will understand that any combination of the five impurities A, B, C, D and E, in any amount, may be present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof, although with a combined total of less than about 5.0% by weight of the drug product, and less than about 1.5% in some aspects. For example, there may be only one, or two, or three, or four, or all five of the impurities present in the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof. 5) Filling in Storage Vessels The dried high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor should be stored in a vessel that will prevent exposure of the drug product or formulations to moisture. In some aspects, exposure of the drug product or formulations to light may also be blocked. In a suitable example, the drug product and formulations are stored in sealed vessels such as stoppered vials. Filling of these vessels may be concomitant with solvent removal. That is, the compounding solution is loaded into the vessel and the solution is dried in the vessel as described above. By methods known to those skilled in the art, vessels and their stoppers used for storing drug products and pharmaceutical formulations are washed, sterilized and dried prior to use. Residual moisture in vessels and their stoppers following this process can be transferred to the drug product and formulations over time and result in the appearance of degradants produced through hydrolytic process. Therefore, care should be taken to minimize the amount of residual moisture in the vessels and their stoppers. The vessels must also be sealed sufficiently to ensure that oxygen and moisture do not penetrate over time, thereby minimizing the levels of degradants formed due to oxidative or hydrolytic processes. The vessels may be sealed by a stopper held in place by sleeves, by crimps or by overseals. The stoppers may be made from an elastic material such as rubber and the sleeves or crimps may be made from a malleable metal such as aluminum. The appropriateness of the seal can be checked by methods known to those skilled in the art, such as through helium leak detection (see, e.g., Kirsch, L. E.; Nguyen, L.; Moeckly, C. S. PDA J Pharm Sci Technol. 1997, 51, 187-194, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety). For example, the helium leak rate may be between about 1×10−6 std·cc/sec and about 1×104 std·cc/sec. The components of the vessel, such as the stopper, that are made of elastic materials may be selected for their ability to absorb as little moisture as possible during washing and sterilization. These components may be made of butyl rubber. Prior to use, the vessel and the stopper are dried at a sufficient temperature and for a sufficient duration to ensure that they transfer as little moisture as possible to the dried drug products and pharmaceutical formulations. For example, they may be dried at a temperature of about 70° C. to about 150° C. for a duration of about 1 hour to about 24 hours, such as about 1 hour to 4 hours. In an embodiment of the invention, the sealed vessel and its components are selected and dried so that the amount of moisture found in the high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor remains below 5.0% on a weight basis, and below 2.0% in some aspects, over a period of at least about 24 months. In particular aspects, the amount of moisture found in the high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations remains below 4.5, 4.0, 3.5, 3.0, 2.5, 2.4, 2.3, 2.2, 2.1, 2.0, 1.9, 1.8, 1.7, 1.6, 1.5, 1.4, 1.3, 1.2, 1.1, 1.0 or 0.5% on a weight basis over a period of at least about 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, 21, 24, 36 or 48 months. The present invention also encompasses high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations defined in this manner. In another embodiment of the invention, the sealed vessel and its components are selected and dried so that after a period of about 12 months, the high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor are characterized by a pH of between about 7.0 and 9.5 for a 1% solution by weight, an amount of moisture less than about 5% on a weight basis (less than about 2.0% in some aspects), a maximum level of the impurities A, B, C and D not exceeding about 1% each by weight of the drug product (not exceeding 0.5% in some aspects) and a maximum level of impurity E not exceeding about 0.5% by weight of the drug product. The present invention also encompasses high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations defined in this manner. In another embodiment of the invention, the sealed vessel and its components are selected and dried so that after a period of about 12 months, the high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor are characterized by a pH of between about 7.0 and 9.5 for a 1% solution by weight, an amount of moisture less than about 5% on a weight basis (less than about 2.0% in some aspects), and a maximum level of impurity A not exceeding about 1% by weight of the drug product (not exceeding about 0.5% in some aspects), a maximum level of impurity B not exceeding about 0.5% by weight of the drug product (not exceeding about 0.2% in some aspects), a maximum level of impurity C not exceeding about 0.3% by weight of the drug product, a maximum level of impurity D not exceeding about 0.2% by weight of the drug product and a maximum level of impurity E not exceeding about 0.5% by weight of the drug product. The present invention also encompasses high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations defined in this manner. In another embodiment of the invention, the sealed vessel and its components are selected and dried so that after a period of about 12 months, the high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor are characterized by a pH of between about 7.0 and 9.5 for a 1% solution by weight, an amount of moisture less than about 5% on a weight basis (less than about 2.0% in some aspects), and a maximum combined level of impurities A, B, C, D and E not exceeding about 5.0% by weight of the drug product, or a maximum combined level of impurities A, B, C, D and E not exceeding about 2.0% by weight of the drug product, or a maximum combined level of impurities A, B, C, D and E not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the drug product, or a maximum combined level of impurities A, B, C, D and E not exceeding about 1.3% by weight of the drug product. The present invention also encompasses high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations defined in this manner. Formulations The high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention may be used in methods of inhibiting platelet activation and aggregation in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo. Such methods form the basis of therapeutic methods in animals such as humans. Providing high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor in vessels, as discussed herein, will greatly aid in the practice of such methods. The amount of high purity cangrelor or a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor included in a vessel, such as a stoppered vial, will depend on the manner in which the drug product or formulation will be used. The amount may be one that allows the drug product or formulation to be reconstituted in the vessel and then used in vitro or ex vivo, or administered to a subject, without further dilution. Alternatively, the amount may be one that requires the drug product or formulation to be further diluted after reconstitution in the vessel and prior to use. As an example, high purity cangrelor or a pharmaceutical formulation comprising the drug product may be supplied in single-use vials. Each single-use vial may contain about 50 mg of drug product or the formulation. When reconstituted with a sterile aqueous solution, a reconstituted solution with a pH of about 8-9.5 results. Reconstitution may be performed using water for injection, 0.9% NaCl, buffered saline, dextrose (e.g., 5% dextrose in water) or water as the sterile aqueous solution. In some aspects, the pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention can be characterized by the amount of time required to reconstitute the formulations when mixed with a sterile aqueous solution. The reconstitution time, i.e., time required to put the pharmaceutical formulations in solution, may be characterized as not exceeding about 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, or 1 minute. Reconstitution times may be determined, for example, by adding a selected level of sterile aqueous solution to a unit dosage vial comprising the cangrelor pharmaceutical formulation. Immediately after adding the appropriate solution (e.g., water, water for injection, saline, etc.), a timer is started. The vial is shaken vigorously, with inversion, for approximately 10 seconds. The vial is viewed to determine if the solid has dissolved. If the solid has not completely dissolved, the vial is shaken for another 10 seconds. These steps are repeated until all the solid dissolves, at which point the time is stopped and recorded. When used in the treatment of a subject, the reconstituted formulation may be administered to a subject via parenteral modes of administration, including without limitation, intradermal, subcutaneous (s.c., s.q., sub-Q, Hypo), intramuscular (i.m.), intravenous (i.v.), intraperitoneal (i.p.), intra-arterial, intramedullary, intracardiac, intraspinal, and intrathecal (spinal fluids) modes. Any known device useful for parenteral injection or infusion of drug formulations can be used to effect such administration. In noted aspects and embodiments of the present invention, administration of the pharmaceutical compositions is via parenteral administration, preferably intravenous administration. In intravenous (IV) administration, a sterile reconstituted formulation can be diluted in any of the commonly used intravenous fluids and administered by infusion. Intravenous fluids include, without limitation, physiological saline, 0.9% NaCl, phosphate buffered saline, 5% dextrose in water, 0.002% polysorbate 80 (Tween-80™) in water or Ringer's™ solution. In intramuscular preparations, a sterile reconstituted formulation can be diluted and administered in a pharmaceutical diluent such as Water-for-Injection (WFI), physiological saline, 0.9% NaCl or 5% dextrose in water. Suitable final concentrations of high purity cangrelor, or salt thereof, in the reconstituted formulations will vary depending on the particular use to which the formulation will be put, but may include high purity cangrelor, or salt thereof, at a concentration of about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 mg/mL in 0.9% NaCl, or a concentration of about 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 mg/mL in 5% dextrose. Dosage As used herein, the terms “dose”, “dosage”, “unit dose”, “unit dosage”, “effective dose”, “effective amount” and related terms refer to physically discrete units that contain a predetermined quantity of high purity cangrelor, or salt thereof, calculated to produce a desired therapeutic effect. These terms are synonymous with the therapeutically effective amounts and amounts sufficient to achieve the stated goals of the methods disclosed herein. Particular doses of the pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention will vary depending upon the stated goals of the methods (treating, preventing or reducing), the physical characteristics of the subject, existence of related or unrelated medical conditions, the composition of the formulation and the means used to administer the drug product to the subject. The specific dose for a given subject will generally be set by the judgment of the attending physician. When administered as an intravenous (IV) formulation, a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or salt thereof, may be administered as a bolus, as a continuous infusion, or as a bolus followed by a continuous infusion. When administered as a bolus, a dose of about 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 or 100 μg/kg cangrelor, or more, is administered to the subject. In preferred embodiments, between about 20 and 40 μg/kg cangrelor is administered, more preferably about 30 μg/kg. When administered as a continuous infusion, cangrelor may be administered at about 0.1, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 μg/kg/min, or more, to the subject. In preferred embodiments, between about 0.1 and 10 μg/kg/min cangrelor is administered, more preferably about 4 μg/kg/min. The skilled artisan will understand that different dosages may be administered during different points of a medical procedure. Thus the dosages may differ in the periods before, during and after a medical procedure. In each of the embodiments where the pharmaceutical formulation is administered as continuous intravenous infusion, the infusion may continue for at least about 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 120, 130, 140, 150, 160, 170, 180, 190, 200, 220, 240, 260, 280, 300, 320, 340 or 360 minutes, or more. The skilled artisan will understand that the period of time over which the pharmaceutical formulation is administered may be shorter or longer than the indicated times due to the particular characteristics of a subject. Where the pharmaceutical formulation is administered in conjunction with the implantation of a stent, such as during PCI, the bolus may be administered within about 360, 300, 240, 180, 120, 90, 60, 30 or 15 minutes prior to the beginning of the procedure. In addition to the pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention comprising cangrelor, the skilled artisan will understand that one, two, three, four, five or more additional anti-thrombotic agents may be used in combination with cangrelor, such as bivalirudin. As a further example, aspirin (100-500 mg daily) may be administered in conjunction with the pharmaceutical formulations. Using High Purity Cangrelor and Pharmaceutical Formulations As indicated above, the high purity cangrelor and pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention may be used in methods of inhibiting platelet activation and aggregation in vitro, in vivo and ex vivo. While not intending to be limited by doing so, the following are examples of particular methods that may be practiced using the high purity cangrelor or the pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention and are thus further embodiments of the invention. In a general aspect, the present invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, in a subject. The subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or another catherization technique. The subject may be undergoing treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS), or a clotting disorder in general. In related embodiments, the present invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet granule release in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet granule release in a subject. The invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation in a subject. The invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation in a subject. The invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet loss from the blood of a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet loss from the blood of a subject. In a related aspect, the present invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both. The method may be practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In related embodiments, the present invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet granule release, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet granule release. The invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation. The invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation. The invention includes methods of inhibiting platelet loss from the blood, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet loss from the blood. The methods may be practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. The pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention may be used in any disease, condition or procedure in a subject where platelet aggregation is involved. The pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention may thus act as anti-thrombotic agents and they are indicated in the treatment or prevention of diseases and conditions including, but not limited to, stent thrombosis, myocardial infarction, thromboembolic stroke and peripheral vascular disease. They are also indicated for use in reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent thrombosis or experiencing myocardial infarction. They are further indicated in the treatment or prevention of the sequelae of thrombotic complications from angioplasty, stent implantation, thrombolysis, endarterectomy, coronary and vascular graft surgery, renal dialysis and cardio-pulmonary bypass. Additional indications include the treatment or prevention of disseminated intravascular coagulation, deep vein thrombosis, pre-eclampsia/eclampsia, tissue salvage following surgical or accidental trauma, vasculitis, arteritis, thrombocythaemia, ischemia and migraine. The pharmaceutical formulations of the present invention are also indicated procedures such as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and coronary artery bypass graft (CABG) surgery. The present invention thus includes methods of protecting platelet function during medical procedures. Such medical procedures include one or more of extracorporeal circulation (ECC) and hypothermia. The methods comprise administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject undergoing a medical procedure that includes ECC or hypothermia, or both. In embodiments of the methods, the invention is directed to methods of protecting platelets in the blood of a subject undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure, where the method comprises administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject undergoing such a procedure, thereby protecting platelets in the blood of the subject. The protection of platelets through these methods includes, but is not limited to, inhibiting activation of platelets, inhibiting platelet granule release, inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation (including platelet-granulocyte aggregation), inhibiting platelet aggregation and inhibiting platelet loss from the blood of the subject. Thus, in one embodiment the method inhibits activation of platelets in the blood of a subject undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure, wherein the method comprises administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject undergoing such a procedure, thereby inhibiting activation of platelets in the blood of the subject. A second embodiment the method inhibits platelet granule release in the blood of a subject undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure, and comprises administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject undergoing such a procedure. In a third embodiment the method inhibits platelet-leukocyte aggregation in the blood of a subject undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure, and comprises administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject undergoing such a procedure. In one aspect, the platelet-leukocyte aggregation is platelet-granulocyte aggregation. In a fourth embodiment the method inhibits platelet loss from the blood of a subject undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure, and comprises administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject undergoing such a procedure. The present invention includes methods of treating stent thrombosis. The course of treatment will generally follow implantation of a stent into a subject, where the subject is suspected of having or known to have developed a thrombus associated with a stent. The pharmaceutical formulation comprising cangrelor may be a bolus intravenous dosage form or a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, and may be administered in combination with an oral dosage form. The course of treatment may last for a period of hours, days, weeks, months or years. The pharmaceutical formulation comprising cangrelor may thus be administered to a subject to treat stent thrombosis for about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, or 7 days, for about 1, 2, 3 or 4 weeks, or for about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 or more months, after the implantation of a vascular stent or after a diagnosis of stent thrombosis. In particular aspects, the pharmaceutical formulation may be administered to the subject as an intravenous bolus, as a continuous intravenous infusion, as an intravenous bolus followed by continuous intravenous infusion, or some combination thereof, and optionally, in combination with an oral dosage form. In a particular example, the pharmaceutical formulation is administered to the subject in a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form over a period of at least about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hours, or more. The methods of treatment of the present invention include methods wherein the pharmaceutical formulation is administered to the subject beginning about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 or 15 months, or more, after stent implantation. The treatment may be once, twice, thrice or more times a day, once every two days, once every three days, once every four days, once every five days, once every six days, once a week, once every 10 days, once every two weeks, once every three weeks, once a month, or even less frequently. The present invention includes methods of preventing stent thrombosis or reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent implantation. The course of prevention will generally be associated with a medical procedure in which a stent is being implanted into the subject. The course of treatment may be limited to the administration of the pharmaceutical formulation prior to the beginning of the procedure, during the procedure or after the procedure. Alternatively, the course of treatment may comprise administering the pharmaceutical formulation prior to the procedure and during the procedure, or during the procedure and after the procedure, or prior to the procedure and after the procedure. The skilled artisan will also understand that the course of treatment may begin prior to the procedure and continue until some point after the completion of the procedure. The skilled artisan will understand that the pharmaceutical formulation may be administered to the subject via different dosage forms, such as via intravenous infusion during the procedure and an oral dosage form for a number of days or months after the procedure has been completed. When administered before stent implantation, the pharmaceutical formulation is preferably administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, within about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7 or 7.5 hours, or more, prior to stent implantation. When administered as a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, the pharmaceutical composition is preferably administered to the subject as a continuous intravenous infusion over about a 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hour period, or more. When administered during stent implantation, the pharmaceutical formulation is preferably administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion. When administered as a continuous intravenous infusion, the infusion may continue over about a 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hour period, or more. The continuous intravenous infusion may also simply last for the duration of the procedure. When administered after stent implantation, the pharmaceutical formulation is preferably administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, for a period of about 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5 or 7 hours, or more, after the completion of the procedure. When administered as a continuous intravenous infusion, the infusion may continue over about a 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hour period, or more. When administered both before and during the procedure, the pharmaceutical formulation may be administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, within about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7 or 7.5 hours, or more, prior to stent implantation, and administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, during the procedure. When administered as a continuous intravenous infusion, the infusion may continue over about a 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hour period, or more. The continuous intravenous infusion may also simply last for the duration of the procedure. When administered during and after the procedure, the pharmaceutical formulation may be administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, and administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, for a period of about 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5 or 7 hours, or more, after the completion of the procedure. When administered as a continuous intravenous infusion, the infusion may continue over about a 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hour period, or more. When administered both before and after the procedure, the pharmaceutical formulation may be administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, within about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7 or 7.5 hours, or more, prior to stent implantation, and administered to the subject in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, for a period of about 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5 or 7 hours, or more, after the completion of the procedure. When administered as a continuous intravenous infusion, the infusion may continue over about a 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hour period, or more. When administered before, during and after the procedure, the pharmaceutical formulation may be administered to the subject (i) in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, within about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7 or 7.5 hours, or more, prior to the procedure, (ii) in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, during the procedure, and (iii) in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form, a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, or as an intravenous bolus followed continuous intravenous infusion, for a period of about 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5 or 7 hours, or more, after the completion of the procedure. When the dosage form is continuous intravenous infusion, the infusion may continue over about a 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hour period, or more. In the methods of the invention directed to methods of reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent implantation, mortality may be reduced within a period of about 24, 36 or 48 hours after stent implantation, within a period of about 30 days after stent implantation, within a period of about six months after stent implantation, or within a period of about one year after stent implantation. In preferred embodiments, mortality is reduced by at least about 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1.0% or 1.2% during the period in comparison to a subject not receiving cangrelor. Stent thrombosis may result from any means related to the implantation, presence, or maintenance of a stent in the vasculature of a subject. For example, stent thrombosis may be induced by implantation of a stent, such as bare-metal stent or a drug-eluting stent, into a subject. Similarly, stent thrombosis may develop over time due to the presence of a stent, such as a bare-metal stent or a drug-eluting stent, in the subject. Thus, in each of these methods, stent thrombosis may be intraprocedural stent thrombosis, acute stent thrombosis, sub-acute stent thrombosis, late stent thrombosis or very late stent thrombosis. Further, in each of these methods, the prevention of stent thrombosis may be prevention during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or other vascular stent implantation. In each of the relevant methods, mortality may be caused by intraprocedural stent thrombosis, acute stent thrombosis, sub-acute stent thrombosis, late stent thrombosis or very late stent thrombosis, or occlusion of a coronary artery. Stent thrombosis may result from any means related to the implantation, presence, or maintenance of the stent in the vasculature of a subject. For example, stent thrombosis may be induced by implantation of a stent, such as a bare-metal stent, a drug-eluting stent, or other type of stent into the subject. Similarly, stent thrombosis may develop over time due to the presence of a stent, such as a bare-metal stent, a drug-eluting stent, or other type of stent in the subject. Thus, in each of the embodiments of the present invention stent thrombosis may be intraprocedural stent thrombosis, acute stent thrombosis (<24 hours post implantation), sub-acute stent thrombosis (>24 hours and <30 days post implantation), late stent thrombosis (>30 days and <12 months post implantation) or very late stent thrombosis (>12 months post implantation). In each of the relevant methods, the prevention of stent thrombosis may be prevention in the course of stent implantation during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or other vascular stent implantation procedure. In each of the relevant methods, the stent implantation may be implantation of a bare-metal stent, a drug-eluting stent, or other type of stent into a subject. The stent implantation is implantation during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or other vascular stent implantation. The mortality associated with stent implantation may be mortality due to intraprocedural stent thrombosis, acute stent thrombosis, sub-acute stent thrombosis, late stent thrombosis or very late stent thrombosis. The present invention includes a method of treating myocardial infarction or reducing mortality in a subject experiencing myocardial infarction. The course of treatment will generally follow diagnosis of myocardial infarction or at the onset of symptoms of myocardial infarction. The pharmaceutical formulation may be a bolus intravenous dosage form or a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form, and may be administered in combination with an oral dosage form. In preferred aspects, the pharmaceutical formulation is administered to the subject within about 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 or 90 minutes of the onset of symptoms of myocardial infarction. The course of treatment may last for a period of hours, days or weeks. The pharmaceutical formulation may thus be administered to a subject to treat myocardial infarction or to reduce mortality for about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more hours after diagnosis of myocardial infarction or at the onset of symptoms of myocardial infarction, and be repeated for a number of days or weeks. In particular aspects, the pharmaceutical formulation may be administered to the subject as an intravenous bolus, as a continuous intravenous infusion, as an intravenous bolus followed by continuous intravenous infusion, or some combination thereof, and optionally, in combination with an oral dosage form. In a particular example, the pharmaceutical formulation is administered to the subject in a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form over a period of at least about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hours, or more. The treatment may be once, twice, thrice or more times a day, once every two days, once every three days, once every four days, once every five days, once every six days, once a week, once every 10 days, once every two weeks, once every three weeks, once a month, or even less frequently. In the methods of the invention directed to methods of reducing mortality in a subject experiencing myocardial infarction, mortality may be reduced within a period of about 24, 36 or 48 hours after myocardial infarction, within a period of about 30 days after myocardial infarction, within a period of about six months after myocardial infarction, or within a period of about one year after myocardial infarction. In preferred embodiments, mortality is reduced by at least about 0.2%, 0.4%, 0.6%, 0.8%, 1.0% or 1.2% during the period in comparison to a subject not receiving cangrelor. The present invention includes a method of preventing myocardial infarction. The method comprises administration of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject as a prophylaxis against myocardial infarction. Subjects appropriate for such prevention would be any subject suspected of having a vascular thrombus, early symptoms of myocardial infarction or other disease or condition that could lead to myocardial infarction against which the pharmaceutical formulations of the invention would be effective. The pharmaceutical formulation may be in an oral dosage form, a bolus intravenous dosage form or a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form. In preferred aspects, the pharmaceutical formulation is administered to the subject within about 5, 10, 15, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 or 90 minutes of when early or initial symptoms of myocardial infarction are detected. The course of treatment may last for a period of hours, days or weeks. The pharmaceutical formulation may thus be administered to a subject to prevent myocardial infarction for about 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more hours after early or initial symptoms of myocardial infarction are detected, and be repeated for a number of days or weeks. In particular aspects, the pharmaceutical formulation may be administered to the subject orally, as an intravenous bolus, as a continuous intravenous infusion, as an intravenous bolus followed by continuous intravenous infusion, or some combination thereof. In a particular example, the pharmaceutical formulation is administered to the subject in a continuous intravenous infusion dosage form over a period of at least about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 or 4 hours, or more. The treatment may be once, twice, thrice or more times a day, once every two days, once every three days, once every four days, once every five days, once every six days, once a week, once every 10 days, once every two weeks, once every three weeks, once a month, or even less frequently. In each of the relevant methods, myocardial infarction may be any form of myocardial infarction, including acute myocardial infarction (first few hours to 7 days), healing myocardial infarction (7 to 28 days), healed myocardial infarction (29 days and beyond), acute non-ST-elevated myocardial infarction and acute ST-elevated myocardial infarction. Myocardial infarction may be induced by any mechanism, including implantation of a bare-metal stent or a drug-eluting stent into the subject, or other vascular stent implantation, or arise during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Myocardial infarction may also be caused by intraprocedural stent thrombosis, acute stent thrombosis, sub-acute stent thrombosis, late stent thrombosis, very late stent thrombosis or occlusion of a coronary artery. Mortality may be caused by intraprocedural stent thrombosis, acute stent thrombosis, sub-acute stent thrombosis, late stent thrombosis or very late stent thrombosis, or occlusion of a coronary artery. Subjects As used herein, a “subject” upon which the methods of the present invention may be practiced refers to an animal, such as a mammalian or an avian species, including a human, a non-human primate, a horse, a cow, a sheep, a goat, a dog, and a cat. To further characterize the subjects to which the methods of the present invention may be applied, it is noted that the subject may have suffered a stroke, or the subject may not have suffered a stroke. The subject may have diabetes mellitus, or the subject may not have diabetes mellitus. The subject may have hypertension, or the subject may not have hypertension. The subject may have hyperlipidemia, or the subject may not have hyperlipidemia. The subject may have suffered a myocardial infarction, or the subject may not have suffered a myocardial infarction. The subject may have a family history of coronary artery disease (CAD), or the subject may not have a family history of CAD. The subject may have undergone percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA), or the subject may not have undergone PTCA. The subject may have undergone percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI), or the subject may not have undergone PCI. The subject may have undergone coronary artery bypass graft (CABG), or the subject may not have undergone CABG. The subject may have congestive heart failure, or the subject may not have congestive heart failure. The subject may have peripheral arterial disease (PAD), or the subject may not have PAD. In certain aspects, the subject may have stent thrombosis, be at risk of developing stent thrombosis, or be undergoing stent implantation. The subject may have stent thrombosis in more than one artery or vein. Thus, the subjects encompassed by the methods of the present invention include subjects undergoing vascular stent implantation and subjects having undergone vascular stent implantation. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) surgery or about to undergo CABG surgery (e.g., in less than 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or 1 day). Such subjects may have an acute coronary syndrome (ACS) and/or have been treated with a coronary stent. Such patients may also have been receiving thienopyridine treatment prior to treatment using one of the methods of the present invention. For example, the subject may be treated using a method of the present invention as a “bridge” between cessation of oral antiplatelet therapy and the beginning of cardiac surgery. Results of the Methods Each of the methods recited in the present invention may include the additional step of measuring the effect or effectiveness of the pharmaceutical formulation during or after administration. In one example, the additional step of measuring an effect of the pharmaceutical formulation may be performed during or about 0.5, 1, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 10, 15, 20 or 24 hours, or more, after completion of a method of the invention. The effects that may be measured in the methods of the present invention include a change in the level of platelet reactivity, an increase in luminal diameter within the stent, a decrease in the size of the stent thrombus, and a decreased incidence of myocardial infarction. Each of these effects would demonstrate the effectiveness of the compounds comprising the pharmaceutical composition. The invention will now be further described by way of the following non-limiting examples, which further illustrate the invention, and are not intended, nor should they be interpreted to, limit the scope of the invention. Examples Example 1: Solution Stability of Cangrelor Tetrasodium Given the nature of cangrelor as an anhydride, its stability in aqueous solution was determined. Solutions of cangrelor in water at 1 mg/mL were stored at 4° C., 25° C. and 40° C. for 8 days and protected from light. The levels of the impurities were determined by reverse phase HPLC and reported in Table 1. TABLE 1 Solution stability of Cangrelor (1 mg/mL) in purified water for 8 days Measured level (% w/w) After 8 days under storage conditions described 4° C. and 25° C. and 40° C. and Measured ambient 60% relative ambient analyte Initial humidity humidity humidity Cangrelor 98.23 98.45 96.94 90.46 Impurity A 0.16 0.22 1.58 7.50 Impurity D ND ND ND ND Impurity C 0.28 0.26 0.27 0.37 Total 1.76 1.54 3.06 9.56 Impurities* ND-none detected. *includes all impurities including those formed during the synthesis of cangrelor. The results demonstrate that cangrelor is a moisture-sensitive molecule, in particular through hydrolysis to impurity A. Therefore, it is important to control the moisture content of the solid cangrelor. Example 2. Accelerated pH Stability of High Purity Cangrelor The stability of cangrelor drug substance in aqueous solution was investigated over a range of pH values. The extent of degradation was determined using a reverse phase HPLC method. The effect of pH on the stability of cangrelor in aqueous solution at 1 mg/mL was studied over a pH range of 1 to 12 and the solutions were stored at 40° C. for 7 days protected from light (Table 2). TABLE 2 Stability of Cangrelor in various pH buffer solutions for 7 days at 40° C. protected from light Impurity A Impurity D Total Impurities* pH Medium (% w/w) (% w/w) (% w/w) 1.0 0.1M HCl 28.51 68.12 97.28 3.0 Phosphate 28.69 0.81 31.48 5.0 Phosphate 20.70 ND 22.16 7.0 Phosphate 14.31 ND 15.71 9.0 Phosphate 3.25 ND 4.90 11.0 Phosphate 2.61 ND 4.28 12.0 0.1M NaOH 2.42 ND 4.39 ND-none detected. *Sum of all impurities including degradants and impurities occurring during the synthesis of cangrelor. The degradation of cangrelor after 7 days at 40° C. was pH dependent and occurred primarily via hydrolysis of cangrelor to form either impurity A (hydrolysis of the dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid group on cangrelor) or impurity D (hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond on cangrelor) or both impurity A and impurity D. Based on the pH stability data, it is evident that cangrelor is more sensitive to hydrolysis in acidic pH but progressively more stable in the alkaline pH range. The main route of degradation at lower pH (1-3) is the hydrolysis of the glycosidic bond to form impurity D, which is expected on the basis of the lability of glycosidic bonds to acid hydrolysis. This particular degradation pathway was not detected at pH 5 or higher. On the other hand, there is a reduction in the rate of the hydrolysis pathway leading to impurity A with increasing pH. While these conditions (40° C. for 7 days) are not representative of storage conditions for the pharmaceutical formulation comprising cangrelor, they provide for a convenient way to evaluate the impact of pH on the degradation of cangrelor. While the results clearly demonstrate a higher pH will provide favorable stability, it is desirable to have a final drug product pH at or close to physiological pH. Therefore, it is important to design a formulation that provides acceptable stability at or close to physiological pH. Example 3. Photostability of Cangrelor in Solution Impurity C is obtained through the formation of sulfoxide from a sulfide found in cangrelor and is therefore an oxidized form of cangrelor. Such oxidations are mediated by light (Liang et al. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 1983, 105, 4717). The photostability of cangrelor was measured to evaluate the potential for light mediated degradation. Namely, solid cangrelor was placed in two quartz cuvettes. Both cuvettes were placed in a chamber and exposed to a combination of 320-400 nM (near UV) and 400-800 nM (visible) light for a total of 7.8×106 LUX hours and 221 watt hours/m2, but one cuvette was wrapped in aluminum foil. After 17 days, the levels of impurities in the sample were determined by reverse phase HPLC. In this study, the total level of impurities, initially at 0.8% (w/w) in this batch, was found to be at 4.3% (w/w) in the exposed sample and 1.2% (w/w) in the shielded sample. While the degradation of the unexposed sample accounts for degradation that is not light mediated, the higher rate of degradation in the exposed sample demonstrates the sensitivity of cangrelor to light mediated processes. While this study is not representative of the conditions of storage of cangrelor in a quantitative way, it does show qualitatively that cangrelor is sensitive to conditions of exposure to air and light. While the previous study demonstrated the need to protect cangrelor itself from light and air, a separate study was performed with the bulk formulation of cangrelor prepared as per the process described in the invention. The bulk formulation was dissolved at a concentration of 16.42 mg/mL and exposed to ordinary room lighting for 4, 8, and 24 hours and then analyzed for assay and impurities. Solution not exposed to light served as the control. The impurity levels were determined by reverse phase HPLC and presented in Table 3. TABLE 3 Light stability data of Cangrelor bulk formulation Cangrelor level Impurity level Time (% initial) (% peak area) Point Shielded Exposed to Shielded Exposed (hour ) from light light Impurities from light to light Initial 100% N/A Impurity A 0.13 N/A Impurity B <0.05 N/A 4 98.9 101.5 Impurity A 0.13 0.13 Impurity B 0.06 0.06 Impurity C NP <0.05 8 100.7 100 Impurity A 0.14 0.14 Impurity B 0.06 0.06 Impurity C NP 0.07 24 97.8 99.1 Impurity A 0.16 0.16 Impurity B 0.06 NP Impurity C NP 0.14 N/A-not applicable NP-not present In this study, even over the short duration of the experiment, it is clear that the level of impurity C increases over time. This clearly demonstrates that cangrelor is sensitive to photooxidation. Example 4. Sensitivity of Cangrelor to Oxidation The susceptibility of cangrelor to oxidation was evaluated by exposing cangrelor formulated in mannitol/sorbitol to 0.1% hydrogen peroxide for 1 h. The levels of cangrelor and impurity C (the oxidation product of cangrelor) were then measured by reverse-phase HPLC. Even under these relatively mild oxidative conditions, there was only 12.46±0.70% of cangrelor by peak area left after 1 h and 83.88±0.47% of impurity C had been produced by peak area. This experiment shows that cangrelor is susceptible to oxidation and while these conditions are harsher than those brought by exposure to air, they demonstrate the need to keep cangrelor away from oxidants such as oxygen. Example 5. Correlation of Stability with Moisture Level The hygroscopicity of cangrelor tetrasodium has been measured using the dynamic vapor adsorption analysis method and cangrelor was determined to be hygroscopic. Given the fact that as seen in Examples 1 and 2, cangrelor is sensitive to hydrolysis, it was of interest to determine if absorbed moisture can cause degradation over time. Vials of cangrelor were prepared through the lyophilization of cangrelor tetrasodium (57.72 mg per vial), mannitol (164.4 mg per vial) and sorbitol (54.3 mg per vial) in two batches. Batch A was lyophilized to a moisture content of 0.33% and batch B was lyophilized to a moisture content of 2.0%. The vials were sealed with a rubber cap, crimped and stored in one of four conditions: at 5° C. and ambient humidity, at 25° C. and 60% relative humidity, at 30° C. and 60% relative humidity and at 40° C. and 75% relative humidity. At specific time points ranging from 0-12 months, the levels of impurities were measured by reverse phase HPLC and the moisture levels were measured by Karl-Fischer titration. The values measured are reported in Table 4. TABLE 4 Long term stability of cangrelor formulations Storage conditions Moisture Total (° C./% Relative Time level impurities Batch Humidity) (months) (% w/w) (% w/w) A Initial 0 0.33 0.18 5/ambient 3 0.36 0.19 6 0.53 0.18 9 0.58 0.19 12 0.74 0.18 25/60 3 0.57 0.2 6 0.72 0.19 9 0.77 0.19 12 0.84 0.19 30/60 3 0.62 0.2 6 0.68 0.21 9 0.75 0.22 12 0.82 0.23 40/75 3 0.66 0.27 6 0.78 0.37 9 1.08 0.45 12 1.01 0.70 B Initial 0 2.00 0.18 5/ambient 3 1.80 0.19 6 2.03 0.18 9 2.21 0.18 12 2.18 0.18 25/60 3 2.06 0.19 6 1.93 0.22 9 2.11 0.24 12 2.08 0.25 30/60 3 1.94 0.24 6 1.86 0.28 9 2.30 0.31 12 1.90 0.31 40/75 3 1.81 0.52 6 1.78 3.64 9 2.34 5.80 12 2.05 5.75 This data, and in particular the values measured at 40° C. and 75% relative humidity, clearly demonstrates that even in sealed lyophilization vials, the cangrelor formulation slowly absorbs moisture and that, in parallel, the quantity of impurities rise. It shows that a process to exclude moisture is necessary to produce a cangrelor composition that can be stored for a period and remain useable. Example 6. Stability of Cangrelor Produced and Stored Under Conditions of the Invention Cangrelor batches A-E (Table 5) were produced according to the invention. Their pH was adjusted to 8.5 prior to lyophilization and they were stored in glass vials stoppered with a stopper specifically selected for its ability to retain as little moisture as possible after autoclaving and after drying for 8 h at 105° C. Together with cangrelor (50 mg of the tetrasodium salt per vial), excipients mannitol (164.4 mg per vial) and sorbitol (54.3 mg per vial) were included in the formulation. Cangrelor lots API A-B are cangrelor tetrasodium. They were stored in double polyethylene bags in HDPE pails. These lots were placed in storage at 25° C. and 60% relative humidity and at the time points indicated in Table 5, aliquots were removed and the level of impurities was measured by either reverse phase HPLC or by ion chromatography for impurity E. In addition their moisture content was determined by Karl-Fischer titration. All these data are reported in Table 5. In addition, throughout the storage period, the pH of 1% w/v solutions of the material in batches A-E were measured and remained at between 8.4 and 8.8 throughout. TABLE 5 Long term stability of cangrelor formulations Analyte concentration (% w/w) over time (months) Lot Analyte Initial 1 3 6 9 12 18 24 30 36 Batch A Impurity A 0.25 0.25 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.31 Impurity B 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.07 Impurity C <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 Impurity E 0.09 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.09 Total 0.70 0.70 0.70 0.80 0.66 0.67 0.70 0.70 0.80 0.80 impurities Moisture 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.8 Batch B Impurity A 0.13 0.13 0.12 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.19 0.16 0.19 — Impurity B <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.0 — Impurity C <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 0.06 — Impurity E <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.04 — Total 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.19 0.19 0.36 0.40 — impurities Moisture 0.3 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.6 0.7 — Batch C Impurity A 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.17 — — — Impurity B <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 — — — Impurity C <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 0.04 0.05 0.06 — — — Impurity E <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 — — — Total 0.10 0.15 0.15 0.30 0.21 0.21 0.30 — — — impurities Moisture 0.3 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.5 0.7 1.1 — — — Batch D Impurity A ND 0.10 0.12 0.13 0.14 0.13 0.13 0.16 — — Impurity B <0.05 — — 0.05 0.05 0.05 — 0.05 — — Impurity C <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 ND ND <0.05 0.05 — — Impurity E <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 — — Total 0.50 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.30 0.30 — — impurities Moisture 0.3 0.4 0.3 0.5 0.4 0.6 0.6 0.7 — — Batch E Impurity A ND 0.10 0.11 0.12 0.14 0.11 0.12 — — — Impurity B — — 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 — — — Impurity C — — <0.05 ND ND 0.05 0.05 — — Impurity E <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 <0.05 — — Total 0.10 — 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.40 — — impurities Moisture 0.4 — 0.4 0.4 0.7 0.7 0.7 API A Impurity A 0.15 0.28 0.47 — — — — — — — Impurity B 0.11 0.22 0.33 — — — — — — — Impurity C — — — — — — — — — — Impurity E 0.06 0.08 0.11 — — — — — — — Total 0.70 1.10 1.40 — — — — — — — impurities Moisture 4.3 7.7 11.3 — — — — — — — API B Impurity A 0.31 0.36 0.51 0.70 — — — — — — Impurity B 0.11 0.19 0.32 0.48 — — — — — — Impurity C <0.05 0.06 0.08 0.19 — — — — — — Impurity E — — — — — — — — — — Total 0.80 1.10 1.50 1.90 — — — — — — impurities Moisture 7.0 6.9 9.9 11.6 — — — — — — These data demonstrate that batches A-E produced by the process disclosed in the invention remain stable for up to 36 months without either significant degradation or significant increase in moisture content. In comparison, lots API A and API B rapidly concentrate moisture and display significant degradation over time. These data support the use of the process described in the invention for the generation of high purity cangrelor formulations that can be stored for a long period of time and be useable in patients. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation, or antiplatelet therapy, has been recognized as a means to impact coagulation and inflammation in a way that conventional anticoagulant therapy is unable to (Bhatt, D. L.; Topol, E. J. Nat Rev Drug Disc 2003, 2, 15-28). As such, inhibitors of platelet activation and aggregation are substances that are useful during percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) and other catherization techniques in order to reduce bleeding complications, and in the treatment of acute coronary syndromes (ACS) and clotting disorders in general. One class of antiplatelet agents is inhibitors of the P2Y 12 receptor, a G-protein coupled purinergic receptor which is an important component of platelet activation (Dorsam, R. T.; Kunapuli, S. P. J Clin Invest 2003, 113, 340-345). In particular, cangrelor ([dichloro-[[[(2R,3S,4R,5R)-3,4-dihydroxy-5-[6-(2-methylsulfanylethylamino)-2-(3,3,3-trifluoropropylsulfanyl)purin-9-yl]oxolan-2-yl]methoxy-hydroxyphosphoryl]oxy-hydroxyphosphoryl]methyl]phosphonic acid; the mixed mono(anhydride) of N-[2-(methylthio)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid) is a reversible inhibitor of the P2Y 12 receptor which is under clinical evaluation for its potential use in PCI. Cangrelor (also referred to as ARC69931MX) is a synthetic analogue of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and a potent antagonist of the P2Y 12 receptor with a pIC 50 of 9.35 (Chattaraj, S. C. Curr Opin Investig Drugs 2001, 2, 250-55; Diaz-Ricart, M. Drugs Future 2008, 33, 101-110; U.S. Pat. No. 5,721,219 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,447). It is being developed as the sodium salt. In light of the medical and therapeutic applications of cangrelor, it is essential that pharmaceutical formulations comprising cangrelor maintain high levels of purity. Formulations comprising cangrelor are compounded formulations, e.g., cangrelor undergoes a compounding process following its synthesis so that it is usable and stable for medical and therapeutic applications. This compounding process typically includes mixing the drug with excipients in a solution, followed by aseptic filtration and lyophilization. Impurities such as, but not exclusively, dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid, N-[2-(methylthio)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid (a product of the hydrolysis of the dichloromethylenebisphosphonate group on cangrelor), its bis(anhydride) with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid, N-[2-(methylsulfinyl)ethyl]-2-[(3,3,3-trifluoropropyl)thio]-5′-adenylic acid monoanhydride with dichloromethylenebisphosphonic acid and 2-(3,3,3-trifluoropropylthio)-N-(2-(methylthio)ethyl)-adenine and others may be generated during the synthesis and the compounding process. These compounds are represented in their neutral form but are generally present as salts. Methods have been developed that minimize the generation of impurities during cangrelor synthesis. However, impurities produced during the compounding process remain problematic. It has been shown that various compounding processes can result in formulations in which a significant proportion of cangrelor has been degraded, which may affect not only product stability and shelf-life, but ultimately the ability to control dosage during administration to patients. In addition, because the pharmacological impact of the degradation products has not been evaluated in clinical settings, it is critical to maintain them to a level at or below the levels used in clinical evaluation. Therefore, development of a compounding process for formulating cangrelor that consistently generates formulations having low levels of impurities is desirable. The invention disclosed herein addresses the need for pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor as the active ingredient and methods for producing the same, where low levels of impurities are consistently achieved and maintained. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to (i) high purity cangrelor, or one or more salts thereof, (ii) pharmaceutical formulations comprising high purity cangrelor, or one or more salts thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, (iii) methods for preparing such compounds and formulations, and (iv) methods for using compounds and the pharmaceutical formulations in the inhibition of platelet activation and aggregation. Thus in one embodiment, the invention relates to high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor (i.e., high purity cangrelor includes (i) cangrelor and (ii) selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the combination of the cangrelor and the degradants). Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the high purity cangrelor is stored in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the high purity cangrelor is stored in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to cangrelor. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a second embodiment, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is a polyol. When present, the polyol is at least one member selected from the group consisting of mannitol and sorbitol. In one aspect, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation comprises about 16-21% of high purity cangrelor, expressed in terms of the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, and about 84-79% of the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, by weight of the pharmaceutical formulation. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation is stored in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation is stored in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to a component of the pharmaceutical formulation. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a third embodiment, the invention relates to a method for preparing high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, thereby preparing high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. In one aspect, the invention relates to a method for preparing high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, consisting of (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, thereby preparing high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pH of the second solution is about 7.0, about 7.5, about 8.0, about 8.5, about 9.0, about 9.5, between about 7.0 and 8.0, between about 7.5 and 8.5, between about 8.0 and 9.0, or between about 8.5 and 9.5. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the first solution. In other aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the first solution to the pH-adjusting agent. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by simultaneous combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the first solution. In some of these aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution in portions. In other aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution at a constant rate. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing is achieved by using one or more mixing devices. When used, the mixing device is selected from the group consisting of a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Alternatively, the mixing device is a homogenizer, a bottom mount magnetic device, a paddle mixer, or a combination thereof. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing is achieved through high shear mixing. In some aspects of this embodiment, removing the solvent (c) is through lyophilization. In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed in the absence of light, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed under a chemically inert gas, in particular nitrogen, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before the removal of the solvent. In one aspect, sterilization is achieved by aseptic filtration. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to cangrelor. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a fourth embodiment, the invention relates to a method for preparing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, thereby preparing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pH of the second solution is about 7.0, about 7.5, about 8.0, about 8.5, about 9.0, about 9.5, between about 7.0 and 8.0, between about 7.5 and 8.5, between about 8.0 and 9.0, or between about 8.5 and 9.5. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the first solution. In other aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the first solution to the pH-adjusting agent. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by simultaneous combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the first solution. In some of these aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution in portions. In other aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution at a constant rate. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing is achieved by using one or more mixing devices. When used, the mixing device is selected from the group consisting of a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Alternatively, the mixing device is a homogenizer, a bottom mount magnetic device, a paddle mixer, or a combination thereof. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing is achieved through high shear mixing. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is a polyol. When present, the polyol is at least one member selected from the group consisting of mannitol and sorbitol. In one aspect, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, and the excipient is added to the first solution. In another aspect, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, and the excipient is added to the second solution. In one aspect, the invention relates to a method for preparing a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, thereby preparing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. In another aspect, the invention relates to a method for preparing a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, consisting of (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both, thereby preparing a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation comprises about 16-21% of high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, and about 84-79% of the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, by weight of the pharmaceutical formulation. In some aspects of this embodiment, removing the solvent (c) is through lyophilization. In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed in the absence of light, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed under a chemically inert gas, including nitrogen, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before the removal of the solvent. In one aspect, sterilization is achieved by aseptic filtration. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the formulation in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the formulation in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to a component of the pharmaceutical formulation. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a fifth embodiment, the invention relates to high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, prepared by a method comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved. In one aspect, the invention relates to high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, prepared by a method consisting of (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pH of the second solution is about 7.0, about 7.5, about 8.0, about 8.5, about 9.0, about 9.5, between about 7.0 and 8.0, between about 7.5 and 8.5, between about 8.0 and 9.0, or between about 8.5 and 9.5. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the first solution. In other aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the first solution to the pH-adjusting agent. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by simultaneous combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the first solution. In some of these aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution in portions. In other aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution at a constant rate. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing is achieved by using one or more mixing devices. When used, the mixing device is selected from the group consisting of a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Alternatively, the mixing device is a homogenizer, a bottom mount magnetic device, a paddle mixer, or a combination thereof. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing is achieved through high shear mixing. In some aspects of this embodiment, removing the solvent (c) is through lyophilization. In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed in the absence of light, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed under nitrogen, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before the removal of the solvent. In one aspect, sterilization is achieved by aseptic filtration. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the high purity cangrelor or salt thereof in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to cangrelor. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a sixth embodiment, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation comprising high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients prepared by a method comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both. High purity cangrelor is cangrelor having a combined total of selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor not exceeding about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. Selected hydrolysis and oxidation degradants of cangrelor are impurity A, impurity B, impurity C, impurity D and impurity E. Thus, in one aspect of this embodiment, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In other aspects, high purity cangrelor of the present invention has a combined impurity level of impurities A, B, C, D and E of less than about 1.4% by weight, less than about 1.3% by weight, less than about 1.2% by weight or less than about 1.0% by weight. In another aspect, the amount of impurity A present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity B present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity C present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.3% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity D present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.2% by weight, and/or the amount of impurity E present in the high purity cangrelor is less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In one aspect, the amount of impurities A and D present in the high purity cangrelor are each less than about 0.5% by weight of the high purity cangrelor. In some aspects of this embodiment, the pH of the second solution is about 7.0, about 7.5, about 8.0, about 8.5, about 9.0, about 9.5, between about 7.0 and 8.0, between about 7.5 and 8.5, between about 8.0 and 9.0, or between about 8.5 and 9.5. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the pH-adjusting agent to the first solution. In other aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by adding the first solution to the pH-adjusting agent. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing of (b) is achieved by simultaneous combination of the pH-adjusting agent and the first solution. In some of these aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution in portions. In other aspects, the pH-adjusting agent is added to the first solution at a constant rate. In some aspects of this embodiment, mixing is achieved by using one or more mixing devices. When used, the mixing device is selected from the group consisting of a paddle mixer, magnetic stirrer, shaker, re-circulating pump, homogenizer, and any combination thereof. Alternatively, the mixing device is a homogenizer, a bottom mount magnetic device, a paddle mixer, or a combination thereof. In further aspects of this embodiment, the mixing is achieved through high shear mixing. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is a polyol. When present, the polyol is at least one member selected from the group consisting of mannitol and sorbitol. In one aspect, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, and the excipient is added to the first solution. In another aspect, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, and the excipient is added to the second solution. In one aspect, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, as a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, prepared by a method comprising (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both. In another aspect, the invention relates to a pharmaceutical formulation consisting of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, as an active ingredient and mannitol or sorbitol, or both mannitol and sorbitol, prepared by a method consisting of (a) dissolving cangrelor or a salt thereof in a solvent to form a first solution; (b) mixing a pH-adjusting agent with the first solution to form a second solution, wherein the pH of the second solution is between about 7.0 and 9.5; and (c) removing the solvent from the second solution to produce high purity cangrelor or a salt thereof under conditions wherein a level of moisture of less than about 2.0% by weight is achieved, wherein the pharmaceutically acceptable excipient is added to the first solution, or to the second solution, or to both. In certain aspects of this embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation comprises about 16-21% of high purity cangrelor, expressed as the free acid but present as the free acid or a salt thereof, and about 84-79% of the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, by weight of the pharmaceutical formulation. In some aspects of this embodiment, removing the solvent (c) is through lyophilization. In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed in the absence of light, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, one or more of the steps is performed under nitrogen, such as the mixing of (b). In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises sterilizing the second solution after the mixing of (b) and before the removal of the solvent. In one aspect, sterilization is achieved by aseptic filtration. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the formulation in a chemically inert dry gas in a sealed vessel. When present, the chemically inert dry gas is nitrogen or argon. In some aspects of this embodiment, the method further comprises storing the formulation in a stoppered, sealed dry vessel, wherein components thereof are sufficiently dried to minimize moisture transfer to a component of the pharmaceutical formulation. In particular aspects, the stoppered, sealed dry vessel is a lyophilization vial stoppered with a stopper dried to minimize its own moisture level. In a seventh embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In an eighth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet granule release, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet granule release. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In a ninth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In a tenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In a eleventh embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet loss from the blood, comprising contacting platelets with an effective amount of a high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet loss from the blood. The method is practiced in vitro, in vivo or ex vivo. In a twelfth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet activation, aggregation, or both, in a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a thirteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet granule release in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet granule release in a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a fourteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-leukocyte aggregation in a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a fifteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet-granulocyte aggregation in a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a sixteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of inhibiting platelet loss from the blood of a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby inhibiting platelet loss from the blood of a subject. In certain aspects, the subject may be undergoing percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) or a catherization technique, or treatment for acute coronary syndromes (ACS) or a clotting disorder in general. In other aspects, the subject is undergoing an ECC-based medical procedure, a hypothermia-based medical procedure, or a hypothermic ECC-based medical procedure. In a seventeenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of treating or preventing stent thrombosis in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby treating or preventing stent thrombosis in a subject. In some aspects of the embodiment, a second anti-thrombotic agent is administered with the pharmaceutical formulation, sequentially or concurrently. In a particular aspect, the second anti-thrombotic agent is bivalirudin. In an eighteenth embodiment, the invention relates to a method of reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent implantation, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent implantation. In some aspects of the embodiment, a second anti-thrombotic agent is administered with the pharmaceutical formulation, sequentially or concurrently. In a particular aspect, the second anti-thrombotic agent is bivalirudin. In a nineteenth embodiment, the invention relates to method of treating or preventing myocardial infarction in a subject, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby treating or preventing myocardial infarction in a subject. In some aspects of the embodiment, a second anti-thrombotic agent is administered with the pharmaceutical formulation, sequentially or concurrently. In a particular aspect, the second anti-thrombotic agent is bivalirudin. In a twentieth embodiment, the invention relates to method of reducing mortality in a subject experiencing myocardial infarction, comprising administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical formulation of the present invention to a subject in need thereof, thereby reducing mortality in a subject experiencing myocardial infarction. In some aspects of the embodiment, a second anti-thrombotic agent is administered with the pharmaceutical formulation, sequentially or concurrently. In a particular aspect, the second anti-thrombotic agent is bivalirudin. In a twenty-first embodiment, the invention relates to a medicament comprising an effective amount of high purity cangrelor, or a salt thereof, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients useful for treating or preventing stent thrombosis, treating or preventing myocardial infarction, reducing mortality in a subject undergoing stent implantation, or reducing mortality in a subject experiencing myocardial infarction. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | A61K317076 | 20170707 | 20171026 | 91655.0 | A61K317076 | 2 | HENLEY III, RAYMOND J | PHARMACEUTICAL FORMULATIONS COMPRISING HIGH PURITY CANGRELOR AND METHODS FOR PREPARING AND USING THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,643,835 | PENDING | PRINTING DEVICE AND CONTROL METHOD OF A PRINTING DEVICE | A printer that partially cuts roll paper to leave an uncut portion prevents paper jams from reversing the roll paper. A printer 1 has a print unit 41 for printing images on roll paper R; a cutter unit 46 disposed downstream in the conveyance direction from the print unit for cutting the roll paper and leaving an uncut portion; a conveyance unit 42 for conveying the roll paper in the conveyance direction or a reverse direction that is the opposite of the conveyance direction; and a controller 40 that executes a reversing process conveying the roll paper in reverse by the conveyance unit 42 when the roll paper is separated from the paper roll at the uncut portion after the cutter unit 46 cuts the roll paper, and not executing the reversing process in specific circumstances in which the roll paper remains connected through the uncut portion. | 1-11. (canceled). 12. A printing device comprising: a print mechanism that prints images on the roll paper stored in the printing device; a cutter disposed downstream in a conveyance direction from the print mechanism and configured to cut the roll paper while leaving an uncut portion; a communicator that receives receipt production control commands, said receipt production control commands instructing issuing a receipt printed with information including transaction information by the print mechanism; and cutting of the roll paper by the cutter; a conveyance mechanism that conveys the roll paper in the conveyance direction or a reverse direction that is opposite to the conveyance direction; and a controller that executes a reversing process that conveys the roll paper in the reverse direction by the conveyance mechanism if the receipt is separated from the roll paper at the uncut portion after the roll paper is cut by the cutter, and does not execute the reversing process in a specific situation when the receipt remains partially connected to the roll paper through the uncut portion. 13. The printing device described in claim 12, further comprising: the specific situation being a situation other than when the controller causes the print mechanism to print images and the cutter to cut the roll paper based on the receipt production control commands received by the communicator. 14. The printing device described in claim 12, further comprising: a cover that opens and closes an opening to a storage compartment holding the roll paper, and a cover detection sensor that detects the cover; the controller executing an automatic cutting process to cut the roll paper by the cutter after conveying the roll paper in the conveyance direction by the conveyance mechanism when the cover detection sensor detects that the cover is closed; and the specific situation being a situation in which the cover detection sensor detects that the cover is closed and an automatic cutting process was executed by the controller after a specific event occurred. 15. The printing device described in claim 14, further comprising: a paper detector that detects the roll paper; the specific event being a situation in which the paper detector detects that there is no roll paper during conveyance by the conveyance mechanism. 16. The printing device described in claim 14, wherein the conveyance mechanism is configured to convey the roll paper by holding the roll paper between a thermal head and a platen roller; and the specific event is a situation in which the cover detection sensor detects that the cover is open during conveyance by the conveyance mechanism. 17. The printing device described in claim 12, wherein: the specific situation is a situation in which unprocessed receipt production control commands are stored in volatile memory when the controller causes images to be printed by the print mechanism and then causes the roll paper to be cut by the cutter based on one receipt production control command. 18. A control method of a printing device comprising a print mechanism that prints images on roll paper stored in the printer, a cutter disposed downstream in a conveyance direction from the print mechanism and configured to cut the roll paper while leaving an uncut portion, a communicator that receives receipt production control commands instructing issuing a receipt printed with information including transaction information by the print mechanism and cutting the roll paper by the cutter, and a conveyance mechanism that conveys the roll paper in the conveyance direction or a reverse direction that is the opposite conveyance direction; the control method comprising: executing a reversing process of conveying the roll paper in the reverse direction by the conveyance mechanism if the receipt is separated from the roll paper at the uncut portion after the roll paper is cut by the cutter, and not executing the reversing process in a specific situation in which the receipt remains partially connected to the roll paper through the uncut portion. 19. The control method of a printing device described in claim 18, the specific situation being a situation other than when the print mechanism prints an image and the cutter cuts the roll paper based on one of the received receipt production control commands. 20. The control method of a printing device described in claim 18, wherein the specific situation being detecting that a cover configured to open and close an opening to a storage compartment holding the roll paper is closed, the conveyance mechanism conveying the roll paper in the conveyance direction, and further indicating an automatic cutting process in which the cutter cuts the roll paper executing after a specific event occurred. 21. The control method of a printing device described in claim 20, wherein the specific event is detecting there is no roll paper during conveyance by the conveyance mechanism. 22. The control method of a printing device described in claim 20, wherein the specific event is detecting the cover is open during conveyance by the conveyance mechanism. | Priority is claimed under 35 U.S.C. §119 to Japanese Application no. 2015-159848 filed on Aug. 13, 2015, which is hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND 1. Technical Field The present disclosure relates to a printing device and a control method of a printing device. 2. Related Art Printing devices (printers) that have a print unit and a cutting unit (cutter), and convey roll paper in reverse of the normal conveyance direction to reposition the paper after cutting the roll paper (recording paper) with the cutter are known from the literature. See, for example, JP-A-2011-079215. In addition to positioning the paper, conveying the roll paper in reverse after cutting with the cutter is also used in this type of printer to reduce the size of the top margin resulting from the distance between the printing position of the print unit and the cutting position of the cutter. Some printers only partially cut the roll paper to leave an uncut connector. If the roll paper is reversed as described in JP-A-2011-079215 in this type of printer without first tearing off the cut portion of the roll paper after the roll paper is cut, the portion that was cut may catch in the paper path and cause a paper jam. A process preventing such paper jams is therefore required. SUMMARY An objective of the present disclosure is to prevent paper jams resulting from reversing roll paper in a printing device that partially cuts roll paper. To achieve the foregoing objective, a printing device able to store roll paper according to the disclosure has a print mechanism that prints images on the roll paper; a cutter disposed downstream in the conveyance direction from the print mechanism and configured to partially cut the roll paper and leave an uncut portion; a conveyance mechanism that conveys the roll paper in the conveyance direction or a reverse direction that is the opposite of the conveyance direction; and a controller that executes a reversing process conveying the roll paper in the reverse direction by the conveyance mechanism if the roll paper is separated from the roll paper at the uncut portion after the roll paper is cut by the cutter, and not executing the reversing process in a specific situation in which the roll paper may remain partially connected through the uncut portion. This aspect of the disclosure prevents paper jams resulting from conveyance in the reverse direction in a printer that cuts the roll paper to leave an uncut portion. A printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure also has a communicator that receives control commands instructing printing by the print mechanism and cutting by the cutter; the specific situation being a situation other than when the controller causes the print mechanism to print images and the cutter to cut the roll paper based on the control commands received by the communicator. This aspect of the disclosure reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. A printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure also has a cover that opens and closes the opening to a storage compartment holding the roll paper, and a cover detection sensor that detects the cover. The controller executes an automatic cutting process to cut the roll paper by the cutter after conveying the roll paper in the conveyance direction by the conveyance mechanism when the cover detection sensor detects that the cover closed; and the specific situation is that the cover detection sensor detects that the cover closed and the automatic cutting process was executed by the controller after a specific event occurred. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. A printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure also has a paper detector that detects the roll paper; and the specific event is the paper detector detecting there is no roll paper during conveyance by the conveyance mechanism. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. In a printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure, the conveyance mechanism is configured to convey the roll paper by holding the roll paper between a thermal head and a platen roller; and the specific event is the cover detection sensor detecting the cover is open during conveyance by the conveyance mechanism. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. A printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure also has a communicator configured to receive control commands instructing printing by the print mechanism and cutting by the cutter; and the specific situation is that other unprocessed control commands are stored in volatile memory when the controller prints images by the print mechanism and then cuts the roll paper by the cutter based on one control command. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. Another aspect of the disclosure is a control method of a printing device that is able to store roll paper and has a print mechanism that prints images on the roll paper, a cutter disposed downstream in the conveyance direction from the print mechanism and cutting the roll paper while leaving an uncut portion, and a conveyance mechanism that conveys the roll paper in the conveyance direction or a reverse direction that is the opposite of the conveyance direction; the control method including executing a reversing process of conveying the roll paper in the reverse direction by the conveyance mechanism if the roll paper is separated from the roll paper at the uncut portion after the roll paper is cut by the cutter, and not executing the reversing process in a specific situation in which the roll paper may remain partially connected through the uncut portion. This aspect of the disclosure prevents paper jams resulting from conveyance in the reverse direction in a printer that cuts the roll paper to leave an uncut portion. Other objects and attainments together with a fuller understanding of the disclosure will become apparent and appreciated by referring to the following description and claims taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a POS terminal according to a preferred embodiment of the disclosure. FIG. 2 illustrates the internal configuration of a printer. FIG. 3 illustrates a partial cut. FIG. 4 is a block diagram of the functional configuration of the printer and host computer. FIGS. 5A and 5B are flow charts of the operation of the host computer and printer. FIG. 6 is a flow chart of the operation of the printer. FIGS. 7A-7C describe the reverse conveyance process. FIG. 8 is a flow chart of the operation of the printer. FIG. 9 is a flow chart of the operation of the printer. FIG. 10 is a flow chart of the operation of the printer. DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS A preferred embodiment of the present disclosure is described below with reference to the accompanying figures. FIG. 1 illustrates the configuration of a POS terminal 3 according to a preferred embodiment of the disclosure. The POS terminal 3 is installed at the checkout counter in a retail store such as a supermarket or convenience store, or in a restaurant or bar, for example, and produces sales receipts. As shown in FIG. 1, the POS terminal 3 includes a host computer 2 that runs a transaction process for each sale, and a printer 1 that connects to the host computer 2 and produces receipts as controlled by the host computer 2. As shown in FIG. 1, the host computer 2 has a display for displaying transaction-related information, a barcode scanner 6 for reading barcodes on products or product packaging, a keyboard 7 with various keys, and a cash drawer 8 for storing money. A POS server 9 that stores a product master relating product code, price, and other information for each product, and a customer master storing customer-related information, connects to the host computer 2. To produce a receipt, the host computer 2 appropriately accesses the POS server 9 and acquires the information needed to produce a receipt based on input from the barcode scanner 6 and keyboard 7. Next, the host computer 2 generates and sends to the printer 1 control commands instructing executing processes related to producing a receipt. The printer 1 then produces a receipt based on the control commands received from the host computer 2. As shown in FIG. 1, the printer 1 has a box-like case 10. Inside the case 10 is a compartment 20 (FIG. 2) for storing a roll of roll paper R. A power switch 12 for turning the printer 1 power on/off is disposed to the front 10a of the case 10. A paper exit 11 from which the roll paper R stored in the compartment 20 of the printer 1 is discharged is disposed in the top 10b of the case 10. A panel 13 is also disposed on the top 10b of the case 10. A push-button automatic feed switch 14 that commands conveying the roll paper R is included in the panel 13. While the feed switch 14 is depressed, the roll paper R is automatically conveyed in the conveyance direction H1 (FIG. 2) . An LED display unit 15 is also disposed to the panel 13. The LED display unit 15 has multiple LEDs, and the operating mode of the printer 1, errors, and other information related to the printer 1 are indicated by driving the LEDs on/off in specific patterns. Near the panel 13 is a lever 16 for opening the cover 18. Depressing the lever 16 when the cover 18 is closed releases and allows the cover 18 to open from the closed position. The cover 18 is a member that opens and closes the opening for loading and removing roll paper R in the storage compartment 20 inside the case 10. FIG. 2 schematically describes the internal configuration of the printer 1. Below, the rolled portion of the roll paper R housed in the storage compartment 20 is referred to as the paper roll, and the portion that has been pulled off the paper roll is referred to as the conveyed roll paper. In the printer 1, the conveyed roll paper is unrolled and conveyed in the conveyance direction H1 from the paper roll stored in the storage compartment 20. As shown in FIG. 2, downstream in the conveyance direction H1 from the storage compartment 20 are a platen roller 23 and opposing thermal head 24. The platen roller 23 holds the conveyed roll paper with the thermal head 24 and rotates in the direction of arrow Y2 to convey the conveyed roll paper in the conveyance direction H1. The thermal head 24 forms dots by means of heat elements and prints images on the conveyed roll paper as the paper is conveyed in the conveyance direction H1. As also shown in FIG. 2, a cutter unit 28 is disposed downstream in the conveyance direction H1 from the platen roller 23 and thermal head 24. The cutter unit 28 moves a movable knife in related to a fixed knife and cuts the conveyed roll paper by these knives crossing. The cutter unit 28 in this embodiment of the disclosure does not make a full cut completely cutting the roll paper R, and instead makes a partial cut that leaves an uncut portion R1 (FIG. 3) in the roll paper R. FIG. 3 shows the cut portion of the roll paper R cut by the cutter unit 28. As shown in FIG. 3, when the roll paper R is cut by the cutter unit 28, the roll paper R is not completely cut, and instead is cut leaving an uncut portion R1. Even after the roll paper R is cut by the cutter unit 28, the roll paper R on the case 10 side of the uncut portion R1 (the upstream side in the conveyance direction H1), and the roll paper R (referred to below as the printed portion of the roll paper) on the opposite side of the case 10 as the uncut portion R1 (the downstream side in the conveyance direction H1), remain partially connected by the uncut portion R1. As a result, when the roll paper R is cut by the cutter unit 28 to produce a receipt, the receipt (printed portion of the roll paper) will not fall out of the paper exit 11, the risk of losing the receipt is decreased, and the uncut portion R1 can be easily torn off and given to the customer. Note that the form of the uncut portion R1 is not limited to the example shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating the functional configuration of the printer 1 and the host computer 2 that controls the printer 1. As shown in FIG. 4, the printer 1 has a controller 40, print unit 41 (print mechanism), conveyance unit 42 (conveyance mechanism), storage unit 43, communication unit 44 (communicator), input unit 45 (switch), cutter 46, cover sensor 47 (cover detector), and no-paper detection sensor 48 (paper detector). The controller 40 comprises a CPU, ROM, RAM (volatile memory), and other peripheral circuits, and controls the printer 1 by the CPU reading and running a control program, for example. The print unit 41 includes the thermal head 24, a drive circuit that drives the thermal head 24, and other mechanism related to printing on roll paper, and prints images on the roll paper R as controlled by the controller 40. The conveyance unit 42 includes the platen roller 23, a conveyance motor that drives the platen roller 23, a motor driver that drives the conveyance motor, and other mechanism related to conveying the roll paper R, and conveys the roll paper R as controlled by the controller 40. The storage unit 43 is EEPROM or other nonvolatile memory, and stores data. The storage unit 43 also stores a configuration file. The communication unit 44 includes a communication module compatible with a communication protocol such as USB or RS-232, and other mechanisms related to communicating with other external devices (host computer 2), and communicates according to a specific communication protocol as controlled by the controller 40. Note that communication with external devices may be by wire or wirelessly. Received control commands and data are temporarily stored in RAM. The input unit 45 is connected to the power switch 12, feed switch 14, and other operating switches, detects operation of the operating switches, and outputs to the controller 40. The controller 40 executes processes corresponding to the operation of the operating switches based on input from the input unit 45. The cutter 46 includes the cutter unit 28, a cutter motor that moves the movable knife of the cutter unit 28, a motor driver that drives the cutter motor, and other mechanisms related to cutting the roll paper R, and cuts the roll paper R as controlled by the controller 40. The cover sensor 47 is a sensor that outputs a different value depending on whether the cover 18 is open or closed. If the cover 18 is open, the cover sensor 47 outputs a signal value indicating that the cover 18 is open to the controller 40, and if the cover 18 is closed, outputs a signal value indicating that the cover 18 is closed to the controller 40. The controller 40 detects if the cover 18 is open or closed based on the value input from the cover sensor 47. The no-paper detection sensor 48 detects if roll paper is present. The no-paper detection sensor 48 detecting there is no roll paper R is referred to below as a no-paper state. The no-paper detection sensor 48 outputs a different signal value to the controller 40 depending on whether or not there is roll paper. The no-paper detection sensor 48 outputs a different value according to whether or not the amount of roll paper R in the storage compartment 20 exceeds a specific amount indicating that the roll paper R is near the no-paper state. The amount of roll paper R left being less than this specific value is considered a no-paper state. If the amount of roll paper R left exceeds this specific amount, the no-paper detection sensor 48 outputs a signal of a value indicating that the remaining amount of roll paper R exceeds the specific amount to the controller 40, and if the amount of roll paper R left does not exceed this specific amount, the no-paper detection sensor 48 outputs a signal of a value indicating that the remaining amount of roll paper R does not exceed the specific amount to the controller 40. Based on the value input from the no-paper detection sensor 48, the controller 40 detects whether or not there is no paper. As shown in FIG. 4, the host computer 2 has a host controller 50, host input unit 51, host display unit 52, host storage unit 53, and host communication unit 54 (host communicator). The host controller 50 includes a CPU, ROM, RAM, and other peripheral circuits, and controls the host computer 2 by the CPU reading and running a control program, for example. The host input unit 51 includes input means such as a barcode scanner 6, keyboard 7, and operating switches on the host computer 2, detects input from the input means, and outputs to the controller 40. The controller 40 executes processes corresponding to the input from the input means based on the input from the host input unit 51. The host display unit 52 includes a display 5, and displays images on the display 5 as controlled by the host controller 50. The unit host storage unit 53 has nonvolatile memory, and stores data. The host communication unit 54 communicates with the printer 1 according to a specific communication protocol as controlled by the host controller 50. The host communication unit 54 communicates with the POS server 9 according to a specific communication protocol as controlled by the host controller 50. Operation of the printer 1 is described next. FIG. 5 is a flow chart of the operation of the host computer 2 when producing a receipt for a transaction together with the operation of the printer 1. FIG. 5A shows the operation of the host computer 2, and FIG. 5B shows the operation of the printer 1. As shown in FIG. 5A, the host controller 50 of the host computer 2 executes a transaction process during a transaction at the checkout counter (step SA1). More specifically, the checkout clerk at the checkout counter reads the barcode from each product purchased by the customer in the transaction with the barcode scanner 6. The product code for the corresponding product is recorded in the barcode. The host input unit 51 outputs data indicating the product code based on the result of reading with the barcode scanner 6 to the host controller 50, and the host controller 50 acquires the product code of the product based on the data input from the host input unit 51. The host controller 50 appropriately accesses the POS server 9, and based on the acquired product code acquires the product price, name, and other product-related information. Based on the acquired product-related information, the host controller 50 executes processes of displaying the transaction-related information on the display 5 and calculating the transaction total. When reading the barcodes of all products is completed, the checkout clerk uses the keyboard 7 to enter the transaction, receive payment from the customer, and return change to the customer, for example. The host controller 50 appropriately displays the total of the products purchased by the customer, the amount received from the customer, and the amount of change due to the customer on the display 5. The host controller 50 also appropriately controls the cash drawer 8 to open the tray of the cash drawer 8. When making change for the customer is completed, the checkout clerk operates the keyboard 7 to finalize the transaction. This completes the transaction process. When the transaction process ends, the host controller 50 acquires the transaction information (step SA2). The transaction information is information including the information printed on the receipt, such as identification information uniquely assigned to each transaction; information indicating the combination of product code, product name, price, and quantity for each product purchased by the customer; information indicating the total purchase amount; information indicating the amount received from the customer; information indicating the amount of change returned to the customer; and information indicating the time of the transaction. Next, the host controller 50 generates control commands instructing producing a receipt (referred to below as receipt production control commands) based on the acquired transaction information (step SA3). The receipt production control commands are control commands in the command language of the printer 1, and instruct issuing a receipt printed with information including the transaction information in a specific layout. Next, the host controller 50 controls the host communication unit 54 to send the generated receipt production control commands to the printer 1 (step SA4). As shown in FIG. 5B, the controller 40 of the printer 1 controls the communication unit 44 to receive the receipt production control commands (step SB1). Next, the controller 40 stores the received receipt production control commands in a receive buffer (RAM, volatile memory) (step SB2). The host computer 2 executes the transaction process as described above each time a transaction is made, and sends receipt production control commands instructing producing a receipt to the printer 1. The printer 1 sequentially stores the receipt production control commands received from the host computer 2 in the receive buffer. FIG. 6 is a flow chart of the operation of the printer 1 when producing a receipt. As shown in FIG. 6, the controller 40 of the printer 1 monitors if there are any receipt production control commands that have not been processed in the receive buffer (step SC1). There will be unprocessed receipt production control commands in the receive buffer if a receipt based on the receipt production control commands has not been produced after the receipt production control commands are stored in the receive buffer as described above. If unprocessed receipt production control commands are in the receive buffer (step SC1: YES), the controller 40 determines if a backfeed reservation flag is on (step SC2). The backfeed reservation flag is a flag used for determining whether to execute the reversing process before printing an image (producing a receipt). The backfeed reservation flag is on if the reversing process is to be executed, and is off if the reversing process is not to be executed. As will be understood below, the backfeed reservation flag is off if the roll paper R has been cut by the cutter 46, but the printed portion of the roll paper (FIG. 3) has not been torn off and may still be connected to the roll paper R by the uncut portion R1. If the backfeed reservation flag is on (step SC2: YES), the controller 40 executes the reversing process (step SC3) . This process is described below. FIG. 7 is used to describe the reversing process. In FIG. 7 position T1 indicates the position where dots are formed by the thermal head 24 (the position of the heat elements), and position T2 indicates the position where the roll paper R is cut by the cutter unit 28 (the location of the knives). As described above, the cutter unit 28 is downstream in the conveyance direction H1 from the thermal head 24, and position T2 is therefore downstream in the conveyance direction H1 from position T1. As will be understood below, if the backfeed reservation flag is on, the user has torn off the printed portion of the roll paper after the last time the roll paper R was cut by the cutter 46. Therefore, when the reversing process starts in step SC3, the relationship between the roll paper R, position T1, and position T2 is as shown in FIG. 7A. More specifically, the leading end Ra of the roll paper R is at position T2. If image printing starts from the position shown in FIG. 7A, the area where dots are formed on the roll paper R will be on the reverse direction H2, which is the opposite of the conveyance direction H1, side of position T1. In this event, a top margin of at least length Q1 results from the difference between the thermal head 24 (position T1) and the cutter unit 28 (position T2). The reversing process is a process that is executed to reduce the top margin that results from the distance between the thermal head 24 (position T1) and the cutter unit 28 (position T2) . More specifically, the reversing process conveys the roll paper R a specific distance in reverse direction H2 from the position shown in FIG. 7A to the position shown in FIG. 7C where the leading end Ra of the roll paper R is on the conveyance direction H1 side of the position T1. As a result, the top margin is reduced at least to a margin of length Q2. By reducing the top margin, roll paper R can be saved and cost can be reduced by saving roll paper R. In the reversing process of step SC3, the controller 40 controls the conveyance unit 42 to convey the roll paper R a specific distance in the reverse direction H2. After the reversing process, the controller 40 turns the backfeed reservation flag off (step SC4), and control goes to step SC5. However, if in step SC2 the backfeed reservation flag is off (step SC2: NO), the controller 40 goes directly to step SC5. In this event, the reversing process is not executed before starting the process of producing a receipt based on the receipt production control commands. As described above, the backfeed reservation flag is a flag that is off when the printed portion of the roll paper (FIG. 3) has not been torn off after the roll paper R is cut with the cutter 46 and remains connected to the roll paper R through the uncut portion R1. The reversing process is therefore not executed in this embodiment when the printed portion of the roll paper may still be connected through the uncut portion R1. This has the following effect. Specifically, if the roll paper R is conveyed on the reverse direction H2 while the printed portion of the roll paper is connected through the uncut portion R1, the printed portion of the roll paper will contact the paper exit 11, cutter unit 28, and other members along the conveyance path, and the roll paper R may become jammed. By not executing the reversing process when the printed portion of the roll paper is connected through the uncut portion R1, the roll paper R can be prevented from becoming jammed. In step SC5, the controller 40 reads the receipt production control commands stored in the receive buffer. Next, the controller 40 controls the print unit 41, conveyance unit 42, and other mechanism related to printing based on the receipt production control commands that were read, and prints receipt-related images on the roll paper R while conveying the roll paper R in the conveyance direction H1 (step SC6). After printing the receipt-related images, the controller 40 cuts the roll paper R with the cutter 46 based on the receipt production control commands that were read (step SC7). The roll paper R is cut while leaving an uncut portion R1 as described above. When the roll paper R is cut, the user (in this example, the checkout clerk) tears the issued receipt (the printed portion of the roll paper) from the roll paper R stored in the printer 1. The receipt is given to the customer that purchased the products in the transaction. The checkout clerk therefore tears off the receipt and hands it to the customer soon after the roll paper R is cut. During the time until the next receipt is produced, the same checkout clerk normally reads the barcodes of products a customer purchases with the barcode scanner 6. Because the checkout clerk can simply pull off the issued receipt during this time, there is plenty of time. Because the receipt is normally given to the customer, a printed receipt is normally removed before the next receipt is issued. Next, the controller 40 turns the backfeed reservation flag on (step SC8). After step SC8, the controller 40 returns to step SC1. In another example, if other unprocessed receipt production control commands have already been stored in the receive buffer at the time producing a receipt based on one set of receipt production control commands is completed, there is no need for the reversing process to execute before printing a receipt based on the unprocessed receipt production control commands. The reason for this is described next. Specifically if other unprocessed receipt production control commands have already been stored in the receive buffer at the time producing a receipt based on one set of receipt production control commands is completed, printing a receipt based on the unprocessed receipt production control commands starts soon after producing a receipt based on the first set of receipt production control commands is completed. Therefore, the time between when producing a receipt based on a first set of receipt production control commands ends and when producing the next receipt based on the unprocessed receipt production control commands starts is short. Because this time is short, the user (checkout clerk) may have not been able to tear off the receipt (printed portion of the roll paper) before producing the next receipt based on the unprocessed receipt production control commands starts after producing a receipt based on a first set of receipt production control commands ends. As described above, however, each transaction involves reading barcodes, inputting information related to the transaction, and exchanging money between the checkout clerk and customer. The time between when the host computer 2 sends receipt production control commands based on one transaction, and when the host computer 2 sends receipt production control commands based on the transaction following the first transaction, is therefore much longer than the time required for the process of producing a receipt based on the receipt production control commands. As a result, it is rare in actual practice that unprocessed receipt production control commands will be stored in the receive buffer in step SC8. Next, the operation of the printer 1 when producing a receipt based on receipt production control commands (during printing by the print unit 41 and paper conveyance by the conveyance unit 42) is described next. FIG. 8 is a flow chart of the operation of the printer 1. As shown in FIG. 8, the controller 40 of the printer 1 starts printing receipt-related images and conveying the roll paper R in conjunction with printing based on the receipt production control commands read from the receive buffer (step SD1). After starting printing (after starting conveyance for printing), the controller 40 monitors if printing images based on the receipt production control commands has ended (step SD4) while monitoring if a no-paper state has occurred (step SD2), and if the cover 18 is open (step SD3). In step SD2, the controller 40 monitors if a no-paper state has occurred based on input from the no-paper detection sensor 48. In step SD3, the controller 40 monitors if the cover 18 has moved from closed to open based on input from the cover sensor 47. If the cover 18 has moved from closed to open in this embodiment, the roll paper R is released by the thermal head 24 and platen roller 23. Printing images on the roll paper R is therefore not possible if the cover 18 is open. Printing is also disabled by the no-paper detection sensor 48 if a no-paper state occurs. If a no-paper state is not detected (step SD2: NO), the cover 18 has not opened (step SD3:NO), and image printing has been completed (step SD4: YES), the controller 40 cuts the roll paper R based on the receipt production control commands (step SD5). Next, the controller 40 turns a prohibit backfeed flag off (step SD6). As will be understood below, a prohibit backfeed flag is a flag for determining whether to turn the backfeed reservation flag on or off after the automatic cutting process, which executes automatically when the cover 18 goes from open to closed. If the prohibit backfeed flag is on, the backfeed reservation flag is turned off, and if the prohibit backfeed flag is off, the backfeed reservation flag is turned on. The controller 40 ends the process after step SD6. If a no-paper state is detected (step SD2: YES) or the cover 18 opens (step SD3: YES) before image printing is completed (step SD4: NO), the controller 40 sets the prohibit backfeed flag on (step SD7). Next, the controller 40 stops printing based on the receipt production control commands (stops conveyance in conjunction with printing) (step SD8), and ends the process. This is because printing (conveyance) cannot continue if a no-paper state occurs while printing (during conveyance), or if the cover 18 opens while printing. The operation of the printer 1 when the cover 18 moves from open to closed is described next. FIG. 9 is a flow chart of the operation of the printer 1 when the cover 18 moves from open to closed. As shown in FIG. 9, based on input from the cover sensor 47, the controller 40 of the printer 1 determines if the cover 18 moved from open to closed (step SE1). If movement of the cover 18 from open to closed is detected (step SE1: YES), the controller 40 executes the automatic cutting process (step SE2). In the automatic cutting process of step SE2, the controller 40 causes the conveyance unit 42 to convey the roll paper R in the conveyance direction H1 a distance sufficient for the leading end Ra of the roll paper R to pass the cutting position of the cutter unit 28 in the conveyance direction H1, and then cuts the roll paper R with the cutter 46. This automatic cutting process is an example of an indexing (positioning) process. The automatic cutting process of step SE2 executes automatically when the cover 18 closes. As a result, for example, if the roll paper R is replaced while the cover 18 is open and the cover 18 is then closed, the automatic cutting process executes and image printing can start from an appropriate position in relation to the leading end Ra of the roll paper R. Next, the controller 40 determines if the prohibit backfeed flag is on (step SE3). If the prohibit backfeed flag is on (step SE3: YES), the controller 40 sets the backfeed reservation flag off (step SE4). Next, the controller 40 turns the prohibit backfeed flag off (step SE6), and ends the process. In this case, the next time a receipt is produced based on the receipt production control commands, the backfeed reservation flag is off and the reversing process does not execute. However, if the prohibit backfeed flag is off (step SE3: NO), the controller 40 sets the backfeed reservation flag on (step SE5). Next, the controller 40 ends the process. In this case, the next time a receipt is produced based on the receipt production control commands, the backfeed reservation flag is ib and the reversing process executes. The reason for step SE3, step SE4, and step SE5 is described next. If the prohibit backfeed flag is on at the start of step SE3, the printer 1 is in one of the following states. Specifically, either a no-paper state was detected while producing a receipt (during printing and during conveyance for printing) and receipt printing stopped, the cover 18 then opened, the roll paper R was replaced, and the cover 18 closed again; or the cover 18 opened while producing a receipt (during printing and during conveyance for printing) and receipt printing stopped, and the cover 18 closed again. In either event, because the receipt that was being printed is not completed, printing the receipt is expected to continue after the cover 18 closes. This is because a normal receipt must be given to the customer. Note that the host computer 2 has a function for sending the receipt production control commands to reprint a receipt to the printer 1 when reprinting a receipt is commanded. Because the receipt is reprinted immediately after the cover 18 closes, the time between the automatic cutting process executed by the cover 18 closing and the start of reprinting the receipt is short. As a result, after the roll paper R is cut by the automatic cutting process, reprinting the receipt may start without the user (checkout clerk) tearing off the printed portion of the roll paper produced by the automatic cutting process. If the prohibit backfeed flag is on, the backfeed reservation flag is therefore off. This prevents the reversing process from executing when a receipt is reprinted after the cover 18 closes, and prevents paper jams. As described above, a printer 1 according to this embodiment has a print unit 41 for printing on roll paper R; a cutter 46 disposed downstream in the conveyance direction H1 from the print unit 41 for cutting the roll paper R and leaving an uncut portion R1; a conveyance unit 42 for conveying the roll paper R in the conveyance direction H1 or a reverse direction H2 that is the opposite of the conveyance direction H1; and a controller 40 that executes a reversing process conveying the roll paper R in the reverse direction H2 by the conveyance unit 42 after cutting the roll paper R with the cutter 46, and not executing the reversing process in specific circumstances in which the roll paper R may remain partially connected through the uncut portion R1. This configuration prevents paper jams resulting from conveyance in the reverse direction H2 in a printer 1 that cuts the roll paper R and leaves an uncut portion R1. Furthermore, when the controller 40 detects that the cover 18 closed, it executes an automatic cutting process of conveying the roll paper R in the conveyance direction H1 by means of the conveyance unit 42, and then cutting the roll paper R with the cutter 46. If the roll paper R decreases to a no-paper state while printing with the print unit 41, printing stops, the cover 18 is then detected to close and the automatic cutting process executes, the controller 40 does not execute the reversing process before next starting to print. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while the printed portion of the roll paper is still connected, and prevents paper jams. If the cover 18 opens while printing with the print unit 41, printing stops, the cover 18 closing is then detected, and the automatic cutting process executes, the controller 40 does not execute the reversing process before next starting to print. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while the printed portion of the roll paper is still connected, and prevents paper jams. In addition, if an image is printed by the print unit 41 based on receipt production control commands (control commands) for one receipt, and unprocessed receipt production control commands for another receipt are already buffered when the roll paper R is cut by the cutter 46, the controller 40 does not execute the reversing process before printing based on the unprocessed receipt production control commands for another receipt. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while the printed portion of the roll paper is still connected, and prevents paper jams. Other Examples Another example is described below. The printer 1 in the first embodiment described above is configured to not execute the reversing process if unprocessed receipt production control commands for another receipt are already stored in the receive buffer when processing based on the receipt production control commands for one receipt ends, or if printing stops (conveyance stops) due to specific reasons while printing, the cover 18 then closes and the automatic cutting process is then executed. In another example, however, the printer 1 may execute the following process instead of the processes shown in FIG. 6, FIG. 8, and FIG. 9. FIG. 10 is a flow chart of the operation of the printer 1 in this example. As shown in FIG. 10, the controller 40 of the printer 1 monitors if unprocessed receipt production control commands are stored in the receive buffer (step SF1). If unprocessed receipt production control commands are stored in the receive buffer (step SF1: YES), the controller 40 determines if the last time the roll paper R was cut was based on a control command received from the host computer 2 (step SF2). As described above, the controller 40 causes cutting the roll paper R at least when a control command (a receipt production control commands in the above example) is received from the host computer 2, and when the automatic cutting process is executed in conjunction with the cover 18 closing. The controller 40 may also cause cutting the roll paper R at other times, such as when a self-diagnostic test is run (a process of printing information related to the printer 1, such as the operating mode and firmware version, to roll paper R and then cutting the roll paper R in response to a user command). If the last time the roll paper R was cut was in response to a control command received from the host computer 2 (step SF2: YES), the controller 40 executes the reversing process (step SF3). Next, the controller 40 goes to step SF5. If the last time the roll paper R was cut was not in response to a control command received from the host computer 2 (step SF2: NO), the controller 40 goes to step SF5 without executing the reversing process (step SF4). This example thus executes the reversing process when cutting is based on a receipt production control command (control command) received from the host computer 2, and otherwise does not execute the reversing process. The reason for this is described next. Specifically, when the roll paper R is cut based on a receipt production control commands, the checkout clerk tears off the receipt (printed portion of the roll paper) after cutting to give the receipt to the customer. As a result, the printed portion of the roll paper is not connected to the roll paper R when the reversing process starts. Otherwise, the printed portion of the roll paper may still be connected to the roll paper R, and by not executing the cutting process, processing is simplified, ease of development is improved, and processing efficiency is good. In step SF5, the controller 40 reads the receipt production control commands stored in the receive buffer. Next, the controller 40 controls the print unit 41, conveyance unit 42, and other mechanism related to printing based on the receipt production control commands that were read, and prints receipt-related images on the roll paper R while conveying the roll paper R in the conveyance direction H1 (step SF6). After printing the receipt-related images, the controller 40 cuts the roll paper R with the cutter 46 based on the receipt production control commands that were read (step SF7). Next, the controller 40 returns to step SF1. The disclosure is described above with reference to a preferred embodiment thereof, but the disclosure is not limited thereto and can be modified and adapted in many ways without departing from the scope of the accompanying claims. For example, the printer 1 is described as a device for printing receipts, but the device of the disclosure is not limited to devices that produce receipts. More specifically, the disclosure can be applied to devices with functions for printing on roll paper R, and cutting the roll paper R to leave an uncut portion R1. The function blocks described with reference to the figures can be desirably embodied by hardware and software, and do not suggest a specific hardware configuration. The disclosure being thus described, it will be obvious that it may be varied in many ways. Such variations are not to be regarded as a departure from the spirit and scope of the disclosure, and all such modifications as would be obvious to one skilled in the art are intended to be included within the scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>An objective of the present disclosure is to prevent paper jams resulting from reversing roll paper in a printing device that partially cuts roll paper. To achieve the foregoing objective, a printing device able to store roll paper according to the disclosure has a print mechanism that prints images on the roll paper; a cutter disposed downstream in the conveyance direction from the print mechanism and configured to partially cut the roll paper and leave an uncut portion; a conveyance mechanism that conveys the roll paper in the conveyance direction or a reverse direction that is the opposite of the conveyance direction; and a controller that executes a reversing process conveying the roll paper in the reverse direction by the conveyance mechanism if the roll paper is separated from the roll paper at the uncut portion after the roll paper is cut by the cutter, and not executing the reversing process in a specific situation in which the roll paper may remain partially connected through the uncut portion. This aspect of the disclosure prevents paper jams resulting from conveyance in the reverse direction in a printer that cuts the roll paper to leave an uncut portion. A printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure also has a communicator that receives control commands instructing printing by the print mechanism and cutting by the cutter; the specific situation being a situation other than when the controller causes the print mechanism to print images and the cutter to cut the roll paper based on the control commands received by the communicator. This aspect of the disclosure reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. A printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure also has a cover that opens and closes the opening to a storage compartment holding the roll paper, and a cover detection sensor that detects the cover. The controller executes an automatic cutting process to cut the roll paper by the cutter after conveying the roll paper in the conveyance direction by the conveyance mechanism when the cover detection sensor detects that the cover closed; and the specific situation is that the cover detection sensor detects that the cover closed and the automatic cutting process was executed by the controller after a specific event occurred. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. A printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure also has a paper detector that detects the roll paper; and the specific event is the paper detector detecting there is no roll paper during conveyance by the conveyance mechanism. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. In a printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure, the conveyance mechanism is configured to convey the roll paper by holding the roll paper between a thermal head and a platen roller; and the specific event is the cover detection sensor detecting the cover is open during conveyance by the conveyance mechanism. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. A printing device according to another aspect of the disclosure also has a communicator configured to receive control commands instructing printing by the print mechanism and cutting by the cutter; and the specific situation is that other unprocessed control commands are stored in volatile memory when the controller prints images by the print mechanism and then cuts the roll paper by the cutter based on one control command. This configuration reliably prevents the reversing process from executing while roll paper is still connected through the uncut portion, and prevents paper jams. Another aspect of the disclosure is a control method of a printing device that is able to store roll paper and has a print mechanism that prints images on the roll paper, a cutter disposed downstream in the conveyance direction from the print mechanism and cutting the roll paper while leaving an uncut portion, and a conveyance mechanism that conveys the roll paper in the conveyance direction or a reverse direction that is the opposite of the conveyance direction; the control method including executing a reversing process of conveying the roll paper in the reverse direction by the conveyance mechanism if the roll paper is separated from the roll paper at the uncut portion after the roll paper is cut by the cutter, and not executing the reversing process in a specific situation in which the roll paper may remain partially connected through the uncut portion. This aspect of the disclosure prevents paper jams resulting from conveyance in the reverse direction in a printer that cuts the roll paper to leave an uncut portion. Other objects and attainments together with a fuller understanding of the disclosure will become apparent and appreciated by referring to the following description and claims taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | B41J11663 | 20170707 | 20171228 | 95014.0 | B41J1166 | 1 | NGUYEN, THINH H | PRINTING DEVICE AND CONTROL METHOD OF A PRINTING DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B41J | 2,017 |
|
15,643,962 | ACCEPTED | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR DETECTING RF FIELD STRENGTH | A radio frequency (RF) circuit comprises an antenna operably coupled to receive an RF signal, a power harvesting circuit operable to generate a first power source from the RF signal, a tank circuit coupled to the antenna and a tuning circuit. The tank circuit includes a selectively variable impedance and the tuning circuit is adapted to dynamically vary the selectively variable impedance of the tank circuit based on resonance of the RF circuit and frequency of the RF signal to substantially align the resonance of the RF circuit with the frequency of the RF signal. When the resonance of the RF circuit is substantially aligned with the frequency of the RF signal, the power harvesting circuit generates a second power source from the RF signal such that the second power source is greater than the first power source. | 1. A radio frequency (RF) circuit comprises: an antenna operably coupled to receive an RF signal; a power harvesting circuit operable to generate a first power source from the RF signal; a tank circuit coupled to the antenna, wherein the tank circuit includes a selectively variable impedance; and a tuning circuit operable to dynamically vary the selectively variable impedance of the tank circuit based on resonance of the RF circuit and frequency of the RF signal to substantially align the resonance of the RF circuit with the frequency of the RF signal, wherein, when the resonance of the RF circuit is substantially aligned with the frequency of the RF signal, the power harvesting circuit generates a second power source from the RF signal, wherein the second power source is greater than the first power source. 2. The RF circuit of claim 1 further comprises: a processing module operable to generate a digital value representative of dynamic variance of the selectively variable impedance of the tank circuit; memory operable coupled to the processing module; and a transmitter section operable to transmit an outbound RF signal to a reader, wherein the outbound RF signal includes the digital value. 3. The RF circuit of claim 2 further comprises: the antenna operable to receive a second RF signal, wherein the second RF signal has an adjusted transmit power with respect to the RF signal based on an interpretation of the digital value such that the second power source is at least one of a desired voltage level and a desired current level. 4. The RF circuit of claim 1, wherein the tank circuit comprises: an inductor; and a variable capacitor coupled to the inductor, wherein the tuning circuit is operable to adjust capacitance of the variable capacitor such that a resonant frequency of the tank circuit substantially matches a frequency of the RF signal. 5. The RF circuit of claim 1, wherein the power harvesting circuit comprises: a regulator coupled to the tank circuit, wherein a current is induced in the tank circuit from the received RF signal, wherein the regulator is operable to extract a portion of the induced current to provide direct current (DC) operating power to the RF circuit. 6. The RF circuit of claim 1 further comprises: a sensing circuit that includes: the tank circuit having the selectively variable impedance; the tuning circuit operable to dynamically vary the impedance of the tank circuit, and to develop a first quantized value representative of the impedance of the tank circuit; and a detector circuit operable to develop a second quantized value as a function of a field strength of a received RF signal; and memory, wherein the memory stores the first and second quantized values; and a control circuit operable selectively to retrieve the first and second quantized values from the memory, wherein the retrieved first and second quantized values are used to sense changes to an environment to which the RF circuit is exposed. 7. The RF circuit of claim 6, wherein the environment includes one or more of: free space; air; liquids; and metals. 8. The RF circuit of claim 1, wherein the selectively variable impedance is set to an initial value. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present U.S. Utility patent application claims priority pursuant to 35 U.S.C. §120 as a Continuation of U.S. Utility application Ser. No. 14/644,471, entitled “Method and Apparatus for Detecting RF Field Strength”, filed 11 Mar. 2015, issuing as U.S. Pat. No. 9,704,085 on 11 Jul. 2017, which is a Continuation of U.S. Utility application Ser. No. 13/209,425, entitled “Method and Apparatus for Detecting RF Field Strength”, filed 14 Aug. 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,048,819, issued 2 Jun. 2015, which is a Continuation-In-Part of application Ser. No. 12/462,331, filed 1 Aug. 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,081,043, issued 20 Dec. 2011 (“Related application”), which is in turn a Division of application Ser. No. 11/601,085, filed 18 Nov. 2006, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,586,385, issued 8 Sep. 2009 (“Related patent”) (collectively, “Related References”). application Ser. No. 13/209,425 also claims priority pursuant to 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/428,170, filed 29 Dec. 2010, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/485,732, filed 13 May 2011. The subject matter of the Related References, each in its entirety, is expressly incorporated herein by reference. This application is related to application Ser. No. 13/209,420, filed on 14 Aug. 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,749,319, issued 10 Jun. 2014 (“Related Co-application”). BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to detecting RF field strength, and, in particular, to detecting RF field strength in a passive RFID system. 2. Description of the Related Art In general, in the descriptions that follow, we will italicize the first occurrence of each special term of art that should be familiar to those skilled in the art of radio frequency (“RF”) communication systems. In addition, when we first introduce a term that we believe to be new or that we will use in a context that we believe to be new, we will bold the term and provide the definition that we intend to apply to that term. In addition, throughout this description, we will sometimes use the terms assert and negate when referring to the rendering of a signal, signal flag, status bit, or similar apparatus into its logically true or logically false state, respectively, and the term toggle to indicate the logical inversion of a signal from one logical state to the other. Alternatively, we may refer to the mutually exclusive Boolean states as logic_0 and logic_1. Of course, as is well known, consistent system operation can be obtained by reversing the logic sense of all such signals, such that signals described herein as logically true become logically false and vice versa. Furthermore, it is of no relevance in such systems which specific voltage levels are selected to represent each of the logic states. In accordance with our prior invention previously disclosed in the Related References, the amplitude modulated (“AM”) signal broadcast by the reader in an RFID system will be electromagnetically coupled to a conventional antenna, and a portion of the current induced in a tank circuit is extracted by a regulator to provide operating power for all other circuits. Once sufficient stable power is available, the regulator will produce, e.g., a power-on-reset signal to initiate system operation. Thereafter, the method disclosed in the Related References, and the associated apparatus, dynamically varies the capacitance of a variable capacitor component of the tank circuit so as to dynamically shift the fR of the tank circuit to better match the fC of the received RF signal, thus obtaining maximum power transfer in the system. In general, the invention disclosed in the Related References focused primarily on quantizing the voltage developed by the tank circuit as the primary means of matching the fR of the tank circuit to the transmission frequency, fC, of the received signal. However, this voltage quantization is, at best, indirectly related to received signal field strength. We submit that what is needed now is an effective and efficient method and apparatus for quantizing the received field strength as a function of induced current. It is further desirable to develop this field quantization in a form and manner that is suitable for selectively varying the input impedance of the receiver circuit to maximize received power, especially during normal system operation. Additionally, in light of the power sensitive nature of RFID systems, it is desirable to vary the input impedance with a minimum power loss. BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with the preferred embodiment of our invention, we provide a sensing system for use in an RFID system. In general, the sensing system comprises an RFID tag and an RFID reader. In one embodiment, the RFID tag comprises a tank circuit having a selectively variable impedance; and a tuning circuit adapted to dynamically vary the impedance of the tank circuit, and to develop a first quantized value representative of the impedance of said tank circuit. In one alternate embodiment, the RFID tag comprises a detector circuit adapted to develop a second quantized value as a function of a field strength of a received RF signal. In yet another embodiment, the RFID tag comprises both the tank and tuning circuit, and the detector circuit. In these embodiments, RFID reader is adapted selectively to retrieve one or both of the first and second values, and, preferably, to use the retrieved values to sense changes to an environment to which the RFID tag is exposed BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS My invention may be more fully understood by a description of certain preferred embodiments in conjunction with the attached drawings in which: FIG. 1 illustrates, in block diagram form, an RF receiver circuit having a field strength detector constructed in accordance with an embodiment of our invention; FIG. 2 illustrates, in block diagram form, a field strength detector circuit constructed in accordance with an embodiment of our invention; FIG. 3 illustrates, in block schematic form, a more detailed embodiment of the field strength detector circuit shown in FIG. 2; FIG. 4 illustrates, in flow diagram form, the sequencing of operations in the field strength detector circuit shown in FIG. 3; FIG. 5 illustrates, in graph form, the response of the field strength detector circuit shown in FIG. 3 to various conditions; FIG. 6 illustrates, in block schematic form, an RF receiver circuit constructed in accordance with another embodiment of our invention; FIG. 7 illustrates, in flow diagram form, the sequencing of the operations in the RF receiver circuit shown in FIG. 6; FIG. 8 illustrates, in block schematic form, an alternative representation of the impedance represented by the antenna and the tank circuit of the exemplary RFID receiver circuit. FIG. 9 illustrates, in block schematic form, an alternative exemplary embodiment of the field strength detector circuit shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 10 illustrates, in block schematic form, an alternative exemplary embodiment of the field strength detector circuit shown in FIG. 3. FIG. 11 illustrates, in block schematic form, an exemplary RFID sub-system containing tag and reader. In the drawings, similar elements will be similarly numbered whenever possible. However, this practice is simply for convenience of reference and to avoid unnecessary proliferation of numbers, and is not intended to imply or suggest that our invention requires identity in either function or structure in the several embodiments. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Shown in FIG. 1 is an RF receiver circuit 10 suitable for use in an RFID application. As we have described in our Related References, an RF signal electromagnetically coupled to an antenna 12 is received via a tank circuit 14, the response frequency, fR, of which is dynamically varied by a tuner 16 to better match the transmission frequency, fC, of the received RF signal, thus obtaining a maximum power transfer. In particular, as further noted in the Related Applications, the RMS voltage induced across the tank circuit 14 by the received RF signal is quantized by tuner 16 and the developed quantization employed to control the impedance of the tank circuit 14. As also described in the Related References, the unregulated, AC current induced in the tank circuit 14 by the received RF signal is conditioned by a regulator 18 to provide regulated DC operating power to the receiver circuit 10. In accordance with our present invention, we now provide a field strength detector 20, also known as a power detector, adapted to develop a field-strength value as a function of the field strength of the received RF signal. As we have indicated in FIG. 1, our field strength detector 20 is adapted to cooperate with the regulator 18 in the development of the field-strength value. As we shall disclose below, if desired, our field strength detector 20 can be adapted to cooperate with the tuner 16 in controlling the operating characteristics of the tank circuit 14. Shown by way of example in FIG. 2 is one possible embodiment of our field strength or power detector 20. In this embodiment, we have chosen to employ a shunt-type regulator 18 so that, during normal operation, we can use the shunted ‘excess’ current as a reference against which we develop the field-strength value. In this regard, we use a reference 22 first to develop a shunt current reference value proportional to the shunted current, and then to develop a mirrored current reference value as a function of both the shunted current and a field strength reference current provided by a digitally-controlled current source 24. Preferably, once the tuner 16 has completed its initial operating sequence, whereby the fR of the tank circuit 14 has been substantially matched to the fC of the received signal, we then enable a digital control 26 to initiate operation of the current source 24 at a predetermined, digitally-established minimum field strength reference current. After a predetermined period of time, control 26 captures the mirrored current reference value provided by the current reference 22, compares the captured signal against a predetermined threshold value, and, if the comparison indicates that the field strength reference current is insufficient, increases, in accordance with a predetermined sequence of digital-controlled increments, the field strength reference current; upon the comparison indicating that the field strength reference current is sufficient, control 26 will, at least temporarily, cease operation. In accordance with our invention, the digital field-strength value developed by control 26 to control the field strength current source 24 is a function of the current induced in the tank circuit 14 by the received RF signal. Once developed, this digital field-strength value can be employed in various ways. For example, it can be selectively transmitted by the RFID device (using conventional means) back to the reader (not shown) for reference purposes. Such a transaction can be either on-demand or periodic depending on system requirements. Imagine for a moment an application wherein a plurality of RFID tag devices are distributed, perhaps randomly, throughout a restricted, 3-dimensional space, e.g., a loaded pallet. Imagine also that the reader is programmed to query, at an initial field strength, all tags “in bulk” and to command all tags that have developed a field-strength value greater than a respective field-strength value to remain silent′. By performing a sequence of such operations, each at an increasing field strength, the reader will, ultimately, be able to isolate and distinguish those tags most deeply embedded within the space; once these ‘core’ tags have been read, a reverse sequence can be performed to isolate and distinguish all tags within respective, concentric ‘shells’ comprising the space of interest. Although, in all likelihood, these shells will not be regular in either shape or relative volume, the analogy should still be apt. In FIG. 3, we have illustrated one possible embodiment of our field strength detector 20a. In general, we have chosen to use a shunt circuit 18a to develop a substantially constant operating voltage level across supply node 28 and ground node 30. Shunt regulators of this type are well known in the art, and typically use zener diodes, avalanche breakdown diodes, diode-connected MOS devices, and the like. As can be seen, we have chosen to implement current reference 22 in the form of a current mirror circuit 22a, connected in series with shunt circuit 18a between nodes 28 and 30. As is typical, current mirror circuit 22a comprises a diode-connected reference transistor 32 and a mirror transistor 34. If desired, a more sophisticated circuit such as a Widlar current source may be used rather than this basic two-transistor configuration. For convenience of reference, we have designated the current shunted by shunt circuit 18a via reference transistor 32 as iR; similarly, we have designated the current flowing through mirror transistor 34 as iR/N, wherein, as is known, N is the ratio of the widths of reference transistor 32 and mirror transistor 34. We have chosen to implement the field strength current source 24 as a set of n individual current sources 24a, each connected in parallel between the supply node 28 and the mirror transistor 34. In general, field strength current source 24a is adapted to source current at a level corresponding to an n-bit digital control value developed by a counter 38. In the illustrated embodiment wherein n=5, field strength current source 24a is potentially capable of sourcing thirty-two distinct reference current levels. We propose that the initial, minimum reference current level be selected so as to be less than the current carrying capacity of the mirror transistor 34 when the shunt circuit 18a first begins to shunt excess induced current through reference transistor 32; that the maximum reference current level be selected so as to be greater than the current carrying capacity of the mirror transistor 34 when the shunt circuit 18a is shunting a maximum anticipated amount of excess induced current; and that the intermediate reference current levels be distributed relatively evenly between the minimum and maximum levels. Of course, alternate schemes may be practicable, and, perhaps, desirable depending on system requirements. Within control 26a, a conventional analog-to-digital converter (“ADC”) 40, having its input connected to a sensing node 36, provides a digital output indicative of the field strength reference voltage, νR, developed on sensing node 36. In one embodiment, ADC 40 may comprise a comparator circuit adapted to switch from a logic_0 state to a logic_1 when sufficient current is sourced by field strength current source 24a to raise the voltage on sensing node 36 above a predetermined reference voltage threshold, νth. Alternatively, ADC 40 may be implemented as a multi-bit ADC capable of providing higher precision regarding the specific voltage developed on sensing node 36, depending on the requirements of the system. Sufficient current may be characterized as that current sourced by the field strength current source 24a or sunk by mirror transistor 34 such that the voltage on sensing node 36 is altered substantially above or below a predetermined reference voltage threshold, νth. In the exemplary case of a simple CMOS inverter, νth is, in its simplest form, one-half of the supply voltage (VDD/2). Those skilled in the art will appreciate that νth may by appropriately modified by altering the widths and lengths of the devices of which the inverter is comprised. In the exemplary case a multi-bit ADC, νth may be established by design depending on the system requirements and furthermore, may be programmable by the system. In the illustrated embodiment, a latch 42 captures the output state of ADC 40 in response to control signals provided by a clock/control circuit 44. If the captured state is logic_0, the clock/control circuit 44 will change counter 38 to change the reference current being sourced by field strength current source 24a; otherwise clock/control circuit 44 will, at least temporarily, cease operation. However, notwithstanding, the digital field-strength value developed by counter 38 is available for any appropriate use, as discussed above. By way of example, we have illustrated in FIG. 4 one possible general operational flow of our field strength detector 20a. Upon activation, counter 38 is set to its initial digital field-strength value (step 48), thereby enabling field strength current source 24a to initiate reference current sourcing at the selected level. After an appropriate settling time, the field strength reference voltage, νR, developed on sensing node 36 and digitized by ADC 40 is captured in latch 42 (step 50). If the captured field strength reference voltage, νR, is less than (or equal to) the predetermined reference threshold voltage, νth, clock/control 44 will change counter 38 (step 54). This process will repeat, changing the reference current sourced by field strength current source 24a until the captured field strength reference voltage, νR, is greater than the predetermined reference threshold voltage, νth, (at step 52), at which time the process will stop (step 56). As illustrated, this sweep process can be selectively reactivated as required, beginning each time at either the initial field-strength value or some other selected value within the possible range of values as desired. The graph illustrated in FIG. 5 depicts several plots of the voltage developed on sensing node 36 as the field strength detector circuit 20a sweeps the value of counter 38 according to the flow illustrated in FIG. 4. As an example, note that the curve labeled “A” in FIG. 5 begins at a logic_0 value when the value of counter 38 is at a minimum value such as “1” as an exemplary value. Subsequent loops though the sweep loop gradually increase the field strength reference voltage on sensing node 36 until counter 38 reaches a value of “4” as an example. At this point, the “A” plot in FIG. 5 switches from a logic_0 value to a logic_1 value, indicating that the field strength reference voltage, νR, on sensing node 36 has exceeded the predetermined reference threshold voltage, νth. Other curves labeled “B” through “D” depict incremental increases of reference currents, iR, flowing through reference device 32, resulting in correspondingly higher mirrored currents flowing through mirror device 34. This incrementally higher mirror current requires field strength current source 24 to source a higher current level which in turn corresponds to higher values in counter 38. Thus, it is clear that our invention is adapted to effectively and efficiently develop a digital representation of the current flowing through sensing node 36 that is suitable for any appropriate use. One such use, as discussed earlier, of our field strength detector 20 is to cooperate with tuner 16 in controlling the operating characteristics of the tank circuit 14. FIG. 6 illustrates one possible embodiment where receiver circuit 10a uses a field strength detector 20b specially adapted to share with tuner 16a the control of the tank circuit 14. In our Related References we have disclosed methods, and related apparatus, for dynamically tuning, via tuner 16a, the tank circuit 14 so as to dynamically shift the fR of the tank circuit 14 to better match the fC of the received RF signal at antenna 12. By way of example, we have shown in FIG. 6 how the embodiment shown in FIG. 3 of our Related patent may be easily modified by adding to tuner 16a a multiplexer 58 to facilitate shared access to the tuner control apparatus. Shown in FIG. 7 is the operational flow (similar to that illustrated in FIG. 4 in our Related patent) of our new field strength detector 20b upon assuming control of tank circuit 14. In context of this particular use, once tuner 16a has completed its initial operating sequences as fully described in our Related patent, and our field strength detector 20b has performed an initial sweep (as described above and illustrated in FIG. 4) and saved in a differentiator 60 a base-line field-strength value developed in counter 38, clock/control 44 commands multiplexer 58 to transfer control of the tank circuit 16a to field strength detector 20b (all comprising step 62 in FIG. 7). Upon completing a second current sweep, differentiator 60 will save the then-current field-strength value developed in the counter 38 (step 64). Thereafter, differentiator 60 will determine the polarity of the change of the previously saved field-strength value with respect to the then-current field-strength value developed in counter 38 (step 66). If the polarity is negative (step 68), indicating that the current field-strength value is lower than the previously-saved field-strength value, differentiator 60 will assert a change direction signal; otherwise, differentiator 60 will negate the change direction signal (step 70). In response, the shared components in tuner 16a downstream of the multiplexer 58 will change the tuning characteristics of tank circuit 14 (step 72) (as fully described in our Related References). Now, looping back (to step 64), the resulting change of field strength, as quantized is the digital field-strength value developed in counter 38 during the next sweep (step 64), will be detected and, if higher, will result in a further shift in the fR of the tank circuit 14 in the selected direction or, if lower, will result in a change of direction (step 70). Accordingly, over a number of such ‘seek’ cycles, our invention will selectively allow the receiver 10a to maximize received field strength even if, as a result of unusual factors, the fR of the tank circuit 14 may not be precisely matched to the fC of the received RF signal, i.e., the reactance of the antenna is closely matched with the reactance of the tank circuit, thus achieving maximum power transfer. In an alternative embodiment, it would be unnecessary for tuner 16a to perform an initial operating sequence as fully described in our Related patent. Rather, field strength detector 20b may be used exclusively to perform both the initial tuning of the receiver circuit 10a as well as the subsequent field strength detection. Note that the source impedance of antenna 12 and load impedance of tank circuit 14 may be represented alternatively in schematic form as in FIG. 8, wherein antenna 12 is represented as equivalent source resistance RS 74 and equivalent source reactance XS 76, and tank circuit 14 is represented as equivalent load resistance RL 78 and equivalent, variable load reactance XL 80. In FIG. 9, we have illustrated an alternate embodiment of our field strength detector illustrated in FIG. 3. Here, as before, shunt circuit 18b is used to develop a substantially constant operating voltage level across supply node 28 and ground node 30. Also, as before, the current reference 22 is implemented as a current mirror circuit 22b connected in series with shunt circuit 18b between nodes 28 and 30. However, in this embodiment, the field strength current source comprises a resistive component 84 adapted to function as a static resistive pull-up device. Many possible implementations exist besides a basic resistor, such as a long channel length transistor, and those skilled in the art will appreciate the various implementations that are available to accomplish analogous functionality. The field strength voltage reference νR developed on sensing node 36 will be drawn to a state near the supply voltage when the mirrored current flowing though transistor 34 is relatively small, e.g. close to zero amps, indicating a weak field strength. As the field strength increases, the current flowing through mirror transistor 34 will increase, and the field strength voltage reference νR developed on sensing node 36 will drop proportionally to the mirrored current flowing through mirror transistor 34 as iR/N. ADC 40, having its input connected to sensing node 36, provides a digital output indicative of the field strength reference voltage, νR, developed on sensing node 36, as described previously. In this alternate embodiment, latch 42 captures the output state of ADC 40 in response to control signals provided by a clock/control circuit 44. As disclosed earlier, the ADC 40 may comprise a comparator circuit. In this instance, ADC 40 is adapted to switch from a logic_1 state to a logic_0 when sufficient current is sunk by mirror transistor 34 to lower the voltage on sensing node 36 below a predetermined reference voltage threshold, νth. Alternatively, ADC 40 may be implemented as a multi-bit ADC capable of providing higher precision regarding the specific voltage developed on sensing node 36, depending on the requirements of the system. Comparator 82 subsequently compares the captured output state held in latch 42 with a value held in counter 38 that is selectively controlled by clock/control circuit 44. In response to the output generated by comparator 82, clock/control circuit 44 may selectively change the value held in counter 38 to be one of a higher value or a lower value, depending on the algorithm employed. Depending upon the implementation of counter 38 and comparator 82, clock/control circuit 44 may also selectively reset the value of counter 38 or comparator 82 or both. The digital field-strength value developed by counter 38 is available for any appropriate use, as discussed above. In FIG. 10, we have illustrated another alternate embodiment of our field strength detector illustrated in FIG. 3. Here, as before, shunt circuit 18c is used to develop a substantially constant operating voltage level across supply node 28 and ground node 30. In this embodiment, the current reference 22 is implemented as a resistive component 86 that functions as a static pull-down device. Many possible implementations exist besides a basic resistor, such as a long channel length transistor and those skilled in the art will appreciate the various implementations that are available to accomplish analogous functionality. The field strength voltage reference νR developed on sensing node 36 will be drawn to a state near the ground node when the current flowing though shunt circuit 18c is relatively small, e.g., close to zero amps, indicating a weak field strength. As the field strength increase, the current flowing through shunt circuit 18c will increase, and the field strength voltage reference νR developed on sensing node 36 will rise proportionally to the current flowing through shunt circuit 18c. ADC 40, having its input connected to a sensing node 36, provides a digital output indicative of the field strength reference voltage, νR, developed on sensing node 36, as described previously. In this alternate embodiment, latch 42 captures the output state of ADC 40 in response to control signals provided by a clock/control circuit 44. As disclosed earlier, the ADC 40 may comprise a comparator circuit. In this instance, ADC 40 is adapted to switch from a logic_0 state to a logic_1 when sufficient current is sourced by shunt circuit 18c to raise the voltage on sensing node 36 above a predetermined reference voltage threshold, νth. Alternatively, ADC 40 may be implemented as a multi-bit ADC capable of providing higher precision regarding the specific voltage developed on sensing node 36, depending on the requirements of the system. Comparator 82 subsequently compares the captured output state held in latch 42 with a value held in counter 38 that is selectively controlled by clock/control circuit 44. In response to the output generated by comparator 82, clock/control circuit 44 may selectively change the value held in counter 38 to be one of a higher value or a lower value, depending on the algorithm employed. Depending upon the implementation of counter 38 and comparator 82, clock/control circuit 44 may also selectively reset the value of counter 38 or comparator 82 or both. The digital field-strength value developed by counter 38 is available for any appropriate use, as discussed above. In another embodiment, our invention may be adapted to sense the environment to which a tag is exposed, as well as sensing changes to that same environment. As disclosed in our Related References, the auto-tuning capability of tuner 16 acting in conjunction with tank circuit 14 detects antenna impedance changes. These impedance changes may be a function of environmental factors such as proximity to interfering substances, e.g., metals or liquids, as well as a function of a reader or receiver antenna orientation. Likewise, as disclosed herein, our field strength (i.e., received power) detector 20 may be used to detect changes in received power (i.e., field strength) as a function of, for example, power emitted by the reader, distance between tag and reader, physical characteristics of materials or elements in the immediate vicinity of the tag and reader, or the like. Sensing the environment or, at least, changes to the environment is accomplished using one or both of these capabilities. As an example, the tag 88 of FIG. 11, contains both a source tag antenna 12 (not shown, but see, e.g., FIG. 6) and a corresponding load chip tank circuit 14 (not shown, but see, e.g., FIG. 6). Each contains both resistive and reactive elements as discussed previously (see, e.g., FIG. 8). A tag 88 containing such a tank circuit 14 mounted on a metallic surface will exhibit antenna impedance that is dramatically different than the same tag 88 in free space or mounted on a container of liquid. Table 1 displays exemplary values for impedance variations in both antenna source resistance 74 as well as antenna source reactance 76 as a function of frequency as well as environmental effects at an exemplary frequency: TABLE 1 Antenna Impedance Variations In Free Air 860 MHz 910 MHz 960 MHz Rs 1.9 2.5 3.7 Xs 124 136 149 @910 MHz Free Air On Water On Metal Rs 2.5 26 1.9 Xs 136 136 27 The tuner circuit 16 of our invention as disclosed in the Related References automatically adjusts the load impendence by adjusting load reactance 80 (see, e.g., FIG. 8) to match source antenna impedance represented by source resistance 74 (see, e.g., FIG. 8) and source reactance 76 (see, e.g., FIG. 8). As previously disclosed, matching of the chip load impedance and antenna source impedance can be performed automatically in order to achieve maximum power transfer between the antenna and the chip. My invention as disclosed in the Related References contained a digital shift register 90 for selectively changing the value of the load reactive component, in the present case a variable capacitor, until power transfer is maximized. This digital value of the matched impendence may be used either internally by the tag 88, or read and used by the reader 92, to discern relative environmental information to which the tag 88 is exposed. For example, tag 88 may contain a calibrated look-up-table within the clock/control circuit 44 which may be accessed to determine the relevant environmental information. Likewise, a RFID reader 92 may issue commands (see transaction 1 in FIG. 11) to retrieve (see transaction 2 in FIG. 11) the values contained in digital shift register 90 via conventional means, and use that retrieved information to evaluate the environment to which tag 88 is exposed. The evaluation could be as simple as referencing fixed data in memory that has already been stored and calibrated, or as complex as a software application running on the reader or its connected systems for performing interpretive evaluations. Likewise, consider a tag 88 containing our field strength (i.e., received power) detector 20 (not shown, but, e.g., see FIG. 6) wherein the method of operation of the system containing the tag 88 calls for our field strength detector 20 to selectively perform its sweep function and developing the quantized digital representation of the current via the method discussed earlier. As illustrated in FIG. 11, counter 38 will contain the digital representation developed by our field strength detector 20 of the RF signal induced current, and may be used either internally by the tag 88, or read and used by the reader 92, to discern relative environmental information to which the tag 88 is exposed. For example, reader 92 may issue a command to the tag 88 (see transaction 1 in FIG. 11) to activate tuner 16 and/or detector 20 and, subsequent to the respective operations of tuner 16 and/or detector 20, receive (see transaction 2 in FIG. 11) the digital representations of either the matched impedance or the maximum current developed during those operations. Once again, this digital value of the field strength stored in the counter 38 may be used either internally by the tag 88, or read and used by the reader 92, to discern relative environmental information to which the tag 88 is exposed. For example, tag 88 may contain a calibrated look-up-table within the clock and control block 44 which may be accessed to determine the relevant environmental information. Likewise, a RFID reader may issue commands to retrieve the values contained in digital shift register 90, and use that retrieved information to evaluate the environment to which tag 88 is exposed. The evaluation could be as simple as referencing fixed data in memory that has already been stored and calibrated, or as complex as a software application running on the reader or its connected systems for performing interpretive evaluations. Thus, the combining of the technologies enables a user to sense the environment to which a tag 88 is exposed as well as sense changes to that same environment. Thus, it is apparent that we have provided an effective and efficient method and apparatus for quantizing the received RF field strength as a function of induced current. We have developed this field quantization in a form and manner that is suitable for selectively varying the impedance of the tank circuit to maximize received power, especially during normal system operation. Those skilled in the art will recognize that modifications and variations can be made without departing from the spirit of our invention. Therefore, we intend that our invention encompass all such variations and modifications as fall within the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with the preferred embodiment of our invention, we provide a sensing system for use in an RFID system. In general, the sensing system comprises an RFID tag and an RFID reader. In one embodiment, the RFID tag comprises a tank circuit having a selectively variable impedance; and a tuning circuit adapted to dynamically vary the impedance of the tank circuit, and to develop a first quantized value representative of the impedance of said tank circuit. In one alternate embodiment, the RFID tag comprises a detector circuit adapted to develop a second quantized value as a function of a field strength of a received RF signal. In yet another embodiment, the RFID tag comprises both the tank and tuning circuit, and the detector circuit. In these embodiments, RFID reader is adapted selectively to retrieve one or both of the first and second values, and, preferably, to use the retrieved values to sense changes to an environment to which the RFID tag is exposed | G06K190726 | 20170707 | 20171128 | 20171026 | 70824.0 | G06K1907 | 1 | AKKI, MUNEAR T | METHOD AND APPARATUS FOR DETECTING RF FIELD STRENGTH | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06K | 2,017 |
15,643,988 | PENDING | USE OF HOMOSALATE AND OCTYL SALICYLATE TO TREAT MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS | A method of treating an MS patient with homosalate, octyl salicylate, or a combination is disclosed. | 1. A method of treating a multiple sclerosis (MS) patient, comprising the steps of (a) Identifying an MS patient exhibiting at least one symptom of MS, (b) Treating the patient with an effective amount of a composition selected from the group consisting of homosalate, octyl salicylate and combinations of homosalate and octyl salicylate, wherein occurrence of the symptom is lessened or progression of the symptom is slowed or stalled. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the symptom is paralysis. 3. The method of claim 1 wherein the treatment is daily. 4. The method of claim 1 wherein the treatment is at least 30 days in duration. 5. The method of claim 1 wherein the composition is delivered as an oral dose. 6. The method of claim 4 wherein the composition is delivered as a topical dose. 7. The method of claim 1 wherein the composition is delivered as a parenteral dose. 8. A method of treating a prospective multiple sclerosis (MS) patient, comprising the steps of (a) Identifying a prospective MS patient, and (b) Treating the patient with an effective amount of a composition selected from the group consisting of homosalate, octyl salicylate and combinations of homosalate and octyl salicylate, wherein occurrence of MS symptom is lessened or progression of the symptom is slowed or stalled. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the symptom is muscle weakness/numbness. 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the treatment is daily. 11. The method of claim 8, wherein the treatment is at least 30 days in duration. 12. The method of claim 8, wherein the composition is delivered as an oral dose. 13. The method of claim 10, wherein the composition is delivered as a topical dose. 14. The method of claim 8, wherein the composition is delivered as a parenteral dose. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims benefit from U.S. Provisional Application 62/362,951, filed Jul. 15, 2016, which is incorporated herein by reference for all purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Multiple sclerosis (MS), the most common autoimmune disorder affecting the central nervous system, is a demyelinating disease in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. The disease affects the ability of parts of the nervous system to communicate and results in physical, mental, and sometimes psychiatric problems. For example, MS patients often have vision disorders, such as blindness in one eye or double vision. Patients also exhibit muscle weakness, trouble with sensation, and trouble with coordination. The underlying mechanism of MS progression is thought to be either destruction by the immune system or failure of the myelin-producing cells. The cause of the disease is not known, but may include genetics and environmental factors such as viral infections. MS is usually diagnosed based on analysis of a patient's symptoms and the results of supporting medical tests. Unfortunately, there is no known cure for multiple sclerosis. Current treatments attempt to improve symptoms after an attack and prevent new attacks. Medications used to treat MS are only modestly effective and can have side effects and be poorly tolerated. Physical therapy can help with a patient's ability to function. Because of the lack of good alternatives, many patients pursue unproven alternative treatments. Life expectancy is 5 to 10 years lower than that of an unaffected population.[2] Needed in the art are new therapeutic compounds for effective MS treatment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 discloses experiments showing that topical application of sunscreen protects mice from EAE progression. Mice received topical application of sunscreen, NBUVB or both. Each mouse was scored daily after EAE during the entire experiment (day 0-day 28) and data are expressed as mean value. N=10-12/group. FIGS. 2A and 2B are a set of graphs showing the effect of specific sunscreen ingredients on EAE. Ingredients (avobenzone and oxybenzone) of sunscreen partially suppress EAE severity in mice. FIG. 2A: Analysis of different sunscreen ingredients. Avobenzone and oxybenzone partially suppress EAE severity in mice. Mice were treated with sunscreen ingredients (avobenzone, oxybenzone or combination) by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray was used as a positive control. Each mouse was scored daily and data are expressed as mean values. N=10-12/group. FIG. 2B: Body weights of mice that were administered different sunscreen ingredients. Mice were treated with sunscreen ingredients (avobenzone, oxybenzone or combination) by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray was also used as a positive control. Each mouse was weighed weekly during the experiment and data are expressed as mean value. N=10-12/group. FIGS. 3A and 3B are a set of graphs showing the effect of sunscreen ingredients on EAE. FIG. 3A: Sunscreen ingredients (homosalate and octyl salicylate) dramatically suppress EAE development in mice. Mice were treated with sunscreen ingredients (homosalate, octyl salicylate or combination) by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray was used as a positive control. Mice were scored daily and data are expressed as mean value. N=11-12/group. FIG. 3B: Body weights of mice administered different sunscreen ingredients. Mice were treated with sunscreen ingredients (homosalate, octyl salicylate or combination) by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray was used as a positive control. Mice were weighed weekly and data are expressed as mean value. N=11-12/group. FIGS. 4A, 4B, and 4C show that topical application of COPPERTONE SPRAY sunscreen (SS) completely blocks EAE. FIG. 4A: Topical application of sunscreen prior to NBUVB. Mean score was recorded daily after induction of EAE. FIG. 4B: Body weights were measured weekly. FIG. 4C: Topical application of sunscreen with or without NBUVB completely blocked EAE development. Mean score was measured daily after immunization. Data are expressed as mean±SEM in FIGS. 4A and 4C; Data are expressed as mean±SD in FIG. 4B. All treatment groups in FIGS. 4A, 4B and 4C were statistically different from control group (n=12, p<0.05). FIGS. 5A and 5B show that commercial sunscreen preparations differentially block EAE while darkness itself does not. FIG. 5A: Six different sunscreens were topically administered daily and mean score recorded. FIG. 5B: The effect of total darkness on EAE was determined. Treated mice were kept in total darkness for various periods as shown in the legend. Mean score was measured daily. Data are expressed as mean values in FIGS. 5A and 5B. All treatment groups in panel A except BANANA BOAT KIDS and CoTZ FACE were statistically different from control (n=12, P<0.05). No statistical differences were found amongst the groups in panel B (n=12). FIGS. 6A, 6B, 6C and 6D show that the suppression of EAE by COPPERTONE SPRAY sunscreen (SS) is both time and dose dependent. FIG. 6A: Disease scores in relation to time of administration of Coppertone Spray sunscreen. Mean score was determined daily. Mice were treated topically with SS 200 μl daily for entire experiment (day 30) with various starting treatment time. Pretreatment: treatment started at day −7 before immunization; Immunization: treatment started at time of immunization; onset: treatment initiated when animals first exhibited a score ≧1.0. FIG. 6B: Body weights determined each week. FIG. 6C: Dose-dependent suppression of EAE by Coppertone Spray sunscreen. FIG. 6D: Body weight was determined weekly. Data are expressed as mean±SEM in FIGS. 6A & 6C, mean±SD in FIGS. 6B & 6D. Pretreatment and Immunization treatments were significantly different from control group in panels A and B (n=12, p<0.05). The two highest levels of SS (50 and 100 μl) were significantly different from control in panels C&D (n=12, p<0.05). FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C and 7D show that two ingredients of effective sunscreen (Homosalate and octisalate) significantly suppress EAE. Two other ingredients (avobenzone and oxybenzone) fail to suppress EAE. FIGS. 7A and 7B: Mice were treated with a solution of (12% avobenzone, 16% oxybenzone or combination in 25 μl of DMSO) topically each day. Sunscreen (Coppertone spray) (100 μl) was used as a positive control. Each mouse was scored daily (FIG. 7A) and weighed weekly (FIG. 7B) during the experiment. FIGS. 7C and 7D: Mice were treated with two ingredients (30 μl homosalate (1.5 g/kg), 10 μl octisalate (0.5 g/kg) and combination) topically. COPPERTONE SPRAY sunscreen 200 μl was used as a positive control. Mean score (FIG. 7C) and body weight (FIG. 7D) were recorded. Data are expressed as mean value. In FIGS. 7A&7B, all groups were significantly different from the sunscreen group (n=12, p<0.05). In FIGS. 7C and 7D, all treatment groups except octisalate alone were significantly different from the control groups (p<0.05). FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C and 8D show dose dependent suppression of EAE by homosalate (HS) and octisalate (OS). FIGS. 8A and 8B: Mice were treated with various doses (10, 20 and 30 μl or 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 g/kg) of homosalate or octisalate topically. The mean score (FIG. 8A) and body weights (FIG. 8B) were recorded. FIGS. 8C and 8D, Mice treated with homosalate (30 μl or 1.5 g/kg) topically at various times. Daily mean score (FIG. 8C) and body weight (FIG. 8D) were recorded. Data are expressed as mean value. In FIG. 8A, all treatment groups were significantly different from control (p<0.05). In FIG. 8B, all treatments except homosalate 0.5 g/kg were significantly different from control (p<0.05); In FIGS. 8C and 8D, the mean scores of homosalate every day and every 2-day were significantly lower than control (p<0.05). FIGS. 9A, 9B, and 9C show that all of the tested sunscreens protect the mice from developing EAE. FIGS. 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D, 10E and 10F show that all of the tested sunscreens protect the mice from developing EAE. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Terms The terms “including” and “comprising” are open-ended terms and should be interpreted to mean “including, but not limited to. . . .” These terms encompass the more restrictive terms “consisting essentially of and “consisting of.” The singular forms “a”, “an”, and “the” include plural reference. As well, the terms “a” (or “an”), “one or more” and “at least one” can be used interchangeably. The terms “comprising”, “including”, “characterized by” and “having” can be used interchangeably. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Each of the publications and patent documents specifically mentioned herein is incorporated by reference in its entirety for ail purposes including describing and disclosing the chemicals, instruments, statistical analyses and methodologies which are reported in the publications and which might be used in connection with the invention. All references cited in this specification are to be taken as indicative of the level of skill in the art. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the invention is not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention. The “effective amount,” as used herein, refers to the amount of a required to ameliorate the symptoms of a disease relative to an untreated patient. The effective amount of active compound(s) used to practice the present invention for therapeutic treatment of a disease varies depending upon the manner of administration, the age, body weight, and general health of the subject. Ultimately, the attending physician or veterinarian will decide the appropriate amount and dosage regimen. Such amount is referred to as an “effective” amount. Unless specifically stated or obvious from context, as used herein, the term “about” is understood as within a range of normal tolerance in the art, for example within 2 standard deviations of the mean. Unless otherwise clear from context, all numerical values provided herein are modified by the term “about.” The term “multiple sclerosis” or “MS,” as used herein, refers to an inflammatory disease affecting the nervous system, in which the myelin sheaths around the axons of the brain and spinal cord are damaged, leading to demyelination and scarring as well as a broad spectrum of clinical signs and symptoms. MS may be classified into different disease subtypes, including relapsing/remitting MS (RRMS), secondary progressive MS, primary progressive MS, and progressive relapsing MS. The relapsing-remitting subtype may be characterized by unpredictable relapses followed by periods of months to years of relative quiet (remission) with no new signs of disease activity. The relapsing-remitting subtype may usually begin with a clinically isolated syndrome (CIS). In CIS, a patient may have an attack suggestive of demyelination. Often CIS marks the onset of MS. A diagnosis of multiple sclerosis can be established on the basis of established clinical symptoms and the clinical symptoms is well known to the skilled person. In one embodiment, the present invention disclose a composition for treating MS by lessening occurrence of the symptom or by slowing or stalling progression of the symptom. The clinical symptoms of multiple sclerosis may include vision problems, dizziness, vertigo, sensory dysfunction, weakness, problems with coordination, loss of balance, fatigue, pain, neurocognitive deficits, mental health deficits, bladder dysfunction, bowel dysfunction, sexual dysfunction, heat sensitivity. The term “multiple sclerosis” also refers to any other autoimmune disease manifested by demylination of the central nervous system's neurons. The first symptoms which appear at the onset of MS may be referred to at times as “MS-related symptoms.” The symptoms of MS in EAE-induced animals (animal model of MS) may be typically weakness and malfunction in the animal's tail, followed by weakness of its rear feet and finally weakness in its front feet. In humans, such first MS-related symptoms may typically be double vision, facial numbness, facial weakness, vertigo, nausea, vomiting ataxia, weakness of the arms, etc. The term “treating” or “treatment,” as used herein, refers to amelioration of some of the undesired symptoms of multiple sclerosis, the prevention of the manifestation of such symptoms before they occur, slowing down or completely preventing the progression of the disease (as may be evident by longer periods between reoccurrence episodes, slowing down or prevention of the deterioration of symptoms etc.), enhancing the onset of the remission period, slowing down the irreversible damage caused in the progressive-chronic stage of the disease (both in the primary and secondary stages), delaying the onset of said progressive stage, or a combination of two or more of the above. The term “patient” or “subject,” as used herein, refers to a mammalian subject (primates (e.g., humans), cows, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, mice and the like), preferably a human subject, that has, is suspected of having, or is or may be susceptible to a condition associated with multiple sclerosis. In one embodiment, the present method may be used for treating a patient who suffers from multiple sclerosis, e.g., with any symptoms as discussed above. In another embodiment, the present method may also be used to prevent a perspective patient from getting multiple sclerosis. The term “perspective patient,” as used herein, refers to any person or subject who may be or is in danger of developing MS. The term “diagnosing” or “diagnosis,” as used herein, refers to detecting a disease or disorder or determining the stage or degree of a disease or disorder such as MS. The term “diagnosis” also encompasses determining the therapeutic effect of a drug therapy to treat MS, or predicting the pattern of response to a drug therapy of MS. The diagnostic methods may be used independently, or in combination with other diagnostic and/or staging methods known in the medical art for a particular disease or disorder, e.g., MS. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable,” as used herein, refers to the compound or composition or carrier being suitable for administration to a subject to achieve the treatments described herein, without unduly deleterious side effects in light of the necessity of the treatment. The term “therapeutically effective amount” or “pharmaceutically appropriate dosage,” as used herein, refers to the amount of the compounds or dosages that will elicit the biological or medical response of a subject, tissue or cell that is being sought by the researcher, veterinarian, medical doctor or other clinician. As used herein, “pharmaceutically-acceptable carrier” includes any and all dry powder, solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic agents, absorption delaying agents, and the like. Pharmaceutically-acceptable carriers are materials, useful for the purpose of administering the compounds in the method of the present invention, which are preferably non-toxic, and may be solid, liquid, or gaseous materials, which are otherwise inert and pharmaceutically acceptable, and are compatible with the compounds of the present invention. Examples may include sugars such as, but not limited to, lactose, glucose and sucrose; starches such as, but not limited to, corn starch and potato starch; cellulose and its derivatives such as, but not limited to, sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose and cellulose acetate; powdered tragacanth; malt; gelatin; talc; excipients such as, but not limited to, cocoa butter and suppository waxes; oils such as, but not limited to, peanut oil, cottonseed oil, safflower oil, sesame oil, olive oil, corn oil and soybean oil; glycols; such a propylene glycol; esters such as, but not limited to, ethyl oleate and ethyl laurate; agar; buffering agents such as, but not limited to, magnesium hydroxide and aluminum hydroxide; alginic acid; pyrogen-free water; isotonic saline; Ringer's solution; ethyl alcohol, and phosphate buffer solutions, as well as other non-toxic compatible lubricants such as, but not limited to, sodium lauryl sulfate and magnesium stearate, as well as coloring agents, releasing agents, coating agents, sweetening, flavoring and perfuming agents, preservatives and antioxidants may also be present in the composition. Further examples of such carriers include, various lactose, mannitol, oils such as com oil, buffers such as PBS, saline, polyethylene glycol, glycerin, polypropylene glycol, dimethylsulfoxide, an amide such as dimethylacetamide, a protein such as albumin, and a detergent such as Tween 80, mono- and oligopolysaccharides such as glucose, lactose, cyclodextrins and starch. The term “administering” or “administration,” as used herein, refers to providing the compound or pharmaceutical composition of the invention to a subject suffering from or at risk of the diseases or conditions to be treated or prevented. The term “systemic delivery,” as used herein, refers to any suitable administration methods which may delivery the compounds in the present invention systemically. In one embodiment, systemic delivery may be selected from the group consisting of oral, parenteral, intranasal, inhaler, sublingual, rectal, intracisternal, and transdermal, intravaginal, intraperitoneal, topically (as by powders, ointments or drops), bucal or as an oral or nasal spray administrations. The term “parenterally” as used herein, refers to modes of administration which include intravenous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, intrasternal, subcutaneous and intraarticular injection and infusion. In one embodiment, the present compositions or formulations may be administered topically. The term “topical administration,” as used herein, refers to local administration of a component of a composition or a kit of the invention onto the surface of a skin or mucosal tissue of a subject. A topical administration emphasizes local effect, and substance is applied directly where its action is desired. Sometimes, however, the term topical may be defined as applied to a localized area of the body or to the surface of a body part, without necessarily involving target effect of the substance, making the classification rather a variant of the classification based on application location. Methods of the Present Invention The present invention includes methods of using octyl salicylate and/or homosalate, or a composition comprising at least one of octyl salicylate and homosalate, to prevent or suppress the progression of multiple sclerosis. The Examples below show that Applicants observed that commercial sun block preparations decreased or prevented the incidence of EAE in EAE mice, a mouse model of MS. Specifically, Applicants demonstrate that treating a multiple sclerosis (MS) patient or a prospective MS patient with an effective amount of a composition selected from the group consisting of homosalate, octyl salicylate and combinations of homosalate and octyl salicylate can prevent the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, thus treating MS. In contrast to the use of sunscreens that comprise octyl salicylate and homosalate, the method of the present invention requires the use of the composition daily for at least 30 days and preferably at least 60 or 90 days. Additionally, a preferable form of administration of the present invention is orally, by inhalation or parenterally, in contrast to topical sunscreen administration. The method of the present invention includes the step of diagnosing a group of subjects (e.g., humans) in danger of developing MS and identifying an MS patient or a perspective MS patient exhibiting at least one symptom of MS. Identification of a subject or patient appropriate for treatment of MS symptoms can be carried out based on standardized diagnostic criteria widely used by practicing physicians, especially in the first stages of the disease, such as the so-called Schumacher and Poser criteria (Compston A, Coles A, October 2008, Multiple sclerosis. Lancet 372 (9648): 1502-17; Trojano M, Paoliceili D, (2001) The differential diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: classification and clinical features of relapsing and progressive neurological syndromes. Neurol, Sci. 22 (Suppl 2): S98-102; Poser C M, Brinar V V (2004) Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: an historical review. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 108 (3): 147-58), or the McDonald criteria, which focus on a demonstration with clinical, laboratory and radiologic data of the dissemination of MS lesions in time and space (Compston A, Coles A, October 2008, Multiple sclerosis. Lancet 372 (9648): 1502-17; McDonald W I, Compston A, Edan G et al, (2001) Recommended diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines from the International Panel on the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 50 (1): 121-7; Polman C H, Reingold S C, Edan G et al., (2005) Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: 2005 revisions to the “McDonald Criteria”. Ann. Neurol, 58 (6): 840-6). The most commonly used diagnostic tools for MS are neuroimaging, analysis of cerebrospinal fluid and evoked potentials. In a positive diagnosis, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) of the brain and spine shows areas of demyelination (lesions or plaques). Gadolinium administered, as a contrast agent, to a patient with MS typically localizes in these “hot spots” or lesions, and can be easily identified with the use of MRI. The MRI of the lesions is one of the most efficient methods of diagnosing MS. Measuring the development of new lesions is also a critical and efficient method of monitoring the progression of MS. Alternatively, MS can be diagnosed with other known methods. For instance, an MS patient may respond less actively to stimulation of the optic nerve (which may be examined using visual and sensory evoked potentials) and sensory nerves due to demyelination of these nerve pathways (Gronseth G S, Ashman E J, (2000) Practice parameter: the usefulness of evoked potentials in identifying clinically silent lesions in patients with suspected multiple sclerosis (an evidence-based review): Report of the Quality Standards Subcommittee of the American Academy of Neurology. Neurology 54 (9): 1720-5). Chronic inflammation of the central nervous system can be demonstrated by an analysis of cerebrospinal fluid. The cerebrospinal fluid is tested for oligoclonai bands, which are present in 75-85% of people with MS (McDonald W I, Compston A, Edan G et al, (2001) Recommended diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines from the International Panel on the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. Ann. Neurol. 50 (1): 121-7; Link H, Huang Y M, (2008) Oligoclonai bands in multiple sclerosis cerebrospinal fluid: an update on methodology and clinical usefulness. J. Neuroimmunol. 180 (1-2): 17-28). In one embodiment, the method of diagnosing an MS patient or a perspective MS patient may include the steps of diagnosing or identifying a subject with one or more of a delay of onset of MS symptoms, with a reduction of peak of severity of MS symptoms, and/or with a decrease of the cumulative disease index (CDI). One would monitor the patient's MS symptoms and detect a reduction or delay in these symptoms. Most preferably, the development of new lesions in the subject would be monitored on a regular (i.e., semi-annual) basis via MRI. Further symptoms that may be monitored include those selected from the group consisting of changes in sensation (hypoesthesia and paraesthesia), muscle weakness, muscle spasms, or difficulty in moving; difficulties with coordination and balance (ataxia); problems in speech (dysarthria) or swallowing (dysphagia), visual problems (nystagmus, optic neuritis, or diplopia), fatigue, acute or chronic pain, and bladder and bowel difficulties. Cognitive impairment of varying degrees and emotional symptoms of depression or unstable mood are also common. One common clinical measure of disability progression and symptom severity is the Expanded Disability Status Scale or EDSS. In one embodiment, the patient's symptoms may include vision problems, dizziness, vertigo, sensory dysfunction, weakness, problems with coordination, loss of balance, fatigue, pain, neurocognitive deficits, mental health deficits, bladder dysfunction, bowel dysfunction, sexual dysfunction, heat sensitivity, muscle weakness/numbness, and/or paralysis. In one specific embodiment, the patient's symptom includes paralysis. In another embodiment, the patient's symptom includes muscle weakness/numbness. EAE (experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis, sometimes experimental allergic encephalomyelitis) is an animal model of brain inflammation and demyelinating disease of the central nervous system (CNS) that has been successful in developing useful therapeutic agents. The mouse model is widely studied as an animal model of the human CNS demyelinating diseases, including multiple sclerosis and acute disseminated encephalomyelitis (ADEM). After comparing the ingredients found in the sun blocks, Applicants identified a few possible differences in the ingredients and then narrowed in on four active ingredients in the effective sun blocks: avobenzone, oxybenzone, homosalate and octyl salicylate. Applicants treated EAE mice with each of these four compounds after induction of the disease and monitored progression of the disease. While avobenzone and oxybenzone slightly suppressed disease progression, homosalate and octyl salicylate almost completely prevented EAE development. In one embodiment, the present invention is a method of treating an MS patient, comprising the steps of identifying an MS patient or a prospective MS patient and treating the patient with an effective amount of a compound selected from the group consisting of octyl salicylate, homosalate and a mixture of octyl salicylate and homosalate, wherein MS symptoms are decreased or eliminated. As disclosed below, the amount of octyl salicylate, homosalate, or a mixture of octyl salicylate and homosalate is not the same as the amount that would be applied to an individual using sunscreen. In another embodiment, progression of disease symptoms is slowed or stalled. In one embodiment, the step of identifying an MS patient or a prospective MS patient may include any methods of identification as discussed above and/or any other methods known to one skilled in the art. For example, one can identify an MS patient or a prospective MS patient by monitoring one of the symptoms which are typical to an MS patient or a prospective MS patient. In one embodiment, one can monitor one or more symptoms including vision problems, dizziness, vertigo, sensory dysfunction, weakness, problems with coordination, loss of balance, fatigue, pain, neurocognitive deficits, mental health deficits, bladder dysfunction, bowel dysfunction, sexual dysfunction, heat sensitivity, muscle weakness/numbness, and/or paralysis. In one specific embodiment, the monitored symptom includes paralysis. In one specific embodiment, the monitored symptom is paralysis. In another embodiment, the monitored symptom includes muscle weakness/numbness. In another embodiment, the monitored symptom is muscle weakness/numbness. In one embodiment, the present application uses a composition or a formulation comprising at least one of octyl salicylate and homosalate, to prevent or suppress the progression of multiple sclerosis in a patient. In one embodiment, the present application may include at least one of octyl salicylate and homosalate as the sole active compounds for treating, preventing or suppressing the progression of multiple sclerosis in a patient. In another embodiment, the present application may include at least one of octyl salicylate and homosalate along with other active compounds for treating, preventing or suppressing the progression of multiple sclerosis in a patient. In one embodiment, the target patient may be a mammalian subject (primates (e.g., humans), cows, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, dogs, cats, rabbits, rats, mice and the like), or a human subject. In one embodiment, the patient is preferably a human being. In one embodiment, a patient of the human subject is suspected of having, or is or may be susceptible to a condition associated with multiple sclerosis. In one embodiment, the present application includes the step of identifying an MS patient or a prospective MS patient. For example, an MS patient or a prospective MS patient for the present application may be identified by monitoring one or more symptoms including vision problems, dizziness, vertigo, sensory dysfunction, weakness, problems with coordination, loss of balance, fatigue, pain, neurocognitive deficits, mental health deficits, bladder dysfunction, bowel dysfunction, sexual dysfunction, heat sensitivity, muscle weakness/numbness, and/or paralysis of the subject. In one embodiment, the step of identifying an MS patient or a prospective MS patient is by monitoring the symptom of paralysis or muscle weakness/numbness. In one embodiment, the step of identifying an MS patient or a prospective MS patient is by monitoring the symptom of paralysis. In one embodiment, the step of identifying an MS patient or a prospective MS patient is by monitoring the symptom of muscle weakness/numbness. In one embodiment, one can continue monitoring the symptom of the patient during the treatment process for the purpose of evaluation of the treatment. For example, a patient's symptom such as paralysis or muscle weakness/numbness may be monitored during the treatment so that the patient's treatment can be evaluated. As an example, the success of the treatment can be shown when occurrence of MS symptom is lessened or progression of the symptom is slowed or stalled after the treatment. After an MS patient or a prospective MS patient is identified, the MS patient or the prospective MS patient is treated with a therapeutically effective amount of a composition or formulation comprising a substance selected from the group consisting of homosalate, octyl salicylate and combinations of homosalate and octyl salicylate. In one embodiment, the substance selected from the group consisting of homosalate, octyl salicylate and combinations of homosalate and octyl salicylate is the only active substance used in the present application. Thus, the MS patient or the prospective MS patient is treated with a therapeutically effective amount of a substance selected from the group consisting of homosalate, octyl salicylate and combinations of homosalate and octyl salicylate. In another embodiment, the substance selected from the group consisting of homosalate, octyl salicylate and combinations of homosalate and octyl salicylate may be used as one of the active substances. Thus, the MS patient or the prospective MS patient is treated with a therapeutically effective amount of a composition or formulation comprising a substance selected from the group consisting of homosalate, octyl salicylate and combinations of homosalate and octyl salicylate. The composition or formulation may additionally include any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, pharmaceutically acceptable sterile aqueous or nonaqueous solutions, dispersions, suspensions or emulsions, adjuvants such as preservatives, wetting agents, emulsifying agents and dispersing agents, or other necessary substances. In one embodiment, the composition or formulation is either in solid dosage forms or liquid dosage forms. Liquid dosage forms may include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups and elixirs. In addition to the active compounds, the liquid dosage forms may contain inert diluents commonly used in the art such as, for example, water or other solvents, solubilizing agents and emulsifiers such as ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, dimethyl formamide, oils (in particular, cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ, olive, castor and sesame oils), glycerol, tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols, and fatty acid esters of sorbitan and mixtures thereof. Solid dosage forms may include capsules, tablets, pills, powders, and granules. In certain embodiments, solid dosage forms may contain from 1% to 95% (w/w) of a compound of the invention. In certain embodiments, the present compounds or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof, may be present in the solid dosage form in a range of from 5% to 70% (w/w). In such solid dosage forms, the active compound may be mixed with at least one inert, pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, such as sodium citrate or dicalcium phosphate and/or a), fillers or extenders such as starches, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and silicic acid; b) binders such as carboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, sucrose, and acacia; c) humectants such as glycerol; d) disintegrating agents such as agar-agar, calcium carbonate, potato or tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates, and sodium carbonate; e) solution retarding agents such as paraffin; f) absorption accelerators such as quaternary ammonium compounds; g) wetting agents such as cetyl alcohol and glycerol monostearate; h) absorbents such as kaolin and bentonite clay and i) lubricants such as talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solid polyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate and mixtures thereof. In the case of capsules, tablets and pills, the dosage form may also comprise buffering agents. Dosage forms for topical administration of the compounds and the formulation described herein include powders, sprays, ointments, and inhalants. The active compound may be mixed under sterile conditions with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and any needed preservatives, buffers or propellants which may be required. Ophthalmic formulations, eye ointments, powders and solutions are also contemplated as being within the scope of this invention. A compound of the invention may also be administered in sustained release forms or from sustained release drug delivery systems. In one embodiment, the compounds, compositions and the formulations may be administered by a method of oral, parenteral, intranasal, inhaler, sublingual, rectal, intracisternal, and transdermal, intravaginal, intraperitoneal, topically (as by powders, ointments or drops), bucal or as an oral or nasal spray administrations. In one embodiment, the compounds, compositions and the formulations may be administered by oral, parenteral or topical method. In one embodiment, the compounds, compositions and the formulations may be administered topically. In some embodiments, the dose of the invention regarding homosalate and/or octisalate is at least about 0.1 g/kg per body weight. In other embodiments, the dose of the invention regarding homosalate and/or octisalate is at least about 0.1, 0.15, 0.2, 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.45, 0.5, 0.55, 0.6, 0.65, 0.7, 0.75, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9, 0.95, 1.0, 1.05, 1.1, 1.15, 1.2, 1.25, 1.3, 1.35, 1.4, 1.45, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5 or 15 g/kg per body weight. In further embodiments, the dose of the invention regarding homosalate and/or octisalate is between about 0.5 to about 15 g/kg per body weight. In other embodiments, the dose of the invention regarding homosalate and/or octisalate is between about 0.5-14, 1-10, 2-10, 1-8, 1-5 or 0.5 -2 g/kg per body weight. In one embodiment, homosalate and/or octisalate is administered as the only active ingredient in a composition or formulation as discussed above. For example, a composition of homosalate and/or octisalate may be administered to a MS patient or a perspective patient. The composition of homosalate and/or octisalate may be combined with other components such as any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, pharmaceutically acceptable sterile aqueous or nonaqueous solutions, dispersions, suspensions or emulsions, adjuvants such as preservatives, wetting agents, emulsifying agents and dispersing agents, or other necessary substances. In one embodiment, Applicants envision homosalate and/or octisalate may be administered as one of the multiple active ingredients for treating MS. For example, Applicants envision that homosalate and/or octisalate may be used with other MS treatment protocols such as cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors and others In one embodiment, the method of using the compounds, compositions and the formulations as discussed above for treating MS is dose-dependent. For example, to achieve a better treatment of MS, 0.8, 0.85, 0.9, 0.95, 1.0, 1.05, 1.1, 1.15, 1.2, 1.25, 1.3, 1.35, 1.4, 1.45, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5 or 15 g/kg per body weight of homosalate and/or octisalate may be administered to a MS patient or a perspective MS patient. Preferably, 1.0, 1.05, 1.1, 1.15, 1.2, 1.25, 1.3, 1.35, 1.4, 1.45, 1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5, 4, 4.5, 5, 5.5, 6, 6.5, 7, 7.5, 8, 8.5, 9, 9.5, 10, 10.5, 11, 11.5, 12, 12.5, 13, 13.5, 14, 14.5 or 15 g/kg per body weight of homosalate and/or octisalate may be administered to a MS patient or a perspective MS patient. FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C and 8D show dose dependent suppression of EAE by homosalate (HS) and octisalate (OS). FIGS. 8A and 8B: Mice were treated with various doses (10, 20 and 30 μl or 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 g/kg) of homosalate or octisalate topically. The mean score (FIG. 8A) and body weights (FIG. 8B) were recorded. FIGS. 8C and 8D, Mice treated with homosalate (30 μl or 1.5 g/kg) topically at various times. Daily mean score (FIG. 8C) and body weight (FIG. 8D) were recorded. Data are expressed as mean value. In FIG. 8A, all treatment groups were significantly different from control (p<0.05). In FIG. 8B, all treatments except homosalate 0.5 g/kg were significantly different from control (p<0.05); In FIGS. 8C and 8D, the mean scores of homosalate every day and every 2-day were significantly lower than control (p<0.05). Preferred Patients A preferred patient of the present invention is an MS patient who exhibits at least one of the following autonomic, visual, motor, or sensory symptom: loss of sensitivity or changes in sensation such as tingling, numbness, muscle weakness, very pronounced reflexes, muscle spasms, or difficulty in moving; difficulties with coordination and balance (ataxia); problems with speech or swallowing, visual problems (nystagmus, optic neuritis or double vision), feeling tired, acute or chronic pain, bladder and bowel difficulties, confused thinking, emotional problems such as depression or unstable mood, Uhthoff's phenomenon (a worsening of symptoms due to exposure to higher than usual temperatures) or Lhermitte's sign (an electrical sensation that runs down the back when bending the neck). One may also wish to measure therapeutic outcome by using conventional MS monitoring rubrics. For example, disability and severity can be measured by the expanded disability status scale (EDSS) or the multiple sclerosis functional composite. Magnetic resonance may also be used to show a reduction in new lesions in the nervous system. The definition of “symptom” includes all these parameters. Another preferred patient of the present invention is a patient in danger of developing MS or a “prospective patient.” Preferred patients may be pediatric patients, geriatric patients or adult patients. Preferred patients may be either male or female. Preferred Therapeutic Compositions The method of the present invention requires exposing a patient to octyl salicylate, homosalate or a combination of both. Octyl salicylate; 2-ethylhexyl salicylate; 2-ethylhexyl 2-hydroxybenzoate; ethyl hexyl salicylate; 2-ethylhexyl ester salicylic acid; salicylic acid, 2-ethylhexyl ester; benzoic acid, 2-hydroxy-, 2-ethylhexyl ester; 2-ethylhexyl ester benzoic acid, 2-hydroxy-; 2-hydroxy-2-ethylhexyl ester benzoic acid; or octisalate, is an ester formed by the condensation of a salicylic acid with 2-ethylhexanoloften and is used as an ingredient in sun screens and cosmetics to absorb UVB (ultraviolet) rays from the sun. It is typically found as a colorless oily liquid with a slight floral odor. Octyl salicylate can be obtained from Spectrum Chemical MFG. Corp. (New Brunswick, N.J.). The salicylate portion of the molecule absorbs ultraviolet light, protecting skin from the harmful effects of exposure to sunlight. The ethylhexanol portion is a fatty alcohol, adding emollient and oil-like (water resistant) properties. The formula for octyl salicylate is presented below: Homosalate, or 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexyl 2-hydrobenzoate, is an ester formed from salicylic acid and 3,3,5-trimethylcyclohexanol, a derivative of cyclohexanol. The compound is contained in 45% of U.S. sunscreens and is sometimes used as a chemical UV filter. The salicylic acid portion of the molecule absorbs ultraviolet rays with a wavelength from 295 nm to 315 nm, protecting the skin from sun damage. The hydrophobic cyclohexanol portion provides greasiness that prevents it from dissolving in water. Homosalate can be obtained from Spectrum Chemical MFG. Corp. (New Brunswick, N.J.). The formula for homosalate is presented below: Preferred Methods of Administration The compounds may be introduced to a patient in a variety of administrative modes. Preferable administration may be topical, intravenous, oral, parenteral, or via inhalation. Other modes of administration will also be within the scope of the present invention. The Examples below disclose an effective topical dose in a mouse model of 1.5 g/kg each day for homosalate and 0.5 g/kg daily for octyl salicylate. The corresponding human dose would be in the range of 0.1 to 5 g/kg body weight. We predict an effective dose range of 0.1 to 2 g/kg body weight for homosalate and 0.1 to 1 g/kg body weight for octyl salicylate. An oral, inhalation or parenteral dose will typically be similar to a topical dose. A preferred dose will achieve an effective systemic concentration of the compound. EXAMPLE 1 Materials and Methods Animals and Diet. Female C57BL/6 mice (8-9 weeks old) purchased from Jackson Laboratory were fed a standard lab diet chow 5008 (Purina Mills, Richmond, Ind.) and maintained in the Department of Biochemistry's vivarium. The mice were exposed to 12 h light-dark cycles. All procedures were approved by the Research Animal Resources Committee of the College of Agricultural & Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison. The mice were randomly divided into groups for different treatment (12 mice/group). Sunscreen and Active Ingredients Treatment Mice were shaved on their back to receive sunscreen or NBUVB radiation. The following Sunscreen cream or spray was used in our study (See Appendix A): 1. Coppertone spray (SPF 50, MSD Consumer Care, Inc., Memphis, Tenn.); 2. Coppertone water babies (SPF 50, MSD Consumer Care, Inc., Memphis, Tenn.); 3. Hawaiian Tropic (SPF 50, Energizer Personal Care, LLC, Shelton, Conn.); 4. Kiss my face (SPF 50, Kiss My Face, LLC, Gardiner, N.Y.); 5. Blue Lizard Australian Sunscreen (SPF 30, Crown Laboratories, Johnson, Tenn.); 6. Banana Boat Kids (SPF 50, Energizer Personal Care, LLC, Shelton, Conn.); 7. CoTZ Face (SPF40, CoTZ Skincare, West Norriton, Pa.). The sunscreen was applied manually to cover the shaved skin daily depending on the experimental schedule. Four main active ingredients (avobenzone; oxibenzone; homosalate; octyl salicylate) were purchased from Spectrum Chemical MFG. Corp. (New Brunswick, N.J.). The total dose of each ingredient administrated topically on each mouse skin was equal to the amount of the ingredient in the sunscreen. Narrow Band UVB (NBUVB) Treatment For NBUVB treatment, a set of four TL20W/01 UVB 311 narrow band 2 Ft bulbs (wavelength centered at 311 nm-313 nm, Amjo Corp, West Chester, Ohio) were used. The radiation output was measured by using a UV radiometer equipped with a 302-nm sensor (UVP LLC, Upland, Calif.). Mice were put into a 16-chamber Plexiglas cage individually to receive daily UV radiation from day 7 prior to immunization to day 30 after immunization. Each mouse was rotated in the different chamber to avoid uneven UV radiation in the experiment. EAE Induction In this experiment, mice were immunized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide (MOG)35-55. MOG35-55 kit (EK-2110) was purchased from Hooke lab (Lawrence, Mass.). Each mouse was immunized with subcutaneous injection of 20 μl MOG35-55/CFA emulsion and intraperitoneally injection with 200 ng of pertussis toxin (List Biological Laboratories) diluted in sterile PBS. The second booster pertussis toxin injection was given 48 hours later. Each mouse was scored daily for clinical signs of EAE using the following scale: 0, no clinical disease; 1, loss of tail tone; 2, unsteady gait; 3, hind limb paralysis; 4, forelimb paralysis; 5, death. Statistical Analysis Onset was calculated by averaging the first day when clinical signs appeared and continued for at least 2 days. Mean severity was determined by averaging the clinical scores during the entire experiment. The CDI (clinical disease index) was calculated by summing the clinical scores in each animal and divided by the number of mice per group. Statistical analyses were performed using the two-tailed Fisher exact probability test for incidence, the Mann-Whitney nonparametric u test for clinical scores, and the unpaired Student t test for all other measurements. A value of P<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results FIGS. 9A, 9B, 9C, 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D, 10E and 10F show the protective effect of various sun screens on mice from developing EAE, although the sunscreens protect at different levels. Testing individual sunscreen ingredients demonstrate that homosalate and octyl salicylate components provide the protection. Referring to FIG. 1, our data demonstrate that topical application of sunscreen protects mice from EAE progression. Mice received topical application of sunscreen, NBUVB or both after immunization with MOG35-55/CFA emulsion. Each mouse was scored daily after EAE during the entire experiment. Data are expressed as mean value, N=10-12/group. Referring to FIGS. 2A and 2B, we analyzed different sunscreen ingredients. Avobenzone and oxybenzone partially suppress EAE severity in mice. Mice were treated with ingredients (avobenzone, oxybenzone or combination) of sunscreen by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray 200 μl was also used as a positive control. Each mouse was scored daily and weighed weekly during the experiment (30 days). Data are expressed as mean value, N=10-12/group. Referring to FIGS. 3A and 3B, sunscreen ingredients (homosalate and octyl salicylate) dramatically suppress EAE development in mice without affecting body weight. Mice were treated with ingredients (homosalate, octyl salicylate or combination) of sunscreen by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray 200 μl daily was used as a positive control. Mice were scored daily and weighed weekly. Data were expressed as mean value, N=10-12/group. Table 1, below, summarized the effect of different sunscreen ingredients on EAE mice. TABLE 1 Mean Treatment Incidence Day of onset Severity CDI Control 100% (12/12) 16 ± 1 2.5 ± 0.8 42 ± 1 Homosalate 8% (1/12) * 22 ± 0 * 1.3 ± 0.0 * 1 ± 0 * octyl salicylate 75% (9/12) 18 ± 3 * 2.0 ± 0.8 * 20 ± 1 * Homo + Octi 0% (0/12) * 0 ± 0 * 0.0 ± 0.0 * 0 ± 0 * Sunscreen 0% (0/11) * 0 ± 0 * 0.0 ± 0.0 * 0 ± 0 * Data were expressed as mean ± SD. N = 11-12; * P < 0.05 vs Control. EXAMPLE 2 Salate derivatives found in sunscreens block experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis in mice Abstract Ultraviolet light (UV) suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE, an animal model of MS) in mice and may be responsible for decreased incidence of MS in equatorial regions. To test this concept further, we applied commercially available sunblock preparations to mice before exposure to UV light. Surprisingly, some of the sunblock preparations blocked EAE without UV light. Further, various sunblock preparations had variable ability to suppress EAE. By examining the components of the most effective agents, we found that homosalate and octisalate were the components responsible for suppressing EAE. Salates therefore maybe useful in stopping the progression of MS and may provide new insight into mechanisms of controlling autoimmune disease. Significance Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease that is difficult to manage and for which there is no cure. We have discovered that certain specific sunblock preparations can prevent the development of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), a widely used animal model of MS. Salate esters in the sunblock preparations were found responsible for preventing EAE. This suggests that the salate esters may be of value in arresting the symptoms of MS. Introduction Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disease of the central nervous system (CNS), affecting 2.5 million people worldwide(1). In 1974, Agranoff and Goldberg observed that the incidence of MS is inversely related to the sun exposure in both hemispheres (2). Goldberg suggested that increased vitamin D production caused by sunlight exposure may be responsible for the reduction of MS incidence(3). However, more recent results have made this hypothesis unlikely and instead a narrow band of UVB (NBUVB) light at 300-315 nanometers has been shown to suppress experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), the animal model of MS(4). This narrow band of light does not cause synthesis of Vitamin D from 7-Dehydrocholesterol(5). During the course of our studies we used commercial sunblock preparations presumably to prevent the suppression of EAE by NBUVB. Quite unexpectedly some sunblock preparations themselves completely prevented EAE without UV light. Further, commercial sunblock preparations varied widely in their ability to suppress EAE. By examining the components of the preparations, we found that two components were responsible for suppression of EAE. These two components are esters of salicylic acid i.e. homosalate and octisalate. We now report these findings. Results Topical application of sunscreen (Coppertone Spray) completely suppressed EAE development. When mice were treated with NBUVB, the average disease severity was dramatically decreased similar to previous studies (FIG. 4A). Sunscreen application prior to NBUVB did not prevent the suppression by NBUVB (FIG. 4A and 4C). The body weight changes observed in these animals was consistent in the disease outcome (FIG. 4B). Surprisingly, topical administration of sunscreen itself completely blocked EAE (FIG. 4C). Commercial sunscreens differ markedly in their ability to suppress EAE. When 6 brands of sunscreen were tested on EAE, only 4 brands (HAWAIIAN TROPIC, COPPERTONE, KISS MY FACE, BLUE LIZARD) produced a significant suppression (FIG. 5A), the remaining two brands of sunscreen (BANANA BOAT, COTZ FACE) were without effect (FIG. 5A). To be sure that the effect of the sunscreen simply did not prevent a total block of all wavelengths, total darkness (−7 to 30 days) was tested and was without effect on EAE regardless of when it was initiated (FIG. 5B). Interestingly, additional testing indicated that sunscreen application was necessary at the time of immunization (FIG. 6A). The body weights were slightly but significantly higher in mice receiving treatment with sunscreen either prior to or at the time of immunization (FIG. 6B). The suppression of disease by sunscreen was dose-dependent (FIG. 6C) and increased body weights correlated with the improvement of disease (FIG. 6D). Homosalate and octisalate were the ingredients that caused EAE suppression; Avobenzone and oxybenzone produced only slight suppression of EAE. A dose of 30 μl homosalate (1.5 g/kg) and 10 μl octisalate (0.5 g/kg) were calculated to be the amount delivered by Coppertone Spray sunscreen. This quantity was applied to the mice. Sunscreen spray at 200 μl (containing homosalate 15%, octisalate 5%) was applied to EAE mice as a positive control. The results showed that homosalate only and a combination of homosalate and octisalate dramatically suppressed EAE severity. (FIG. 7C and Table 1). Octisalate at the dose of 0.5 g/kg produced a moderate suppression but did not reach statistical significance (FIG. 7C and Table 1). The degree of the disease was reflected in body weight (FIG. 7D). The other two ingredients (avobenzone and oxybenzone) and the combination produced little to no significant suppression of EAE (FIG. 7A) and no significant change in body weight (FIG. 7B). Homosalate and octisalate suppression was dose dependent. When tested at three different doses (0.5, 1.0, 1.5 g/kg), both homosalate and octisalate exhibited dose-dependent suppression of EAE (FIG. 8A). With the exception of the lowest dose of homosalate, all treatments increased the body weight (FIG. 8B). When homosalate was applied less frequently than each day, its effectiveness diminished (FIGS. 8C and 8D). Discussion Because UV light and especially narrow band UV light can suppress EAE, it was surprising to find that sunblock creams could prevent the development of EAE even in the absence of UV light. On closer examination it became clear that not all sun block preparations possess this property. Further, complete absence of light was without effect on EAE. We thus focused on the component(s) of the active sunblock preparations. The suppression of EAE by the active sunblock preparations was traced to two salate esters i.e. homosalate and octasalate. When tested directly both salates were equally active at ca 1.5 g/kg in suppressing EAE. It is likely that these compounds are not acting by blocking or absorbing UV light. Simply keeping mice in a complete absence of light did not affect the development of EAE. Further, some sunscreens that are effective as sun blockers do not suppress EAE. Only sunblocks that contain salate esters are effective and the salates themselves clearly block EAE. The only adverse effect of the homosalate and octisalate is a temporary mild skin irritation. A topical dose of 1.5 g/kg of homosalate, which completely blocked EAE, is below the unpublished acute dermal toxicity (LD50>5 g/kg for rabbits). The complete suppression of EAE by topical administration of homosalate and octisalate is a novel finding. Salicylates are well-known nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)(6). The anti-inflammatory effect of homosalate has been demonstrated in another study by using the ear edema test in mice(7). A related compound, aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid, ASA) is a traditional anti-inflammatory pharmaceutical (8). The relationship between aspirin and MS was studied in 1961 without a significant difference between the control and treated group(9). There has not been a direct study of aspirin and MS development. Inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) is the primary mechanism of NSAID(10). COX-2 has been observed in MS lesions(11). Recently, cyclooxygenase (COX) inhibitors, have shown significant suppression of EAE(12, 13). It is clear that we have no explanation of how the salates prevent EAE. However, this finding presents a clear opportunity to explore not only mechanisms but also new approaches to therapy of MS. Materials and Methods Animal Husbandry. Female C57BL/6 mice (8-10 weeks old) purchased from Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Me.) were fed a standard lab chow 5008 (Purina Mills, Richmond, Ind.). The mice were exposed to 12 h light-dark cycles. In one experiment the animals were kept in darkness at all times. All procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the College of Agricultural & Life Sciences, University of Wisconsin-Madison. EAE Induction Mice were immunized with MOG35-55 kit (EK-2110, purchased from Hooke lab (Lawrence, Mass.)). Each mouse was immunized with a subcutaneous injection of 20 μl MO35-55/CFA emulsion and an intraperitoneal injection with 200 ng of pertussis toxin (List Biological Laboratories) diluted in sterile PBS(14). A second booster pertussis toxin injection was given 48 hours later. Each mouse was scored daily for clinical signs of EAE using the following scale: 0, no clinical disease; 1, loss of tail tone; 2, unsteady gait; 3, hindlimb paralysis; 4, forelimb paralysis; 5, death(15). Sunscreens and Active Ingredients Treatment Sunscreen creams or spray applied topically to the shaved back skin of the mice daily are shown below (Table 2): 1. BANANA BOAT KIDS(SPF 50, Energizer Personal Care, LLC, Shelton, Conn.); 2. BLUE LIZARD AUSTRALIAN SUNSCREEN (SPF 30, Crown Laboratories, Johnson, Tenn.) 3. COPPERTONE SPRAY (SPF 50, MSD Consumer Care, Inc., Memphis, Tenn.); 4. COTZ FACE (SPF40, CoTZ Skincare, West Norriton, Pa.); 5. HAWAIIAN TROPIC (SPF 50, Energizer Personal Care, LLC, Shelton, Conn.); 6. KISS MY FACE (SPF 50, Kiss My Face, LLC, Gardiner, N.Y.). Each sunscreen was applied daily to cover the shaved skin (100-200 μl). Avobenzone, oxibenzone, homosalate, and octisalate were purchased from Spectrum Chemical Mfg. Corp. (New Brunswick, N.J.). Avobenzone and oxibenzone were dissolved in DMSO. Homosalate and octisalate were applied directly. The total dose of each ingredient administrated topically on each mouse skin was equal to the amount provided by the respective sunscreen. TABLE 2 Sunscreen brands tested. Trade name SPF Active Ingredients Banana Boat Kids 50 Titanium dioxide 3.1%, Zinc oxide 4.0% Blue Lizard 30 Octinoxate 7.5%, Octicrylen 2.0%, Oxybenzone 3.0%, Zinc oxide 6.0% Coppertone (Spray) 50 Avobenzone 3.0%, Homosalate 15.0%, Octisalate 5.0% CoTZ Face 40 Titanium dioxide 8.0%, Zinc oxide 3.8% Hawaiian Tropic 50 Avobenzone 2.7%, Homosalate 8.0%, Octisalate 4.5%, Octocrylen 5.0% Kiss My Face 50 Avobenzone 4.0%, Homosalate 5.0%, Octinoxate 7.5%, Octisalate 5.0%, Zinc oxide 1.7% Narrow Band UVB (NBUVB) Treatment For NBUVB treatment, a set of four TL20W/01 UVB 311 narrow band 2 ft. bulbs (wavelength centered at 311-313 nm, Amjo Corp, West Chester, Ohio) were used daily at (10 KJ/m2) (14). The radiation output was measured using a UV radiometer equipped with a 302-nm sensor (UVP LLC, Upland, Calif.). A 16-chamber Plexiglass cage was used for daily UV radiation. Each chamber contained one mouse. The mice were rotated through the different chambers so that each mouse received equal light exposure. The mice were UV radiated beginning at the same day of immunization continuing through 30 days post immunization. REFERENCES 1. Compston A & Coles A (2002) Multiple sclerosis. Lancet (London, England) 359(9313):1221-1231. 2. Agranoff B W & Goldberg D (1974) Diet and the geographical distribution of multiple sclerosis. Lancet (London, England) 2(7888):1061-1066. 3. Goldberg P (1974) Multiple sclerosis: vitamin D and calcium as environmental determinants of prevalence. International Journal of Environmental Studies 6(1):19-27. 4. Wang Y, et al. (2013) Suppression of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis by 300-315 nm ultraviolet light. Archives of biochemistry and biophysics 536(1):81-86. 5. MacLaughlin J A, Anderson R R, & Holick M F (1982) Spectral character of sunlight modulates photosynthesis of previtamin D3 and its photoisomers in human skin. Science (New York, N.Y.) 216(4549):1001-1003. 6. Paulus H E & Whitehouse M W (1973) Nonsteroid anti-inflammatory agents. Annual review of pharmacology 13:107-125. 7. Couteau C, Chauvet C, Paparis E, & Coiffard L (2012) UV filters, ingredients with a recognized anti-inflammatory effect. PloS one 7(12):e46187. 8. Tsau S, Emerson M R, Lynch S G, & LeVine S M (2015) Aspirin and multiple sclerosis. BMC medicine 13:153. 9. Miller H, Newell D J, & Ridley A (1961) Multiple sclerosis. Trials of maintenance treatment with prednisolone and soluble aspirin. Lancet (London, England) 1(7169):127-129. 10. Farah A E & Rosenberg F (1980) Potential therapeutic applications of aspirin and other cyclo-oxygenase inhibitors. British journal of clinical pharmacology 10 Suppl 2:261s-278s. 11. Rose J W, Hill K E, Watt H E, & Carlson N G (2004) Inflammatory cell expression of cyclooxygenase-2 in the multiple sclerosis lesion. Journal of neuroimmunology 149(1-2):40-49. 12. Miyamoto K, et al. (2006) Selective COX-2 inhibitor celecoxib prevents experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis through COX-2-independent pathway. Brain: a journal of neurology 129(Pt 8):1984-1992. 13. Marusic S, et al. (2008) Blockade of cytosolic phospholipase A2 alpha prevents experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis and diminishes development of Th1 and Th17 responses. Journal of neuroimmunology 204(1-2):29-37. 14. Wang Y, Marling S J, Martino V M, Prahl J M, & Deluca H F (2016) The absence of 25-hydroxyvitamin D3-1alpha-hydroxylase potentiates the suppression of EAE in mice by ultraviolet light. The Journal of steroid biochemistry and molecular biology. 15. Becklund B R, Severson K S, Vang S V, & DeLuca H F (2010) UV radiation suppresses experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis independent of vitamin D production. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 107(14):6418-6423. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Multiple sclerosis (MS), the most common autoimmune disorder affecting the central nervous system, is a demyelinating disease in which the insulating covers of nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord are damaged. The disease affects the ability of parts of the nervous system to communicate and results in physical, mental, and sometimes psychiatric problems. For example, MS patients often have vision disorders, such as blindness in one eye or double vision. Patients also exhibit muscle weakness, trouble with sensation, and trouble with coordination. The underlying mechanism of MS progression is thought to be either destruction by the immune system or failure of the myelin-producing cells. The cause of the disease is not known, but may include genetics and environmental factors such as viral infections. MS is usually diagnosed based on analysis of a patient's symptoms and the results of supporting medical tests. Unfortunately, there is no known cure for multiple sclerosis. Current treatments attempt to improve symptoms after an attack and prevent new attacks. Medications used to treat MS are only modestly effective and can have side effects and be poorly tolerated. Physical therapy can help with a patient's ability to function. Because of the lack of good alternatives, many patients pursue unproven alternative treatments. Life expectancy is 5 to 10 years lower than that of an unaffected population. [2] Needed in the art are new therapeutic compounds for effective MS treatment. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>FIG. 1 discloses experiments showing that topical application of sunscreen protects mice from EAE progression. Mice received topical application of sunscreen, NBUVB or both. Each mouse was scored daily after EAE during the entire experiment (day 0-day 28) and data are expressed as mean value. N=10-12/group. FIGS. 2A and 2B are a set of graphs showing the effect of specific sunscreen ingredients on EAE. Ingredients (avobenzone and oxybenzone) of sunscreen partially suppress EAE severity in mice. FIG. 2A : Analysis of different sunscreen ingredients. Avobenzone and oxybenzone partially suppress EAE severity in mice. Mice were treated with sunscreen ingredients (avobenzone, oxybenzone or combination) by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray was used as a positive control. Each mouse was scored daily and data are expressed as mean values. N=10-12/group. FIG. 2B : Body weights of mice that were administered different sunscreen ingredients. Mice were treated with sunscreen ingredients (avobenzone, oxybenzone or combination) by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray was also used as a positive control. Each mouse was weighed weekly during the experiment and data are expressed as mean value. N=10-12/group. FIGS. 3A and 3B are a set of graphs showing the effect of sunscreen ingredients on EAE. FIG. 3A : Sunscreen ingredients (homosalate and octyl salicylate) dramatically suppress EAE development in mice. Mice were treated with sunscreen ingredients (homosalate, octyl salicylate or combination) by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray was used as a positive control. Mice were scored daily and data are expressed as mean value. N=11-12/group. FIG. 3B : Body weights of mice administered different sunscreen ingredients. Mice were treated with sunscreen ingredients (homosalate, octyl salicylate or combination) by topical administration daily during EAE (day 0-day 30). Sunscreen spray was used as a positive control. Mice were weighed weekly and data are expressed as mean value. N=11-12/group. FIGS. 4A, 4B, and 4C show that topical application of COPPERTONE SPRAY sunscreen (SS) completely blocks EAE. FIG. 4A : Topical application of sunscreen prior to NBUVB. Mean score was recorded daily after induction of EAE. FIG. 4B : Body weights were measured weekly. FIG. 4C : Topical application of sunscreen with or without NBUVB completely blocked EAE development. Mean score was measured daily after immunization. Data are expressed as mean±SEM in FIGS. 4A and 4C ; Data are expressed as mean±SD in FIG. 4B . All treatment groups in FIGS. 4A, 4B and 4C were statistically different from control group (n=12, p<0.05). FIGS. 5A and 5B show that commercial sunscreen preparations differentially block EAE while darkness itself does not. FIG. 5A : Six different sunscreens were topically administered daily and mean score recorded. FIG. 5B : The effect of total darkness on EAE was determined. Treated mice were kept in total darkness for various periods as shown in the legend. Mean score was measured daily. Data are expressed as mean values in FIGS. 5A and 5B . All treatment groups in panel A except BANANA BOAT KIDS and CoTZ FACE were statistically different from control (n=12, P<0.05). No statistical differences were found amongst the groups in panel B (n=12). FIGS. 6A, 6B, 6C and 6D show that the suppression of EAE by COPPERTONE SPRAY sunscreen (SS) is both time and dose dependent. FIG. 6A : Disease scores in relation to time of administration of Coppertone Spray sunscreen. Mean score was determined daily. Mice were treated topically with SS 200 μl daily for entire experiment (day 30) with various starting treatment time. Pretreatment: treatment started at day −7 before immunization; Immunization: treatment started at time of immunization; onset: treatment initiated when animals first exhibited a score ≧1.0. FIG. 6B : Body weights determined each week. FIG. 6C : Dose-dependent suppression of EAE by Coppertone Spray sunscreen. FIG. 6D : Body weight was determined weekly. Data are expressed as mean±SEM in FIGS. 6A & 6C , mean±SD in FIGS. 6B & 6D . Pretreatment and Immunization treatments were significantly different from control group in panels A and B (n=12, p<0.05). The two highest levels of SS (50 and 100 μl) were significantly different from control in panels C&D (n=12, p<0.05). FIGS. 7A, 7B, 7C and 7D show that two ingredients of effective sunscreen (Homosalate and octisalate) significantly suppress EAE. Two other ingredients (avobenzone and oxybenzone) fail to suppress EAE. FIGS. 7A and 7B : Mice were treated with a solution of (12% avobenzone, 16% oxybenzone or combination in 25 μl of DMSO) topically each day. Sunscreen (Coppertone spray) (100 μl) was used as a positive control. Each mouse was scored daily ( FIG. 7A ) and weighed weekly ( FIG. 7B ) during the experiment. FIGS. 7C and 7D : Mice were treated with two ingredients (30 μl homosalate (1.5 g/kg), 10 μl octisalate (0.5 g/kg) and combination) topically. COPPERTONE SPRAY sunscreen 200 μl was used as a positive control. Mean score ( FIG. 7C ) and body weight ( FIG. 7D ) were recorded. Data are expressed as mean value. In FIGS. 7A&7B , all groups were significantly different from the sunscreen group (n=12, p<0.05). In FIGS. 7C and 7D , all treatment groups except octisalate alone were significantly different from the control groups (p<0.05). FIGS. 8A, 8B, 8C and 8D show dose dependent suppression of EAE by homosalate (HS) and octisalate (OS). FIGS. 8A and 8B : Mice were treated with various doses (10, 20 and 30 μl or 0.5, 1.0, 1.5 g/kg) of homosalate or octisalate topically. The mean score ( FIG. 8A ) and body weights ( FIG. 8B ) were recorded. FIGS. 8C and 8D , Mice treated with homosalate (30 μl or 1.5 g/kg) topically at various times. Daily mean score ( FIG. 8C ) and body weight ( FIG. 8D ) were recorded. Data are expressed as mean value. In FIG. 8A , all treatment groups were significantly different from control (p<0.05). In FIG. 8B , all treatments except homosalate 0.5 g/kg were significantly different from control (p<0.05); In FIGS. 8C and 8D , the mean scores of homosalate every day and every 2-day were significantly lower than control (p<0.05). FIGS. 9A, 9B, and 9C show that all of the tested sunscreens protect the mice from developing EAE. FIGS. 10A, 10B, 10C, 10D, 10E and 10F show that all of the tested sunscreens protect the mice from developing EAE. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | A61K31618 | 20170707 | 20180118 | 72623.0 | A61K31618 | 0 | VU, JAKE MINH | USE OF HOMOSALATE AND OCTYL SALICYLATE TO TREAT MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,644,107 | PENDING | THIOHYDANTOIN ANDROGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS FOR THE TREATMENT OF CANCER | Disclosed are compounds, compositions and methods for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) wherein R1, G, R10, and R11 are defined herein. | 1. A method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof, selected from the group consisting of 5-[4,4-dimethyl-3-[4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-2-thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-tetrahydropyran-4-yl-benzamide; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(tetrahydropyran-4-ylmethyl)benzamide; 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N,2-dimethyl-benzamide; 5-[8-[4-(1,1-dioxothian-4-yl)oxyphenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-(7-isoquinolyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-piperazin-1-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 5-[5-oxo-8-(3-pyridyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-[2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-fluorophenyl)benzamide; 4-[3-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5,5-dimethyl-4-oxo-2-thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide; 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydrothiopyran-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl)benzamide; 5-[8-(2-naphthyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[4,4-dimethyl-3-[4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-2-thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-8-(3-phenoxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N-(cyclopentylmethyl)-2-fluoro-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-morpholinoethyl)benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-isopropyl-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-methoxypropyl)benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N-methyl-benzenesulfonamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[(5-methyl-2-furyl)methyl]benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-isopentyl-benzamide; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(p-tolyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[4-[(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; N-[(2-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[2-(2-pyridyl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-thienylmethyl)benzamide; 5-[8-(1-naphthyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(4-piperidyloxy)phenyl]-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; N-benzyl-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl]benzamide; 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl]-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(difluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-hydroxypropyl)benzamide; ethyl 2-[[4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzoyflamino]acetate; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-phenethyl-benzamide; 5-[8-[4-[3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)propyl]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-pyridylmethyl)benzamide; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-methylpyrazol-3-yl)benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-methoxyethyl)benzamide; 5-[8-(2-fluoro-4-hydroxy-phenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[2-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(5-methyl-2-furyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[4-[[1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-piperidyl]oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; N-[(4-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(pyrazin-2-ylmethyl)benzamide; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(3-pyrrolidin-1-ylpropoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-pyrimidin-2-ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-phenylpropyl)benzamide; N-butyl-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-thienylmethyl)benzamide; 5-[8-[4-[[1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-piperidyl]oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[4-[(1-ethyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-thiazol-2-yl-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N-[3-[cyclopentyl(methyl)amino]propyl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; 4-[7-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-6-oxo-8-thioxo-7,9-diazaspiro[4.4]nonan-9-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-pyrrolidin-1-ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-pyridylmethyl)benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-propyl-benzamide; 5-[8-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-(5-oxo-8-phenyl-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-morpholinopropyl)benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-phenyl-benzamide; N-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(6-methyl-3-pyridyl)benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-furylmethyl)benzamide; 5-[8-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; N-(3-chlorophenyl)-4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; 5-[8-(3-cyanophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[3-(hydroxymethyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; ethyl 4-[[4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzoyflamino]butanoate; 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(4-piperidyloxy)phenyl]-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(4-fluorophenyl)benzamide; 5-[8-[4-(2-furyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-5-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-(3-fluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[2-fluoro-4-[2-(1-piperidyl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-(1H-indazol-5-yl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-5-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-(4-fluoro-2-methoxy-phenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; N-[(3-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide; 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[3-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl]-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-6, 8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carb e; 5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(2-pyridyloxy)phenyl]-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[4-(5-fluoro-3-pyridyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-piperazin-1-ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6, 8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-(2,3-difluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-2-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)propyl]benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)benzamide; 5-[4,4-dimethyl-5-oxo-3-(p-tolyl)-2-thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-prop-2-ynyl-benzamide; 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(5-fluoro-3-pyridyl)benzamide; 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(5-methyl-3-pyridyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-methyl-phenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-methoxy-N-methyl-benzamide; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-pyrrolidin-1-ylpropyl)benzamide; 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(2-methyl-3-pyridyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 5-[8-(4-cyanophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl]benzamide; and 5-[8-[4-[(1-methylsulfonyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The U.S. patent application entitled, Androgen Receptor Modulators and Uses Thereof, U.S. Non Provisional application Ser. No. 13/579,009, filed on Feb. 16, 2011, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/305,082, filed on Feb. 16, 2010, is hereby incorporated by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to the use of a compound of Formula (I), as herein defined, for the treatment and/or amelioration of diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject in need thereof. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Prostate cancer is the most common non-cutaneous malignancy in men and the second leading cause of death in men from cancer in the western world As a male sexual organ, development of the prostate is highly regulated by androgens, the AR and by the products of androgen dependent genes. During all stages of prostate cancer progression, the disease remains dependent upon androgens. Anti-androgens, including AR antagonists, are used therapeutically to reverse the dependence of the tumor upon the actions of androgen (Scher H, Sawyers C. Biology of progressive, castration-resistant prostate cancer: directed therapies targeting the androgen-receptor signaling axis. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23:8253-8261; Tran C, Ouk S, Clegg N, Chen Y, Watson P, Arora V, et al. Development of a second-generation antiandrogen for treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Science 2009; 324:787-790; Scher H, Fizazi K, Saad F, Taplin M, Sternberg C, Miller K, et al. Increased survival with enzalutamide in prostate cancer after chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 2012; 367:1187-1197). Unfortunately, the efficacy of even second-generation, highly potent AR antagonists, such as MDV-3100 (enzalutamide, Xtandi®), is short-lived in many patients. AR antagonists have transformed patient care by targeting a key nodal point in tumor cell signaling. However, as with other molecularly targeted cancer therapies across different oncology indications, the emergence of acquired resistance via mutation of the therapeutic target is not uncommon. This is best exemplified by imatinib-treated patients with chronic myeloid leukemia in whom ABL kinase mutations render leukemia cells resistant to imatinib. Multiple next-generation ABL inhibitors have since been developed to circumvent the mutation and with activity in this setting (Gorre M, Mohammed M, Ellwood K, Hsu N, Paquette R, Rao P, Sawyers C. Clinical resistance to STI-571 cancer therapy caused by BCRABL gene mutation or amplification. Science 2001; 293:876-80; O'Hare T, Deininger M W, Eide C A, Clackson T, Druker B J. Targeting the BCR-ABL signaling pathway in therapy-resistant Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemia. Clin Cancer Res 2011. 17:212-21). Importantly, the activity of second- and third-generation AR inhibitors indicates that the disease remains “addicted” to a deregulated driver. This has led to the paradigm of sequential therapy targeting the same driver oncogene in distinct resistant states and is applicable herein to targeting of AR and the lineage dependence of AR signaling. AR mutations that result in receptor promiscuity and the ability of these anti-androgens to exhibit agonist activity might at least partially account for this phenomenon. For example, hydroxyflutamide and bicalutamide act as AR agonists in T877A and W741L/W741C AR mutants, respectively. In the setting of prostate cancer cells that were rendered castration resistant via overexpression of AR, it has been demonstrated that certain anti-androgen compounds, such as bicalutamide, have a mixed antagonist/agonist profile (Tran C, Ouk S, Clegg N, Chen Y, Watson P, Arora V, et al. Development of a second-generation antiandrogen for treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Science 2009; 324:787-790). This agonist activity helps to explain a clinical observation, called the anti-androgen withdrawal syndrome, whereby about 30% of men who progress on AR antagonists experience a decrease in serum PSA when therapy is discontinued (Scher, H. I. and Kelly, W. K., J Urol 1993 March; 149(3): 607-9). Prostate specific antigen decline after antiandrogen withdrawal: the flutamide withdrawal syndrome. Accumulating evidence indicates that castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remains dependent upon AR signaling through reactivation of AR signaling (Yuan X, Balk S. Mechanisms mediating androgen receptor reactivation after castration. Urol Oncol 2009; 27: 36-41; Linja M, Savinainen K, Saramaki O, Tammela T, Vessella R, Visakorpi T. Amplification and overexpression of androgen receptor gene in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2001, 61:3550-5; Chen C, Welsbie D, Tran C, Baek S, Chen R, Vessella R, Rosenfeld M, Sawyers C. Molecular determinants of resistance to antiandrogen therapy. Nat Med 2004, 10(1): 33-9). Point mutation in the ligand-binding domain (LBD) of AR accounts for 10-20% of resistance and is characterized by receptor activation, rather than inhibition, by anti-androgen drugs (Beltran H, Yelensky R, Frampton G, Park K, Downing S, MacDonald T, et al. Targeted next-generation sequencing of advanced prostate cancer identifies potential therapeutic targets and disease heterogeneity. Eur Urol 2013; 63(5): 920-6; Bergerat J, Céraline J. Pleiotropic functional properties of androgen receptor mutants in prostate cancer. Hum Mutat 2009; 30(2):145-57). Many of these mutations broaden ligand specificity, and some confer resistance by converting the AR antagonist into an agonist of the mutant receptor (Veldscholte J, Ris-Stalpers C, Kuiper G G, Jenster G, Berrevoets C, Claassen E, van Rooij H C, Trapman J, Brinkmann A O, Mulder E. A mutation in the ligand binding domain of the androgen receptor of human LNCaP cells affects steroid binding characteristics and response to anti-androgens. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1990; 173: 534-40; Haapala K, Hyytinen E, Roiha M, Laurila M, Rantala I, Helin H, Koivisto P. Androgen receptor alterations in prostate cancer relapsed during a combined androgen blockade by orchiectomy and bicalutamide. Lab Invest 2001; 81(12):1647-1651; Hara T, Miyazaki J, Araki H, Yamaoka M, Kanzaki N, Kusaka M, Miyamoto M. Novel mutations of androgen receptor: a possible mechanism of bicalutamide withdrawal syndrome. Cancer Res 2003; 63(1):149-153). One mutation, phenylalanine to leucine at position 876 (F876L) of AR, was recently shown to arise in response to MDV-3100 and ARN-509 in preclinical models and in patients undergoing therapy with ARN-509 (Clegg N, Wongvipat J, Joseph J, Tran C, Ouk S, Dilhas A, et al. ARN-509: a novel antiandrogen for prostate cancer treatment. Cancer Res 2012; 72(6):1494-503; Balbas M, Evans M, Hosfield D, Wongvipat J, Arora V, Watson P, et al. Overcoming mutation-based resistance to antiandrogens with rational drug design. Elife 2013. 2: e00499; Korpal M, Korn J, Gao X, Rakiec D, Ruddy D, Doshi S, et al. An F876L mutation in androgen receptor confers genetic and phenotypic resistance to MDV3100 (enzalutamide). Cancer Discov 2013; 39:1030-1043; Joseph J D, Lu N, Qian J, Sensintaffar J, Shao G, Brigham D, Moon M, Maneval E C, Chen I, Darimont B, Hager J H. A clinically relevant androgen receptor mutation confers resistance to second-generation antiandrogens enzalutamide and ARN-509. Cancer Discov 2013; 3:1020-1029). AR F876L confers resistance to MDV-3100 and ARN-509. Comprehensive biological studies have demonstrated that prostate cancer cells harboring this mutation continued to grow when treated with either compound. In vitro reporter assays confirmed resistance and demonstrate agonist conversion of both compounds and in tumors engineered to express AR F876L, neither compound controlled tumor growth. Furthermore, the AR F876L mutant is detected in ARN-509-treated patients with progressive CRPC. The mutation was detected in the plasma DNA of patients undergoing longitudinal analysis in 3 of 29 patients eligible for assessment. All 3 of the patients were amongst the 18 patients with an increase in prostate specific antigen (PSA) whilst on drug, indicative of disease progression (Joseph 2013). Structural modeling of wild-type (WT) and F876L mutated AR bound with MDV-3100, indicated that helices 11 and 12 were differentially displaced. Within the LBD of AR in the F876L mutant, helix 12 is not displaced by MDV-3100 as it is in WT AR, and this allows MDV 3100 to function as an agonist. The compounds described herein are designed to act as antagonists (third-generation), where second-generation compounds are not active. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide a method of treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in a subject in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, using a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of Formula (I). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or an enantiomer, diastereomer, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof; wherein R1 is methyl, difluoromethyl, or trifluoromethyl; G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted 1H-indazol-5-yl, unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl, unsubstituted naphthyl, and a phenyl substituent g1; wherein R3 is selected from hydrogen, fluoro, methyl, trifluoromethoxy, hydroxymethyl, phenyloxy, methoxy, or cyano; R5 is hydrogen, fluoro, or methoxy, such that at least one of R3 and R5 is hydrogen; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, cyano, fluoro, hydroxy, methoxy, methyl, trifluoromethyl, methylaminosulfonyl, trifluoromethoxy, pyrrolidin-1-ylcarbonyl, piperazin-1-yl, (4-methyl)piperazin-1-yl(C1-3)alkyl, tetrahydropyran-4-yl, and a substituent from i) to v); i) —C(═O)NH(RA); wherein RA is a substituent selected from hydrogen; C1-6alkyl; 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl; cyclopentylmethyl; 3-hydroxypropyl; cyanomethyl; methoxy(C2-3)alkyl; 3-(cyclopentyl(N-methyl)amino)propyl; ethoxycarbonyl(C1-3)alkyl; 3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl; morpholin-4-yl(C2-3)alkyl; 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl(C2-3)alkyl; 3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl; thienylmethyl; thiazol-2-yl; 2-methylpyrazol-3-yl; furanyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; phenyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with a chloro or fluoro substituent; pyridinyl(C0-2)alkyl wherein pyridinyl is optionally substituted with a methyl or fluoro substituent; pyrazin-2-ylmethyl; (1-methyl)piperidin-4-yl; and tetrahydropyran-4-yl(C0-1)alkyl; ii) wherein W is selected from NH, N(methyl), N(ethyl), N(2-hydroxyethyl), N(SO2CH3), S, O, or SO2; iii) —O(C2-3)alkyl-Rb; wherein Rb is a terminal substituent selected from the group consisting of methoxy, piperazin-1-yl, 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl, piperidin-1-yl, pyridin-2-yl, pyrimidin-2-yl, and pyrrolidin-1-yl; iv) —OR, wherein Rc is phenyl, pyridin-2-yl, pyrimidin-2-yl, pyrimidin-5-yl, or pyrimidin-4-yl; and v) a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of pyrimidin-5-yl, furanyl, and pyridin-3-yl; wherein said pyridin-3-yl is optionally substituted with a methyl or fluoro substituent; and wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; R10 and R11 are each a methyl substituent; or R10 and R11 are taken together to form a cyclobutyl or cyclopentyl ring. The present invention is directed to the use of a compound of Formula (I) as herein defined, for the treatment and/or amelioration of a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder in a subject, including a mammal and/or human in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, in which the disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder is affected by the antagonism of one or more androgen receptor types, such as prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. The present invention also directed to the use of a pharmaceutical composition comprising, consisting of and/or consisting essentially of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, and/or a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent and a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof, for the treatment and/or amelioration of a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, in which the disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder is affected by the antagonism of one or more androgen receptor types, such as prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. The present invention also is directed to the use of any of the compounds described herein in the preparation of a medicament wherein the medicament is prepared for the treatment and/or amelioration of a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder in a subject, including a mammal and/or human in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, in which the disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder is affected by the antagonism of one or more androgen receptor types, such as prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Exemplifying the invention are methods of treating a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder mediated by one or more androgen receptor types, selected from the group consisting of prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, a therapeutically effective amount of any of the compounds or pharmaceutical compositions described in the present invention. In another embodiment, the present invention is directed to a compound of Formula (I) for use in the treatment and/or amelioration of a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder affected by the antagonism of one or more androgen receptor types, in a patient who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, selected from the group consisting of prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION With reference to substituents, the term “independently” refers to the situation where when more than one substituent is possible, the substituents may be the same or different from each other. The term “alkyl” whether used alone or as part of a substituent group, refers to straight and branched carbon chains having 1 to 8 carbon atoms. Therefore, designated numbers of carbon atoms (e.g., C1-8) refer independently to the number of carbon atoms in an alkyl moiety or to the alkyl portion of a larger alkyl-containing substituent. In substituent groups with multiple alkyl groups such as, (C1-6alkyl)2amino-, the C1-6alkyl groups of the dialkylamino may be the same or different. The term “alkoxy” refers to an —O-alkyl group, wherein the term “alkyl” is as defined above. The terms “alkenyl” and “alkynyl” refer to straight and branched carbon chains having 2 to 8 carbon atoms, wherein an alkenyl chain contains at least one double bond and an alkynyl chain contains at least one triple bond. The term “cycloalkyl” refers to saturated or partially saturated, monocyclic or polycyclic hydrocarbon rings of 3 to 14 carbon atoms. Examples of such rings include cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cycloheptyl, and adamantyl. The term “heterocyclyl” refers to a nonaromatic monocyclic or bicyclic ring system having 3 to 10 ring members that include at least 1 carbon atom and from 1 to 4 heteroatoms independently selected from N, O, and S. Included within the term heterocyclyl is a nonaromatic cyclic ring of 5 to 7 members in which 1 to 2 members are N, or a nonaromatic cyclic ring of 5 to 7 members in which 0, 1 or 2 members are N and up to 2 members are 0 or S and at least one member must be either N, O, or S; wherein, optionally, the ring contains 0 to 1 unsaturated bonds, and, optionally, when the ring is of 6 or 7 members, it contains up to 2 unsaturated bonds. The carbon atom ring members that form a heterocycle ring may be fully saturated or partially saturated. The term “heterocyclyl” also includes two 5 membered monocyclic heterocycloalkyl groups bridged to form a bicyclic ring. Such groups are not considered to be fully aromatic and are not referred to as heteroaryl groups. When a heterocycle is bicyclic, both rings of the heterocycle are non-aromatic and at least one of the rings contains a heteroatom ring member. Examples of heterocycle groups include, and are not limited to, pyrrolinyl (including 2H-pyrrole, 2-pyrrolinyl or 3-pyrrolinyl), pyrrolidinyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolidinyl, pyrazolinyl, pyrazolidinyl, piperidinyl, morpholinyl, thiomorpholinyl, and piperazinyl. Unless otherwise noted, the heterocycle is attached to its pendant group at any heteroatom or carbon atom that results in a stable structure. The term “aryl” refers to an unsaturated, aromatic monocyclic or bicyclic ring of 6 to 10 carbon members. Examples of aryl rings include phenyl and naphthalenyl. The term “heteroaryl” refers to an aromatic monocyclic or bicyclic aromatic ring system having 5 to 10 ring members and which contains carbon atoms and from 1 to 4 heteroatoms independently selected from the group consisting of N, O, and S. Included within the term heteroaryl are aromatic rings of 5 or 6 members wherein the ring consists of carbon atoms and has at least one heteroatom member. Suitable heteroatoms include nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In the case of 5 membered rings, the heteroaryl ring preferably contains one member of nitrogen, oxygen or sulfur and, in addition, up to 3 additional nitrogens. In the case of 6 membered rings, the heteroaryl ring preferably contains from 1 to 3 nitrogen atoms. For the case wherein the 6 membered ring has 3 nitrogens, at most 2 nitrogen atoms are adjacent. Examples of heteroaryl groups include furyl, thienyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, thiazolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, isoxazolyl, isothiazolyl, oxadiazolyl, triazolyl, thiadiazolyl, pyridinyl, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazinyl, indolyl, isoindolyl, benzofuryl, benzothienyl, indazolyl, benzimidazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzothiadiazolyl, benzotriazolyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl and quinazolinyl. Unless otherwise noted, the heteroaryl is attached to its pendant group at any heteroatom or carbon atom that results in a stable structure. The term “halogen” or “halo” refers to fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine atoms. The term “carboxy” refers to the group —C(═O)OH. The term “formyl” refers to the group —C(═O)H. The term “oxo” or “oxido” refers to the group (═O). Whenever the term “alkyl” or “aryl” or either of their prefix roots appear in a name of a substituent (e.g., arylalkyl, alkylamino) the name is to be interpreted as including those limitations given above for “alkyl” and “aryl.” Designated numbers of carbon atoms (e.g., C1-C6) refer independently to the number of carbon atoms in an alkyl moiety, an aryl moiety, or in the alkyl portion of a larger substituent in which alkyl appears as its prefix root. For alkyl and alkoxy substituents, the designated number of carbon atoms includes all of the independent members included within a given range specified. For example C1-6 alkyl would include methyl, ethyl, propyl, butyl, pentyl and hexyl individually as well as sub-combinations thereof (e.g., C1-2, C1-3, C1-4, C1-5, C2-6, C3-6, C4-6, C5-6, C2-5, etc.). In general, under standard nomenclature rules used throughout this disclosure, the terminal portion of the designated side chain is described first followed by the adjacent functionality toward the point of attachment. Thus, for example, a “C1-C6 alkylcarbonyl” substituent refers to a group of the formula: The label “R” at a stereocenter designates that the stereocenter is purely of the R-configuration as defined in the art; likewise, the label “S” means that the stereocenter is purely of the S-configuration. As used herein, the labels “*R” or “*S” at a stereocenter are used to designate that the stereocenter is of pure but unknown absolute configuration. As used herein, the label “RS” refers to a stereocenter that exists as a mixture of the R- and S-configurations. A compound containing one stereocenter drawn without a stereo bond designation is a mixture of two enantiomers. A compound containing two stereocenters both drawn without stereo bond designations is a mixture of four diastereomers. A compound with two stereocenters both labeled “RS” and drawn with stereo bond designations is a mixture of two enantiomers with relative stereochemistry as drawn. A compound with two stereocenters both labeled “*RS” and drawn with stereo bond designations is a mixture of two enantiomers with a single, but unknown, relative stereochemistry. Unlabeled stereocenters drawn without stereo bond designations are mixtures of the R- and S-configurations. For unlabeled stereocenters drawn with stereo bond designations, the relative and absolute stereochemistry is as depicted. Unless otherwise noted, it is intended that the definition of any substituent or variable at a particular location in a molecule be independent of its definitions elsewhere in that molecule. It is understood that substituents and substitution patterns on the compounds of the present invention can be selected by one of ordinary skill in the art to provide compounds that are chemically stable and that can be readily synthesized by techniques known in the art as well as those methods set forth herein. The term “subject” refers to an animal, preferably a mammal, most preferably a human, who has been the object of treatment, observation or experiment. The term “therapeutically effective amount” refers to an amount of an active compound or pharmaceutical agent, including a compound of the present invention, which elicits the biological or medicinal response in a tissue system, animal or human that is being sought by a researcher, veterinarian, medical doctor or other clinician, which includes alleviation or partial alleviation of the symptoms of the disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder being treated. The term “composition” refers to a pharmaceutical product that includes the specified ingredients sometimes in therapeutically effective amounts, as well as any product that results, directly, or indirectly, from combinations of the specified ingredients in the specified amounts. The term “androgen receptor” as used herein is intended to include the wild-type androgen receptor as well as AR mutant receptors associated with castration-resistant prostate cancer. The term “AR-mediated” refers to any disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder that might occur in the absence of androgen receptors but can occur in the presence of androgen receptors. Suitable examples of include, but are not limited to, prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. The term “androgen-dependent disorder” refers to any disorder that can benefit from a decrease in androgen stimulation and includes pathological conditions that depend on androgen stimulation. An “androgen-dependent disorder” can result from an excessive accumulation of testosterone or other androgenic hormone, increased sensitivity of androgen receptors to androgen, or an increase in androgen-stimulated transcription. Examples of “androgen-dependent disorders” include prostate cancer and disorders such as, for example, acne, seborrhea, hirsutism, alopecia, and hidradenitis suppurativa. As used herein, the term “anti-androgen” refers to a group of hormone receptor antagonist compounds that are capable of preventing or inhibiting the biologic effects of androgens on normally responsive tissues in the body. In some embodiments, an anti-androgen is a small molecule. In some embodiments, an anti-androgen is an AR antagonist. In some embodiments, an anti-androgen is an AR full antagonist. In some embodiments, an anti-androgen is a first-generation anti-androgen. In some embodiments, an anti-androgen is a second-generation anti-androgen. In some embodiments, an anti-androgen is a third-generation anti-androgen. As used herein, the term “AR antagonist” or “AR inhibitor” are used interchangeably and refer to an agent that inhibits or reduces at least one activity of an AR polypeptide. Exemplary AR activities include, but are not limited to, co-activator binding, DNA binding, ligand binding, or nuclear translocation. As used herein, a “full antagonist” refers to an antagonist which, at an effective concentration, essentially completely inhibits an activity of an AR polypeptide. As used herein, a “partial antagonist” refers an antagonist that is capable of partially inhibiting an activity of an AR polypeptide, but that, even at a highest concentration is not a full antagonist. By ‘essentially completely’ is meant at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 96%, at least about 97%, at least about 98% at least about 99%, or greater inhibition of the activity of an AR polypeptide. As used herein, the term “first-generation anti-androgen” refers to an agent that exhibits antagonist activity against a wild-type AR polypeptide. However, first-generation anti-androgens differ from second-generation anti-androgens in that first-generation anti-androgens can potentially act as agonists in castration resistant prostate cancers (CRPC). Exemplary first-generation anti-androgens include, but are not limited to, flutamide, nilutamide and bicalutamide. As used herein, the term “second-generation anti-androgen” refers to an agent that exhibits full antagonist activity against a wild-type AR polypeptide. Second-generation anti-androgens differ from first-generation anti-androgens in that second-generation anti-androgens act as full antagonists in cells expressing elevated levels of AR, such as for example, in castration resistant prostate cancers (CRPC). Exemplary second-generation anti-androgens include 4-[7-(6-cyano-5-trifluoromethylpyridin-3-yl)-8-oxo-6-thioxo-5,7-diazaspiro[3.4]oct-5-yl]-2-fluoro-N methylbenzamide (also known as ARN-509; CAS No. 956104-40-8); 4-(3-(4-cyano-3-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)-5,5-dimethyl-4-oxo-2-thioxoimidazolidin-1-yl)-2-fluoro-N-methylbenzamide (also known as MDV3100 or enzalutamide; CAS No: 915087-33-1) and RD162 (CAS No. 915087-27-3). In some embodiments, a second-generation anti-androgen binds to an AR polypeptide at or near the ligand binding site of the AR polypeptide. As used herein, the term “third-generation anti-androgen” refers to an agent that exhibits full antagonist activity against a wild-type AR polypeptide and against mutant forms of the AR polypeptide, with mutations arising in the ligand binding domain (LBD) of the AR polypeptide as set forth below. Third-generation anti-androgens retain the differentiation from first-generation anti-androgens in that third-generation anti-androgens act as full antagonists in cells expressing elevated levels of AR, such as for example, in castration resistant prostate cancers (CRPC). As used herein, the term “mutant” refers to an altered (as compared with a reference) nucleic acid or polypeptide, or to a cell or organism containing or expressing such altered nucleic acid or polypeptide. As used herein, unless otherwise noted, the term “affect” or “affected” (when referring to a disease, syndrome, condition or disorder that is affected by antagonism of AR) includes a reduction in the frequency and/or severity of one or more symptoms or manifestations of said disease, syndrome, condition or disorder; and/or include the prevention of the development of one or more symptoms or manifestations of said disease, syndrome, condition or disorder or the development of the disease, condition, syndrome or disorder. The compounds of the instant invention are useful in methods for treating or ameliorating a disease, a syndrome, a condition or a disorder that is affected by the antagonism of one or more AR receptors. Such methods comprise, consist of and/or consist essentially of administering to a subject, including an animal, a mammal, and a human in need of such treatment, amelioration and/or prevention, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I), or an enantiomer, diastereomer, solvate or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. One embodiment of the present invention is directed to a method of treating an androgen receptor dependent or androgen receptor mediated disease or condition in a subject in need thereof, including an animal, a mammal, and a human in need of such treatment, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I). In another embodiment, the androgen receptor dependent or androgen receptor mediated disease or condition is selected from benign prostate hyperplasia, hirsutism, acne, adenomas and neoplasies of the prostate, benign or malignant tumor cells containing the androgen receptor, hyperpilosity, seborrhea, endometriosis, polycystic ovary syndrome, androgenic alopecia, hypogonadism, osteroporosis, suppression of spermatogenesis, libido, cachexia, anorexia, androgen supplementation for age related decreased testosterone levels, prostate cancer, breast cancer, endometrial cancer, uterine cancer, hot flashes, and Kennedy's disease muscle atrophy and weakness, skin atrophy, bone loss, anemia, arteriosclerosis, cardiovasculasr disease, loss of energy, loss of well-being, type 2 diabetes, or abdominal fat accumulation. In particular, the compounds of Formula (I), or an enantiomer, diastereomer, solvate or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof are useful for treating or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, conditions, or disorders such as prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. More particularly, the compounds of Formula (I), or an enantiomer, diastereomer, solvate or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof, are useful for treating or ameliorating prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, comprising administering to a subject in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I), or an enantiomer, diastereomer, solvate or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof as herein defined. In an embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or an enantiomer, diastereomer, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof; wherein, AA) R1 is methyl or trifluoromethyl; BB) G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl, unsubstituted naphthyl, and a phenyl substituent g1; wherein R3 is selected from hydrogen, fluoro, methyl, phenyloxy, or methoxy; R5 is hydrogen; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, hydroxy, methoxy, methyl, methylaminosulfonyl, trifluoromethoxy, pyrrolidin-1-ylcarbonyl, piperazin-1-yl, (4-methyl)piperazin-1-yl(C1-3)alkyl, and a substituent from i) to v); i) —C(═O)NH(RA); wherein RA is a substituent selected from the group consisting of C1-6alkyl; 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl; cyclopentylmethyl; 3-hydroxypropyl; methoxy(C2-3)alkyl; 3-(cyclopentyl(N-methyl)amino)propyl; ethoxycarbonyl(C1-3)alkyl; morpholin-4-yl(C2-3)alkyl; 3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl; thienylmethyl; thiazol-2-yl; 2-methylpyrazol-3-yl; furanyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; phenyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with a chloro or fluoro substituent; unsubstituted pyridinyl(C0-2)alkyl; pyrazin-2-ylmethyl; and tetrahydropyran-4-yl(C0-1)alkyl; ii) wherein W is selected from NH, N(methyl), N(ethyl), N(2-hydroxyethyl), S, or SO2; iii) —O(C2-3)alkyl-Rb; wherein Rb is a terminal substituent selected from the group consisting of 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl, pyrimidin-2-yl, pyridin-2-yl, and pyrrolidin-1-yl; iv) —OR, wherein R, is pyrimidin-4-yl; and v) a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of furanyl and pyridin-3-yl; wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; CC) G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl, unsubstituted naphthyl, and a phenyl substituent g1; wherein R3 is selected from fluoro, methyl, or phenyloxy; R5 is hydrogen; R4 is selected from the group consisting of methyl, methylaminosulfonyl, trifluoromethoxy, piperazin-1-yl, (4-methyl)piperazin-1-yl(C1-3)alkyl, and a substituent from i) to iv); i) —C(═O)NH(RA); wherein RA is a substituent selected from the group consisting of C1-6alkyl; 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl; cyclopentylmethyl; 3-hydroxypropyl; methoxy(C2-3)alkyl; ethoxycarbonyl(C1-3)alkyl; morpholin-4-yl(C2-3)alkyl; 3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl; thienylmethyl; 2-methylpyrazol-3-yl; furanyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; phenyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with fluoro substituent; unsubstituted pyridinyl(C0-2)alkyl; and tetrahydropyran-4-yl(C0-1)alkyl; ii) wherein W is selected from NH, N(methyl), S, or SO2; iii) —O(C2-3)alkyl-Rb; wherein Rb is a terminal substituent selected from the group consisting of 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl and pyridin-2-yl; and iv) pyridin-3-yl; DD) G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl or a phenyl substituent g1; wherein R3 is selected from hydrogen, fluoro or methyl; R5 is hydrogen; R4 is selected from the group consisting of piperazin-1-yl and a substituent from i) to iv); i) —C(═O)NH(RA); wherein RA is a substituent selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted pyridinyl(C0-2)alkyl and tetrahydropyran-4-yl(C0-1)alkyl; ii) wherein W is selected from N(methyl), S, or SO2; iii) —O(C2-3)alkyl-Rb; wherein Rb is 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl; and iv) a heteroaryl that is pyridin-3-yl; EE) R4 is selected from the group consisting of 2-(pyridin-2-yl)ethylaminocarbonyl, 2-(pyridin-4-yl)ethylaminocarbonyl, tetrahydrothiopyran-4-yloxy, methylaminocarbonyl, (2-fluorophenyl)aminocarbonyl, 2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethoxy, piperizin-1-yl, (1,1-dioxothian-4-yl)oxy, (1-methyl-piperidin-4-yl)oxy, tetrahydropyran-4-ylmethylaminocarbonyl, and tetrahydropyran-4-ylaminocarbonyl; FF) R10 and R11 are each a methyl substituent; or R10 and R11 are taken together to form a cyclobutyl ring; and any combination of embodiments AA) through FF) above, provided that it is understood that combinations in which different embodiments of the same substituent would be combined are excluded. In an embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or an enantiomer, diastereomer, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof; wherein, R1 is methyl, difluoromethyl, or trifluoromethyl; G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl, unsubstituted naphthyl, and a phenyl substituent g1; wherein R3 is selected from hydrogen, fluoro, methyl, phenyloxy, or methoxy; R5 is hydrogen; R4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, hydroxy, methoxy, methyl, methylaminosulfonyl, trifluoromethoxy, pyrrolidin-1-ylcarbonyl, piperazin-1-yl, (4-methyl)piperazin-1-yl(C1-3)alkyl, and a substituent from i) to v); i) —C(═O)NH(RA); wherein RA is a substituent selected from the group consisting of C1-6alkyl; 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl; cyclopentylmethyl; 3-hydroxypropyl; methoxy(C2-3)alkyl; 3-(cyclopentyl(N-methyl)amino)propyl; ethoxycarbonyl(C1-3)alkyl; morpholin-4-yl(C2-3)alkyl; 3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl; thienylmethyl; thiazol-2-yl; 2-methylpyrazol-3-yl; furanyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; phenyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with a chloro or fluoro substituent; unsubstituted pyridinyl(C0-2)alkyl; pyrazin-2-ylmethyl; and tetrahydropyran-4-yl(C0-1)alkyl; ii) wherein W is selected from NH, N(methyl), N(ethyl), N(2-hydroxyethyl), S, or SO2; iii) —O(C2-3)alkyl-Rb; wherein Rb is a terminal substituent selected from the group consisting of 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl, pyrimidin-2-yl, pyridin-2-yl, and pyrrolidin-1-yl; iv) —OR, wherein Rc is pyrimidin-4-yl; and v) a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of furanyl and pyridin-3-yl; wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; R10 and R11 are each a methyl substituent; or R10 and R11 are taken together to form a cyclobutyl or cyclopentyl ring. In an embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or an enantiomer, diastereomer, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof; wherein, R1 is methyl, difluoromethyl, or trifluoromethyl; G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl, unsubstituted naphthyl, and a phenyl substituent g1; wherein R3 is selected from fluoro, methyl, or phenyloxy; R5 is hydrogen; R4 is selected from the group consisting of methyl, methylaminosulfonyl, trifluoromethoxy, piperazin-1-yl, (4-methyl)piperazin-1-yl(C1-3)alkyl, and a substituent from i) to iv); i) —C(═O)NH(RA); wherein RA is a substituent selected from the group consisting of C1-6alkyl; 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl; cyclopentylmethyl; 3-hydroxypropyl; methoxy(C2-3)alkyl; ethoxycarbonyl(C1-3)alkyl; morpholin-4-yl(C2-3)alkyl; 3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl; thienylmethyl; 2-methylpyrazol-3-yl; furanyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; phenyl(C0-3)alkyl wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with a fluoro substituent; unsubstituted pyridinyl(C0-2)alkyl; and tetrahydropyran-4-yl(C0-1)alkyl; ii) wherein W is selected from NH, N(methyl), S, or SO2; iii) —O(C2-3)alkyl-Rb; wherein Rb is a terminal substituent selected from the group consisting of 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl, and pyridin-2-yl; and iv) pyridin-3-yl; R10 and R11 are each a methyl substituent; or R10 and R11 are taken together to form a cyclobutyl or cyclopentyl ring. In an embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or an enantiomer, diastereomer, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof; wherein, R1 is methyl or trifluoromethyl; G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl, and a substituent g1; wherein R3 is selected from hydrogen, fluoro, or methyl; R5 is hydrogen; R4 is selected from the group consisting of piperazin-1-yl and a substituent from i) to iv); i) —C(═O)NH(RA); wherein RA is a substituent selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted pyridinyl(C0-2)alkyl and tetrahydropyran-4-yl(C0-1)alkyl; ii) wherein W is selected from N(methyl), S, or SO2; iii) —O(C2-3)alkyl-Rb; wherein Rb is 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl; and iv) pyridin-3-yl; R10 and R11 are each a methyl substituent; or R10 and R11 are taken together to form a cyclobutyl ring. In an embodiment, the present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or an enantiomer, diastereomer, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof; wherein, R1 is methyl or trifluoromethyl; G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl, unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, and a substituent g1 wherein R3 is selected from hydrogen, fluoro or methyl; R5 is hydrogen; R4 is selected from the group consisting of 2-(pyridin-2-yl)ethylaminocarbonyl, 2-(pyridin-4-yl)ethylaminocarbonyl, tetrahydrothiopyran-4-yloxy, methylaminocarbonyl, (2-fluorophenyl)aminocarbonyl, 2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethoxy, piperizin-1-yl, (1,1-dioxothian-4-yl)oxy, (1-methyl-piperidin-4-yl)oxy, tetrahydropyran-4-ylmethylaminocarbonyl, and tetrahydropyran-4-ylaminocarbonyl; R10 and R11 are each a methyl substituent; or R10 and R11 are taken together to form a cyclobutyl ring. A further embodiment of the present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I), as exemplified in the listing in Table 1, below. TABLE 1 Cpd. Structure No. Cpd Name 1 5-[4,4-dimethyl-3-[4-[(1-methyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-2-thioxo- imidazolidin-1-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine- 2-carbonitrile 2 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-tetrahydropyran-4-yl- benzamide 3 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(tetrahydropyran-4- ylmethyl)benzamide 4 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-[(1-methyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine- 2-carbonitrile 5 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-N,2-dimethyl-benzamide 6 5-[8-[4-(1,1-dioxothian-4- yl)oxyphenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl- pyridine-2-carbonitrile 7 5-[8-(7-isoquinolyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 8 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-piperazin-1-ylphenyl)-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 9 5-[5-oxo-8-(3-pyridyl)-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 10 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-[2-(4- methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile 11 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2- fluorophenyl)benzamide 12 4-[3-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5,5- dimethyl-4-oxo-2-thioxo-imidazolidin- 1-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide 13 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4- tetrahydrothiopyran-4-yloxyphenyl)-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6- yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile 14 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- [2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide 15 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- [2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide 16 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide 17 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl)benzamide 18 5-[8-(2-naphthyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 19 5-[4,4-dimethyl-3-[4-[(1-methyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-2-thioxo- imidazolidin-1-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 20 5-[5-oxo-8-(3-phenoxyphenyl)-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 21 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N- (cyclopentylmethyl)-2-fluoro- benzamide 22 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (2-morpholinoethyl)benzamide 23 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- isopropyl-benzamide 24 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (3-methoxypropyl)benzamide 25 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N-methyl- benzenesulfonamide 26 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- [(5-methyl-2-furyl)methyl]benzamide 27 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- isopentyl-benzamide 28 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 29 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(p-tolyl)-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine- 2-carbonitrile 30 5-[8-[4-[(4-methylpiperazin-1- yl)methyl]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 31 N-[(2-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6- cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide 32 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[2-(2- pyridyl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile 33 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2- thienylmethyl)benzamide 34 5-[8-(1-naphthyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 35 5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(4-piperidyloxy)phenyl]- 7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6- yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 36 N-benzyl-4-[6-[6-cyano-5- (trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]- 2-fluoro-benzamide 37 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- [3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1- yl)propyl]benzamide 38 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[4- (trifluoromethoxy)phenyl]-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 39 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(difluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- methyl-benzamide 40 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (3-hydroxypropyl)benzamide 41 ethyl 2-[[4-[6-[6-cyano-5- (trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]- 2-fluoro-benzoyl]amino]acetate 42 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- phenethyl-benzamide 43 5-[8-[4-[3-(4-methylpiperazin-1- yl)propyl]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 44 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (2-pyridylmethyl)benzamide 45 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-methylpyrazol-3- yl)benzamide 46 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (2-methoxyethyl)benzamide 47 5-[8-(2-fluoro-4-hydroxy-phenyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 48 5-[8-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile 49 5-[8-[2-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 50 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(5-methyl-2- furyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2- carbonitrile 51 5-[8-[4-[[1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4- piperidyl]oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 52 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(pyrrolidine-1- carbonyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 53 N-[(4-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6- cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide 54 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (pyrazin-2-ylmethyl)benzamide 55 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(3-pyrrolidin-1- ylpropoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 56 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-pyrimidin-2- ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 57 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (3-phenylpropyl)benzamide 58 N-butyl-4-[6-[6-cyano-5- (trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]- 2-fluoro-benzamide 59 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (2-thienylmethyl)benzamide 60 5-[8-[4-[[1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4- piperidyl]oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile 61 5-[8-[4-[(1-ethyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- methyl-pyridine-2-carbonilrile 62 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-4- yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2- carbonitrile 63 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-thiazol-2-yl- benzamide 64 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N-[3- [cyclopentyl(methyl)amino]propyl]-2- fluoro-benzamide 65 4-[7-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-6- oxo-8-thioxo-7,9-diazaspiro[4.4]nonan- 9-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide 66 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-pyrrolidin-1- ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 67 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (3-pyridylmethyl)benzamide 68 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- propyl-benzamide 69 5-[8-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile 70 5-(5-oxo-8-phenyl-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl)-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 71 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-4- yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 72 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (3-morpholinopropyl)benzamide 73 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- phenyl-benzamide 74 N-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-[6-(6-cyano-5- methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro- benzamide 75 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(6-methyl-3- pyridyl)benzamide 76 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (2-furylmethyl)benzamide 77 5-[8-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 78 N-(3-chlorophenyl)-4-[6-(6-cyano-5- methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro- benzamide 79 5-[8-(3-cyanophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 80 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro- benzamide 81 5-[8-[3-(hydroxymethyl)phenyl]-5-oxo- 7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6- yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 82 ethyl 4-[[4-[6-[6-cyano-5- (trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]- 2-fluoro-benzoyl]amino]butanoate 83 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(4- piperidyloxy)phenyl]-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2- carbonitrile 84 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(4- fluorophenyl)benzamide 85 5-[8-[4-[(1-methyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 86 5-[8-[4-(2-furyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile 87 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4- tetrahydropyran-4-yloxyphenyl)-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6- yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile 88 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-5- yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 89 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4- ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 90 5-[8-(3-fluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 91 5-[8-[2-fluoro-4-[2-(1- piperidyl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 92 5-[8-(1H-indazol-5-yl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 93 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-5- ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2- carbonitrile 94 5-[8-(4-fluoro-2-methoxy-phenyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 95 N-[(3-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6- cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide 96 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- [2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide 97 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[3- (trifluoromethoxy)phenyl]-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 98 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[4- (trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 99 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 100 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2- methoxyethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile 101 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4- tetrahydropyran-4-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine- 2-carbonitrile 102 5-[8-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 103 5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(2-pyridyloxy)phenyl]-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 104 5-[8-[4-(5-fluoro-3-pyridyl)phenyl]-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile 105 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-piperazin-1- ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 106 5-[8-(2,3-difluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7- thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]- 3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 107 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-2- yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 108 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- [3-(4-methylpiperazin-1- yl)propyl]benzamide 109 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (1-methyl-4-piperidyl)benzamide 110 5-[4,4-dimethyl-5-oxo-3-(p-tolyl)-2- thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 111 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- prop-2-ynyl-benzamide 112 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4- yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 113 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(5-fluoro-3- pyridyl)benzamide 114 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(5-methyl-3- pyridyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2- carbonitrile 115 5-[8-(3-fluoro-4-methyl-phenyl)-5-oxo- 7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6- yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2- carbonitrile 116 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile 117 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5- oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan- 8-yl]-2-methoxy-N-methyl-benzamide 118 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- (3-pyrrolidin-1-ylpropyl)benzamide 119 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(2-methyl-3- pyridyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2- carbonitrile 120 5-[8-(4-cyanophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile 121 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3- pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8- diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N- [2-(4-methylpiperazin-1- yl)ethyl]benzamide 122 5-[8-[4-[(1-methylsulfonyl-4- piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo- 6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3- (trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile A further embodiment of the present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof, selected from the group consisting of Cpd 1, 5-[4,4-dimethyl-3-[4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-2-thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 2, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-tetrahydropyran-4-yl-benzamide; Cpd 3, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(tetrahydropyran-4-ylmethyl)benzamide; Cpd 4, 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 5, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N,2-dimethyl-benzamide; Cpd 6, 5-[8-[4-(1, 1-dioxothian-4-yl)oxyphenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 7, 5-[8-(7-isoquinolyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 8, 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-piperazin-1-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile Cpd 9, 5-[5-oxo-8-(3-pyridyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 10, 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-[2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 11, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-fluorophenyl)benzamide; Cpd 12, 4-[3-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5,5-dimethyl-4-oxo-2-thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide; Cpd 13, 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydrothiopyran-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 14, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[2-(4-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide; Cpd 15, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[2-(2-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide; Cpd 16, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide; Cpd 17, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl)benzamide; Cpd 18, 5-[8-(2-naphthyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 19, 5-[4,4-dimethyl-3-[4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-2-thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 20, 5-[5-oxo-8-(3-phenoxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 21, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N-(cyclopentylmethyl)-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 22, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-morpholinoethyl)benzamide; Cpd 23, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-isopropyl-benzamide; Cpd 24, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-methoxypropyl)benzamide; Cpd 25, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N-methyl-benzensulfonamide; Cpd 26, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[(5-methyl-2-furyl)methyl]benzamide; Cpd 27, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-isopentyl-benzamide; Cpd 28, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 29, 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(p-tolyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 30, 5-[8-[4-[(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)methyl]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 31, N-[(2-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 32, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[2-(2-pyridyl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 33, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-thienylmethyl)benzamide; Cpd 34, 5-[8-(1-naphthyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 35, 5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(4-piperidyloxy)phenyl]-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 36, N-benzyl-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 37, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl]benzamide; Cpd 38, 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[4-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl]-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 39, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(difluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide; Cpd 40, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-hydroxypropyl)benzamide; Cpd 41, ethyl 2-[[4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzoyl]amino]acetate; Cpd 42, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-phenethyl-benzamide; Cpd 43, 5-[8-[4-[3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)propyl]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 44, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-pyridylmethyl)benzamide; Cpd 45, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-methylpyrazol-3-yl)benzamide; Cpd 46, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-methoxyethyl)benzamide; Cpd 47, 5-[8-(2-fluoro-4-hydroxy-phenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 48, 5-[8-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 49, 5-[8-[2-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 50, 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(5-methyl-2-furyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 51, 5-[8-[4-[[1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-piperidyl]oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 52, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(pyrrolidine-1-carbonyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 53, N-[(4-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 54, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(pyrazin-2-ylmethyl)benzamide; Cpd 55, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(3-pyrrolidin-1-ylpropoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 56, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-pyrimidin-2-ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 57, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-phenylpropyl)benzamide; Cpd 58, N-butyl-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 59, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-thienylmethyl)benzamide; Cpd 60, 5-[8-[4-[[1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-4-piperidyl]oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 61, 5-[8-[4-[(1-ethyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 62, 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 63, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-thiazol-2-yl-benzamide; Cpd 64, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-N-[3-[cyclopentyl(methyl)amino]propyl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 65, 4-[7-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-6-oxo-8-thioxo-7,9-diazaspiro[4.4]nonan-9-yl]-2-fluoro-N-methyl-benzamide; Cpd 66, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-pyrrolidin-1-ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 67, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-pyridylmethyl)benzamide; Cpd 68, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-propyl-benzamide; Cpd 69, 5-[8-(4-methoxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 70, 5-(5-oxo-8-phenyl-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 71, 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 72, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-morpholinopropyl)benzamide; Cpd 73, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-phenyl-benzamide; Cpd 74, N-(4-chlorophenyl)-4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 75, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(6-methyl-3-pyridyl)benzamide; Cpd 76, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(2-furylmethyl)benzamide; Cpd 77, 5-[8-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 78, N-(3-chlorophenyl)-4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 79, 5-[8-(3-cyanophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 80, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 81, 5-[8-[3-(hydroxymethyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 82, ethyl 4-[[4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzoyflamino]butanoate; Cpd 83, 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(4-piperidyloxy)phenyl]-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 84, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(4-fluorophenyl)benzamide; Cpd 85, 5-[8-[4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 86, 5-[8-[4-(2-furyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 87, 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 88, 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-5-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 89, 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 90, 5-[8-(3-fluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 91, 5-[8-[2-fluoro-4-[2-(1-piperidyl)ethoxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 92, 5-[8-(1H-indazol-5-yl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 93, 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-5-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 94, 5-[8-(4-fluoro-2-methoxy-phenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 95, N-[(3-chlorophenyl)methyl]-4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-benzamide; Cpd 96, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[2-(3-pyridyl)ethyl]benzamide; Cpd 97, 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[3-(trifluoromethoxy)phenyl]-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 98, 5-[5-oxo-7-thioxo-8-[4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl]-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 99, 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 100, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-methoxyethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 101, 3-methyl-5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4-ylphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 102, 5-[8-(4-fluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 103, 5-[5-oxo-8-[4-(2-pyridyloxy)phenyl]-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 104, 5-[8-[4-(5-fluoro-3-pyridyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 105, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-(2-piperazin-1-ylethoxy)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 106, 5-[8-(2,3-difluorophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 107, 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-pyrimidin-2-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 108, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[3-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)propyl]benzamide; Cpd 109, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)benzamide; Cpd 110, 5-[4,4-dimethyl-5-oxo-3-(p-tolyl)-2-thioxo-imidazolidin-1-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 111, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-prop-2-ynyl-benzamide; Cpd 112, 5-[5-oxo-8-(4-tetrahydropyran-4-yloxyphenyl)-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 113, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(5-fluoro-3-pyridyl)benzamide; Cpd 114, 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(5-methyl-3-pyridyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 115, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-methyl-phenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 116, 5-[8-[3-fluoro-4-[(1-methyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-methyl-pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 117, 4-[6-(6-cyano-5-methyl-3-pyridyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-methoxy-N-methyl-benzamide; Cpd 118, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-(3-pyrrolidin-1-ylpropyl)benzamide; Cpd 119, 3-methyl-5-[8-[4-(2-methyl-3-pyridyl)phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 120, 5-[8-(4-cyanophenyl)-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile; Cpd 121, 4-[6-[6-cyano-5-(trifluoromethyl)-3-pyridyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6,8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-8-yl]-2-fluoro-N-[2-(4-methylpiperazin-1-yl)ethyl]benzamide; and Cpd 122, 5-[8-[4-[(1-methylsulfonyl-4-piperidyl)oxy]phenyl]-5-oxo-7-thioxo-6, 8-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-6-yl]-3-(trifluoromethyl)pyridine-2-carbonitrile. For use in medicine, salts of compounds of Formula (I) refer to non-toxic “pharmaceutically acceptable salts.” Other salts may, however, be useful in the preparation of compounds of Formula (I) or of their pharmaceutically acceptable salt forms thereof. Suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts of compounds of Formula (I) include acid addition salts that can, for example, be formed by mixing a solution of the compound with a solution of a pharmaceutically acceptable acid such as, hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, fumaric acid, maleic acid, succinic acid, acetic acid, benzoic acid, citric acid, tartaric acid, carbonic acid or phosphoric acid. Furthermore, where the compounds of Formula (I) carry an acidic moiety, suitable pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof may include alkali metal salts such as, sodium or potassium salts; alkaline earth metal salts such as, calcium or magnesium salts; and salts formed with suitable organic ligands such as, quaternary ammonium salts. Thus, representative pharmaceutically acceptable salts include acetate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bicarbonate, bisulfate, bitartrate, borate, bromide, calcium edetate, camsylate, carbonate, chloride, clavulanate, citrate, dihydrochloride, edetate, edisylate, estolate, esylate, fumarate, gluceptate, gluconate, glutamate, glycollylarsanilate, hexylresorcinate, hydrabamine, hydrobromide, hydrochloride, hydroxynaphthoate, iodide, isothionate, lactate, lactobionate, laurate, malate, maleate, mandelate, mesylate, methylbromide, methylnitrate, methylsulfate, mucate, napsylate, nitrate, N-methylglucamine ammonium salt, oleate, pamoate (embonate), palmitate, pantothenate, phosphate/diphosphate, polygalacturonate, salicylate, stearate, sulfate, subacetate, succinate, tannate, tartrate, teoclate, tosylate, triethiodide, and valerate. Representative acids and bases that may be used in the preparation of pharmaceutically acceptable salts include acids including acetic acid, 2,2-dichloroacetic acid, acylated amino acids, adipic acid, alginic acid, ascorbic acid, L-aspartic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, benzoic acid, 4-acetamidobenzoic acid, (+)-camphoric acid, camphorsulfonic acid, (+)-(1S)-camphor-10-sulfonic acid, capric acid, caproic acid, caprylic acid, cinnamic acid, citric acid, cyclamic acid, dodecylsulfuric acid, ethane-1,2-disulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonic acid, formic acid, fumaric acid, galactaric acid, gentisic acid, glucoheptonic acid, D-gluconic acid, D-glucoronic acid, L-glutamic acid, α-oxo-glutaric acid, glycolic acid, hippuric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydrochloric acid, (+)-L-lactic acid, (±)-DL-lactic acid, lactobionic acid, maleic acid, (−)-L-malic acid, malonic acid, (±)-DL-mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, naphthalene-2-sulfonic acid, naphthalene-1,5-disulfonic acid, 1-hydroxy-2-naphthoic acid, nicotinic acid, L-pyroglutamic acid, salicylic acid, 4-amino-salicylic acid, sebaic acid, stearic acid, succinic acid, sulfuric acid, tannic acid, (+)-L-tartaric acid, thiocyanic acid, p-toluenesulfonic acid and undecylenic acid; and bases including ammonia, L-arginine, benethamine, benzathine, calcium hydroxide, choline, deanol, diethanolamine, diethylamine, 2-(diethylamino)-ethanol, ethanolamine, ethylenediamine, N-methylglucamine, hydrabamine, 1H-imidazole, L-lysine, magnesium hydroxide, 4-(2-hydroxyethyl)-morpholine, piperazine, potassium hydroxide, 1-(2-hydroxyethyl)-pyrrolidine, sodium hydroxide, triethanolamine, tromethamine, and zinc hydroxide. Embodiments of the present invention include prodrugs of compounds of Formula (I). In general, such prodrugs will be functional derivatives of the compounds that are readily convertible in vivo into the required compound. Thus, in the methods of treating or preventing embodiments of the present invention, the term “administering” encompasses the treatment or prevention of the various diseases, conditions, syndromes and disorders described with the compound specifically disclosed or with a compound that may not be specifically disclosed, but which converts to the specified compound in vivo after administration to a patient. Conventional procedures for the selection and preparation of suitable prodrug derivatives are described, for example, in “Design of Prodrugs”, ed. H. Bundgaard, Elsevier, 1985. Where the compounds according to embodiments of this invention have at least one chiral center, they may accordingly exist as enantiomers. Where the compounds possess two or more chiral centers, they may additionally exist as diastereomers. It is to be understood that all such isomers and mixtures thereof are encompassed within the scope of the present invention. Furthermore, some of the crystalline forms for the compounds may exist as polymorphs and as such are intended to be included in the present invention. In addition, some of the compounds may form solvates with water (i.e., hydrates) or common organic solvents, and such solvates are also intended to be encompassed within the scope of this invention. The skilled artisan will understand that the term compound as used herein, is meant to include solvated compounds of Formula (I). Where the processes for the preparation of the compounds according to certain embodiments of the invention give rise to mixture of stereoisomers, these isomers may be separated by conventional techniques such as, preparative chromatography. The compounds may be prepared in racemic form, or individual enantiomers may be prepared either by enantiospecific synthesis or by resolution. The compounds may, for example, be resolved into their component enantiomers by standard techniques such as, the formation of diastereomeric pairs by salt formation with an optically active acid such as, (−)-di-p-toluoyl-d-tartaric acid and/or (+)-di-p-toluoyl-1-tartaric acid followed by fractional crystallization and regeneration of the free base. The compounds may also be resolved by formation of diastereomeric esters or amides, followed by chromatographic separation and removal of the chiral auxiliary. Alternatively, the compounds may be resolved using a chiral HPLC column. One embodiment of the present invention is directed to a composition, including a pharmaceutical composition, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of the (+)-enantiomer of a compound of Formula (I) wherein said composition is substantially free from the (−)-isomer of said compound. In the present context, substantially free means less than about 25%, preferably less than about 10%, more preferably less than about 5%, even more preferably less than about 2% and even more preferably less than about 1% of the (−)-isomer calculated as % ( + ) - enantiomer = ( mass ( + ) - enantiomer ) ( mass ( + ) - enantiomer ) + ( mass ( - ) - enantiomer ) × 100. Another embodiment of the present invention is a composition, including a pharmaceutical composition, comprising, consisting of, and consisting essentially of the (−)-enantiomer of a compound of Formula (I) wherein said composition is substantially free from the (+)-isomer of said compound. In the present context, substantially free from means less than about 25%, preferably less than about 10%, more preferably less than about 5%, even more preferably less than about 2% and even more preferably less than about 1% of the (+)-isomer calculated as % ( - ) - enantiomer = ( mass ( - ) - enantiomer ) ( mass ( + ) - enantiomer ) + ( mass ( - ) - enantiomer ) × 100. During any of the processes for preparation of the compounds of the various embodiments of the present invention, it may be necessary and/or desirable to protect sensitive or reactive groups on any of the molecules concerned. This may be achieved by means of conventional protecting groups such as those described in Protective Groups in Organic Chemistry, Second Edition, J. F. W. McOmie, Plenum Press, 1973; T. W. Greene & P. G. M. Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, John Wiley & Sons, 1991; and T. W. Greene & P. G. M. Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, Third Edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999. The protecting groups may be removed at a convenient subsequent stage using methods known from the art. Even though the compounds of embodiments of the present invention (including their pharmaceutically acceptable salts and pharmaceutically acceptable solvates) can be administered alone, they will generally be administered in admixture with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient and/or a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent selected with regard to the intended route of administration and standard pharmaceutical or veterinary practice. Thus, particular embodiments of the present invention are directed to pharmaceutical and veterinary compositions comprising compounds of Formula (I) and at least one pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, and/or pharmaceutically acceptable diluent. By way of example, in the pharmaceutical compositions of embodiments of the present invention, the compounds of Formula (I) may be admixed with any suitable binder(s), lubricant(s), suspending agent(s), coating agent(s), solubilizing agent(s), and combinations thereof. Solid oral dosage forms such as, tablets or capsules, containing the compounds of the present invention may be administered in at least one dosage form at a time, as appropriate. It is also possible to administer the compounds in sustained release formulations. Additional oral forms in which the present inventive compounds may be administered include elixirs, solutions, syrups, and suspensions; each optionally containing flavoring agents and coloring agents. Alternatively, compounds of Formula (I) can be administered by inhalation (intratracheal or intranasal) or in the form of a suppository or pessary, or they may be applied topically in the form of a lotion, solution, cream, ointment or dusting powder. For example, they can be incorporated into a cream comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of an aqueous emulsion of polyethylene glycols or liquid paraffin. They can also be incorporated, at a concentration of between about 1% and about 10% by weight of the cream, into an ointment comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of a wax or soft paraffin base together with any stabilizers and preservatives as may be required. An alternative means of administration includes transdermal administration by using a skin or transdermal patch. The pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention (as well as the compounds of the present invention alone) can also be injected parenterally, for example, intracavernosally, intravenously, intramuscularly, subcutaneously, intradermally, or intrathecally. In this case, the compositions will also include at least one of a suitable carrier, a suitable excipient, and a suitable diluent. For parenteral administration, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention are best used in the form of a sterile aqueous solution that may contain other substances, for example, enough salts and monosaccharides to make the solution isotonic with blood. For buccal or sublingual administration, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be administered in the form of tablets or lozenges, which can be formulated in a conventional manner. By way of further example, pharmaceutical compositions containing at least one of the compounds of Formula (I) as the active ingredient can be prepared by mixing the compound(s) with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, and/or a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient according to conventional pharmaceutical compounding techniques. The carrier, excipient, and diluent may take a wide variety of forms depending upon the desired route of administration (e.g., oral, parenteral, etc.). Thus, for liquid oral preparations such as, suspensions, syrups, elixirs and solutions, suitable carriers, excipients and diluents include water, glycols, oils, alcohols, flavoring agents, preservatives, stabilizers, coloring agents and the like; for solid oral preparations such as, powders, capsules, and tablets, suitable carriers, excipients and diluents include starches, sugars, diluents, granulating agents, lubricants, binders, disintegrating agents and the like. Solid oral preparations also may be optionally coated with substances such as, sugars, or be enterically coated so as to modulate the major site of absorption and disintegration. For parenteral administration, the carrier, excipient and diluent will usually include sterile water, and other ingredients may be added to increase solubility and preservation of the composition. Injectable suspensions or solutions may also be prepared utilizing aqueous carriers along with appropriate additives such as, solubilizers and preservatives. A therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or a pharmaceutical composition thereof includes a dose range from about 0.1 mg to about 3000 mg, or any particular amount or range therein, in particular from about 1 mg to about 1000 mg, or any particular amount or range therein, or, more particularly, from about 10 mg to about 500 mg, or any particular amount or range therein, of active ingredient in a regimen of about 1 to about 4 times per day for an average (70 kg) human; although, it is apparent to one skilled in the art that the therapeutically effective amount for a compound of Formula (I) will vary as will the diseases, syndromes, conditions, and disorders being treated. For oral administration, a pharmaceutical composition is preferably provided in the form of tablets containing about 1.0, about 10, about 50, about 100, about 150, about 200, about 250, and about 500 milligrams of a compound of Formula (I). Advantageously, a compound of Formula (I) may be administered in a single daily dose, or the total daily dosage may be administered in divided doses of two, three and four times daily. Optimal dosages of a compound of Formula (I) to be administered may be readily determined and will vary with the particular compound used, the mode of administration, the strength of the preparation, and the advancement of the disease, syndrome, condition or disorder. In addition, factors associated with the particular subject being treated, including subject gender, age, weight, diet and time of administration, will result in the need to adjust the dose to achieve an appropriate therapeutic level and desired therapeutic effect. The above dosages are thus exemplary of the average case. There can be, of course, individual instances wherein higher or lower dosage ranges are merited, and such are within the scope of this invention. Compounds of Formula (I) may be administered in any of the foregoing compositions and dosage regimens or by means of those compositions and dosage regimens established in the art whenever use of a compound of Formula (I) is required for a subject in need thereof. In another embodiment of the present invention, the compounds and compositions, according to the method of the present invention, may be administered using any amount and any route of administration effective for treating a cancer or another proliferative disease, disorder or condition. In some embodiments, the cancer or other proliferative disease, disorder or condition is a prostate cancer. In some embodiments, the cancer or other proliferative disease, disorder or condition is a castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). In some embodiments, the cancer or other proliferative disease, disorder or condition is a castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) bearing a mutation in AR. In some embodiments, the mutation in AR is a mutation of Phenylalanine (Phe)876. In some embodiments, the mutation in AR is a mutation of Phe876 to leucine. In some embodiments, the mutation in AR is a mutation of Phe876 to isoleucine. In some embodiments, the mutation in AR is a mutation of Phe876 to valine. In some embodiments, the mutation in AR is a mutation of Phe876 to serine. In some embodiments, the mutation in AR is a mutation of Phe876 to cysteine. In some embodiments, the mutation in AR is a mutation of Phe876 to tyrosine. In some embodiments, the cancer or other proliferative disease, disorder or condition is a prostate cancer that is resistant to any AR therapy as a consequence of mutation. In some embodiments, the cancer or other proliferative disease, disorder or condition is a prostate cancer that is resistant to treatment using second-generation AR antagonists, including, but not limited to, Enzalutamide or ARN-509. The present invention encompasses the recognition that mutations in the AR polypeptide can render the AR polypeptide resistant to anti-androgens or convert anti-androgens to androgen agonists. In some embodiments, the present invention provides compounds that can be used to effect anti-androgenic effects despite the presence of such mutations. The amino acid sequence of an AR polypeptide described herein can exist in a mutant AR containing, or can be modified to produce an mutant AR polypeptide variant at least one (e.g., 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or more) additions, substitutions, or deletions of a wild-type amino acid residue. In some embodiments, the AR polypeptide variants described herein result in a loss of inhibition of AR activity by one or more antiandrogens of 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 up to 100%. In some embodiments, the AR polypeptide variants described herein convert antiandrogens to androgen receptor agonists. Specific, nonlimiting amino acid residues that can be modified in an AR mutant include, e.g., E566, E589, E669, C687, A700, N772, H777, C785, F877, K911, of the AR polypeptide. These amino acid residues can be substituted with any amino acid or amino acid analog. For example, the substitutions at the recited positions can be made with any of the naturally-occurring amino acids (e.g., alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, arginine, cysteine, glycine, glutamic acid, glutamine, histidine, leucine, valine, isoleucine, lysine, methionine, proline, threonine, serine, phenylalanine, tryptophan, or tyrosine). In particular instances, an amino acid substitution is E566K, E589K, E669K, C687Y, A700T, N772S, H777Y, C785R, F877C, F877I, F877L, F877S, F877V, F877Y and/or K911E. In some embodiments, the AR mutants as described herein can include additional modifications of the AR polypeptide previously described in the art, including but not limited to, e.g., A597T, S648G, P683T, D696E, R727H, N728I, I738F, W741L, W741C, W741L, M743V, G751S, A871V, H874Y, T878A, T878S, and P914S. In some embodiments, the compounds and compositions, according to the method of the present invention, may be administered using any amount and any route of administration effective for treating a bone disease, disorder or condition. In some embodiments, the bone disease, disorder or condition is osteoporosis. The present invention is directed to the use of a compound of Formula (I) for the treatment of a disease, a syndrome, a condition or a disorder in a subject, including an animal, a mammal and a human in which the disease, the syndrome, the condition or the disorder is affected by the antagonism of the androgen receptor and who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, selected from the group consisting of prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. In certain embodiments, a compound of Formula (I), or a composition thereof, may be administered in combination with another modulator, agonist or antagonist of AR. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I), or composition thereof, may be administered in combination with one or more other therapeutic agents. In some embodiments the AR modulators, agonists or antagonists include, but are not limited to gonadotropin-releasing hormone agonists or antagonists (e.g. Lupron, Zoladex (Goserelin), Degarelix, Ozarelix, ABT-620 (Elagolix), TAK-385 (Relugolix), EP-100 or KLH-2109); non-steroidal antiandrogens, aminoglutethimide, enzalutamide, bicalutamide, nilutamide, flutamide, steroidal antiandrogens, finasteride, dutasteride, bexlosteride, izonsteride, turosteride, epristeride, other inhibitors of 5-alphareductase, 3,3′-diindolylmethane (DIM), N-butylbenzene-sulfonamide (NBBS); or a CYP17 inhibitor such as abiraterone acetate, TAK-700 (orteronel), TOK-001 (galeterone) or VT-464. A further embodiment of the present invention is directed to the use of a pharmaceutical composition comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of a compound of Formula (I) and abiraterone acetate, for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to the subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of said pharmaceutical composition. A further embodiment of the present invention is directed to the use of a pharmaceutical composition comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of a compound of Formula (I) and abiraterone acetate and, optionally, prednisone or dexamethasone, for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to the subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of said pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutical composition thereof, may be administered in combination with a PI3K pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments the PI3K pathway inhibitors (PI3K, TORC or dual PI3K/TORC inhibitor) include, but are not limited to, everolimus, BEZ-235, BKM120, BGT226, BYL-719, GDC0068, GDC-0980, GDC0941, GDC0032, MK-2206, OSI-027, CC-223, AZD8055, SAR245408, SAR245409, PF04691502, WYE125132, GSK2126458, GSK-2636771, BAY806946, PF-05212384, SF1126, PX866, AMG319, ZSTK474, CallOl, PWT33597, LY-317615 (enzastaurin hydrochloride), CU-906, or CUDC-907. In certain embodiments, a compound of Formula (I), or a composition thereof, may be administered in combination with radiation therapy. The term “radiotherapy” or “ionizing radiation” include all forms of radiation, including but not limited to α, β, and γ radiation and ultraviolet light. In some embodiments radiation therapy includes, but is not limited to, radioactive implants directly inserted in a tumor or body cavity (brachytherapy, interstitial irradiation, and intracavitary irradiation are types of internal radiotherapy), radiopharmaceuticals (e.g. Alpharadin (Radium-223 Chloride), 177Lu-J591 PSMA conjugate), or external beam radiation therapy (including Proton beam). In certain embodiments, a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutical composition thereof, may be administered in combination with immunotherapy. In some embodiments the immunotherapy includes, but is not limited to Provenge, Prostvac, Ipilimumab, a CTLA-4 inhibitor or a PD-1 inhibitor. Synthetic Methods and Specific Examples The preparation of the compounds of the present invention may be found in the U.S. patent application entitled, Androgen Receptor Modulators and Uses Thereof, U.S. NonProvisional application Ser. No. 13/579,009, filed on Feb. 16, 2011, which claims the benefit of U.S. provisional patent application No. 61/305,082, filed on Feb. 16, 2010, is hereby incorporated by reference. Biological Examples The term “biological sample”, as used herein, includes, without limitation, cell cultures or extracts thereof biopsied material obtained from a mammal or extracts thereof; and blood, saliva, urine, feces, semen, tears, or other body fluids or extracts thereof. Antagonism of receptors in a biological sample is useful for a variety of purposes that are known to one of skill in the art. Examples of such purposes include, but are not limited to, biological assays, gene expression studies, and biological target identification. Certain embodiments of the present invention are directed to a method of treatment by antagonizing AR in a patient or a subject in need of such treatment, and who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising the step of administering to said patient a compound of Formula (I) of the present invention, or a composition comprising said compound. The activity of a compound of Formula (I) as an antagonist of AR or for the treatment of an AR-mediated disease, disorder or condition, may be assayed in vitro or in vivo. An in vivo assessment of the efficacy of the compounds of the invention may be made using an animal model of an AR-mediated disease, disorder or condition, e.g., a rodent or primate model. The in vivo assessment may be further defined as an androgen dependent organ development (Hershberger) assay or as a tumor xenograft model. Cell-based assays may be performed using, e.g., a cell line isolated from a tissue that expresses either wild type or mutant AR. Additionally, biochemical or mechanism based assays, e.g., transcription assays using a purified protein, Northern blot, RT-PCR, etc., may be performed. In vitro assays include assays that determine cell morphology, protein expression, and/or the cytotoxicity, enzyme inhibitory activity, and/or the subsequent functional consequences of treatment of cells with compounds of the invention. Alternate or additional in vitro assays may be used to quantitate the ability of the inhibitor to bind to protein or nucleic acid molecules within the cell. Inhibitor binding may be measured by radiolabelling the inhibitor prior to binding, isolating the inhibitor/target molecule complex and determining the amount of radiolabel bound. Alternatively or additionally, inhibitor binding may be determined by running a competition experiment where new inhibitors are incubated with purified proteins or nucleic acids bound to known radioligands. Detailed conditions of exemplary systems for assaying a compound of Formula (I) of the present invention as an antagonist of AR are set forth in the Biological Examples below. Such assays are exemplary and not intended to limit the scope of the invention. The skilled practitioner can appreciate that modifications can be made to conventional assays to develop equivalent or other assays that can be employed to comparably assess activity or otherwise characterize compounds and/or compositions as described herein. In Vitro Assays Biological Example 1 Radioligand Binding of Compounds to AR, GR and ER Radioligand binding assays are performed with the cell extracts and ligands as detailed below. Complete methodology is contained within the cited publications. Kd values are determined by Non-Specific Incubation Detection Method. Receptors GR (human) (agonist radioligand) IM-9 cells (cytosol) [3H]dexamethasone 1.5 nM 1.5 nM triamcinolone (10 μM) 6 h 4° C. Scintillation counting (Clark, A. F et al. (1996) Invest. Ophtalmol. Vis. Sci., 37: 805-813). ER (nonselective) (human) (agonist radioligand) MCF-7 cells (cytosol) [3H]estradiol 0.4 nM 0.2 nM 17β-estradiol (6 μM) 20 h 4° C. Scintillation counting (Parker, G. J et al. (2000) J. Biomol. Screen., 5: 77-88). AR (human) (agonist radioligand) LNCaP cells (cytosol) [3H]methyltrienolone 1 nM 0.8 nM mibolerone (1 μM) 24 h 4° C. Scintillation counting. Zava, D. T et al. (1979) Endocrinology, 104: 1007-1012. The results are expressed as a percent of control specific binding measured specific binding*100 control specific binding and as a percent inhibition of control specific binding 100-(measured specific binding*100) control specific binding obtained in the presence of compoundn. The IC50 values (concentration causing a half-maximal inhibition of control specific binding) and Hill coefficients (nH) were determined by non-linear regression analysis of the competition curves generated with mean replicate values using Hill equation curve fitting. Y=D+[A−D] 1+(C/C50)nH wherein Y=specific binding, A=left asymptote of the curve, D=right asymptote of the curve, C=compound concentration, C50=IC50, and nH=slope factor. This analysis was performed using software developed at Cerep (Hill software) and validated by comparison with data generated by the commercial software SigmaPlot® 4.0 for Windows® (© 1997 by SPSS Inc.). The inhibition constants (Ki) are calculated using the Cheng Prusoff equation: Ki=IC50(1+L/KD) wherein L=concentration of radioligand in the assay, and KD=affinity of the radioligand for the receptor. A scatchard plot is used to determine the KD. Radioligand binding inhibition and affinity calculations are determined using [3H]-methyltrienolone, [3H]-dexamethasone and [3H]-estradiol for AR, GR and ER, respectively. AR=androgen receptor, ER=estrogen receptor, GR=glucocorticoid receptor Biological Example 2 Antagonism of AR (WT or F876L) Reporter Assay LNCaP AR (cs) and LNCaP F876L luciferase cell lines were generated by transduction of each cell line (description of cell line generation Joseph J D, Lu N, Qian J, Sensintaffar J, Shao G, Brigham D, Moon M, Maneval E C, Chen I, Darimont B, Hager J H. A clinically relevant androgen receptor mutation confers resistance to second-generation antiandrogens enzalutamide and ARN-509. Cancer Discov 2013; 3:1020-1029) with an Androgen Response Element Firefly Luciferase lentiviral construct at an MOI (multiplicity of infection) of 50 following the manufacturer's instructions (Qiagen). A stable pooled-population cell line was generated using puromycin (Life Technologies) selection at 1:10,000 v/v. The protocol below was used for both cell lines and for testing of the compounds of Formula (I) of the present invention. LNCaP cells were grown to about 80% confluence, media removed and cells rinsed in Hank's balanced salt solution prior to separation from the plate with 0.05% Trypsin EDTA. Cells were lifted and trypsin negated in complete CSS (charcoal stripped serum) culture media. CSS was maintained on cells for 24 h prior to assay, at which time 5,000 cells/20 μL were seeded in Greiner 384 well White/White Tissue Culture Treated Plates and incubated for a further 1-2 hours at 37° C., 5% CO2, prior to addition of 10 μL, of 4× Test Compounds (compounds described herein) or Assay Controls (all diluted in complete media containing 10% css). A further 10 μL, of 4×R-1881 Agonist Challenge (antagonist assay) or Buffer (agonist assay) was then added (all diluted in complete media containing 10% CSS). Agonist challenge was at 400 pM for WT assay and 600 pM for F876L assay. Plates containing cells and compounds herein were incubated for a further 20-24 hours at 37° C., 5% CO2 before addition of 40 μL/well of Steady-Glo Luciferase Assay System Reagent (Promega# E2520). After 1 h, plates were read for luminescence on a BMG Pherastar. Agonist Challenge: R-1881 (Metribolone)—Agonist Antagonist Control (Low Control): 5-(5-(4-((1-Methylpiperidin-4-yl)oxy)phenyl)-8-oxo-6-thioxo-5,7-diazaspiro[3.4]octan-7-yl)-3-(trifluoromethyl)picolinonitrile (WO 2011/103202, EXAMPLE 19, Compound 129, CAS #1332390-06-3). Calculations and Formulae: RLU results were collected from the Pherastar and used directly for data calculation. Percent Max & Inhibition Calculated for Assays: % Inhibition: (1−(Sample RLU−Ave Low Control RLU[10 μM Antagonist Control])/(Ave High Control RLU [400 pM R-1881]−Ave Low Control RLU[10 μM Antagonist Control]))*100. % of 1 μM R-1881 Agonist Max: ((Sample RLU−Ave Low Control RLU[DMSO/Buffer])/(Ave High Control RLU [1 μM R-1881]−Ave Low Control RLU[DMSO/Buffer]))*100. EC/IC50 calculations were achieved utilizing calculated RLU data and data fitting macros. Data were fit using least-squares methods to the following formula: Y [ ? ] = Y [ low cmpd ] - ( Y [ high cmpd ] Y [ low cmpd ] ) * Y [ cmpd ] ? Y [ cmpd ] Hill + IC 50 Hill ? indicates text missing or illegible when filed wherein Y[low cmpd]=Y value with inactive compound Y[high cmpd]=Y value with fully active compound effector Hill=Hill coefficient EC/IC50=concentration of compound with 50% effect Resultant data are shown in Table 3. TABLE 3 LNCaP-AR- LNCaP-AR- LNCaP-AR- LNCaP-AR- wt ANT wt AG F876L ANT F876L AG MAX MAX MAX MAX Cpd % % % % No. pIC50 Inh pEC50 Stim pIC50 Inh pEC50 Stim 1 6.06 100.4 <4.82 0.5 6.29 100.8 <4.82 −0.6 2 5.65 98.1 <4.82 0.8 6.54 99.3 <4.82 −0.4 3 5.87 99.6 <4.82 0.3 6.49 98.9 <4.82 −0.3 4 5.96 100.2 <4.82 0.2 6.57 100.3 <4.82 −0.4 5 6.01 100.8 <4.82 0.7 6.38 98.3 <4.82 −0.1 6 6.19 100.2 <4.82 0.4 6.75 99.5 <4.82 0.0 7 6.38 100.9 <4.82 −0.2 6.63 100.3 <4.82 0.0 8 5.57 98.8 <4.82 0.2 6.58 92.1 <4.82 −0.1 9 6.06 99.0 <4.82 −0.2 6.16 100.2 <4.82 0.0 10 6.14 99.0 <4.82 0.6 6.31 98.4 <4.82 0.1 11 6.17 101.0 <4.82 −0.1 6.53 99.9 <4.82 −0.1 12 5.76 98.4 <4.82 0.9 6.64 98.7 <4.82 −0.3 13 6.39 102.2 <4.82 0.4 6.64 101.2 <4.82 0.1 14 7.06 101.5 <4.82 0.0 6.95 99.7 <4.82 −0.1 15 6.68 103.2 <4.82 −0.1 7.33 102.1 <4.82 0.0 16 6.20 99.2 <4.82 0.3 6.57 98.7 <4.82 0.0 17 5.57 95.5 <4.82 −0.1 5.96 97.2 <4.82 0.1 18 6.69 101.4 <4.82 −0.2 6.72 100.8 <4.82 0.0 19 6.06 99.6 <4.82 0.3 6.28 98.1 <4.82 0.2 20 5.88 90.0 <4.82 1.3 6.01 95.4 <4.82 0.2 21 6.14 100.4 <4.82 −0.2 6.41 98.6 <4.82 0.1 22 5.61 99.5 <4.82 0.0 6.14 99.7 <4.82 0.1 23 5.90 99.4 <4.82 0.9 6.46 99.6 <4.82 0.0 24 6.48 100.0 <4.82 0.0 6.64 99.5 <4.82 0.1 25 6.00 98.0 <4.82 1.5 6.28 99.7 <4.82 0.2 26 6.09 97.9 <4.82 1.1 6.05 97.9 <4.82 0.3 27 6.04 96.8 <4.82 0.4 6.20 98.8 <4.82 0.2 28 6.30 99.6 <4.82 −0.1 6.69 100.2 <4.82 0.0 29 6.41 102.3 <4.82 0.7 7.00 100.6 <4.82 0.3 30 6.48 100.3 <4.82 0.1 6.79 98.8 <4.82 0.1 31 5.65 98.6 <4.82 0.2 5.65 91.0 <4.82 0.3 32 6.31 102.1 <4.82 0.7 6.55 101.0 <4.82 0.1 33 5.91 99.6 <4.82 0.3 6.31 100.0 <4.82 0.3 34 6.25 99.7 <4.82 −0.1 6.21 99.4 <4.82 0.2 35 6.62 97.5 <4.82 −0.1 6.84 101.2 <4.82 0.0 36 5.83 96.1 <4.82 0.9 6.07 91.3 <4.82 0.3 37 5.92 99.3 <4.82 0.3 6.40 96.5 <4.82 0.3 38 6.40 100.0 <4.82 1.2 6.64 99.0 <4.82 0.3 39 5.74 97.2 <4.82 0.2 5.81 94.4 <4.82 0.3 40 6.62 101.2 <4.82 −0.3 6.79 99.5 <4.82 0.2 41 6.55 102.5 <4.82 −0.2 6.73 101.6 <4.82 0.3 42 6.61 100.5 <4.82 0.3 6.51 99.8 <4.82 0.0 43 6.30 97.3 <4.82 0.7 6.61 98.9 <4.82 0.4 44 6.71 102.9 <4.82 −0.2 6.75 101.1 <4.82 0.0 45 5.99 101.2 <4.82 0.2 6.36 100.3 <4.82 0.1 46 6.05 99.9 <4.82 −0.1 6.20 98.3 <4.82 0.2 47 6.61 101.3 <4.82 0.9 6.71 99.6 <4.82 0.4 48 6.21 96.3 <4.82 1.1 6.40 99.2 <4.82 0.5 49 6.30 100.9 <4.82 0.6 6.59 96.5 <4.82 0.5 50 6.44 98.0 <4.82 0.7 6.55 98.2 <4.82 0.2 51 6.41 99.0 <4.82 0.8 6.70 100.7 <4.82 0.2 52 6.13 100.7 <4.82 0.4 6.33 101.6 <4.82 0.4 53 6.04 97.0 <4.82 1.0 6.19 96.7 <4.82 0.5 54 6.42 100.9 <4.82 0.1 6.66 98.9 <4.82 0.5 55 6.09 101.0 <4.82 0.7 6.50 100.3 <4.82 0.6 56 6.07 99.7 <4.82 0.5 6.08 97.8 <4.82 0.4 57 6.49 99.0 <4.82 0.0 6.32 95.5 <4.82 0.5 58 6.61 102.0 <4.82 0.1 6.69 98.2 <4.82 0.6 59 5.89 102.3 <4.82 1.5 6.17 100.4 <4.82 0.7 60 6.03 98.7 <4.82 1.1 6.28 99.3 <4.82 0.7 61 5.90 100.1 <4.82 1.1 6.42 100.4 <4.82 0.7 62 6.47 98.8 <4.82 0.8 7.04 99.7 <4.82 0.4 63 6.11 68.6 <4.82 0.7 6.66 83.4 <4.82 0.3 64 6.55 98.9 <4.82 1.2 6.76 98.1 <4.82 0.7 65 6.38 97.8 <4.82 1.2 6.41 98.9 <4.82 0.8 66 5.94 98.9 <4.82 0.6 6.22 96.2 <4.82 0.1 67 5.90 99.2 <4.82 1.5 6.39 97.4 <4.82 0.8 68 6.23 96.7 <4.82 0.2 6.37 98.0 <4.82 0.9 69 6.55 101.5 <4.82 0.9 6.88 99.1 <4.82 0.7 70 6.13 99.2 <4.82 0.3 6.29 99.5 <4.82 0.9 71 6.67 98.8 <4.82 0.5 6.60 97.5 <4.82 0.9 72 6.60 102.0 <4.82 0.3 6.99 100.7 <4.82 0.6 73 6.12 99.5 <4.82 1.9 6.38 99.1 <4.82 0.6 74 5.94 94.1 <4.82 0.6 6.12 93.8 <4.82 1.0 75 6.25 101.3 <4.82 0.8 6.84 100.4 <4.82 0.8 76 5.84 97.8 <4.82 1.9 6.07 91.6 <4.82 1.0 77 6.69 99.5 <4.82 0.8 6.74 100.3 <4.82 0.6 78 5.88 96.5 <4.82 0.7 5.98 95.9 <4.82 1.0 79 6.20 100.6 <4.82 1.6 6.48 100.7 <4.82 0.5 80 6.05 100.2 <4.82 0.4 6.37 95.4 <4.82 1.2 81 6.15 95.9 <4.82 0.7 6.11 100.0 <4.82 1.2 82 6.44 102.6 <4.82 0.0 6.36 95.5 <4.82 1.2 83 5.65 98.8 <4.82 0.1 6.00 99.5 <4.82 0.5 84 6.04 87.8 <4.82 1.0 6.32 91.9 <4.82 1.3 85 6.73 101.1 <4.82 0.2 7.01 99.8 <4.82 0.8 86 6.59 91.7 <4.82 0.6 6.68 93.3 <4.82 1.3 87 6.51 100.6 <4.82 1.1 6.54 99.7 <4.82 0.9 88 6.20 97.2 <4.82 0.7 6.86 87.3 <4.82 0.7 89 6.20 100.7 <4.82 0.3 6.36 96.2 <4.82 1.4 90 6.29 100.0 <4.82 0.5 6.20 98.6 <4.82 1.4 91 6.27 98.5 <4.82 1.1 6.52 98.6 <4.82 1.4 92 6.20 94.7 <4.82 2.8 6.59 98.2 <4.82 1.3 93 6.39 100.3 <4.82 0.9 6.63 100.1 <4.82 0.8 94 6.14 95.0 <4.82 6.0 6.20 99.2 <4.82 1.5 95 6.10 96.1 <4.82 0.2 5.98 92.3 <4.82 1.5 96 6.39 101.3 <4.82 1.5 6.46 100.3 <4.82 0.8 97 6.04 100.2 <4.82 0.7 6.17 99.6 <4.82 1.6 98 6.53 101.6 <4.82 0.0 6.61 98.9 <4.82 1.6 99 6.38 97.2 <4.82 1.6 6.41 85.9 <4.82 1.6 100 6.38 102.1 <4.82 1.8 6.59 97.2 <4.82 1.7 101 6.32 99.4 <4.82 1.1 6.44 95.3 <4.82 1.7 102 6.19 101.3 <4.82 0.9 6.30 99.6 <4.82 1.9 103 6.25 29.0 <4.82 4.0 6.97 64.9 <4.82 2.0 104 6.89 99.7 <4.82 2.7 7.92 98.4 <4.82 2.2 105 6.24 95.7 <4.82 1.2 6.31 95.3 <4.82 2.3 106 6.21 100.7 <4.82 1.8 6.20 95.9 <4.82 2.4 107 6.25 89.1 <4.82 2.1 6.79 97.3 <4.82 2.4 108 6.09 94.5 <4.82 2.3 6.41 95.6 <4.82 2.5 109 5.71 97.9 <4.82 0.2 6.13 98.4 <4.82 1.1 110 6.71 100.5 <4.82 1.3 6.84 100.2 <4.82 2.6 111 6.39 102.2 <4.82 0.5 6.28 94.1 <4.82 2.7 112 6.45 100.5 <4.82 1.1 6.48 97.0 <4.82 2.7 113 5.93 97.4 <4.82 25.3 6.06 98.2 <4.82 3.1 114 6.62 98.7 <4.82 0.7 6.45 97.8 <4.82 3.3 115 6.43 100.0 <4.82 1.1 6.36 96.1 <4.82 3.4 116 5.59 95.3 <4.82 1.1 6.20 98.6 <4.82 3.5 117 5.90 100.1 <4.82 0.7 6.54 96.4 <4.82 3.5 118 5.96 101.1 <4.82 0.4 6.80 99.4 <4.82 3.9 119 6.95 97.7 <4.82 2.2 6.80 96.0 <4.82 3.9 120 6.44 100.1 <4.82 1.2 6.65 98.8 <4.82 3.9 121 5.56 93.6 <4.82 1.2 6.24 98.7 <4.82 3.0 122 6.52 99.7 <4.82 2.2 6.36 90.5 <4.82 6.2 As used herein: pIC50 is defined as −Log10(IC50 expressed in [Molar]). pEC50 is defined as −Log10(EC50 expressed in [Molar]). MAX % Inh is defined as the maximum % inhibition of R1881 control response observed for a compound over the tested concentration range. MAX % Stim is defined as the maximum % stimulation (agonist response) observed for a compound over the tested concentration range. LNCaP-AR-wt ANT refers to the reporter assay using LNCaP cells stably transfected with the Androgen Response Element Firefly Luciferase lentiviral construct and wild-type Androgen Receptor (AR-wt) in Antagonist mode. LNCaP-AR-wt AG refers to the reporter assay using LNCaP cells stably transfected with the Androgen Response Element Firefly Luciferase lentiviral construct and wild-type Androgen Receptor (AR-wt) in Agonist mode. LNCaP-AR-F876L ANT refers to the reporter assay using LNCaP cells stably transfected with the Androgen Response Element Firefly Luciferase lentiviral construct and F876L mutant Androgen Receptor (AR-F876L) in Antagonist mode. LNCaP-AR-F876L AG refers to the reporter assay using LNCaP cells stably transfected with the Androgen Response Element Firefly Luciferase lentiviral construct and F876L mutant Androgen Receptor (AR-F876L) in Agonist mode. Biological Example 2 AR in Cell Western Assay LNCaP cells (8,000/well) are plated in RPMI media containing 10% Charcoal Dextran Stripped Serum into plates coated with poly-d-lysine. After 24 h cells are treated with compound from 30 μM to 0.0003 μM. At 20 h post compound addition the cells were fixed (30% formaldehyde in PBS) for 20′. Cells are permeabilized in PBS 0.1% Triton (50 μL/well, three times for 5′ each) and blocked with LiCor blocking buffer (50 μL/well, 90′). The wells are then incubated overnight at 4° C. with the rabbit IgG androgen receptor antibody (AR-N20, Santa Cruz antibody) diluted 1:1000 in LiCor blocking buffer/0.1% Tween-20. Wells are washed with 0.1% Tween-20/PBS (50 μL/well, 5′ each) and then incubated in goat anti-rabbit IRDye™ 800 CW (1:1000) and DRAQ5 DNA dye (1:10,0000 for 5 mM stock) diluted in 0.2% Tween-20/0.01% SDS/LiCor blocking buffer in the dark (90′). Cells are washed (50 μL/well, 5′ each) in 0.1% Tween-20/PBS. Wash buffer is removed and plates were read using the LiCor Odyssey. Biological Example 4 LNCaP AR Localization Assay LNCaP cells are seeded on day 1 in plates and incubated overnight at 37° C. prior to addition of 20 μL pre-diluted compound or DMSO (basal, vehicle control). Plates are incubated at 37° C. for 1-2 h before addition of 20 μL of ligand solution (antagonist mode, high control) or CSS medium (agonist mode, unstimulated control) and incubation of the cells for +/−24 h. Cells are fixed in 140 μL of 10% Formaldehyde (5% final) and plates incubated for 15-20 min at RT. 100 μL 100% ice cold Methanol (stored at −20° C.) is added to permeabilise the cells, antibody staining protocol initiated and plates prepared for imaging. Staining is performed using an indirect immunofluorescence assay: for AR, primary antibody is a specific mouse anti-AR antibody (ab49450, Abcam), followed by a secondary goat anti-mouse antibody, carrying an alexa 488 fluorophore; for PSA, primary antibody is a specific rabbit anti-PSA antibody (5365S, Cell Signaling Technology), followed by a secondary goat anti rabbit antibody, carrying an alexa 568 fluorophore. Cells are counterstained with Hoechst for the nucleus and cytoplasmic stain for the cytoplasm stain. Plates are washed and maintained in PBS at 4° C. until further processed. Plates are imaged using the 20×W lens on the Opera (Perkin Elmer) and the following calculations are then applied to derive the reported data from this assay LC=median of the low control values=minimum translocation =cells in CSS medium(0,5% DMSO) and showing minimum translocation HC=median of the high control values=maximum translocation =cells in CSS medium containing 1 nM of R1881 ligand(0,5% DMSO) % EFFECT=(sample−LC)/(HC−LC)*100% CTL=% of high−controls=(sample/HC)*100 Several features are calculated but include: Ratio_Nuc2_Cell_AR_TotalIntBC.median: % of total AR in the nucleus calculated as “total nuclear AR intensity”/“total cellular AR intensity” on the single-cell level and then the median over all cells reported as well feature [% effect] Cell_AR_MeanIntBC.median: AR levels in the whole cell [% effect] Cyto_AR_meanIntBC.median: AR levels in cytoplasm [% effect] Nuc_AR_MeanIntBC.median: AR levels in nucleus [% effect] Cell_Rpt_MeanIntBC.median: PSA levels in whole cell [% effect] CellCount_AllDetected: number of the cells Biological Example 5 Prostate Cancer Cell Viability Assay-VCaP VCaP cells are counted and seeded into black 384-well plates with clear bottoms at a concentration of 125,000 cells per mL in phenol red-free DMEM containing 10% Charcoal Stripped Serum. 16 μL of the suspension is added per well and incubated for 48 h to allow the cells to adhere. After 48 hours, a 12 point serial semilog dilution of each compound is added to the cells in 16 μL at a final concentration of 100 μM to 0.0003 μM. The compounds of Formula (I) are also run in antagonist mode using 30 pM R1881 in which 8 μL of the compound is added to the cells followed by 8 μL of R1881. After 5 days of incubation at 37° C., 16 μL Of CellTiter-Glo (Promega) are added to the cells and the relative luminescence units (RLUs) of each well determined using the Envision. The percent stimulation and % inhibition are determined for each sample and plotted using GraphPad Prism. Biological Example 6 LNCaP Proliferation Assays LNCaP cells are expanded in RPMI 10% FBS in T150 flasks. The cells are dislodged with 0.25% Trypsin, washed in complete media, centrifuged (300 g, 3 min), and the supernatant aspirated. The cells are resuspended in RPMI phenol-red free media with 1% charcoal-stripped serum (CSS) and counted using a ViCELL (Beckman-Coulter). 7500 cells are added to each well of a white optical bottom 384-well plate and are incubated for 2 days at 37° C. 5% CO2. Compound dilutions are prepared in RPMI CSS using 50 mM stock solutions and added to the cells either alone (agonist mode) or in combination with 0.1 nM R1881 (antagonist mode). The plates are incubated for 4 days, followed by addition of CellTiter-Glo Luminescent Cell Viability kit reagent (Promega). The plates are placed on a shaker at 3000 rpm for 10 minutes and then read on an EnVision plate reader (Perkin Elmer) using Luminescence assay default settings. The data are analyzed, normalized to 0.1 nM R1881 stimulation, and plotted in GraphPad Prism. Biological Example 7 Luciferase Transcriptional Reporter Assays (WT and Mutant AR) HepG2 cells were maintained in EMEM supplemented with 10% FBS. One day before transfection, the media was changed to EMEM with 10% CSS. T-150 flasks were transiently transfected using 120 μL Lipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies), 30 μg mutant cDNA (expression vector)—mutant cDNA tested were L701H, T877A, W741C and H874Y—and 40 μg 4×ARE-Luciferase (reporter vector) in OptiMEM and the flasks were incubated overnight. Cells were then trypsinized, counted and resuspended at 500,000 cells/mL. For agonist mode, the compounds of Formula (I) are serially diluted and 50 μL of the compound added per well. 50 μL of the cells are added to each well and incubated for 48 hours. For antagonist mode, a final concentration of 90 pM R1881 was added to the diluted compounds and incubated for 48 hours. The plates were then assayed using SteadyGlo and read on the Envision. Percent Stimulation and Inhibition is determined and analyzed using GraphPad Prism. Resultant data are shown in Table 7. TABLE 7 Summary of Antagonist Activity, IC50 for compounds of Formula (I) in AR Mutant Reporter Assays. Antagonism; IC50 μM [% Emax] AR construct Compound L701H T877A W741C H874Y 8 NT NT NT NT 35 3.36 3.59 5.79 1.95 40 NT 7.51* NT NT 60 NT NT NT NT 85 8.86* 11.2* 14.0 9.48* The antagonistic (IC50) values for each of the AR cDNA used in the reporter assays are summarized. NT is not tested * denotes incomplete inhibition (otherwise 100%). All values are calculated relative to the activity of R1881 induced androgen receptor activity (n≧3). Biological Example 8 AR-VP16 DNA Binding Assays HepG2 cells were maintained in EMEM supplemented with 10% FBS. One day before transfection, the media was changed to EMEM with 10% CSS. T-150 flasks were transiently transfected using 120 μL Lipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies), 24.5 μg AR-VP16 or F876L-VP16 (expression vector) and 49 μg 4×ARE-Luciferase (reporter vector) in OptiMEM and the flasks were incubated overnight. Cells were then trypsinized, counted and resuspended at 500,000 cells/mL. For agonist mode, the compounds were serially diluted and 50 μL of the compound was added per well. 50 μL of the cells were added to each well and incubated for 48 hours. For antagonist mode, a final concentration of 90 pM (VP16 AR) or 1 nM (VP16 F876L) R1881 was added to the plate and incubated for 48 hours. The plates were then assayed using SteadyGlo and read on the Envision. Percent Stimulation and Inhibition were determined and analyzed using GraphPad Prism. Resultant data are shown in Table 8. TABLE 8 IC50 (μM) Compound VP16 WT VP16 F876L 8 0.121 15.35 35 3.39 2.74 40 0.024* 0.994* 60 2.05 0.746 85 0.96 0.127 Biological Example 9 GABA-Gated C1 Channel Antagonist Radioligand Binding Assay GABA-gated C1 Chanel assays are performed at CEREP according to the following method. Membrane homogenates of cerebral cortex (120 μg protein) are incubated for 120 min at 22° C. with 3 nM [355]-TBPS in the absence or presence of the test compound in a buffer containing 50 mM Na2HPO4/KH2PO4 (pH 7.4) and 500 mM NaCl. Nonspecific binding is determined in the presence of 20 μM picrotoxinin. Following incubation, the samples are filtered rapidly under vacuum through glass fiber filters (GF/B, Packard) presoaked with 0.3% PEI and rinsed several times with ice-cold 50 mM Tris-HCl using a 96-sample cell harvester (Unifilter, Packard). The filters are dried then counted for radioactivity in a scintillation counter (Topcount, Packard) using a scintillation cocktail (Microscint 0, Packard). The results are expressed as a percent inhibition of the control radio ligand specific binding. The standard reference compound is picrotoxinin, which is tested in each experiment at several concentrations to obtain a competition curve from which its IC50 was calculated. In-Vivo Assays Biological Example V1 Hershberger Assay The effect of AR antagonists on androgen dependent signaling in vivo was assessed using the Hershberger assay. In this assay, peripubertal castrated male Sprague-Dawley rats were administered AR antagonists described herein in the presence of testosterone (0.4 mg/kg testosterone propionate) and the weights of androgen dependent organs measured. Dosing was continued for 10 days and measurements taken 24 h after the last dose. The extent of antagonism of AR and consequent inhibition of organ growth was evaluated by comparison to the castration control. Compounds of Formula (I) were dosed orally QD and an endpoint assessment made by change in weight of 5 androgen sensitive organs (ASO): Paired Cowper's Glands (CG), Seminal Vesicles with Fluids and Coagulating Glands (SVCG), Glans Penis (GP), Ventral Prostate (VP) and Levator Ani-Bulbocavernosus Complex (LABC)). According to assay guidelines, statistically significant suppression of ASO is required in 2 of 5 organs for a compound to be classified as an anti-androgen (analysis was performed by t-test/Mann-Whitney). Compounds defined herein were administered at the indicated dose (mg/kg) and flutamide (FT), positive control, at 3 mg/kg. All compounds were co-administered with testosterone propionate (TP, 0.4 mg/kg) which was also administered alone, untreated control, (castrated only rats served as the control for complete androgen blockade). A statistically significant change in ASO achieved in at least 2 of 5 organs was indicative of an active compound. Administration of Compound 43 resulted in significant reduction in ASO versus TP control (p≦0.05) in all 5 organs. Data for the inhibition of growth of the Seminal Vesicle and Coagulating Glands (SVCG) and Ventral Prostate (VP) was reported for all studies (mean organ weight (% of TP control)±SD (n=6)). Resultant data are shown in Table 10. TABLE 10 ASO Organ Growth Compound (% of TP control) [dose] SVCG VP Flutamide (+ve control) 16.6 ± 16.3 24.4 ± 35.5 [3 mg/kg] Compound 35 28.1 ± 19.5 25.7 ± 22.9 [30 mg/kg] Flutamide (+ve control) 22.5 ± 22.9 31.1 ± 29.2 [3 mg/kg] Compound 85 67.3 ± 20.2 72.3 ± 18.5 [3 mg/kg] Compound 85 31.6 ± 37.7 37.4 ± 25.6 [10 mg/kg] Compound 85 8.5 ± 14.7 13.2 ± 19.2 [30 mg/kg] Biological Example V2 Castrate Resistant Prostate Cancer Xenograft Studies Castrate six to seven week old male SCID Hairless Outbred mice (SHO, Charles Rivers Laboratories) were used as the host strain for xenograft studies. LNCaP SRα F876L tumors were established in host mice and the anti-tumor activity of compounds defined herein was determined. Dosing was initiated when tumors reached 100 to 200 mm3 and animals were randomized to each of test groups (vehicle (HP-β-CD), 10 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg or 50 mg/kg compound). Compound was dosed orally, QD, for 28 days and tumor size was measured twice weekly along with body weight measurement. At the end of study, the TGI was calculated using initial tumor volume and final tumor volume measurements. TGI: 100−(Treated/Control*100). At the termination of study tumors were collected and stored for further analyses. Resultant data are shown in Table 11. TABLE 11 TGI (%) Compound 10 mg/kg 30 mg/kg Compound 35 53 Compound 85 80.2 100.8 While the foregoing specification teaches the principles of the present invention, with examples provided for the purpose of illustration, it will be understood that the practice of the invention encompasses all of the usual variations, adaptations and/or modifications as come within the scope of the following claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Prostate cancer is the most common non-cutaneous malignancy in men and the second leading cause of death in men from cancer in the western world As a male sexual organ, development of the prostate is highly regulated by androgens, the AR and by the products of androgen dependent genes. During all stages of prostate cancer progression, the disease remains dependent upon androgens. Anti-androgens, including AR antagonists, are used therapeutically to reverse the dependence of the tumor upon the actions of androgen (Scher H, Sawyers C. Biology of progressive, castration-resistant prostate cancer: directed therapies targeting the androgen-receptor signaling axis. J Clin Oncol 2005; 23:8253-8261; Tran C, Ouk S, Clegg N, Chen Y, Watson P, Arora V, et al. Development of a second-generation antiandrogen for treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Science 2009; 324:787-790; Scher H, Fizazi K, Saad F, Taplin M, Sternberg C, Miller K, et al. Increased survival with enzalutamide in prostate cancer after chemotherapy. N Engl J Med 2012; 367:1187-1197). Unfortunately, the efficacy of even second-generation, highly potent AR antagonists, such as MDV-3100 (enzalutamide, Xtandi®), is short-lived in many patients. AR antagonists have transformed patient care by targeting a key nodal point in tumor cell signaling. However, as with other molecularly targeted cancer therapies across different oncology indications, the emergence of acquired resistance via mutation of the therapeutic target is not uncommon. This is best exemplified by imatinib-treated patients with chronic myeloid leukemia in whom ABL kinase mutations render leukemia cells resistant to imatinib. Multiple next-generation ABL inhibitors have since been developed to circumvent the mutation and with activity in this setting (Gorre M, Mohammed M, Ellwood K, Hsu N, Paquette R, Rao P, Sawyers C. Clinical resistance to STI-571 cancer therapy caused by BCRABL gene mutation or amplification. Science 2001; 293:876-80; O'Hare T, Deininger M W, Eide C A, Clackson T, Druker B J. Targeting the BCR-ABL signaling pathway in therapy-resistant Philadelphia chromosome-positive leukemia. Clin Cancer Res 2011. 17:212-21). Importantly, the activity of second- and third-generation AR inhibitors indicates that the disease remains “addicted” to a deregulated driver. This has led to the paradigm of sequential therapy targeting the same driver oncogene in distinct resistant states and is applicable herein to targeting of AR and the lineage dependence of AR signaling. AR mutations that result in receptor promiscuity and the ability of these anti-androgens to exhibit agonist activity might at least partially account for this phenomenon. For example, hydroxyflutamide and bicalutamide act as AR agonists in T877A and W741L/W741C AR mutants, respectively. In the setting of prostate cancer cells that were rendered castration resistant via overexpression of AR, it has been demonstrated that certain anti-androgen compounds, such as bicalutamide, have a mixed antagonist/agonist profile (Tran C, Ouk S, Clegg N, Chen Y, Watson P, Arora V, et al. Development of a second-generation antiandrogen for treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Science 2009; 324:787-790). This agonist activity helps to explain a clinical observation, called the anti-androgen withdrawal syndrome, whereby about 30% of men who progress on AR antagonists experience a decrease in serum PSA when therapy is discontinued (Scher, H. I. and Kelly, W. K., J Urol 1993 March; 149(3): 607-9). Prostate specific antigen decline after antiandrogen withdrawal: the flutamide withdrawal syndrome. Accumulating evidence indicates that castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) remains dependent upon AR signaling through reactivation of AR signaling (Yuan X, Balk S. Mechanisms mediating androgen receptor reactivation after castration. Urol Oncol 2009; 27: 36-41; Linja M, Savinainen K, Saramaki O, Tammela T, Vessella R, Visakorpi T. Amplification and overexpression of androgen receptor gene in hormone-refractory prostate cancer. Cancer Res 2001, 61:3550-5; Chen C, Welsbie D, Tran C, Baek S, Chen R, Vessella R, Rosenfeld M, Sawyers C. Molecular determinants of resistance to antiandrogen therapy. Nat Med 2004, 10(1): 33-9). Point mutation in the ligand-binding domain (LBD) of AR accounts for 10-20% of resistance and is characterized by receptor activation, rather than inhibition, by anti-androgen drugs (Beltran H, Yelensky R, Frampton G, Park K, Downing S, MacDonald T, et al. Targeted next-generation sequencing of advanced prostate cancer identifies potential therapeutic targets and disease heterogeneity. Eur Urol 2013; 63(5): 920-6; Bergerat J, Céraline J. Pleiotropic functional properties of androgen receptor mutants in prostate cancer. Hum Mutat 2009; 30(2):145-57). Many of these mutations broaden ligand specificity, and some confer resistance by converting the AR antagonist into an agonist of the mutant receptor (Veldscholte J, Ris-Stalpers C, Kuiper G G, Jenster G, Berrevoets C, Claassen E, van Rooij H C, Trapman J, Brinkmann A O, Mulder E. A mutation in the ligand binding domain of the androgen receptor of human LNCaP cells affects steroid binding characteristics and response to anti-androgens. Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1990; 173: 534-40; Haapala K, Hyytinen E, Roiha M, Laurila M, Rantala I, Helin H, Koivisto P. Androgen receptor alterations in prostate cancer relapsed during a combined androgen blockade by orchiectomy and bicalutamide. Lab Invest 2001; 81(12):1647-1651; Hara T, Miyazaki J, Araki H, Yamaoka M, Kanzaki N, Kusaka M, Miyamoto M. Novel mutations of androgen receptor: a possible mechanism of bicalutamide withdrawal syndrome. Cancer Res 2003; 63(1):149-153). One mutation, phenylalanine to leucine at position 876 (F876L) of AR, was recently shown to arise in response to MDV-3100 and ARN-509 in preclinical models and in patients undergoing therapy with ARN-509 (Clegg N, Wongvipat J, Joseph J, Tran C, Ouk S, Dilhas A, et al. ARN-509: a novel antiandrogen for prostate cancer treatment. Cancer Res 2012; 72(6):1494-503; Balbas M, Evans M, Hosfield D, Wongvipat J, Arora V, Watson P, et al. Overcoming mutation-based resistance to antiandrogens with rational drug design. Elife 2013. 2: e00499; Korpal M, Korn J, Gao X, Rakiec D, Ruddy D, Doshi S, et al. An F876L mutation in androgen receptor confers genetic and phenotypic resistance to MDV3100 (enzalutamide). Cancer Discov 2013; 39:1030-1043; Joseph J D, Lu N, Qian J, Sensintaffar J, Shao G, Brigham D, Moon M, Maneval E C, Chen I, Darimont B, Hager J H. A clinically relevant androgen receptor mutation confers resistance to second-generation antiandrogens enzalutamide and ARN-509 . Cancer Discov 2013; 3:1020-1029). AR F876L confers resistance to MDV-3100 and ARN-509. Comprehensive biological studies have demonstrated that prostate cancer cells harboring this mutation continued to grow when treated with either compound. In vitro reporter assays confirmed resistance and demonstrate agonist conversion of both compounds and in tumors engineered to express AR F876L, neither compound controlled tumor growth. Furthermore, the AR F876L mutant is detected in ARN-509-treated patients with progressive CRPC. The mutation was detected in the plasma DNA of patients undergoing longitudinal analysis in 3 of 29 patients eligible for assessment. All 3 of the patients were amongst the 18 patients with an increase in prostate specific antigen (PSA) whilst on drug, indicative of disease progression (Joseph 2013). Structural modeling of wild-type (WT) and F876L mutated AR bound with MDV-3100, indicated that helices 11 and 12 were differentially displaced. Within the LBD of AR in the F876L mutant, helix 12 is not displaced by MDV-3100 as it is in WT AR, and this allows MDV 3100 to function as an agonist. The compounds described herein are designed to act as antagonists (third-generation), where second-generation compounds are not active. Therefore, it is an object of the present invention to provide a method of treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in a subject in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, using a therapeutically effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of Formula (I). | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to a method for treating and/or ameliorating diseases, syndromes, disorders, or conditions associated with AR mutant receptors linked to castration-resistant prostate cancer, in a subject, including a mammal and/or human in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or an enantiomer, diastereomer, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof; wherein R 1 is methyl, difluoromethyl, or trifluoromethyl; G is selected from the group consisting of unsubstituted 1H-indazol-5-yl, unsubstituted isoquinolin-7-yl, unsubstituted pyridin-3-yl, unsubstituted naphthyl, and a phenyl substituent g1; wherein R 3 is selected from hydrogen, fluoro, methyl, trifluoromethoxy, hydroxymethyl, phenyloxy, methoxy, or cyano; R 5 is hydrogen, fluoro, or methoxy, such that at least one of R 3 and R 5 is hydrogen; R 4 is selected from the group consisting of hydrogen, cyano, fluoro, hydroxy, methoxy, methyl, trifluoromethyl, methylaminosulfonyl, trifluoromethoxy, pyrrolidin-1-ylcarbonyl, piperazin-1-yl, (4-methyl)piperazin-1-yl(C 1-3 )alkyl, tetrahydropyran-4-yl, and a substituent from i) to v); i) —C(═O)NH(R A ); wherein R A is a substituent selected from hydrogen; C 1-6 alkyl; 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-propyl; cyclopentylmethyl; 3-hydroxypropyl; cyanomethyl; methoxy(C 2-3 )alkyl; 3-(cyclopentyl(N-methyl)amino)propyl; ethoxycarbonyl(C 1-3 )alkyl; 3-(pyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl; morpholin-4-yl(C 2-3 )alkyl; 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl(C 2-3 )alkyl; 3-(2-oxopyrrolidin-1-yl)propyl; thienylmethyl; thiazol-2-yl; 2-methylpyrazol-3-yl; furanyl(C 0-3 )alkyl wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; phenyl(C 0-3 )alkyl wherein said phenyl is optionally substituted with a chloro or fluoro substituent; pyridinyl(C 0-2 )alkyl wherein pyridinyl is optionally substituted with a methyl or fluoro substituent; pyrazin-2-ylmethyl; (1-methyl)piperidin-4-yl; and tetrahydropyran-4-yl(C 0-1 )alkyl; ii) wherein W is selected from NH, N(methyl), N(ethyl), N(2-hydroxyethyl), N(SO 2 CH 3 ), S, O, or SO 2 ; iii) —O(C 2-3 )alkyl-R b ; wherein R b is a terminal substituent selected from the group consisting of methoxy, piperazin-1-yl, 4-methylpiperazin-1-yl, piperidin-1-yl, pyridin-2-yl, pyrimidin-2-yl, and pyrrolidin-1-yl; iv) —OR, wherein R c is phenyl, pyridin-2-yl, pyrimidin-2-yl, pyrimidin-5-yl, or pyrimidin-4-yl; and v) a heteroaryl selected from the group consisting of pyrimidin-5-yl, furanyl, and pyridin-3-yl; wherein said pyridin-3-yl is optionally substituted with a methyl or fluoro substituent; and wherein said furanyl is optionally substituted with a methyl substituent; R 10 and R 11 are each a methyl substituent; or R 10 and R 11 are taken together to form a cyclobutyl or cyclopentyl ring. The present invention is directed to the use of a compound of Formula (I) as herein defined, for the treatment and/or amelioration of a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder in a subject, including a mammal and/or human in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, in which the disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder is affected by the antagonism of one or more androgen receptor types, such as prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. The present invention also directed to the use of a pharmaceutical composition comprising, consisting of and/or consisting essentially of a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, and/or a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent and a compound of Formula (I), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt form thereof, for the treatment and/or amelioration of a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder in a subject, including a mammal and/or human, in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, in which the disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder is affected by the antagonism of one or more androgen receptor types, such as prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. The present invention also is directed to the use of any of the compounds described herein in the preparation of a medicament wherein the medicament is prepared for the treatment and/or amelioration of a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder in a subject, including a mammal and/or human in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, in which the disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder is affected by the antagonism of one or more androgen receptor types, such as prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. Exemplifying the invention are methods of treating a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder mediated by one or more androgen receptor types, selected from the group consisting of prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer, comprising, consisting of, and/or consisting essentially of, administering to a subject in need thereof, who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, a therapeutically effective amount of any of the compounds or pharmaceutical compositions described in the present invention. In another embodiment, the present invention is directed to a compound of Formula (I) for use in the treatment and/or amelioration of a disease, syndrome, condition, or disorder affected by the antagonism of one or more androgen receptor types, in a patient who has demonstrated resistance to a first or second generation AR antagonist, selected from the group consisting of prostate cancer, castration-resistant prostate cancer, and metastatic castration-resistant prostate cancer. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | A61K314439 | 20170707 | 20180111 | 75286.0 | A61K314439 | 0 | LEE, WILLIAM Y | THIOHYDANTOIN ANDROGEN RECEPTOR ANTAGONISTS FOR THE TREATMENT OF CANCER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | REJECTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,644,170 | ACCEPTED | Industrial Washer Door Locking Mechanism and System | This disclosure is directed to a washer that will not start the wash sequence until each door is securely fastened shut. In exemplary embodiment, the washer may include at least one door having a locking mechanism that has at least one locking pin. The locking pin may be moved from an unlocked position to a locked position. When the door is shut, the locking pin may be received in a locking pin slot that is disposed in the body of the washer. The locking mechanism may also include a locking bracket that may be engaged with a locking hasp only when the locking pin is in the locked position. The washer may also include a sensor in communication with the controller. The controller only permits the operation of the washer when the sensor detects the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp. | 1. An industrial washer permitting operation only when secured, comprising: a body defining an inner compartment and a loading opening dimensioned to permit placement of laundry within the inner compartment, a washer door, configured to move between an open position and a closed position, and positioned to cover the loading opening in the closed position; a locking bracket moveable between a locked position and an unlocked position; wherein, in the locked position, the locking bracket is secured against a locking surface, wherein the locking bracket is only securable against the locking surface when the washer door is in the closed position; a sensor disposed on the body; and a sensor target positioned on the washer door such that the sensor target is only detectable by the sensor when the washer door is in the closed position. 2. The industrial washer of claim 1, further comprising a controller in communication with the sensor, the controller being configured to permit operation only if the sensor detects the sensor target. 3. The industrial washer of claim 1, further comprising a plurality of sensor targets and a plurality of sensors, wherein the plurality of sensor targets are each only detectable by a respective sensor of the plurality of sensors when the washer door is in the closed position. 4. The industrial washer of claim 3, further comprising a controller in communication with each sensor of the plurality of sensors and configured to permit operation only if each sensor of the plurality of sensors detects a respective sensor target of the plurality of sensor targets. 5. The industrial washer of claim 1, wherein the industrial washer further comprises an outer washer door. 6. An industrial washer permitting operation only when secured, comprising: a body defining an inner compartment and a loading opening dimensioned to permit the placement of laundry within the inner compartment; a washer door is configured to move between an open position and a closed position, and positioned to cover the loading opening in the closed position; a sensor disposed on the body; a sensor target bracket mounted on the washer door; and a sensor target positioned on the sensor target bracket such that the sensor only detects the sensor target when the washer door is in the closed position. 7. The industrial washer of claim 6, further comprising a controller in communication with the sensor, the controller being configured to permit operation only if the sensor detects the sensor target. 8. The industrial washer of claim 6, further comprising a plurality of sensor targets and a plurality of sensors, wherein the plurality of sensor targets are each only detectable by a respective sensor of the plurality of sensors when the washer door is in the closed position. 9. The industrial washer of claim 8, further comprising a controller in communication with each sensor of the plurality of sensors and configured to permit operation only if each sensor of the plurality of sensors detects a respective sensor target of the plurality of sensor targets. 10. The industrial washer of claim 6, further comprising an outer washer door. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of and claims priority to co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/614,103 and entitled “Industrial Washer Door Locking Mechanism and System,” which claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/795,222, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,689,103, and entitled “Industrial Washer Door Locking Mechanism and System,” which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/158,895, filed on May 8, 2015, and entitled “Industrial Washer Door Locking Mechanism and System,” the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is generally directed to industrial washers, and, more particularly, to industrial washer safety mechanisms. BACKGROUND Industrial Side and End Loading Washer Extractors utilize two types of doors. These types of washer extractors utilize a stationary outer weldment (tub) with an inner divided cylinder that rotates within this tub. The outer tub has a door that opens to give access to the inner cylinder. The inner cylinder has multiple doors providing access to the individual compartments within the divided cylinder. The cylinder may have one, two, three or four compartments, each with an access door. To load this type of washer extractor, the outer tub door must be opened first and then the inner cylinder compartment door(s) is opened allowing the goods to be placed into each compartment. If the washer is started before the inner doors are completely shut, or if the inner doors open during operation because they were not securely fastened, the washer could be severely damaged, and any user could be injured. Many current designs do not require that the inner doors be completely shut and secured before the washing sequence is initiated. These washers are liable to come open during rotation. Accordingly, there exists a need in the art for a washer that will not begin the wash sequence until each door is securely fastened shut. SUMMARY This disclosure is directed to a washer that will not start a wash sequence until each door is securely fastened shut. In exemplary embodiment, the washer may include a door having a locking mechanism that has at least one locking pin. The locking pin may be moveable from an unlocked position to a locked position. When the door is shut, the locking pin may be received in a locking pin slot that is disposed in the body of the washer, securely fastening shut the door of the washer. The locking mechanism may also include a locking bracket that may be engaged with a locking hasp only when the locking pin is in the locked position. The washer may also include a sensor in communication with a controller. The controller in an advantageous embodiment only permits the operation of the washer when the sensor detects the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp when the door is closed. Furthermore, in the embodiments where there are multiple doors, each door may be outfitted with a similar locking mechanism and paired with a single shared or a dedicated sensor to determine whether the door is shut. In those embodiments, the controller may be configured to require that each sensor detect that the door is shut before the washing sequence is permitted. Using the various embodiments and implementations herein the locking mechanism may provide a safer washer/extractor that will not open during operation, damaging itself or injuring a user. In a general aspect, an industrial washer is provided that permits operation only when securely shut, and includes but is not limited to: a body defining an inner compartment and a loading opening dimensioned to permit the placement of laundry within the inner compartment; a door, hinged to move between an open position and a closed position, wherein the door is positioned to cover the loading opening; a sensor disposed on the body; a controller in communication with the sensor; a locking mechanism disposed on the door and comprising: at least one locking pin moveable between a locked position and an unlocked position and configured to engage with a locking pin receiving slot when the door is in the closed position and the locking pin is in the locked position, wherein the locking pin receiving slot is disposed in the body; a locking hasp; a locking bracket engageable with the locking hasp when the locking pin is in the locked position; and a sensor target positioned on the locking bracket such that the sensor only detects the sensor target when the door is in the closed position and the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp, wherein the controller is configured to permit a washing action only if the sensor target is detected by the sensor. In accordance with an embodiment, the sensor is an optical sensor and the sensor target is an optical reflector. In accordance with an embodiment, the sensor is a proximity switch and the sensor target is a conductive member perceivable by the proximity switch. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking bracket prevents the locking pin from moving into the unlocked position when the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking bracket is coupled to the locking pin, and is dimensioned and spaced from the locking hasp such that it may only be engaged with the hasp when the locking pin is in the locked position. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking bracket includes an engaging tab and is hinged to move from a first position to a second position. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking hasp includes a receiving tab, positioned to engage the engaging tab when the locking bracket is in the second position. In accordance with an embodiment, the hasp is positioned to prevent the locking bracket from moving to the second position when the locking pin is in the unlocked position. In accordance with an embodiment, the controller is further configured to permit a washing action only if a second sensor target disposed on a second door is detected by a second sensor. In accordance with an embodiment, the controller is a program logic controller having an internal memory register. In accordance with an embodiment, the at least one locking pin includes a handle. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking pin is biased with a spring in the locked position. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking bracket is biased away from the locking hasp with a spring. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking pin receiving slot is in communication with the loading opening. In accordance with an embodiment, the industrial washer further comprises an inner cylinder adapted to rotate with respect to the body. According to another aspect, an industrial washer permitting operation only when securely shut, includes but is not limited to: a body defining an inner compartment and a first loading opening dimensioned to permit the placement of laundry within the inner compartment; a door, hinged to move between an open position and a closed position, wherein the door is positioned to cover the loading opening; a sensor disposed on the body; a controller in communication with the sensor; a locking mechanism disposed on the door and comprising: at least one locking pin moveable between a locked position and an unlocked position and configured to engage with a locking pin receiving slot when the door is in the closed position and the locking pin is in the locked position, wherein the locking pin receiving slot is disposed in the body; a locking hasp; a locking bracket engageable with the locking hasp when the locking pin is in the locked position, wherein the locking bracket prevents the locking pin from moving into the unlocked position when the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp; and a sensor target positioned on the locking bracket such that the sensor only detects the sensor target when the door is in the closed position and the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp, wherein the controller is configured to permit a washing action only if the sensor target is detected by the sensor and if a second sensor target disposed on a second door is detected by a second sensor. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will be more fully understood and appreciated by reading the following Detailed Description in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a washer, according to an embodiment; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of a portion of a washer according to an embodiment; FIG. 3 is a perspective view of a portion of a washer according to an embodiment; and FIG. 4 is a perspective view of a portion of a washer according to an embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring now to the drawings wherein like reference numerals refer to like parts throughout, there is seen in FIG. 1 a perspective view of a washer that permits operation only when securely shut. FIG. 1 shows an industrial washer/extractor 10, that has an outer tub door 12, and a plurality of inner tub doors 14. The inner tub doors may hinge between an open position (not shown) and a closed position. In an exemplary embodiment, the washer 10 will not operate unless each of the inner tub doors 14 are secured in the closed position. Referring now to FIG. 2, each inner tub door 14 may have a locking assembly 16 (alternately referred to as a locking mechanism), which is designed to securely fasten shut each inner tub door 14. Furthermore, washer 10 may have a plurality of sensors 18 each configured to determine if a respective door is in a closed position (this process will be discussed in depth below). Although an optical sensor is depicted in FIG. 2, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate in conjunction with a review of this disclosure that any sensor suitable for detecting the position of the door, as described below, may be used. FIG. 3 shows a locking assembly 16 in more detail. As shown, locking assembly 16 may comprise locking pins 20. Locking pins 20 are moveable between a locked position and an unlocked position. (The locking pins 20 may be fashioned, for example, out of 1.25″ diameter stainless steel rods. Although, different material (preferably containing a metal) and sizes are contemplated as should be appreciated by those of skill in the art in conjunction with a review of this disclosure.). Although two locking pins 20 per locking assembly are shown, one of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that one or more pins may be used. When locking pins 20 are moved in the locked position when the inner tub door 14 is in the closed position, the locking pins are received in locking pin receiving slots 22, which, in an exemplary embodiment, are defined in the body of the washer 10. When locking pins 20 are engaged in the locking pin receiving slots 22, the inner tub door 14 is fastened shut as the door may not be opened without first retracting the locking pins 20 into an unlocked position. To retain the locking pins 20 in the locked position, they may be biased with a spring 24, such as a compression spring (although other kinds of springs may be used), into the locked position. It should also be noted that the spring will require that the locking pins 20 be manually moved into the unlocked position before the inner tub door 14 may be shut, whereupon releasing the locking pins 20 will allow them to automatically engage in the locking pin receiving slots 22. Thus, to close inner tub door 14, locking pins must be first slid into the unlocked position. As further shown in FIG. 3, locking assembly 16 may include a locking bracket 26, and locking hasp 28. Locking bracket 26 may be coupled to locking pins 20, such that the locking bracket 26 will slide up and down with locking pins 20 as locking pins 20 are moved between the unlocked and locked positions. As shown in FIG. 4, locking bracket 26 may be coupled to the locking pins via a connecting rod 30. (In an exemplary embodiment, the connecting rod may be fashioned out of ½′ stainless steel, and may taper at either end). Connecting rod 30 may also provide a convenient handhold to lower locking pins 20 into the unlocked or locked position. Locking bracket 26 may be further hinged between a first position and a second position. In the second position, locking bracket 26 may be engaged with locking hasp 28. It should be noted that, in an exemplary embodiment, locking bracket 26 and locking hasp 28 are dimensioned and spaced such that the locking bracket may only move into the second position, when spaced sufficiently apart from locking hasp 28. In other words, locking bracket 26 may only engage with locking hasp 28 when the locking bracket 26 is slid away from the locking hasp 28, when locking pins 20 are in the locked position. If the locking pins are in the unlocked position, locking bracket 26 is positioned too near to locking hasp 28 and will be prevented from moving into the second position by locking hasp 28. Furthermore, when engaged with locking hasp 28, locking bracket 26 may be configured to abut locking hasp 28 such that the locking pins 20 may not be slid into the unlocked position. Thus, locking bracket 26 may only be engaged with locking hasp 28 when locking pins 20 are in the locked position, and locking pins 20 may not be slid back into the unlocked position until locking bracket 26 has been disengaged from locking hasp 28. FIG. 4 shows the locking bracket 26 in the first, disengaged, position, while FIG. 3 shows the locking bracket in the second, engaged, position. It should be noted that locking bracket 26 may be biased in the first position, using a spring 31 (here shown as a coiled metal spring, although other springs may be used). Returning back to FIG. 3, a sensor target 32, may be disposed upon locking bracket 26. Sensor target, here an optical reflector, may be any material that is capable of being sensed by sensor 18 when the inner tub door 14 is in the closed position and locking bracket 26 is engaged with locking hasp 28. In an exemplary embodiment, sensor 18 is an optical sensor (for example, a polarized photoeye sensor) and sensor target 28 is an optical reflector disposed on the top surface of locking bracket 26, such that a signal is reflected off of sensor target 32 only when the inner tub door 14 is closed and locking bracket 26 is engaged with locking hasp 28. Of course, as described above, this will also require that locking pins 20 be engaged in the locking pin receiving slots 22 and the inner tub door 14, consequently, is fastened shut. Thus, in a preferable embodiment, sensor 18 only detects sensor target 32 when the tub door 14 is fastened in the closed position (although, other sensing positions are contemplated). As noted, FIG. 4 shows the locking bracket 26 in the open position, as shown when the inner tub door 14 is open. In this position, the spring 31 holds the locking bracket 26 toward the top of the cylinder compartment door and prevents the sensor 18 located on the Tub outer door 12 from receiving the reflected light beam. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that sensor 18 and sensor target 32 need not be an optical sensor and an optical reflector, respectively. Rather, any sensor 18 capable of detecting when sensor target 32 is properly positioned (i.e. inner tub door 14 is fastened shut and locking bracket 26 is engaged). Thus, alternatively, sensor 18 may be a proximity switch and sensor target 32 a conductor that may be detected by the proximity switch when properly positioned. Other sensors 18 and sensor targets 32 may be used according to the requirements described herein as will be appreciated by a person of ordinary skill in the art. Washer 10 may further comprise a controller 34 (not shown) in communication with sensor 18. Controller 34 may be configured to prevent washer 10 from operating unless sensor 18 detects the presence (or, alternatively, no longer detects the presence) of sensor target 32 (and, necessarily, that inner tub door 14 is in the closed position). In the embodiment where there are multiple inner tub doors 14, controller may require that each sensor 10, respectively associated with an inner tub door 14, detect the presence of the respective sensor target 32 before it will allow operation of washer 10. In this way, each inner tub door 14 must be in securely fastened in the closed position before washer 10 may be operated. For example, once the sensor 18 receives the reflected signal from the sensor target 32 (or, alternatively, no longer detects a signal from the sensor target 32), the sensor's internal contact may closed, sending a 24v digital signal back to an input/output (I/O) rack located in the low voltage control box (not shown). This input signal sets a flag in the internal memory register of the controller 34, in this example a Program Logic Controller (PLC), memory, which is interrupted by the PLC software as proving the door is locked. Once this signal is received, the PLC software allows for operation of the outer Tub door and all other wash functions to occur via manual inputs from a person operating the PLC touchscreen controller. One of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that although a controller is described herein, a dedicated computer, FGPA, ASIC, or other computing device having a nontransitory storage medium and capable of receiving a signal from a sensor and controlling the operation of washer 10, may be used. Alternatively, a combination of computing devices, such as the ones described above, may be used in concert to receive the signal from sensor 18 and control the functioning of washer 10. The computing devices may be local or remote and operated over the cloud or through some other wireless communication medium. While various embodiments have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the function and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the embodiments described herein. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, embodiments may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. Embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present disclosure. As will be appreciated by one skilled in the art, aspects of the present invention may be embodied/implemented as a computer system, method or computer program product. The computer program product can have a computer processor or neural network, for example that carries out the instructions of a computer program. Accordingly, aspects of the present invention may take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment, and entirely firmware embodiment, or an embodiment combining software/firmware and hardware aspects that may all generally be referred to herein as a “circuit,” “module,” “system,” or an “engine.” Furthermore, aspects of the present invention may take the form of a computer program product embodied in one or more computer readable medium(s) having computer readable program code embodied thereon. Any combination of one or more computer readable medium(s) may be utilized. The computer readable medium may be a computer readable signal medium or a computer readable storage medium. A computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but not limited to, an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system, apparatus, or device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. More specific examples (a non-exhaustive list) of the computer readable storage medium would include the following: an electrical connection having one or more wires, a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), an optical fiber, a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), an optical storage device, a magnetic storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. In the context of this document, a computer readable storage medium may be any tangible medium that can contain, or store a program for use by or in connection with an instruction performance system, apparatus, or device. The program code may perform entirely on the user's computer, partly on the user's computer, completely or partly on the thermal printer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user's computer through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). The flowcharts/block diagrams in the Figures illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods, and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in the flowcharts/block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of code, which comprises instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). It should also be noted that, in some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be performed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be performed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts, or combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. While several embodiments of the invention have been discussed, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations of the present invention are possible. Such modifications do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Industrial Side and End Loading Washer Extractors utilize two types of doors. These types of washer extractors utilize a stationary outer weldment (tub) with an inner divided cylinder that rotates within this tub. The outer tub has a door that opens to give access to the inner cylinder. The inner cylinder has multiple doors providing access to the individual compartments within the divided cylinder. The cylinder may have one, two, three or four compartments, each with an access door. To load this type of washer extractor, the outer tub door must be opened first and then the inner cylinder compartment door(s) is opened allowing the goods to be placed into each compartment. If the washer is started before the inner doors are completely shut, or if the inner doors open during operation because they were not securely fastened, the washer could be severely damaged, and any user could be injured. Many current designs do not require that the inner doors be completely shut and secured before the washing sequence is initiated. These washers are liable to come open during rotation. Accordingly, there exists a need in the art for a washer that will not begin the wash sequence until each door is securely fastened shut. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>This disclosure is directed to a washer that will not start a wash sequence until each door is securely fastened shut. In exemplary embodiment, the washer may include a door having a locking mechanism that has at least one locking pin. The locking pin may be moveable from an unlocked position to a locked position. When the door is shut, the locking pin may be received in a locking pin slot that is disposed in the body of the washer, securely fastening shut the door of the washer. The locking mechanism may also include a locking bracket that may be engaged with a locking hasp only when the locking pin is in the locked position. The washer may also include a sensor in communication with a controller. The controller in an advantageous embodiment only permits the operation of the washer when the sensor detects the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp when the door is closed. Furthermore, in the embodiments where there are multiple doors, each door may be outfitted with a similar locking mechanism and paired with a single shared or a dedicated sensor to determine whether the door is shut. In those embodiments, the controller may be configured to require that each sensor detect that the door is shut before the washing sequence is permitted. Using the various embodiments and implementations herein the locking mechanism may provide a safer washer/extractor that will not open during operation, damaging itself or injuring a user. In a general aspect, an industrial washer is provided that permits operation only when securely shut, and includes but is not limited to: a body defining an inner compartment and a loading opening dimensioned to permit the placement of laundry within the inner compartment; a door, hinged to move between an open position and a closed position, wherein the door is positioned to cover the loading opening; a sensor disposed on the body; a controller in communication with the sensor; a locking mechanism disposed on the door and comprising: at least one locking pin moveable between a locked position and an unlocked position and configured to engage with a locking pin receiving slot when the door is in the closed position and the locking pin is in the locked position, wherein the locking pin receiving slot is disposed in the body; a locking hasp; a locking bracket engageable with the locking hasp when the locking pin is in the locked position; and a sensor target positioned on the locking bracket such that the sensor only detects the sensor target when the door is in the closed position and the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp, wherein the controller is configured to permit a washing action only if the sensor target is detected by the sensor. In accordance with an embodiment, the sensor is an optical sensor and the sensor target is an optical reflector. In accordance with an embodiment, the sensor is a proximity switch and the sensor target is a conductive member perceivable by the proximity switch. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking bracket prevents the locking pin from moving into the unlocked position when the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking bracket is coupled to the locking pin, and is dimensioned and spaced from the locking hasp such that it may only be engaged with the hasp when the locking pin is in the locked position. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking bracket includes an engaging tab and is hinged to move from a first position to a second position. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking hasp includes a receiving tab, positioned to engage the engaging tab when the locking bracket is in the second position. In accordance with an embodiment, the hasp is positioned to prevent the locking bracket from moving to the second position when the locking pin is in the unlocked position. In accordance with an embodiment, the controller is further configured to permit a washing action only if a second sensor target disposed on a second door is detected by a second sensor. In accordance with an embodiment, the controller is a program logic controller having an internal memory register. In accordance with an embodiment, the at least one locking pin includes a handle. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking pin is biased with a spring in the locked position. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking bracket is biased away from the locking hasp with a spring. In accordance with an embodiment, the locking pin receiving slot is in communication with the loading opening. In accordance with an embodiment, the industrial washer further comprises an inner cylinder adapted to rotate with respect to the body. According to another aspect, an industrial washer permitting operation only when securely shut, includes but is not limited to: a body defining an inner compartment and a first loading opening dimensioned to permit the placement of laundry within the inner compartment; a door, hinged to move between an open position and a closed position, wherein the door is positioned to cover the loading opening; a sensor disposed on the body; a controller in communication with the sensor; a locking mechanism disposed on the door and comprising: at least one locking pin moveable between a locked position and an unlocked position and configured to engage with a locking pin receiving slot when the door is in the closed position and the locking pin is in the locked position, wherein the locking pin receiving slot is disposed in the body; a locking hasp; a locking bracket engageable with the locking hasp when the locking pin is in the locked position, wherein the locking bracket prevents the locking pin from moving into the unlocked position when the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp; and a sensor target positioned on the locking bracket such that the sensor only detects the sensor target when the door is in the closed position and the locking bracket is engaged with the locking hasp, wherein the controller is configured to permit a washing action only if the sensor target is detected by the sensor and if a second sensor target disposed on a second door is detected by a second sensor. | D06F3728 | 20170707 | 20171212 | 20171026 | 86427.0 | D06F3728 | 2 | KO, JASON Y | INDUSTRIAL WASHER DOOR LOCKING MECHANISM AND SYSTEM | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | D06F | 2,017 |
15,644,172 | PENDING | MAGNETIC GRAPHENE-LIKE NANOPARTICLES OR GRAPHITIC NANO- OR MICROPARTICLES AND METHOD OF PRODUCTION AND USES THEREOF | The present invention provides a magnetic graphene-like nanoparticle or graphitic nano- or microparticle. The magnetic graphene-like nanoparticle or graphitic nano- or microparticle of the invention exhibits a high relaxivity, and is useful as a MRI contrast agent. The present invention also provides a composition for use with MRI imaging, comprising a sufficient amount of the magnetic graphene-like nanoparticles or graphitic nano- or microparticles and one or more physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients. The present invention also provides methods of using the magnetic graphene-like nanoparticles or graphitic nano- or microparticles as MRI contrast agents. The present invention further provides methods of producing the magnetic graphene-like nanoparticle or graphitic nano- or microparticle. | 1.-46. (canceled) 47. A composition for use with magnetic resonance imaging, comprising: (i) a sufficient amount of the magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal intercalated in an oxidized graphene-like nanostructure or a graphitic nano- or microstructure, wherein said magnetic metal comprises Mn; and (ii) one or more physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients. 48. The composition of claim 47, wherein said graphitic nano- or microstructure has a thickness of 20 μm or less. 49. The composition of claim 47, having a relaxivity r1 of about 10 mM−1 s−1 or more. 50. The magnetic composition of claim 47, wherein said graphene-like nanostructure comprises 2 to 12 atomic layers of carbon. 51. The composition of claim 47, wherein said graphene-like nanostructure is selected from the group consisting of carbon nanoplatelet and carbon nanoribbon. 52. The composition of claim 47, wherein said graphene-like nanostructure is a carbon nanoribbon having an average width in the range of 1 to 250 nm and an average length in the range of 200 to 5000 nm. 53. The composition of claim 47, wherein said Mn is present in a Mn oxide. 54. The magnetic composition of claim 47, comprising Mn in an amount in the range of 1 ppb to 107 ppm. 55. A method of performing magnetic resonance imaging of a subject, comprising: (a) administering to said subject a sufficient amount of a composition of claim 1; and (b) imaging said subject using a magnetic resonance imaging device. 56. The method of claim 55, wherein said subject is a mammal. 57. The method of claim 56, wherein said mammal is a human. 58. A method of producing a magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal intercalated in an oxidized graphene-like nanostructure or a graphitic nano- or microstructure, wherein said magnetic metal comprises Mn, comprising: (a) treating graphite with a mixture of sulfuric acid H2SO4, sodium nitrate NaNO3, MnCl2, and potassium permanganate KMnO4; and (b) sonicating a suspension of the product obtained in step (a), thereby producing said magnetic composition. 59. The method of claim 58, further comprising (c) treating said magnetic composition with a reducing agent. 60. The method of claim 59, wherein said reducing agent is hydrazine hydrate. 61. A method of producing a magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal intercalated in an oxidized graphene nanostructure, wherein said magnetic metal comprises Mn, comprising: (a) treating a multi-walled carbon nanotube with sulfuric acid H2SO4, MnCl2, and potassium permanganate KMnO4. 62. The method of claim 61, wherein said step (a) is carried out by a method comprising: (a1) suspending said multi-walled carbon nanotube in H2SO4; (a2) adding KMnO4 and MnCl2; and (a3) heating the mixture obtained in step (a2). 63. The method of claim 62, wherein in step (a3) said mixture is heated to 55-70° C. 64. The method of any of claim 61, further comprising water solubilizing said magnetic composition. | REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is a continuation of a co-pending application having U.S. Ser. No. 14/116,102, filed on Feb. 4, 2014, which is a 371 of International application having Serial No. PCT/US2012/036790, filed on May 7, 2012, which claims the benefit of priority from U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/483,309, filed on May 6, 2011, the content of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to magnetic graphene-like nanoparticles or graphitic nano- or microparticles and method of production thereof. The present invention also relates to methods of using the magnetic graphene-like nanoparticles or graphitic nano- or microparticles as MRI contrast agents. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION MRI is primarily used to non-invasively render anatomical details for improved diagnosis of many pathologies and diseases (Sitharaman, B. & Wilson, L. J. Gadofullerenes and Gadonanotubes: A new paradigm for high-performance magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent probes Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology 3, 342-352 (2007); Pan, D. et al. Revisiting an old friend: manganese-based MRI contrast agents. WIREs Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology 3, 162-173 (2010)). The development of MRI has led concurrently to increased use of chemical contrast-enhancement products called contrast agents (CAs) which improve detection of pathologic lesions by increasing sensitivity and diagnostic confidence. The two main types are T1 and T2 MRI CAs, and affect (decrease) the longitudinal T1 and transverse T2 relaxation times of water protons, respectively. The quantitative measure of their effectiveness to accelerate the relaxation process of the water protons is known as relaxivity; the change in relaxation rate (inverse of relaxation time) per unit concentration of the MRI CA. The widely-used clinical T1 MRI CAs are mainly synthesized as metal-ion chelate complexes, where the metal ion is the lanthanoid element gadolinium (Gd3+), or the inner-transitional element manganese (Mn2+). A large body of experimental and theoretical research done in the last three decades now offers good understanding of the relaxation mechanism, and underlying structural, chemical and molecular dynamic properties that influence the relaxivity of these paramagnetic-ion chelate complexes (Aime et al., 1998, Chemical Society Reviews 27: 19-29; Caravan et al., 1999, Chem Rev 99: 2293-2352; and Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927). Theory suggests that the relaxivity of these MRI contrast agents is sub-optimal, and predicts the possibility of developing new contrast agents up to at least fifty to hundred times greater relaxivity (Merbach et al., 2001, The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging: John Wiley & Sons. 471; and Datta et al., 2009, Accounts Chem Res 42: 938-947). Most clinical MRI CAs are paramagnetic T1-weighted CAs, which enhance MR signals to produce bright positive contrast such as gadolinium-(Gd3+) ion-based T1 CAs. The recent discovery of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) in some patients with severe renal disease or following liver transplant has generated concern leading to Food and Drug Administration (FDA) restrictions on clinical use of Gd3+-ion based ECF MRI CA (Girdhar, G. & Bluestein, D. Biological Effects of Dynamic Shear Stress in Cardiovascular Pathologies and Devices. Expert Rev. Afedical Devices 5, 167-181 (2008)). Recently, the element manganese has received attention as a possible alternative to gadolinium. Manganese was reported early on as an example of paramagnetic contrast material for MRI. Unlike the lanthanides, it is a natural cellular constituent resembling Ca2+ and often functions as a regulatory cofactor for enzymes and receptors. Normal daily dietary requirement for manganese is 3-8 μmol while normal serum levels are 0.001 μmol/1. Manganese toxicity has only been reported following long-term exposure or at high concentrations resulting in neurological symptoms (Pan, D. et al. Revisiting an old friend: manganese-based MRI contrast agents. WIREs Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology 3, 162-173 (2010)). Over the past 10 years, carbon nanostructures such as gadofullerenes (represented as Gd@Ca60 Gd@C80 and Gd@C82) and gadonanotubes (represented as Gd @US-tubes, where US-tubes=ultra-short SWNTs) that encapsulate Gd3+ metal ion have been proposed as T1 CAs for MRI (Sitharaman, B. & Wilson, L. J. Gadofullerenes and Gadonanotubes: A new paradigm for high-performance magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent probes Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology 3, 342-352 (2007)). The synthesis strategies in the development of these complexes have focused on covalently or non-covalently functionalizing multiple Gd3+-chelate complexes onto the external carbon sheet of carbon nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes and nanodiamonds (Richard et al., 2008, Nano Letters 8: 232-236; and Manus et al., 2009, Nano Letters 10: 484-489), or encapsulation of Gd3+-ions within the carbon sheet of carbon nanostructures such as fullerene (a.k.a. gadofullerenes) (Toth et al., 2005, J Am Chem Soc 127: 799-805; Kato et al., 2003, J Am Chem Soc 125: 4391-4397; and Fatouros et al., 2006, Radiology 240: 756-764), and single-walled carbon nanotubes (a.k.a. gadonanotubes) (Sitharaman et al., 2005, Chem Commun: 3915-3917; and Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821). These Gd3+-ion carbon nanostructures show between two-fold to two-order increase in relaxivity (depending on the magnetic field) compared to Gd3+-chelate complexes with the gadonanotubes showing the highest relaxivities at low to high (0.01-3T) magnetic fields. However, the potential and efficacy of Mn2+-ion carbon nanostructure complexes as MRI CAs still has not been investigated. The variable-magnetic field (O.Ol-3T) relaxivity or nuclear magnetic resonance dispersion (NMRD) profiles of the gadonanotubes are characteristically different than those obtained for any other MRI CA and their relaxation mechanisms are not well understood. A major reason for this lack of understanding is that unlike Gd3+ ion chelates, which can be prepared at a very high level of purity and unambiguously characterized, the carbon nanostructure-Gd3+ ion systems are rather complex mainly due to their particulate nature, and intricate relationships linking their chemical, geometric, and magnetic characteristics to their properties as MRI contrast agents. Nevertheless, geometric confinement of the Gd3+ ion within nanoporous structures maybe one reason (Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821; and Bresinska 1, 1994, J Phys Chem 98: 12989-12994). While confinement of the Gd3+ ions into nanoporous structures of silicon (Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821) or zeolites (Bresinska I, 1994, J Phys Chem 98: 12989-12994) increases the relaxivity by two or four times compared to Gd3+ chelate compounds, only when the Gd3+ ion are confined within single-walled carbon nanotubes (Sitharaman et al., 2005, Chem Commun: 3915-3917; and Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821) has there been an order of magnitude or more increase in relaxivity (irrespective of the magnetic field strength) with NMRD profiles significantly different that those reported for other Gd3+ ion-based complexes. Additionally, to date, there have been no studies performed to systematically investigate whether the high increase in relaxivity and unconventional NMRD profiles are unique to paramagnetic ions confined in single-walled carbon nanotubes, which are seamless cylinders formed from a graphene sheet, or in general observed for paramagnetic ions confined in other graphene or graphitic structures. Graphene, a two-dimensional (2-D) nanostructure of carbon, has attracted a great deal of attention showing potential for various material and biomedical science applications (Novoselov, K. S. et al. Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. Science 306, 666 (2004)). Theoretical studies predict a variety of magnetic phenomena in graphene (Makarova, 2004, Semiconductors 38: 615-638), and to date, few of these effects have been explored experimentally (Wang, et al., 2008, Nano Letters 9: 220-224). Recently, simple potassium permanganate (KMnO4)-based oxidative chemical procedures have been used in the large scale production of graphite oxide, graphene nanoplatelets, and graphene nanoribbons using starting materials such as graphite and MWCNTs (Stankovich, et al., 2007, Carbon 45: 1558-1565; and Kosynkin, et al., 2009, Nature 458: 872-876). In this work, experimental studies were performed to characterize the physico-chemical properties of graphite oxide, graphene nanoplatelets, and graphene nanoribbons synthesized using these techniques. We demonstrate that trace amounts of Mn2+ ions get confined (intercalated) within the graphene sheets during the synthesis process, and that this confinement in general substantially increases the relaxivity (up to 2 order) compared to paramagnetic chelate compounds, and these materials show diverse structural, chemical and magnetic properties with NMRD profiles different than those of the paramagnetic chelates. Recent reports have shown that affordable large scale production of graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) is possible by using chemical techniques (Stankovich, S. et al. Stable aqueous dispersions of graphitic nanoplatelets via the reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide in the presence of poly (sodium 4-styrenesulfonate). Journal of Materials Chemistry 16, 155-158 (2006); Stankovich, S. et al. Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide. Carbon 45, 1558-1565 (2007); Stankovich, S., Piner, R., Nguyen, S. & Ruoff, R. Synthesis and exfoliation of isocyanate-treated graphene oxide nanoplatelets. Carbon 44, 3342-3347 (2006); Li, D., Müller, M., Gilje, S., Kaner, R. & Wallace, G. Processable aqueous dispersions of graphene nanosheets. Nature nanotechnology 3, 101-105 (2008); Kosynkin, D. et al. Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. Nature 458, 872-876 (2009); Higginbotham, A., Kosynkin, D., Sinitskii, A., Sun, Z. & Tour, J. Lower-Defect Graphene Oxide Nanoribbons from Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes. ACS nano 4, 2059-2069 (2010); Geng, Y., Wang, S. & Kim, J. Preparation of graphite nanoplatelets and graphene sheets. Journal of colloid and interface science 336, 592-598 (2009)). SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a magnetic composition comprising one or more magnetic metals and a graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. Preferably, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r1 of at least about 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100 or 500 mM−1s−1. Preferably, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r2 of at least about 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 500, or 1000 mM−1s−1. The graphene-like nanostructure can be a carbon nanoplatelet or a carbon nanoribbon. The carbon nanoplatelet or carbon nanoribbon can be oxidized. Preferably, the graphene-like nanostructure, e.g., the carbon nanoplatelet or the carbon nanoribbon, has a thickness of about 20 nm or less, 15 nm or less, 10 nm or less, 5 nm or less, 3 nm or less, at least 2 atomic carbon sheets, at least 5 atomic carbon sheets, or at least 10 atomic carbon sheets. Preferably, the graphitic nanostructure or microstructure has a thickness of 5 μm or less, 4 μm or less, 3 μm or less, 2 μm or less, 1 μm or less, 500 nm or less, 250 nm or less of 100 nm or less. Preferably, the carbon nanoplatelet having an average diameter in the range of 5 to 100 nm, 10 to 75 nm, 20 to 50 nm, or 30 to 40 nm. Preferably, the carbon nanoribbon having an average width in the range of 1 to 250 nm, 10 to 200 nm, 50 to 150 nm, or 70 to 100 nm. The graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure can further comprise a water solubilizing moiety attached to the graphene-like nanostructure or microstructure, e.g., covalently attached to the graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. In one embodiment, the magnetic metal is a room temperature paramagnetic metallic element, including but not limited to Mn. In another embodiment, the magnetic metal is a room temperature ferromagnetic metallic element including but not limited to Fe, Co, and Ni. In still another embodiment, the magnetic metal is a rare earth metal, including but not limited to Gd, Eu, Pr, Nd, and Sm. Preferred magnetic metals that can be used in the present invention include Mn, Gd, and Fe. The magnetic composition can comprise more than one magnetic metal. In one embodiment, the magnetic composition comprises two different magnetic metals. The magnetic metal can be present in the magnetic composition as an ion. The magnetic metal can also be present in the magnetic composition in the form of a metal compound, including but not limited to a metal oxide and a metal salt. The magnetic metal or compound thereof can be intercalated in the graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. The magnetic composition of the present invention can comprise the magnetic metal in an amount in the range of 1 ppb (mass parts per billion) to 107 ppm (mass parts per million), 102 ppb to 106 ppm, 1 ppm to 105 ppm, 10 to 104 ppm, or 102 to 103 ppm. The present invention also provides a method of performing magnetic resonance imaging of a subject, comprising administering to the subject a sufficient amount of the magnetic composition of the invention; and imaging the subject using a magnetic resonance imaging device. The subject can be any animal, including but not limited to a mammal, e.g., a human. The present invention also provides a composition for MRI imaging, comprising a sufficient amount of the magnetic composition, and one or more physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients. The present invention also provides a method of producing a magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal and a graphene-like carbon nanostructure. The method comprises oxidizing graphite with a mixture of sulfuric acid H2SO4, sodium nitrate NaNO3, and potassium permanganate KMnO4; and sonicating a suspension of the product obtained in the previous step. The method can further comprise a step of reducing the magnetic composition with a reducing agent. The present invention also provides a method of producing a magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal and a graphene-like carbon nanostructure. The method comprises treating a multi-walled carbon nanotube with sulfuric acid H2SO4, nitric acid (HNO3), manganese chloride (MnCl2), and potassium permanganate KMnO4. In one embodiment, the treatment is carried out by a method comprising suspending said multi-walled carbon nanotube in concentrated H2SO4, nitric acid (HNO3); adding manganese chloride (MnCl2), KMnO4; heating the mixture and sonicating a suspension of the product obtained in the previous step. In a specific embodiment, the mixture is heated to 55-70° C. The magnetic composition can further be water solubilized using a method known in the art, e.g., (1) using a synthesis protocol similar to a cycloaddition reaction used to add carboxylic acid functionalities across carbon-carbon double bonds of fullerenes and metallofullerenes. (2) Covalently or non-covalently functionalizing with nature polymers such as dextran or synthetic amphiphilic polymers such as poly ethylene glycol. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1(a)-1(d). TEM images at 200 kV for manganese intercalated graphene nanoplatelets and nanoribbons (a) Showing ˜20 nm wide few layered and multilayered reduced graphene nanoplatelets; (b) HR TEM image showing lattice structure of carbon atoms on reduced graphene nanoplatelets (c) Images revealing ˜120 nm width and ˜0.6-2 μm length graphene nanoribbon structure; (d) High magnification image revealing multiple layers of graphene nanoribbon sheets (Indicated by arrows). FIGS. 2(a)-2(b). Raman spectrum using 530 nm laser (a) Revealing D and G bands and corresponding peaks for graphite, oxidized graphite, graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets; (b) Revealing D and G bands for MWCNTs and graphene nanoribbons. FIGS. 3(a)-3(e). SQUID plots: Magnetization(M) v/s Field strength(H) for (a)Graphite, (b) Oxidized graphite, (c) Graphene nanoplatelets, (d) Reduced Graphene nanoplatelets at 30K, 150 and 300K between −50,000 to 50,000Oe, Inset: plot between −5000 and 5000Oe at 300K; (e) ZFC and FC magnetization curves for reduced graphene nanoplatelets revealing a blocking temperature of 40K. FIGS. 4(a)-4(c). SQUID plots: Magnetization (M) v/s Field strength (H) between −50,000Oe and 50,000Oe (a) M vs. H at three temperatures (10, 150 and 300K) for MWCNTs; (b) M vs. H plot for graphene nanoribbons at 30K, 150K and 300K, Inset: M vs. H between −4000Oe and 4000Oe at 300K showing hysteresis loops; (c) ZFC and FC plot for GNR revealing high blocking temperature greater than 300K. FIG. 5. T1-weighted MRI phantom of GONR compared with MnCl2 and water. FIG. 6. Representative MR Images of a mouse before and after injection of water-soluble GNP MRI CAs at a dosage of 0.25 mmols/kg. At these low doses, 100 times lower than doses used for clinical Gd-based CA such as Magnevist, excellent bright contrast enhancement is obtained throughout the vasculature due to the circulating nanoparticles. FIG. 7. AFM section analysis of graphene nanoplatelets dispersed on a silicon substrate, showing a uniform thickness of ˜1.137 nm. FIG. 8. Comparison of Raman spectra of Hausmannite (Mn3O4), oxidized graphite and reduced graphene nanoplatelets at 532 nm showing spectral peaks at 657, 370 and 320 cm−1. FIGS. 9(a)-9(e).: Plot of Magnetization (M) v/s Field strength (H) for (a) micro-graphite, (b) oxidized graphite (c) Oxidized Graphene nanoplatelets (d) Reduced Graphene nanoplatelets at 30K, 150 and 300K between −50,000 to 50,000Oe (Inset shows plot between −5000 and 5000Oe at 300K), (e) ZFC and FC magnetization plots of reduced graphene nanoplatelets. FIGS. 10(a)-10(c): Magnetization (M) v/s Field strength (H) between −50,000Oe and 50,000Oe at 10, 150 and 300K for (a) MWCNTs, and (b) graphene nanoribbons (Inset shows M versus H between −4000Oe and 4000Oe at 300K), (c) ZFC and FC plots of graphene nanoribbons. FIGS. 11(a)-11(d): Room temperature EPR spectra of solid (a) oxidized micro-graphite, (b) oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, (c) reduced graphene nanoplatelets and (d) graphene nanoribbons. FIGS. 12(a)-12(d): Room temperature EPR spectra of aqueous solutions of (a) oxidized micro-graphite, (b) oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, (c) reduced graphene nanoplatelets and (d) graphene nanoribbons. FIGS. 13(a)-13(d): Experimental NMRD profiles (dots), and best fits (solid lines) derived from SBM Theory for (a) Oxidized Graphite, (b) Graphene Nanoplatelets, (c) Reduced Graphene Nanoplatelets, and d) Graphene Nanoribbons. FIGS. 14(a)-14(g): Representative SEM image of (a) oxidized micro-graphite and TEM images of (b,c) reduced graphene nanoplatelets and (d,e) graphene nanoribbons. Arrows in (e) show the multiple layers of graphene nanoribbon sheets. (f) TEM images at 200 kV for reduced graphene nanoplatelets Shows ˜20 nm wide few layered and multilayered reduced graphene nanoplatelets. (g) AFM Section analysis of graphene nanoplatelets dispersed on silicon substrate, showing a uniform thickness of ˜1.137 nm. FIGS. 15(a)-15(c): Raman spectrum with the D and G bands peaks for (a) graphite, oxidized graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets, and (b) MWCNTs and graphene nanoribbons (c) Comparison of Raman spectra between Hausmannite (Mn304), oxidized graphite and reduced graphene nanoplatelets at 532 nm showing spectral peaks at 657, 370 and 320 cm−1. FIGS. 16(a)-16(b): EELS spectrum for (a) reduced graphene nanoplatelets and (b) oxidized graphene nanoplatelets showing a oxygen peak at 530 eV. FIGS. 17(a)-17(d): EPR spectrum of the (a) Wilmad quartz EPR tubes used for the measurement of the solid samples, (b) quartz EPR flat tube used for the aqueous samples, (c) DPPH standard (solid) and (d) DPPH standard (aqueous). FIGS. 18(a)-18(d): Curves obtained for floating all SBM parameters to float. A) Oxidized Graphite, B) Oxidized Graphene Nanoplatelets, C) Reduced Graphene Nanoplatelets, D) Graphene Nanoribbons. FIGS. 19(a)-19(d): Curves obtained for fixed Q=2 with remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. A) Oxidized Graphite, B) Oxidized Graphene Nanoplatelets, C) Reduced Graphene Nanoplatelets, D) Graphene Nanoribbons. FIGS. 20(a)-20(d): Curves obtained for fixed Q=4 with remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. A) Oxidized Graphite, B) Oxidized Graphene Nanoplatelets, C) Reduced Graphene Nanoplatelets, D) Graphene Nanoribbons. FIGS. 21(a)-21(d). Curves obtained for fixed Q=6 with remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. A) Oxidized Graphite, B) Oxidized Graphene Nanoplatelets, C) Reduced Graphene Nanoplatelets, D) Graphene Nanoribbons. FIGS. 22(a)-22(d): Curves obtained for fixed Q=8 with remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. A) Oxidized Graphite, B) Oxidized Graphene Nanoplatelets, C) Reduced Graphene Nanoplatelets, D) Graphene Nanoribbons. FIGS. 23(a)-23(d): Curves obtained for fixed Q=8 and Fixed Tm at values shown in Table 8, with remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. A) Oxidized Graphite, B) Oxidized Graphene Nanoplatelets, C) Reduced Graphene Nanoplatelets, D) Graphene Nanoribbons. The fit for the Graphene Nanoribbons in D is surprisingly worse than expected. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION The present invention provides a magnetic composition comprising one or more magnetic metals and a graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. The magnetic composition can be paramagnetic or diamagnetic. Preferably, the magnetic composition is paramagnetic. The magnetic composition can be ferromagnetic. The magnetic composition can also be superparamagnetic. Preferably, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r1 of at least about 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 100 or 500 mM−1's−1. In a specific embodiment, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r1 of about 45 mM−1s−1. In another specific embodiment, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r1 of about 73 mM−1s−1. Preferably, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r2 of at least about 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, or 1000 mM−1s−1. In a specific embodiment, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r2 of about 15 mM−1s−1. In another specific embodiment, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r2 of about 251 mM−1s−1. Graphene is a flat monolayer of carbon atoms tightly packed into a two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb lattice, and is a basic building block for graphitic materials of all other dimensionalities, and which can be wrapped up into 0D fullerenes, rolled into 1D nanotubes or stacked into 3D graphite (Geim and Novoselov, 2007, “The rise of graphene”, Nature Materials 6 (3): 183-191). As used herein, the term “graphene-like nanostructure” (or “graphene-like nanoparticle”) refers to a carbon nanostructure comprising one or more atomic carbon sheets or layers. In the present application, for simplicity reasons, the term “graphene nanostructure” is also used to refer to a graphene-like nanostructure. Thus, unless expressly stated, the term “graphene nanostructure” is not limited to a nanostructure having only a single atomic carbon sheet. The graphene-like nanostructure can be a carbon nanoplatelet or a carbon nanoribbon. The carbon nanoplatelet or carbon nanoribbon can be oxidized. Preferably, the graphitic nanostructure or microstructure has a thickness of 5 μm or less, 4 μm or less, 3 μm or less, 2 μm or less, 1 μm or less, 500 nm or less, 250 nm or less of 100 nm or less. In one embodiment, the graphitic microstructure has a thickness in the range of 1 to 5 μm, 2 to 4 μm, or 2 to 3 μm. In another embodiment, the graphitic microstructure has a longest length of the structure in the range of 1 to 5 μm, 2 to 4 μm, or 2 to 3 μm. Preferably, the graphene-like nanostructure, e.g., the carbon nanoplatelet or the carbon nanoribbon, has a thickness of about 20 nm or less, 15 nm or less, 10 nm or less, 5 nm or less or 3 nm or less. The graphene-like nanostructure, e.g., the carbon nanoplatelet or the carbon nanoribbon, can comprise at least 1 atomic carbon sheet, at least 2 atomic carbon sheets, at least 5 atomic carbon sheets, or at least 10 atomic carbon sheets. In one embodiment, the graphene-like nanostructure, e.g., the carbon nanoplatelet or the carbon nanoribbon, comprises 1 to 12 atomic carbon sheets. In a specific embodiment, the graphene-like nanostructure, e.g., the carbon nanoplatelet or the carbon nanoribbon, comprises 1 or 2 atomic carbon sheets. Preferably, the graphene-like nanostructure is a carbon nanoplatelet having an average diameter in the range of 5 to 100 nm, 10 to 75 nm, 20 to 50 nm, or 30 to 40 nm. In a specific embodiment, the carbon nanoplatelet has an average diameter of about 20 nm. In another specific embodiment, the carbon nanoplatelet has an average diameter of about 50 nm. In still another specific embodiment, the graphene-like nanoplatelet has a thickness in the range of 1 to 5 nm and a diameter of about 50 nm. Preferably, the graphene-like nanostructure is a carbon nanoribbon having an average width in the range of 1 to 250 nm, 10 to 200 nm, 50 to 150 nm, or 70 to 100 nm. In a specific embodiment, the carbon nanoribbon has an average width of about 120 nm. Preferably, the carbon nanoribbon has an average length in the range of 200 to 5000 nm, 400 to 4000 nm, or 500 to 3000 nm. In a specific embodiment, the carbon nanoribbon has an average length in the range of 600 to 2000 nm. The graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure can further comprise a water solubilizing moiety attached to the graphene-like nanostructure or microstructure. In one embodiment, the water solubilizing moiety is covalently attached to the graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. In a specific embodiment, the water solubilizing moiety is selected from the group consisting of malonic acid and serinol malonodiamide attached to the graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. The water solubilizing moiety can be attached to the graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure using any method known in the art, e.g., using Bingel type reactions (Bingel, C., 1993, Cyclopropanierung von Fullerenen, Chemische Berichte 126 (8):1957). In another specific embodiment, the water solubilizing moiety is a natural polymer dextran or synthetic polymer polyethylene glycol. The water solubilizing moiety can covalently or non-covalently attached using any method known in the art, e.g., using sonication for 1-3 hours at elevated temperatures (60-95° C.). The magnetic metal in the magnetic composition of the present invention can be any metal that exhibits magnetism in the presence or absence of an externally applied magnetic field. In one embodiment, the magnetic metal is a room temperature paramagnetic metallic element, including but not limited to Mn. In another embodiment, the magnetic metal is a room temperature ferromagnetic metallic element including but not limited to Fe, Co, and Ni. In still another embodiment, the magnetic metal is a rare earth metal, including but not limited to Gd, Eu, Pr, Nd, and Sm. Preferred magnetic metals that can be used in the present invention include Mn, Gd, and Fe. The magnetic composition can comprise more than one magnetic metal. In one embodiment, the magnetic composition comprises two different magnetic metals. In a preferred embodiment, the magnetic composition comprises Mn and Fe. The magnetic metal can be present in the magnetic composition as an ion. The magnetic metal can also be present in the magnetic composition in the form of a metal compound, including but not limited to a metal oxide and a metal salt. In a preferred embodiment, the magnetic metal is present in the magnetic composition in the form of a metal oxide. In a preferred embodiment, the magnetic metal or compound thereof is intercalated in the graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. The magnetic composition of the present invention can comprise the magnetic metal in an amount in the range of 1 ppb (mass parts per billion) to 107 ppm (mass parts per million), 102 ppb to 106 ppm, 102 ppb to 102 ppm, 1 ppm to 105 ppm, 10 to 104 ppm, or 102 to 103 ppm. In particularly preferred embodiments, the magnetic composition of the present invention comprises a graphene-like nanostructure as described herein and Mn. In one embodiment, the Mn is present as a Mn oxide. In another embodiment, the Mn is present as di-valent and/or tri-valent Mn. In still another embodiment, the Mn oxide comprises hausmannite. In one embodiment, the magnetic composition comprises a carbon nanoplatelet and Mn in an amount in the range of 106 to 5.5×107 ppm, e.g., about 5×106 ppm. In another embodiment, the magnetic composition comprises a carbon nanoribbon and Mn in an amount in the range of 102 to 103 ppm, e.g., 5×102 ppm. In still another embodiment, the Mn is in an amount in the range of 0.1 to 2 ppm, 0.2 to 1.5 ppm, or 0.5 to 1 ppm. The present invention also provides a method of performing magnetic resonance imaging of a subject, comprising administering to the subject a sufficient amount of the magnetic composition of the invention; and imaging the subject using a magnetic resonance imaging device. The subject can be any animal, including but not limited to a mammal. In a preferred embodiment, the subject is a human. The magnetic composition of the invention can be used alone or in combination with another agent, including but not limited to another MRI contrast agent. The magnetic composition can be administrated to the subject by any method known in the art, including but not limited to intravascular injection and oral administration. A person skilled in the art would be able to select the appropriate administration route according to the tissue, organ or other region in the body of interest and/or the purposes of the scan. Magnetic resonance imaging can be carried by any standard method and device known in the art. The magnetic composition of the invention and/or another MRI CA can be in any suitable form of imaging agents, including but not limited to extracellular fluid or first pass MRI CAs, blood pool MRI CAs, organ specific MRI CAs, and molecular imaging MRI CAs. The invention also provides a kit for use in MRI imaging, comprising in one or more containers a sufficient amount of one or more magnetic compositions. A sufficient amount of the magnetic composition refers to that amount of the composition sufficient to result in enhancement of image contrast in a MRI image. The magnetic composition can be in any suitable form of imaging agent, including but not limited to extracellular fluid or first pass MRI CAs, blood pool MRI CAs, organ specific MRI CAs, and molecular imaging MRI CAs. Toxicity of the magnetic composition can be determined by standard procedures in cell cultures and/or experimental animals, e.g., for determining the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population). The effective dose can be estimated according to clinically accepted standard. The data obtained from the cell culture assays and/or animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosage for use in humans. The dosage of such magnetic compositions is preferably within a range of concentrations that are effective in enhancing MRI images with little or no toxicity. The dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. A person skilled in the art would be able to select the suitable dosage of the magnetic composition based on standard protocols. The compositions for use in accordance with the present invention may be formulated in conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients depending on, e.g., the route for administration, e.g., oral or parenteral administration. For oral administration, the magnetic compositions may take the form of, for example, tablets or capsules prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptable excipients such as binding agents (e.g., pregelatinised maize starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone or hydroxypropyl methylcellulose); fillers (e.g., lactose, microcrystalline cellulose or calcium hydrogen phosphate); lubricants (e.g., magnesium stearate, talc or silica); disintegrants (e.g., potato starch or sodium starch glycolate); or wetting agents (e.g., sodium lauryl sulphate). The tablets may be coated by methods well known in the art. Liquid preparations for oral administration may take the form of, for example, solutions, syrups or suspensions, or they may be presented as a dry product for constitution with water or other suitable vehicle before use. Such liquid preparations may be prepared by conventional means with pharmaceutically acceptable additives such as suspending agents (e.g., sorbitol syrup, cellulose derivatives or hydrogenated edible fats); emulsifying agents (e.g., lecithin or acacia); non-aqueous vehicles (e.g., almond oil, oily esters, ethyl alcohol or fractionated vegetable oils); and preservatives (e.g., methyl or propyl-p-hydroxybenzoates or sorbic acid). The preparations may also contain buffer salts, flavoring, coloring and sweetening agents as appropriate. The compounds may be formulated for parenteral administration by injection, e.g., by bolus injection or continuous infusion. Formulations for injection may be presented in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampoules or in multi-dose containers. The compositions may take such forms as suspensions, solutions or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, and may contain formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. Alternatively, the active ingredient may be in powder form for constitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile pyrogen-free water, before use. Suitable routes of administration may, for example, include oral and parenteral delivery, including intramuscular, subcutaneous, intramedullary injections, as well as intrathecal, direct intraventricular, intravenous, intraperitoneal, intranasal, or intraocular injections. Furthermore, one may administer the drug in a targeted drug delivery system, for example, in a liposome coated with an antibody specific for affected cells. The liposomes will be targeted to and taken up selectively by the cells of interest. The compositions may, if desired, be presented in a pack or dispenser device which may contain one or more unit dosage forms containing the magnetic composition. The pack or dispenser device may be accompanied by instructions for administration. Compositions comprising a magnetic composition of the invention formulated in a compatible carrier may also be prepared, placed in an appropriate container, and labeled for use. Thus, the present invention also provides the magnetic composition of the present invention for use in magnetic resonance imaging of the subject. The present invention also provides a method of producing a magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal and a graphene-like carbon nanostructure. The method comprises oxidizing graphite with a mixture of sulfuric acid H2SO4, sodium nitrate NaNO3, and potassium permanganate KMnO4; and sonicating a suspension of the product obtained in the previous step. The method can further comprise a step of reducing the magnetic composition with a reducing agent. In one embodiment, the reducing agent is hydrazine hydrate. In one embodiment, the graphite used in the method of the invention is micro-graphite, e.g., having a size of about 45 μm. The present invention also provides a method of producing a magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal and a graphene-like carbon nanostructure. The method comprises treating a multi-walled carbon nanotube with sulfuric acid H2SO4 and potassium permanganate KMnO4. In one embodiment, the treatment is carried out by a method comprising suspending said multi-walled carbon nanotube in concentrated H2SO4; adding KMnO4; and heating the mixture. In a specific embodiment, the mixture is heated to 55-70° C. The magnetic composition can be water solubilized using a method known in the art. In one embodiment, the magnetic composition is water solubilized using a synthesis protocol similar to a cycloaddition reaction used to add carboxylic acid functionalities across carbon-carbon double bonds of fullerenes and metallofullerenes (Sithamaran, B.; Zakharian, T. Y. et al. Molecular Pharmaceutics 2008, 5, 567). EXAMPLES The following examples are presented by way of illustration of the present invention, and are not intended to limit the present invention in any way. Example 1 Materials and Methods: Graphene Nanoplatelet (GNP) Synthesis: Oxidized graphite was prepared from analytical grade micro-graphite (45 μm, 496596-Sigma Aldrich) by modified Hummer's method (Geng, Y., Wang, S. & Kim, J. Preparation of graphite nanoplatelets and graphene sheets. Journal of colloid and interface science 336, 592-598 (2009); Hummers Jr, W. & Offeman, R. Preparation of graphitic oxide. Journal of the American Chemical Society 80, 1339-1339 (1958)). In a typical exfoliation procedure, dried oxidized graphite (200 mg) was suspended in a round bottom flask containing water (200 ml) and sonicated for 1 h in an ultrasonic bath cleaner (Fischer Scientific, FS60, 230W) (Stankovich, S. et al. Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide. Carbon 45, 1558-1565 (2007)). 50 ml of this uniform solution was centrifuged and pellet was dried overnight to obtain oxidized graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs). The remaining 150 ml was treated with hydrazine hydrate (1.5 ml, 37.1 mmol) and heated in an oil bath at 100° C. under a water cooled condenser for 12 h, resulting in a black precipitate. The product was isolated and washed over a medium sintered glass filter funnel with water (500 ml) and methanol (500 ml) and dried by continuous air flow to yield reduced graphene nanoplatelets. Graphene Nanoribbon (GNR) Synthesis: Graphene nanoribbons were prepared from MWCNTs (636843-Sigma Aldrich) in a procedure similar to the one previously described (Kosynkin, D. et al. Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. Nature 458, 872-876 (2009); Higginbotham, A., Kosynkin, D., Sinitskii, A., Sun, Z. & Tour, J. Lower-Defect Graphene Oxide Nanoribbons from Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes. ACS nano 4, 2059-2069 (2010)). MWCNTs (150 mg, 12.5 mequiv of carbon) were suspended in 30 ml of conc. H2SO4 for 2 h. KMnO4 (750 mg, 4.75 mmol) was added and the mixture was allowed to stir for 1 h. The reaction was then heated in an oil bath at 55-70° C. for an additional 1 h, until completion. It was cooled to room temperature and the product was washed with acidic water, ethanol and ether, and isolated by subsequent centrifugation. Centrifugation results in simple, easy and quick isolation with 100% yield. Sample Analysis: High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) imaging analysis was performed on the GNP and GNR samples using a JEOL JEM2010F (FEG-TEM) High Resolution Analytical Transmission Electron Microscope. Imaging was carried out at 200 kV accelerating voltage. TEM samples were prepared by dispersing the dry powders in 1:1 ethanol: water to form a homogeneous mixture. The suspension was then deposited on to a 300 mesh Cu grid covered with a lacey carbon film (EMS, Cat # LC305-Cu). RAMAN spectral analysis of graphite, oxidized graphite, and all graphene samples was performed between 200 to 3000 cm−1 using a Thermo Scientific DXR Raman confocal microscope at 530 nm diode laser excitation wavelength and room temperature. Characterization of Magnetic Behavior: Magnetization of graphene samples was studied using a super conducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometer with a sensitivity of about 10−8 emu. The samples were carefully weighed and loaded in gelatin capsules. Samples were analyzed between the applied magnetic field range of −50000Oe to 50000Oe between 0 and 300K. In the Field cooling and Zero Field cooling mode, a coercive field of 500Oe was applied for studying magnetization as a function of temperature. Characterization of Relaxivity: For relaxivity measurements, 1 mg of all graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbon samples were dispersed uniformly in 2 ml of biologically compatible 1% Pluronic F127 surfactant solution. The supernatants of these saturated (suspensions) solutions were then used for relaxometry measurements. The longitudinal and transverse relaxation times (T1, T2) were measured using iSpin-NMR system (Spincore technology) at a proton NMR frequency of 21.42 MHz and 0.5T field strength. T1 and T2 were measured using inversion recovery and CPMG methods respectively. The inverse of the relaxation times represent the respective relaxation rates, R1 and R2. Relaxivity (r1,2), which is a measure of the efficacy of an MRI contrast agent is expressed as a function of its concentration. It was calculated using the formula r1, 2=(R1, 2−R0)/[Mn2+]; R1, 2 and R0 are the longitudinal or transverse relaxation rates of the samples and 1% Pluronic F127 surfactant solution respectively, and [Mn2+] is the concentration of Manganese in the volume of solution used for relaxation measurements. Metal Content Analysis: To confirm the presence and to determine the concentration of manganese in our samples, inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICPOES) was carried out separately at two commercial analytical testing laboratories (Columbia Analytical Services, Tucson, Ariz. and Galbraith Laboratories, Inc., Knoxville, Tenn.). The potassium [K] content was also estimated in all samples. For the ICP sample preparation, the suspensions of the samples in Pluronic solutions used for relaxation time measurements were treated with cone. HNO3 and carefully heated to obtain a solid residue. They were then further treated with 30% H2O2 and heated again to eliminate carbonaceous material. In case of the solid samples, they were directly subjected to peroxide and heat treatment to remove the carbonaceous content. The remaining residue, in each case, was dissolved in 2% HNO3 and analyzed by ICP using a Thermo Jarrell Ash ICAP 61 Inductively Coupled Plasma Spectrometer. In Vitro Phantom MRI: In vitro T and T2 MRI phantom experiments were performed on the nanoribbon samples using a 3T Trio Siemens MRI system and the images were obtained using 2D spin-echo imaging with a repetition time (TR) of 500 ms and echo times (TE) of 10 ms for T1 and TR of 8000 ms and TE of 112 ms for T2 measurements. Results and Discussion: This Example shows that the simple chemical oxidation procedures (see methods and materials section for synthesis details) using starting materials such as graphite and MWCNTs yield magnetic manganese intercalated graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons which show potential as MRI contrast agents. FIG. 1(a, b) show representative low and high magnification TEM images of reduced graphene nanoplatelets, respectively, which provides their structural and morphological information. As seen in FIG. 1(a), they appear to be round in shape with an average width of ˜20 nm. Some platelets appear darker than the others and this is due to the presence of multi-layered graphene oxide sheets. The lighter ones, which are almost transparent, are single or double layered graphene oxide sheets. FIG. 1(b) reveals the atomic lattice fringe structure of the individual graphene sheets where the lattice grid lines and hexagonal carbon atom rings are clearly visible (Lu, G., Mao, S., Park, S., Ruoff, R. & Chen, J. Facile, noncovalent decoration of graphene oxide sheets with nanocrystals. Nano Research 2, 192-200 (2009)). AFM section analysis of the graphene oxide nanoplatelets dispersion on a Si substrate revealed a uniform thickness of ˜1.137 nm (FIG. 7). Pristine graphene sheets have an atomic layer thickness (Van der Waals) of 0.34 nm. The presence of covalent bonds with carboxyl and hydroxyl groups and displacement of sp3 carbon atoms in the graphene oxide nanoplatelet structure is known to be the reason for an increase in the thickness (Stankovich, S. et al. Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide. Carbon 45, 1558-1565 (2007)). FIG. 1(c,d) show representative low and high magnification TEM images of graphene nanoribbons, respectively. As seen in FIG. 1(c), the graphene nanoribbons have fully unzipped layers of graphene sheets. The high resolution TEM image in FIG. 1(d) clearly shows that the nanoribbons are multilayered (arrows) due to successive unzipping of the concentric walls of MWCNTs. The atomic structural surface quality of the graphene oxide nanoribbons appears mostly uniform and smooth, with few defects. The starting material, MWCNTs, have an outer diameter of 40-70 nm and length of 500-2000 nm. Since the MWCNTs are cylinders, upon unzipping, they should open up completely to have breadths in the range of pi times the diameter, which is 125-220 nm and a length of 500-2000 nm. The analysis of the TEM images shows that the average width of the graphene nanoribbons is ˜120 nm which is greater than the outer diameter of the outermost tubes of MWCNTs of 70 nm, thus, verifying the process of unzipping. This average value, however, is slightly lesser than the range required for fully flat ribbons, 125-220 nm and this can be substantiated by the fact that the unzipping process does not render fully flat ribbons, however, the ribbons still retain some curvature of the tubes and hence they have lesser breadths than that expected for fully flat sheets. The TEM images show an average length of ˜600-2000 nm which falls within the calculated range for unzipped MWCNTs. FIG. 2(a) shows the Raman spectra of oxidized and reduced graphene nanoplatelets. Also included as controls are the Raman spectra of graphite and oxidized graphite. The spectrum of graphite shows a prominent sharp peak at 1581 cm−1 indicating the G-band which is attributed to the doubly degenerate zone center E2g mode (Tuinstra, F. & Koenig, J. Raman spectrum of graphite. The Journal of Chemical Physics 53, 1126 (1970)). In case of oxidized graphite, there is a broadening of the G band and a peak shift to 1595 cm−1. Further, zone boundary phonons give rise to the D band at 1345 cm−1, which becomes prominent indicating increase in the disorder sp2 domains and reduction of crystal size due to oxidation. Due to the process of oxidation of graphite, there is an increase in the ratio of intensity of the D to G peaks (ID/IG), from 0.407 for graphite to 1.2 for oxidized graphite (Tuinstra, F. & Koenig, J. Raman spectrum of graphite. The Journal of Chemical Physics 53, 1126 (1970)). The spectra of oxidized graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets show a further increase in ID/IG to 1.3 and 1.44, respectively. FIG. 2(a) shows that in case of reduced graphene nanoplatelets, the peaks of D and G bands are being shifted closer to the values of graphite (1330 cm−1 and 1590 cm−1 respectively), which is attributed to the removal of the oxygen functionalities during reduction and restoration of order to an extent. However, the increase in ID/IG to 1.44 is due to the reduction of the average size of sp2 domains in addition to an increase in the number of such small sized disorder domains (Kosynkin, D. et al. Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. Nature 458, 872-876 (2009)). Additionally, the Raman spectra of oxidized graphite and reduced graphene nanoplatelets also showed additional peaks at around 657 cm−1, 370 cm−1 and 320 cm−1 (FIG. 8). In order to identify the peaks, a Raman spectral database search using the RRUFF™ Project collection was performed. This confirmed that the peaks observed are due to a complex oxide containing di-valent and tri-valent manganese, known as Hausmannite, see FIG. 8. In FIG. 8, the G and D bands of the samples are seen along with additional peaks of hausmannite, confirming that the manganese oxide is intercalated into the carbonaceous matrix at these regions. Hausmannite (Mn3O4) nanocrystals are known to be synthesized by various methods involving calcination of oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, nitrates or sulphates of manganese at high temperatures in air (Southard, J. & Moore, G. High-temperature Heat Content of Mn3O4, MnSiO3 and Mn3C1. Journal of the American Chemical Society 64, 1769-1770 (1942); Ursu, I. et al. Kinetic evolution during the laser/thermal preparation of Mn3O4 from MnCO3. Journal of Physics B: Atomic and Molecular Physics 19, L825 (1986)). While most of these methods involve oxidation of the Mn (II) compound, reduction of KMnO4 is also known to bring about Mn3O4 formation (Weixin, Z., Cheng, W., Xiaoming, Z., Yi, X. & Yitai, Q. Low temperature synthesis of nanocrystalline Mn3O4 by a solvothermal method. Solid State Ionics 117, 331-335 (1999); Zhang, W. et al. Controlled synthesis of Mn3O4 nanocrystallites and MnOOH nanorods by a solvothermal method. Journal of Crystal Growth 263, 394-399 (2004)). In this case, although the exact mechanism is still unclear, it is suggested the presence of strong oxidizing agents such as nitric acid (HNO3) to have brought about reduction of KMnO4. While performing the analysis, it was observed that not all spectra for oxidized graphite and graphene nanoplatelets showed the hausmannite peaks. The presence of hausmannite peaks was sensitive to the orientation of the sample and sample spot size, confirming that these peaks were seen only at regions of manganese oxide intercalation. FIG. 2(b) shows the Raman spectrum of graphene nanoribbons and MWCNTs. Similar to spectra for nanoplatelets (in FIG. 2(a)), the spectrum for nanoribbons confirms a broad G band with a shifted peak at 1600 cm−1 as well as a prominent D band at 1310 cm−1. In comparison to the Raman spectrum of MWCNTs, an increase in ID/IG value from 0.045 to 1.57 was seen. This is in consensus with earlier reports on the Raman spectra of nanoribbons derived from chemical oxidation of MWCNTs, where ID/IG greater than 1 was observed for nanoribbons (Kosynkin, D. et al. Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. Nature 458, 872-876 (2009)). The shifted G band is due to the oxidative unzipping of MWCNTs, similar to the shift seen due to oxidation of graphite in FIG. 2(a). The high intensity and broad D band is due to the effect of reduction of the average size of sp2 domains in addition to an increase in the number of such small sized disorder domains. With nanoribbons, it was unable to detect any unusual Raman peaks indicative of Manganese, such as the hausmannite peak seen for the nanoplatelets. In order to confirm presence of Manganese (Mn2+) in nanoplatelets and nanoribbons, elemental analysis by ICPOES was carried out for the dry solid samples. Oxidized graphite, graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets reported to have 484000, 540000 and 516000 ppm of manganese respectively whereas the control graphite has only 0.1 ppm of manganese. This confirms the dominating presence of manganese in these samples. In case of graphene nanoribbons, 570 ppm was reported. Though the experiment was unable to detect any manganese related peaks in the Raman spectrum of graphene nanoribbons, this value confirmed its presence. In order to clarify that it was introduced through KMnO4 based oxidation of MWCNTs, the content of the starting material, MWCNT and the final nanoribbon product were compared. A ˜25 fold increase in manganese content was observed, from 25 ppm for MWCNTs to 570 ppm for nanoribbons. This is attributed to the oxidative procedure used in this method. FIGS. 3(a)-3(e) shows the SQUID magnetic characterization of all samples. FIG. 3(a) shows the plot of magnetization (M) versus magnetic field strength (H) for the control, graphite, between −50,000Oe and 50,000Oe for three temperatures (30K, 150K, and 300K). The negative slope suggests a decrease in the value of magnetic moments with increase in applied magnetic field which is characteristic of diamagnetic behavior. FIG. 3(b) shows the M vs. H plot for oxidized graphite. A positive slope indicating an increase in the value of the magnetic moments with field strength confirms paramagnetic behavior of the samples. The change to paramagnetism upon oxidation of graphite can be attributed to the presence of the paramagnetic Mn2+ ions which were intercalated in the sample as complex manganese oxides during the modified Hummer's protocol. Superparamagnetic transition behavior in reduced graphene nanoplatelets derived from graphite was observed. Superparamagnetism, a magnetic phenomenon observed in nanoparticle clusters (<30 nm) of ferromagnetic nature, is a size dependent phenomenon where a random flip in the direction of alignment of magnetic moments occurs under the influence of temperature. During magnetization measurements, where the sample is subjected to varying magnetic fields at a given temperature, a superparamagnetic material assumes an ‘S’ shaped curve in a M vs. H plot. This is because the time taken to measure the magnetization is much greater than the time for consecutive flip in the moments. As a result, in the absence of a magnetic field the average magnetization is measured as zero and the curve assumes an ‘S’ shape instead of a hysteresis loop. FIG. 3(c, d) shows the M vs. H plot for graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets respectively. From FIG. 3(d), it is evident that at lower temperatures (30K), the nanoplatelet sample shows a ferromagnetic hysteresis curve (Whitney, T., Searson, P., Jiang, J. & Chien, C. Fabrication and Magnetic Properties of Arrays of Metallic Nanowires. Science (New York, N.Y.) 261, 1316 (1993); Wang, J., Chen, Q., Zeng, C. & Hou, B. Magnetic Field Induced Growth of Single Crystalline Fe3O4 Nanowires. Advanced Materials 16, 137-140 (2004)). From the inset of FIG. 3(d), it is evident that superparamagnetic behavior is observed at room temperature. The zero field cooling (ZFC) and field cooling (FC) curves plotted at uniform field strength of 500Oe and between 0 and 300K are seen in FIG. 3(e). The peak in the ZFC curve reveals a blocking temperature (TB) of 40K, indicating a transition between ferromagnetic and superparamagnetic states. The magnetic behavior of reduced graphene nanoplatelets exhibits a sharp resemblance to that of Hausmannite as previously reported (Du, J. et al. Hausmannite Mn3O4 nanorods: synthesis, characterization and magnetic properties. Nanotechnology 17, 4923 (2006)). Ferromagnetism at low temperatures and paramagnetism at higher temperatures has been reported in hausmannite. Similar to reduced graphene nanoplatelets, hausmannite shows a TB of 40K and the plot of M vs. H at different temperatures for both materials are similar (Du, J. et al. Hausmannite Mn3O4 nanorods: synthesis, characterization and magnetic properties. Nanotechnology 17, 4923 (2006)). This verifies the intercalation of the complex manganese oxides in nanoplatelets and we can attribute this behavior to the presence of the complex manganese oxide, in addition to the nanostructure of the graphene nanoplatelets (˜20 nm wide). The remnant magnetization of the hysteresis curve at 30K is 12.47 emu/g and the coercivity is 6298.68Oe. According to previous literature, the high coercivity can be attributed to the single domain nature and high shape anisotropy of the sample. There have been several theoretical and a few experimental reports on the existence of room temperature ferromagnetism in graphene, graphene oxide and nanoribbon samples (Matte, H. S. S. R., Subrahmanyam, K. & Rao, C. Novel magnetic properties of graphene: Presence of both ferromagnetic and antiferromagnetic features and other aspects. The Journal of Physical Chemistry C 113, 9982-9985 (2009); Wang, Y. et al. Room-temperature ferromagnetism of graphene. Nano Letters 9, 220-224 (2008)). Recent experimental work by Wang et al. using SQUID magnetometer on graphene samples that were prepared from graphite oxide and later reduced and annealed, have shown room temperature ferromagnetism (Wang, Y. et al. Room-temperature ferromagnetism of graphene. Nano Letters 9, 220-224 (2008)). The possible origin of magnetism is attributed to the long range coupling of spin units existing as defects due to the annealing process. They verified the absence of metallic impurities and attribute the magnetism to the inherent features in graphene due to the processing. In this case, the presence of manganese in the samples is established through ICPOES and Raman spectroscopy. This is further corroborated by the similarity in the magnetic data of nanoplatelets and hausmannite. Even though oxidized graphite samples show the presence of hausmannite, they exhibit paramagnetic behavior (Du, J. et al. Hausmannite Mn3O4 nanorods: synthesis, characterization and magnetic properties. Nanotechnology 17, 4923 (2006)). Considering that there are several other factors at play in case of reduced graphene nanoplatelets, the room temperature superparamagnetism of nanoplatelets is attributed to the combination of presence of intercalated manganese oxides, the nanocluster size of the platelets and long range coupling of spin units existing as defect sites on sp2 carbon atoms in graphene. Further, the long range orderly coupling of spin units can be due to intramolecular interaction in individual sheets or intermolecular interaction between neighboring sheets of graphene multi-layers. The SQUID analysis of graphene nanoribbons synthesized from MWCNTs also shows interesting magnetic properties at room temperature. Magnetization versus field strength plot for MWCNTs is shown in FIG. 4(a). No coherent magnetic pattern is seen and the magnetic signals are extremely weak at all three temperatures. The plot of M vs. H sfor graphene nanoribbons shows superparamagnetic behavior as seen in FIG. 4(b). However, the inset in FIG. 4(b) shows parallel lines of the hysteresis curves at 300K indicating ferromagnetic behavior with a very low remanence. FIG. 4(c) indicates FC/ZFC plots and a maximum value on the ZFC curve is seen around >300K which reveals a high blocking temperature, Ts, greater than room temperature. This explained the thin hysteresis loop at 300K, where a transition of magnetic states was at play. The saturation magnetization seen at 300K was 0.1 emu/g at 2500Oe. The sample showed a coercive field of 250Oe at 10K. It has been reported that iron oxide nanoparticles as well as microstructures exhibit room temperature superparamagnetism (Deng, H. et al. Monodisperse Magnetic Single-Crystal Ferrite Microspheres. Angewandte Chemie International Edition 44, 2782-2785, (2005); Zhao, L. et al. Morphology-controlled synthesis of magnetites with nanoporous structures and excellent magnetic properties. Chemistry of Materials 20, 198-204 (2007)). However, obtaining room temperature ferromagnetism in iron oxides or graphene requires post synthetic high temperature annealing processes or embedding the particles in an antiferromagnetic complex (Wang, Y. et al. Room-temperature ferromagnetism of graphene. Nano Letters 9, 220-224 (2008); Sun, S., Murray, C. B., Weller, D., Folks, L. & Moser, A. Monodisperse FePt Nanoparticles and Ferromagnetic FePt Nanocrystal Superlattices. Science 287, 1989-1992 (2000)). Recently, room temperature ferromagnetism by synthetic processes at comparatively low temperatures (185° C.) in magnetite and maghemite iron oxide nanoparticles has been reported (Tan, Y., Zhuang, Z., Peng, Q. & Li, Y. Room-temperature soft magnetic iron oxide nanocrystals: Synthesis, characterization, and size-dependent magnetic properties. Chemistry of Materials 20, 5029-5034 (2008)). This study reports a size dependent magnetic behavior, and the blocking temperature (TB, an indicator of transition from ferromagnetism to superparamagnetism) shows an increase from 25K for the 3.2 nm particles to 330K for the 5.4 nm particle size. In the present case, with simple chemical synthetic procedure at temperatures of 70° C., it was able to achieve room temperature ferromagnetic to superparamagnetic transition with TB values >300K. Earlier reports on room temperature superparamagnetism in Fe2O3 filled MWCNTs has been reported (Li, J.-h. et al. An easy approach to encapsulating Fe2O3 nanoparticles in multiwalled carbon nanotubes. New Carbon Materials 25, 192-198 (2010)). Relaxivity of Graphene Oxide Nanoplatelets and Nanoribbons: Single point relaxation measurements were performed at 21.42 MHz, 0.5T and 27° C. on all graphene samples dispersed in 1% Pluronic F127 surfactant solution at 0.05% concentration. Ultrasonic exfoliation of oxidized graphite in water resulted in a stable colloidal suspension containing thin sheets of oxidized graphene. This was feasible due to the hydrophilic nature of hydroxyl and carboxyl groups. Oxidized graphene sheets are hence different from pristine graphene. The process of reduction, as used here, did not entirely remove all the oxygen groups. The oxidative unzipping of MWCNTs was also known to add these functional groups to the oxidized graphene nanoribbons. Graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons can form homogeneous, stable dispersions in aqueous, biocompatible solutions such as Pluronic. Table 1 (a, b) provide details on the concentration of metal ion (Manganese), relaxation rates and relaxivity of each sample. From Table 1 (a) it is clear that oxidized graphite showed enhanced r1 and r2 relaxivities when compared to graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets. It has been reported that the NMR relaxivity measurements of Mn-DPDP (commercially known as Teslascan®), which is a manganese based MRI contrast agent, shows relaxivity values of r1=1.88 mM−1 s−1 and r2=2.18 mM−1s−1 in aqueous solutions at 20 MHz (Schwert, D., Davies, J. & Richardson, N. in Contrast Agents I Vol. 221 Topics in Current Chemistry (ed Werner Krause) 165-199 (Springer Berlin/Heidelberg, 2002)). Compared to Teslascan®, oxidized graphite showed double the rate of r, and four times in case of r2. Graphene nanoplatelets showed similar relaxivity values when compared to the clinical counterpart Teslascan®. However, as seen in Table 1 (b) graphene nanoribbons showed much higher relaxivity ranges compared to Teslascan and nanoplatelets. Due to detection limitations of the equipment in analyzing trace levels of manganese in small sample volumes, the metal content of the samples were analyzed from two different analytical laboratories which provided us a range of concentration of manganese in the nanoribbons and thus an upper and lower bounds of the relaxivity of nanoribbons was calculated. Range of r, is 2.92 to 9.8 mM−1s−1 and r2 is 14.8 to 50.3 mM−1s−1. Table 1 (b) also shows that nanoribbons exhibit promising contrast agent properties when compared to relaxivities of other clinical contrast agents based on Gadolinium (Gd-DTPA) and Super paramagnetic Iron Oxides (Comibidex) (Reichenbach, J. et al. 1H T1 and T2 measurements of the MR imaging contrast agents Gd-DTPA and Gd-DTPA BMA at 1.T. European Radiology 7, 264-274 (1997); Corot, C., Robert, P., Idée, J. M. & Port, M. Recent advances in iron oxide nanocrystal technology for medical imaging. Advanced drug delivery reviews 58, 1471-1504 (2006)). In Vitro Phantom MRI: MRI phantom imaging was performed to compare MR signal contrast between aqueous graphene nanoribbon samples, MnCl2 which is a widely used preclinical MRI contrast agent and water as controls. Representative T1 and T2 weighted phantom MRI images show a significant contrast enhancement in case of the nanoribbon samples when compared to MnCl2 (r,=9.2 mM−1s−1; r2=93 mM−1s−1) at the same Mn2+ concentration and water. Mean signal intensity ratios of nanoribbons and MnCl2 with respect to water were compared and as seen in Table 2 (b), a higher signal contrast for nanoribbons was seen in case of T1 as well as T2. This is attributed to the interesting room temperature magnetic properties of nanoribbons which results in significant enhancement of relaxation rates of the proton molecules. TABLE 1 (a) Relaxation efficiencies of oxidized graphite, graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets dispersed in 1% Pluronic F127 solutions [Mn] Sample mM R1 (s−1) R2 (s−1) r1 mM−1s−1 r2 mM−1s−1 Oxidized 0.12 3.02 10.98 22.09 74.74 graphite Graphene 0.98 1.93 3.3 1.59 2.88 nanoplatelets Reduced graphene 1.98 0.88 8.84 0.25 3.44 nanoplatelets Teslascan (Mn DPDP) 1.88 2.18 ** All values are calculated at 1.5 T and 21.42 MHz TABLE 1 (b) Relaxation efficiencies of graphene nanoribbons dispersed in 1% Pluronic F127 surfactant, compared with clinically used MRI contrast agents. R1 (pluronic) = 0.37 s−1, R2 (pluronic) = 2.02 s−1 [Mn] R1 R2 r1 r2 Sample mM (s−1) (s−1) mM−1s−1 mM−1s−1 Graphene nanoribbons 0.045 3.66 14.5 73.2 251.4 (GNR) Teslascan (Mn DPDP) 1.88 2.18 Magnevist (Gd DTPA) 4.59 5.15 Comibidex (Ferrumoxtran) 9.9 65 **All values are calculated at 1.5 T and 20 MHz. TABLE 2 Comparison of mean signal intensities ratios from T1- and T2- phantom images with respect to water T1 image intensity T2 image intensity SAMPLE ratio to water ratio to water GONR 1.465 5.05 MnCl2 0.9999 2.272 In summary, this example demonstrated the synthesis of a new class of functionalized graphene nanoplatelets and nanoribbons by simple chemical oxidative procedure using KMnO4. In the example, functionalized graphene nanoplatelets and nanoribbons were successfully synthesized and the presence of manganese and its magnetic contribution in graphene nanoplatelets were verified. In case of graphene nanoribbons, very interesting magnetic properties were found, with room temperature magnetic transition from ferromagnetism to superparamagnetism. The example also shows that the structure, chirality and presence of magnetic metal ions such as manganese and iron enhance relaxation rates of these carbon materials significantly. These nanoplatelets and nanoribbons can be used as functionalized graphene based contrast agents for MRI imaging. Example 2 The novel graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs; small stacks (1-12 layers) of graphene (one-atom-thick sheets of graphite) with thickness between 1 to 5 nanometers (nm) and diameters of ˜50 nm) (FIGS. 1a and 1b) was tested as MRI contrast agent in MRI scans of a mouse. The GNPs were monodispersed, water-soluble, intercalated (insertion of chemical species within the voids between two graphene sheets), and coordinate with trace amounts of manganese (0.1% w/w (w=weight) of Manganese in GNPs, i.e. 0.1 gram of manganese per 100 gram of GNPs). The GNPs showed relaxivity of r1=45 mM−1s−1 which is nearly 16 times higher than Mn-DPDP (Teslascan, clinical Mn-based CA, r1=2.8 mM−1s−1 at 3T) and ˜10 times greater than Gd-DTPA (Magnevist, Clinical Gd-based CA, r1=4.2 mM−1s−1 at 3T). Scans using T1 weighted small animal MRI using a 3 Tesla clinical scanner (FIG. 6) showed ˜100 times greater contrast enhancement compared to Magnevist at clinical dosages. Example 3 Graphene Nanoplatelets (GNPs) First, graphite oxide (GO) is prepared from analytical grade micro-graphite using modified Hummer's method (treatment with potassium permanganate and concentrated surphuric acid) and converted to graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) by sonication for 1h in an ultrasonic bath cleaner (Stankovich, S.; Dikin, D. A. et al. Nature 2006, 442, 282). Next, the GNPs is water solubilized using a synthesis protocol that is similar to a cycloaddition reaction used to add carboxylic acid functionalities across carbon-carbon double bonds of fullerenes and metallofullerenes (Sithamaran, B.; Zakharian, T. Y. et al. Molecular Pharmaceutics 2008, 5, 567). Controls: Magnevist is used in experiments where controls are needed, since it is considered the benchmark for clinical MRI contrast media. Additionally, the physio-chemical, pharmacological, pharmacokinetic and imaging properties of GNP MRI CAs is compared to published values 5,9 of other FDA-approved clinical Gd-based MRI CAs such as Omniscan (gadodiamide, Gd-DTPA-BMA, GE Healthcare), OptiMARK (gadoversetamide, Gd-DTPABMEA, Covidien), Magnevist (gadopentetate dimeglumine, Gd-DTPA, Bayer Schering Pharma), MultiHance (gadobenate dimeglumine, Gd-BOPTA, Bracco Diagnostics), Gadovist (gadobutrol, Gd-BT-DO3A, Bayer Schering Pharma) and Dotarem (gadoterate meglumine, Gd-DOTA, Guerbet). Animals: Wistar rats (Charles River labs, Wilmington, Mass.) is used since this animal model has been widely used in previous preclinical MRI CA studies (Vogler, H.; et al; European Journal of Radiology 1995, 21, 1). Synthesize and Functionalize GNP MRI CAs for Water-Solubility and Physio-Chemical Characterization: Osmolality: This test measures the concentration of all chemical particles found in the fluid component of blood. Osmolality is an important factor in analysis of tolerance for contrast medium, whereby both local and systemic reactions play their part especially at higher doses (Cohan, R. H.; Leder, R. A. et al. J. Invest Radiol 1990, 26, 224; Gennaro, A. R. Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th edn 1985, 1455; Runge, V. M.; Kirsch, J. E.; Burke, V. J. J Magn Reson Imaging 1992, 2, 9). Osmolality is determined using a differential thermistor osmometer at 37° C. Two GNP concentrations, 0.5 mol/1 solution (0.57 osmol/kg) and for the 1 mol/l solution (1.39 osmol/kg), is used. These values have been chosen based on preclinical studies of other Gdbased MRI CAs. Partition Coefficient: Partition coefficient analysis offers a measure of the hydrophilicity (“water loving”) or hydrophobicity (“water fearing”) levels of the GNP MRI CAs (Leo, A.; Hansch, C.; Elkins, D. Chem Rev 1971, 71, 525). The partition coefficient allows estimation of GNP distribution within the body. If GNPs show high partition coefficients, this is an indicator that this CA will be preferentially distributed to hydrophobic compartments such as lipid bilayers of cells and if low partition coefficient are observed, GNPs will be preferentially found in hydrophilic compartments such as blood serum. The partition coefficient is measured using butanol and Tris-HCl buffer (pH 7.6). After complete separation of the phases, the GNP concentration in the butanol and buffer is determined by means of Raman spectroscopy. In Vitro Relaxivity: The relaxivity r (3 T clinical MR scanner, temperature=37° C.) of GNPs in water and bovine plasma is calculated using the equation: r1=(R1−R0)/[Mn2+] where R1 and R0 are the longitudinal relaxation rates (R0,1=1/T0,1, S−1) of the GNP solution and plain water or bovine plasma, respectively and [Mn2+] is the manganese concentration. Protein Binding: Efficacy of the CA may be affected by the degree to which it binds to blood plasma proteins (Vogler, H.; et al; European Journal of Radiology 1995, 21, 1). Thus, protein binding is measured in human plasma at a concentration of 1 mmol/l by means of ultrafiltration. Histamine Release: Histamine release of macrophages is an important phenomenon connected to various adverse reactions to MRI CAs (Lorenz, W.; Doenicke, A. et al. The role of histamine in adverse reactions to intraveneous agents In: Thornton, editor. Adverse Reactions of Anaesthetic Drugs. Elsevier Press 1981, 169). Mast cells (also known as mastocytes and labrocytes), resident cells in several tissue types, containing granules rich in histamine is incubated in buffer containing GNP MRI CAs (Magnevist is used as the control) concentrations ranging from 0 to 250 mmol/1. The Iso, the concentration at which histamine release approximates 50% of the release caused by the histamine liberator compound 48/80, is calculated. In Vivo MRI Studies to Assess the Impact of Water-Soluble GNPs as High Performance MRI CAs in Rats: MRI investigations is performed on rats with lesions that mimic lesions in the heart, brain or muscles in humans. Induction of cerebral infarcts, brain tumors or intramuscular tumors in rats (male, Wistar rats, 170-180 g, n=3 per group) is achieved using well established protocols (Vogler, H.; et al; European Journal of Radiology 1995, 21, 1). Before imaging, the animals are anesthetized (isoflurane), and a catheter is fixed in a tail vein for injection of the contrast agent. Immediately after contrast agent injection, approximately 5 mL of 0.9% normal saline is injected to ensure that all the MRI CA is cleared from the infusion tubing. A 3 T clinical MR scanner (Siemens medical systems, Malvems, Pa.) is used, and T1-weighted spin-echo-images are acquired. Imaging is performed before and 1 min after injection of 0.1 mmol/kg of GNPs or Magnevist (control) and 1 min after injection of an additional dose of 0.2 mmol/kg given 5 min after the first dose into the same animal. Post-contrast images are obtained in the same plane and with the same parameters as the pre-contrast study. The signal to noise ratio and the contrast to noise ratio (CNR) in the experimental and control groups are obtained in the field of interest and statistical analysis performed. Images are reviewed by two radiologists experienced in the interpretation of MR images. Efficacy of the CA is evaluated and a consensus among clinical practitioners are reached using the following criteria: a) provision of additional information toward diagnosis; b) increase in the confidence of the diagnosis; c) detection of lesions not otherwise visible; and, d) provision of important information for greater characterization of lesions seen with other pulse sequences. In cases in which lesion enhancement is evident, the agent ise judged to be of: a) no help; b) minor help; c) moderate help; or, d) major help in diagnosis. In Vivo Pharmacokinedcs, Biodistribution and Toxicity Studies in Rats Elimination and Biodistribution: To determine long-term elimination and biodistribution, 0.25 mmol/kg of GNP MRI CAs are injected intravenously into a tail vein of five male and five female Wistar rats, weighing 90-110 g. The animals are then placed in metabolic cages. Urine and Feces are Collected Daily and the GNP and Manganese Content Measured: Animals are sacrificed 7 days post-injection. Blood, liver, kidneys, spleen, bone samples (femur), brain and the remaining body are collected for measurement of GNP content by Raman spectroscopy and manganese content by inductively-coupled plasma (ICP) spectroscopy. Pharmacokinetics: Experiments are performed on five Wistar rats, weighing 90-110 g. Before and during the experiment, the animals are housed in individual metabolism cages. 125I-GNP (25I radioactive half life=59.4 days) is injected into the tail vein at a dose of 0.25 mmol/kg. blood (0.5 ml), and blood is withdrawn from the jugular vein before and at 5, 10, 20 and 30 min and 1, 1.5, 2,3,6, and 24 h and 7 days after GNP MRI CA injection. Urine is collected quantitatively at 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 6 and 24 h and, then, daily for 7 days. Feces is collected quantitatively daily for 7 days. Aliquots of urine, feces and plasma samples are assayed radiometrically by gamma scintillation counter. Urine fractions and plasma samples (5 or 20 min and 2 h after injection) are assayed for potential metabolites using HPLC analysis. A model-independent approach is applied using the pharmacokinetic program, TOPFIT, for the calculation of the terminal elimination half-life in plasma, as well as clearance and steady state volume of distribution from the plasma and urine data (Heinzel, G.; Woloszczak, R. et al. Pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic data analysis system New York: Gustav Fischer Verlag Stuttgart, Jena 1993). Acute Toxicity: The GNP MRI CA (2 mols/l) is injected intravenously into male and female Wistar rats (90-110 g, male to female ratio 1:1). Doses are 10, 50, 100, 250 mmol/kg and each dosage group is comprised of eight animals. The animals are monitored throughout an observation period of 7 days post injection. The LD50 are calculated by means of probit analysis (Neter, J.; Kutner, M. H.; et al. Applied linear statistical models 1996, WCB McGraw). Example 4 This example demonstrates that potassium permanganate-based oxidative chemical procedures used to synthesize graphite oxide or graphene nanoparticles leads to the confinement (intercalation) of trace amounts of Mn2+ ions between the graphene sheets, and that these manganese intercalated graphitic and graphene structures show disparate structural, chemical and magnetic properties, and high relaxivity (up to 2 order) and distinctly different nuclear magnetic resonance dispersion profiles compared to paramagnetic chelate compounds. The results show that confinement (intercalation) of paramagnetic metal ions within graphene sheets, and not the size, shape or architecture of the graphitic carbon particles is the key determinant for increasing relaxivity, and thus, identifies nano confinement of paramagnetic ions as novel general strategy to develop paramagnetic metal-ion graphitic-carbon complexes as high relaxivity MRI contrast agents. Materials and Method: 1. Graphene Nanoplatelets and Nanoribbons Synthesis A total of 5 batches of graphene nanoplalets and nanoribbons were prepared and characterized. All the results presented except the relaxivity results are representative data of a single batch. Oxidized micro-graphite was prepared from analytical grade micro-graphite (Sigma Aldrich, New York) by modified Hummer's method as described in Example 1. In a typical exfoliation procedure, dried oxidized micro-graphite (200 mg) was suspended in a round bottom flask containing water (200 ml) and sonicated for 1 h in an ultrasonic bath cleaner (Fischer Scientific, FS60, 230W). 50 ml of this uniform solution was centrifuged and pellet was dried overnight to obtain oxidized graphene nanoplatelets. The remaining 150 ml was treated with hydrazine hydrate (1.5 ml, 37.1 mmol), and heated in an oil bath at 100° C. under a water cooled condenser for 12 h, resulting in a black precipitate. The product was isolated, and washed over a medium sintered glass filter funnel with water (500 ml) and methanol (500 ml) and dried by continuous air flow to yield reduced graphene nanoplatelets. Graphene nanoribbons were prepared from MWCNTs (Sigma Aldrich, N.Y.) in a procedure similar to the one described in Example 1. MWCNTs (150 mg, 12.5 mequiv of carbon) were suspended in 30 ml of cone. H2SO4 for 2 h. KMnO4 (750 mg, 4.75 mmol) was added, and the mixture was allowed to stir for 1 h. The reaction was then heated in an oil bath at 55-70° C. for an additional 1 h, until completion. It was cooled to room temperature, and the product was washed with water, ethanol and ether, and subsequently isolated by centrifugation. 2. Characterization of Magnetic Behavior Magnetization of graphite, graphene and control samples was studied using a super conducting quantum interference device (SQUID) magnetometer with a sensitivity of about 10−8 emu. The samples were carefully weighed and loaded in gelatin capsules. Samples were analyzed between the applied magnetic field range of −50000Oe to 50000Oe between 0 and 300K. In the Field cooling and Zero Field cooling mode, a coercive field of 500Oe was applied for studying magnetization as a function of temperature. 3. EPR Measurements All the EPR spectra were measured at room temperature (˜296 K) under similar experimental conditions on a Bruker X-band EPR Spectrometer operating at ˜9.8 GHz microwave frequency with high 100 KHz magnetic field modulation frequency. The magnetic fields and g-values were calibrated with a standard solid sample of diphenyl picrylhydrazyl (DPPH, g=2.0036). The EPR of blank quartz tube was measured to calibrate EPR baseline for the EPR spectra. All EPR spectra were measured twice, first with 1 k Gauss sweep width, and next with 6 k Gauss sweep width. The solid samples of graphite, graphene and controls were loaded into Wilmad Quartz EPR tubes. The quartz EPR sample tubes were washed thoroughly with deionized water, and dried prior to loading of the samples. The EPR measurements on the aqueous samples were done by using a quartz flat tube designed for aqueous and other solvents with high dielectric constants. Before loading the liquid samples, the quartz EPR flat tube was washed thoroughly with deionized water and dried. The loading of aqueous samples into the quartz flat tube was done carefully into the flat portion of the tube for maximum sensitivity. 4. Proton Relaxivity Measurements For relaxivity measurements, 1 mg of oxidized micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets or graphene nanoribbon samples were dispersed in 2 ml of biologically compatible 1% Pluronic F127 surfactant solution, bath sonicated at 30 W for 10 min, and finally centrifuged at 5000 rpm for 1 h. The centrifugation allowed the non-water-solubilized large and dense graphene nanoparticles to settle to the bottom, and allowed the separation of soluble graphene nanoparticles in the supernatant. The supernatant solutions were also checked for the presence of any free Mn2 ions. This was achieved by first flocculating the graphene nanoparticles with HCl, and then testing the clear solution with sodium bismuthate (NaBiO3) in HNO3. In this reaction, manganese is oxidized from the +2 oxidation state (Mn+2) to the +7 oxidation state (MnO4) which has distinctive purple or pink color. No such color change was observed indicating that no free Mn2+ ions were present in the supernatant solution. The supernatants solutions containing the soluble graphene nanoparticles were used for relaxometry measurements. The longitudinal and transverse relaxation times (T1, T2) were measured at 20 MHz (0.47T) on a Minispec NMR spectrometer (Bruker Instruments, Woodland, Tex.). Each sample was prepared at five known concentrations by serial dilution. The temperature was maintained at 40° C. during the measurements. T1 and T2 relaxation times of each experimental sample and the control (1% Pluronic 127 solution) were measured using inversion recovery, and CPMG methods, respectively. The inverse of the relaxation times represent the respective relaxation rates, R1 and R2. A plot of relaxation rate (y-axis) versus concentration (x-axis) was created, and was fit to a linear curve. The slope of this linear fit gave the value of relaxivity. Single point relaxivity (r1) was obtained during NMRD measurements. The relaxivity values (r1), were calculated using the formula r1=(R1−R0)/[Mn2+]; where R1,2 and R0 are the longitudinal or transverse relaxation rates of the samples, and 1% Pluronic F127 surfactant solution respectively, and [Mn2+] is the concentration of Manganese in the volume of solution used for relaxation measurements. The 1/T1 NMR dispersion (NMRD) profiles at magnetic fields corresponding to a proton Larmor frequency range 0.01-40 MHz were obtained using a fast field cycling relaxometer (SPINMASTER FFC2000, Stelar Inc, Pavia, Italy). A High Field Superconducting Dipole (HTS) electromagnet was used to acquire the relaxation data from 25 to 80 MHz range of proton Larmor frequency. The temperature was fixed to 27° C., and was controlled by a Stelar VTC-91 airflow heater, equipped with a copper-constantan thermocouple; the temperature calibration in the probe head was done with a Delta OHM digital thermometer, with an absolute accuracy of 0.5° C. Results and Discussion: FIGS. 9(a)-9(e) shows the SQUID magnetic characterization of oxidized graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets. Analytical grade micro-graphite used as the starting material for the preparation of these particles was the control in these experiments. FIG. 9a shows the plot of magnetization (M) versus magnetic field strength (H) for the analytical grade micro-graphite (control) between −50,000 Oe and 50,000 Oe for three temperatures (30K, 150K, and 300K). The negative slope indicates a decrease in the value of magnetic moments with increase in applied magnetic field, which is characteristic of diamagnetic behavior. FIGS. 9b and 9c show the M versus H plot for oxidized graphite and oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, respectively. The plots show a linear increase in the value of the magnetic moments with field strength indicating paramagnetic behavior for both oxidized graphite and oxidized graphene nanoplatelets. The change to paramagnetism upon oxidation of graphite can be attributed to the presence of the paramagnetic Mn2+ ions present in the sample. FIG. 9d shows the M versus H plot of reduced graphene nanoplatelets. The plot displays a ferromagnetic hysteresis curve at the lower temperature (30K) indicating superparamagnetic behavior (inset of FIG. 9d) at room temperature (300K). Room temperature superparamagnetism has been widely reported in nanoparticle clusters (<30 nm) (Whitney et al., 1993, Science 261: 1316; and Wang et al., 2004, Advanced Materials 16: 137-140), and is a size dependent phenomenon, wherein, the thermal energy of the nanoparticle is sufficient to allow flips in the magnetic spin direction, and insufficient to overcome the spin-spin exchange coupling energy. As a result, in the absence of a magnetic field, the net magnetization measured is zero, and the M versus H curve assumes an ‘S’ shape instead of a hysteresis loop. The zero field cooling (ZFC) and field cooling (FC) curves for the reduced graphene nanoplatelets at uniform field strength of 500 Oe and between 10K and 300K are shown in FIG. 9e. The peak in the ZFC curve reveals a blocking temperature (TB) of 40K indicating a transition between ferromagnetic and superparamagnetic states. The remnant magnetization of the hysteresis curve at 30K is 12.47 emu/g and the coercivity is 6298.68Oe and could be attributed to the single domain nature, and high shape anisotropy of the sample (Du et al., 2006, Nanotechnology 17: 4923). The results for reduced graphene nanoplatelets exhibit sharp resemblance with that of hausmannite (Du et al., 2006, Nanotechnology 17: 4923). Room temperature magnetism has been reported in carbon nanomaterials such as fullerenes, carbon nanotubes, carbon nanofoams, graphene, nanodiamonds and graphite (Makarova, 2004, Semiconductors 38: 615-638, Wang, et al., 2008, Nano Letters 9: 220-224, and Esquinazi et al., 2002, Physical Review B 66: 024429). The magnetic characteristic of these materials include spin-glass-like paramagnetic or ferromagnetic behavior attributed either to the presence of metal impurities or presence of defects in the graphite lattice structure. In case of the oxidized graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets, the defects created in graphitic lattice structure during the oxidation or exfoliation process may contribute to the observed magnetic behavior. However, theoretical and experimental studies show the defects in graphitic structures induce very weak magnetic behavior with saturation magnetic moment values of approximately 10−3-10−6 emu/g (Zhou et al., 2010, Thin Solid Films 519: 1989-1992. Thus, the observed magnetic behavior reported above should be mainly due to the presence of manganese. FIGS. 10(a)-10(c) shows the SQUID magnetic characterization of MWCNTs (control), and graphene nanoribbons. FIG. 10a shows the plot of magnetization (M) versus magnetic field strength (H) for the MWCNTs between −50,000 Oe and 50,000 Oe for three temperatures (10K, 150K, and 300K). The plots show no coherent magnetic pattern, and the magnetic signals are extremely weak at all three temperatures indicating diamagnetic behavior despite the presence of iron catalysts in the MWCNTs. FIG. 10b displays the plot of M versus H for graphene nanoribbons between −50,000 Oe and 50,000 Oe for three temperatures (10K, 150K, and 300K). Even though, the M versus H curve seems to assume an ‘S’ shape instead of a hysteresis loop, closer analysis of the curve (see inset in FIG. 10b) indicates ferromagnetic behavior with a very low remanence. The SQUID analysis indicates ferromagnetism at 30K, 150 K and 300K. Closer analysis shows interesting magnetic properties at room temperature. The temperature dependence of the magnetization at zero-field cooled (ZFC) as well as field cooled (FC) conditions is plotted in FIG. 10c at magnetic field strength 500 Oe (temperature range 10-300 K). It is clear from the graph that all the graphene nanoribbons show ferromagnetic behavior at low temperatures, and show bifurcation of the ZFC and FC branches. The temperature at which the FC and ZFC curves bifurcate (also referred as the irreversibility temperature), as well as the blocking temperature (TB) is 300 K. FIG. 10c indicates FC/ZFC plots, and a maximum value on the ZFC curve is seen at a value >300K, which is greater than room temperature. The ZFC magnetization curves show a broad maximum below the bifurcation temperature. The bifurcating FC and ZFC curves indicate thermodynamic irreversibility, and could have its origin in the effects like strong competing interaction between ferromagnetic and anti-ferromagnetic phases, and phase separations at a nanoscale due to the occurrence of a low temperature spin-glass-like state or a mixed phase (Zhou et al., 2010, Thin Solid Films 519: 1989-1992; Bie et al, 2010, Solid State Sciences 12: 1364-1367; Raley et al., 2006, Journal of alloys and compounds 423: 184-187). The saturation magnetization seen at 300K is 0.1 emu/g at 2500 Oe. The sample shows a coercive field of 250 Oe at 10 K. The magnetism results clearly indicate that the graphene nanoribbons exhibit room-temperature weak ferromagnetism. The elemental analysis of graphene nanoribbons showed that apart from manganese, trace amounts of iron (0.005 wt % or 50 μg Fe per gram) was also present in these samples. The MWCNTs used in the preparation of the graphene nanoribbons do not show any magnetic behavior even though they contain iron nanoparticles as catalyst (0.1 wt %) (Sigma-Aldrich I Certificate of Analysis-MWCNT) which is 20 times greater than the amount found in graphene nanoribbons. Furthermore, it has been reported that presence of Fe or Fe3O4 clusters with Fe concentration of 1-500 μg Fe per gram (1 ppm) graphite contribute 2.2×10−5 to 4×10−3 emu/g to the magnetization (Esquinazi et al., 2002, Physical Review B 66: 024429). The above information taken together suggests that the presence of trace amounts of iron does not contribute significantly to the observed magnetic behavior of the graphene nanoribbons. Several recent studies show that point defects of oxygen vacancies in metal oxide nanostructures could result in weak ferromagnetism (Schoenhalz et al., 2009, Applied Physics Letters 94: 162503; and Kundaliya et al., 2004, Nature materials 3: 709-714), and similar defect in the manganese oxide due to its interactions with the graphene nanoribbons could be responsible for observed magnetic behavior. However, more studies are needed to confirm this hypothesis. FIGS. 11(a)-11(d) show the EPR spectra of the oxidized micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons, respectively (the blank EPR spectrum of the quartz EPR tube and DPPH standard is shown in FIGS. 17A-17D). The g values, EPR line widths at half heights (ΔH1/2, Gauss) and electron relaxation time (T2e) of each EPR spectra are listed in Table 3a. All samples show broad peak (ΔH1/2) at their respective g values. However, graphene nanoribbons show ΔH1/2 values 2.6 times greater than oxidized micrographite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets, which have similar ΔH1/2 values. The large line width indicates short electron relaxation time (T2e), and the calculated T2e values were between 0.19-21 nanoseconds for oxidized micrographite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, and reduced graphene nanoplatelets. Graphene nanoribbons have T2e values 0.072 nanoseconds; at least 2.9 times shorter than the other compounds. The EPR spectra of the graphene nanoribbons samples also shows a narrow peak in the center, which indicates presence of free radical species, possibly due to defect centers in the nanoribbon structures as reported (Rao et al., 2011, New J Phys 13: 113004). The free radical species have g of 2.007, and line width of 1.2 Gauss, and thus have very long electron relaxation time (T2e) of 88.2 nanoseconds. The large line broadening in all the compounds indicates significant manganese-to-manganese dipolar interaction. A reduction in the amount of manganese in the sample should decrease the line broadening, and resolve the 6-line manganese hyperfine structure in the EPR spectrum, and consequently, decrease the electron relaxation time. FIGS. 12(a)-12(d) show the EPR spectra of aqueous solutions of oxidized micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons, respectively (the blank EPR spectrum of the quartz EPR tube and the EPR spectrum of the DPPH is shown in FIGS. 17(a)-17(b)). The g values, EPR line widths at half heights (ΔH1/2, Gauss), hyperfine coupling constant, and electron relaxation time (T2e) of each EPR spectra are listed in Table 3b. All the four samples show 6-line EPR characteristic of an electron coupled to Mn-55 nucleus with spin 1=5/2. The EPR spectra of graphene nanoribbons also show a narrow EPR line at the center with g˜2.007, and line width of 1.2 Gauss due to the presence of free radicals. The observed g values are very close to the free electron spin value, and suggest the absence of spin-orbit coupling in the ground state of manganese ions present in all four samples. The manganese hyperfine coupling (AMn) of approximately 95 Gauss in these samples are very close to that of aqua ions of manganese, Mn (H2O)6. The large hyperfine coupling indicates octahedral coordination in the manganese species of all four samples. The four aqueous samples also show similar narrow line width (ΔH1/2) values between 29.2-31.5 Gauss indicative of long electron relaxation time (T2c). The calculated T2e values were between 2.08-2.25 ns. The free radical species present in the graphene nanoribbons have an order of magnitude longer electron relaxation time (T2e) of 55 ns. It should be noted that the EPR spectra only shows the Mn(II) ions. The spectra did not show presence of Mn(III) ions or other oxidation states of manganese even though, the Raman spectrum of at least reduced graphene nanoplatelets show the presence of Mn(III) ions. A possible reason of this non-detection could be that all the EPR measurements were done at room temperature. Mn(III) ions or other oxidation states of Manganese have very short electron relaxation times, and require very low sample temperatures (˜77 K) to obtain an EPR spectra. Thus, low temperature measurements were also carried out on all the four samples. However, the EPR spectra (results not shown) was dominated by Mn(II) contributions, and the presence of other oxidation states of manganese could not be confirmed, suggesting that most of the manganese ions present in the four samples are present in Mn(II) state. Relaxivity (r1, 2) is an important measure of the efficacy of an MRI contrast agent. Table 4 shows the relaxivity values at 0.47T for oxidized micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons at 40° C. Also included for comparative purposes are range of relaxivity values of clinically approved Gd+-based and Mn2+ based chelate complexes (Rohrer et al., 2005, Investigative Radiology 40: 715-724). The table clearly shows that all four compounds show significantly higher r1 and r2 relaxivities compared to paramagnetic chelate complexes. At 0.47T, the r1 and r2 values for the graphite and graphene samples are ˜8-10 times, and 19-60 times greater than paramagnetic chelate complexes. Among the graphitic and graphene samples, at 0.47T, graphene nanoribbons, and oxidized graphite showed higher (˜20%) r1 values than oxidized graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets. However, the trend for r2:r1 ratio was reduced graphene nanoplatelets>graphene nanoribbons>oxidized micro-graphite>oxidized graphene nanoplatelets. This trend is along expected lines since, the magnetism results show that graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons are superparamagnetic at 40° C. It is well-known that superparamagnetic materials mainly affect transverse T2 relaxation, and thus, increase the r2/r1 ratio. However the r2/r1 ratio is lower than iron-based T2 contrast agents that have ratios of 10 or more. T1 contrast agents have r2/r1 ratios about 1-2 (Laurent et al., 2008, Chemical Reviews 108: 2064-2110). Thus, the manganese-intercalated graphitic, and graphene particles may be better suited as T1 contrast agents even though at higher fields (3T or above), the reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons would give rise to T2* effects. The NMRD profiles between 0.01-80 MHz of aqueous solutions of oxidized graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons is presented in FIGS. 13a-d. This is the first report of longitudinal r1 relaxivities for these compounds over such a large magnetic field range (0.01-80). While oxidized micro-graphite and reduced graphene nanoplatelets show similar NMRD profiles, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, and graphene nanoribbons show distinctly different profiles than these two samples. At mid-to-high magnetic field (<10 MHz), oxidized micro-graphite shows a smaller increase (50-66 mM−1s−1) with decrease in magnetic field, and a greater increase with decrease to lower magnetic fields (70-222 mM's−1). Oxidized graphene nanoplatelets shows bell shaped distribution at mid-to-high magnetic fields with a maximum of 55 mM−1s−1 at 30 MHz, and a gradual increase up to 86 mM−1s−1 as the magnetic fields decrease below 10 MHz. Reduced graphene nanoplatelets shows a small increase (44-59 mM−1s−1) with decrease in magnetic field between 80-10 MHz, and the relaxivity increases at lower magnetic fields with a maximum value of 258 mM−1s−1 at 0.01 MHz. Graphene nanoribbons show a linear increase (relaxivity between 65-100 mM−1s−1) with decrease in magnetic fields up to 10 MHz, and then a continuous steep increase below 10 MHz reaching values of 724 mM-1s-1 at 0.01 MHz. The NMRD profiles of these compounds are different than the profiles of other manganese-based small molecular or macromolecular complexes (Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927; and Sur et al., 1995, J Phys Chem 99: 4900-4905). For example, small molecule Mn2+ complexes such as Mn-DTPA (DTPA=diethylene triamine penta-acetic acid) show a constant values of ˜1.9 mM's1 at fields greater than 10 MHz, and marginal increase at fields less than 10 MHz. Macromolecular complexes Mn2+-DTPA-BSA (BSA=bovine serum albumin) show a bell-shaped relaxivity distribution at magnetic field between 10-80 MHz with a peak value of 26 mM−1s−1 at 20 MHz (Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927). At magnetic fields less than 10 MHz, the relaxivity is constant at ˜14 mM−1s−1. Similar profiles have been reported for small and large molecule complexes of Gd3+ ions (Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927). The profiles are also different than profiles of Gd3+@C60 (gadofullerenes) which show profiles similar to those of Mn2+- or Gd3+ macromolecular complexes (Toth et al., 2005, J Am Chem Soc 127: 799-805). However, the profiles of Gd3+@ultrashort-single-walled carbon tubes (gadonanotubes) (Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821) have features similar to those observed by Mn2+ intercalated graphitic and graphene compounds, i.e. increase in relaxivity with decrease in magnetic field with a greater increase at magnetic fields below 10 MHz. The profile of the gadonanotubes at lower magnetic fields (<10 MHz) is most similar to that of graphene nanoribbons. The Solomon-Bloembergan-Morgan (SBM) set of equations (see below) are considered to give the best theoretical description on how factors such as the water proton interactions with the contrast agent, magnetic properties of the contrast agent, and the molecular dynamics of the contrast agent affect the relaxation rate of the water protons at magnetic fields greater than 0.1 Tesla (Merbach et al., 2001, The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging: John Wiley & Sons. p. 471). It is widely accepted that there are three types of water molecules that can be influenced by the MRI CA: (a) the water molecules directly co-ordinated to the paramagnetic metal center of the CA are known as the inner-sphere water molecules; (b) the water molecules not co-ordinated to the magnetic metal center of the contrast agent, but chemically-bound to other molecules (e.g. ligands, chelates) of the CA are called the second sphere water molecules; and (c) the more distant water molecules that are not bound to the MRI CA, but diffuse close to it are termed the outer-sphere water molecules. Experimental nuclear magnetic relaxation dispersion (NMRD) profiles are typically fit using the SBM equations to determine these factors that influence proton relaxivity (Aime et al., 1998, Chemical Society Reviews 27: 19-29; Caravan et al., 1999, Chem Rev 99: 2293-2352; Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927; and Merbach et al., 2001, The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging: John Wiley & Sons. p. 471). Recent reports suggest that for gadonanotubes, the factors that govern their interactions with the inner-sphere water protons such as proton/water exchange rate, and the rotational correlation time are responsible for most of the observed r, relaxivity (Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821). Thus, SBM equations that describe the inner-sphere interactions were the main focus. FIGS. 13a-d show the NMRD profiles of the oxidized graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets, and graphene nanoribbons, respectively. Also included are the corresponding best-fit, physically reasonable values (within the range of values reported for other Gd(III) and Mn(II)-based compounds) for the various inner-sphere parameters. (A discussion of our fitting approach is presented below). Table 5 lists the computed parameters, their definitions and values (Table 8 lists the fixed parameters, their definitions and values). In general, the SBM equations provide an acceptable fit at high fields (>10 MHz) or low field (<0.5 MHz). Overall, the fits were more accurate for oxidized micro-graphite, and reduced graphene nanoplatelets than for oxidized graphene nanoplatelets and nanoribbons. This indicates that the SBM equations may not be an entirely satisfactory model for all the compounds synthesized here. Nevertheless, the parameters returned by the curve-fitting algorithm were discussed below to examine if they are in line with those reported elsewhere. The parameter Δ2 represents the zero-field splitting energy of the paramagnetic metal's electrons. Even in the absence of an applied field, which is normally used to produce Zeeman splitting, splitting can still occur due to random motions and distortions of the complex. The fields generated by these interactions produce energy which induces relaxation in the nearby protons. The correlation time for this splitting is termed τv. These two parameters are important in determining the effectiveness of the paramagnetic center. Δ2 is generally in the range of 1018-1020 s−2. The values found from the fits are well within the accepted range. The value of r, is generally accepted as being from 1-100 picoseconds (Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927). The values we have found are in this range. In case of r, the rotational correlation time, values in the 10 ps to 2 ns range were reported (Aime et al., 2002, Journal of Biological Inorganic Chemistry 7: 58-67; Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927; and Toth et al., 2005, J Am Chem Soc 127: 799-805), while for gadonanotubes values dropping into the nanosecond to microsecond range were also reported (Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821). The results obtained for the micro-graphite and graphene samples are in the nanosecond time scale. The parameter q represents the number of fast-exchanging water molecules within the inner sphere, and its value was 8 for all the samples. These values fall outside the range of values for q obtained for various paramagnetic complexes, which are between 1 and 6. However, q values as high as high as 20 have reported for gadofullerenes (Toth et al., 2005, J Am Chem Soc 127: 799-805). Theoretical studies on Manganese intercalation within graphene suggest coordination of manganese to the graphene sheets with 1-3 co-ordination bonds (Mao et al., 2008, Nanotechnology 19: 205708). Assuming most of the intercalated graphene is Mn2+ in the high spin state, the co-ordination number can be between 4 and 8 and thus, the possible co-ordination sites for water molecules will be between 1 and 7, and value obtained from the NMRD fits is close to this value. Additionally, the EPR results also indicate that this value is reasonable. The parameter τM, the water-residence lifetime has a dual effect on the relaxivity. On one hand, the longer a water molecule is resident in the inner sphere, the more time the paramagnetic center can influence its spin. However, if its resident time is too long, it blocks the ability of other water molecules from co-ordinating to the paramagnetic metal center, and can reduce the overall relaxivity. Hence, the optimum relaxivity is somewhere between the possible extremes. Literature reports show a wide range τM values. Small molecule complexes are generally in the range of 11-100 ps, while macromolecules such as paramagnetic liposomes (Hak et al., 2009, European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biophannaceutics 72: 397-404), gadofullerenes (Toth et al., 2005, J Am Chem Soc 127: 799-805), gadonanotubes (Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821) have values between 100-500 ns. The values found from the fits range between a few to hundreds of nanoseconds. To corroborate this data, 17O measurements were performed at 14T, and the water exchange correlation time (τM) was estimated by analyzing the data according to the Swift and Connick theory (see below) (Swift et al., 1962, J Chem Phys 37: 307). The τM value was estimated to be hundreds of ns for all samples at 27° C. While these values corroborate well with the τM values obtained from NMRD fits oxidized micro-graphite and oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, they are 100 times greater than the values of reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons. The NMRD fits obtained by fixing the values of τM at hundreds of nanoseconds for these two samples gave good fits, and reasonable values for other parameters in case of reduced graphene nanoplatelets, however, a poor fit was obtained for graphene nanoribbons (See FIGS. 23A-23D). The separation distance, rMnH between the water protons and the paramagnetic metal ion (Mn2+ ion in this case) is raised to the 6th power in the SBM equations. Thus, it has a very large influence on relaxivity, with shorter the distance, larger the influence. In this work, we found that allowing the parameter to vary slightly, rather than hold it fixed at the most commonly reported value of 2.9 angstroms (Troughton et al., 2004, Inorg Chem 43: 6313-6323). The fitting values we obtained were in any case very close to the nominal value, but due to the extreme sensitivity of the SBM equations toward this value, it allowed for improved fits. Multiple approaches have been developed wherein the above factors that affect the relaxation mechanism have been altered to design new high-efficiency Mn2+-based or Gd3+-based T1 MRI CA (Table 6). These approaches have focused on altering one or more of the following parameters: (1) increasing the number of inner-sphere water molecules (q); (2) decreasing the inner-sphere water residence lifetime (τM), and increasing the rotational correlation time (τR) of the contrast agent (CA); (3) decreasing the rMnHa by altering bond angles and orientation when designing chelates (Caravan et al., 2009, Contrast Media Mol Imaging 4: 89-100). In the case of Mn2+ based macromolecular contrast agents, at 20 MHz, r1 values as high as 55 mM−1 have been reported compared to Mn2+ ions without any chelate or chelated with various small molecule polycarboxylic acid ligands which show r1 values between 4-10 mM−1s−1. The two parameters that have been manipulated in these studies are τM and/or τR. The results of this work introduce a novel general approach to enhance the r1 relaxivity by confining the paramagnetic metal between graphene sheets, allowing the characteristic parameters q, τR, and τM to be modified accordingly. The results indicate that confinement (intercalation) of paramagnetic metal ions within graphene sheets, and not the size, shape or architecture of the graphitic carbon particles is the key determinant for increasing relaxivity, and thus, identifies nano confinement of paramagnetic ions as novel general strategy to develop metal-ion graphitic-carbon complexes as high relaxivity MRI CA. The physiochemical characterization, and the promising relaxivity results of the graphitic, and graphene structures reported in the these examples open avenues for in vitro and in vivo studies to assess their safety and efficacy as MRI CAs. According to a recent report, in the US, approximately 43% of the 27.5 million clinical MRI procedures use CAs and the MRI CA market is projected to grow to $1.87 billion in 2012 ((2011) Imaging Agents. Global Industry Analysts, Inc: http://www.strategyr.com/ImagingAgents_Market_Report.asp). Most clinical MRI CAs are gadolinium-(Gd3+) ion-based T1 paramagnetic CAs, that enhance MR signals to generate bright positive contrast. The recent discovery of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) in some patients with severe renal disease or following liver transplant has generated concern leading to Food and Drug Administration (FDA) restrictions on clinical use of the Gd3+-ion based MRI CA (US FDA Information on gadolinium-containing contrast agents 2008, http://wwwfdagov/cder/drug/infopage/gcca/). Manganese, which was reported early on as an example of paramagnetic contrast material for MRI, has again received attention as a possible alternative to gadolinium (Pan et al., 2010, Revisiting an old friend: manganese based MRI contrast agents. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology). Unlike the lanthanides, it is a natural cellular constituent resembling Ca2+, and often functions as a regulatory cofactor for enzymes and receptors. Normal daily dietary requirement for manganese is 0.1-0.4 milligrams, while normal serum levels are 1 nano-molar. Manganese toxicity has only been reported following long-term exposure or at high concentrations resulting in neurological symptoms (Pan et al., 2010, Revisiting an old friend: manganese based MRI contrast agents. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology). Thus, further development of the micro- and nano-particles reported in this work could lead to development of a new class of Mn2+-carbon nanostructure complexes as high-efficacy MRI CAs. TABLE 3a EPR parameters of solid samples of oxidize micro- graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons. EPR Line width Electron relaxation (ΔH1/2, Gauss) for time (T2e, Sample g-value g~2.0 nanoseconds) Oxidized 2.007 552.0 0.19 micrographite Oxidized graphene 2.007 544.4 0.20 nanoplatelets Reduced graphene 2.008 505.2 0.21 nanoplatelets Graphene 2.313 1472.0 88.2 nanoribbons TABLE 3b EPR parameters of aqueous samples of oxidize micro- graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons. EPR Line width Hyperfine Electron (ΔH1/2, Coupling relaxation Gauss) for Constant AMn, time (T2e, Sample g-value g~2.0 Gauss nanoseconds) Oxidized micro- 2.0067 29.2 94.5 2.25 graphite Oxidized 2.0068 31.5 96.4 2.08 graphene nanoplatelets Reduced 2.0070 30.0 95.4 2.19 graphene nanoplatelets Graphene 2.0068 30.2 95.2 2.17 nanoribbons TABLE 4 Relaxivity of oxidized graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons dispersed in 1% Pluronic F127 solutions compared with clinically used MRI contrast agents. Sample r1 (mM−1s−1) r2 (mM−1s−1) r2/r1 Oxidized graphite 63 (61-78) 171 (169-184) 2.7 Oxidized Graphene 52 (50-54) 114 (114-131) 2.2 nanoplatelets Reduced graphene 47 (34-49) 415 (389-430) 8.9 nanoplatelets Graphene nanoribbons 62 (53-71) 303 (275-310) 4.9 Clinical Mn2+Chelate Complexes†) 1.8-2.0 2.0-2.2 — Clinical Gd3+Chelate Complexes††) 3.4-5.8 3.6 ± 7.0 — †Sigma- Aldrich I Certificate of Analysis- MWCNT ††Rohrer et al., 2005, Investigative Radiology 40: 715-724 TABLE 5 Computed parameters representing best fit to SBM equations. Oxidized Reduced Oxidized Graphene Graphene Graphene Parameter Definition Graphite Nanoplatelets Nanoplatelets Nanoribbons Δ2 Zero-field 1.0 × 1018 6.12 × l018 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 splitting energy (ZFS) τV (sec) Correlation 1.18 × 10−12 1.09 × 10−11 1.99 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 time for splitting τR (sec) Tumbling 1.95 × 10−9 1.77 × 10−9 3.85 × 10−9 3.69 × 10−9 time of complex q Hydration 8 8 8 8 number τM (sec) Residence 1.42 × 10−7 7.29 × 10−7 7.06 × 10−9 5.06 × 10−9 time of inner sphere water molecules rMnH (m) Manganese- 3.76 × 10−10 3.73 × 10−10 3.94 × 10−10 3.26 × 10−10 Hydrogen Bond Radius TABLE 6 Relaxivity (r1) of Mn2+-based or Gd3+-based T1 MRI contrast agents, and the dominant SBM parameter(s) that influence the relaxation mechanism. Mn2+-based Gd3+-based Magnetic Magnetic Highest field Highest field Type of Compound r1 (mM−1s−1) (MHz) r1 (mM−1s−1) (MHz) Parameter(s) liposomal complex1,2 35 20 11 25 τM Chelate complexes that non- 55 20 130 20 τR covalent binding to Protein1,3,4 Dendrimer complex4,5 4.7 200 20 130 τR Viral capsid complexes6 Not Not 42 30 q, τR available available Small molecule complexes Not Not 50 20 τR non-covalently available available functionalized to carbon nanotubes7 Small molecule complexes Not Not 59 60 τR covalently functionalized to available available nano-diamonds8 Metallofullerenes9-11 Not Not 8-100 20-50 q, τR available available Metallonanotubes12-13 Not Not 400-635 0.01 q, τM, τR available available 1Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927 2Hak et al., 2009, European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics 72: 397-404 3Troughton et al., 2004, Inorg Chem 43: 6313-6323 4Pan et al., 2010, Revisiting an old friend: manganese based MRI contrast agents. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology 5Bryant et al., 1999, Journal of Magnetic Resonance Imaging 9: 348-352 6Datta et al., 2009, Accounts Chem Res 42: 938-947 7Richard et al., 2008, Nano Letters 8: 232-236 8Manus et al., 2009, Nano Letters 10: 484-489 9Toth et al., 2005, J Am Chem Soc 127: 799-805 10Kato et al., 2003, J Am Chem Soc 125: 4391-4397 11Fatouros et al., 2006, Radiology 240: 756-764 12Sitharaman et al., 2005, Chem Commun: 3915-3917 13Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821 Structural, Chemical and Elemental Analysis: 1. Structural Characterization and Raman Analysis Scanning electron microscopy (SEM, JSM 5300, JEOL) was performed at 80 kV on the oxidized micro-graphite samples to characterize their size and structure. High Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) imaging analysis was performed on the graphene nanoplatelets and nanoribbons samples using a high resolution analytical transmission electron microscope (JEOL JEM2010 OF (FEG-TEM)). Imaging was carried out at 200 kV accelerating voltage. TEM samples were prepared by dispersing the dry powders in 1:1 ethanol:water to form a homogeneous mixture. The suspension was then deposited on to a 300 mesh Cu grid covered with a lacey carbon film. For the aberration (C,) corrected TEM characterization, the experiments were performed in a Titan cubed 300-60 kV operated at 80 kV equipped with a spherical aberration corrector for the objective lens. Images were commonly recorded for 0.4 seconds. The Electronic Energy Loss Spectra (EELS) detector in this case used to collect the spectra was Tridiem. RAMAN spectral analysis of graphite, oxidized graphite, and all graphene samples was performed between 200 to 3000 cm−1 using a Thermo Scientific DXR Raman confocal microscope at 530 nm diode laser excitation wavelength and room temperature. FIG. 14(a) displays the scanning electron microscopy image of the oxidized micro-graphite particles. The images indicate that oxidized micrographite particles exist as fractured structure, and have sizes (longest length of fractured structure) between 3-4 μm with an average size of 2.5 μm. FIGS. 14(b) and 14(c) display representative low and high magnification TEM images of reduced graphene nanoplatelets, respectively, which provide their structural and morphological information. The structural properties of the graphene nanoparticles are similar to recent reports on the large scale production of graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons (Stankovich et al., 2006, Journal of Materials Chemistry 16: 155-158; Stankovich et al., 2007, Carbon 45: 1558-1565; Stankovich et al., 2006, Carbon 44: 3342-3347; Li et al., 2008, Nature nanotechnology 3: 101-105; Kosynkin et al., 2009, Nature 458: 872-876; Higginbotham et al., 2010, ACS nano 4: 2059-2069; Geng et al., 2009, Journal of colloid and interface science 336: 592-598). As seen in FIG. 14b, the reduced graphene nanoplatelets are circular in shape with an average width of ˜20 nm. Some platelets appear darker than the others, and this is due to the presence of multi-layered graphene sheets. The lighter ones, which are almost transparent, are single or double layered graphene sheets. FIG. 14(c) reveals the atomic lattice fringe structure of the individual graphene sheets; the lattice grid lines and hexagonal carbon atom rings are clearly visible (Lu et al., 2009, Nano Research 2: 192-200). AFM section analysis of the reduced graphene nanoplatelets dispersion on a Si substrate revealed a uniform thickness of ˜1.137 nm (FIG. 14g). Pristine graphene sheets have an atomic layer thickness (Van der Waals) of 0.34 nm. The presence of covalent bonds with carboxyl and hydroxyl groups, and displacement of sp3 carbon atoms in the graphene nanoplatelet structure has been reported to be the reason for the increase in the thickness (Stankovich et al., 2007, Carbon 45: 1558-1565). Oxidized graphene oxide nanoparticles show similar sizes and architecture (FIG. 14f). FIG. 14(d) and e display representative low and high magnification TEM images of graphene nanoribbons, respectively. As seen in FIG. 14(d), the graphene nanoribbons have fully unzipped layers of graphene sheets. The high resolution TEM image in FIG. 14(e) clearly shows that the nanoribbons are multilayered (arrows) due to successive unzipping of the concentric walls of MWCNTs. The graphene oxide nanoribbons structure appears mostly uniform and smooth, with few defects. The starting material, MWCNTs, have an outer diameter of 40-70 nm, and length of 500-2000 nm. Since the MWCNTs are cylinders, upon unzipping, they should open up completely to have breadths of ˜125-220 nm (π×diameter) and lengths of 500-2000 nm. The analysis of the TEM images indicates that the width of the graphene nanoribbons is ˜120 nm which is greater than the outer diameter of the outermost tubes of MWCNTs of 70 nm verifying the process of unzipping. However, this width is slightly lower than the range required for fully flat ribbons (125-220 nm) suggesting that, the graphene nanoribbons upon unzipping may not be fully flat sheets, but retain some curvature of the MWCNTs. The TEM images also show that the graphene nanoribbons have lengths of ˜600-2000 nm similar to the MWCNTs. FIG. 15(a) shows the Raman spectra of oxidized micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets and reduced graphene nanoplatelets. Also included as control, is the Raman spectra of pristine micro-graphite. The spectrum of pristine micro-graphite shows a prominent sharp peak at 1581 cm−1 indicating the G-band which is attributed to the doubly degenerate zone center E2g mode (Tuinstra et al., 1970, Raman spectrum of graphite. The Journal of Chemical Physics 53: 1126). In case of oxidized graphite, there is a broadening of the G band, and a peak shift to 1595 cm1. Further, zone boundary phonons give rise to the D band at 1345 cm−1, which becomes prominent indicating increase in the disorder sp2 domains, and reduction of the crystal size due to oxidation. Due to oxidation of graphite, there is an increase in the ratio of intensity of the D to G peaks (ID/IG), from 0.407 for graphite to 1.2 for oxidized graphite (Tuinstra et al., 1970, Raman spectrum of graphite. The Journal of Chemical Physics 53: 1126). The spectra of oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, and reduced graphene nanoplatelets show a further increase in ID/IG to 1.3 and 1.44, respectively. In case of reduced graphene nanoplatelets, the peaks of D and G bands are shifted closer to the values of graphite (1330 cm−1 and 1590 cm−1 respectively), suggesting the removal of the oxygen during reduction, and some restoration of sp2 carbon atoms. However, ID/IG ratio is higher compared to oxidized graphene nanoplatelets possibly due to the reduction of the average size of sp2 domains in addition to an increase in the number of such small sized disorder domains (Stankovich et al., 2007, Carbon 45: 1558-1565). FIG. 15(b) shows the Raman spectrum of graphene nanoribbons and MWCNTs. The spectrum for graphene nanoribbons has a broad G band, which is red-shifted at 1600 cm−1 compared to MWCNT and has a prominent D band at 1310 cm−1. There is an increase in ID/IG value from 0.045 for MWCNTs to 1.57 for the graphene nanoribbons, similar to previous reports (Kosynkin et al., 2009, Nature 458: 872-876). The red-shift in the G band for the graphene nanoribbons is due to the oxidative unzipping of MWCNTs, and is similar to the shift in spectra for oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, due to oxidation of graphite (FIG. 15(a)). The Raman spectra of reduced graphene nanoplatelets also show additional peaks at around 657 cm−1, 370 cm−1 and 320 cm−1 (FIG. 15(c)). In order to identify the peaks, a Raman spectral database search (using the RRUFF™ project collection, http://rruff.info/R040090) attributed the peaks to Hausmannite (Mn3O4); a complex oxide containing di-valent and tri-valent manganese. Hausmannite is the most stable oxide of manganese, and is formed when any other oxides, hydroxides, carbonates, nitrates or sulphates of manganese are calcinated (Southard et al., 1942, Journal of the American Chemical Society 64: 1769-1770; Ursu et al., 1986, Journal of Physics B: Atomic and Molecular Physics 19: L825; and Bie et al., 2010, Solid State Sciences 12: 1364-1367). In our case, the high temperature (˜100° C.) heating during the synthesis of the reduced graphene nanoplatelets may have led to hausmannite formation. The detection of hausmannite peaks was sensitive to the orientation of the sample, and sample spot size indicating of its presence in very small amounts. The EPR spectra (see FIGS. 11A-12D) of the sample also did not detect any Mn (III) ion, further corroborating that hausmannite may be present in relatively small amounts compared to oxides of divalent manganese. Unlike reduced graphene nanoplatelets, no hausmannite peaks were detected in Raman spectra of the oxidized micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets or nanoribbons samples. Electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS) of oxidized and reduced graphene nanoplatelets detected manganese and oxygen (FIG. 16(a)-16(b)). However, EELS spectroscopy of graphene nanoribbons (at the center or the edges) did not show any manganese. Additionally, trace elemental analysis (Table 7a-b) of all the samples (oxidized micrographite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons) detected the presence of manganese. Thus, the Raman spectroscopy results taken together with EELS and elemental analysis measurements indicate that, in case of oxidized micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons, divalent manganese in the form of manganese sulfate or manganese oxide maybe intercalated between graphene layers, since the reaction of potassium permanganate with sulfuric acid leads to formation of divalent manganese. Additionally, trace amounts of hausmannite may be intercalated between the graphene layers for reduced graphene nanoplatelets (Sorokina et al., 2005, Russian Journal of General Chemistry 75: 162-168). 2. Elemental Analysis The solid and liquid graphene nanoplatelets and nanoribbon samples were analyzed by Inductively-coupled plasma optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) at two micro-analytical analytical testing laboratories (Columbia Analytical Services, Tucson, Ariz. and Galbraith Laboratories, Inc., Knoxville, Tenn.) to confirm, and determine the concentration of manganese and potassium. Additionally, iron content analysis was carried out for the graphene nanoribbon samples, since iron is used as a catalyst in the preparation of MWCNTs (the starting material). For the ICP analysis, solid and liquid graphene nanoplatelets and nanoribbon samples (known weight or concentration) were treated with concentrated HNO3, and carefully heated to obtain a solid residue. They were next treated with 30% H2O2, and heated again to remove any carbonaceous material. The remaining solid residue was dissolved in 2% HNO3, and analyzed by ICP. Table 7a and 7b presents the trace elemental analysis of solid and aqueous samples, respectively, of the oxidized micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons. For the solid samples (Table 7a), since potassium permanganate was used in the preparation of these nanoparticles, the concentration of potassium and manganese in these samples were analyzed. Additionally, iron elemental analysis was also performed on the graphene nanoribbons, since iron catalysts were present in the MWCNTs; the starting material used in the graphene nanoribbon preparation. All the solid samples showed potassium between 0.22-0.52 wt %. Graphene nanoribbons showed at least 4 times lower amounts of manganese (0.93 wt %) compared to the other solid samples which showed manganese between 3.84-5.11 wt %. For the aqueous samples (Table 7b), concentrations of manganese were analyzed for all samples, since they are needed for the calculation of the relaxivity of these samples. For the graphene nanoribbons solutions, iron elemental analysis was also performed as it could also contribute to the calculated relaxivity values. The concentrations of manganese in the all aqueous samples were variable between 0.27-1.48 ppm. This broad range of values in concentration is due to the variable propensity of the different samples (see method section on proton relaxivity measurement) to form stable suspensions in 1% Pluronic F127 solution. No iron was detected in the aqueous solutions of graphene nanoribbons. This non-detection of iron may be due to the following reason. The concentration of the graphene nanoribbons used for the relaxivity is 10 μg/ml. A 300 μl volume solution was used for the relaxivity experiments, and the trace elemental analysis. Thus, the total amount of graphene nanoribbons is 3 μg. If one considers Fe concentration to be 0.005% of 3 μg, the amount of Fe would be 0.15 ng, which is well below the detection limit of ICP system (detection limit ˜1 ng). 3. Solomon-Bloembergan-Morgan Theory of Relaxivity Following are the set of SBM equations (Toth et al., 2001, The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in In: Merbach A, Toth E, editors. The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging: Wiley). R 1 = P M [ Mn ] q T 1 m + τ m ( 1 ) R 2 = P M [ Mn ] q T 2 m + τ m ( 2 ) where Pm, the mole fraction of Mn, is defined in Equation 13. T1m and T2m, the net proton relaxation times, are given by: 1 T 1 m = C DD ( 3 τ c 1 1 + ( ω I τ c 1 ) 2 + 7 τ c 2 1 + ( ω S τ c 2 ) 2 ) + 2 3 S ( S + 1 ) ( A ℏ ) 2 ( τ e 1 + ω S 2 τ e 2 ) ( 3 ) 1 T 2 m = 1 2 C DD ( 4 τ c 1 + 3 τ c 1 1 + ( ω I τ c 1 ) 2 + 13 τ c 2 1 + ( ω S τ c 2 ) 2 ) ( 4 ) Cdd contains the physical constants which govern dipole-dipole interactions: τc1 C DD = 2 15 γ I 2 g 2 μ B 2 r Gd - H 6 ( μ 0 4 π ) 2 S ( S + 1 ) ( 5 ) The relaxation effectiveness of the paramagnetic centers are: 1 T 1 e = 1 50 [ 4 S ( S + 1 ) - 3 ] Δ 2 τ v [ 1 1 + τ v 2 ω S 2 + 4 1 + 4 τ v 2 ω S 2 ] ( 6 ) 1 T 2 e = 1 25 [ 4 S ( S + 1 ) - 3 ] Δ 2 τ v [ 3 + 5 1 + τ v 2 ω S 2 + 2 1 + 4 τ v 2 ω S 2 ] ( 7 ) As before, the transfer efficiency from the paramagnetic center to the H protons via dipole-dipole interactions is mediated by the correlation times τc1 and τc2 which are given by: 1 τ c 1 = 1 T 1 e + 1 τ R + 1 τ m ( 8 ) 1 τ c 2 = 1 T 2 e + 1 τ R + 1 τ m ( 9 ) For scalar interactions the relevant correlation time is τe which is given by: 1 τ e = 1 T 2 e + 1 τ m ( 10 ) Finally, we have ωI=2πνI (11) and ωS=658ωI=658(2πνI) (12) where ωI and ωS are the Larmor frequencies of the paramagnetic metal's electron spin, and the water proton's nuclear spin, respectively. PM is the mole fraction of the Manganese (Mn+2) with respect to the total number of moles of Mn+2 and water (H2O). The concentration of Mn+2 used here was 1 mM. P M = m Mn m Mn + m H 2 O ≈ m Mn m H 2 O = 10 - 3 55.56 = 1.8 × 10 - 5 ( 13 ) The remaining physical constants in the above equations are given below in Table 8. The mechanism by which paramagnetic complexes improve relaxivity is via coupling of the electron spin of the paramagnetic ion to the proton spin. This coupling occurs by two primary methods: scalar (through bonds) and dipole-dipole (DD) (through space) interactions. DD interactions are generally stronger, but depend on the orientation of the spin system of the paramagnetic ion with respect to the orientation of the H atoms in the water molecule. Since the molecules are continually tumbling with respect to each other, the rotational coherence time τR which is roughly a measure of the time the molecules rotate by a radian with respect to each other, is an important factor for DD interactions. The longer the τR, the more effective is the influence of the paramagnetic center. However, for scalar coupling, the physical orientation is irrelevant, as the influence is exerted through the bonds of the compound. For this reason, τR is present in Equations 8 and 9, above, which govern DD interactions for T1 and T2, respectively, but is absent in Equation 10, which governs scalar interactions. The total strength of interaction is the sum of the DD and scalar contributions, and is reflected in Equation 3, where the first term represents the DD contribution, and the second term, the scalar contribution. A key factor in modeling the contribution of the inner sphere is to identify the number of water molecules that can bind to the paramagnetic center at any given time. Equation 1 tells us that the relaxivity is directly proportional to this hydration number, q. Another point which is apparent from Equation 1 is that aside from the concentration of the contrast agent, the relaxivities r1 and r2 are determined by the total relaxation times of the bound inner sphere water molecules T1m and T2m respectively, and by the residence lifetime τm, the length of time the water molecule stays bound to the paramagnetic center before detachment and replacement by another water molecule. In turn, the factors T1m and T2m are dependent on the factors T1e and T2e, which are the electron relaxation times of the paramagnetic center. These are defined in Equations 6 and 7 respectively, for the longitudinal and transverse cases, and depend among other things upon the applied field. The effectiveness of the transfer of relaxivity from the electrons of the paramagnetic center to the protons is governed by Equations 8 and 9 for the DD case, and Equation 10 for the scalar case. Aside from the strength of the paramagnetic agent, Equations 8 and 9 tell us that the effectiveness of transfer of the RF fields generated by the electrons of the contrast agent to the protons is also a critical factor in the overall relaxivity. This transfer is mediated by the tumbling time τR and the residence lifetime τM. The longer these are, the more effective the transfer. The SBM equations were fit to the experimental data using the least squares algorithm (FindFit in Mathematica®). Constraints were used to limit the possible solutions, as curve-fitting algorithms are notorious for producing physically unrealizable or meaningless solutions. The data were also fit to the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm which produced better fits, but the returned parameters were often nonsensical, such as negative values, and/or differing by many orders of magnitude from accepted values. Because the Levenberg-Marquardt algorithm cannot be used with preset constraints, the minimize option in the FindFit function was used that allow the use of constraints, and returned results rapidly. It should also be noted that while fitting the NMRD data, the parameters returned by the algorithm may represent only a local minimum, and not the global minimum. It is possible that better solutions may exist. However, these are very difficult to locate and verify. In addition, slight adjustments to one parameter can cause widely fluctuating changes in the other parameters. A number of curve fitting experiments were performed to best analyze the NMRD data for each of the four materials reported here. There is a tradeoff between the number of variables that are allowed to float, and are computed by the curve-fitting algorithm, and the numbers that are assumed fixed, and which have been determined by other means. Independent corroboration of some variables generally produces more accurate values for those parameters, but may adversely affect the tightness of fit. Conversely, allowing the algorithm to find all parameters often leads to an excellent fit, but occasionally to physically meaningless results, including negative values of time. To limit these occurrences, we generally constrained the desired parameters to lie within physically reasonable ranges during the running of the algorithm. To corroborate some of the SBM parameters, we independently determined values for q and τM by EPR and 17O-transverse relaxation rate measurements. The value of q that was obtained was 8 for all samples, and the values of τM were oxidized graphite=200 ns, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets=500 ns, reduced graphene nanoplatelets=350 ns and graphene nanoribbons=400 ns. The best fit was obtained for q=8 which is corroborated by the EPR measurements. However, we have considered the possibility where Mn(II) ions are co-ordinated to graphene sheet or oxygen atoms and also obtained fits for q=2, 4 and 6 as well as floated the values of q. The following fitting strategies were employed. 1. Float all SBM parameters (FIGS. 18A-18D). 2. Fix Q at 2, Float remaining SBM parameters (FIGS. 19A-19D). 3. Fix Q at 4, Float remaining SBM parameters (FIGS. 20A-20D). 4. Fix Q at 6, Float remaining SBM parameters (FIGS. 21A-21D). 5. Fix Q at 8, Float remaining SBM parameters (FIGS. 22A-22D). 6. Fix Q at 8, Fix Tm, Float remaining SBM parameters (FIGS. 23(a)-23(d)). 4. 7O-Transverse Relaxation Rate Measurements A Bruker Avance 500 spectrometer was used for the 17O measurements. Experimental settings were: no sample spinning, spectral width 10 kHz, 90° pulse, acquisition time 25 ms, and 256 scans. CD3CN contained in a capillary coaxially inserted in the 5 mm tube containing the experimental sample was as used to carry out the field-frequency lock. The experimental solutions were enriched in 17O isotope (to 3%) by adding 17O enriched water (10% H217O) to improve the detection sensitivity. The linewidth at half height of the water 17O signal was measured, and this value was used to calculate 17O-transverse relaxation rate measuring (R2=π×linewidth at half height). The water exchange correlation time (τM) was estimated from the analysis of the temperature dependence (between 15-80° C.) of the transverse relaxation rate for the four samples dispersed in 17O-water using the Swift and Connick theory (Swift et al., 1962, J Chem Phys 37: 307). At 27° C., the τM values for the four samples were as follows. Oxidized graphite=200 ns, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets=500 ns, reduced graphene nanoplatelets=350 ns and graphene nanoribbons=400 ns. TABLE 7a Trace elemental analysis of solid samples of the oxidize micro-graphite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons. The standard deviation among the various batches was 10%. Potassium Manganese Iron Sample (wt %) (wt %) (wt %) Solid oxidized graphite 0.52 3.84 — Solid oxidized graphene 0.45 4.54 — nanoplatelets Solid reduced graphene 0.22 5.11 — nanoplatelets Solid graphene nanoribbons 0.29 0.93 0.005 TABLE 7b Trace elemental analysis of aqueous samples of the oxidized micrographite, oxidized graphene nanoplatelets, reduced graphene nanoplatelets and graphene nanoribbons. The values presented are for one batch of samples. Sample Manganese (ppm) Aqueous oxidized graphite 0.82 Aqueous oxidized graphene 1.48 nanoplatelets Aqueous reduced graphene 0.60 nanoplatelets Aqueous graphene 0.27 nanoribbons TABLE 8 List of parameter values in SBM equations that are fixed constants, or independently established physical quantities Parameter Definition Value γI Gyromagnetic constant 2.675 × 108 T−1s−1 for protons g Electronic g factor 2 μB Bohr magneton 9.274 × 10−24 JT−1 μ0 Free-space permeability 10−7 NA−2 4π constant A/ Hyperfine coupling 1 MHz constant Reduced Planck's 1.054 × 10−34 constant νI Proton Larmor Frequency γIB/(2π) νS Electron Larmor Frequency 658 × ν1 S Spin number 5/2 TABLE 9 SBM Parameters obtained from the curve fit with all parameter values floating. Reduced Oxidized Graphene Graphene Graphene Parameter Definitioin Graphite Nanoplatelets Nanoplatelets Nanoribbons Δ2 Zero-field 1.29 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 splitting energy (ZFS) rMnH Manganese- 4.03 × 10−10 3.16 × 10−10 3.07 × 10−10 2.03 × 10−10 Hydrogen Bond Radius q Hydration 11.03 4.58 1.71 1.21 number τR Tumbling 2.16 × 10−9 1.35 × 10−9 4.42 × 10−9 6.07 × 10−9 time of complex τV Correlation 1.0 × 10−12 2.79 × 10−12 3.18 × 10−12 1.00 × 10−12 time for splitting τM Residence 1.82 × 10−7 7.53 × 10−7 8.36 × 10−9 8.09 × 10−10 time of inner sphere water molecules TABLE 10 SBM Parameters obtained from the curve fit for fixed Q = 2 and remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. Reduced Oxidized Graphene Graphene Graphene Parameter Definition Graphite Nanoplatelets Nanoplatelets Nanoribbons Δ2 Zero-field 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 splitting energy (ZFS) rMnH Manganese- 3.02 × 10−10 2.80 × 10−10 3.09 × 10−10 2.26 × 10−10 Hydrogen Bond Radius q Hydration 2 2 2 2 number τR Tumbling 2.24 × 10−9 1.47 × 10−9 3.48 × 10−9 2.47 × 10−9 time of complex τV Correlation 2.95 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 1.67 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 time for splitting τM Residence 3.40 × 10−8 3.34 × 10−7 7.93 × 10−9 1.28 × 10−9 time of inner sphere water molecules TABLE 11 SBM Parameters obtained from, the curve fit for fixed Q = 4 and remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. Reduced Oxidized Graphene Graphene Graphene Parameter Definition Graphite Nanoplatelets Nanoplatelets Nanoribbons Δ2 Zero-field 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 splitting energy (ZFS) rMnH Manganese- 3.37 × 10−10 3.13 × 10−10 2.47 × 10−10 2.47 × 10−10 Hydrogen Bond Radius q Hydration 4 4 4 4 number τR Tumbling 2.21 × 10−9 1.48 × 10−9 3.57 × 10−9 4.83 × 10−9 time of complex τV Correlation 1.0 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 1.99 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 time for splitting τM Residence 8.69 × 10−8 6.76 × 10−10 8.54 × 10−9 8.23 × 10−10 time of inner sphere water molecules TABLE 12 SBM Parameters obtained from the curve fit for fixed Q = 6 and remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. Reduced Oxidized Graphene Graphene Graphene Parameter Definition Graphite Nanoplatelets Nanoplatelets Nanoribbons Δ2 Zero-field 3.55 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 1.03 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 splitting energy (ZFS) rMnH Manganese- 3.61 × 10−10 3.36 × 10−10 3.73 × 10−10 2.92 × l10−10 Hydrogen Bond Radius q Hydration 6 6 6 6 number τR Tumbling 2.03 × 10−9 1.46 × 10−9 2.82 × 10−9 5.16 × 10−9 time of complex τV Correlation 1.0 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 time for splitting τM Residence 7.81 × 10−8 1.0 × 10−6 1.76 × 10−8 1.88 × 10−9 time of inner sphere water molecules TABLE 13 SBM Parameters obtained from the curve fit for fixed Q = 8 and remaining SBM parameters allowed to float. Reduced Oxidized Graphene Graphene Graphene Parameter Definition Graphite Nanoplatelets Nanoplatelets Nanoribbons Δ2 Zero-field 1.0 × 1018 6.12 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 splitting energy (ZFS) rMnH Manganese- 3.76 × 10−10 3.73 × 10−10 3.94 × 10−10 3.26 × 10−10 Hydrogen Bond Radius q Hydration 8 8 8 8 number τR Tumbling 1.95 × 10−9 1.77 × 10−9 3.85 × 10−9 3.69 × 10−9 time of complex τV Correlation 1.18 × 10−12 1.09 × 10−11 1.99 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 time for splitting τM Residence 1.42 × 10−7 7.29 × 10−7 7.06 × 10−9 5.06 × 10−9 time of inner sphere water molecules TABLE 14 SBM Parameters used to obtain curve fit for fixed Q = 8 and fixed Tm values. Reduced Oxidized Graphene Graphene Graphene Parameter Definition Graphite Nanoptatelets Nanoplatelets Nanoribbons Δ2 Zero-field 1.0 × 1018 1.80 × 1019 1.0 × 1018 1.0 × 1018 splitting energy (ZFS) rMnH Manganese- 3.79 × 10−10 3.87 × 10−10 3.90 × 10−10 2.79 × 10−10 Hydrogen Bond Radius q Hydration 8 8 8 8 number τR Tumbling 2.07 × 10−9 2.21 × 10−9 2.79 × 10−9 1.0 × 10−8 time of complex τV Correlation 1.0 × 10−12 6.93 × 10−12 1.00 × 10−12 1.0 × 10−12 time for splitting τM Residence 1.42 × 10−7 1.29 × 10−7 1.06 × 10−7 5.06 × 10−7 time of inner sphere water molecules All references cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entireties and for all purposes to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. As will be apparent to those skilled in the art, many modifications and variations of the present invention can be made without departing from its spirit and scope. The specific embodiments described herein are offered by way of example only, and the invention is to be limited only by the terms of the appended claims along with the full scope of equivalents to which such claims are entitled. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>MRI is primarily used to non-invasively render anatomical details for improved diagnosis of many pathologies and diseases (Sitharaman, B. & Wilson, L. J. Gadofullerenes and Gadonanotubes: A new paradigm for high-performance magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent probes Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology 3, 342-352 (2007); Pan, D. et al. Revisiting an old friend: manganese-based MRI contrast agents. WIREs Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology 3, 162-173 (2010)). The development of MRI has led concurrently to increased use of chemical contrast-enhancement products called contrast agents (CAs) which improve detection of pathologic lesions by increasing sensitivity and diagnostic confidence. The two main types are T1 and T2 MRI CAs, and affect (decrease) the longitudinal T1 and transverse T2 relaxation times of water protons, respectively. The quantitative measure of their effectiveness to accelerate the relaxation process of the water protons is known as relaxivity; the change in relaxation rate (inverse of relaxation time) per unit concentration of the MRI CA. The widely-used clinical T1 MRI CAs are mainly synthesized as metal-ion chelate complexes, where the metal ion is the lanthanoid element gadolinium (Gd 3+ ), or the inner-transitional element manganese (Mn 2+ ). A large body of experimental and theoretical research done in the last three decades now offers good understanding of the relaxation mechanism, and underlying structural, chemical and molecular dynamic properties that influence the relaxivity of these paramagnetic-ion chelate complexes (Aime et al., 1998, Chemical Society Reviews 27: 19-29; Caravan et al., 1999, Chem Rev 99: 2293-2352; and Lauffer, 1987, Chem Rev 87: 901-927). Theory suggests that the relaxivity of these MRI contrast agents is sub-optimal, and predicts the possibility of developing new contrast agents up to at least fifty to hundred times greater relaxivity (Merbach et al., 2001, The Chemistry of Contrast Agents in Medical Magnetic Resonance Imaging: John Wiley & Sons. 471; and Datta et al., 2009, Accounts Chem Res 42: 938-947). Most clinical MRI CAs are paramagnetic T1-weighted CAs, which enhance MR signals to produce bright positive contrast such as gadolinium-(Gd3+) ion-based T1 CAs. The recent discovery of nephrogenic systemic fibrosis (NSF) in some patients with severe renal disease or following liver transplant has generated concern leading to Food and Drug Administration (FDA) restrictions on clinical use of Gd3+-ion based ECF MRI CA (Girdhar, G. & Bluestein, D. Biological Effects of Dynamic Shear Stress in Cardiovascular Pathologies and Devices. Expert Rev. Afedical Devices 5, 167-181 (2008)). Recently, the element manganese has received attention as a possible alternative to gadolinium. Manganese was reported early on as an example of paramagnetic contrast material for MRI. Unlike the lanthanides, it is a natural cellular constituent resembling Ca2+ and often functions as a regulatory cofactor for enzymes and receptors. Normal daily dietary requirement for manganese is 3-8 μmol while normal serum levels are 0.001 μmol/1. Manganese toxicity has only been reported following long-term exposure or at high concentrations resulting in neurological symptoms (Pan, D. et al. Revisiting an old friend: manganese-based MRI contrast agents. WIREs Nanomedicine and Nanobiotechnology 3, 162-173 (2010)). Over the past 10 years, carbon nanostructures such as gadofullerenes (represented as Gd@Ca 60 Gd@C 80 and Gd@C 82 ) and gadonanotubes (represented as Gd @US-tubes, where US-tubes=ultra-short SWNTs) that encapsulate Gd 3+ metal ion have been proposed as T 1 CAs for MRI (Sitharaman, B. & Wilson, L. J. Gadofullerenes and Gadonanotubes: A new paradigm for high-performance magnetic resonance imaging contrast agent probes Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology 3, 342-352 (2007)). The synthesis strategies in the development of these complexes have focused on covalently or non-covalently functionalizing multiple Gd 3+ -chelate complexes onto the external carbon sheet of carbon nanostructures such as carbon nanotubes and nanodiamonds (Richard et al., 2008, Nano Letters 8: 232-236; and Manus et al., 2009, Nano Letters 10: 484-489), or encapsulation of Gd 3+ -ions within the carbon sheet of carbon nanostructures such as fullerene (a.k.a. gadofullerenes) (Toth et al., 2005, J Am Chem Soc 127: 799-805; Kato et al., 2003, J Am Chem Soc 125: 4391-4397; and Fatouros et al., 2006, Radiology 240: 756-764), and single-walled carbon nanotubes (a.k.a. gadonanotubes) (Sitharaman et al., 2005, Chem Commun: 3915-3917; and Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821). These Gd 3+ -ion carbon nanostructures show between two-fold to two-order increase in relaxivity (depending on the magnetic field) compared to Gd 3+ -chelate complexes with the gadonanotubes showing the highest relaxivities at low to high (0.01-3T) magnetic fields. However, the potential and efficacy of Mn 2+ -ion carbon nanostructure complexes as MRI CAs still has not been investigated. The variable-magnetic field (O.Ol-3T) relaxivity or nuclear magnetic resonance dispersion (NMRD) profiles of the gadonanotubes are characteristically different than those obtained for any other MRI CA and their relaxation mechanisms are not well understood. A major reason for this lack of understanding is that unlike Gd3+ ion chelates, which can be prepared at a very high level of purity and unambiguously characterized, the carbon nanostructure-Gd3+ ion systems are rather complex mainly due to their particulate nature, and intricate relationships linking their chemical, geometric, and magnetic characteristics to their properties as MRI contrast agents. Nevertheless, geometric confinement of the Gd3+ ion within nanoporous structures maybe one reason (Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821; and Bresinska 1, 1994, J Phys Chem 98: 12989-12994). While confinement of the Gd3+ ions into nanoporous structures of silicon (Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821) or zeolites (Bresinska I, 1994, J Phys Chem 98: 12989-12994) increases the relaxivity by two or four times compared to Gd3+ chelate compounds, only when the Gd3+ ion are confined within single-walled carbon nanotubes (Sitharaman et al., 2005, Chem Commun: 3915-3917; and Ananta et al., 2010, Nature nanotechnology 5: 815-821) has there been an order of magnitude or more increase in relaxivity (irrespective of the magnetic field strength) with NMRD profiles significantly different that those reported for other Gd3+ ion-based complexes. Additionally, to date, there have been no studies performed to systematically investigate whether the high increase in relaxivity and unconventional NMRD profiles are unique to paramagnetic ions confined in single-walled carbon nanotubes, which are seamless cylinders formed from a graphene sheet, or in general observed for paramagnetic ions confined in other graphene or graphitic structures. Graphene, a two-dimensional (2-D) nanostructure of carbon, has attracted a great deal of attention showing potential for various material and biomedical science applications (Novoselov, K. S. et al. Electric field effect in atomically thin carbon films. Science 306, 666 (2004)). Theoretical studies predict a variety of magnetic phenomena in graphene (Makarova, 2004, Semiconductors 38: 615-638), and to date, few of these effects have been explored experimentally (Wang, et al., 2008, Nano Letters 9: 220-224). Recently, simple potassium permanganate (KMnO 4 )-based oxidative chemical procedures have been used in the large scale production of graphite oxide, graphene nanoplatelets, and graphene nanoribbons using starting materials such as graphite and MWCNTs (Stankovich, et al., 2007, Carbon 45: 1558-1565; and Kosynkin, et al., 2009, Nature 458: 872-876). In this work, experimental studies were performed to characterize the physico-chemical properties of graphite oxide, graphene nanoplatelets, and graphene nanoribbons synthesized using these techniques. We demonstrate that trace amounts of Mn 2+ ions get confined (intercalated) within the graphene sheets during the synthesis process, and that this confinement in general substantially increases the relaxivity (up to 2 order) compared to paramagnetic chelate compounds, and these materials show diverse structural, chemical and magnetic properties with NMRD profiles different than those of the paramagnetic chelates. Recent reports have shown that affordable large scale production of graphene nanoplatelets (GNPs) and graphene nanoribbons (GNRs) is possible by using chemical techniques (Stankovich, S. et al. Stable aqueous dispersions of graphitic nanoplatelets via the reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide in the presence of poly (sodium 4-styrenesulfonate). Journal of Materials Chemistry 16, 155-158 (2006); Stankovich, S. et al. Synthesis of graphene-based nanosheets via chemical reduction of exfoliated graphite oxide. Carbon 45, 1558-1565 (2007); Stankovich, S., Piner, R., Nguyen, S. & Ruoff, R. Synthesis and exfoliation of isocyanate-treated graphene oxide nanoplatelets. Carbon 44, 3342-3347 (2006); Li, D., Müller, M., Gilje, S., Kaner, R. & Wallace, G. Processable aqueous dispersions of graphene nanosheets. Nature nanotechnology 3, 101-105 (2008); Kosynkin, D. et al. Longitudinal unzipping of carbon nanotubes to form graphene nanoribbons. Nature 458, 872-876 (2009); Higginbotham, A., Kosynkin, D., Sinitskii, A., Sun, Z. & Tour, J. Lower-Defect Graphene Oxide Nanoribbons from Multiwalled Carbon Nanotubes. ACS nano 4, 2059-2069 (2010); Geng, Y., Wang, S. & Kim, J. Preparation of graphite nanoplatelets and graphene sheets. Journal of colloid and interface science 336, 592-598 (2009)). | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention provides a magnetic composition comprising one or more magnetic metals and a graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. Preferably, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r 1 of at least about 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 100 or 500 mM −1 s −1 . Preferably, the magnetic composition of the invention exhibits a relaxivity r 2 of at least about 3, 5, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 500, or 1000 mM −1 s −1 . The graphene-like nanostructure can be a carbon nanoplatelet or a carbon nanoribbon. The carbon nanoplatelet or carbon nanoribbon can be oxidized. Preferably, the graphene-like nanostructure, e.g., the carbon nanoplatelet or the carbon nanoribbon, has a thickness of about 20 nm or less, 15 nm or less, 10 nm or less, 5 nm or less, 3 nm or less, at least 2 atomic carbon sheets, at least 5 atomic carbon sheets, or at least 10 atomic carbon sheets. Preferably, the graphitic nanostructure or microstructure has a thickness of 5 μm or less, 4 μm or less, 3 μm or less, 2 μm or less, 1 μm or less, 500 nm or less, 250 nm or less of 100 nm or less. Preferably, the carbon nanoplatelet having an average diameter in the range of 5 to 100 nm, 10 to 75 nm, 20 to 50 nm, or 30 to 40 nm. Preferably, the carbon nanoribbon having an average width in the range of 1 to 250 nm, 10 to 200 nm, 50 to 150 nm, or 70 to 100 nm. The graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure can further comprise a water solubilizing moiety attached to the graphene-like nanostructure or microstructure, e.g., covalently attached to the graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. In one embodiment, the magnetic metal is a room temperature paramagnetic metallic element, including but not limited to Mn. In another embodiment, the magnetic metal is a room temperature ferromagnetic metallic element including but not limited to Fe, Co, and Ni. In still another embodiment, the magnetic metal is a rare earth metal, including but not limited to Gd, Eu, Pr, Nd, and Sm. Preferred magnetic metals that can be used in the present invention include Mn, Gd, and Fe. The magnetic composition can comprise more than one magnetic metal. In one embodiment, the magnetic composition comprises two different magnetic metals. The magnetic metal can be present in the magnetic composition as an ion. The magnetic metal can also be present in the magnetic composition in the form of a metal compound, including but not limited to a metal oxide and a metal salt. The magnetic metal or compound thereof can be intercalated in the graphene-like nanostructure or graphitic nano- or microstructure. The magnetic composition of the present invention can comprise the magnetic metal in an amount in the range of 1 ppb (mass parts per billion) to 10 7 ppm (mass parts per million), 10 2 ppb to 106 ppm, 1 ppm to 10 5 ppm, 10 to 10 4 ppm, or 10 2 to 10 3 ppm. The present invention also provides a method of performing magnetic resonance imaging of a subject, comprising administering to the subject a sufficient amount of the magnetic composition of the invention; and imaging the subject using a magnetic resonance imaging device. The subject can be any animal, including but not limited to a mammal, e.g., a human. The present invention also provides a composition for MRI imaging, comprising a sufficient amount of the magnetic composition, and one or more physiologically acceptable carriers or excipients. The present invention also provides a method of producing a magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal and a graphene-like carbon nanostructure. The method comprises oxidizing graphite with a mixture of sulfuric acid H 2 SO 4 , sodium nitrate NaNO 3 , and potassium permanganate KMnO 4 ; and sonicating a suspension of the product obtained in the previous step. The method can further comprise a step of reducing the magnetic composition with a reducing agent. The present invention also provides a method of producing a magnetic composition comprising a magnetic metal and a graphene-like carbon nanostructure. The method comprises treating a multi-walled carbon nanotube with sulfuric acid H 2 SO 4 , nitric acid (HNO 3 ), manganese chloride (MnCl 2 ), and potassium permanganate KMnO 4 . In one embodiment, the treatment is carried out by a method comprising suspending said multi-walled carbon nanotube in concentrated H 2 SO 4 , nitric acid (HNO3); adding manganese chloride (MnCl 2 ), KMnO 4 ; heating the mixture and sonicating a suspension of the product obtained in the previous step. In a specific embodiment, the mixture is heated to 55-70° C. The magnetic composition can further be water solubilized using a method known in the art, e.g., (1) using a synthesis protocol similar to a cycloaddition reaction used to add carboxylic acid functionalities across carbon-carbon double bonds of fullerenes and metallofullerenes. (2) Covalently or non-covalently functionalizing with nature polymers such as dextran or synthetic amphiphilic polymers such as poly ethylene glycol. | A61K4910 | 20170707 | 20171102 | 94062.0 | A61K4910 | 0 | PERREIRA, MELISSA JEAN | MAGNETIC GRAPHENE-LIKE NANOPARTICLES OR GRAPHITIC NANO- OR MICROPARTICLES AND METHOD OF PRODUCTION AND USES THEREOF | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,644,726 | ACCEPTED | MEDIA ASSET STREAMING OVER NETWORK TO DEVICES | Streaming of a media asset from a cloud server computer to a media playback device is disclosed. In an embodiment, a list of media assets stored in the cloud server computer is sent over network from the cloud server computer to a portable device. In another embodiment, the list is transferred via close-range communication to the portable device from the media playback device which received the list from the cloud server computer over network. In the embodiments, a media asset is started streaming over network from the cloud server computer to the media playback device responsive to selection of one of the listed media assets at the portable device. In some embodiments, streaming is redirected from the portable device to the media playback device responsive to a user's operation or in case of disconnection. | 1. A method of providing streaming media content, the method comprising: receiving a first request from a mobile communication device at a server; sending media content information from the server to the mobile communication device responsive to the first request, the media content information indicative of a plurality of media content items; receiving a second request for a first media content item of the plurality of media content items from a media playback device at the server, wherein the mobile communication device is associated with a first internet protocol (IP) address, and wherein the media playback device is associated with a second IP address that is different than the first IP address; and responsive to receipt of the second request for the first media content item, sending a stream of the first media content item to the media playback device to enable playback of the first media content item at the media playback device while progress information related to the playback of the first media content item is displayed at the mobile communication device. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the progress information is indicated by a visual indication of a duration of a played back portion of the first media content item with respect to a total duration of the first media content item. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising initiating transmission of a second stream of the first media content item to the mobile communication device responsive to receipt of a third request for the first media content item from the mobile communication device. 4. The method of claim 3, wherein the second stream is transmitted to the mobile communication device prior to receipt of the second request for the first media content item from the media playback device. 5. The method of claim 3, further comprising terminating the second stream to the mobile communication device prior to initiating transmission of the stream to the media playback device. 6. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving registration data from the mobile communication device, the registration data indicating that the mobile communication device is associated with the media playback device; and modifying, based on the registration data, an entry associated with the mobile communication device in a registration database. 7. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving an operation request from the media playback device, wherein the operation request indicates a control operation associated with playback of the first media content item, and wherein the control operation comprises a pause operation, a stop operation, a fast forward operation, or a rewind operation; and performing the control operation with respect to the stream of the first media content item. 8. A method of providing streaming media content, the method comprising: receiving a first request for from a mobile communication device at a server; sending media content information from the server to the mobile communication device responsive to the first request, the media content information indicative of a plurality of media content items accessible to the server; receiving a second request for a first media content item of the plurality of media content items at the server, the second request indicating a destination for the first media content item, wherein the destination includes the mobile communication device or a media playback device, wherein the mobile communication device is associated with a first internet protocol (IP) address, and wherein the media playback device is associated with a second IP address that is different than the first IP address; responsive to determining that the destination is the mobile communication device, sending a first stream of the first media content item from the server to the mobile communication device; and responsive to determining that the destination is the media playback device, sending a second stream of the first media content item from the server to the media playback device for playback at the media playback device while progress information related to the playback of the first media content item is displayed at the mobile communication device. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the second request for the first media content item is received from the mobile communication device. 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the second request for the first media content item is received from the media playback device. 11. The method of claim 8, further comprising: receiving registration data from the mobile communication device, the registration data indicating that the mobile communication device is associated with the media playback device; and modifying, based on the registration data, an entry associated with the mobile communication device in a registration database. 12. The method of claim 8, further comprising: during transmission of the first stream to the mobile communication device, receiving a third request for the first media content item from the media playback device; and terminating transmission of the first stream to the mobile communication device responsive to receipt of the third request for the first media content item. 13. The method of claim 12, further comprising sending a third stream of the first media content item to the media playback device based on the third request for the first media content item. 14. The method of claim 8, further comprising: during transmission of the second stream to the media playback device, receiving a fourth request for the first media content item from the mobile communication device; and terminating transmission of the second stream to the mobile communication device responsive to receipt of the fourth request for the first media content item. 15. The method of claim 14, further comprising sending a fourth stream of the first media content item to the mobile communication device based on the fourth request for the first media content item. 16. The method of claim 8, further comprising: receiving an operation request from the media playback device, wherein the operation request indicates a control operation associated with playback of the first media content item, and wherein the control operation comprises a pause operation, a stop operation, a fast forward operation, or a rewind operation; and performing the control operation with respect to the second stream of the first media content item. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority from and is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/689,020, filed on Apr. 16, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/775,193, filed on Feb. 24, 2013 (now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,037,683), which claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application 61/606,916, filed on Mar. 5, 2012, the contents of each of which are expressly incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure relates to streaming of media assets from a server computer to one or more devices over network. BACKGROUND There have been marketed multi-functional portable computing devices such as iPhone and iPad both made by Apple Inc., other tablets, mobile phones, and the likes. Such computing device today has one or more processors of great performance and one or more memories in which computer programs and media assets can be stored. The computer programs include a media player and a video game. The media asset includes music data, movie data, and video game data. For example, when a user executes a media player in the computing device to play the music data or video data, the user can enjoy music and movies. For example, when a user executes a video game program in the computing device to play the video game data, the user can enjoy playing the video games as if the computing device were just like a game console. However, a user may feel less excited through playing such media assets in the portable computing device than through playing them in a typical desktop television set or home audio system, because the portable computing device typically has a smaller local display and/or a more inferior loudspeaker than the typical television set or home audio system. An approach of sending graphics or video from a portable computing device to a remote display device such as a desktop television set by way of some kind of communication protocol upon playing the media assets may be helpful. A typical television set has a display that is larger than the local display of the portable computing device. Accordingly, such approach may enable a larger screen of the played media to be displayed, and thus may make the user feel more excited. An example of such approach is disclosed in the international patent publication No. WO2004/082284 entitled “Methods, Devices, and Systems for Displaying Information from Remote Electronic Device”. Furthermore, if those skilled in the art could apply such approach of sending video to sending music, it might make the user to feel more excited by enabling music to be played through a loudspeaker of the home audio system. However, such approach of sending video or music from a portable computing device to a remote appliance requires the media assets to be stored in the local memories in one or both of the portable computing device and the remote appliance. Therefore, the present invention addresses an approach of streaming media assets over network. SUMMARY Aspects of the present invention are methods of streaming media assets over network from a server computer to a media-playing device. According to a first aspect, information indicative of media assets stored in the server computer is sent over network from the server computer to a portable device, so that the portable device displays a user interface for presenting the media assets. In response to selection of a media asset out of the presented media assets through the user interface, the selected media asset is streamed over network from the server computer to the media-playing device. According to a second aspect, information indicative of media assets stored in the server computer is transferred to a portable device from the media-playing device which received the information from the server computer, so that the portable device displays a user interface for presenting the media assets. In response to selection of a media asset out of the presented media assets through the user interface, the selected media asset is streamed over network from the server computer to the media-playing device. The word “tappable” used in this application means possibility or ability of being tapped. For example, a tappable object means an object which is to be tapped, or which a user can tap on. A “media asset” described in this application means electronic data, in any form, to be executed and/or played. For example, the media asset includes video data constituting a video clip, a motion picture, a movie, and the likes; audio data constituting music, a song, and the likes; text data constituting a document and the likes; and a computer program constituting an application such as a video game, a text editor, and the likes. The media asset may be also referred to as a media content, a media file, or the likes. “Streaming” described in this application means providing a stream of the media asset in a manner where a recipient of the stream is able to play the stream. The streaming may be performed pursuant to, for example, protocols such as the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), the RTSP (Real Time Streaming Protocol), and the RTMP (Real Time Messaging Protocol). The streaming includes a so-called progressive download. DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a system including a computing device, a media-playing device, and a cloud server computer according to a first embodiment. FIG. 2 illustrates a system including a computing device, a media-playing device, and a cloud server computer according to the first embodiment. FIG. 3 illustrates a system including a computing device, a media-playing device, and a cloud server computer according to the first embodiment. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating means and/or circuitry provided in the computing device according to the embodiments. FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating means and/or circuitry provided in the media-playing device according to the embodiments. FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating means and/or circuitry provided in the cloud server computer according to the embodiments. FIG. 7 illustrates user information stored in the cloud server computer. FIGS. 8A through 8J illustrate GUIs (Graphical User Interfaces) displayed on a sensitive display of the computing device according to a first embodiment. FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for registration of a user ID. FIG. 10 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for login. FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for registration of the media-playing device. FIG. 12 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for download of media assets. FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for upload of media assets. FIG. 14 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a first aspect of streaming. FIG. 15 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to the first aspect of streaming. FIG. 16 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a second aspect of streaming. FIG. 17 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a third aspect of streaming. FIG. 18 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a fourth aspect of streaming. FIG. 19 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a fifth aspect of streaming. FIG. 20 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a sixth aspect of streaming. FIG. 21 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a seventh aspect of streaming. FIG. 22 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to an eighth aspect of streaming. FIG. 23 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a ninth aspect of streaming. FIG. 24 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a modified ninth aspect of streaming. FIG. 25 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a tenth aspect of streaming. FIG. 26 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media asset streaming according to a modified tenth aspect of streaming. FIG. 27 illustrates how a streamed media asset is played and output at the computing device according to the first aspect of streaming. FIG. 28 illustrates how progress information is displayed at the computing device according to the first through tenth aspects of streaming. FIG. 29 illustrates how a streamed visual media asset is played and output at the media-playing device if the media-playing device has a display unit and a loudspeaker unit. FIG. 30 illustrates how a streamed audio media asset is played and output at the media-playing device if the media-playing device has a loudspeaker unit. FIG. 31 illustrates how a dialog is displayed for notifying the user of unavailability of streaming at the computing device. FIG. 32 illustrates exemplary user data in which two or more media-playing devices are registered. FIG. 33 illustrates how a dialog is displayed for confirming the destination of streaming at the computing device. FIG. 34 illustrates device information including information indicative of available format in association with registered media-playing device(s). FIG. 35 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for pausing streaming while the streaming is in progress to the computing device. FIG. 36 is a flowchart illustrating operation performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for stopping streaming while the streaming is in progress to the computing device. FIG. 37 is a flowchart illustrating operation performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for pausing streaming while the streaming is in progress to the media-playing device. FIG. 38 is a flowchart illustrating operation performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for stopping streaming while the streaming is in progress to the media-playing device. FIG. 39 is a flowchart illustrating operation performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for monitoring connection. FIG. 40 is a flowchart illustrating operation performed by the computing device and the cloud server computer for redirecting streaming in case of disconnection between the cloud server computer and the media-playing device. FIG. 41 illustrates how a dialog is displayed, at the computing device, for notifying the user of disconnection between the computing device and the cloud server computer. FIG. 42 illustrates how a dialog is displayed, at the computing device, for notifying the user of redirection of streaming. FIG. 43 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer according to a modified first embodiment. FIG. 44 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer according to the modified first embodiment. FIG. 45 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer according to another modified first embodiment. FIG. 46 illustrates how a GUI is displayed at the media-playing device according to the modified first embodiment. FIG. 47 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer according to a first aspect of streaming redirection responsive to a user's operation. FIG. 48 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer according to a second aspect of streaming redirection responsive to a user's operation. FIG. 49 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer according to a third aspect of streaming redirection responsive to a user's operation. FIG. 50 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer according to a fourth aspect of streaming redirection responsive to a user's operation. FIG. 51 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer according to a fifth aspect of streaming redirection responsive to a user's operation. FIG. 52 illustrates how the computing device receives the user's operation for redirection by way of tapping on an icon. FIG. 53 illustrates how the computing device receives the user's operation for redirection by way of the user's gesture. FIG. 54 illustrates a dialog displayed, at the computing device, for notifying the user of unavailability of streaming redirection. FIG. 55 illustrates a dialog displayed, at the computing device, for presenting devices registered in the device information for selection. FIG. 56 illustrates a dialog displayed, at the computing device, for presenting devices registered in the device information for selection. FIG. 57 illustrates guides displayed at the computing device and illustrates how the computing device receives the user's operation for redirection by way of the user's gesture. FIG. 58 illustrates guides displayed at the computing device and illustrates how the computing device receives the user's operation for redirection by way of the user's gesture. FIG. 59 illustrates a GUI for login displayed at the media-playing device according to a second embodiment. FIG. 60 illustrates a list of media assets displayed at the computing device according to the second embodiment. FIG. 61 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media streaming according to the second embodiment. FIG. 62 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for media streaming according to the second embodiment. FIG. 63 illustrates how progress information is displayed at the computing device according to the second embodiment. FIG. 64 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for pausing streaming according to the second embodiment. FIG. 65 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the computing device, the media-playing device, and the cloud server computer for stopping streaming according to the second embodiment. FIG. 66 is a flowchart illustrating operations performed by the media-playing device and the cloud server computer for monitoring connection according to the second embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION First Embodiment Summary In the first embodiment, a computing device 100 and one or more media-playing devices 200 can be connected to a cloud server computer 500 over network 400. The cloud server computer 500 stores media assets. The cloud server computer 500 presents to the computing device 100 a list of the stored media assets. Responsive to selection of a media asset out of the presented media assets by the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 can start streaming the selected media asset over network 400 to the media-playing device 200. Rough Configuration FIGS. 1 and 2 depict a system, according to the present embodiment, including the computing device 100, the media-playing device 200, and the cloud server computer As depicted in FIGS. 1 and 2, the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200 are connected to the cloud server computer 500 over the network 400. The computing device 100 is a multi-functional computing device suitable in size for portability. The computing device 100 can be a smartphone, cell phone, a tablet computer, a laptop computer, and another similar computing device. The computing device 100 has communication circuitry 103 for wirelessly connecting to the network 400. The media-playing device 200 is an appliance suitable for use, for example, on a desk, a table, or in a living room for playing media assets. The media-playing device 200 plays media assets to output media generated as a result of playing the media assets. For example, the media-playing device 200 may have a display unit with the size of 20 inches, 32 inches, 40 inches, 60 inches, and so on for displaying visual media generated as a result of playing visual media assets. For example, the media-playing device 200 may have a loudspeaker unit for outputting sound generated as a result of playing audio media assets. The media-playing device 200 is coupled to communication circuitry 302 for connecting to the network 400 to receive media assets. The computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200 are physically other than from each other. In other words, circuitry of the computing device 100 and circuitry of the media-playing device 200 are encased in housings different from each other. The computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200 can be connected together over close-range communication. Specifically, the computing device 100 has close-range communication circuitry 106 for wirelessly connecting to the media-playing device 200. The media-playing device 200 is coupled to close-range communication circuitry 304 for wireless close-range communication with the computing device 100. Each of the circuitry 302 and 304 can be provided inside the media-playing device 200 as depicted in FIG. 1, or can also be an external device attachable to the media-playing device 200 by way of, for example, USB (Universal Serial Bus) or another interface as depicted in FIG. 2. Or, one of the circuitry 302 and 304 can be provided inside the media-playing device 200 while another can be an external device attachable to the media-playing device 200, as depicted in FIG. 3. The network 400 is communication environment where the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200 are connected to the cloud server computer 500. The network 400 can be the Internet, a LAN (Local Area Network), the WiMAX™, or other one or a combination of communication platforms. The cloud server computer 500 is a computing device having communication circuitry 503 for connection over the network 400 to the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200. The cloud server computer 500 stores media assets and provides a service of streaming the media assets to the computing device 100 and/or the media-playing device 200 over the network 400. For example, the cloud server computer 500 may consist essentially of a personal computer, a work station, or a similar computing device coupled to storage for storing the media assets. Computing Device 100 FIG. 4 is a block diagram of the computing device 100 for illustrating the configuration of the computing device 100 in more detail. The computing device 100 mainly has a processor 101, a sensitive display 102, the communication circuitry 103, a memory 104, a loudspeaker unit 105, the close-range communication circuitry 106, and GPS circuitry 107. The processor 101 generally processes instructions of computer programs stored in the memory 104 to execute the computer programs, so as to realize a variety of functions of the computing device 100. The processor 101 can be a CPU (Central Processing Unit), a MPU (Micro Processing Unit), a DSP (Digital Processing Unit), or another general or dedicated processor. The sensitive display 102 is a display unit composed essentially of a display unit 102a and a sensor unit 102b. The display unit 102a can be a LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), an EL (Electro-Luminance) display, or another similar type of display device. The display unit 102a displays graphics and video in accordance with video signals generated by and sent from the processor 101. The sensor unit 102b is a sensor to distinctively detect (i) taps of one or more objects, such as a user's finger and a stylus, made onto the sensor unit 102b and (ii) hover of such object made in proximity over the sensor unit 102b. The sensor unit 102b sends to the processor 101 signals representing (i) the location of the detected tap as long as such tap is detected and (ii) the location of detected hover as long as such hover is detected. A tap may be a touch or a contact in other words. Further, the sensor unit 102b detects gestures by (i) continuously detecting hover continuously made in proximity above the sensor unit 102b or (ii) continuously detecting a movement of the object while a tap is maintained on the sensor unit 102b. The technologies of sensing of taps, hover, and/or gestures are disclosed, for example, in the U.S. patent publications Nos. 2009/194344 invented by Harley et al, 2008/297487 invented by Hotelling et al, 2009/289914 invented by CHO, 2006/26521 invented by Hotelling et al, 2006/244733 invented by Geaghan et al, 2010/45633 invented by Gettemy et al, 2011/169780 invented by Goertz et al, 2008/158172 invented by Hotelling et al, and the issued U.S. patents Nos. 7653883 invented by Hotelling et al, 8232990 invented by King et al, 7880732 invented by Goertz, 7663607 invented by Hotelling et al, 7855718 invented by Westerman, 7777732 invented by HERZ et al, 7924271 invented by Christie et al, 8219936 invented by Kim et al, 8284173 invented by Morrison, 6803906 invented by Morrison, 6954197 invented by Morrison et al, 7692627 invented by Wilson, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. The display unit 102a and the sensor unit 102b can be mechanically integrated together. As a result, the sensitive display 102 displays graphics and video as well as detects tap, hover, and gestures of an object like the user's finger or a stylus made on or above the sensitive display 102. The communication circuitry 103 is circuitry for wirelessly connecting to the network 400 to send and receive data to and from the cloud server computer 500 over the network 400. The communication circuitry 103 can be pursuant to the CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), the WiMAX™ protocol, the wireless LAN (Local Area Network) protocol, or another wireless communication protocol depending on the communication platform of the network 400. The memory 104 is a memory device such as, for example, a flash memory, an EEPROM, a HDD (Hard Disk Drive), a combination thereof, and another similar device for data storage. The memory 104 stores computer programs to be executed by the processor 101. In particular, the memory 104 stores an OS (Operating System) 104a, a WWW (World Wide Web) browser 104b, and a streaming program 104c. The WWW browser 104b and the streaming program 104c are typically application programs that run on the OS 104a. The programs 104b and 104c are often collectively referred to as application programs. One or more of the application programs 104b and 104c can be executed on the OS 104a in response to the user's selection. The WWW browser 104b is a program generally having instructions of: receiving designation of URLs (Universal Resource Locators) from the user; connecting to the designated URLs; and displaying WWW pages corresponding to the URLs on the sensitive display 102. The streaming program 104c is a program that is associated with the URL of the cloud server computer 500 and has instructions for media asset streaming. The instructions preferably includes but are not limited to: connecting to the cloud server computer 500; displaying on the sensitive display 102 a GUI (Graphical User Interface) to receive operations from the user; requesting login to and out of the cloud server computer 500; requesting registration of the computing device 100 and the media-playing devices 200 to the cloud server computer 500; receiving information indicative of media assets from the cloud server computer 500; displaying a list of the media assets with reference to the information; receiving a user input to select a media asset out of the listed media assets; requesting streaming of the selected media asset to the cloud server computer 500; playing streamed media asset; and displaying a menu for operation of the media asset streaming. The memory 104 also can store media assets locally. For example, the media assets downloaded through the communication circuitry 103 over the network 400 can be stored in the memory 104. The loudspeaker unit 105 outputs sound generated as a result of media assets being played by the processor 101. The close-range communication circuitry 106 is circuitry for wirelessly connecting to the close-range communication circuitry 304 of the media-playing device 200. Data can be transmitted to and received from the media-playing device 200 through the close-range communication circuitry 106. The close-range communication circuitry 106 can communicate in accordance with, for example, an infrared communication protocol, the Bluetooth™ protocol, the WiMAX™ protocol, the wireless LAN (Local Area Network) protocol, or another close-range wireless communication protocol. The GPS circuitry 107 is circuitry for locating the computing device 100 by use of the GPS (Global Positioning System). The GPS circuitry 107 may generate location information indicative of the location, such as the latitude and longitude, of the computing device 100. Media-Playing Device 200 FIG. 5 is a block diagram of the media-playing device 200 for illustrating the configuration of the media-playing device 200 in more detail. The media-playing device 200 is mainly provided with or coupled to a processor 301, the communication circuitry 302, an output unit 303, the close-range communication circuitry 304, a memory 305, and GPS circuitry 307. The communication circuitry 302 is circuitry for connecting to the network 400 to receive data from the cloud server computer 500. For example, the communication circuitry 302 can be pursuant to the CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), the WiMAX™ protocol, the LAN (Local Area Network) protocol, or another communication protocol depending on the communication platform of the network 400. The processor 301 generally executes computer programs stored in the memory 305. The processor 301 can be a CPU (Central Processing Unit), a MPU (Micro Processing Unit), a DSP (Digital Processing Unit), or another general or dedicated processor. The memory 305 stores a streaming program 305a that is a computer program having instructions for playing streamed media assets. The instructions preferably include but are not limited to: accessing to the cloud server computer 500 over the network 400; receiving information indicative of media assets stored in the cloud server computer 500 from the cloud server computer 500; transferring the information to the computing device 100 via the close-range communication circuitry 304; receiving a selection of a media asset from the computing device 100 via the close-range communication circuitry 304; sending a request for streaming of the selected media asset to the cloud server computer 500; receiving a media asset streamed from the cloud server computer 500 over the network 400; playing the streamed media asset by decoding the media asset if the media asset is encoded; and outputting video and/or audio signals generated as a result of playing the media asset to the output unit 303. The output unit 303 is a unit for presenting media generated as a result of the processor 31 playing media assets. Specifically, the output 303 may be a display unit such as a LCD (Liquid Crystal Display), an EL (Electro-Luminance) display, and the likes for displaying video generated as a result of playing visual media assets, or may be a loudspeaker unit for outputting sound generated as a result of playing audio media assets. The close-range communication circuitry 304 is circuitry for wirelessly connecting to the close-range communication circuitry 106 of the computing device 100. Data can be transmitted to and received from the computing device 100 through the close-range communication circuitry 304. The close-range communication circuitry 304 can communicate in accordance with, for example, an infrared communication protocol, the Bluetooth™ protocol, the WiMAX™ protocol, the wireless LAN (Local Area Network) protocol, or another close-range wireless communication protocol. The GPS circuitry 307 is circuitry for locating the media-playing device 200 by use of the GPS (Global Positioning System). The GPS circuitry 307 may generate location information indicative of the location, such as the latitude and longitude, of the media-playing device 200. Cloud Server Computer FIG. 6 is a block diagram of the cloud server computer 500 for illustrating the configuration of the cloud server computer 500 in more detail. The cloud server computer 500 mainly has a processor 501, storage 502, communication circuitry 503, and storage 504. The communication circuitry 503 is circuitry for connecting to the network 400 to receive and send data from and to the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200. For example, the communication circuitry 503 can be pursuant to the CDMA (Code Division Multiple Access), the WiMAX™ protocol, the LAN (Local Area Network) protocol, or another communication protocol depending on the communication platform of the network 400. The processor 501 generally processes instructions of computer programs stored in the storage 502 to execute the computer programs. The processor 501 can be a CPU (Central Processing Unit), a MPU (Micro Processing Unit), a DSP (Digital Processing Unit), or another general or dedicated processor. The storage 502 stores computer programs to be executed by the processor 501 and user data 600 associated with user IDs. The computer programs mainly include OS 502a and a streaming program 502b. The streaming program 502b runs on the OS 502a. Each of the user data 600 is associated with a specific user ID, and contains device information 601 and media assets 602 associated with the specific user ID, as illustrated in FIG. 7. The device information 601 includes a name of each of one or more computing devices 100 and one or more media-playing devices 200 registered by a user and information, such as an IP address, unique to the corresponding device for identifying the device over network 400. The media assets 602 may be media data that have been copied or downloaded over the network 400, or have been uploaded by the user. More specifically, a media asset 602 may be an audio media product formatted in MP3 (MPEG2 Audio Layer-3), AAC (Advanced Audio Coding), or another audio format. A media asset 602 may be a video media product formatted in AVI (Audio Video Interleave), MPEG4, H.264, or another video format. A media asset 602 also may be a video game product formatted in EXE (Execution) or another program format. As illustrated in FIG. 7, for example, the user data 600 of the user ID 001 includes the device information 601 indicative of the computing device 100 labeled “Handheld Device” as a device number 01 having an IP address of “aaa.bbb.ccc” and a media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device” as a device number 02 having an IP address of “ddd.eee.fff”. The user data 600 of the user ID 001 also includes the audio media assets 602 of “LoveSong01.mp3”, “PunkRock01.mp3”, “LoveSong02.mp3”, “PunkRock02.mp3” and “MyFavorite.mp3”, and the video media assets 602 of “Movie01.avi”, “MyDaughter.mpg”, “Movie02.avi” and “SoapOpera01.mpg”. The streaming program 502b is a program having instructions for streaming media assets 602. The instructions preferably include but are not limited to: sending an encoded media asset 602 to a device registered in the device information 601; decoding an encoded media asset 602 and generating a decoded media asset to send the decoded media asset to a device registered in the device information 601; and, in case of streaming a media asset 602 of a video game product, executing the video game product and generating graphics of the video game product to send the graphics to a device registered in the device information 601. The instructions may also include (i) registration of the user data 600, (ii) permission of login, (iii) copy/download of media assets to store the media assets in the storage 504, (iv) upload of media assets, (v) establishment of connection to the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200, and (vi) streaming of media assets over the network 400 to a device listed in the user data 600. Details of how the streaming is done will be described below. The storage 504 stores media assets for sale. The media assets stored in the storage 504 do not belong to any of the users of the user IDs, and is to be copied or downloaded as the user data 600 of a purchaser. Registration of User ID First, the user needs to register a unique user ID in the cloud server computer 500. FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating registration of user ID. As illustrated in FIG. 9, the user first uses the computing device 100 to connect to the cloud server computer 500 to register his/her unique user ID. Responsive to the user's operation through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 launches the streaming program 104c and sends to the cloud server computer 500 via the communication circuitry 103 a request for connection between the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500 (S2000). Responsive to establishment of connection between the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500 (S2001), the computing device 100 displays on the sensitive display 102 a GUI for login to the cloud server computer 500 as illustrated in FIG. 8A (S2002). The GUI contains an input field 700 for input of a user ID, an input field 701 for input of a password, and tappable icons 702 and 703. A user ID and a password can be input in the input field 700 and 701 by the user's operation through the sensitive display 102. If the user has not registered any user ID yet, the user needs to register his/her unique user ID. Tapping the icon 703 through the sensitive display 102 proceeds the GUI to a GUI for new registration (S2003). The GUI for new registration contains an input field 710 for input of a user ID the user would like to register, an input field 711 for input of a password the user would like to register along with the user ID input in the input filed 710, as illustrated in FIG. 8B. A user ID and a password can be input in the input fields 710 and 711 by the user's operation through the sensitive display 102. The GUI also contains tappable icons 712 and 713. Responsive to the icon 712 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 sends to the cloud server computer 500 the user ID and password input in the input fields 710 and 711 (S2004). The cloud server computer then registers the received user ID and the password together (S2005). The registered user ID and password are stored as the user data 600. Responsive to the icon 713 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the GUI returns to the GUI for login as illustrated in FIG. 8A. Login Once the user ID and the password have been registered in the cloud server computer 500, the computing device 100 can login to the cloud server computer 500 with the user ID. In the GUI for login as illustrated in FIG. 8A, the computing device 100 receives input of the user ID and the password in the input fields 700 and 701, and receives tapping on the icon 702. Responsive to the icon 702 being tapped through the sensitive display 102 (S2006), the computing device 100 sends a request for login with the input user ID and the password to the cloud server computer 500 (S2007), as illustrated in FIG. 10. The cloud server computer 500 accepts login from the computing device 100 with the user ID and the password (S2009) if the user ID and the password are registered together as the user data 600 (S2008: Yes). Then, the cloud server computer 500 notifies the computing device 100 of acceptance of login (S2011). On the other hand, the cloud server computer 500 does not permit login from the computing device 100 and notifies the computing device 100 of failure to login (S2010) if the user ID and the password are not registered (S2008: No). Registration of Devices After login to the cloud server computer 500, the user can register one or more media-playing devices 200 in association with the computing device 100 in the cloud server computer 500. FIG. 11 is a flowchart illustrating registration of the media-playing devices 200. Responsive to the notification of acceptance of login in S2011, the GUI proceeds to the GUI for registration information as illustrated in FIG. 8C (S2020). Responsive to the notification of acceptance of login in S2011, the cloud server computer 500 sends to device information 601 stored as the user data 600. For example, if the user has logged in with the user with the user ID 001, the cloud server computer 500 sends the device information 601 as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. Accordingly, in the GUI for registration information, the computing device 100 receives from the cloud server computer 500 the device information 601 (S2021). The GUI for registration information contains information field 720 and tappable icons 721 and 722. The information field 720 displays user ID and the received device information 601 indicative of the devices registered in the cloud server computer 500 in association with the user ID. In the example of FIG. 8C, the device information 601 shows that the computing device 100 with the IP address of “aaa.bbb.ccc” is labeled “Handheld Device” and registered as the Registered Device 1, and a media-playing device 200 with the IP address of “ddd.eee.fff” is labeled “Media Device” and registered as the Registered Device 2. Tapping on the icon 722 proceeds the GUI to a GUI for device registration as illustrated in FIG. 8D (S2022). In the GUI for device registration, the registration information field 723 displays an input field 724 for input of a device name, an input field 725 for input of an IP address, and tappable icons 726 and 727, as well as the device information 601. In the GUI for device registration, the computing device 100 receives input of a device name and an IP address in the input fields 724 and 725 from the user. Responsive to the icon 726 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for registration of the input device name and the IP address in association with each other (S2023). The cloud server computer 500 receives and registers the device name and the IP address as the device information 601 of the user data 600 (S2024). Tapping on the icon 727 returns the GUI back to the GUI for registration information as illustrated in FIG. 8C. According to the steps from S2020 to S2024, the computing device 100 and one or more media-playing devices 200 can be registered as the user data 600. Store Media Assets After login to the cloud server computer 500, the user can store media assets in association with his/her user ID in the cloud server computer 500. FIG. 12 is a flowchart illustrating purchase and storage of the media assets. In the GUI for registration information as illustrated in FIG. 8C again, responsive to the icon 721 being tapped, the GUI proceeds to the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E (S2030). In the GUI for media-asset information, the cloud server computer 500 sends the device information 601 and information about the stored media assets 602 to the computing device 100 (S2031). Thus, in the GUI for media-asset information, the computing device 100 receives the user data 601 and information about the media assets 602 (S2031). For example, the information may include a name and format of each media asset 602 and/or thumbnails each representing each media asset 602. The GUI for media-data information contains a list 730 and icons 731, 732, and 733. The list 730 displays the media assets 602, based on the received information, in a tappable form so as for the user to select one of the media assets 602. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Responsive to the icon 733 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the GUI returns to the GUI for registration information as illustrated in FIG. 8C. Responsive to the icon 731 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the GUI proceeds to a GUI for media-asset purchase as illustrated in FIG. 8F (S2032). In the GUI for media-asset purchase, the computing device 100 receives from the cloud server computer 500 information indicative of the for-sale media assets stored in the storage 504 (S2033). For example, the information may include a name, a format, and a price of each for-sale media asset, and/or thumbnails each representing each for-sale media asset. The GUI for media-asset purchase contains a list 740 and icon 741. In the example of FIG. 8F, the list 740 displays the for-sale media assets by way of thumbnails representing the for-sale media assets. Responsive to the icon 741 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the GUI returns to the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E. Through the GUI for media-asset purchase, the user can select one of the for-sale media assets listed in the list 740 to purchase and store the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a for-sale media asset he/she wants to buy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for purchase of a for-sale media asset corresponding to the tapped thumbnail (S2034). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 sends confirmation to the computing device 100 (S2035). Responsive to the confirmation, the computing device 100 pops up a dialog 742 for confirmation in the GUI for media-asset purchase, as illustrated in FIG. 8G (S2036). The dialog 742 contains tappable icons 743 and 744 to confirm whether or not the user really wants to buy the selected for-sale media asset. Responsive to the icon 744 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 sends to the cloud server computer 500 confirmation to confirm the user's intention to buy the selected for-sale media asset (S2037). Responsive to the confirmation, the cloud server computing device 500 processes a purchase transaction, and downloads the selected for-sale media asset to the user data 600 in the storage 502 (S2038). Specifically, the selected for-sale media asset is downloaded to one of the user data 600 corresponding to the user ID of the purchaser, and stored as the one of the user data 600. For example, if the purchaser is a user who has logged in with a user ID 001, the selected for-sale media asset is stored in a user data 600 of the user ID 001. Note that because the purchase transaction over network is so familiar and well known to those skilled in the art, the details of how the purchase transaction is made is not described in detail in this specification. A technology of such purchase transaction over network can be seen, for example, in U.S. patent publications Nos. 2011-106665 entitled “Online Purchase of Digital Media Bundles”, 2011-60663 entitled “System and Method of Providing Customer Purchase Propensity Information to Online Merchants”, 2009-48943 entitled “Internet Based Customer Driven Purchase Method and Apparatus”, 2009-83136 entitled “Consolidated Online Purchase Transaction”, 2008-71682 entitled “Method and System for Processing Internet Purchase Transactions”, 2007-22438 entitled “System and Methods for Performing Online Purchase of Delivery of Service to a Handheld Device”, 2006-123052 entitled “Online Purchase of Digital Media Bundles”, 2006-89949 entitled “Online Purchase of Digital Media Bundles”, 2003-220845 entitled “System and Method for Processing Online Purchase”, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Responsive to the icon 743 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 does not send the confirmation, and the GUI for media-data purchase remains. Upload Media Data Besides purchase of media assets, the user can upload media assets stored locally in the computing device 100 to the cloud server computer 500. FIG. 13 is a flowchart illustrating upload and storage of the media assets. Back in the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), responsive to the icon 732 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the GUI proceeds to a GUI for media-asset upload as illustrated in FIG. 8H (S2040). In the GUI for media-asset upload, the computing device 100 acquires information indicative of media assets stored locally in the memory 104 (S2041) if one or more media assets are stored locally in the memory 104. For example, the information may include a name and a format of each media asset, and/or thumbnails each representing each media asset. The GUI for media-asset upload contains a list 750 and icon 751. In the example of FIG. 8H, the list 750 displays the media assets by way of thumbnails representing the media assets. Responsive to the icon 751 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the GUI returns to the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E. Through the GUI for media-asset upload, the user can select one of the media assets listed in the list 750 to upload the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she wants to upload through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for upload of a media asset corresponding to the tapped thumbnail (S2042). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 sends confirmation to the computing device 100 (S2043). Responsive to the confirmation, the computing device 100 pops up a dialog 752 for confirmation in the GUI for media-asset upload, as illustrated in FIG. 8I (S2044). The dialog 752 contains tappable icons 753 and 754 to confirm whether or not the user really wants to upload the selected media asset. Responsive to the icon 754 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 starts uploading the selected media asset to the cloud server computer 500 (S2045). Responsive to the uploading, the cloud server computing device 500 stores the uploaded media assets in the storage 502 (S2046). Specifically, the media asset is uploaded and stored in one of the user data 600 corresponding to the user ID of the user (uploader). For example, if the uploader is a user who has logged in with a user ID 001, the selected media asset is stored in a user data 600 of the user ID 001. Responsive to the icon 753 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 does not start the uploading, and the GUI for media-asset upload remains. Streaming of Media Asset If the user has one or more media assets stored as the user data 600 of his/her user ID in the cloud server computer 500, the user can enjoy the media assets through streaming. The cloud server computer 500, in connection with the computing device 100, performs streaming of a media asset in accordance with at least one or combination of the following aspects of streaming. First Aspect of Streaming FIGS. 14 and 15 are flowcharts illustrating a first aspect of streaming of the media assets. Back in the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, based on the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 refers to the device information 601 received at S2031, and pops up a dialog 734 for confirming the destination of streaming as illustrated in FIG. 8J (S2050). The dialog 734 contains icons representing devices listed in the received device information 601. In the example of FIG. 8J, the dialog 734 contains a tappable icon 735 to select the computing device 100 labeled “Handheld Device” and a tappable icon 736 to select the media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device”, with reference to the device information 601 of the user ID 001. Responsive to the icon 735 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server 500 for streaming of a selected media asset to the computing device 100 (S2052). The request may include information indicative of the selected media asset and information indicative of selection of the computing device 100. Responsive to the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the computing device 100 (S2053). Specifically, the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset by directing the streaming to the IP address of the computing device 100 (aaa.bbb.ccc) with reference to the user data 601. In S2053, upon starting the streaming, the cloud server computer 500 does not need to newly establish connection with the computing device 100 because the computing device 100 is not only the destination of the streaming but also the requester of the streaming and thus connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the computing device 100 has been kept established since the cloud server computer 500 accepted login from the computing device 100. If the selected media asset concerns encoded video or audio data, the streaming may be made by directly sending the encoded video or audio data to the computing device 100, or by decoding the encoded video or audio data to send the decoded data to the computing device 100. If the selected media asset concerns a video game program, the streaming may be made by executing the video game program to send rendered video game graphics and played video game sound to the computing device 100. While the media asset is being streamed, the computing device 100 plays the media asset (S2054). Specifically, resultant audio generated as a result of the media asset being played is outputted through the loudspeaker 105, and/or resultant graphics and video generated as a result of the media asset being played is displayed on the sensitive display 102 as illustrated in FIG. 27. In addition to playing the media asset, the computer 100 also generates a graphical menu for operation of the ongoing streaming of the media asset, and displays the graphical menu on the sensitive display 102 (S2055). For example, the graphical menu consisting of the tappable icons 900 to 903 is displayed on the sensitive display 102 as illustrated in FIG. 27. As illustrated in FIG. 27, the graphical menu is displayed along with the video displayed on the sensitive display 102. The icons 900 to 903 are icons for operation of the ongoing streaming of the media asset. Responsive to one of the icons 900 to 903 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for operation of the ongoing streaming of the media asset (S2056). For example, responsive to the icon 900 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests the cloud server computer 500 to rewind the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, responsive to the icon 901 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests the cloud server computer 500 to stop the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, responsive to the icon 902 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests the cloud server computer 500 to pause the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, responsive to the icon 903 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests the cloud server computer 500 to fast-forward the ongoing streaming of the media asset. Responsive to the request for operation from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 operates the streaming of the ongoing media asset, namely, rewinds, stops, pauses, or fast-forwards the ongoing streaming of the media asset (S2057). Back in S2050, through the dialog 734, responsive to the icon 736 being tapped, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server 500 for streaming of the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 corresponding to the icon 736 (S2060). The request may include information indicative of the selected media asset and indicative of the selection of the media-playing device 200. Responsive to the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 sends a request to the selected media-playing device 200 for connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the selected media-playing device 200 (S2061). Responsive to establishment of the connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the selected media-playing device 200 (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the selected media-playing device 200 (S2063). Specifically, the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset by directing the streaming to the IP address of the selected media-playing device 200 (ddd.eee.fff) with reference to the user data 600. If the selected media asset concerns encoded video or audio data, the streaming may be made by directly sending the encoded video or audio data to the media-playing device 200, or by decoding the encoded video or audio data to send the decoded data to the media-playing device 200. If the selected media asset concerns a video game program, the streaming may be made by executing the video game program to send rendered video game graphics and played video game sound to the media-playing device 200. While the media asset is being streamed, the media-playing device 200 plays the media asset (S2064). Specifically, resultant audio and/or video generated as a result of the media asset being played is outputted through the output unit 303. For example, if the streamed media asset involves encoded audio or video, the streamed media asset is decoded by the processor 301 so that the decoded video or audio is outputted by the output unit 303. For example, if the streamed media asset involves non-encoded audio or video, the streamed media asset is just outputted by the output unit 303. Upon starting the streaming at S2063, the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 notification that the streaming has been started, and starts sending to the computing device 100 progress information indicative of progress of the streaming (S2065). The notification may contain information indicative of the streamed media asset such as the name of the streamed media asset, the format of the streamed media asset, the duration of the streamed media asset, and the likes. The progress information may indicate how far the media asset has been streamed within the duration of the media asset. The cloud server computer 500 intermittently sends the progress information based on the progress of the streaming after S2065 as long as the streaming is in progress. Responsive to the notification and the progress information, the computing device 100 starts displaying on the sensitive display 102 information indicative of the streamed media asset and a graphical menu based on the notification and the progress information (S2066). For example, as illustrated in FIG. 28, the sensitive display 102 displays the name of the streamed media asset, a progress bar 904 indicative of how far the media asset has been played within the duration of the played media asset, and a graphical menu consisting of the icons 900 to 903 for operation of the streaming. In the example of FIG. 28, the sensitive display 102 is showing that the media asset with the name of “Movie01.avi” has been played for eight minutes and twenty-seven seconds after the start of the streaming within the duration of sixty minutes. The icons 900 to 903 are icons for operation of streaming of the media asset. Responsive to one of the icons 900 to 903 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for operation of the ongoing streaming of the media asset (S2067). For example, responsive to the icon 900 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests the cloud server computer 500 to rewind the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, responsive to the icon 901 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests the cloud server computer 500 to stop the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, Responsive to the icon 902 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests the cloud server computer 500 to pause the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, responsive to the icon 903 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests the cloud server computer 500 to fast-forward the ongoing streaming of the media asset. Responsive to request for operation from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 operates the streaming of the ongoing media asset, namely, rewinds, stops, pauses, or fast-forwards the ongoing streaming of the media asset (S2068). Second Aspect of Streaming It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 may be far away from the computing device 100. Such case may occur, for example, when the media-playing device 200 is installed at a living room of a user's house, but the user is outside the house with the computing device 100 put in his/her pocket. In such situation, streaming should not be directed to the media-playing device 200 responsive to a request from the computing device 100 because the user could not watch the streamed media. Therefore, in a second aspect of streaming, the computing device 100 lets the user choose the media-playing device 200 only when the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. FIG. 16 is a flowchart illustrating the second aspect of streaming of media assets. Some steps in the second aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the second aspects. In the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 refers to the device information 601 received at S2031, and pops up a dialog 734 for confirming the destination of streaming as illustrated in FIG. 8J (S2050). The dialog 734 contains icons representing devices listed in the received device information 601. In the example of FIG. 8J, the dialog 734 contains a tappable icon 735 to select the computing device 100 labeled “Handheld Device” and a tappable icon 736 to select the media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device”, with reference to the device information 601 of the user ID 001. Responsive to the icon 736 being tapped, the computing device 100 activates the close-range communication circuitry 106 and communicates with the media-playing device 200 to determine whether or not the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100 (S2200). The determination can be made, for example, by sending a predetermined polling signal from the close-range communication circuitry 106 to the close-range communication circuitry 304 and determining whether or not the close-range communication circuitry 106 receives a reply signal from the close-range communication circuitry 304 in reply to the polling signal. If the reply signal is successfully received through the close-range communication circuitry 106 within a predetermined period after the polling signal, the close-range communication circuitry 106 and 304 can communicate with each other, which means that the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. If the reply signal is not received through the close-range communication circuitry 106 within the predetermined period after the polling signal, the close-range communication circuitry 106 and 304 cannot communicate with each other, which means that the media-playing device 200 is not near the computing device 100. If the media-playing device 200 is determined to be near the computing device 100 (S2200: Yes), the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server 500 for streaming of the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 corresponding to the icon 736 (S2060). If the media-playing device 200 is determined to be not near the computing device 100 (S2200: No), the computing device 100 does not send the request but displays, on the sensitive display 102, a dialog 907, as illustrated in FIG. 31, for notifying the user that the media-playing device 200 is far from the user and thus streaming to the media-playing device 200 is unavailable (S2201). After S2060, upon establishment of connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 (S2061, S2062), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the media playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2065). Third Aspect of Streaming It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 may be far away from the computing device 100. Such case may occur, for example, when the media-playing device 200 is installed at a living room of a user's house, but the user is outside the house with the computing device 100 put in his/her pocket. In such situation, streaming should not be directed to the media-playing device 200 responsive to a request from the computing device 100 because the user could not watch the streamed media. Therefore, in a third aspect of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 lets the user choose the media-playing device 200 only when the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. FIG. 17 is a flowchart illustrating the third aspect of streaming of media assets. Some steps in the third aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the third aspects. In the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 refers to the device information 601 received at S2031, and pops up a dialog 734 for confirming the destination of streaming as illustrated in FIG. 8J (S2050). The dialog 734 contains icons representing devices listed in the received device information 601. In the example of FIG. 8J, the dialog 734 contains a tappable icon 735 to select the computing device 100 labeled “Handheld Device” and a tappable icon 736 to select the media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device”, with reference to the device information 601 of the user ID 001. Responsive to the icon 736 being tapped, the computing device 100 acquires location information indicative of the location of the computing device 100 from the GPS circuitry 107, and sends the location information along with a request for streaming of the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 corresponding to the icon 736, to the cloud server computer 500 (S2210). Responsive to the location information and the request for streaming from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 requests the media-playing device 200 for connection (S2061). Upon establishment of connection (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the media-playing device 200 an inquiry about the location of the media-playing device 200 (S2211). Responsive to the inquiry, the media-playing device 200 acquires location information indicative of the location of the media-playing device 200 from the GPS circuitry 307, and sends the location information to the cloud server computer 500 (S2212). Responsive to the location information from the media-playing device 200, the cloud server computer 500 determines whether or not the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100 by comparing the location information received from the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200 (S2213). The determination may be made, for example, by determining whether or not the difference from the location indicated by the location information received by the media-playing device 200 and that indicated by the location information received by the computing device 100 is within a predetermined difference. If the media-playing device 200 is determined to be near the computing device 100 (S2213: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2065). On the other hand, if the media-playing device 200 is determined to be not near the computing device 100 (S2213: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 a notification indicating that the media-playing device 200 is far from the user and thus streaming to the media-playing device 200 is unavailable (S2214). Responsive to the notification, the computing device 100 displays, on the sensitive display 102, a dialog 907, as illustrated in FIG. 31, for notifying the user of the unavailability of streaming to the media-playing device 200 (S2215). After S2215, the GUI for media-asset information remains (S2030). Fourth Aspect of Streaming It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 selected as the destination of the streaming may be able to play only media asset generated pursuant to some specific format because the processor 301 has only a codec pursuant to the specific format. For example, the media-playing device 200 might be able to play only one of audio and visual media asset because the processor 301 has no codec for playing the other. In such situation, streaming would be unavailable at the selected media-playing device 200 if the cloud server computer 500 started streaming media asset unavailable to the selected media-playing device 200. Therefore, in a fourth aspect of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 determines availability of streaming. FIG. 18 is a flowchart illustrating the fourth aspect of streaming of media assets. Some steps in the fourth aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the fourth aspects. In the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 refers to the device information 601 received at S2031, and pops up a dialog 734 for confirming the destination of streaming as illustrated in FIG. 8J (S2050). The dialog 734 contains icons representing devices listed in the received device information 601. In the example of FIG. 8J, the dialog 734 contains a tappable icon 735 to select the computing device 100 labeled “Handheld Device” and a tappable icon 736 to select the media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device”, with reference to the device information 601 of the user ID 001. Responsive to the icon 736 being tapped, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server 500 for streaming of the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 corresponding to the icon 736 (S2060). Responsive to the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 sends a request to the media-playing device 200 for connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 (S2061). Upon establishment of the connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the media-playing device 200 an inquiry whether or not the media-playing device 200 is able to play the selected media asset (S2073) before starting streaming. For example, the cloud server computer 500 may inquire the media-playing device 200 whether or not the format of the selected media asset is available at the media-playing device 200. The cloud server computer 500 then receives a reply from the media-playing device 200 (S2074). Responsive to a positive reply indicating that the media-playing device 200 is able to play the selected media asset (S2075: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2065). On the other hand, responsive to a negative reply indicating that the media-playing device 200 is not able to play the selected media asset (S2075: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 200 a notification indicating that the streaming to the selected media-playing device 200 is unavailable (S2077). Responsive to the notification, the computing device 100 displays on the sensitive display 102 a dialog 907 for notifying the user of unavailability of streaming over the GUI for media-asset information, as illustrated in FIG. 31 (S2078). After S2078, the GUI for media-asset information remains (S2030). Fifth Aspect of Streaming It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 selected as the destination of the streaming may be able to play only media asset generated pursuant to some specific format because the processor 301 has only a codec pursuant to the specific format. For example, the selected media-playing device 200 might be able to play only one of audio and visual media asset because the processor 301 has no codec for playing the other. Streaming would be unavailable at the selected media-playing device 200 if the cloud server computer 500 started streaming media asset unavailable to the selected media-playing device 200. In such situation, it might be advantageous if the streaming were redirected to the computing device 100 or another media-playing device 200 other than the selected media-playing device 200, if any. Therefore, in a fifth aspect of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 determines availability of streaming and performs redirection if necessary. FIG. 19 is a flowchart illustrating the fifth aspect of streaming of media assets. Some steps in the fifth aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the fifth aspects. In the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 refers to the device information 601 received at S2031, and pops up a dialog 734 for confirming the destination of streaming as illustrated in FIG. 8J (S2050). The dialog 734 contains icons representing devices listed in the received device information 601. In the example of FIG. 8J, the dialog 734 contains a tappable icon 735 to select the computing device 100 labeled “Handheld Device” and a tappable icon 736 to select the media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device”, with reference to the device information 601 of the user ID 001. Responsive to the icon 736 being tapped, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server 500 for streaming of the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 corresponding to the icon 736 (S2060). Responsive to the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 sends a request to the selected media-playing device 200 for connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the selected media-playing device 200 (S2061). Upon establishment of the connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the selected media-playing device 200 (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the selected media-playing device 200 an inquiry whether or not the selected media-playing device 200 is able to play the selected media asset (S2073) before starting streaming. The cloud server computer 500 then receives a reply from the media-playing device 200 (S2074). Responsive to a positive reply indicating that the selected media-playing device 200 is able to play the selected media asset (S2095: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the selected media-playing device 200 (S2063). On the other hand, in S2095, responsive to a negative reply indicating that the selected media-playing device 200 is not able to play the selected media asset (S2095: No), the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 of the user data 600 to determine whether or not another media-playing device 200 is registered in the device information 601 (S2096). For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 of the user data 600 of the user ID 001. If another media-playing device 200 is registered in the device information 601 (S2096: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 again sends to said another media-playing device 200 an inquiry whether or not the another media-playing device 200 is able to play the selected media asset (S2073). The cloud server computer 500 then receives a reply from said another media-playing device 200 (S2074). Responsive to a positive reply from said another media-playing device 200 (S2095: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to said another media-playing device 200 (S2060). Responsive to a negative reply again (S2095: No), the cloud server computer 500 repeats S2073, S2074, S2095, and S2096, namely, refers to the device information 601 to determine whether or not a media-playing device 200 capable of playing the selected media asset is registered in the device information 601. As a result of S2073, S2074, S2095, and S2096, if the cloud server computer 500 finds none of media-playing devices 200 registered in the device information 601 is able to play the selected media asset (S2096: No), the cloud server computer 500 then sends to the computing device 200 a notification indicating that the streaming of the selected media asset is impossible at any of the registered devices 200 of the user (S2097). Responsive to the notification, the computing device 100 displays on the sensitive display 102 a dialog 908 for notifying the user of unavailability of streaming over the GUI for media-asset information, as illustrated in FIG. 31 (S2098). After S2098, the GUI for media-asset information remains (S2030). FIG. 32 illustrates an example in which a plurality of media-playing devices 200, namely, “Media Device 1” having the IP address of ddd.eee.fff and another “Media Device 2” having the IP address of ggg.hhh.iii, are registered in the device information 601. In the example of FIG. 32, if the cloud server computer 500 receives a request for streaming the selected media asset to “Media Device 1” (S2060) but finds that “Media Device 1” is not able to play the selected media asset (S2095: No), the cloud server computer 500 then inquires “Media Device 2” whether or not the “Media Device 2” is able to play the selected media asset (S2073, S2074, S2095). In case of a positive reply (S2095: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to “Media Device 2” (S2060). If the cloud server computer 500 finds that none of “Media Device 1” and “Media Device 2” is able to play the selected media asset (S2096: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends the notification to the computing device 100 (S2097). Sixth Aspect of Streaming FIG. 20 is a flowchart illustrating a sixth aspect of streaming of the media assets. Some steps in the sixth aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the sixth aspects. Back in the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for streaming of a selected media asset corresponding to the tapped thumbnail (S2110). The request may include information indicative of the selected media asset. Responsive to the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information of the user of the computing device 100 to specify a media-playing device 200 associated with the computing device 100 (S2111). For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the cloud server computer 500 specifies a media-playing device 200 with reference to the device information 601 of the user ID 001. The cloud server computer 500 then sends a request to the specified media-playing device 200 for connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the specified media-playing device 200 (S2061). Responsive to establishment of the connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the specified media-playing device 200 (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the specified media-playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2066). Seventh Aspect of Streaming It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 may be far away from the computing device 100. Such case may occur, for example, when the media-playing device 200 is installed at a living room of a user's house, but the user is outside the house with the computing device 100 put in his/her pocket. In such situation, streaming should not be directed to the media-playing device 200 responsive to a request from the computing device 100 because the user could not watch the streamed media. Therefore, in a seventh aspect of streaming, the computing device 100 lets the user request for streaming to the media-playing device 200 only when the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. FIG. 21 is a flowchart illustrating the seventh aspect of streaming of media assets. Some steps in the seventh aspect are common to those in the sixth aspect. The common reference numbers are used to refer to the common steps between the sixth and the seventh aspects. In the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 activates the close-range communication circuitry 106 and communicates with the media-playing device 200 to determine whether or not the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100 (S2200). The determination can be made, for example, by sending a predetermined polling signal from the close-range communication circuitry 106 to the close-range communication circuitry 304 and determining whether or not the close-range communication circuitry 106 receives a reply signal from the close-range communication circuitry 304 in reply to the polling signal. If the reply signal is successfully received through the close-range communication circuitry 106 within a predetermined period after the polling signal, the close-range communication circuitry 106 and 304 can communicate with each other, which means that the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. If the reply signal is not received through the close-range communication circuitry 106 within the predetermined period after the polling signal, the close-range communication circuitry 106 and 304 cannot communicate with each other, which means that the media-playing device 200 is not near the computing device 100. If the media-playing device 200 is determined to be near the computing device 100 (S2200: Yes), the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for streaming of a selected media asset corresponding to the tapped thumbnail (S2110). Responsive to the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information of the user of the computing device 100 to specify a media-playing device 200 associated with the computing device 100 (S2111). After S2111, upon establishment of connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 (S2061, S2062), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the specified media playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2064). On the other hand, if the media-playing device 200 is determined to be not near the computing device 100 (S2200: No), the computing device 100 does not send the request but displays, on the sensitive display 102, a dialog 907, as illustrated in FIG. 31, for notifying the user that the media-playing device 200 is far from the user and thus streaming to the media-playing device 200 is unavailable (S2201). Eighth Aspect of Streaming It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 may be far away from the computing device 100. Such case may occur, for example, when the media-playing device 200 is installed at a living room of a user's house, but the user is outside the house with the computing device 100 put in his/her pocket. In such situation, streaming should not be directed to the media-playing device 200 responsive to a request from the computing device 100 because the user could not watch the streamed media. Therefore, in an eighth aspect of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 allows streaming to the media-playing device 200 only when the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. FIG. 22 is a flowchart illustrating the eighth aspect of streaming of media assets. In the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 acquires location information indicative of the location of the computing device 100 from the GPS circuitry 107, and sends the location information along with a request for streaming of the selected media asset corresponding to the tapped thumbnail, to the cloud server computer 500 (S2220). Responsive to the location information and the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information of the user of the computing device 100 to specify a media-playing device 200 associated with the computing device 100 (S2111). Upon establishment of connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 (S2061, S2062), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the media-playing device 200 an inquiry about the location of the media-playing device 200 (S2211). Responsive to the inquiry, the media-playing device 200 acquires location information indicative of the location of the media-playing device 200 from the GPS circuitry 307, and sends the location information to the cloud server computer 500 (S2212). Responsive to the location information from the media-playing device 200, the cloud server computer 500 determines whether or not the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100 by comparing the location information received from the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200 (S2213). If the media-playing device 200 is determined to be near the computing device 100 (S2213: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2065). On the other hand, if the media-playing device 200 is determined to be not near the computing device 100 (S2213: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 a notification indicating that the media-playing device 200 is far from the user and thus streaming to the media-playing device 200 is unavailable (S2214). Responsive to the notification, the computing device 100 displays, on the sensitive display 102, a dialog 907, as illustrated in FIG. 31, for notifying the user of the unavailability of streaming to the media-playing device 200 (S2215). After S2215, the GUI for media-asset information remains (S2030). Ninth Aspect of Streaming It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 specified as the destination of the streaming may be able to play only media asset generated pursuant to some specific format because the processor 301 has only a codec pursuant to the specific format. For example, the media-playing device 200 might be able to play only one of audio and visual media asset because the processor 301 has no codec for playing the other. In such situation, streaming would be unavailable at the specified media-playing device 200 if the cloud server computer 500 started streaming media asset unavailable to the specified media-playing device 200. Therefore, in a ninth aspect of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 determines availability of streaming. FIG. 23 is a flowchart illustrating the ninth aspect of streaming of media assets. Some steps in the ninth aspect are common to those in the sixth aspect. The common reference numbers are used to refer to the common steps between the sixth and the ninth aspects. The ninth aspect of streaming may be preferable especially when two or more media-playing devices 200 are registered associated with the computing device 100 in the user data 600. In the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for streaming of a selected media asset (S2110). Responsive to the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 of the user, and sends requests for connection to media-playing devices 200 registered in the device information 601 (S2061). For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 of the user ID 001. The requests for connection may be sent to the media-playing devices 200 in series. Upon establishment of connection (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 sends to each of the connected media-playing devices 200 an inquiry whether or not the media-playing device 200 is able to play the selected media asset (S2073) before starting streaming. For example, the cloud server computer 500 may inquire the media-playing devices 200 whether or not the format of the selected media asset is available at the media-playing devices 200. The cloud server computer 500 then receives replies from the media-playing devices 200 (S2074). Responsive to the replies (S2075: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 selects and specifies a media-playing device 200, as the destination of streaming, out of media-playing devices 200 that presented positive replies indicating that they are able to play the selected media asset at S2074 (S2076). For example, if only one media-playing device 200 replies positively at S2074, the cloud server computer 500 specifies said one media-playing device 200 at S2076. For example, if two or more media-playing devices 200 reply positively at S2074, the cloud server computer 500 may advantageously specify a media-playing device 200 with which the cloud server computer 500 can connect at the higher performance, out of the positive media-playing devices 200. The performance may be determined, for example, from the bandwidth or the connection speed available on the network 400. The cloud server computer 500 then starts streaming the selected media asset to the specified media-playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2065). In S2075, on the other hand, if every media-playing device 200 replies negatively indicating it is not able to play the selected media asset (S2075: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 a notification indicating that streaming of the selected media asset is not available at any of the registered media-playing devices 200 (S2077). Responsive to the notification, the computing device 100 displays on the sensitive display 102 a dialog 908 for notifying the user of unavailability of streaming over the GUI for media-asset information, as illustrated in FIG. 31 (S2078). After S2078, the GUI for media-asset information remains (S2030). FIG. 32 illustrates an example in which two media-playing devices 200, namely, “Media Device 1” having the IP address of ddd.eee.fff and another “Media Device 2” having the IP address of ggg.hhh.iii, are registered in the device information 601. In the example of FIG. 32, the cloud server computer 500 inquires “Media Device 1” and “Media Device 2” (S2073, S2074). If, for example, only “Media Device 1” replies positively at S2074, the cloud server computer 500 specifies “Media Device 1” as the streaming destination (S2076). If, for example, both of “Media Device 1” and “Media Device 2” reply positively at S2074, the cloud server computer 500 selects one of them as the streaming destination (S2076). For example, if the cloud server computer finds that it can connect to “Media Device 1” at a higher speed than to “Media Device 2”, the cloud server computer 500 may select “Media Device 1”. If the cloud server computer 500 finds that none of “Media Device 1” and “Media Device 2” is able to play the selected media asset (S2075: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends the notification to the computing device 100 (S2077). Modification to Ninth Aspect The ninth aspect of streaming may be modified as follows. Instead of the inquiry and determination in S2073 and S2074, the cloud server computer 500 may manage format information indicative of one or more available formats in association with each registered media-playing device 200 in the device information 601. FIG. 34 illustrates device information 601 including information indicative of available format in association with each registered media-playing device 200. In the example of FIG. 34, the device information 601 shows that a media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device 1” is able to play media asset with the format of “avi”, “mp3”, and “mpeg” and that a media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device 2” is able to play media asset with the format of “mp3” only. The format information in the device information 601 may be stored, for example, by the user through the GUI for device registration as illustrated in FIG. 8D in S2023. FIG. 24 is a flowchart illustrating streaming of media assets according to the modified ninth aspect of streaming. In response to the request for streaming of the selected media asset (S2110), the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 to determine whether or the registered media-playing devices 200 associated with the computing device 100 are able to play the selected media asset (S2160). More specifically, the cloud server computer 500 may determine whether or not the format of the selected media asset is available at each of the media-playing devices 200. If the cloud server computer 500 finds at least one positive media-playing devices 200 capable of playing the selected media asset (S2161: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 specifies a media-playing device 200 out of the positive devices 200 (S2076). The cloud server computer 500 then sends to the specified media-playing device 500 a request for connection (S2061). Upon establishment of connection (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 then starts streaming the selected media asset to the specified media-playing device 200 (S2063). If the cloud server computer 500 finds none of the registered media-playing devices 200 is not able to play the selected media asset (S2161: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 a notification indicating that streaming of the selected media asset is not available at any of the registered media-playing devices 200 (S2162). Responsive to the notification, the computing device 100 displays on the sensitive display 102 a dialog 908 for notifying the user of unavailability of streaming over the GUI for media-asset information, as illustrated in FIG. 31 (S163). After S163, the GUI for media-asset information remains (S2030). Tenth Aspect of Streaming It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 specified as the destination of the streaming may be able to play only media asset generated pursuant to some specific format because the processor 301 has only a codec pursuant to the specific format. For example, the media-playing device 200 might be able to play only one of audio and visual media asset because the processor 301 has no codec for playing the other. In such situation, streaming would be unavailable at the specified media-playing device 200 if the cloud server computer 500 started streaming media asset unavailable to the specified media-playing device 200. Therefore, in a tenth aspect of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 determines availability of streaming. FIG. 25 is a flowchart illustrating the tenth aspect of streaming of media assets. Some steps in the tenth aspect are common to those in the sixth aspect. The common reference numbers are used to refer to the common steps between the sixth and the tenth aspects. The tenth aspect of streaming may be preferable when two or more media-playing devices 200 are registered in association with the computing device 100 in the user data 600. In the GUI for media-asset information as illustrated in FIG. 8E again (S2030, S2031), the list 730 displays media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user, with reference to the information received at S2031. For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the list 730 displays the media data 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. In the example of FIG. 8E, the list 730 lists the media assets 602 by way of thumbnails representing the media assets 602. Through the GUI for media-asset information, the user can select one of the media assets 602 listed in the list 730 for making the cloud server computer 500 stream the selected media asset. For selection, the user can tap a thumbnail corresponding to a media asset he/she selects to enjoy through the sensitive display 102. Responsive to a thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for streaming of a selected media asset (S2110). Responsive to the request from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 of the user, and sends requests for connection to media-playing devices 200 registered in the device information 601 (S2061). Upon establishment of connection (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 inquires the registered media-playing devices 200 whether or not the media-playing devices 200 are able to play the selected media asset (S2074) before starting streaming. Responsive to the replies (S2075: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 sends information indicative of one or more selectable media-playing devices 200, which have given positively replies indicating that they are able to play the selected media asset at S2074, to the computing device 100 (S2240). Each of the selectable media-playing devices 200 is capable of playing the selected media asset, and thus streaming of the selected media asset should be directed to one of the selectable media-playing devices 200. Responsive to the information (S2240), the computing device 100 pops up a dialog 909 for confirming the destination of streaming as illustrated in FIG. 33 (S2241). The dialog 909 contains icons representing the selectable media-playing devices 200. In the example of FIG. 33, the dialog 909 contains a tappable icon 911 representing “Media Device 1” and a tappable icon 912 representing “Media Device 2”, in addition to a tappable icon 910 representing “Handheld Device”. Responsive to, for example, the icon 912 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 sends to the cloud server computer 500 a request for streaming of the selected media asset to the “Media Device 2” (S2060). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 then starts streaming the selected media asset to the requested media-playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2065). Back in S2075, on the other hand, if every media-playing device 200 replies negatively indicating it is not able to play the selected media asset (S2075: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 a notification indicating that streaming of the selected media asset is not available at any of the registered media-playing devices 200 (S077). Responsive to the notification, the computing device 100 displays on the sensitive display 102 a dialog 907 for notifying the user of unavailability of streaming over the GUI for media-asset information, as illustrated in FIG. 31 (S2078). After S2078, the GUI for media-asset information remains (S2030). Modification to Tenth Aspect The tenth aspect of streaming may be modified as follows. Instead of the inquiry and determination in S2073 through S2075, the cloud server computer 500 may manage format information indicative of available format in association with each registered media-playing device 200 in the device information 601. FIG. 34 illustrates device information 601 including information indicative of available format in association with each registered media-playing device 200. In the example of FIG. 34, the device information 601 shows that a media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device 1” is able to play media asset with the format of “avi”, “mp3”, and “mpeg” and that a media-playing device 200 labeled “Media Device 2” is able to play media asset with the format of “mp3” only. The format information in the device information 601 may be stored, for example, by the user through the GUI for device registration as illustrated in FIG. 8D in S2023. FIG. 26 is a flowchart illustrating streaming of media assets according to the modified tenth aspect of streaming. In response to the request for streaming of the selected media asset (S2110), the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 to determine whether or the registered media-playing devices 200 associated with the computing device 100 are able to play the selected media asset (S2160). If the cloud server computer 500 finds at least one selectable media-playing devices 200 capable of playing the selected media asset (S2161: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 information indicative of the selectable media-playing devices 200 (S2240). Responsive to the request at S2100, the cloud server computer 500 sends to the requested media playing device 200 a request for connection (S2061). Upon establishment of connection (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the selected media asset to the requested media-playing device 200 (S2063), and starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2065). On the other hand, if the cloud server computer 500 finds none of the registered media-playing devices 200 is not able to play the selected media asset (S2161: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 a notification indicating that streaming of the selected media asset is not available at any of the registered media-playing devices 200 (S2162). Modification to Aspects According to the third, fourth, eighth, and ninth aspects of streaming, if the cloud server computer 500 finds that streaming of the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200 cannot be made (S2213: No, S2075: No), the cloud server computer 500 sends the notification (S2214, S2077). Instead thereof, in S2214 and S2077, the cloud server computer 500 may start streaming the selected media to the computer device 100. In other words, the cloud server computer 500 may redirect the streaming from the media-playing device 200 to the computing device 100. According to this modification, the computing device 100 may start playing the streamed media asset in S2215 and S2078 instead of displaying the notification. Redirection of Streaming While streaming the media asset after S2053 or S2063 according to the aspects of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 may change the streaming destination, namely, redirect the streaming responsive to a predetermined operation made by a user. First Aspect of Redirection While streaming the media asset after S2053 according to the first aspect of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 may redirect streaming of the media asset from the computing device 100 to the media-playing device 200 responsive to a predetermined operation being made by a user through the sensitive display 102. FIG. 47 is a flowchart illustrating redirection of streaming responsive to a user's operation. While the media asset is streamed to the computing device 100 (S2053), the computing device 100 can receive a predetermined operation by the user made onto the sensitive display 102. For example, the predetermined operation may be to tap on a predetermined icon 920 that appears with the graphical menu on the sensitive display 102, as illustrated in FIG. 52. In this example, the computing device 100 receives the predetermined operation if the sensitive display 102 detects a tap made onto the icon 920. In another example, the predetermined operation may be a predetermined gesture by an object like the user's finger made onto or above the sensitive display 102. The computer device 100 receives the predetermined operation if the sensitive display 102 detects the gesture by continuously detecting hover of the user's finger above the sensitive display 102 or continuously detecting a movement of the finger while a tap is maintained on the sensitive display 102. FIG. 53 illustrates an exemplary gesture consisting of a left-to-right “drag” or “flick” movement of the finger 800 on the sensitive display 102. Responsive to the predetermined operation (S2800), the computing device 100 sends a request to the cloud server computer 500 for redirection of streaming (S2801). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 sends a request to the media-playing device 200 for connection with the cloud server computing device 500 (S2061). Upon establishment of connection (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming of the media asset to the computing device 100 (S2803), and instead, starts streaming the media asset to the media-playing device 200 (S2804). In other words, the cloud server computer 500 redirects the streaming from the computing device 100 to the media-playing device 200. More specifically, in S2804, the cloud server computer 500 may preferably start streaming the media asset at a temporal or chronological point at which the streaming has been stopped in S2803 within the duration of the media asset. Upon starting the streaming to the media-playing device 200 (S2084), the cloud server computer 500 starts sending the progress information to the computing device 100 (S2065). In the course of the redirection of streaming, the computing device 100 stops playing the media asset (S2802). In S2802, the computing device 100 may voluntarily stop playing the media asset responsive to sending the request in S2801, or may naturally stop playing the media asset due to absence of the media asset streamed from the cloud server computer 500 after S2803. Thanks to the redirection of streaming, the user is able to continue enjoying playing, at the media-playing device 200, the media asset the user enjoyed playing at the computing device 100. This may be advantageous, for example, in a situation where the user returns to his/her house in which the media-playing device 200 is installed from outside where he/she played the media asset at the computing device 100 carried by him/her. Second Aspect of Redirection It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 may be far away from the computing device 100. Such case may occur, for example, when the user erroneously performs the predetermined operation when he/she is outside far away from his/her house where the media-playing device 200 is installed. In such situation, streaming should not be redirected from the computing device 100 to the media-playing device 200 because the user could not continue watching or listening to the media asset played at the media-playing device 200. Therefore, in a second aspect of redirection, the computing device 100 requests for the redirection only when the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. FIG. 48 is a flowchart illustrating the second aspect of redirection of streaming. Some steps in the second aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the second aspects. In the second aspect, responsive to the predetermined operation (S2800), the computing device 100 activates the close-range communication circuitry 106 and tries to communicate with the media-playing device 200 to determine whether or not the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100 (S2200). The determination can be made, for example, by sending a predetermined polling signal from the close-range communication circuitry 106 to the close-range communication circuitry 304 and determining whether or not the close-range communication circuitry 106 receives a reply signal from the close-range communication circuitry 304 in reply to the polling signal. If the reply signal is successfully received through the close-range communication circuitry 106 within a predetermined period after the polling signal, the close-range communication circuitry 106 and 304 can communicate with each other, which means that the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. If the reply signal is not received through the close-range communication circuitry 106 within the predetermined period after the polling signal, the close-range communication circuitry 106 and 304 cannot communicate with each other, which means that the media-playing device 200 is not near the computing device 100. If the media-playing device 200 is determined to be near the computing device 100 (S2200: Yes), the computing device 100 sends the request to the cloud server computer 500 for redirection of streaming (S2801) so that the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming and starts streaming to the media-playing device 200 (S2803, S2804). If the media-playing device 200 is determined to be not near the computing device 100 (S2200: No), the computing device 100 does not send the request but displays, along with the graphical menu on the sensitive display 102, a dialog 921, as illustrated in FIG. 54, for notifying the user that the media-playing device 200 is far from the user and thus redirection of streaming is unavailable (S2805). Third Aspect of Redirection It is assumable that a media-playing device 200 may be far away from the computing device 100. Such case may occur, for example, when the user erroneously performs the predetermined operation when he/she is outside far away from his/her house where the media-playing device 200 is installed. In such situation, streaming should not be redirected from the computing device 100 to the media-playing device 200 because the user could not continue watching or listening to the media asset played at the media-playing device 200. Therefore, in a third aspect of redirection, the cloud server computer 500 performs the redirection only when the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100. FIG. 49 is a flowchart illustrating the third aspect of redirection of streaming. Some steps in the third aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the third aspects. In the third aspect, responsive to the predetermined operation (S2800), the computing device 100 acquires location information indicative of the location of the computing device 100 from the GPS circuitry 107, and sends the location information along with the request for redirection of streaming to the cloud server computer 500 (S2806). Responsive to the location information and the request for redirection of streaming from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 requests the media-playing device 200 for connection (S2061). Upon establishment of connection (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the media-playing device 200 an inquiry about the location of the media-playing device 200 (S2211). Responsive to the inquiry, the media-playing device 200 acquires location information indicative of the location of the media-playing device 200 from the GPS circuitry 307, and sends the location information to the cloud server computer 500 (S2212). Responsive to the location information from the media-playing device 200, the cloud server computer 500 determines whether or not the media-playing device 200 is near the computing device 100 by comparing the location information received from the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200 (S2213). The determination may be made, for example, by determining whether or not the difference between the location indicated by the location information received by the media-playing device 200 and that indicated by the location information received by the computing device 100 is within a predetermined difference. If the media-playing device 200 is determined to be near the computing device 100 (S2213: Yes), the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming to the computing device 100 (S2803), and starts streaming the media asset to the media-playing device 200 (S2804). On the other hand, if the media-playing device 200 is determined to be not near the computing device 100 (S2213: No), the cloud server computer 500, without stopping the ongoing streaming, sends to the computing device 100 a notification indicating that the media-playing device 200 is far from the user and thus the redirection is unavailable (S2807). Responsive to the notification, the computing device 100 displays, along with the graphical menu on the sensitive display 102, a dialog 921, as illustrated in FIG. 54, for notifying the user of the unavailability of redirection of streaming (S2808). After S2808, the GUI for media-asset information remains (S2030). Fourth Aspect of Redirection It is assumable that a plurality of media-playing devices 200 are registered in the device information 601 as illustrated in FIG. 32 or FIG. 34. In such case, it is preferable for a user to select a media-playing device 200 to which a streaming is redirected. Therefore, in a fourth aspect of redirection, the cloud server computer 500 makes the computing device 100 allow a user to select a media-playing device 200 as the destination of redirection. FIG. 50 is a flowchart illustrating the fourth aspect of redirection of streaming. Some steps in the fourth aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the fourth aspects. In the fourth aspect, responsive to the request for redirection of streaming (S2801), the cloud server computer 500 determines whether or not the device information 601 registers a plurality of media-playing devices 200 associated with the computing device 100, with reference to the device information 601 (S2810). If a plurality of media-playing devices 200 are registered in the device information 601 (S2810: YES), the cloud server computer 500 sends the device information 601 to the computing device 100 (S2811). Responsive to the device information 601 sent from the cloud server computer 500, the computing device 100 displays, along with the graphical menu on the sensitive display 102, a dialog 922, as illustrated in FIG. 55, for presenting a list of the media-playing devices 200 registered in the device information 601 with reference to the device information 601 (S2812). The dialog 922 may contain tappable icons corresponding to the media-playing devices 200 for selection of one of the devices 200. For example, the dialog 922 illustrated in FIG. 55 contains icons 923 and 924 corresponding respectively to “Media Device 1” and “Media Device 2” registered in the device information 601 according to the example illustrated in FIG. 32 or FIG. 34. While displaying the dialog 922, the computing device 100 receives a user's selection of one of the presented devices 200 by way of tapping on one of the icons 923 and 934. Responsive to an icon being tapped, the computing device 100 sends to the cloud server computer 500 information indicative of a selected media-playing device 200 corresponding to the tapped icon (S2813). Responsive to the information indicative of a selected media-playing device 200 from the computing device 100, the cloud server computer 500 sends a request to the selected media-playing device 200 for connection with the cloud server computing device 500 (S2061). Upon establishment of connection (S2062), the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming of the media asset to the computing device 100 (S2803), and instead, starts streaming the media asset to the media-playing device 200 (S2804). Back in S2810, if just one media-playing device 200 is registered in the device information 601 (S2810: NO), the cloud server computer 500 may connect to the media-playing device 200 soon without sending the device information 601 to the computing device 100. Thanks to the fourth aspect of redirection, streaming of the selected media asset can be redirected to one of the registered media-playing devices 200 through which the user wants to enjoy the streaming. Some modifications can be applied to the fourth aspect of redirection. For example, the cloud server computer 500 does not need to make the determination in S2810 before sending the device information 601 in S2811. Instead, the cloud server computer 500 may send the device information 601 to the computing device 100 regardless of whether a plurality of media-playing devices 200 are registered or just one media-playing device 200 is registered in the device information 601, in response to the request for redirection in S2801. Fifth Aspect of Redirection It is assumable that a plurality of media-playing devices 200 are registered in the device information 601 as illustrated in FIG. 32 or FIG. 34. In such case, it is preferable for a user to select a media-playing device 200 to which a streaming is redirected. Therefore, in a fifth aspect of redirection, the computing device 100 allows a user to select a media-playing device 200 as the destination of redirection. FIG. 51 is a flowchart illustrating the fifth aspect of redirection of streaming. Some steps in the fifth aspect may be common to those in the first aspect. The common reference numbers may be used to refer to the common steps between the first and the fifth aspects. In the fifth aspect, the computing device 100 preliminarily stores the device information 601 received in S2031 before the streaming was initiated, in the memory 104 (S2820). While the streaming is ongoing to the computing device 100 (S2053), the computing device 100 generates one or more guides which are associated with one or more devices other than the computing device 100 registered in the device information 601 and which are also associated with given directions, to display the generated guides on the sensitive display 102 (S28221), with reference to the stored device information 601. In detail, each guide is associated with each media-playing device 200 registered in the device information 601. The guides are also associated with directions which are different from each other. Each direction represents the direction in which the movement of an object like the user's finger should be made to form a gesture for request for redirection. For example, with reference to the device information 601 as illustrated in FIG. 32 or FIG. 34, the computing device 100 may generate a first guide 928 associated with the left direction and with the “Media Device 1”, and a second guide 929 associated with the right direction and with the “Media Device 2”, to display the guides 928 and 929 as illustrated in FIG. 57. The guide 928 shows that a gesture consisting of a right-to-left “drag” or “flick” movement of an object like the user's finger 800 on or above the screen initiates the request for redirection to the “Media Device 1”, whereas the guide 929 shows that a gesture consisting of a left-to-right “drag” or “flick” movement of an object like the user's finger 800 on or above the screen initiates the request for redirection to the “Media Device 2”. The guides may be displayed along with the graphical menu on the screen as illustrated in FIG. 57. While displaying the guides (S2821), the computing device 100 receives a user's operation of the gestures defined by the guides (S2822). In the example of FIG. 57, the computing device 100 receives the user's gestures of his/her finger 800 moving on or above the screen in the left or right directions. Responsive to the user's operation received in S2822, the computing device 100 determines a media-playing device 200 as the destination of redirection (S2823). In the example of FIG. 57, the computing device 100 determines the “Media Device 1” to be the redirection destination responsive to receiving the user's gesture of moving his/her finger from the right to the left on or above the screen, whereas the computing device 100 determines the “Media Device 2” to be the redirection destination responsive to receiving the user's gesture of moving his/her finger from the left to the right on or above the screen. Then, the computing device 100 sends to the cloud server computer 500 a request for redirection to the determined media-playing device 200, namely, the “Media Device 1” or the “Media Device 2” in the example of FIG. 57. Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 establishes connection with the requested media-playing device 200 (S2061, S2062). Upon establishment of connection, the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming to the computing device 100 (S2803), and instead starts streaming the media asset to the connected media-playing device 200 (S2804). Modifications Some modifications may be applied to the above aspects of redirection of streaming. For example, although the aspects illustratively show that the cloud server computer 500 performs the redirection when the media asset is streamed to the computing device according to S2053, the cloud server computer 500 may perform the redirection when the media asset is streamed to the media-playing device 200 according to S2063 as well. In one modified aspect, as well as in the first aspect, the cloud server computer 500 may receive the request for redirection (S2801) sent from the computing device 100 responsive to the predetermined operation (S2800) while the streaming is ongoing to the media-playing device 200 (S2063). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 may stop the ongoing streaming and instead start streaming the media asset to the computing device 100. In another modified aspect, as well as the fourth aspect, the cloud server computer 500 may receive the request for redirection (S2801) sent from the computing device 100 responsive to the predetermined operation (S2800) while the streaming is ongoing to the media-playing device 200 (S2063). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 may send the device information 601 to the computing device 100 (S2811) so that the computing device 100 may display the dialog for selection of the computing device 100 or another media-playing device 200 if any, other than the media-playing device 200 to which the streaming is ongoing, with reference to the device information 601 (S2812). For example, the computing device 100 may display the dialog 922 containing the icon 923 representing the “Handheld Device” and the icon 924 representing the “Media Device 2” as illustrated in FIG. 56, with reference to the device information according to the example as illustrated in FIG. 32 or FIG. 34. Then, responsive to receiving information indicating that the computing device 100 is selected (S2813), the cloud server computer 500 may stop the ongoing streaming and instead start streaming the media asset to the computing device 100. Or, responsive to receiving information indicating that said another media-playing device 200 is selected (S2813), the cloud server computer 500 may stop the ongoing streaming and instead start streaming the media asset to said another media-playing device 200. In further another modified aspect, as well as in the fifth aspect, the computing device 100 may display the guides with reference to the device information 601 preliminarily stored in the memory 104 while the streaming is ongoing to the media-playing device 200 (S2821). The guides may be associated with the computing device 100 and another media-playing device 200 if any, other than the media-playing device 200 to which the streaming is ongoing. For example, the guide 928 associated with the computing device 100 and the guide 929 associated with said another media-playing device 200 may be displayed as illustrated in FIG. 58, with reference to the device information 601 according to the example as illustrated in FIG. 32 or FIG. 34. Then, responsive to receiving the request for redirection to the computing device 100 determined in S2822 based on the right-to-left movement gesture (S2823), the cloud server computer 500 may stop the ongoing streaming and instead start streaming the media asset to the computing device 100. Or, responsive to receiving the request for redirection to said another media-playing device 200 determined in S2822 based on the left-to-right movement gesture (S2823), the cloud server computer 500 may stop the ongoing streaming and instead start streaming the media asset to said another media-playing device 200. Operation During Streaming While the media asset streaming is in progress in accordance with one of the first to tenth aspects of streaming, the cloud server computer 500 can operate the streaming responsive to a request from the computing device 100 (S2057, S2068). Details of the operation are described below. FIGS. 35 and 36 are flowcharts illustrating how the cloud server computer 500 operates while streaming is in progress to the computing device 100 according to S2053. While the media asset is streamed to the computing device 100 according to S2053, in case of response to the request for pause of the streaming by way of the icon 902 being tapped in S2056 (S2300), the cloud server computer 500 pauses the ongoing streaming (S2301). The cloud server computer 500 then sends an acknowledgement to the computing device 100 (S2302). After the acknowledgement, the computing device 100 can send to the cloud server computer 500 for restart of the paused streaming responsive to the icon 902 being tapped (S2303). Responsive to the request for restart, the cloud server computer 500 then restarts the streaming of the media asset again (S2304). In case of response to the request for stop of the streaming by way of the icon 901 being tapped in S2056 (S2310), the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming (S2311). The cloud server computer 500 then sends an acknowledgement to the computing device 100 (S2312). Responsive to the acknowledgement, the computing device 100 returns to S2030, namely, starts displaying the GUI for media-asset information again as illustrated in FIG. 8E (S2030). FIGS. 37 and 38 are flowcharts illustrating how the cloud server computer 500 operates while streaming is in progress to the media-playing device 200 according to S2063 or S2804. While the media asset is streamed to the media-playing device 200 according to S2063 or S2804, in case of response to the request for pause of the streaming by way of the icon 902 being tapped in S2067 (S2400), the cloud server computer 500 pauses the ongoing streaming (S2401) and pauses the transmission of intermittent progress information to the computing device 100 (S2402). Upon pausing the streaming and the intermittent progress information (S2401, S2402), the cloud server computer 500 sends an acknowledgement to the computing device 100 (S2403). After the acknowledgement, the computing device 100 can send to the cloud server computer 500 for restart of the paused streaming responsive to the icon 902 being tapped again (S2404). Responsive to the request for restart, the cloud server computer 500 restarts the streaming of the media asset again to the media-playing device 200 (S2405) as well as restarts the transmission of intermittent progress information to the computing device 100 (S2406). In case of response to the request for stop of the streaming by way of the icon 901 being tapped in S2067 (S2410), the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming (S2411) and stops the transmission of intermittent progress information (S2412). Upon stopping the streaming and the intermittent progress information (S2411, S2412), the cloud server computer 500 stores a stop point indicative of a temporal or chronological point at which the streaming is stopped within the duration of the media asset (S2413). The cloud server computer 500 stores the stop point in association with the stopped media asset as the user data 600 corresponding to the logged-in user ID. The cloud server computer 500 will start streaming of the once-stopped media asset at the stop point stored in association with the media asset responsive to request for streaming the once-stopped media asset again from the computing device 100. Assuming that the streaming is stopped at the moment illustrated in FIG. 28, the cloud server computer 500 stores a stop point indicative of eight minutes and twenty-seven seconds within the sixty minute duration in association with “Movies01.avi” as the user data 600 of the user ID 001, and the cloud server computer 500 will start streaming “Movies01.avi” at eight minutes and twenty-seven seconds responsive to request for streaming “Movie01.avi” again from the computing device 100. Also, upon stopping the streaming and the intermittent progress information (S2411, S2412), the cloud server computer 500 sends an acknowledgement to the computing device 100 (2414). Responsive to the acknowledgement, the computing device 100 returns to S2030, namely, starts displaying the GUI for media-asset information again as illustrated in FIG. 8E (S2030). Connection Monitoring While streaming the media asset according to S2063 or S2804, in addition to the streaming to the media-playing device 200, the cloud server computer 500 may continuously monitor connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the computing device 100, as illustrated in FIG. 39 (S2500). The monitoring of connection may be made by, for example, sending polling signals intermittently from the cloud server computer 500 to the computing device 100. As long as the cloud server computer 500 receives an acknowledgement from the computing device 100 in reply to the polling signals, the cloud server computer 500 determines that the connection is kept established between the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500. If the cloud server computer 500 does not receive an acknowledgement from the computing device 100 in reply to the polling signals, the cloud server computer 500 determines that the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500 have been disconnected from each other for some reason. Note that the cloud server computer 500 may become disconnected from the computing device 100 if, for example, the computing device 100 has been powered off or has been carried by the user to some place where the computing device 100 cannot wirelessly communicate over the network 400 via the communication circuitry 103. Responsive to determining that the cloud server computer 500 and the computing device 100 have been disconnected from each other (S2500: No), the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming of the media asset (S2501) and stops the transmission of intermittent progress information (S2502). Upon stopping the streaming and the intermittent progress information (S2501, S2502), the cloud server computer 500 stores a stop point indicative of a temporal or chronological point at which the streaming is stopped within the duration of the media asset (S2503). The cloud server computer 500 stores the stop point in association with the stopped media asset as the user data 600 corresponding to the logged-in user ID. The cloud server computer 500 will start streaming of the once-stopped media asset at the stop point stored in association with the media asset responsive to request for streaming the once-stopped media asset again from the computing device 100. Assuming that the streaming is stopped at the moment illustrated in FIG. 28, the cloud server computer 500 stores a stop point indicative of eight minutes and twenty seven seconds within the sixty minute duration in association with “Movies01.avi” as the user data 600 of the user ID 001, and the cloud server computer 500 will start streaming “Movies01.avi” at the time of eight minutes and twenty seven seconds responsive to request for streaming “Movie01.avi” again from the computing device 100. Thanks to S2500 through S2503, if the cloud server computer 500 becomes unable to receive requests from the computing device 100 and so the streaming of the media asset may become out of control, the streaming automatically stops. Accordingly, the media asset can be avoided from being streamed out of control in case of some communication trouble between the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500. Similar to the cloud server computer 500, the computing device 100 may also continuously monitor connection between the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500, as illustrated in FIG. 39 (S2600). The monitoring of connection may be made by, for example, determining reception of the progress information intermittently sent from the cloud server computer 500. As long as the computing device 100 succeeds in receiving the progress information, the computing device 100 may determine the connection is kept established between the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500. If the computing device 100 fails to receive the progress information, the computing device 100 may determine that the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500 have been disconnected from each other for some reason. Responsive to determining that the cloud server computer 500 and the computing device 100 have been disconnected from each other (S2600: No), the computing device 100 displays a dialog 905 for notifying the user of the disconnection and that the user can no longer operate the streaming through the computing device 100, as illustrated in FIG. 41 (S2601). Further, while streaming the media asset according to S2063 or S2804, in addition to the streaming to the media-playing device 200, the cloud server computer 500 may continuously monitor connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200, as illustrated in FIG. 40 (S2700). The monitoring of connection may be made by, for example, receiving acknowledgements responsive to the streaming of the media asset from the media-playing device 200, or by sending polling signals intermittently from the cloud server computer 500 to the media-playing device 200. As long as the cloud server computer 500 receives an acknowledgement in reply to the streaming or to the polling signals from the media-playing device 200, the cloud server computer 500 may determine that the connection is kept established between the media-playing device 200 and the cloud server computer 500. If the cloud server computer 500 does not receive an acknowledgement in reply to the streaming or polling signals from the media-playing device 200, the cloud server computer 500 may determine that the media-playing device 200 and the cloud server computer 500 have been disconnected from each other for some reason. Note that the cloud server computer 500 may become disconnected from the media-playing device 200 if, for example, the media-playing device 200 has been powered off, or a LAN cable has been removed from the communication circuitry 302. Responsive to determining that the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 have been disconnected from each other (S2700: No), the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming of the media asset to the media-playing device 200 (S2701), and instead, starts streaming the media asset to the computing device 100 (S2702). In other words, the cloud server computer 500 redirects the streaming from the media-playing device 200 to the computing device 100. More specifically, in S2702, the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the media asset at a temporal or chronological point at which the streaming has been stopped within the duration of the media asset in S2701. Responsive to the redirection, the computing device 100 pops up a dialog 906 for notifying the user of the redirection as illustrated in FIG. 42 (S2703), and then starts playing the streamed media asset (S2704) as well as starts displaying the operation menu (S2705) as illustrated in FIG. 27. Thanks to S2700 through S2705, if the media-playing device 200 becomes unable to receive streamed media asset, the streaming can be recovered at the computing device 100. Accordingly, the user can continue to enjoy playing the media asset in case of some communication trouble between the media-playing device 200 and the cloud server computer 500. Detailed Embodiments of Media Playing Device The media-playing device 200 can be embodied in any manner as long as it is configured to play media assets. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 29, the media-playing device 200 may be a desktop television having a display unit and a loudspeaker unit as the output unit 303. The display unit may display graphics and video generated as a result of visual media assets being played at the processor 301, whereas the loudspeaker unit may output sound generated as a result of audio media assets being played at the processor 301. In the example of FIG. 29, the desktop television 200 is displaying video of the media asset “Movie01.avi” on the display unit as well as outputting sound of the media asset “Movie01.avi” from the loudspeaker unit, the video and the sound both being generated as a result of the media asset “Movie01.avi” being played. In another example, as illustrated in FIG. 30, the media-playing device 200 may be a desktop loudspeaker having a loudspeaker unit as the output unit 303. The loudspeaker unit may output sound generated as a result of audio media asset being played at the processor 301. In the example of FIG. 30, the desktop loudspeaker 200 is outputting sound of the media asset “LoveSong01.mp3” from the loudspeaker unit, the sound being generated as a result of the media asset “LoveSong01.mp3” being played. Other examples of the media-playing device 200 may include a head-mounted display, a digital signage, a video projector, and the likes. Media-playing devices having capability of connecting network are disclosed, for example, in the U.S. patent publications Nos. US2012-36525 entitled “Unified User Interface for Viewing Desired Multi-media Content on an Internet Television”, US2012-36524 entitled “System and Method for Social Network”, US2009-316688 entitled “Method for Controlling Advanced Multimedia Features and Supplementary Services in Sip-based Phones and a System Employing Thereof”, U.S. Pat. No. 8,074,248 entitled “System and method for providing video content associated with a source image to a television in a communication network”, US2011-47568 entitled “TV User Interface with Recommended Content Entry in Favorites Menu”, US2009-217323 entitled “Expanded Playlist for TV Video Player”, and US2008-51917 entitled “Network Audio Speaker System”, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Modification to Embodiment Modification 1 As discussed above with reference to FIGS. 15 to 26, a connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 is requested (S2061) in response to a streaming request from the computing device 100 (S2060, S2210, S2110, S2220). Instead thereof, a connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 may be requested in response to the login process in S2009. According to this modified embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 43, responsive to accepting a login from the computing device 100 in S2009, the cloud server computer 500 specifies one or more media-playing devices 200 associated with the computing device 100 with reference to the device information 601 (S4000). For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 as the user data 600 of the user ID 001. Then, the cloud server computer 500 sends to the specified media-playing device 200 a request for connection between the media-playing device 200 and the cloud server computer 500 (S4001). Upon establishment of the connection (S4002), the cloud server computer 500 sends the notification of acceptance of login to the computing device 100 (S2011). Or, as illustrated in FIG. 44, responsive to accepting a login from the computing device 100 in S2009, the cloud server computer 500, as well as sending the notification of acceptance of login in S2011, specifies one or more media-playing devices 200 associated with the computing device 100 with reference to the device information 601 (S4000), and requests the specified media-playing device 200 for connection (S4001). In other words, specifying and connecting to the media-playing device 200 in S4000 through S4002 may be performed in parallel to or soon after sending the notification in S2011. Advantageously, according to the modified embodiment, connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 is established at a time from the acceptance of login (S2009) until the start of streaming (S2063). the connection establishment process in S2061 and S2062 may be unnecessary upon the streaming request in S2060, S2210, S2110, or S2220 because connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 may be already established, at the time of the streaming request, in accordance with the connection process in S4000 through S4002. Therefore, in the modified embodiment, the cloud server computer 500 may start streaming quickly without the connection establishment process (S2061, S2062) after the request for streaming from the computing device 100. Modification 2 As discussed above with reference to FIG. 9, a request for connection to the cloud server computer 500 is sent from the computing device 100, and the login process is initiated by the computing device 100 through the login GUI as illustrated in FIG. 8A. Instead thereof, the request may be sent from the media-playing device 200, and the login process may be initiated by the media-playing device 200 through a GUI at the media-playing device 200. According to this modified embodiment, as illustrated in FIG. 45, the media-playing device 200 sends to the cloud server computer 500 a request for connection between the media-playing device 200 and the cloud server computer 500 (S3000). Upon establishment of the connection (S3001), the media-playing device 200 displays on the output unit 303 a login GUI for login to the cloud server computer 500 (S3002). As illustrated in FIG. 46, the login GUI may contain a login ID input field 700, a password input field 701, and a button 702. The media-playing device 200 receives user inputs of a login ID and a password in the fields 700 and 701 as well as receives pressing the button 702. The pressing may be accomplished by the user's tapping on the button 702 through the output unit 301 if the output unit 301 includes a sensitive display capable of detecting taps as similar to the sensitive display 102. Or, if the media-playing device 200 is coupled to an input device such as a keyboard, a mouse, a remote commander, and the likes, the pressing may be accomplished by the user's clicking or selecting the button 702 through the input device. Responsive to the button 702 being pressed (S3003), the media-playing device 200 sends to the cloud server computer 500 a request for login with the inputted user ID and the password (S3004). The cloud server computer 500 then accepts the requested login (S3006) if the user ID and the password are registered together as the user data 600 (S3005: Yes). If the user ID and the password are not registered (S3005: No), the cloud server computer 500 does not accept the requested login, and notifies the media-playing device 200 of failure to login (S3007). Responsive to the login being permitted (S3006), the cloud server computer 500 specifies a computing device 100 associated with the media-playing device 200 with reference to the device information 601 of the logged-in user (S3008). For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the cloud server computer 500 refers to the device information 601 of the user ID 001. Then, the cloud server computer 500 sends to the specified computing device 100 a request for connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the computing device 100 (S3009). Upon establishment of connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the computing device 100 (S3010), the process proceeds to S2020 as illustrated in FIG. 10. Namely, the cloud server computer 500 sends to the computing device 100 the device information 601 stored as the user data 600 (S2021), and then the computing device 100 displays the GUI for registration information as illustrated in FIG. 8C with reference to the device information 601 (S2020). The S3000 through S3010 are executed instead of S2002 through S2009 illustrated in FIGS. 9 and 10. After S3010, the process proceeds to S2020 and continues as illustrated in FIGS. 11 through 26. Advantageously, according to the modified embodiment, the connection establishment process in S2061 and S2062 may be unnecessary upon the streaming request in S2060, S2210, S2110, or S2220 because connection between the cloud server computer 500 and the media-playing device 200 may be already established, at the time of the streaming request, in accordance with the connection process in S3000 and S3001. Therefore, in the modified embodiment, the cloud server computer 500 may start streaming quickly without the connection establishment process after the request for streaming from the computing device 100. Second Embodiment Summary In a second embodiment, the cloud server computer 500 presents to the media-playing device 200 information indicative of the stored media assets. The media-playing device 200 transfers to the computing device 100 the received information. The computing device 100 displays a list of the media assets based on the information, and receives selection of a media asset from the user to send the selection result back to the media-playing device 200. Responsive to the selection result, the media-playing device 200 requests the cloud server computer 500 to stream the selected media asset to the media-playing device 200. FIGS. 61, 62, and 64 to 66 are flowcharts illustrating how the streaming is performed. The user first uses the media-playing device 200 to connect to the cloud server computer 500 over network 400. The media-playing device 200 launches the streaming program 305a. According to the instructions of the streaming program 305a, as illustrated in FIG. 61, the media-playing device 200 first sends to the cloud server computer 500 a request for connection between the media-playing device 200 and the cloud server computer 500 over the network 400 through the communication circuitry 302 (S5000). Upon establishment of the connection (S5001), the media-playing device 200 displays, on the output unit 303, a GUI for login as illustrated in FIG. 59. (S5002). The login GUI may contain the login ID input field 700, the password input field 701, and the button 702. The media-playing device 200 receives user inputs of a login ID and a password in the fields 700 and 701 as well as receives the user's pressing the button 702. The pressing may be accomplished by tapping on the button 702 through the output unit 301 if the output unit 301 includes a sensitive display capable of detecting taps as similar to the sensitive display 102. Or, if the media-playing device 200 is coupled to an input device such as a keyboard, a mouse, and a remote commander, the pressing may be accomplished by clicking or selecting the button 702 through the input device. Responsive to the button 702 being pressed (S5003), the media-playing device 200 sends to the cloud server computer 500 a request for login with the inputted user ID and the password (S5004). The cloud server computer 500 accepts the requested login (S5006) if the user ID and the password are registered together as the user data 600 (S5005: Yes). If the user ID and the password are not registered (S5005: No), the cloud server computer 500 does not accept the requested login, and notifies the media-playing device 200 of failure to login (S5007). Responsive to the login being permitted (S5006), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the media-playing device 200 information indicative of the media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the logged in user ID over the network 400 through the communication circuitry 503 (S5008). For example, if the user has logged in with the user ID 001, the information indicative of the media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the user ID 001 is sent to the media-playing device 200. The information sent at S5008 may be a list of the media assets 602. Responsive to reception of the information indicative of the media assets 602 through the communication circuitry 302, the media-playing device 200 transfers the information to the computing device 100 through the close-range communication circuitry 304 (S5009). Responsive to the information indicative of the media assets 602, the computing device 100 displays on the sensitive display 102 a list of the media assets 602 in a tappable manner as illustrated in FIG. 60 (S5010). The list may contain tappable objects, such as thumbnails, each representing each of the media assets 602. In an example of FIG. 60, the computing device 100 lists tappable thumbnails representing media assets 602 contained in the user data 600 of the user ID 001, namely, “LoveSong01.mp3”, “PunkRock01.mp3”, “LoveSong02.mp3”, “PunkRock02.mp3”, “MyFavorite.mp3”, “Movie01.avi”, “MyDaughter.mpg”, “Movie02.avi”, and “SoapOpera01.mpg”. Through the displayed media assets list, the user can select a media asset by tapping on a thumbnail representing the media asset. The computing device 100 receives a tap made by the user onto a tappable thumbnail. Responsive to a tappable thumbnail being tapped, the computing device 100 sends information indicative of a media asset represented by the tapped thumbnail to the media-playing device 200 through the close-range communication circuitry 106 (S5011). Responsive to the information indicative of a media asset, the media-playing device 200 sends a request for streaming of the selected media asset to the cloud server computer 500 through the communication circuitry 302 (S5012). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the requested media asset 602 to the media-playing device 200 (S5013). Specifically, the cloud server computer 500 starts streaming the requested media asset by directing the streaming to the IP address of the media-playing device 200. If the requested media asset concerns encoded video or audio data, the streaming may be made by directly sending the encoded video or audio data to the media-playing device 200, or by decoding the encoded video or audio data to send the decoded data to the media-playing device 200. If the requested media asset concerns a video game program, the streaming may be made by executing the video game program to send rendered video game graphics and played video game sound to the media-playing device 200. Upon starting the streaming, the cloud server computer 500 sends to the media-playing device 200 a notification that the streaming has been started, and starts sending to the media-playing device 200 progress information indicative of progress of the streaming (S5014). The notification may contain information indicative of the streamed media asset such as the name of the streamed media asset, the format of the streamed media asset, the duration of the streamed media asset, and the likes. The progress information may indicate how far the media asset has been streamed within the duration of the media asset. The cloud server computer 500 intermittently sends the progress information based on the progress of the streaming after S5014 as long as the streaming is in progress. The media-playing device 200 receives the streamed media asset, the notification, and the progress information. While the media asset is being streamed, the media-playing device 200 plays the media asset (S5015). Specifically, resultant audio and/or video generated as a result of the media asset being played is outputted through the output unit 303. For example, if the streamed media asset involves an encoded audio or video data, the streamed media asset is decoded by the processor 301 so that the decoded video or audio is outputted by the output unit 303. For example, if the streamed media asset involves video game graphics, the streamed media asset is just outputted by the output unit 303 In parallel to playing the streamed media asset at S5015, the media-playing device 200 transfers the notification to the computing device 100 through the close-range communication circuitry 304, and intermittently transfers the received progress information to the computing device 100 through the close-range communication circuitry 304 (S5016). Responsive to the notification and the progress information, the computing device 100 starts displaying on the sensitive display 102 information indicative of the streamed media asset and a graphical menu based on the notification and the progress information (S5017). For example, as illustrated in FIG. 63, the sensitive display 102 displays the name of the streamed media asset, a progress bar 904 indicative of how far the media asset has been played within the duration of the played media asset, and a graphical menu consisting of the icons 900 to 903 for operation of the streaming. In the example of FIG. 63, the sensitive display 102 is showing that the media asset with the name of “Movie01.avi” has been played for eight minutes and twenty-seven seconds after the start of the streaming within the duration of sixty minutes. The icons 900 to 903 are icons for operation of streaming of the media asset. Responsive to one of the icons 900 to 903 being tapped through the sensitive display 102, the computing device 100 sends a request for operation of the ongoing streaming of the media asset to the media-playing device 200 through the close-range communication circuitry 106 (S5018). For example, responsive to the icon 900 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests rewinding of the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, responsive to the icon 901 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests stopping of the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, responsive to the icon 902 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests pausing of the ongoing streaming of the media asset. For example, responsive to the icon 903 being tapped, the computing device 100 requests fast-forwarding of the ongoing streaming of the media asset. Responsive to the request for operation from the computing device 100, the media-playing device 200 transfers the request to the cloud server computer 500 over the network 400 through the communication circuitry 302 (S5019). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 operates the streaming of the ongoing media asset, namely, rewinds, stops, pauses, or fast-forwards the ongoing streaming of the media asset (S5020). In case of response to the request for pause of the streaming by way of the icon 902 being tapped in S5018 (S5100), the cloud server computer 500 pauses the ongoing streaming to the media-playing device 200 (S5101) and pauses the intermittent transmission of the progress information to the media-playing device 200 (S5102). Upon pausing the streaming and the intermittent progress information (S5101, S5102), the cloud server computer 500 sends an acknowledgement to the media-playing device 200 (S5103). Responsive to the acknowledgement, the media-playing device 200 stops intermittent transferring of the progress information to the computing device 100, and transfers the acknowledgement to the computing device 100 through the close-range communication circuitry 304 (S5104). After the acknowledgement at S5104, the computing device 100 can send to the media-playing device 200 for restart of the paused streaming responsive to the icon 902 being tapped again (S5105). Responsive to the request for restart, the media-playing device 200 transfers the request to the cloud server computer 500 over the network 400 through the communication circuitry 302 (S5106). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 restarts the streaming of the media asset again to the media-playing device 200 (S5107) as well as restarts intermittently transmitting the progress information to the media-playing device 200 (S5108). In case of response to the request for stop of the streaming by way of the icon 901 being tapped in S5019 (S5200), the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming to the media-playing device 200 (S5201) and stops the intermittent transmission of the progress information (S5202). Upon stopping the streaming and the intermittent progress information (S5201, S5202), the cloud server computer 500 stores a stop point indicative of a temporal or chronological point at which the streaming is stopped within the duration of the media asset (S5203). Specifically, the cloud server computer 500 stores the stop point in association with the stopped media asset as the user data 600 corresponding to the logged-in user ID. The cloud server computer 500 will start streaming of the once-stopped media asset at the stop point stored in association with the media asset responsive to request for streaming the once-stopped media asset again from the media-playing device 200. Assuming that the streaming is stopped at the moment illustrated in FIG. 63, the cloud server computer 500 stores a stop point indicative of eight minutes and twenty-seven seconds within the sixty minute duration in association with “Movies01.avi” as the user data 600 of the user ID 001, and the cloud server computer 500 will start streaming “Movies01.avi” at eight minutes and twenty-seven seconds responsive to request for streaming “Movie01.avi” again from the media-playing device 200. Also, upon stopping the streaming and the intermittent progress information (S5201, S5202), the cloud server computer 500 sends to the media-playing device 200 an acknowledgement (S5204) and information indicative of the media assets 602 stored as the user data 600 of the logged in user ID (S5205) over the network 400 though the communication circuitry 503. Responsive to the acknowledgement and the information indicative of the media assets 602, the media-playing device 200 transfers the acknowledgement and the information to the computing device 100 through the close-range communication circuitry 304 (S5206, S5207). Responsive to the acknowledgement and the information, the computing device 100 returns to S5010, namely, starts displaying on the sensitive display 102 a list of the media assets 602 in a tappable manner as illustrated in FIG. 60. While the media-playing device 200 is playing a media asset after S5015, the media-playing device 200 may continuously monitor connection between the media-playing device 200 and the computing device 100, namely, between the close-range communication circuitry 304 and the close-range communication circuitry 106 (S5021). The monitoring of connection may be made by, for example, sending polling signals intermittently from the media-playing device 200 to the computing device 100 through the close-range communication circuitry 304. As long as the media-playing device 200 receives acknowledgements from the computing device 100 in reply to the polling signals through the close-range communication circuitry 304, the media-playing device 200 determines that the connection is kept established between the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200. If the media-playing device 200 fails to receive acknowledgements from the computing device 100 in reply to the polling signals, the media-playing device 200 determines that the computing device 100 and the media-playing device 200 have been disconnected from each other for some reason. Note that the computing device 100 may become disconnected from the media-playing device 200 if, for example, the computing device 100 has been powered off or has been carried by the user to some place where the computing device 100 cannot wirelessly connect to the media-playing device 200 via the close-range communication circuitry 106. Responsive to determining that the media-playing device 200 and the computing device 100 have been disconnected from each other (S5021: NO), the media-playing device 200 sends to the cloud server computer 500 a request for stop of the ongoing streaming (S5022). Responsive to the request, the cloud server computer 500 stops the ongoing streaming of the media asset (S5023) and stops the intermittent transmission of the progress information (S5024). Upon stopping the streaming and the intermittent progress information (S5023, S5024), the cloud server computer 500 stores a stop point indicative of a temporal or chronological point at which the streaming is stopped within the duration of the media asset (S5025). The cloud server computer 500 stores the stop point in association with the stopped media asset as the user data 600 corresponding to the logged-in user ID. The cloud server computer 500 will start streaming of the once-stopped media asset at the stop point stored in association with the media asset responsive to request for streaming the once-stopped media asset again from the media-playing device 200. Assuming that the streaming is stopped at the moment illustrated in FIG. 60, the cloud server computer 500 stores a stop point indicative of eight minutes and twenty seven seconds within the sixty minute duration in association with “Movies01.avi” as the user data 600 of the user ID 001, and the cloud server computer 500 will start streaming “Movies01.avi” at the time of eight minutes and twenty seven seconds responsive to request for streaming “Movie01.avi” again from the media-playing device 200. Thanks to S5021 through S5026, if the cloud server computer 500 becomes unable to receive requests from the computing device 100 and so the streaming of the media asset may become out of control, the streaming automatically stops. Accordingly, the media asset can be avoided from being streamed out of control in case of some communication trouble between the computing device 100 and the cloud server computer 500. Advantage and Supplemental Note The embodiments described above allow the user to use one of his/her device (for example, the computing device 100) to start and/or control media asset streaming from the cloud server computer 500 to another of his/her device (for example, the media-playing device 200). Thanks to the embodiments, the user can use a portable or mobile device (for example, the computing device 100) as a remote commander for operating streaming, to enjoy playing a media asset at another device (for example, the media-playing device 200) having a greater display and/or loudspeaker. Further modifications and alternative embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art in view of this disclosure. Accordingly, the above description is to be construed as illustrative only and is for the purpose of teaching those skilled in the art the manner of carrying out the invention. It is to be understood that the forms of the invention herein shown and described are to be taken as exemplary embodiments. Various modifications may be made without departing from the scope of the invention. For example, equivalent elements or materials may be substitute for those illustrated and described herein, and certain features of the invention may be utilized independently of the use of other features, all as would be apparent to one skilled in the art after having the benefit of this description of the invention. In addition, the terms “a” and “an” are generally used in the present disclosure to mean one or more. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>There have been marketed multi-functional portable computing devices such as iPhone and iPad both made by Apple Inc., other tablets, mobile phones, and the likes. Such computing device today has one or more processors of great performance and one or more memories in which computer programs and media assets can be stored. The computer programs include a media player and a video game. The media asset includes music data, movie data, and video game data. For example, when a user executes a media player in the computing device to play the music data or video data, the user can enjoy music and movies. For example, when a user executes a video game program in the computing device to play the video game data, the user can enjoy playing the video games as if the computing device were just like a game console. However, a user may feel less excited through playing such media assets in the portable computing device than through playing them in a typical desktop television set or home audio system, because the portable computing device typically has a smaller local display and/or a more inferior loudspeaker than the typical television set or home audio system. An approach of sending graphics or video from a portable computing device to a remote display device such as a desktop television set by way of some kind of communication protocol upon playing the media assets may be helpful. A typical television set has a display that is larger than the local display of the portable computing device. Accordingly, such approach may enable a larger screen of the played media to be displayed, and thus may make the user feel more excited. An example of such approach is disclosed in the international patent publication No. WO2004/082284 entitled “Methods, Devices, and Systems for Displaying Information from Remote Electronic Device”. Furthermore, if those skilled in the art could apply such approach of sending video to sending music, it might make the user to feel more excited by enabling music to be played through a loudspeaker of the home audio system. However, such approach of sending video or music from a portable computing device to a remote appliance requires the media assets to be stored in the local memories in one or both of the portable computing device and the remote appliance. Therefore, the present invention addresses an approach of streaming media assets over network. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Aspects of the present invention are methods of streaming media assets over network from a server computer to a media-playing device. According to a first aspect, information indicative of media assets stored in the server computer is sent over network from the server computer to a portable device, so that the portable device displays a user interface for presenting the media assets. In response to selection of a media asset out of the presented media assets through the user interface, the selected media asset is streamed over network from the server computer to the media-playing device. According to a second aspect, information indicative of media assets stored in the server computer is transferred to a portable device from the media-playing device which received the information from the server computer, so that the portable device displays a user interface for presenting the media assets. In response to selection of a media asset out of the presented media assets through the user interface, the selected media asset is streamed over network from the server computer to the media-playing device. The word “tappable” used in this application means possibility or ability of being tapped. For example, a tappable object means an object which is to be tapped, or which a user can tap on. A “media asset” described in this application means electronic data, in any form, to be executed and/or played. For example, the media asset includes video data constituting a video clip, a motion picture, a movie, and the likes; audio data constituting music, a song, and the likes; text data constituting a document and the likes; and a computer program constituting an application such as a video game, a text editor, and the likes. The media asset may be also referred to as a media content, a media file, or the likes. “Streaming” described in this application means providing a stream of the media asset in a manner where a recipient of the stream is able to play the stream. The streaming may be performed pursuant to, for example, protocols such as the HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol), the RTSP (Real Time Streaming Protocol), and the RTMP (Real Time Messaging Protocol). The streaming includes a so-called progressive download. | H04L6560 | 20170707 | 20180529 | 20171026 | 98694.0 | H04L2906 | 1 | JEAN GILLES, JUDE | MEDIA ASSET STREAMING OVER NETWORK TO DEVICES | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04L | 2,017 |
15,645,347 | PENDING | Decorator Drive and Printing Plate Cylinder Automation | A can decorator comprising a spindle disc, a blanket drum, a transfer wheel, a pin chain drive, and a controller. The spindle disc is adapted for (i) receiving beverage cans from an infeed and (ii) carrying and rotating each can body on a corresponding spindle. The blanket drum is adapted for (i) applying ink to printing cylinders and (ii) rotating the print cylinders in registration with beverage cans on the spindle disc to decorate the cans. The transfer wheel is adapted for receiving beverage cans from the spindle disc after decoration by the blanket drum. The pin chain drive is adapted for receiving cans from the transfer wheel and transporting the cans on a chain through an oven. The controller adapted for receiving encoder information and matching or adjusting speeds of a spindle disc motor, a blanket drum motor, a transfer wheel motor, and a pin chain drive motor. | 1. A can decorator comprising: a spindle disc adapted for (i) receiving beverage cans from an infeed and (ii) carrying and rotating each can body on a corresponding spindle; the spindle disc being driven by a spindle disc motor having an encoder; a blanket drum adapted for (i) applying ink to printing cylinders and (ii) rotating the print cylinders in registration with beverage cans on the spindle disc to decorate the cans; the blanket drum being driven by a blanket drum motor having an encoder; a transfer wheel adapted for receiving beverage cans from the spindle disc after decoration by the blanket drum; the transfer wheel being driven by a transfer wheel motor having an encoder; a pin chain drive adapted for receiving cans from the transfer wheel and transporting the cans on a chain through an oven; the pin chain drive being driving by a pin chain drive motor having an encoder; and a controller adapted for receiving encoder information and matching or adjusting speeds of the spindle disc motor, the blanket drum motor, the transfer wheel motor, and the pin chain drive motor. 2. The can decorator of claim 1 wherein the encoder on at least one of the motors is an absolute encoder. 3. The can decorator of any preceding claim wherein the encoder on each one of the motors is an absolute encoder. 4. The can decorator of any preceding claim wherein the motors are servo motors. 5. The can decorator of any preceding claim further comprising an over-varnish disc adapted for applying a varnish to the cans while on the spindle disc. 6. The can decorator of any preceding claim wherein each one of the motors is capable of being operated while the other motors are off, whereby the operating motor is operable for maintenance tasks. 7. A method of operating the can decorator of any preceding claim, comprising the step of adjusting the speeds of at least one of the spindle disc motor, the blanket drum motor, transfer wheel motor, and pin chain drive motor to response to can image information to enhance the can image. 8. A method of changing a pin chain in the can decorator of any preceding claim, comprising the step of rotating the pin chain drive by engaging the pin chain drive motor without rotating the spindle disc, blanket drum, and transfer wheel. 9. A method of a servicing or maintaining a blanket drum in the can decorator of any preceding claim, comprising the step of rotating the blanket drum by engaging the blanket drum motor without rotating the spindle disc, transfer wheel, and pin chain drive. 10. A blanket drum in a can decorator comprising: printing cylinders; inkers for providing ink to the printing cylinders; blankets for receiving ink from the printing cylinders; and an axial actuator adapted for axially positioning the printing cylinder; and a radial actuator adapted for radially positioning the printing cylinder; whereby the axial actuator and the radial actuator adjust the positioning of the printing cylinder to register an image relative to beverage cans based on inputs into a control system. 11. The blanket drum of claim 10 wherein the axial actuator and the radial actuator are servo motors. 12. The blanket drum of claim 10 or 11 wherein the input for controlling the actuators is entered in a human-machine interface based on human observations. 13. The blanket drum of claim 10 or 11 wherein input for controlling the actuators is entered in a human-machine interface based on measurements of can images from a microscope. 14. The blanket drum of claim 10 or 11 wherein input for controlling the actuators is from cameras that image the can after printing. 15. The blanket drum of claim 14 wherein the input from the imaging is automatically fed to the actuators, with or without human operator action. 16. A method of adjusting position of a printing cylinder in the blanket drum of claim 9, comprising the steps of: determining target adjustments to the axial and/or radial position of at least one of the printing cylinders; and sending a signal to the axial actuator and/or radial actuator associated with the at least one printing cylinder; and adjusting the axial and/or radial position by movement of the axial actuator and/or radial actuator in response to the signal. 17. The method of claim 16 wherein the determining step includes human action of ascertaining image registration and entering adjustment data into an interface of a control system that generates the signal and performs the sending step. 18. The method of claim 16 wherein the determining step includes human action of ascertaining image registration through a microscope and entering adjustment data into an interface of a control system that generates the signal and performs the sending step. 19. The method of claim 16 wherein the determining step includes a camera ascertaining image registration information, determining adjustment data based on image registration information, and creating the signal based on the image registration information. 20. The method of any of claims 16 through 19 wherein the axial actuator is a servo motor and the radial actuator is a servo motor, and wherein the servo motors operate to perform the adjusting step. 21. The blanket drum of any of the preceding claims wherein the blanket drum has plural printing cylinders, and each one of the printing cylinder has an axial actuator and a radial actuator. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/360,865, filed Jul. 11, 2016, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference for any and all purposes. BACKGROUND Beverage cans are produced in massive quantities in high speed equipment. One aspect of modern beverage can manufacturing is can decoration in a specialized machine referred to as a decorator. An example of a prior art decorator is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,337,659. Commercial can decorators are sold, for example, by Stolle Machinery and Formatec. As described in the 659 Patent, many commercial can decorators include an infeed conveyor that receives cans from a can supply and directs them to accurate cradles or pockets along the periphery of a pocket wheel. The pocket wheel is fixed to a continuously rotating mandrel carrier wheel or spindle disc, which in turn is fixed to a continuously rotating horizontal drive shaft. Horizontal spindles or mandrels, each being pivotable about its own axis, are mounted to the mandrel carrier wheel adjacent its periphery. While mounted on the mandrels, the cans are decorated by being brought into engagement with a blanket (e.g., without limitation, a replaceable adhesive-backed piece of rubber) that is adhered to a blanket segment of the multicolor printing unit. The blankets are carried by a blanket drum. Then the outside of each decorated can is coated with a protective film of varnish applied by an overvarnish unit. The decorated and coated cans are transferred from the mandrels to a transfer wheel and then to generally horizontal pins carried by a chain-type output conveyor, which carries the cans through a curing oven. Conventional decorators are driven by a single motor and a series of shafts, tensioners, chains/belts and gearboxes to each of the four main shafts (that is, the shafts for the blanket drum, spindle disc, transfer wheel, and pin chain drive). In other words, the drives are mechanically linked and once the relative timing positions to each other are set, they rarely move. The overvarnish unit shaft is driven by a separate motor (that is, prior art overvarnish units are not mechanically linked to the drive system that mechanically drives the blanket drum, spindle disc, transfer wheel, and pin chain drive) to provide different speeds to allow different numbers of ‘wraps’ or coatings of varnish depending on customer specification. Regarding applying images to the cans, while moving toward engagement with an undecorated can, the blanket engages a plurality of printing cylinders, each of which is associated with an individual ink station assembly or inker. Each inker produces a controlled film of ink that is applied to the printing cylinder. Typically, each inker provides a different color ink and each printing cylinder applies a different image segment to the blanket. All of these image segments combine to produce the same main image that is transferred to the can body. Accordingly, registration of the print cylinders is crucial to image quality. A common way for operators to register the print cylinders is to inspect the can image at the blow off position, then manually adjust the radial and axial registration close to the plate cylinder on the machine underneath the inking units. This is normally by a platform that is in front of the colour section. For each plate cylinder there are two mechanical assemblies that either push/pull the plate cylinder for the axial registration or rotate the plate cylinder for radial registration. The operator uses various tools to loosen the assembly allowing it to move and then reverses the process for tightening it. This process of adjusting the axial and radial position of the plate cylinder can be repeated several times in each inker position to register the image. Typically a can may have anything from 4 to 8 colours and therefore the registration process is repeated for the number of colours being used. Typically there are two operators that perform the registration operation. One operator is on the platform and one close to the blow off point where the printed cans are inspected. The operator at the blow off point collects two cans, inspects one and throws the other to his colleague on the platform. After a discussion and assessment of the image, they agree on what needs to move and by how much. The operator then makes the manual adjustments until both are happy with the registration in all positions. The process of determining the quality of the image and determining the direction and magnitude of the axial and radial adjustments of the plate cylinders requires skill and experience. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A can decorator includes independent servo motors to drive each of the main four axes independently. Preferably a servo motor directly drives the blanket drum. And each one of the spindle disc, transfer wheel and pin chain drive is driven by its own servo motor, preferably through its own planetary gearbox. Preferably, the inkers and over varnish will be separately driven. A virtual master controller preferably adjusts each motor to match the relative speeds. Inker speed is a function of the overall speed and is adjusted accordingly. The servo motors are fitted with encoders, preferably absolute encoders, and have condition monitoring features that feedback to the HMI including temperature, vibration, and efficiency (that is, power consumption). The present invention preferably is implemented for decorating beverage can bodies before formation of a neck, and the present invention encompasses other can bodies, such as other drawn and wall ironed can bodies, and the like. According to a first embodiment, a can decorator comprises: a spindle disc adapted for (i) receiving beverage cans from an infeed and (ii) carrying and rotating each can body on a corresponding spindle; the spindle disc being driven by a spindle disc motor having an encoder; a blanket drum adapted for (i) applying ink to printing cylinders and (ii) rotating the print cylinders in registration with beverage cans on the spindle disc to decorate the cans; the blanket drum being driven by a blanket drum motor having an encoder; a transfer wheel adapted for receiving beverage cans from the spindle disc after decoration by the blanket drum; the transfer wheel being driven by a transfer wheel motor having an encoder; a pin chain drive adapted for receiving cans from the transfer wheel and transporting the cans on a chain through an oven; the pin chain drive being driving by a pin chain drive motor having an encoder; and a controller adapted for receiving encoder information and matching or adjusting speeds of the spindle disc motor, the blanket drum motor, the transfer wheel motor, and the pin chain drive motor. Preferably any one of the encoder of the motors is an absolute encoder, and preferably the encoder on each one of the motors is an absolute encoder. Preferably the motors are servo motors. Each one of the motors may be capable of being operated while the other motors are off, whereby the operating motor is operable for maintenance tasks. The can decorator may also include an over-varnish disc adapted for applying a varnish to the cans while on the spindle disc. In operation, and according to a method of operating the can decorator described above, the speed of at least one of the spindle disc motor, the blanket drum motor, transfer wheel motor, and pin chain drive motor may be adjusted to response to can image information to enhance the can image. Further, a pin chain in the can decorator may be changed by rotating the pin chain drive by engaging the pin chain drive motor without rotating the spindle disc, blanket drum, and transfer wheel. The blanket drum may be serviced or maintained by rotating the blanket drum by engaging the blanket drum motor without rotating the spindle disc, transfer wheel, and pin chain drive. According to another aspect of the invention, a blanket drum in a can decorator includes: printing cylinders; inkers for providing ink to the printing cylinders; blankets for receiving ink from the printing cylinders; an axial actuator adapted for axially positioning the printing cylinder; and a radial actuator adapted for radially positioning the printing cylinder. The axial actuator and the radial actuator adjust the positioning of the printing cylinder to register an image relative to beverage cans based on inputs into a control system. Preferably, the axial actuator and the radial actuator are servo motors. The input for controlling the actuators may be entered in a human-machine interface based on human observations, may be entered in a human-machine interface based on measurements of can images from a microscope, may be from cameras that image the can after printing, which imaging may automatically fed to the actuators, with or without human operator action. The blanket has plural printing cylinders, and each one of the printing cylinder has an axial actuator and a radial actuator. According to another aspect of the present invention, the blanket drum described above may be adjusted by the steps of: determining target adjustments to the axial and/or radial position of at least one of the printing cylinders; sending a signal to the axial actuator and/or radial actuator associated with the at least one printing cylinder; and adjusting the axial and/or radial position by movement of the axial actuator and/or radial actuator in response to the signal. The determining step may include: human action of ascertaining image registration and entering adjustment data into an interface of a control system that generates the signal and performs the sending step. The determining step may include human action of ascertaining image registration through a microscope and entering adjustment data into an interface of a control system that generates the signal and performs the sending step. The determining step may also include a camera ascertaining image registration information, determining adjustment data based on image registration information, and creating the signal based on the image registration information. Again, preferably the axial actuator is a servo motor and the radial actuator is a servo motor, and wherein the servo motors operate to perform the adjusting step. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 is a schematic side view of a beverage can decorator according to an aspect of the invention; and FIG. 2 is a view of a plate cylinder. DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENT A beverage can decorator 10 includes a spindle disc 20, a blanket drum 30, a transfer wheel 40, a pin chain assembly 50, an over-varnish system 60, and several inkers 70. Each one of the spindle disc 20, blanket drum 30, transfer starwheel 40, pin chain assembly 50, and over-varnish system 60 may employ mechanical parts or systems that are conventional, such as those that are supplied by Stolle Machinery (such as those marketed under the tradename Concord and Rutherford or Formatec), as will be understood by persons familiar with beverage can decorator technology. Referring to FIG. 1, undecorated can bodies are first fed to spindle disc 20 from a can infeed conveyor. Spindle disc 20 carries the can bodies on a mandrel or spindle assembly into contact with a printing blanket of the blanket drum 30. Spindle disc 20 has a central shaft that is connected to a spindle disc servo motor (not shown in the figures) that has an encoder, preferably an absolute encoder. The term “encoder” is used in herein to refer to any device for determining the location of a shaft or rotor, such as conventional incremental encoders and absolute encoders, which will be understood by persons familiar with rotating machinery and electric motors. Blanket drum 30 rotates radially within plural inking systems that supply ink and an image to the printing blankets. Each inker 70 is associated with one color ink and each inker is associated with its own printing cylinder 80 that rotates in registration with other components. The blanket drum has a shaft driven by a blanket drum servo motor that has an absolute encoder. While the can bodies are on the spindle disc and after contact with the printing blankets, the cans receive an overvarnish from the overvarnish system 60, which preferably is conventional and includes its own servo motor that is controlled according to conventional parameters. The cans exit the spindle disc 20 after the overvarnish application when they are handed off to transfer wheel 30, which has a shaft driven by a transfer wheel servo motor having an absolute encoder. The cans are handed off from transfer wheel 30 onto a pin chain that is operated by a pin chain drive 50. The decorated and varnished cans are moved on the pin chain through a conventional curing oven. Pin chain drive 50 has a shaft driven by a pin chain drive servo motor that has an absolute encoder. A controller (not shown in the figures) receives encoder information and matches or adjusts speeds or positions of the spindle disc motor, the blanket drum motor, the transfer wheel motor, and/or the pin chain drive motor, as needed. Further, any or all of the spindle disc motor, the blanket drum motor, the transfer wheel motor, and the pin chain drive motor preferably have condition monitoring features, including temperature, vibration, and efficiency (that is, power consumption), that feed back to the controller and/or human-machine interface. Having individual servo motors on any or all of the axes also allows shafts to be driven or jogged separately. Thus, any or all of the spindle disc 20, blanket drum 30, transfer starwheel 40, pin chain assembly 50, and overvarnish system 60 can alone be serviced, maintained, or repaired without turning the others. For example, when changing the pin chain, the pin chain can be driven without moving the other components of the machine. Similarly, if blanket drum 30 requires service, maintenance, or repair (such as, when changing blankets, labels and inkers), blanket drum 30 can be run or positioned independently—without moving other components. The capability of moving only one of the spindle disc 20, blanket drum 30, transfer starwheel 40, and pin chain assembly 50 is different than conventional decorators, for which when maintenance is needed, there is one operator whose task is to bar the machine over, moving all the mechanical components together. Another advantage includes being able to adjust the timing of each part of the machine. For example at the transfer position a decorated can be blown off a mandrel onto a pad with a suction cup that holds the can until it is transferred onto the pin chain. The system described herein can adjust the position of this change-over point, such as by adjustment of the relative speeds or position, during operation. Previously, it would have meant removing the transfer wheel at the front and rotating slightly before re-fitting. According to another aspect of the present invention, a blanket drum of a can decorator (preferably a beverage can decorator) includes servo motors for moving the plate cylinders to adjust the axial and radial positions of the print cylinders. Referring to FIG. 2, after the operators inspect the image of the can and determine that a plate cylinder requires adjustment, the plate cylinder may be axially or longitudinally moved forward or rearward by one or more servo motors, and also may be moved radially (that is, rotated) by one or more servo motors. The plate cylinder system includes servo motors to move or slide the plate cylinder axially, and a servo motor to move the plate cylinder radially. Preferably the plate cylinder servo motors are positioned at the back of the machine to allow greater access around the plate cylinder assembly at the front of the machine. Optionally, a microscope (or like device) may be used to measure the amount of registration adjustment an image requires. The control on the HMI would allow the operator to set the measured amount and move the plate cylinders via the servo motors accordingly. Moreover, another option is for automatic registration measurement via a series of cameras in a position after the can has been fully printed. The registration could therefore be constantly monitored and adjusted accordingly while the machine is running. The present invention is described with reference to particular embodiments. The present invention is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments or combinations set out in the embodiments. For merely one example, the description states that each of several shafts has its own servo motor, but the present invention is not limited to all the shafts having a servo motor, and encompasses any combination thereof. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Beverage cans are produced in massive quantities in high speed equipment. One aspect of modern beverage can manufacturing is can decoration in a specialized machine referred to as a decorator. An example of a prior art decorator is shown in U.S. Pat. No. 5,337,659. Commercial can decorators are sold, for example, by Stolle Machinery and Formatec. As described in the 659 Patent, many commercial can decorators include an infeed conveyor that receives cans from a can supply and directs them to accurate cradles or pockets along the periphery of a pocket wheel. The pocket wheel is fixed to a continuously rotating mandrel carrier wheel or spindle disc, which in turn is fixed to a continuously rotating horizontal drive shaft. Horizontal spindles or mandrels, each being pivotable about its own axis, are mounted to the mandrel carrier wheel adjacent its periphery. While mounted on the mandrels, the cans are decorated by being brought into engagement with a blanket (e.g., without limitation, a replaceable adhesive-backed piece of rubber) that is adhered to a blanket segment of the multicolor printing unit. The blankets are carried by a blanket drum. Then the outside of each decorated can is coated with a protective film of varnish applied by an overvarnish unit. The decorated and coated cans are transferred from the mandrels to a transfer wheel and then to generally horizontal pins carried by a chain-type output conveyor, which carries the cans through a curing oven. Conventional decorators are driven by a single motor and a series of shafts, tensioners, chains/belts and gearboxes to each of the four main shafts (that is, the shafts for the blanket drum, spindle disc, transfer wheel, and pin chain drive). In other words, the drives are mechanically linked and once the relative timing positions to each other are set, they rarely move. The overvarnish unit shaft is driven by a separate motor (that is, prior art overvarnish units are not mechanically linked to the drive system that mechanically drives the blanket drum, spindle disc, transfer wheel, and pin chain drive) to provide different speeds to allow different numbers of ‘wraps’ or coatings of varnish depending on customer specification. Regarding applying images to the cans, while moving toward engagement with an undecorated can, the blanket engages a plurality of printing cylinders, each of which is associated with an individual ink station assembly or inker. Each inker produces a controlled film of ink that is applied to the printing cylinder. Typically, each inker provides a different color ink and each printing cylinder applies a different image segment to the blanket. All of these image segments combine to produce the same main image that is transferred to the can body. Accordingly, registration of the print cylinders is crucial to image quality. A common way for operators to register the print cylinders is to inspect the can image at the blow off position, then manually adjust the radial and axial registration close to the plate cylinder on the machine underneath the inking units. This is normally by a platform that is in front of the colour section. For each plate cylinder there are two mechanical assemblies that either push/pull the plate cylinder for the axial registration or rotate the plate cylinder for radial registration. The operator uses various tools to loosen the assembly allowing it to move and then reverses the process for tightening it. This process of adjusting the axial and radial position of the plate cylinder can be repeated several times in each inker position to register the image. Typically a can may have anything from 4 to 8 colours and therefore the registration process is repeated for the number of colours being used. Typically there are two operators that perform the registration operation. One operator is on the platform and one close to the blow off point where the printed cans are inspected. The operator at the blow off point collects two cans, inspects one and throws the other to his colleague on the platform. After a discussion and assessment of the image, they agree on what needs to move and by how much. The operator then makes the manual adjustments until both are happy with the registration in all positions. The process of determining the quality of the image and determining the direction and magnitude of the axial and radial adjustments of the plate cylinders requires skill and experience. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A can decorator includes independent servo motors to drive each of the main four axes independently. Preferably a servo motor directly drives the blanket drum. And each one of the spindle disc, transfer wheel and pin chain drive is driven by its own servo motor, preferably through its own planetary gearbox. Preferably, the inkers and over varnish will be separately driven. A virtual master controller preferably adjusts each motor to match the relative speeds. Inker speed is a function of the overall speed and is adjusted accordingly. The servo motors are fitted with encoders, preferably absolute encoders, and have condition monitoring features that feedback to the HMI including temperature, vibration, and efficiency (that is, power consumption). The present invention preferably is implemented for decorating beverage can bodies before formation of a neck, and the present invention encompasses other can bodies, such as other drawn and wall ironed can bodies, and the like. According to a first embodiment, a can decorator comprises: a spindle disc adapted for (i) receiving beverage cans from an infeed and (ii) carrying and rotating each can body on a corresponding spindle; the spindle disc being driven by a spindle disc motor having an encoder; a blanket drum adapted for (i) applying ink to printing cylinders and (ii) rotating the print cylinders in registration with beverage cans on the spindle disc to decorate the cans; the blanket drum being driven by a blanket drum motor having an encoder; a transfer wheel adapted for receiving beverage cans from the spindle disc after decoration by the blanket drum; the transfer wheel being driven by a transfer wheel motor having an encoder; a pin chain drive adapted for receiving cans from the transfer wheel and transporting the cans on a chain through an oven; the pin chain drive being driving by a pin chain drive motor having an encoder; and a controller adapted for receiving encoder information and matching or adjusting speeds of the spindle disc motor, the blanket drum motor, the transfer wheel motor, and the pin chain drive motor. Preferably any one of the encoder of the motors is an absolute encoder, and preferably the encoder on each one of the motors is an absolute encoder. Preferably the motors are servo motors. Each one of the motors may be capable of being operated while the other motors are off, whereby the operating motor is operable for maintenance tasks. The can decorator may also include an over-varnish disc adapted for applying a varnish to the cans while on the spindle disc. In operation, and according to a method of operating the can decorator described above, the speed of at least one of the spindle disc motor, the blanket drum motor, transfer wheel motor, and pin chain drive motor may be adjusted to response to can image information to enhance the can image. Further, a pin chain in the can decorator may be changed by rotating the pin chain drive by engaging the pin chain drive motor without rotating the spindle disc, blanket drum, and transfer wheel. The blanket drum may be serviced or maintained by rotating the blanket drum by engaging the blanket drum motor without rotating the spindle disc, transfer wheel, and pin chain drive. According to another aspect of the invention, a blanket drum in a can decorator includes: printing cylinders; inkers for providing ink to the printing cylinders; blankets for receiving ink from the printing cylinders; an axial actuator adapted for axially positioning the printing cylinder; and a radial actuator adapted for radially positioning the printing cylinder. The axial actuator and the radial actuator adjust the positioning of the printing cylinder to register an image relative to beverage cans based on inputs into a control system. Preferably, the axial actuator and the radial actuator are servo motors. The input for controlling the actuators may be entered in a human-machine interface based on human observations, may be entered in a human-machine interface based on measurements of can images from a microscope, may be from cameras that image the can after printing, which imaging may automatically fed to the actuators, with or without human operator action. The blanket has plural printing cylinders, and each one of the printing cylinder has an axial actuator and a radial actuator. According to another aspect of the present invention, the blanket drum described above may be adjusted by the steps of: determining target adjustments to the axial and/or radial position of at least one of the printing cylinders; sending a signal to the axial actuator and/or radial actuator associated with the at least one printing cylinder; and adjusting the axial and/or radial position by movement of the axial actuator and/or radial actuator in response to the signal. The determining step may include: human action of ascertaining image registration and entering adjustment data into an interface of a control system that generates the signal and performs the sending step. The determining step may include human action of ascertaining image registration through a microscope and entering adjustment data into an interface of a control system that generates the signal and performs the sending step. The determining step may also include a camera ascertaining image registration information, determining adjustment data based on image registration information, and creating the signal based on the image registration information. Again, preferably the axial actuator is a servo motor and the radial actuator is a servo motor, and wherein the servo motors operate to perform the adjusting step. | B41F1708 | 20170710 | 20180111 | 74554.0 | B41F1708 | 0 | EVANISKO, LESLIE J | Decorator Drive and Printing Plate Cylinder Automation | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | B41F | 2,017 |
|
15,645,508 | PENDING | Method of Coloring a Pre-Sintered Dental Restoration | A method of coloring pre-sintered dental restoration, comprises: securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; applying a preceding liquid on the dental restoration; dipping the dental restoration, with the preceding liquid thereon, into a subsequent liquid for coloring; and sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration. The subsequent liquid is different from the preceding liquid. The preceding liquid at least partly blocks or interferes with an infiltration of the subsequent liquid into an area where the preceding liquid was applied. The fully sintered dental restoration has less color/chroma in the area where the preceding liquid was applied. | 1. A method of coloring a pre-sintered dental restoration, the method comprising, in sequence, the steps of: a) securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; and then b) applying a preceding liquid on an incisal or occlusal area of the dental restoration; and then c) dipping the dental restoration, with the preceding liquid in the incisal or occlusal area, into a subsequent liquid for coloring, the subsequent liquid being different from the preceding liquid, and with the preceding liquid at least partly blocking or interfering with an infiltration of the subsequent liquid into the incisal or occlusal area with the preceding liquid; and then d) sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration with less color/chroma in the incisal or occlusal area, and more color/chroma in a body or cervical area, of the fully sintered dental restoration. 2. The method in accordance with claim 1, wherein the preceding liquid comprises deionized water, polyethylene glycol, manganese chloride or other coloring ions. 3. The method in accordance with claim 1, wherein applying the preceding liquid comprises applying the preceding liquid using a brush; wherein dipping the dental restoration comprises immersing the dental restoration into the subsequent liquid. 4. A method of coloring a pre-sintered dental restoration, the method comprising, in sequence, the steps of: a) securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; and then b) applying a dental liquid on an incisal or occlusal area of the dental restoration; and then c) sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration having a translucency and color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the translucency increasing in one direction of the dental restoration and the color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction of the dental restoration. 5. The method in accordance with claim 4, wherein the dental liquid comprises manganese chloride or other coloring ions for incisal effect. 6. The method in accordance with claim 4, wherein the fully sintered dental restoration displays a multiple color intensity effect with less color/chroma in the incisal or occlusal area, and more color in a body or cervical area. 7. A method of coloring pre-sintered dental restoration, the method comprising, in sequence, the steps of: a) securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; and then b) applying a preceding liquid on the dental restoration; and then c) dipping the dental restoration, with the preceding liquid therein, into a subsequent liquid for coloring, the subsequent liquid being different from the preceding liquid, the preceding liquid at least partly blocking or interfering with an infiltration of the subsequent liquid into an area where the preceding liquid was applied; and then d) sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration with less color/chroma in the area where the preceding liquid was applied. 8. The method in accordance with claim 7, wherein the preceding liquid comprises deionized water and polyethylene glycol. 9. The method in accordance with claim 7, wherein applying the preceding liquid comprises applying the preceding liquid using a brush; wherein dipping the dental restoration comprises immersing the dental restoration into the subsequent liquid. | PRIORITY CLAIM(S) This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/595,365, filed May 15, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/559,571, filed Dec. 3, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,649,179, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/403,417, filed Feb. 23, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,936,848, which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. RELATED APPLICATION(S) This is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/403,494, filed Feb. 23, 2012; which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to dental blanks for forming dental prostheses. More particularly, the present invention relates to a green body zirconia dental blank with at chemical compositions of increasing amounts of yttria through a thickness thereof and a pre-sintered optical characteristic of chroma that is substantially consistent and white across the thickness; and being milled, colored and sintered to form the dental prosthesis with an optical characteristic of decreasing chroma through a thickness of the dental prosthesis after sintering. Related Art There are three main classes of dental ceramics: Group I—predominantly glassy materials; Group II—particle-filled glasses and glass-ceramics as a special subset of particle-filled glasses; and Group III—polycrystalline ceramics. Group I—predominantly glassy ceramics—are 3-D networks of atoms having no regular pattern to the spacing between nearest or next nearest neighbors, thus their structure is ‘amorphous’ or without form. Glasses in dental ceramics derive principally from a group of mined minerals called feldspar and are based on silica (silicon oxide) and alumina (aluminum oxide), hence feldspathic porcelains belong to a family called alumino-silicate glasses. Group II—particle-filled glasses and glass-ceramics—have filler particles that are added to the base glass composition in order to improve mechanical properties and to control optical effects such as opalescence, color and opacity. These fillers are usually crystalline but can also be particles of a higher melting glass. Glass-ceramics in Group II have crystalline filler particles added mechanically to the glass, e.g. by simply mixing together crystalline and glass powders prior to firing. In a more recent approach, the filler particles are grown inside the glass object (prosthesis) after the object has been formed. After forming, the glass object is given a special heat treatment, causing the precipitation and growth of crystallites within the glass. Such particle-filled composites are called glass-ceramics. More recently a glass-ceramic containing 70 vol % crystalline lithium disilicate filler has been commercialized for dental use. Example of this is Empress 2, now e.maxPress and e.maxCAD from IvoClar-Vivadent. Group III—polycrystalline ceramics—have no glassy components; all of the atoms are densely packed into regular arrays that are much more difficult to drive a crack through than atoms in the less dense and irregular network found in glasses. Hence, polycrystalline ceramics are generally much tougher and stronger than group I and II glassy ceramics. Polycrystalline ceramics are more difficult to process into complex shapes (e.g. a prosthesis) than are glassy ceramics and tend to be relatively opaque compared to glassy ceramics. (Ceramic materials in dentistry: historical evolution and current practice (2011), J R Kelly, University of Connecticut Health Center, Department of Reconstructive Sciences, Farminton, Conn.). Advanced polycrystalline ceramic materials such as zirconia have great potential as substitutes for traditional materials in many biomedical applications. Since the end of the 1990s, the form of partially stabilized zirconia has been promoted as suitable for dental use due to its excellent strength and superior fracture resistance. In addition, zirconia bio-ceramic presents enhanced biocompatibility, low radioactivity, and good aesthetic properties. The introduction of computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) techniques has increased the general acceptance of zirconia in dentistry. Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) known as zirconia, is a crystalline oxide of zirconium. Although pure zirconium oxide does not occur in nature, it is found in the minerals baddeleyite and zircon (ZrSiO4). At ordinary temperatures, it has a hexagonal close-packed crystalline structure and forms a number of compounds such as zirconate (ZrO3-2) and zirconyl (ZrO+2) salts. Zirconia is obtained as a powder and possesses both acidic and basic properties. Zirconium oxide crystals are arranged in crystalline cells (mesh) which can be categorized in three crystallographic phases: 1) the cubic (C) in the form of a straight prism with square sides 2) the tetragonal (T) in the form of a straight prism with rectangular sides and 3) the monoclinic (M) in the form of a deformed prism with parallelepiped sides. The cubic phase is stable above 2,370° C. and has moderate mechanical properties, the tetragonal phase is stable between 1,170° C. and 2,370° C. and allows a ceramic with improved mechanical properties to be obtained, while the monoclinic phase, which is stable at room temperatures up to 1,170° C., presents reduced mechanical performance and may contribute to a reduction in the cohesion of the ceramic particles and thus of the density. Partially stabilized zirconia is a mixture of zirconia polymorphs, because insufficient cubic phase-forming oxide (stabilizer) has been added and a cubic plus metastable tetragonal ZrO2 mixture is obtained. A smaller addition of stabilizer to the pure zirconia will bring its structure into a tetragonal phase at a temperature higher than 1,000° C. and a mixture of cubic phase and monoclinic (or tetragonal) phase at a lower temperature. This partially stabilized zirconia is also called tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (TZP). Several different oxides, eg, magnesium oxide (MgO), yttrium oxide, (Y2O3), calcium oxide (CaO), and cerium oxide (Ce2O3), can be added to zirconia to stabilize the tetragonal and/or cubic phases. Nowadays dental restorations or prostheses are often made using zirconia ceramic with CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided Machining) process, which typically includes: capturing data representing the shape of a patient's teeth, for example by scanning a plaster model of the patient's teeth or alternatively by scanning the actual teeth in the patient's mouth; designing the shape of a dental restoration precursor based on the captured data using software, such as computer-aided design (CAD) software; machining the dental restoration precursor to correspond to the designed shape, for example, by an automated Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) machine; and optionally finishing the dental restoration precursor by sintering and/or veneering. A common method of making dental restorations includes milling a restoration precursor out of a zirconia disc/blank of a pre-sintered but still porous ceramic material. The disc/blank is typically formed by compacting an amount of ceramic powder. The zirconia disc/blank of compacted powder is usually subsequently pre-sintered to provide it with the required mechanical stability for handling and machining. Once the restoration precursor has been obtained from machining the disc/blank the precursor is typically sintered in the further process of making the final dental restoration. During sintering the precursor typically shrinks, generally proportionally, because the initially porous material reduces in porosity and increases in density. For this reason the restoration precursor may be initially larger, for example about 18 to 27%, than the desired final shape after sintering, to account for shrinkage during the sintering step. To form the final dental restoration the sintered restoration precursor may be veneered or otherwise finished. Some Group I or II glass ceramic blocks already have different upper and lower optical properties, such as translucency, brightness, reflectance and color. Thus, the glass ceramic block itself already has pre-determined optical properties. For example, see U.S. Pat. No. 8,025,992. Such a pre-colored glass ceramic block can be used primarily in dentists' office with a view to finish the indirect treatment with just one visit. The dental laboratory can also be a user. Here the indirect treatment mainly means to put a crown, bridge, inlay and/or onlay in replacement of the damaged tooth. After the dentist preps the tooth, he/she chooses a glass ceramic block that already has color in it. Each layer of the block has a color profile already integrated into the block after the pre-sintered stage and it is implied that each layer should not be different in chemical characteristics. For each layer, coloring is affected only by addition of coloring oxides to the melt from which the granulate is obtained, or to the ground granulate and not due to differing chemical characteristics. These oxides are then present separately. In summary, these pre-colored, glass ceramic blocks already have predetermined, built-in optical properties in the block It can be advantageous for small, ready-to-be-used individual blocks to have these built-in optical characteristics for small production. But pre-colored individual blocks can also be disadvantageous for mass production of prostheses of various sizes and various desired optical characteristics. The milling machine mills the pre-colored glass ceramic block one at a time in a single mill sequence. The inefficiency with this ceramic block is that if there are 15 different colors of prosthetic teeth to be milled, then the machine should be stopped each time so that the milled block could be removed and each different block could be loaded. Thus, the pre-colored glass ceramic blocks are not efficient for dental laboratories where numerous cases should be milled, regardless of the optical properties of the dental prostheses. These laboratories need to reduce the stopping of the machines as much as possible to save time and increase productivity. For examples of pre-colored dental blocks, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,025,992 and 7,981,531; and US Patent Publication No. 2011-0236855. For examples of zirconia dental blocks, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,011,522 and 6,354,836. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It has been recognized that it would be advantageous to develop a dental prosthesis with improved or more natural optical characteristics, such as translucency and/or chroma, and/or with different layers having different optical characteristics. In addition, it has been recognized that it would be advantageous to develop a green body dental blank having different layers of different chemical compositions, but substantially consistent optical characteristics prior to sintering, and which can be milled, colored and sintered to obtain layers of different optical characteristics. The invention provides a method of coloring a pre-sintered dental restoration, comprising: securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; applying a preceding liquid on an incisal or occlusal area of the dental restoration; dipping the dental restoration, with the preceding liquid in the incisal or occlusal area, into a subsequent liquid for coloring; and sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration. The subsequent liquid is different from the preceding liquid. The preceding liquid at least partly blocks or interferes with an infiltration of the subsequent liquid into the incisal or occlusal area with the preceding liquid. The fully sintered dental restoration has less color/chroma in the incisal or occlusal area, and more color/chroma in a body or cervical area. In addition, the invention provides a method of coloring a pre-sintered dental restoration, comprising: securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; applying a dental liquid on an incisal or occlusal area of the dental restoration; and sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration. The fully sintered dental restoration has a translucency and color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship, with the translucency increasing in one direction of the dental restoration. and the color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction of the dental restoration. Furthermore, the invention provides a method of coloring pre-sintered dental restoration, comprising: securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; applying a preceding liquid on the dental restoration; dipping the dental restoration, with the preceding liquid therein, into a subsequent liquid for coloring; and sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration. The subsequent liquid is different from the preceding liquid. The preceding liquid at least partly blocks or interferes with an infiltration of the subsequent liquid into an area where the preceding liquid was applied. The fully sintered dental restoration has less color/chroma in the area where the preceding liquid was applied. In another aspect, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered strength with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas and the strength decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. In addition, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered strength and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with the post-sintered strength increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma also increasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. In addition, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body having multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The different chemical composition include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria is increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in a lower area to 6-10 wt % in an upper area. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. Furthermore, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, including a lower area configured to correspond to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis produced from the dental block, and an upper area configured to correspond to an incisal area of the dental prosthesis. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. Thus, the current invention introduces a method of producing a yttria (Y2O3) stabilized polycrystalline dental zirconia disc/blank that does not contain color pigments in it. Incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) was applied towards one direction in the production of this disc/blank. After pre-sintering the green body looks generally opaque over the entire surface. The dental restoration would then be milled out of this green body, followed by coloring and final sintering. Only at this restoration stage can the desirable optical properties match that found in the human tooth. By increasing the amount of yttria (Y2O3) towards the incisal area at the initial powder characterization stage before green body molding, it was discovered that the translucency level was increased and color chroma level was decreased after primary sintering which is a typical characteristic of a natural human tooth. The benefit of this discovery of incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) to one specific direction is that it enables the smooth transition of a certain level of translucency and color chroma to another level. Also, separating the processes of 1) producing a non-colored green body after the pre-sintering stage and 2) implementing custom coloring in a subsequent stage, enables the mass production of multiple dental restorations in dental laboratories. The current invention zirconia material can be used to manufacture dental prostheses including, but not limited to, crowns, partial crowns, bridges, inlays, onlays, orthodontic appliances, space maintainers, tooth replacement appliances, splints, dentures, posts, facings, veneers, facets, implants, abutments, cylinders, and connectors. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Additional features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the detailed description which follows, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which together illustrate, by way of example, features of the invention; and, wherein: FIG. 1 is a flowchart showing a method of making a green body dental block and a dental prosthesis in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2a is a perspective view of the green body dental block in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2b is a schematic perspective view of the green body dental block of FIG. 1 shown with multiple different layers and a dental prosthesis to be milled therefrom; FIG. 2c is a schematic perspective view of another green body dental block in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2d is a schematic perspective view of another green body dental block in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2e is a schematic perspective view of another green body dental block in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3a is a schematic perspective view of the green body dental block of FIG. 1 shown with multiple different layers and a dental prosthesis and a sample disc to be milled therefrom; FIG. 3b is a schematic view of a green body dental prosthesis milled from the green body dental blank of FIG. 3a shown with multiple different layers; FIG. 3c is a schematic view of a green body sample disc milled from the green body dental blank of FIG. 3a shown with multiple different layers; FIG. 3d is a schematic view of a portion of the green body showing the open pores between grains thereof; FIG. 3e is a graph of the translucency of the multiple different layers of the green body dental prosthesis of FIG. 3b; FIG. 3f is a graph of the chroma level of the multiple different layers of the green body dental prosthesis of FIG. 3b; FIG. 3g is schematic view of a dental prosthesis milled from the green body dental blank of FIG. 3a shown with multiple different layers; FIG. 3h is a schematic view of a sample disc milled from the green body dental blank of FIG. 3a shown with multiple different layers; FIG. 3i is a graph showing translucency and chroma levels for the dental prosthesis of FIG. 3g; FIG. 3j is a graph showing translucency, chromal level and strength across the multiple different layers of the dental prosthesis of FIG. 3g; FIG. 3k is a schematic view showing the green body dental prosthesis of FIG. 3b being colored; FIG. 4a-d are cross-sectional side schematic view of dental prostheses of the present invention with the layers thereof having different optical properties; FIG. 5a and b are graphs of representative x-ray diffraction pattern for an exemplary zirconia disc of the present invention; FIG. 6a is a schematic showing a qualitative translucency assessment of the current invention after final sintering; FIG. 6b is a graph depicting the translucency of the current invention at 600nm for each level of differing material in the restoration after the final sintering stage; FIG. 7a is a schematic diagram for measuring translucency of samples using a high-end spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere; FIG. 7b is a graphical representation of light transmittance (%) versus wavelength (nm) at 400 to 800 nm for each level of differing material in the restoration after final sintering; levels are labeled as samples A, B, C, D, and E of the current invention; FIG. 8. is a schematic of the CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system to help understand the color aspect of the current invention; FIGS. 9a and 9b are schematic views of a color chroma measuring method using a hand-held spectrophotometer; FIG. 10a is a schematic cross-sectional side view of a dental prosthesis having different color chroma layers; FIG. 10b is a graphical representation showing the color chroma level for samples A, B, C, D, and E of FIG. 10a; and FIG. 11a and b are schematic views of coloring of a green body dental prosthesis. Reference will now be made to the exemplary embodiments illustrated, and specific language will be used herein to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the invention is thereby intended. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENT(S) Definitions The terms “zirconia green body” and “green body” are used interchangeably herein to mean a three-dimensional granular structure comprised of zirconia oxide particles, which is not sintered yet or, more frequently referred to, is partially sintered, pre-sintered or soft sintered at a temperature of 900-1100° C., to facilitate millability of the disc/blank. The terms “green body dental prosthesis” and “green dental prosthesis” are used interchangeably herein to mean a dental prosthesis that has been milled from the green body, but has not yet been sintered to become the final dental prosthesis. The terms “pre-sintering” and “soft sintering” and “partial sintering” are used interchangeably herein to mean a reduction of size and/or number or the elimination of interparticle pores in a granular structure comprised of particles by heating, without melting, of the particles. Pre-sintering is carried out at a temperature of around 900-1100° C. to facilitate the machine milling of molded zirconia disc/blank. After pre-sintering zirconia is still porous and as a result becomes easy for color-ion liquid application. Pre-sintering or soft sintering is performed on the cast or molded zirconia to obtain a green body with sufficient strength to be milled. The terms “sintering” and “primary sintering” and “final sintering” are used interchangeably herein. After the green body of the specific dental restoration (or green body dental prosthesis or green dental prosthesis) is ready from the milling, primary/final sintering is done at a much higher temperature (around 1300-1600° C.) than pre-sintering. After primary sintering, zirconia gets full densification, over 99%, and reaches its full flexural strength. Sintering is performed on the milled (and colored) green body dental prosthesis to obtain a dental prosthesis with final strength and optical characteristics, such as translucency and/or color intensity/chroma. The term “zirconia” refers to various stoichiometries for zirconium oxides, most typically ZrO2, and may also be known as zirconium oxide or zirconium dioxide. The zirconia may contain up to 20 weight percent of oxides of other chemical elements such as, for example, oxides of yttrium (e.g., Y2O3). The term “ceramic” means an inorganic non-metallic material that is produced by application of heat. Ceramics are usually hard, porous and brittle and, in contrast to glasses or glass ceramics, display an essentially purely crystalline structure. The term “glass ceramic” means an inorganic non-metallic material where one or more crystalline phases are surrounded by a glassy phase. The term “dental milling disc/blank” is a solid form of various shapes, e.g., disc or block or any shape that can be fixedly attached to the dental milling machine. Diameter for disc shape is usually 100-90 mm, with various thickness of 10-25 mm for multiple-prostheses milling. Blocks may be about 20 mm to about 30 mm in two dimensions (width and height), for example, and may be of a certain length in a third dimension. The term “thickness” when used in reference to the green body, green body dental prosthesis, or the dental prosthesis refers to a particular direction aligned in the thickness or height of the green body or dental prosthesis, and can be from a lower layer or portion of the green body or dental prosthesis (corresponding to an cervical area of a tooth) to an upper layer or portion of the green body or dental prosthesis (corresponding to a incisal area of a tooth), such as an increasing translucency or decreasing chroma from the lower layer or portion (cervical) to the upper layer or portion (incisal). Description The current invention relates to a method of fabricating yttria stabilized polycrystalline zirconia discs/blanks to produce dental prostheses using CAD/CAM processes. The blanks contain a gradually increasing amount of yttria (Y2O3) where the incisal area of a tooth will be, resulting in more translucency and less color intensity/chroma, thereby better replicating what is typically found in the human tooth. This inventive ceramic disc/blank does not have any optical gradation properties in the green stage before primary sintering. Dental prostheses made of this material take on similar optical properties found in natural human teeth only after the coloring and sintering stage. Computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) processes and equipment have been widely utilized in the dental industry. In these processes a three-dimensional image of a stump of a tooth is created along with the teeth surrounding the stump in an effort to create a dental restoration (dental prosthesis) which is to be placed over the stump. This image is displayed on a computer screen. Based on the stump and surrounding teeth, the dental technician may then select a tooth from a plurality of tooth library forms stored in the computer to best fit the stump. The selected tooth is projected onto the stump until an optimum positioning and fit of the dental restoration is achieved by dental design software. The digital data concerning the dental restoration thus formed are supplied to a numerically controlled milling machine operating in three dimensions. The milling machine cuts a blank of ceramic material, typically zirconia, into the dental restoration design based on the data supplied. Referring to FIG. 1, a method for fabricating a dental block is shown in steps 1-5; while a method for forming a dental prosthesis from the dental block is shown in steps 6-11. The starting zirconia material (3YS, 3YS-E, Px242, Tosoh Corp, Japan) consists of fairly uniform particles thoroughly dispersed to be essentially free of agglomerates such that it will sinter predictably and isotropically without appreciable distortion. The particle size D50 may be in the range of about 0.1 to 1.0 micron. The zirconia and yttria can be formed into a desired shape (see 20, 24, 25 and 25b in FIGS. 2a-2e by way of example), and the amount of ytrria can be increased through a thickness of the shape or dental block. As show in table 1, zirconia material for each different layer can be prepared by combining the zirconia and yttria together, while increasing the amount of yttria (Y2O3) in successive layers so that the amount of yttria is increased incrementally from a lower layer to an upper layer. The amount of yttria (Y2O3) in in the lower layer can be 4.5-6 wt % in one aspect, or 4.95-5.35 wt % in another aspect. The next upper layer has a higher amount of yttria (Y2O3) within the practical limit. The top layer can have as high as 6.0-7.0 wt % of Y2O3, and it further can have as high as 7.0-8.0 wt % of Y2O3, and yet it further can have as high as 8.0-9.0 wt % of Y2O3, and it can even have as high as 9.0-10 wt % of Y2O3. Incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) can be done with the co-precipitation of Y2O3 with ZrO2 salts or by coating of the ZrO2 grains with Y2O3. TABLE 1 Color Zirconia Yttria (Y2O3) Pigment C ZrO2 + HfO2 + Y2O3 > 99.00 wt % 6.0-7.0 wt % 0.0 wt % B ZrO2 + HfO2 + Y2O3 > 99.00 wt % 5.5-6.0 wt % 0.0 wt % A ZrO2 + HfO2 + Y2O3 > 99.00 wt % 4.9-5.35 wt % 0.0 wt % Referring to FIGS. 2a-2d, zirconia powders and yttria are combined with or without a binder and pressed into blocks or similar shapes to form a green body 20. Each layer or portions 21, 22, 23 of the green body 20 is deposited using any of the known forming methods including, but not limited to, pressing, uniaxial or isostatic, extrusion, slip casting, gel casting, pressure filtration and injection molding. In one aspect, the method to consolidate green body 20 is cold isostatic pressing (CIP) and pressure filtration which is associated with one of the highest degrees of homogeneity attainable in green density. The zirconia and yttria of each layer can be separately combined and formed. Thus, the layers have different chemical compositions, namely with different amounts of yttria. The multiple different layers can be separate and discrete and distinct layers connected together but with a boundary therebetween and characterized by distinct changes in the amount of yttria; or the multiple different layers can form a region or layer with a more continuous change in the amount of yttria through the thickness of the region or layer, with the multiple different layers being indistinct and without any clear boundary therebetween. The height of the layers can be any proportion, and can be in a decreasing manner from the lower layer to the upper layer so that the lower layer is thicker and the upper layer is thinner (A>B>C). For example, bottom layer 21 can be 2-5 mm thick, and the middle layer 22 can be 4 mm thick, and the top layer can be 2 mm thick. The top layer 23 can be as thin as 2 mm, and it further can be as thin as 1 mm, and it further can be as thin as 0.5 mm. The layers can be as many as three layers, and it further can be as many as up to seven to ten layers to create a natural transition of optical changes. The green body 20 is formed into any desired shape and configuration (such as a disc or puck 20, an elongated block or bar 24, or a square or rectangular block 25) which will render a dental restoration. The layers can be parallel and have a constant thickness, as shown in FIGS. 2a-2d. Alternatively, the layers can have a non-uniform thickness as shown in block 25b in FIG. 2e. Fairly uniform, free flowing particles should be used for pressing or molding. Binders such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyethylene glycol, wax, TEOS, and the like may be mixed with zirconia powders to retain the shape of the green bodies during and after forming. The invention is in no way limited to the stated binders, and any suitable binder may be used herein to achieve the desired results. The density of the green body 20 is from about fifty percent (50%) to about seventy-five percent (75%) percent of theoretical density. In accordance with the process herein, after forming the zirconia ceramic powder into green body 20, the body 20 may be machined to the shape of a dental restoration or green dental prosthesis 26 such as a coping or full contour prosthesis, using a computer assisted miller. For purposes of example, a full contour zirconia tooth 26 will be used to explain the process herein. The shape of the full contour zirconia tooth 26 is determined from data received by scanning the tooth or die of the tooth to be restored. The size of the tooth which is machined is oversized to allow for shrinkage when the full contour zirconia tooth 26 is sintered. The linear dimensions of the zirconia prosthesis 26 is typically about twenty percent (20%) to about twenty-five percent (25%) larger than the size of the final tooth since the linear shrinkage of the tooth after sintering is about sixteen percent (16.67%,=((1.20−1)/1.20) to about twenty percent (20%, =((1.25−1)/1.25). The full contour zirconia green body tooth 26 is then sintered to full density at a temperature around 1300-1500° C. depending on the grain size of the zirconia. The green body 20 is soft-sintered to a bisque density that is between about fifty percent (50%) and about eighty-five percent (75%) of the final density. The disc/blank 20 is treated with heat for millable strength with temperature ranging from about 900 to about 1100° C. for a holding period of about 1 to 3 hours. A pre-sintered dental ceramic article or green dental prosthesis 26 typically has a density (usually 3.0 g/cm 3 for an Yttrium stabilized ZrO 2 ceramic) that is less compared to a completely sintered dental ceramic article or dental prosthesis 32 (usually 6.1 g/cm 3 for an Yttrium stabilized ZrO 2 ceramic). After this pre-sintering stage, the current invention takes on a generally opaque appearance over the entire surface. The green body 20 and/or 26, or layers thereof, can be substantially opaque with a substantially consistent optical characteristic of non-translucency with respect to visible light across the layers. (Various different dental prostheses are shown in FIG. 4a-4d with different numbers of layers and different thicknesses of layers; and even different orientation of layers; with the layers having different optical properties of translucency and/or chroma between adjacent layers.) In the pre-sintering stage, the inventors found that the amount of open pores 27 between grains 28 (FIG. 3d) are important because it determines the efficiency level of coloring at the later stage. The more open pores 27, the weaker the green body 26, but higher coloring efficiency, and the less the amount of open pores 27, the stronger the green body but lower coloring efficiency. The level of open pores 27 that contain air can determine the desired green body strength for millability and the efficiency of green body 26 coloring. The level of amount of open pores 27 can be expressed, for example, by L* value from the CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system. The L*a*b* colorimetric system in FIG. 8 was standardized in 1976 by Commission Internationale de I'Eclairage (CIE). In the system, a lightness/brightness is defined as L* and expressed by a numerical value of from 0 to 100, in which L*=0 means that the color is complete black, and L*=100 means that the color is complete white. When advanced ceramics with poly-crystal structures contain substantially no residual pores after being fully sintered, the L* value goes up to as high as 60-85 for the samples with thickness of 1 mm, thereby characterized with good light transmission. When the zirconia green body 20 is partly sintered, i.e. in a pre-sintered stage, it contains open pores/air which causes the diffusion of light, resulting in a much lower L* value number. The inventors discovered that the higher this L* value number for the zirconia green body 20, the harder it is to mill and more difficult it is to be penetrated with color-ion liquids. The lower the number, the weaker the green body 20, causing cracks and chipping during the milling process and making it more difficult to control the coloring consistency at later stage. It was found that the ideal L* value, when expressed in CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system in a standard illuminant D65, is between 10 and 20 in one aspect, and 15 and 20 in another aspect. Specifically, when measured for L* value of a CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system using the VITA Easyshade® Compact spectrophotometer (VITA, Germany, www.vita-zahnfabrik.com) 91 as in FIG. 9, which is most widely used for color analysis in dental office/laboratory, the L* value of the current invention, from a sample 29 with a diameter of 15 mm and thickness of 1.00 to 1.30 mm, is 10-20 in one aspect or 15-20 in another aspect from single and/or multi mode. The samples were measured according to the user manual in such a way as for the reading tip 92 of the spectrophotometer 91 to be set flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to the measured surface of the pre-sintered zirconia sample 29. Since the VITA Easyshade has a built-in light source inside the tip area, the ideal L* value of 10-20 or 15-20 were independent of the amount of light in a normal office room setting. The pre-sintered/soft-sintered disc/block 20, 24, 25 is then machined with a computer assisted miller 30 to a desired tooth shape 26, which is oversized to account for anticipated shrinkage during the sintering stage, and sintered to a final density rendering a high strength dental restorative material or dental prosthesis 32. The soft-sintered state of the disc/blanks 20 allows for easy milling into complex or elaborate shapes 26. Depending upon the density of the production batches, the linear dimensions of the green body prosthesis 26 may range from a size that is about twenty percent (20%) to about twenty five percent (25%) larger than the size of the final prosthesis 32 based on the linear shrinkage of the bisque body 26 which may range from about sixteen percent (16.67%, =((1.20-1)/1.20) to about twenty percent (20%, =((1.25−1)/1.25) shrinkage thereof. The green body prosthesis 26 is then sintered to full density at the temperature-time cycle specific for the zirconia grain size used, e.g., for 0.1-1.0 micron, at about 1300-1600° C. for about 1 to 3 hours. Unlike the glass and glass-ceramic materials, coloring of the current invention is done after pre-sintering, that is, in a porous and partially sintered state. For all the glass ceramic materials, color pigments are added to the glass matrix and then glass ceramic undergoes heat treatments. The coloring of the current invention involves the use of aqueous color solution. This coloring of zirconia 26 is processed in the porous or absorbent state, which is characterized in that metal ion solutions or metal complex solutions are used for the coloring. Aqueous or alcoholic metal solutions of Fe, Mn, Cr can be used, for example as chlorides or acetates. Milled green prostheses 26 are dipped into the solution or can be brushed for specific tooth shade effects. This zirconia green body 20 and milled chalky parts 26 are not a ceramic compound with predetermined optical properties, instead they are a ceramic compound without predetermined optical properties. They are chalky, opaque, do not have translucency as shown in FIG. 3e, and do not have difference in brightness, reflectance or color between the upper and lower portions of the disc/blank as shown in FIG. 3f. Pre-sintered and milled zirconia prosthesis 26 shrinks during a (primary) sintering step, that is, if an adequate temperature is applied. The sintering temperature to be applied depends on the ceramic material chosen. For ZrO 2 based ceramics a typical sintering temperature range is about 1300° C. to about 1600° C. Al 2 O 3 based ceramics are typically sintered in a temperature range of about 1300° C. to about 1700° C. Glass ceramic materials are typically sintered in a range of about 700 to about 1100° C. for about 1 to about 3 h. This primary sintering includes the densification of a porous material to a less porous material (or a material having less cells) having a higher density, and in some cases sintering may also include changes of the material phase composition (for example, a partial conversion of an amorphous phase toward a crystalline phase). Pre-sintered, yttrium-stabilized zirconia ceramics 20 are available for use with CAD/CAM technologies. Zirconia ceramic can be used for frameworks of crowns and FDP (fixed dental prosthesis) in the posterior region. Unfortunately, current processing technologies cannot make zirconia frameworks or full contour crowns as translucent as natural teeth. Translucency is the relative amount of light transmitted through the material. In a natural tooth, translucency is identified when a noticeable amount of light passes through its proximal and/or incisal aspect due to the presence of only enamel or a high proportion of enamel compared to the underlying dentin. In the cervical aspect of the teeth, where the dentin is thicker, the light transmission will be reduced. The translucency of the enamel and dentin is wavelength dependent; the higher the wavelength, the higher the translucency value. The human tooth structure scatters much of the incidental light. In such light scattering media, the intensity of the incidence light flux is diminished as the light passes through the medium. The enamel and dentin are not totally homogeneous at the histological level, which affects scattering and absorption of the light. One method of measuring translucency is by determining total transmission, including scattering, using a spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere as shown in FIG. 7a. Translucency of a material can be expressed as a transmission coefficient or total (direct and diffused) light transmittance (%) as the relative amount of light passing through the unit thickness of the material. To measure the different level of translucency of each layer of the current invention, total light transmittance was measured by a double beam-system spectrophotometer 71 as in FIG. 7a (LAMBDA 35, UV/Vis Spectrophotometers manufactured by Perkin Elmer, USA) based on the “Standard test method for transmittance and color by spectrophotometer using hemispherical geometry” of ASTM E1348-11 and “Materials and articles in contact with foodstuffs—Test methods for translucency of ceramic articles” of Dansk Standard/EN 1184. Measurement samples 61-64 used in FIG. 6a were samples obtained by processing a fully sintered (holding time 2 hours at 1,530° C. with regular sintering in the air, no post HIP processing) body of the current zirconia invention to a thickness of 0.6 mm (with a diameter of 20 mm) and mirror polishing both sides with 2500-grit silicon carbide paper (Wetordry Tri-M-ite Paper, 2500A, 3M Company, St. Paul, Minn.). All the samples were cleaned with isopropyl alcohol before light transmittance measurement. Light emitted from a light source (deuterium lamp and halogen lamp) was passed through a sample and scattered, and all light transmission amount was measured using an integrating sphere. Samples of small plates a, b, c and d from each layer of the current invention 20 as shown in FIG. 6a have incrementally increasing amounts of yttria (Y2O3) as a component. Each material constituting each layer B, C, D and E was used to make small plates b 61, c 62, d 63 and e 64 of 0.6 mm in thickness. As yttria (Y2O3) contents increase, so does total light transmittance as shown in FIG. 6b. Visible light which had passed through the sample was collected with an integrating sphere to determine the intensity of the visible light (I). On the other hand, the intensity of visible light (I.sub.0) was measured without placing the sample. The total light transmittance was calculated in terms of the proportion of the former to the latter intensity (=I/I.sub.0). A transmission spectrum and digital data record were obtained for each measurement with the light beam entering the samples. Four measurements were made with each sample rotated 90° from the previous measurement. A measurement wavelength region was from 400 to 800 nm, and total light transmittance in the present invention was a transmittance at a wavelength of 600 nm in a visible light region as shown in table 2 and FIG. 7b. The decrease in total light transmittance with decreasing wavelength is due to the increase in light scattering as indicated by the Rayleigh scattering equation. Similar results were reported for dental porcelains. Test result of all light transmittance is presented in the following comparative example. COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE TABLE 2 Stabilizer sintering Density of total light (Y2O3) temper- sintered Flexural transmit- Samples of contents ature body strength* tance 0.6 mm thick Wt % ° C. g/cm3 Mpa % Sample E 7.0 1530 99.8 925 52.91 (5th layer) Sample D 6.5 1530 99.8 1021 51.55 (4th layer) Sample C 6.0 1530 99.8 1152 51.08 (3rd layer) Sample B 5.5 1530 99.8 1253 50.92 (2nd layer) Sample A 4.9-5.35 1530 99.8 1385 49.72 (1st layer) The inventors discovered that the level of total light transmittance (%) increased when yttria contents were increased towards the next upper layers. As can be seen from the table 2, each upper layer has a higher light transmittance than all layers below it. All of the 0.6mm thick samples have a higher transmittance level that is approximately 12-16% higher than 1.0 mm thick samples tested with the same procedures and methods. The bottom layer (first layer) 21 of the current invention disc/blank in which cervical aspect of dental crown & bridge would be located has the lowest translucency level after primary sintering, representing the thinnest enamel and thickest dentin portion of a human tooth. After primary sintering, translucency levels gradually increase towards the top portion 23 of the current invention dental disc/blank. The top portion 23 has the highest level of translucency after primary sintering in which the incisal aspect of dental prosthesis would be located. The current invention is technically distinctive and differentiated from other multi-layered ceramics in the way the graded translucency level is created. One type of multi-layered ceramic currently available in the market comprises small sized rectangular blocks with pre-determined colors, for example, A1, A2, etc, that all have chemically homogenous components for each layer in which, less colorants/color pigments are used towards the incisal area to produce a seemingly more translucent effect. The yttria (Y2O3) of the present invention is not a colorant, it does not produce any color effect. The other material type is known that has a different translucency level from the bottom (cervical) to the top (incisal). Whereas, the green body dental block of the current invention does not have any noticeable optical characteristics, except that it is generally an opaque disk/blank without pre-determined color. Even if there are more yttria (Y2O3) contents towards the incisal area of the current invention, the translucency level before primary sintering is still the same for each layer, being only very opaque and substantially almost no translucency throughout the whole green body 20, 26 as shown in FIG. 3e. The increased translucency effect can take place only after the primary sintering stage is complete as in dental prosthesis 32. Prior art teaches that the reason why each layer should not have a different chemical composition, but should only have a variation of contents of specific color pigments, is because of the coefficiency of thermal expansion. The dental industry is characterized by accurate fit of the restorations with no distortion of the sintered prosthesis. All of the dental ceramic materials have their unique pattern of response to heat when treated with high temperature for strengthening. The way each material behaves are all different, including but not limited to, the speed by which porous ceramic material shrinks and the absolute temperature level that requires full densification, etc. If the chemical composition of each layer is different thereby creating a different CTE (Coefficiency of Thermal Expansion), sintering temperature, or sintering speed, then the final restoration would not fit in the patient's mouth. This is why all prior art of layered ceramics use the same chemical composition throughout the blank, and put only different amounts of tooth color pigments from the bottom portion to the top portion. The current invention was able to overcome this area of CTE related problems inspite of having different chemical compositions with different levels of yttria (Y2O3) contents by individually characterizing, for example, coating powder particles of each layer. Yttria (Y2O3) is just an example of some of the additives/components that increase the translucency of the incisal/top area of dental blanks. Other examples that produces the similar effect are spinel(MgAl2O4), Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, B2O3, Na2O3, Y2O3, K2O, CeO2, MgAl2O4, MgO, HfO2, etc. Natural teeth are typically composed of a variety of colors, and a gradation occurs in an individual tooth from the gingival margin to the incisal edge depending upon the ratio between enamel and dentin thickness. One of the most exacting and time consuming aspects of dental restorations, whether involving direct or indirect placement techniques, is that of properly matching the color of the restoration to that of the original tooth. In the context of clinical dentistry, the term “color” involves three discrete concepts: hue, chroma and value. Hue is the dimension of color that enables us to distinguish one family of color from another; chroma defines the relative intensity/saturation of a particular color, i.e., the more intense a color is, the higher its chroma level; and value describes the relative whiteness or blackness of a particular color, i.e., the brighter the color, the higher its value. Color is often defined in terms of its CIELAB lightness value, L*, its CIELAB chroma value, C* and its CIELAB hue value, h. “CIE” stands for the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage and its CIELAB L*, C* and h values are well known and widely used. “Lightness”, L* value, is a measure of the amount of light/brightness reflected from a surface, that is, the amount of white or black in a color, its lightness or darkness. “Chroma”, C*, is a measure of the intensity of a color, ie. the extent to which it is either a pastel color or a strong color or something in between. “Hue”, h, is a measure of how reddish, yellowish, greenish or bluish a color is. Color matching in dentistry is routinely performed with a visual method. However, instrumental color measurement can render useful information that can aid visual color matching. The Commission Internationale de l′Eclairage (CIE) refined color space in 1976 as shown in FIG. 8. CIE L* value is a measure of the lightness of an object such that a perfect black has a CIE L* value of zero and a perfect reflecting diffuser (white) has a CIE L* value of 100. CIE a* value is a measure of redness (positive value) or greenness(negative value), and CIE b* value is a measure of yellowness (positive value) or blueness (negative value). As shown in FIG. 8, The black vertical line is the L* value intensity axis, the hue is given by an angle from the L* value intensity axis and the chroma/saturation is the distance from the L* value intensity axis to the color point (i.e., the radius). The larger the numerical value of each of a* and b* is, the brighter the color becomes, whereas when the smaller the numerical value of each of a* and b*, the duller the color becomes. Spectrophotometric color measurements differ depending on the measuring geometry and the illuminant. Therefore, when any color measurements are made with an instrument, measured color values are sensitive to the methods employed. Several standard illuminants have been used to measure the color of dental materials. Standard illuminant D65 represents a phase of daylight with a correlated color temperature of approximately 6500 K, illuminant A represents light from the full radiator at absolute temperature 2856 K, and illuminant F2 represents light from fluorescent lamp of medium color temperature of 4230 K. Two standard illuminants are recommended for use in colorimetry. Illuminant A should be used in all applications of colorimetry involving the incandescent lighting, and D65 should be used in all colorimetric calculations requiring representative day light. To standardize the light source mentioned above and easily calculate the chroma level VITA Easyshade® Compact spectrophotometer (VITA, Germany, www.vita-zahnfabrik.com) was used as in FIG. 9. Chroma level was calculated as C*ab=(a*2+b*2)1/2 according to “Colorimetry-technical report. CIE Pub. No. 15, 3rd ed. Vienna: Bureau Central de la CIE; 2004” The inventors found out that an increased amount of Y2O3 within a practical limit (0.1-3.0 wt %) for each layer as an additive in the zirconia (ZrO2) body produces a sintered body that has lower intensity in chroma after being dipped into the color-ion solution for shading effect. The more Y2O3 is used within the practical limit, the sintered body becomes lighter in color intensity/chroma. For example, as seen in the following table 3, the first layer 101 in which the cervical aspect of a tooth will be located has the strongest color intensity/chroma and the fifth layer 105 in which the incisal portion of a tooth would be located has the weakest color intensity/chroma. When dipped into a specific color liquid 31, sample a (first layer 101) produced a slightly dark redish brown color after primary sintering, whereas the sample c (third layer 103) produced a moderately redish brown color, and e (fifth layer 105) produced a sintered body with a light ivory brown color. When each of the different layers of zirconia body 21, 22, 23, with an increasing amount of Y2O3, was deposited into one body 20, 26, 29 and dipped into a specific color (hue) liquid 31, the subsequently sintered body 32, 33 showed a graded color intensity (chroma). This means that a layered zirconia body 20, 26, 29 after being dipped into a color liquid 31 would be able to produce a subsequent sintered body 32, 33 that is gradually diminishing in color intensity/chroma from the cervical to incisal direction as is typically found in the human tooth. Color liquids 31 can be pre-made in as many colors as needed, and the milled porous prosthesis 26 can be simply dipped into this liquid 31. In this way the current invention 20 makes it unnecessary to keep all the inventories of blocks/discs 20 of different shades. Thus, the green body dental prosthesis can be dipped into a single color liquid. TABLE 3 Y2O3 Samples (thickness 1 mm) (Wt %) CIE a* CIE b* CIE c*ab Sample E (fifth layer E) 6.50 −2.4 10.2 10.4 Sample D (forth layer D) 6.25 −1.9 13.5 12.5 Sample C (third layer C) 6.00 −1.2 16.4 16.4 Sample B (second layer B) 5.50 −0.2 22.2 22.2 Sample A (first layer A) 5.00 2.0 28.8 28.9 The chroma was measured utilizing a VITA spectrophotometer 91 Easy Shade according to the user manual. The tip 92 of the device 91 was flush and perpendicular with sample 29 as shown in FIG. 9. The result was independent of lighting condition in the office room, that is, the measurement reading did not change when measured with or without the indoor (fluorescent) light on. This feature of a gradual decrease in color intensity/chroma with higher translucency towards the incisal area gives this invention a unique benefit and advantage of being very similar in optical properties to a natural human tooth and is therefore distintly set apart over other monolithic zirconia bodies currently available in the market. Coloring of dental zirconia bodies, until now, has been possible with only two methods. One is using a non-colored zirconia body that is (subsequent to milling but before final sintering) treated with color-ion liquid. The benefit of this method is to be able to avoid the need of keeping a large inventory of different colored blocks/discs. The disadvantage is that the color of the sintered zirconia body is only mono-chromatic since the color-ion responds the same all the way throughout the homogeneous component of the discs/blocks and finally to the dental prosthesis, making a restoration with only one color. The other method is to use a pre-colored blocks in which each layer has already been pre-colored with different levels of color pigments, but the primary components are basically the same. The advantage is to avoid the coloring process, but the disadvantage is the inefficiency associated with large inventories and restrictions on milling many different colored prostheses in one milling sequence. The current invention has the benefits of both methods by the fact that 1) it uses the simple-dipping coloring method which eliminates the inefficiencies associated with inventory issues and 2) sintered results give the graded color intensity/chroma like the pre-colored blocks with different levels of color pigments. This unique feature comes from a disc/blank in which each layer has been prepared hetero-geneously and deposited with different levels of yrrtia (Y2O3) contents. The current invention of layered zirconia body 20 also shows a functionally graded flexural strength. As shown in table 2, the first layer a 101 with the lowest amount (wt %) of yttria (Y2O3) contents shows the highest strength of 1385 MPa, and the fifth layer e 105 with the highest amount of (wt %) of yttria (Y2O3) contents shows the lowest strength of around 925 Mpa. The flexural strength was based on “Implants for surgery-ceramic materials based on yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia” of ISO 13356, and the flexural strength was measured by a three-point flexural test. It is already know in the industry that color reproduction of dental prosthesis can be done using the method from U.S. Pat. No. 6,709,694. As shown in FIGS. 11a, and 11b, milled porous dental prosthesis 26, before primary sintering, can be completely immersed in a color-ion liquid 31 for a specific tooth color and then, after a drying time of about 30 minutes, be sintered at temperature of around 1,500° C. in the sintering furnace to produce a color effect of the tooth. The problem with the above mentioned method is that the immersed dental prosthesis body 26 absorbs the coloring liquid 31 in a homogeneous way throughout the entire prosthesis 26, resulting in a sintered prosthesis that has all the same color from the bottom/cervical to the top/incisal direction. It's either in all incisal-light color or all body-intense color. On this starting prosthesis 26, which has only a mono-tone color throughout the sintered body, the dental technician has to add extra colors to create a darker effect for the body and cervical aspect of a tooth. The teaching of this method is a two-step coloring by which an overall light color has to be first created corresponding to the incisal color of a tooth and then a darker body color is created at a separate, subsequent heat treatment process. What the inventors discovered is a simplified one-step sintering method, while still allowing the creation of a double coloring effect as indicated in the following method; first the liquid 110 is applied on the incisal area only with a brushing method, followed by a smearing time of about 30 seconds, and second the liquid 31 is applied by the immersing method. The components of the first or preceding liquid 110 that is brushed on the incisal area are water (40-45 wt %), polyethylene glycol (40-45 wt %) and manganese chloride for an incisal graying effect. Coloring-ions other than colorants for graying effect preferably are not added. The inventors found that polyethylene glycol in the first or preceding liquid 110 plays a role of either partly blocking or interfering with the infiltration of the second or subsequent color liquid 31 into the area applied by the first liquid 110, which is a very useful discovery that has not been taught anywhere. The principle of coloring with color liquids 110 and 31 is that the color ion in the liquid 110 smears through the porous space (about 50-100 nano) of the pre-sintered green zirconia body 26 described in the earlier part of the detailed description of this invention. But when this porous space is already filled with liquid agents like polyethylene glycol, the infiltration process becomes locally deterred and incomplete. As a result, the incisal area covered by the first liquid 110 becomes light in color intensity/chroma presenting more natural tooth color characteristics. This method can be used for both monolithic zirconia that is all one material/component or multi-layered zirconia bodies with different amounts of yttria (Y2O3) contents. When used with multi-layered zirconia bodies, the result is more aesthetic, since the incisal aspect of the multi-layered zirconia, with increasing amounts of yttria(Y2O3), gives incrementally increased translucency as well. There should be a certain period of absorbing and drying time of the first liquid 110 of about 0.5 to 2 minutes for optimum results before the application of the second liquid 31. The first liquid can be locally and incisally applied by using a fine tipped brush 111, and the application of the second liquid 31 is usually completed by immersing the green body 26 in the color liquid 31. Moving brush 111 from the insical to body direction makes it possible to apply more of the first liquid in the top portion of incisal and less of the first liquid in the lower portion of the incisal area, allowing a smooth color transition from the incisal area to the body area of a tooth. After being removed from the second liquid 31, the prosthesis 26 is dried under a light and sintered in a regular way. Then the sintered body displays an ideal multiple color intensity effect with less color/chroma (with optional incisal gray effect with manganese chloride) in the incisal area and more color in the body and cervical area. There is a gradual transition area between incisal and body of a sintered prosthesis. The effectiveness of this coloring method of creating gradually decreasing color intensity/chroma towards the incisal area of a dental prosthesis can be increased when used with a multi-layer zirconia body that has increasing translucency towards the incisal area of a dental prosthesis. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a larger size of blank (typically a round disc) of non pre-colored ceramic material can be more efficient in that the operator can mill multiple teeth all at the same time from the same un-colored dis-regardless of individual characteristic requirements and do the coloring job at a separate stage later. While the forgoing examples are illustrative of the principles of the present invention in one or more particular applications, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that numerous modifications in form, usage and details of implementation can be made without the exercise of inventive faculty, and without departing from the principles and concepts of the invention. Accordingly, it is not intended that the invention be limited, except as by the claims set forth below. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It has been recognized that it would be advantageous to develop a dental prosthesis with improved or more natural optical characteristics, such as translucency and/or chroma, and/or with different layers having different optical characteristics. In addition, it has been recognized that it would be advantageous to develop a green body dental blank having different layers of different chemical compositions, but substantially consistent optical characteristics prior to sintering, and which can be milled, colored and sintered to obtain layers of different optical characteristics. The invention provides a method of coloring a pre-sintered dental restoration, comprising: securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; applying a preceding liquid on an incisal or occlusal area of the dental restoration; dipping the dental restoration, with the preceding liquid in the incisal or occlusal area, into a subsequent liquid for coloring; and sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration. The subsequent liquid is different from the preceding liquid. The preceding liquid at least partly blocks or interferes with an infiltration of the subsequent liquid into the incisal or occlusal area with the preceding liquid. The fully sintered dental restoration has less color/chroma in the incisal or occlusal area, and more color/chroma in a body or cervical area. In addition, the invention provides a method of coloring a pre-sintered dental restoration, comprising: securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; applying a dental liquid on an incisal or occlusal area of the dental restoration; and sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration. The fully sintered dental restoration has a translucency and color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship, with the translucency increasing in one direction of the dental restoration. and the color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction of the dental restoration. Furthermore, the invention provides a method of coloring pre-sintered dental restoration, comprising: securing a pre-sintered dental restoration; applying a preceding liquid on the dental restoration; dipping the dental restoration, with the preceding liquid therein, into a subsequent liquid for coloring; and sintering the dental restoration to acquire a fully sintered dental restoration. The subsequent liquid is different from the preceding liquid. The preceding liquid at least partly blocks or interferes with an infiltration of the subsequent liquid into an area where the preceding liquid was applied. The fully sintered dental restoration has less color/chroma in the area where the preceding liquid was applied. In another aspect, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered strength with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas and the strength decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. In addition, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered strength and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with the post-sintered strength increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma also increasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. In addition, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body having multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The different chemical composition include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria is increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in a lower area to 6-10 wt % in an upper area. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. Furthermore, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, including a lower area configured to correspond to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis produced from the dental block, and an upper area configured to correspond to an incisal area of the dental prosthesis. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. Thus, the current invention introduces a method of producing a yttria (Y2O3) stabilized polycrystalline dental zirconia disc/blank that does not contain color pigments in it. Incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) was applied towards one direction in the production of this disc/blank. After pre-sintering the green body looks generally opaque over the entire surface. The dental restoration would then be milled out of this green body, followed by coloring and final sintering. Only at this restoration stage can the desirable optical properties match that found in the human tooth. By increasing the amount of yttria (Y2O3) towards the incisal area at the initial powder characterization stage before green body molding, it was discovered that the translucency level was increased and color chroma level was decreased after primary sintering which is a typical characteristic of a natural human tooth. The benefit of this discovery of incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) to one specific direction is that it enables the smooth transition of a certain level of translucency and color chroma to another level. Also, separating the processes of 1) producing a non-colored green body after the pre-sintering stage and 2) implementing custom coloring in a subsequent stage, enables the mass production of multiple dental restorations in dental laboratories. The current invention zirconia material can be used to manufacture dental prostheses including, but not limited to, crowns, partial crowns, bridges, inlays, onlays, orthodontic appliances, space maintainers, tooth replacement appliances, splints, dentures, posts, facings, veneers, facets, implants, abutments, cylinders, and connectors. | A61C130022 | 20170710 | 20171026 | 59819.0 | A61C1300 | 1 | PROCTOR, CACHET I | METHOD OF COLORING A PRE-SINTERED DENTAL RESTORATION | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61C | 2,017 |
|
15,645,626 | PENDING | Multi-Layer Zirconia Dental Blank that has a Gradual Change in Strength, Translucency and Chroma from One Direction to The Other After Sintering | A dental block for producing a dental prosthesis comprises a green body including zirconia and having a chemical composition including increasing amounts of yttria through a thickness of the green body. The green body has a substantially consistent optical characteristic of chroma and translucency across the thickness, and is subsequently millable and sinterable to form the dental prosthesis with an optical characteristic of decreasing chroma, increasing translucency, and decreasing strength, in one direction through a thickness of the dental prosthesis. | 1. A dental block device for producing a dental prosthesis, the dental block device comprising: a) a green body comprising zirconia; b) the green body having multiple different areas each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas; and c) the green body having a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas, and the green body subsequently having a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered strength with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas and the strength decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. 2. The device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the green body has a color component. 3. The device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the green body is without a color component. 4. The device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the different chemical composition includes different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. 5. The device in accordance with claim 4, wherein the amount of yttria is increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. 6. The device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block is higher than the upper area. 7. The device in accordance with claim 6, wherein the strength is flexural strength. 8. The device in accordance with claim 1, wherein the post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block is higher than the lower area. 9. The device in accordance with claim 8, wherein the translucency is total light transmittance. 10. A dental block device for producing a dental prosthesis, the dental block device comprising: a) a green body comprising zirconia; b) the green body having multiple different areas each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas; and c) the green body subsequently having a post-sintered strength and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with the post-sintered strength increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma also increasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. 11. The device in accordance with claim 10, wherein the different chemical composition includes different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. 12. The device in accordance with claim 11, wherein the amount of yttria is increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. 13. The device in accordance with claim 10, wherein the post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block is higher than the upper area. 14. The device in accordance with claim 13, wherein the strength is flexural strength. 15. The device in accordance with claim 10, wherein the post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block is higher than the lower area. 16. The device in accordance with claim 15, wherein the translucency is total light transmittance. 17. A dental block device for producing a dental prosthesis, the dental block device comprising: a) a green body having multiple different areas each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas; b) the different chemical composition including different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas; c) the amount of yttria is increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in a lower area to 6-10 wt % in an upper area; and d) the green body having a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas, and the green body subsequently having a post-sintered translucency and a. post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. 18. The device in accordance with claim 17, wherein the green body has a color component. 19. A dental block device for producing a dental prosthesis, the dental block device comprising: a) a green body comprising zirconia; b) the green body having multiple different areas including a lower area configured to correspond to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis produced from the dental block and an upper area configured to correspond to an incisal area of the dental prosthesis; c) the green body having a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas, and the green body subsequently having a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. 20. The device in accordance with claim 19, wherein a color component is introduced to the green body. 21. The device in accordance with claim 19, wherein each area has a different chemical composition between adjacent areas, including different amounts of yttria between adjacent areas, with the amount of yttria increased from the lower area to the upper area; and wherein the amount of yttria is increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. | PRIORITY CLAIM(S) This is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/595,365, filed May 15, 2015; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/559,571, filed Dec. 3, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,649,179, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/403,417, filed Feb. 23, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,936,848, which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. RELATED APPLICATION(S) This is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/403,494, filed Feb. 23, 2012; which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND Field of the Invention The present invention relates generally to dental blanks for forming dental prostheses. More particularly, the present invention relates to a green body zirconia dental blank with at chemical compositions of increasing amounts of yttria through a thickness thereof and a pre-sintered optical characteristic of chroma that is substantially consistent and white across the thickness; and being milled, colored and sintered to form the dental prosthesis with an optical characteristic of decreasing chroma through a thickness of the dental prosthesis after sintering. Related Art There are three main classes of dental ceramics: Group I—predominantly glassy materials; Group II—particle-filled glasses and glass-ceramics as a special subset of particle-filled glasses; and Group III—polycrystalline ceramics. Group I—predominantly glassy ceramics—are 3-D networks of atoms having no regular pattern to the spacing between nearest or next nearest neighbors, thus their structure is ‘amorphous’ or without form. Glasses in dental ceramics derive principally from a group of mined minerals called feldspar and are based on silica (silicon oxide) and alumina (aluminum oxide), hence feldspathic porcelains belong to a family called alumino-silicate glasses. Group II—particle-filled glasses and glass-ceramics—have filler particles that are added to the base glass composition in order to improve mechanical properties and to control optical effects such as opalescence, color and opacity. These fillers are usually crystalline but can also be particles of a higher melting glass. Glass-ceramics in Group II have crystalline filler particles added mechanically to the glass, e.g. by simply mixing together crystalline and glass powders prior to firing. In a more recent approach, the filler particles are grown inside the glass object (prosthesis) after the object has been formed. After forming, the glass object is given a special heat treatment, causing the precipitation and growth of crystallites within the glass. Such particle-filled composites are called glass-ceramics. More recently a glass-ceramic containing 70 vol % crystalline lithium disilicate filler has been commercialized for dental use. Example of this is Empress 2, now e.maxPress and e.maxCAD from IvoClar-Vivadent. Group III—polycrystalline ceramics—have no glassy components; all of the atoms are densely packed into regular arrays that are much more difficult to drive a crack through than atoms in the less dense and irregular network found in glasses. Hence, polycrystalline ceramics are generally much tougher and stronger than group I and II glassy ceramics. Polycrystalline ceramics are more difficult to process into complex shapes (e.g. a prosthesis) than are glassy ceramics and tend to be relatively opaque compared to glassy ceramics. (Ceramic materials in dentistry: historical evolution and current practice (2011), J R Kelly, University of Connecticut Health Center, Department of Reconstructive Sciences, Farminton, Conn.). Advanced polycrystalline ceramic materials such as zirconia have great potential as substitutes for traditional materials in many biomedical applications. Since the end of the 1990s, the form of partially stabilized zirconia has been promoted as suitable for dental use due to its excellent strength and superior fracture resistance. In addition, zirconia bio-ceramic presents enhanced biocompatibility, low radioactivity, and good aesthetic properties. The introduction of computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) techniques has increased the general acceptance of zirconia in dentistry. Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) known as zirconia, is a crystalline oxide of zirconium. Although pure zirconium oxide does not occur in nature, it is found in the minerals baddeleyite and zircon (ZrSiO4). At ordinary temperatures, it has a hexagonal close-packed crystalline structure and forms a number of compounds such as zirconate (ZrO3-2) and zirconyl (ZrO+2) salts. Zirconia is obtained as a powder and possesses both acidic and basic properties. Zirconium oxide crystals are arranged in crystalline cells (mesh) which can be categorized in three crystallographic phases: 1) the cubic (C) in the form of a straight prism with square sides 2) the tetragonal (T) in the form of a straight prism with rectangular sides and 3) the monoclinic (M) in the form of a deformed prism with parallelepiped sides. The cubic phase is stable above 2,370° C. and has moderate mechanical properties, the tetragonal phase is stable between 1,170° C. and 2,370° C. and allows a ceramic with improved mechanical properties to be obtained, while the monoclinic phase, which is stable at room temperatures up to 1,170° C., presents reduced mechanical performance and may contribute to a reduction in the cohesion of the ceramic particles and thus of the density. Partially stabilized zirconia is a mixture of zirconia polymorphs, because insufficient cubic phase-forming oxide (stabilizer) has been added and a cubic plus metastable tetragonal ZrO2 mixture is obtained. A smaller addition of stabilizer to the pure zirconia will bring its structure into a tetragonal phase at a temperature higher than 1,000° C. and a mixture of cubic phase and monoclinic (or tetragonal) phase at a lower temperature. This partially stabilized zirconia is also called tetragonal zirconia polycrystal (TZP). Several different oxides, e.g., magnesium oxide (MgO), yttrium oxide, (Y2O3), calcium oxide (CaO), and cerium oxide (Ce2O3), can be added to zirconia to stabilize the tetragonal and/or cubic phases. Nowadays dental restorations or prostheses are often made using zirconia ceramic with CAD (Computer Aided Design) and CAM (Computer Aided Machining) process, which typically includes: capturing data representing the shape of a patient's teeth, for example by scanning a plaster model of the patient's teeth or alternatively by scanning the actual teeth in the patient's mouth; designing the shape of a dental restoration precursor based on the captured data using software, such as computer-aided design (CAD) software; machining the dental restoration precursor to correspond to the designed shape, for example, by an automated Computer Numerical Controlled (CNC) machine; and optionally finishing the dental restoration precursor by sintering and/or veneering. A common method of making dental restorations includes milling a restoration precursor out of a zirconia disc/blank of a pre-sintered but still porous ceramic material. The disc/blank is typically formed by compacting an amount of ceramic powder. The zirconia disc/blank of compacted powder is usually subsequently pre-sintered to provide it with the required mechanical stability for handling and machining. Once the restoration precursor has been obtained from machining the disc/blank the precursor is typically sintered in the further process of making the final dental restoration. During sintering the precursor typically shrinks, generally proportionally, because the initially porous material reduces in porosity and increases in density. For this reason the restoration precursor may be initially larger, for example about 18 to 27%, than the desired final shape after sintering, to account for shrinkage during the sintering step. To form the final dental restoration the sintered restoration precursor may be veneered or otherwise finished. Some Group I or II glass ceramic blocks already have different upper and lower optical properties, such as translucency, brightness, reflectance and color. Thus, the glass ceramic block itself already has pre-determined optical properties. For example, see U.S. Pat. No. 8,025,992. Such a pre-colored glass ceramic block can be used primarily in dentists' office with a view to finish the indirect treatment with just one visit. The dental laboratory can also be a user. Here the indirect treatment mainly means to put a crown, bridge, inlay and/or onlay in replacement of the damaged tooth. After the dentist preps the tooth, he/she chooses a glass ceramic block that already has color in it. Each layer of the block has a color profile already integrated into the block after the pre-sintered stage and it is implied that each layer should not be different in chemical characteristics. For each layer, coloring is affected only by addition of coloring oxides to the melt from which the granulate is obtained, or to the ground granulate and not due to differing chemical characteristics. These oxides are then present separately. In summary, these pre-colored, glass ceramic blocks already have predetermined, built-in optical properties in the block. It can be advantageous for small, ready-to-be-used individual blocks to have these built-in optical characteristics for small production. But pre-colored individual blocks can also be disadvantageous for mass production of prostheses of various sizes and various desired optical characteristics. The milling machine mills the pre-colored glass ceramic block one at a time in a single mill sequence. The inefficiency with this ceramic block is that if there are 15 different colors of prosthetic teeth to be milled, then the machine should be stopped each time so that the milled block could be removed and each different block could be loaded. Thus, the pre-colored glass ceramic blocks are not efficient for dental laboratories where numerous cases should be milled, regardless of the optical properties of the dental prostheses. These laboratories need to reduce the stopping of the machines as much as possible to save time and increase productivity. For examples of pre-colored dental blocks, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,025,992 and 7,981,531; and US Patent Publication No. 2011- 0236855. For examples of zirconia dental blocks, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,011,522 and 6,354,836. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It has been recognized that it would be advantageous to develop a dental prosthesis with improved or more natural optical characteristics, such as translucency and/or chroma, and/or with different layers having different optical characteristics. In addition, it has been recognized that it would be advantageous to develop a green body dental blank having different layers of different chemical compositions, but substantially consistent optical characteristics prior to sintering, and which can be milled, colored and sintered to obtain layers of different optical characteristics. The invention provides dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered strength with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas and the strength decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. In addition, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered strength and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with the post-sintered strength increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma also increasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. In addition, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body having multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The different chemical composition include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria is increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in a lower area to 6-10 wt % in an upper area. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. Furthermore, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, including a lower area configured to correspond to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis produced from the dental block, and an upper area configured to correspond to an incisal area of the dental prosthesis. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. Thus, the current invention introduces a method of producing a yttria (Y2O3) stabilized polycrystalline dental zirconia disc/blank that does not contain color pigments in it. Incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) was applied towards one direction in the production of this disc/blank. After pre-sintering the green body looks generally opaque over the entire surface. The dental restoration would then be milled out of this green body, followed by coloring and final sintering. Only at this restoration stage can the desirable optical properties match that found in the human tooth. By increasing the amount of yttria (Y2O3) towards the incisal area at the initial powder characterization stage before green body molding, it was discovered that the translucency level was increased and color chroma level was decreased after primary sintering which is a typical characteristic of a natural human tooth. The benefit of this discovery of incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) to one specific direction is that it enables the smooth transition of a certain level of translucency and color chroma to another level. Also, separating the processes of 1) producing a non-colored green body after the pre-sintering stage and 2) implementing custom coloring in a subsequent stage, enables the mass production of multiple dental restorations in dental laboratories. The current invention zirconia material can be used to manufacture dental prostheses including, but not limited to, crowns, partial crowns, bridges, inlays, onlays, orthodontic appliances, space maintainers, tooth replacement appliances, splints, dentures, posts, facings, veneers, facets, implants, abutments, cylinders, and connectors. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Additional features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the detailed description which follows, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, which together illustrate, by way of example, features of the invention; and, wherein: FIG. 1 is a flowchart showing a method of making a green body dental block and a dental prosthesis in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2a is a perspective view of the green body dental block in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2b is a schematic perspective view of the green body dental block of FIG. 1 shown with multiple different layers and a dental prosthesis to be milled therefrom; FIG. 2c is a schematic perspective view of another green body dental block in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2d is a schematic perspective view of another green body dental block in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2e is a schematic perspective view of another green body dental block in accordance with another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3a is a schematic perspective view of the green body dental block of FIG. 1 shown with multiple different layers and a dental prosthesis and a sample disc to be milled therefrom; FIG. 3b is a schematic view of a green body dental prosthesis milled from the green body dental blank of FIG. 3a shown with multiple different layers; FIG. 3c is a schematic view of a green body sample disc milled from the green body dental blank of FIG. 3a shown with multiple different layers; FIG. 3d is a schematic view of a portion of the green body showing the open pores between grains thereof; FIG. 3e is a graph of the translucency of the multiple different layers of the green body dental prosthesis of FIG. 3b; FIG. 3f is a graph of the chroma level of the multiple different layers of the green body dental prosthesis of FIG. 3b; FIG. 3g is schematic view of a dental prosthesis milled from the green body dental blank of FIG. 3a shown with multiple different layers; FIG. 3h is a schematic view of a sample disc milled from the green body dental blank of FIG. 3a shown with multiple different layers; FIG. 3i is a graph showing translucency and chroma levels for the dental prosthesis of FIG. 3g; FIG. 3j is a graph showing translucency, chromal level and strength across the multiple different layers of the dental prosthesis of FIG. 3g; FIG. 3k is a schematic view showing the green body dental prosthesis of FIG. 3b being colored; FIGS. 4a-d are cross-sectional side schematic view of dental prostheses of the present invention with the layers thereof having different optical properties; FIGS. 5a and b are graphs of representative x-ray diffraction pattern for an exemplary zirconia disc of the present invention; FIG. 6a is a schematic showing a qualitative translucency assessment of the current invention after final sintering; FIG. 6b is a graph depicting the translucency of the current invention at 600 nm for each level of differing material in the restoration after the final sintering stage; FIG. 7a is a schematic diagram for measuring translucency of samples using a high-end spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere; FIG. 7b is a graphical representation of light transmittance (%) versus wavelength (nm) at 400 to 800 nm for each level of differing material in the restoration after final sintering; levels are labeled as samples A, B, C, D, and E of the current invention; FIG. 8. is a schematic of the CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system to help understand the color aspect of the current invention; FIGS. 9a and 9b are schematic views of a color chroma measuring method using a hand-held spectrophotometer; FIG. 10a is a schematic cross-sectional side view of a dental prosthesis having different color chroma layers; FIG. 10b is a graphical representation showing the color chroma level for samples A, B, C, D, and E of FIG. 10a; and FIGS. 11a and b are schematic views of coloring of a green body dental prosthesis. Reference will now be made to the exemplary embodiments illustrated, and specific language will be used herein to describe the same. It will nevertheless be understood that no limitation of the scope of the invention is thereby intended. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EXAMPLE EMBODIMENT(S) Definitions The terms “zirconia green body” and “green body” are used interchangeably herein to mean a three-dimensional granular structure comprised of zirconia oxide particles, which is not sintered yet or, more frequently referred to, is partially sintered, pre-sintered or soft sintered at a temperature of 900-1100° C., to facilitate millability of the disc/blank. The terms “green body dental prosthesis” and “green dental prosthesis” are used interchangeably herein to mean a dental prosthesis that has been milled from the green body, but has not yet been sintered to become the final dental prosthesis. The terms “pre-sintering” and “soft sintering” and “partial sintering” are used interchangeably herein to mean a reduction of size and/or number or the elimination of interparticle pores in a granular structure comprised of particles by heating, without melting, of the particles. Pre-sintering is carried out at a temperature of around 900-1100° C. to facilitate the machine milling of molded zirconia disc/blank. After pre-sintering zirconia is still porous and as a result becomes easy for color-ion liquid application. Pre-sintering or soft sintering is performed on the cast or molded zirconia to obtain a green body with sufficient strength to be milled. The terms “sintering” and “primary sintering” and “final sintering” are used interchangeably herein. After the green body of the specific dental restoration (or green body dental prosthesis or green dental prosthesis) is ready from the milling, primary/final sintering is done at a much higher temperature (around 1300-1600° C.) than pre-sintering. After primary sintering, zirconia gets full densification, over 99%, and reaches its full flexural strength. Sintering is performed on the milled (and colored) green body dental prosthesis to obtain a dental prosthesis with final strength and optical characteristics, such as translucency and/or color intensity/chroma. The term “zirconia” refers to various stoichiometries for zirconium oxides, most typically ZrO2, and may also be known as zirconium oxide or zirconium dioxide. The zirconia may contain up to 20 weight percent of oxides of other chemical elements such as, for example, oxides of yttrium (e.g., Y2O3). The term “ceramic” means an inorganic non-metallic material that is produced by application of heat. Ceramics are usually hard, porous and brittle and, in contrast to glasses or glass ceramics, display an essentially purely crystalline structure. The term “glass ceramic” means an inorganic non-metallic material where one or more crystalline phases are surrounded by a glassy phase. The term “dental milling disc/blank” is a solid form of various shapes, e.g., disc or block or any shape that can be fixedly attached to the dental milling machine. Diameter for disc shape is usually 100-90 mm, with various thickness of 10-25 mm for multiple-prostheses milling. Blocks may be about 20 mm to about 30 mm in two dimensions (width and height), for example, and may be of a certain length in a third dimension. The term “thickness” when used in reference to the green body, green body dental prosthesis, or the dental prosthesis refers to a particular direction aligned in the thickness or height of the green body or dental prosthesis, and can be from a lower layer or portion of the green body or dental prosthesis (corresponding to an cervical area of a tooth) to an upper layer or portion of the green body or dental prosthesis (corresponding to a incisal area of a tooth), such as an increasing translucency or decreasing chrorna from the lower layer or portion (cervical) to the upper layer or portion (incisal). Description The current invention relates to a method of fabricating yttria stabilized polycrystalline zirconia discs/blanks to produce dental prostheses using CAD/CAM processes. The blanks contain a gradually increasing amount of yttria (Y2O3) where the incisal area of a tooth will be, resulting in more translucency and less color intensity/chroma, thereby better replicating what is typically found in the human tooth. This inventive ceramic disc/blank does not have any optical gradation properties in the green stage before primary sintering. Dental prostheses made of this material take on similar optical properties found in natural human teeth only after the coloring and sintering stage. Computer-aided design/computer-aided manufacturing (CAD/CAM) processes and equipment have been widely utilized in the dental industry. In these processes a three-dimensional image of a stump of a tooth is created along with the teeth surrounding the stump in an effort to create a dental restoration (dental prosthesis) which is to be placed over the stump. This image is displayed on a computer screen. Based on the stump and surrounding teeth, the dental technician may then select a tooth from a plurality of tooth library forms stored in the computer to best fit the stump. The selected tooth is projected onto the stump until an optimum positioning and fit of the dental restoration is achieved by dental design software. The digital data concerning the dental restoration thus formed are supplied to a numerically controlled milling machine operating in three dimensions. The milling machine cuts a blank of ceramic material, typically zirconia, into the dental restoration design based on the data supplied. Referring to FIG. 1, a method for fabricating a dental block is shown in steps 1-5; while a method for forming a dental prosthesis from the dental block is shown in steps 6-11. The starting zirconia material (3YS, 3YS-E, Px242, Tosoh Corp, Japan) consists of fairly uniform particles thoroughly dispersed to be essentially free of agglomerates such that it will sinter predictably and isotropically without appreciable distortion. The particle size D50 may be in the range of about 0.1 to 1.0 micron. The zirconia and yttria can be formed into a desired shape (see 20, 24, 25 and 25b in FIGS. 2a-2e by way of example), and the amount of ytrria can be increased through a thickness of the shape or dental block. As show in table 1, zirconia material for each different layer can be prepared by combining the zirconia and yttria together, while increasing the amount of yttria (Y2O3) in successive layers so that the amount of yttria is increased incrementally from a lower layer to an upper layer. The amount of yttria (Y2O3) in in the lower layer can be 4.5-6 wt % in one aspect, or 4.95-5.35 wt % in another aspect. The next upper layer has a higher amount of yttria (Y2O3) within the practical limit. The top layer can have as high as 6.0-7.0 wt % of Y2O3, and it further can have as high as 7.0-8.0 wt % of Y2O3, and yet it further can have as high as 8.0-9.0 wt % of Y2O3, and it can even have as high as 9.0-10 wt % of Y2O3. Incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) can be done with the co-precipitation of Y2O3 with ZrO2 salts or by coating of the ZrO2 grains with Y2O3. TABLE 1 Color Zirconia Yttria (Y2O3) Pigment C ZrO2 + HfO2 + Y2O3 > 99.00 wt % 6.0-7.0 wt % 0.0 wt % B ZrO2 + HfO2 + Y2O3 > 99.00 wt % 5.5-6.0 wt % 0.0 wt % A ZrO2 + HfO2 + Y2O3 > 99.00 wt % 4.9-5.35 wt % 0.0 wt % Referring to FIGS. 2a-2d, zirconia powders and yttria are combined with or without a binder and pressed into blocks or similar shapes to form a green body 20. Each layer or portions 21, 22, 23 of the green body 20 is deposited using any of the known forming methods including, but not limited to, pressing, uniaxial or isostatic, extrusion, slip casting, gel casting, pressure filtration and injection molding. In one aspect, the method to consolidate green body 20 is cold isostatic pressing (CIP) and pressure filtration which is associated with one of the highest degrees of homogeneity attainable in green density. The zirconia and yttria of each layer can be separately combined and formed. Thus, the layers have different chemical compositions, namely with different amounts of yttria. The multiple different layers can be separate and discrete and distinct layers connected together but with a boundary therebetween and characterized by distinct changes in the amount of yttria; or the multiple different layers can form a region or layer with a more continuous change in the amount of yttria through the thickness of the region or layer, with the multiple different layers being indistinct and without any clear boundary therebetween. The height of the layers can be any proportion, and can be in a decreasing manner from the lower layer to the upper layer so that the lower layer is thicker and the upper layer is thinner (A>B>C). For example, bottom layer 21 can be 2-5 mm thick, and the middle layer 22 can be 4 mm thick, and the top layer can be 2 mm thick. The top layer 23 can be as thin as 2 mm, and it further can be as thin as 1 mm, and it further can be as thin as 0.5 mm. The layers can be as many as three layers, and it further can be as many as up to seven to ten layers to create a natural transition of optical changes. The green body 20 is formed into any desired shape and configuration (such as a disc or puck 20, an elongated block or bar 24, or a square or rectangular block 25) which will render a dental restoration. The layers can be parallel and have a constant thickness, as shown in FIGS. 2a-2d. Alternatively, the layers can have a non-uniform thickness as shown in block 25b in FIG. 2e. Fairly uniform, free flowing particles should be used for pressing or molding. Binders such as polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyethylene glycol, wax, TEOS, and the like may be mixed with zirconia powders to retain the shape of the green bodies during and after forming. The invention is in no way limited to the stated binders, and any suitable binder may be used herein to achieve the desired results. The density of the green body 20 is from about fifty percent (50%) to about seventy-five percent (75%) percent of theoretical density. In accordance with the process herein, after forming the zirconia ceramic powder into green body 20, the body 20 may be machined to the shape of a dental restoration or green dental prosthesis 26 such as a coping or full contour prosthesis, using a computer assisted miller. For purposes of example, a full contour zirconia tooth 26 will be used to explain the process herein. The shape of the full contour zirconia tooth 26 is determined from data received by scanning the tooth or die of the tooth to be restored. The size of the tooth which is machined is oversized to allow for shrinkage when the full contour zirconia tooth 26 is sintered. The linear dimensions of the zirconia prosthesis 26 is typically about twenty percent (20%) to about twenty-five percent (25%) larger than the size of the final tooth since the linear shrinkage of the tooth after sintering is about sixteen percent (16.67%,=((1.20−1)/1.20) to about twenty percent (20%,=((1.25−1)/1.25). The full contour zirconia green body tooth 26 is then sintered to full density at a temperature around 1300-1500° C. depending on the grain size of the zirconia. The green body 20 is soft-sintered to a bisque density that is between about fifty percent (50%) and about eighty-five percent (75%) of the final density. The disc/blank 20 is treated with heat for minable strength with temperature ranging from about 900 to about 1100° C. for a holding period of about 1 to 3 hours. A pre-sintered dental ceramic article or green dental prosthesis 26 typically has a density (usually 3.0 g/cm3 for an Yttrium stabilized ZrO2 ceramic) that is less compared to a completely sintered dental ceramic article or dental prosthesis 32 (usually 6.1 g/cm3 for an Yttrium stabilized ZrO2 ceramic). After this pre-sintering stage, the current invention takes on a generally opaque appearance over the entire surface. The green body 20 and/or 26, or layers thereof, can be substantially opaque with a substantially consistent optical characteristic of non-translucency with respect to visible light across the layers. (Various different dental prostheses are shown in FIGS. 4a-4d with different numbers of layers and different thicknesses of layers; and even different orientation of layers; with the layers having different optical properties of translucency and/or chroma between adjacent layers.) In the pre-sintering stage, the inventors found that the amount of open pores 27 between grains 28 (FIG. 3d) are important because it determines the efficiency level of coloring at the later stage. The more open pores 27, the weaker the green body 26, but higher coloring efficiency, and the less the amount of open pores 27, the stronger the green body but lower coloring efficiency. The level of open pores 27 that contain air can determine the desired green body strength for millability and the efficiency of green body 26 coloring. The level of amount of open pores 27 can be expressed, for example, by L* value from the CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system. The L*a*b* colorimetric system in FIG. 8 was standardized in 1976 by Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE). In the system, a lightness/brightness is defined as L* and expressed by a numerical value of from 0 to 100, in which L*=0 means that the color is complete black, and L*=100 means that the color is complete white. When advanced ceramics with poly-crystal structures contain substantially no residual pores after being fully sintered, the L* value goes up to as high as 60-85 for the samples with thickness of 1 mm, thereby characterized with good light transmission. When the zirconia green body 20 is partly sintered, i.e. in a pre-sintered stage, it contains open pores/air which causes the diffusion of light, resulting in a much lower L* value number. The inventors discovered that the higher this L* value number for the zirconia green body 20, the harder it is to mill and more difficult it is to be penetrated with color-ion liquids. The lower the number, the weaker the green body 20, causing cracks and chipping during the milling process and making it more difficult to control the coloring consistency at later stage. It was found that the ideal L* value, when expressed in CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system in a standard illuminant D65, is between 10 and 20 in one aspect, and 15 and 20 in another aspect. Specifically, when measured for L* value of a CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system using the VITA Easyshade® Compact spectrophotometer (VITA, Germany, vvww.vita-zahnfabrik.com) 91 as in FIG. 9, which is most widely used for color analysis in dental office/laboratory, the L* value of the current invention, from a sample 29 with a diameter of 15 mm and thickness of 1.00 to 1.30 mm, is 10-20 in one aspect or 15-20 in another aspect from single and/or multi mode. The samples were measured according to the user manual in such a way as for the reading tip 92 of the spectrophotometer 91 to be set flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to the measured surface of the pre-sintered zirconia sample 29. Since the VITA Easyshade has a built-in light source inside the tip area, the ideal L* value of 10-20 or 15-20 were independent of the amount of light in a normal office room setting. The pre-sintered/soft-sintered disc/block 20, 24, 25 is then machined with a computer assisted miller 30 to a desired tooth shape 26, which is oversized to account for anticipated shrinkage during the sintering stage, and sintered to a final density rendering a high strength dental restorative material or dental prosthesis 32. The soft-sintered state of the disc/blanks 20 allows for easy milling into complex or elaborate shapes 26. Depending upon the density of the production batches, the linear dimensions of the green body prosthesis 26 may range from a size that is about twenty percent (20%) to about twenty five percent (25%) larger than the size of the final prosthesis 32 based on the linear shrinkage of the bisque body 26 which may range from about sixteen percent (16.67%,=((1.20−1)/1.20) to about twenty percent (20%,=((1.25−1)/1.25) shrinkage thereof. The green body prosthesis 26 is then sintered to full density at the temperature-time cycle specific for the zirconia grain size used, e.g., for 0.1-1.0 micron, at about 1300-1600° C. for about 1 to 3 hours. Unlike the glass and glass-ceramic materials, coloring of the current invention is done after pre-sintering, that is, in a porous and partially sintered state. For all the glass ceramic materials, color pigments are added to the glass matrix and then glass ceramic undergoes heat treatments. The coloring of the current invention involves the use of aqueous color solution. This coloring of zirconia 26 is processed in the porous or absorbent state, which is characterized in that metal ion solutions or metal complex solutions are used for the coloring. Aqueous or alcoholic metal solutions of Fe, Mn, Cr can be used, for example as chlorides or acetates. Milled green prostheses 26 are dipped into the solution or can be brushed for specific tooth shade effects. This zirconia green body 20 and milled chalky parts 26 are not a ceramic compound with predetermined optical properties, instead they are a ceramic compound without predetermined optical properties. They are chalky, opaque, do not have translucency as shown in FIG. 3e, and do not have difference in brightness, reflectance or color between the upper and lower portions of the disc/blank as shown in FIG. 3f. Pre-sintered and milled zirconia prosthesis 26 shrinks during a (primary) sintering step, that is, if an adequate temperature is applied. The sintering temperature to be applied depends on the ceramic material chosen. For ZrO 2 based ceramics a typical sintering temperature range is about 1300° C. to about 1600° C. Al2O3 based ceramics are typically sintered in a temperature range of about 1300° C. to about 1700° C. Glass ceramic materials are typically sintered in a range of about 700 to about 1100° C. for about 1 to about 3 h. This primary sintering includes the densification of a porous material to a less porous material (or a material having less cells) having a higher density, and in some cases sintering may also include changes of the material phase composition (for example, a partial conversion of an amorphous phase toward a crystalline phase). Pre-sintered, yttrium-stabilized zirconia ceramics 20 are available for use with CAD/CAM technologies. Zirconia ceramic can be used for frameworks of crowns and FDP (fixed dental prosthesis) in the posterior region. Unfortunately, current processing technologies cannot make zirconia frameworks or full contour crowns as translucent as natural teeth. Translucency is the relative amount of light transmitted through the material. In a natural tooth, translucency is identified when a noticeable amount of light passes through its proximal and/or incisal aspect due to the presence of only enamel or a high proportion of enamel compared to the underlying dentin. In the cervical aspect of the teeth, where the dentin is thicker, the light transmission will be reduced. The translucency of the enamel and dentin is wavelength dependent; the higher the wavelength, the higher the translucency value. The human tooth structure scatters much of the incidental light. In such light scattering media, the intensity of the incidence light flux is diminished as the light passes through the medium. The enamel and dentin are not totally homogeneous at the histological level, which affects scattering and absorption of the light. One method of measuring translucency is by determining total transmission, including scattering, using a spectrophotometer with an integrating sphere as shown in FIG. 7a. Translucency of a material can be expressed as a transmission coefficient or total (direct and diffused) light transmittance (%) as the relative amount of light passing through the unit thickness of the material. To measure the different level of translucency of each layer of the current invention, total light transmittance was measured by a double beam-system spectrophotometer 71 as in FIG. 7a (LAMBDA 35, UV/Vis Spectrophotometers manufactured by Perkin Elmer, USA) based on the “Standard test method for transmittance and color by spectrophotometer using hemispherical geometry” of ASTM E1348-11 and “Materials and articles in contact with foodstuffs—Test methods for translucency of ceramic articles” of Dansk Standard/EN 1184. Measurement samples 61-64 used in FIG. 6a were samples obtained by processing a fully sintered (holding time 2 hours at 1,530° C. with regular sintering in the air, no post HIP processing) body of the current zirconia invention to a thickness of 0.6 mm (with a diameter of 20 mm) and mirror polishing both sides with 2500-grit silicon carbide paper (Wetordry Tri-M-ite Paper, 2500A, 3M Company, St. Paul, Minn.). All the samples were cleaned with isopropyl alcohol before light transmittance measurement. Light emitted from a light source (deuterium lamp and halogen lamp) was passed through a sample and scattered, and all light transmission amount was measured using an integrating sphere. Samples of small plates a, b, c and d from each layer of the current invention 20 as shown in FIG. 6a have incrementally increasing amounts of yttria (Y2O3) as a component. Each material constituting each layer B, C, D and E was used to make small plates b 61, c 62, d 63 and e 64 of 0.6 mm in thickness. As yttria (Y2O3) contents increase, so does total light transmittance as shown in FIG. 6b. Visible light which had passed through the sample was collected with an integrating sphere to determine the intensity of the visible light (I). On the other hand, the intensity of visible light (I.sub.0) was measured without placing the sample. The total light transmittance was calculated in terms of the proportion of the former to the latter intensity (=I/I.sub.0). A transmission spectrum and digital data record were obtained for each measurement with the light beam entering the samples. Four measurements were made with each sample rotated 90° from the previous measurement. A measurement wavelength region was from 400 to 800 nm, and total light transmittance in the present invention was a transmittance at a wavelength of 600 nm in a visible light region as shown in table 2 and FIG. 7b. The decrease in total light transmittance with decreasing wavelength is due to the increase in light scattering as indicated by the Rayleigh scattering equation. Similar results were reported for dental porcelains. Test result of all light transmittance is presented in the following comparative example. COMPARATIVE EXAMPLE TABLE 2 Stabilizer sintering Density of total light (Y2O3) temper- sintered Flexural transmit- Samples of contents ature body strength* tance 0.6 mm thick Wt % ° C. g/cm3 Mpa % Sample E 7.0 1530 99.8 925 52.91 (5th layer) Sample D 6.5 1530 99.8 1021 51.55 (4th layer) Sample C 6.0 1530 99.8 1152 51.08 (3rd layer) Sample B 5.5 1530 99.8 1253 50.92 (2nd layer) Sample A 4.9-5.35 1530 99.8 1385 49.72 (1st layer) The inventors discovered that the level of total light transmittance (%) increased when yttria contents were increased towards the next upper layers. As can be seen from the table 2, each upper layer has a higher light transmittance than all layers below it. All of the 0.6 mm thick samples have a higher transmittance level that is approximately 12-16% higher than 1.0 mm thick samples tested with the same procedures and methods. The bottom layer (first layer) 21 of the current invention disc/blank in which cervical aspect of dental crown & bridge would be located has the lowest translucency level after primary sintering, representing the thinnest enamel and thickest dentin portion of a human tooth. After primary sintering, translucency levels gradually increase towards the top portion 23 of the current invention dental disc/blank. The top portion 23 has the highest level of translucency after primary sintering in which the incisal aspect of dental prosthesis would be located. The current invention is technically distinctive and differentiated from other multi-layered ceramics in the way the graded translucency level is created. One type of multi-layered ceramic currently available in the market comprises small sized rectangular blocks with pre-determined colors, for example, A1, A2, etc, that all have chemically homogenous components for each layer in which, less colorants/color pigments are used towards the incisal area to produce a seemingly more translucent effect. The yttria (Y2O3) of the present invention is not a colorant, it does not produce any color effect. The other material type is known that has a different translucency level from the bottom (cervical) to the top (incisal). Whereas, the green body dental block of the current invention does not have any noticeable optical characteristics, except that it is generally an opaque disk/blank without pre-determined color. Even if there are more yttria (Y2O3) contents towards the incisal area of the current invention, the translucency level before primary sintering is still the same for each layer, being only very opaque and substantially almost no translucency throughout the whole green body 20, 26 as shown in FIG. 3e. The increased translucency effect can take place only after the primary sintering stage is complete as in dental prosthesis 32. Prior art teaches that the reason why each layer should not have a different chemical composition, but should only have a variation of contents of specific color pigments, is because of the coefficiency of thermal expansion. The dental industry is characterized by accurate fit of the restorations with no distortion of the sintered prosthesis. All of the dental ceramic materials have their unique pattern of response to heat when treated with high temperature for strengthening. The way each material behaves are all different, including but not limited to, the speed by which porous ceramic material shrinks and the absolute temperature level that requires full densification, etc. If the chemical composition of each layer is different thereby creating a different CTE (Coefficiency of Thermal Expansion), sintering temperature, or sintering speed, then the final restoration would not fit in the patient's mouth. This is why all prior art of layered ceramics use the same chemical composition throughout the blank, and put only different amounts of tooth color pigments from the bottom portion to the top portion. The current invention was able to overcome this area of CTE related problems inspite of having different chemical compositions with different levels of yttria (Y2O3) contents by individually characterizing, for example, coating powder particles of each layer. Yttria (Y2O3) is just an example of some of the additives/components that increase the translucency of the incisal/top area of dental blanks. Other examples that produces the similar effect are spinel(MgAl2O4), Al2O3, SiO2, TiO2, B2O3, Na2O3, Y2O3, K2O, CeO2, MgAl2O4, MgO, HfO2, etc. Natural teeth are typically composed of a variety of colors, and a gradation occurs in an individual tooth from the gingival margin to the incisal edge depending upon the ratio between enamel and dentin thickness. One of the most exacting and time consuming aspects of dental restorations, whether involving direct or indirect placement techniques, is that of properly matching the color of the restoration to that of the original tooth. In the context of clinical dentistry, the term “color” involves three discrete concepts: hue, chroma and value. Hue is the dimension of color that enables us to distinguish one family of color from another; chroma defines the relative intensity/saturation of a particular color, i.e., the more intense a color is, the higher its chroma level; and value describes the relative whiteness or blackness of a particular color, i.e., the brighter the color, the higher its value. Color is often defined in terms of its CIELAB lightness value, L*, its CIELAB chroma value, C* and its CIELAB hue value, h. “CIE” stands for the Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage and its CIELAB L*, C* and h values are well known and widely used. “Lightness”, L* value, is a measure of the amount of light/brightness reflected from a surface, that is, the amount of white or black in a color, its lightness or darkness. “Chroma”, C*, is a measure of the intensity of a color, i.e. the extent to which it is either a pastel color or a strong color or something in between. “Hue”, h, is a measure of how reddish, yellowish, greenish or bluish a color is. Color matching in dentistry is routinely performed with a visual method. However, instrumental color measurement can render useful information that can aid visual color matching. The Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage (CIE) refined color space in 1976 as shown in FIG. 8. CIE L* value is a measure of the lightness of an object such that a perfect black has a CIE L* value of zero and a perfect reflecting diffuser (white) has a CIE L* value of 100. CIE a* value is a measure of redness (positive value) or greenness(negative value), and CIE b* value is a measure of yellowness (positive value) or blueness (negative value). As shown in FIG. 8, The black vertical line is the L* value intensity axis, the hue is given by an angle from the L* value intensity axis and the chroma/saturation is the distance from the L* value intensity axis to the color point (i.e., the radius). The larger the numerical value of each of a* and b* is, the brighter the color becomes, whereas when the smaller the numerical value of each of a* and b*, the duller the color becomes. Spectrophotometric color measurements differ depending on the measuring geometry and the illuminant. Therefore, when any color measurements are made with an instrument, measured color values are sensitive to the methods employed. Several standard illuminants have been used to measure the color of dental materials. Standard illuminant D65 represents a phase of daylight with a correlated color temperature of approximately 6500 K, illuminant A represents light from the full radiator at absolute temperature 2856 K, and illuminant F2 represents light from fluorescent lamp of medium color temperature of 4230 K. Two standard illuminants are recommended for use in colorimetry. Illuminant A should be used in all applications of colorimetry involving the incandescent lighting, and D65 should be used in all colorimetric calculations requiring representative day light. To standardize the light source mentioned above and easily calculate the chroma level VITA Easyshade® Compact spectrophotometer (VITA, Germany, www.vita-zahnfabrik.com) was used as in FIG. 9. Chroma level was calculated as C*ab=(a*2+b*2)1/2 according to “Colorimetry-technical report. CIE Pub. No. 15, 3rd ed. Vienna: Bureau Central de la CIE; 2004” The inventors found out that an increased amount of Y2O3 within a practical limit (0.1-3.0 wt %) for each layer as an additive in the zirconia (ZrO2) body produces a sintered body that has lower intensity in chroma after being dipped into the color-ion solution for shading effect. The more Y2O3 is used within the practical limit, the sintered body becomes lighter in color intensity/chroma. For example, as seen in the following table 3, the first layer 101 in which the cervical aspect of a tooth will be located has the strongest color intensity/chroma and the fifth layer 105 in which the incisal portion of a tooth would be located has the weakest color intensity/chroma. When dipped into a specific color liquid 31, sample a (first layer 101) produced a slightly dark redish brown color after primary sintering, whereas the sample c (third layer 103) produced a moderately redish brown color, and e (fifth layer 105) produced a sintered body with a light ivory brown color. When each of the different layers of zirconia body 21, 22, 23, with an increasing amount of Y2O3, was deposited into one body 20, 26, 29 and dipped into a specific color (hue) liquid 31, the subsequently sintered body 32, 33 showed a graded color intensity (chroma). This means that a layered zirconia body 20, 26, 29 after being dipped into a color liquid 31 would be able to produce a subsequent sintered body 32, 33 that is gradually diminishing in color intensity/chroma from the cervical to incisal direction as is typically found in the human tooth. Color liquids 31 can be pre-made in as many colors as needed, and the milled porous prosthesis 26 can be simply dipped into this liquid 31. In this way the current invention 20 makes it unnecessary to keep all the inventories of blocks/discs 20 of different shades. Thus, the green body dental prosthesis can be dipped into a single color liquid. TABLE 3 Y2O3 Samples (thickness 1 mm) (Wt %) CIE a* CIE b* CIE c*ab Sample E (fifth layer E) 6.50 −2.4 10.2 10.4 Sample D (forth layer D) 6.25 −1.9 13.5 12.5 Sample C (third layer C) 6.00 −1.2 16.4 16.4 Sample B (second layer B) 5.50 −0.2 22.2 22.2 Sample A (first layer A) 5.00 2.0 28.8 28.9 The chroma was measured utilixing a VITA spectrophotometer 91 Easy Shade according to the user manual. The tip 92 of the device 91 was flush and perpendicular with sample 29 as shown in FIG. 9. The result was independent of lighting condition in the office room, that is, the measurement reading did not change when measured with or without the indoor (fluorescent) light on. This feature of a gradual decrease in color intensity/chroma with higher translucency towards the incisal area gives this invention a unique benefit and advantage of being very similar in optical properties to a natural human tooth and is therefore distintly set apart over other monolithic zirconia bodies currently available in the market. Coloring of dental zirconia bodies, until now, has been possible with only two methods. One is using a non-colored zirconia body that is (subsequent to milling but before final sintering) treated with color-ion liquid. The benefit of this method is to be able to avoid the need of keeping a large inventory of different colored blocks/discs. The disadvantage is that the color of the sintered zirconia body is only mono-chromatic since the color-ion responds the same all the way throughout the homogeneous component of the discs/blocks and finally to the dental prosthesis, making a restoration with only one color. The other method is to use a pre-colored blocks in which each layer has already been pre-colored with different levels of color pigments, but the primary components are basically the same. The advantage is to avoid the coloring process, but the disadvantage is the inefficiency associated with large inventories and restrictions on milling many different colored prostheses in one milling sequence. The current invention has the benefits of both methods by the fact that 1) it uses the simple-dipping coloring method which eliminates the inefficiencies associated with inventory issues and 2) sintered results give the graded color intensity/chroma like the pre-colored blocks with different levels of color pigments. This unique feature comes from a disc/blank in which each layer has been prepared heterogeneously and deposited with different levels of yrrtia (Y2O3) contents. The current invention of layered zirconia body 20 also shows a functionally graded flexural strength. As shown in table 2, the first layer a 101 with the lowest amount (wt %) of yttria (Y2O3) contents shows the highest strength of 1385 MPa, and the fifth layer e 105 with the highest amount of (wt %) of yttria (Y2O3) contents shows the lowest strength of around 925 Mpa. The flexural strength was based on “Implants for surgery-ceramic materials based on yttria-stabilized tetragonal zirconia” of ISO 13356, and the flexural strength was measured by a three-point flexural test. It is already know in the industry that color reproduction of dental prosthesis can be done using the method from U.S. Pat. No. 6,709,694. As shown in FIGS. 11a, and 11b, milled porous dental prosthesis 26, before primary sintering, can be completely immersed in a color-ion liquid 31 for a specific tooth color and then, after a drying time of about 30 minutes, be sintered at temperature of around 1,500° C. in the sintering furnace to produce a color effect of the tooth. The problem with the above mentioned method is that the immersed dental prosthesis body 26 absorbs the coloring liquid 31 in a homogeneous way throughout the entire prosthesis 26, resulting in a sintered prosthesis that has all the same color from the bottom/cervical to the top/incisal direction. It's either in all incisal-light color or all body-intense color. On this starting prosthesis 26, which has only a mono-tone color throughout the sintered body, the dental technician has to add extra colors to create a darker effect for the body and cervical aspect of a tooth. The teaching of this method is a two-step coloring by which an overall light color has to be first created corresponding to the incisal color of a tooth and then a darker body color is created at a separate, subsequent heat treatment process. What the inventors discovered is a simplified one-step sintering method, while still allowing the creation of a double coloring effect as indicated in the following method; first the liquid 110 is applied on the incisal area only with a brushing method, followed by a smearing time of about 30 seconds, and second the liquid 31 is applied by the immersing method. The components of the first liquid 110 that is brushed on the incisal area are water (40-45 wt %), polyethylene glycol (40-45 wt %) and manganese chloride for av incisal graying effect. Coloring-ions other than colorants for graying effect preferably are not added. The inventors found that polyethylene glycol in the first liquid 110 plays a role of either partly blocking or interfering with the infiltration of the second color liquid 31 into the area applied by the first liquid 110, which is a very useful discovery that has not been taught anywhere. The principle of coloring with color liquids 110 and 31 is that the color ion in the liquid 110 smears through the porous space (about 50-100 nano) of the pre-sintered green zirconia body 26 described in the earlier part of the detailed description of this invention. But when this porous space is already filled with liquid agents like polyethylene glycol, the infiltration process becomes locally deterred and incomplete. As a result, the incisal area covered by the first liquid 110 becomes light in color intensity/chroma presenting more natural tooth color characteristics. This method can be used for both monolithic zirconia that is all one material/component or multi-layered zirconia bodies with different amounts of yttria (Y2O3) contents. When used with multi-layered zirconia bodies, the result is more aesthetic, since the incisal aspect of the multi-layered zirconia, with increasing amounts of yttria (Y2O3), gives incrementally increased translucency as well. There should be a certain period of absorbing and drying time of the first liquid 110 of about 0.5 to 2 minutes for optimum results before the application of the second liquid 31. The first liquid can be locally and incisally applied by using a fine tipped brush 111, and the application of the second liquid 31 is usually completed by immersing the green body 26 in the color liquid 31. Moving brush 111 from the insical to body direction makes it possible to apply more of the first liquid in the top portion of incisal and less of the first liquid in the lower portion of the incisal area, allowing a smooth color transition from the incisal area to the body area of a tooth. After being removed from the second liquid 31, the prosthesis 26 is dried under a light and sintered in a regular way. Then the sintered body displays an ideal multiple color intensity effect with less color/chroma (with optional incisal gray effect with manganese chloride) in the incisal area and more color in the body and cervical area. There is a gradual transition area between incisal and body of a sintered prosthesis. The effectiveness of this coloring method of creating gradually decreasing color intensity/chroma towards the incisal area of a dental prosthesis can be increased when used with a multi-layer zirconia body that has increasing translucency towards the incisal area of a dental prosthesis. In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, a larger size of blank (typically a round disc) of non pre-colored ceramic material can be more efficient in that the operator can mill multiple teeth all at the same time from the same un-colored discsregardless of individual characteristic requirements and do the coloring job at a separate stage later. While the forgoing examples are illustrative of the principles of the present invention in one or more particular applications, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that numerous modifications in form, usage and details of implementation can be made without the exercise of inventive faculty, and without departing from the principles and concepts of the invention. Accordingly, it is not intended that the invention be limited, except as by the claims set forth below. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It has been recognized that it would be advantageous to develop a dental prosthesis with improved or more natural optical characteristics, such as translucency and/or chroma, and/or with different layers having different optical characteristics. In addition, it has been recognized that it would be advantageous to develop a green body dental blank having different layers of different chemical compositions, but substantially consistent optical characteristics prior to sintering, and which can be milled, colored and sintered to obtain layers of different optical characteristics. The invention provides dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered strength with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas and the strength decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. In addition, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered strength and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with the post-sintered strength increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma also increasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. In addition, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body having multiple different areas, each having a different chemical composition between adjacent areas. The different chemical composition include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria is increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in a lower area to 6-10 wt % in an upper area. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. Furthermore, the invention provides a dental block for producing a dental prosthesis. The dental block comprises a green body comprising zirconia. The green body has multiple different areas, including a lower area configured to correspond to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis produced from the dental block, and an upper area configured to correspond to an incisal area of the dental prosthesis. The green body has a pre-sintered translucency that is substantially the same across the multiple different areas. The green body subsequently has a post-sintered translucency and a post-sintered color intensity/chroma with an inverse relationship with the post-sintered translucency increasing in one direction across the multiple different areas, and the post-sintered color intensity/chroma decreasing in the same direction across the multiple different areas. In accordance with a more detailed aspect of the present invention, the green body can have a color component. Alternatively, the green body can be without a color component. The green body can be substantially white. The green body can be substantially opaque and substantially non-translucent with respect to visible light. The different chemical composition can include different amounts of yttria between the adjacent areas. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from a lower area to an upper area of the dental prosthesis. The amount of yttria can be increased incrementally from 4.5-6 wt % in the lower area to 6-10 wt % in the upper area. The post-sintered strength of the lower area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the upper area. The strength is flexural strength. The post-sintered translucency of the upper area of the dental prosthesis or dental block can be higher than the lower area. The translucency is total light transmittance. The multiple different areas can have different thicknesses with respect to one another, with a lower area, corresponding to a cervical area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 2-5 mm, and an upper area, corresponding to the occlusal area of the dental prosthesis, having a thickness between 0.5-2 mm. The green body can have a brightness/lightness L* value between 10 to 20 for a sample thickness of 1 to 1.3 mm in accordance with CIE L*a*b* colorimetric system, measured with a reading tip of a spectrophotometer flush with, in close touching contact, and perpendicular to a measured surface of a sample. Thus, the current invention introduces a method of producing a yttria (Y2O3) stabilized polycrystalline dental zirconia disc/blank that does not contain color pigments in it. Incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) was applied towards one direction in the production of this disc/blank. After pre-sintering the green body looks generally opaque over the entire surface. The dental restoration would then be milled out of this green body, followed by coloring and final sintering. Only at this restoration stage can the desirable optical properties match that found in the human tooth. By increasing the amount of yttria (Y2O3) towards the incisal area at the initial powder characterization stage before green body molding, it was discovered that the translucency level was increased and color chroma level was decreased after primary sintering which is a typical characteristic of a natural human tooth. The benefit of this discovery of incremental addition of yttria (Y2O3) to one specific direction is that it enables the smooth transition of a certain level of translucency and color chroma to another level. Also, separating the processes of 1) producing a non-colored green body after the pre-sintering stage and 2) implementing custom coloring in a subsequent stage, enables the mass production of multiple dental restorations in dental laboratories. The current invention zirconia material can be used to manufacture dental prostheses including, but not limited to, crowns, partial crowns, bridges, inlays, onlays, orthodontic appliances, space maintainers, tooth replacement appliances, splints, dentures, posts, facings, veneers, facets, implants, abutments, cylinders, and connectors. | A61C130022 | 20170710 | 20171026 | 63211.0 | A61C1300 | 1 | SCHLEIS, DANIEL J | Multi-Layer Zirconia Dental Blank that has a Gradual Change in Strength, Translucency and Chroma from One Direction to The Other After Sintering | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61C | 2,017 |
|
15,645,867 | PENDING | ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY | An electrical connector is provided comprising a female member configured to couple with male member. The female member includes a female receptacle having an opening, and a female electrode is at least partially disposed within the female receptacle. A resilient member is configured to enhance electrical connection between the female electrode and a male connector electrode. | 1. A female electrical connector comprising: a female housing comprising an insulating material at least partially forming a first female receptacle comprising a first receptacle opening for at least partially receiving a first male connector electrode; a first female electrode disposed at least partially within the first female receptacle, wherein the first female electrode comprises a first surface for electrically coupling with a first male connector electrode; a first resilient member retained by the first female receptacle, wherein the first resilient member comprises a first resilient contact member configured to deform while a first male connector electrode is at least partially inserted into the first female receptacle; wherein the first resilient member is configured to provide a biasing force to facilitate an electrical coupling of the first female electrode with only a first male connector electrode; wherein the first resilient contact member resiliently deforms in response to interference from one or more portions of a first male connector electrode, when a first male connector electrode is at least partially inserted into the first female receptacle; and wherein the first resilient member is retained within the female housing spaced from the first female electrode, whereby the first resilient member and the first female electrode are not in contact with one another. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of, and claims the benefit of the filing date of, co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/887,128 entitled ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY, filed Oct. 19, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/171,568 entitled ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY, filed Feb. 3, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,166,323, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/959,872 entitled ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY, filed Dec. 3, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,641,440, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/417,792 entitled ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY, filed Apr. 3, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,867,038, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/951,754 entitled ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY, filed Dec. 6, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,530,855, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/736,460 filed Apr. 17, 2007, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,374,460. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention generally relates to electrical connectors and, more particularly, to high current electrical connectors with protection against reverse polarity connections. Description of the Related Art A wide variety of electronic devices are powered through the use of battery packs. For example, remotely controlled vehicles of all types may have an on-board rechargeable battery pack supplying stored electricity to an electric motor. In some of these lightweight vehicles, racing creates a demand for more powerful motors along with increasing levels of current capacity to energize the motors. As a battery pack is drained of the stored energy contained therein, a user must be able to easily exchange a depleted battery pack for a fully charged one. The depleted battery pack is then connected to a battery charger in order to be ready for the next exchange. Consequently, there exists a need for a high current electrical connector with a lightweight and compact design. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, an electrical connector having a lightweight and compact design is provided wherein a resilient member is configured to enhance electrical connection between a female electrode and a male connector electrode. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of the present invention and the advantages thereof, reference is now made to the following Detailed Description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a general orthogonal top view of an embodiment of an electrical connector configured according to the present invention and showing attached wire conductors; FIG. 2 illustrates an exploded assembly view of the electrical connector of FIG. 1; FIG. 3A illustrates an orthogonal top view of a female member of the electrical connector of FIG. 1; FIG. 3B illustrates a cross-sectional view of the female member of FIG. 3A as viewed along line 3B-3B; FIG. 3C illustrates a cross-sectional view of the female member of FIG. 3A as viewed along line 3C-3C; FIG. 4A illustrates a top view of a female terminal; FIG. 4B illustrates a side view of the female terminal of FIG. 4A; FIG. 5A illustrates an orthogonal top view of a resilient member; FIG. 5B illustrates a side view of the resilient member of FIG. 5A; FIG. 6A illustrates an orthogonal top view of a male member; FIG. 6B illustrates a cross-sectional side view of the male member of FIG. 6A; FIG. 7A illustrates a top view of a male terminal; FIG. 7B illustrates a side view of the male terminal of FIG. 7A; FIG. 8A illustrates an orthogonal top view of the electrical connector of FIG. 1 correctly assembled; FIG. 8B illustrates an orthogonal top view of the electrical connector of FIG. 1 incorrectly assembled; FIG. 9A illustrates a cross-sectional view of the correctly assembled electrical connector of FIG. 8A as viewed along line 9A-9A; FIG. 9B illustrates a cross-sectional view of the incorrectly assembled electrical connector of FIG. 8B as viewed along line 9B-9B; FIG. 10 illustrates an orthogonal cross-sectional view of the assembled electrical connector of FIG. 1; FIG. 11 illustrates an orthogonal cross-sectional top view of another embodiment of an electrical connector configured according to aspects of the present invention; FIG. 12 illustrates an orthogonal cross-sectional top view of another embodiment of an electrical connector configured according to aspects of the present invention; FIG. 13A illustrates a top view of another embodiment of a component of an electrical connector configured according to aspects of the present invention; and FIG. 13B illustrates an orthogonal cross-sectional top view of the component of FIG. 13A as viewed along line 13B-13B. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following discussion, numerous specific details are set forth to provide a thorough understanding of the present invention. However, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the present invention may be practiced without such specific details. In other instances, well-known elements have been illustrated in schematic or block diagram form in order not to obscure the present invention in unnecessary detail. Additionally, for the most part, details concerning well known features and elements have been omitted inasmuch as such details are not considered necessary to obtain a complete understanding of the present invention, and are considered to be within the understanding of persons of ordinary skill in the relevant art. Turning now to the drawings, FIG. 1 shows a top orthogonal view of an assembled electrical connector with attached wire conductors. In this drawing, reference numeral 1000 generally indicates an illustrative embodiment of an electrical connector 1000 at least partially configured according to the present invention. The electrical connector 1000 may comprise a female member 100 and a male member 500. Attached to the electrical connector 1000 are wire conductors 10A, 10B, 20A, and 20B. The wire conductors 10A, 10B, 20A, and 20B, may not considered as components of the electrical connector 1000 and are shown for the purposes of illustration. Wire conductors 10A and 10B may carry a positive current flow and wire conductors 20A and 20B may carry a negative current flow. The various components of the electrical connector 1000 will be described in more detail in the following illustrative embodiment. Referring to FIG. 2, the components of an embodiment of the electrical connector 1000 are shown in an exploded assembly view. The female member 100 may comprise a female housing 102, a first and second female terminal 200, and a first and second resilient member 300. The male member 500 may comprise a male housing 502, and a first and second male terminal 600. Female Member Turning now to FIGS. 3A, 3B, and 3C, the female member 100 may comprise a female housing 102, a first female terminal chamber 110, a second female terminal chamber 120, female terminals 200, and resilient members 300 (more clearly shown in FIG. 2). A first female polarity indicator 111 and a second female polarity indicator 121 may indicate the respective polarities of the first female terminal chamber 110 and the second female terminal chamber 120. A first orifice 116 and a second orifice 126 may be located at an end of the female member 100 opposite to the first and second female polarity indicators 111 and 121. An example of a resilient member 300 is shown in FIGS. 3B and 3C. A resilient member 300 may be located in each of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120 (however, only one is shown in the FIGS. 3B and 3C for the purposes of illustration). The various components of the female member 100 will be described in more detail in the following illustrative embodiment. Female Housing Referring to FIG. 3B, the female housing 102 may be substantially rectangular in shape and comprise a female conductor housing 104, a female internal wall 105, and a female terminal housing 106, for each of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120. Due to symmetry, only the first female terminal chamber 110 will be described from this point forward, reference numerals enclosed by parenthesis refer to the second female terminal chamber 120. Although a substantially rectangular shape is shown for the female housing 102, embodiments of the present invention may not be limited to this one configuration. Any configuration capable of accommodating one or more female terminals 200 may be used. The female housing 102 may be manufactured from a dielectric material able to withstand the operating conditions of an intended application and provide sufficient electrical insulation between the current carrying female terminals 200 (i.e., inhibiting the occurrence of electrical shorts between the female terminals 200). For example, the material of the female housing 102 may be a glass reinforced nylon such as Zytel® 70G33L, made by DuPont®. In some applications the reinforced nylon material may comprise approximately 33% glass. The material may be used in a remotely controlled vehicle operating in a natural environment for example and may experience a temperature range from below −20° F. (−29° C.) to over 250° F. (121° C.) (e.g., when operated in desert conditions over solar heated roadways, or due to battery heat, current flow, and electrical resistance). The female conductor housing 104 may be separated from the female terminal housing 106 by the female internal wall 105. The female internal wall 105 may comprise an opening 114 (124) to accommodate a female terminal 200. On the female conductor housing 104 side of the female internal wall 105, the female internal wall 105 may comprise an indicator 113 identifying the connection side of the electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1) for example (e.g., “A” for the female member and “B” for the male member). In other embodiments, the indicator 113 may comprise a polarity sign to be used in place of, or in addition to, the first and second female polarity indicators 111 and 121 (FIG. 3A). The female conductor housing 104 may circumferentially surround an end of a female terminal 200 inserted into each of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120. An end of the female conductor housing 104 opposing the female internal wall 105 may be open to provide access for a conductor (not shown) to contact an exposed end of a female terminal 200. In other embodiments, an end or side of the female conductor housing 104 adjacent to the female internal wall 105 may be open to provide conductor access. In the embodiment shown, the female conductor housing 104 substantially shrouds and insulates the ends of the female terminals 200 from each other. In certain other embodiments the female conductor housing 104 may only partially surround an end of a female terminal 200 in each of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120. The female terminal housing 106 portions of each of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120 may comprise a female terminal support 107 and a resilient member support 109 (FIG. 3C). Each of the female terminal supports 107 may help to retain a corresponding female terminal 200 in the respective first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120. The female terminal support 107 may comprise one or more retention members 112 (for example as represented by 112A) configured to retain a female terminal 200 after assembly into a female member 100. Although a slanted ramp type of retention member 112 is shown in FIG. 3B to facilitate an insertion type of assembly (e.g., inserting a female terminal 200 from left to right in the female housing 102 with respect to FIG. 3B), a person of ordinary skill in the art would not be limited to just this type of retention member 112. Pins, rivets, fasteners, other mechanical attachments, welding, and chemical adhesives, among other various methods may be used to secure a female terminal 200 in the female housing 102. Further, similar additional retention members 112B may be used to provide additional force to oppose the friction force generated during the assembly and disassembly of the electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1) that may otherwise move or dislocate one or both of the female terminals 200. Other embodiments of the female member 100 may not comprise retention members 112. In some cases the female terminals 200 and resilient members 300 may be core molded into the female member 100 at the time of manufacture. The resilient member support 109 (FIG. 3C) may secure a resilient member 300 in each of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120. The resilient member support 109 is shown as proximate to the female internal wall 105. However, an embodiment of the resilient member support 109 may be located proximate to an end of the female terminal housing 106 opposite to the female internal wall 105 (i.e., the insertion end of the female terminal housing 106, for example, essentially configured 180° in a horizontal plane relative to the embodiment shown in FIG. 3B) in addition to other locations. As with the female terminal support 107, the resilient member support 109 may comprise one or more retention features 112, for example, as represented by 112C in FIG. 3C. The retention features 112 of the resilient member support 109 may comprise slanted ramp protrusions as with an embodiment of the female terminal support 107, or the retention features 112 may comprise any of the mechanical, chemical, or welding methods of fastening previously recited. The previously recited methods of retaining and/or fastening female terminals 200 and resilient members 300 are not intended to form an exhaustive list, but are merely a sampling from amongst a broad variety of retaining and fastening methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art. As with the female terminals 200, the resilient members 300 may be core molded into the female housing 102 during the production of the female housing 102. The ends of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120 located in the female terminal housing 106, opposite to the female internal wall 105, are referred to as the first and second orifices 116 and 126. Each of the first and second orifices 116 and 126 may be configured substantially in a rectangular shape as shown in FIG. 3A. However, in the illustrative embodiment shown in these figures, an aspect of the first orifice 116, such as a width, may be configured differently than the same aspect of the second orifice 126. The difference in widths may inhibit an incorrectly polarized assembly of a male member 500 (FIG. 1) with the female member 100. Although a difference in dimensional aspects such as widths may be used to inhibit reversing the polarities during connection of an electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1) the present invention may not be limited to this method. Different configurations, devices, and dimensions may be used to facilitate the proper polar connection orientation during assembly of a male member 500 with a female member 100. Female Terminals Turning now to FIGS. 4A and 4B, FIG. 4A shows a top view of an embodiment of a female terminal 200, and FIG. 4B shows a side view of the female terminal 200 of FIG. 4A. As an example of an illustrative embodiment of a female terminal 200, the female terminal 200 may comprise a terminal connector portion 204 and a terminal contact portion 206. The female terminal 200 may comprise an electrically conductive material, such as brass, copper, or bronze. The female terminal 200 may be plated with gold (such as a gold-cobalt or gold-nickel alloy) or silver, among other materials, preferably copper plated with nickel and then plated with gold (for example), in order to increase the electrical conductivity between contacting portions of the male and female terminals 600 and 200. The female terminal 200 shown may be made from a standard plate of material and punched formed to the correct size and configuration, among other methods of forming. The terminal connector portion 204 may be located on one end of the female terminal 200 and configured to electrically couple with a copper wire conductor (for example) such as wire conductors 10B and 20B (FIG. 1). The terminal connector portion 204 may be electrically coupled to a wire conductor through the use of soldering, mechanical fastening (e.g., through the use of a screw clamp), standard insulated and non-insulated connector fittings, crimping, and other methods of electrically coupling a wire conductor to a portion of a terminal. Embodiments of the terminal connector portion 204 may comprise a variety of configurations in order to accommodate a particular electrical coupling method. The terminal contact portion 206 may be located at an opposite end of the female terminal 200 relative to the terminal connector portion 204, and may comprise an angled end 210, one or more terminal retention features 212 (two are shown in FIG. 4B, 212A and 212B), and a contact surface 214. The angled end 210 may help facilitate the coupling or assembly of a corresponding male terminal 600 (FIG. 2) during the connection of an electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1). The contact surface 214 may directly contact an opposing surface of a male terminal 600 in order to allow an electrical current to flow from one end of the electrical connector 1000 to the other. Terminal step 208 may separate the terminal connector portion 204 from the terminal contact portion 206. In some embodiments, during assembly of the female terminal 200 into female housing 102 (FIG. 3B), the terminal step 208 may oppose a portion of the female housing 102 and prevent further movement in the assembly direction. The terminal retention features 212 may contact corresponding retention features 112 of the female housing 102 and prevent movement in a direction opposite to the assembly direction. At this point, the female terminal 200 may be substantially securely coupled with the female housing 102. Resilient Member Referring now to FIGS. 5A and 5B, these figures respectively show an orthogonal top view of a resilient member 300 and a side view of the resilient member 300 of FIG. 5A. The resilient member 300 may comprise a resilient base member 310 and a resilient contact member 320. The resilient member 300 may be punch formed from a sheet of stainless steel (e.g., SS 301 with no plating), spring steel (e.g., spring steel with nickel plating) or other resilient material configured to work within the anticipated environmental conditions of the electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1). In some embodiments, the resilient member 300 may be plated or otherwise coated to inhibit rust or to provide an appropriate level of resistance (e.g., friction force) necessary to maintain the connection between an assembled male member 500 and female member 100. The resilient base member 310 may be located at one end of the resilient member 300 and comprise one or more resilient retention members 312A and 312B (FIG. 5B). The resilient retention members 312A and 312B may engage corresponding retention members 112 within the resilient member support 109 (as seen in FIG. 3C, but only one retention member 112C can be seen in this view), located in each of the first and second terminal chambers 110 and 120. The resilient retention members 312A and 312B may securely retain the resilient members 300 within the female housing 102 during assembly and disassembly of the electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1). The resilient base member 310 is shown as a substantially flat quadrilateral but embodiments of the present invention may not be limited to this illustrative form. The resilient base member 310 may be retained separate from the corresponding female terminal 200 and separate from a fully inserted male terminal 500 (FIG. 2). In other words, the resilient base member 310 may not overlay a corresponding male terminal 500 when an electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1) is electrically coupled. As more easily seen in FIG. 5B, the resilient contact member 320 may comprise an arcuate portion defined by a radius R. The arcuate portion may be resiliently deformed toward the radial center point in response to pressure or interference from portions of an installed male member 500 (FIG. 1). The arcuate portion may also be configured to interface with a depression or other engaging feature, detailed later, in an opposing surface or portion of the male member 500 in order to provide a disassembly retention force after coupling the male member 500 with the female member 100 (see FIG. 1). In the illustrative embodiment shown, only a single arcuate portion is illustrated in FIGS. 5A and 5B. However, embodiments of the present invention are not to be limited to this one exemplary configuration. For example, larger and smaller radii either alone or in combination with one or more relatively straight portions may be used, an arcuate portion curving back upon the resilient contact member 320, a single angular bend joining two straight portions together, or a plurality of angular or arcuate portions such as in a zig-zag or wave type of configuration may be used in order to more evenly apply a force from the female member 100 to the male member 500. The listing is intended to provide a small representative sample of the various potential configurations consistent with the present invention and is not intended to be exhaustive. One end of the resilient contact member 320 may comprise a housing interface 324. An example of the housing interface 324 may be illustrated by a small radius curve rotating in an opposite direction relative to the arcuate portion defined by the radius R. The housing interface 324 may facilitate a sliding movement along a contacting portion of an inner wall of the female housing 102 (FIG. 3B) in response to assembly and disassembly of a male member 500 and a female member 100 (see FIG. 2). The sliding contact may prevent or inhibit the abrading or prematurely wearing down of the inner surface of the female housing 102 over a multiple number of connections and disconnections of the electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1). In this example, the contacting portion of the housing interface 324 curves away from the inner surface of the female housing 102 in directions tangent to the small radius curve. Further, the resilient contact member 320 may extend at an angle from the resilient base member 310 such that the housing interface 324 may be located above (with respect to FIG. 5B) a plane containing the resilient base member 310. This configuration may apply a pre-load to an assembled resilient member 300 via the housing interface 324. By adjusting the angle for the resilient contact member 320 relative to the resilient base member 310, and/or adjusting the radius R, the force applied to the male member 500 through the resilient contact member 320 may be adjusted. Adjusting the force of the resilient contact member 320 may adjust the amount of insertion and withdrawal force for the connecting and disconnecting of the electrical connector 1000. Consequently, a desired amount of insertion and withdrawal force may be established for the connecting and disconnecting of the electrical connector 1000. Male Member Turning now to FIGS. 6A, and 6B, the male member 500 may comprise a male housing 502, a first male terminal extension 510, a second male terminal extension 520, and male terminals 600 (more clearly shown in FIG. 6B). A first male polarity indicator 511 and a second male polarity indicator 521 may indicate the respective polarities of the first male terminal extension 510 and the second male terminal extension 520. An example of a male terminal 600 is shown in FIGS. 7A and 7B and is detailed later. The various components of the male member 500 will be described in more detail in the following illustrative embodiment. Male Housing Referring to FIG. 6B, the male housing 502 may be substantially rectangular in shape and comprise a male conductor housing 504, a male internal wall 505, and a male terminal tip 506 for each of the first and second male terminal extensions 510 and 520. Due to their similarities, only the first male terminal extension 510 will be described from this point forward, reference numerals enclosed by parenthesis refer to second male terminal extension 520. Although a substantially rectangular shape is shown for the male housing 502, embodiments of the present invention may not be limited to this one configuration. Any configuration capable of accommodating one or more male terminals 600 may be used. The male housing 502 may be manufactured from a dielectric material able to withstand the operating conditions of an intended application and provide sufficient electrical insulation between the current carrying male terminals 600 (i.e., inhibiting the occurrence of an electrical short between the male terminals 600). For example, the material of the male housing 502 may be a glass reinforced nylon such as Zytel® 70G33L, made by DuPont®. In some applications the reinforced nylon material may comprise approximately 33% glass. The material may be used in a remotely controlled vehicle operating in a natural environment for example and may experience a temperature range from below −20° F. (−29° C.) to over 250° F. (121° C.) (e.g., when operated in desert conditions over solar heated roadways, or due to battery heat, current flow, and electrical resistance). The male conductor housing 504 may be separated from the male terminal housing 506 by the male internal wall 505. The male internal wall 505 may comprise an opening 514 (524) to accommodate a male terminal 600. On the male conductor housing 504 side of the male internal wall 505, the male internal wall 505 may comprise an indicator 513 identifying the connection side of the electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1), for example (e.g., “A” for the female member and “B” for the male member). In other embodiments, the indicator 513 may comprise a polarity sign to be used in place of, or in addition to, the first and second male polarity indicators 511 and 521 (FIG. 6A). The male conductor housing 504 may circumferentially surround an end of a male terminal 600 inserted into each of the first and second male terminal extensions 510 and 520. An end of the male conductor housing 504 opposing the internal wall 505 may be open to provide access for a conductor (not shown) to contact an exposed end of a male terminal 600. In other embodiments, an end or side of the male conductor housing 504 adjacent to the male internal wall 505 may be open to provide conductor access. In the embodiment shown, the male conductor housing 504 substantially shrouds and insulates the ends of the male terminals 600 from each other. In certain other embodiments the male conductor housing 504 may only partially surround an end of a male terminal 600 in each of the first and second male terminal extensions 510 and 520. The male internal wall 505 of each of the first and second male terminal extensions 510 and 520 may function as a male terminal support (FIG. 6B). Each of the male terminal supports (i.e., male internal walls 505) may help to retain a corresponding male terminal 600 in the respective first and second male terminal extensions 510 and 520. The male terminal support may comprise one or more retention members 512 (for example as represented by 512A), configured to retain a male terminal 600 after assembly into a male member 500. Although a slanted ramp type of retention member 512 is shown in FIG. 6B to facilitate an insertion type of assembly (e.g., inserting a male terminal 600 from the left to the right in the male housing 502 with respect to FIG. 6B), a person of ordinary skill in the art would not be limited to just this type of retention member 512. Pins, rivets, fasteners, other mechanical attachments, welding, and chemical adhesives, among other various methods may be used to secure a male terminal 600 within the male housing 502. Further, similar additional retention members 512B may be used to provide additional force to oppose the friction force generated during the connection and disconnection of the electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1) that may otherwise move or dislocate one or both of the male terminals 600. Other embodiments of the male member 500 may not comprise retention members 512. In some cases the male terminals 600 may be core molded into the male housing 502 at the time of manufacture. The ends of the first and second male terminal extensions 510 and 520 in the male terminal tips 506, opposite to the internal wall 505, are referred to as the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526. Each of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may be configured substantially in a rectangular shape as shown in FIG. 6A. However, in the illustrative embodiment shown in these figures, an aspect of the first male terminal cover 516, for example width, may be configured differently than the same aspect of the second male terminal cover 526. The difference in widths may inhibit an incorrectly polarized assembly of a male member 500 (FIG. 1) with the female member 100. Although a difference in dimensional aspects such as widths may be used to inhibit reversing the polarities during connection of an electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1), the present invention may not be limited to this method. Different configurations, devices, and dimensions may be used to facilitate the proper polar connection orientation during assembly of a male member 500 with a female member 100. The first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may each comprise a connector retention feature 507. In some embodiments, the connector retention feature 507 may be configured as an arcuate cavity or depression corresponding to an arcuate portion of the resilient contact member 320 of a resilient member 300 (see FIG. 5B). As the male member 500 is connected to the female member 100 (see FIG. 1), the resilient member 300 moves relative to a surface of the corresponding first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 until a portion of the resilient contact member 320 engages a corresponding portion of the connector retention feature 507. The engagement between the resilient contact member 320 and the connector retention feature 507 may provide a sensory indication that the male member 500 is fully connected to the female member 100. In addition, the engagement between the resilient contact member 320 and the connector retention feature 507 may help to prevent inadvertent disconnection between the male member 500 and the female member 100 during the operation of the electrical connector 1000 in an applied device. The first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may further comprise an angled or slanted portion 570, which may be located at an end opposite to the male internal wall 505. The slanted portion 570 of each of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may facilitate the insertion and/or assembly of the male member 500 with the female member 100 (see FIG. 1). In some embodiments, rounded, arcuate, or other insertion facilitating features may be used in place of, or in addition to, the slanted portion 570 of each of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526. At least part of the remaining portions of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may provide a contact surface for the resilient member 300, as previously explained, and may provide a degree of insulation between the resilient members 300 and the male terminals 600. The material of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may be the same as the material used for the rest of the male housing 502. In some embodiments, the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may comprise a coating applied to a surface of the male terminals 600. Alternatively, a coating or texture may be applied to a surface of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 to vary the level of frictional resistance between the surface and the contacting portion of the resilient contact member 320 of each of the respective resilient members 300. Male Terminals Turning now to FIGS. 7A and 7B, FIG. 7A shows a top view of an embodiment of a male terminal 600, and FIG. 7B shows a side view of the male terminal 600 of FIG. 7A. As an example of an illustrative embodiment of a male terminal 600, the male terminal 600 may comprise a terminal connector portion 604 and a terminal contact portion 606. The male terminal 600 may comprise an electrically conductive material, such as brass, copper, or bronze. The male terminal 600 may be plated with gold (such as gold-cobalt or gold-nickel alloy) or silver, among other materials, preferably copper plated with nickel and then plated with gold (for example), in order to increase the electrical conductivity between contacting portions of the male and female terminals 600 and 200. The male terminal 600 shown may be made from a standard plate of material and punched formed to the correct size and configuration, among other methods of forming. The terminal connector portion 604 may be located on one end of the male terminal 600 and configured to electrically couple with a copper wire conductor (for example) such as wire conductors 10A and 20A (FIG. 1). The terminal connector portion 604 may be electrically coupled to a wire conductor through the use of soldering, mechanical fastening (e.g., through the use of a screw clamp), standard insulated and non-insulated connector fittings, crimping, and other methods of electrically coupling a wire conductor to a terminal. Embodiments of the terminal connector portion 604 may comprise a variety of configurations in order to accommodate a particular electrical coupling method. The terminal contact portion 606 may be located at an opposite end of the male terminal 600 relative to the terminal connector portion 604, and may comprise an angled end 610, one or more terminal retention features 612 (two are shown in FIG. 7B, 612A and 612B), and a contact surface 614. The angled end 610 may help facilitate the coupling or assembly of a corresponding female terminal 200 (FIG. 2) during the connection of an electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1). The contact surface 614 may directly contact an opposing surface of a female terminal 200 in order to allow an electrical current to flow from one end of the electrical connector 1000 to the other. Terminal step 608 may separate the terminal connector portion 604 from the terminal contact portion 606. In some embodiments, during assembly of the male terminal 600 into male housing 502 (FIG. 6B), the terminal step 608 may oppose a portion of the male housing 502 and prevent further movement in the assembly direction. The terminal retention features 612 may contact corresponding retention features 512 of the male housing 502 and prevent movement in a direction opposite to the assembly direction. At this point, the male terminal 600 may be substantially securely coupled with the male housing 502. Assembly Turning now to FIGS. 8A and 8B, FIG. 8A illustrates a correctly assembled electrical connector 1000, while FIG. 8B illustrates an incorrectly assembled electrical connector 1000. As seen in FIG. 8A, when the male member 500 is correctly coupled to a female member 100, the first and second male polarity indicators 511 and 521 correspond to the first and second female polarity indicators 111 and 121, indicating the maintenance of proper polarity across the electrical connector 1000. The correspondence between the sets of polarity indicators 111, 121, 511, and 521, may provide a visual indication of the correct coupling of the male and female members 500 and 100. As seen in FIG. 8B, the first and second male polarity indicators 511 and 521 may not be visible from a top oriented viewing plane when the male member 500 is incorrectly assembled to the female member 100. In addition, as indicated by the arrows for the first and second male polarity indicators 511 and 521 (the polarity indicators themselves are not visible in this view), the polarities on each side of the incorrectly assembled electrical connector 1000 have been reversed. Referring to FIGS. 9A and 9B, FIG. 9A illustrates a cross-sectional view of the correctly assembled electrical connector 1000 of FIG. 8A as viewed along line 9A-9A, while FIG. 9B illustrates a cross-sectional view of the incorrectly assembled electrical connector 1000 of FIG. 8B as viewed along line 9B-9B. FIG. 9A shows an electrical connector 1000 in which a first male terminal cover 516 is inserted into a first orifice 116 and a contact surface 614 of the male terminal 600 is abutting a contact surface 214 of the female terminal 200. The first male terminal cover 516 and the first orifice 116 may each have an approximate width of W1 with the first male terminal cover 516 configured to fit within the first orifice 116. The second male terminal cover 526 is inserted into a second orifice 126 such that a contact surface 614 of the corresponding male terminal 600 is abutting a contact surface 214 of the corresponding female terminal 200. The second male terminal cover 526 and the second orifice 126 may each have an approximate width of W2 with the second male terminal cover 526 configured to fit within the second orifice 126. The width W1 may be smaller than the width W2. This difference in widths may provide another method of inhibiting or preventing cross-polarization during connection of the male member 500 to the female member 100 (FIG. 8A), since the male member 500 may be connected to the female member 100 when the male member 500 is properly oriented with respect to the female member 100. The proper orientation of the male and female members 500 and 100 may provide for the correct polarity of the connection. FIG. 9B shows an electrical connector 1000 in which a male member 500 is incorrectly connected to a female member 100. This type of connection may be substantially prevented by the interference between the width of the second male terminal cover 526 (W2) and the width of the first orifice 116 (W1)(e.g., W2−W1). However, if the male member 500 is somehow coupled to the female member 100 in spite of this interference, cross-polarization of the electrical connector 1000 may still be prevented by the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 separating the male and female terminals 600 and 200. The first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may prevent contact between corresponding male and female terminals 600 and 200 when the male member 500 is in a second orientation with respect to the female member 100. Therefore, as seen in this illustrative embodiment, cross-polarization of the electrical connector 1000 may be prevented and/or inhibited by at least two separate and independent methods, in addition to the visual indication given by the first and second male and female polarity indicators, 111, 121, 511, and 521. Referring now to FIG. 10, this figure illustrates an orthogonal cross-sectional view of a correctly assembled male member 500 and female member 100. In this figure, the first and second male terminal extensions 510 and 520 (FIG. 6A) have been inserted into the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120 (FIG. 3A), or more specifically, the male terminal housing 506 portions of the first and second male terminal extensions 510 and 520 have been inserted into the first and second orifices 116 and 126 of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120. As the male member 500 is connected to the female member 100, the resilient members 300 may initially contact the slanted portion 570 of the corresponding first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526. The resilient contact portions 320 may respectively slidingly engage a top surface of each of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526. The resilient contact portions 320 may be compressed, causing the housing interface 324 portion of the resilient member 300 to slidingly engage an interior surface of the respective first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120. The male member 500 may continue to be inserted into the female member 100 until the resilient contact portion 320 engages a corresponding connector retention feature 507 of the respective first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526. At this point, the male member 500 may be securely coupled to the female member 100. Although only one side portion of the electrical connector 1000 is described in detail, the other side portion may be similar due to the symmetry of the connector. However, complete symmetry is not a limitation required of an embodiment of the present invention and differences beyond the widths of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 and corresponding first and second orifices 116 and 126 may exist. Another Embodiment Referring now to FIG. 11, this figure shows an orthogonal top view with a cross-section taken through the side of an embodiment of an electrical connector. In this figure, reference number 2000 generally refers to another illustrative embodiment of an electrical connector 2000 constructed according to aspects of the present invention. One difference between the electrical connector 2000 and the previously described electrical connector 1000 (FIG. 1) may be the replacement of one or more resilient members 300 (FIG. 2) of the previous illustrative embodiment with one or more resilient members 2300. Otherwise, the function and materials for the two electrical connectors 1000 and 2000 may be considered to be the same. Similar components may be identified with similar reference numerals used in the previous description, and a detailed explanation of these components may not be repeated. Electrical connector 2000 may comprise a female member 2100 and a male member 500, shown here in a connected state. The female member 2100 may comprise one or more female terminals 200 (only one is visible in this view) and the male member 500 may comprise a corresponding number of male terminals 600. When the female member 2100 and the male member 500 are coupled together, electricity may be able to flow between wire conductors (not shown) through the electrical connector 2000 via the areas of contact between the female and male terminals 200 and 600. The female member 2100 may comprise one or more resilient members 2300. The resilient members 2300 may provide a pressing force to facilitate electrical conduction through the contact areas between the corresponding female and male terminals 200 and 600. In addition, the resilient members 2300 may provide a securing force to inhibit or prevent the inadvertent disconnection of the male member 500 from the female member 2100 during the use of the electrical connector 2300 in a desired application (e.g., such as in a vibratory and dynamic environment of a remotely controlled vehicle). In some exemplary embodiments, the number of resilient members 2300 corresponds to the number of electrical connections formed or broken during the connection and disconnection of the electrical connector 2000 (e.g., two are shown in FIG. 11). However, the number of resilient members 2300 may not be required to equal the number of electrical connections formed or broken. Each resilient member 2300 may comprise a resilient housing 2310 integrated with the housing of the female member 2100. As shown in FIG. 11, the resilient housing 2310 may be substantially cylindrical for example, but embodiments of the present invention may not be limited to this geometric configuration. Each resilient member 2300 may further comprise a retention device 2324, a resilient device 2322, and a contact device 2320. The retention device 2324 may comprise an Allen set screw as shown for example, or may comprise any of a number of devices able to retain the resilient device 2322 and the contact device 2320 within the resilient housing 2310, while in some embodiments further providing a measure of adjustability. For example, a mechanical threaded fastener, angled key, or cam device, among others, may be used. In this example, the retention device 2324 may be threadably engaged with a top portion of the resilient housing 2310. The resilient device 2322 may be located between the retention device 2324 and the contact device 2320. The resilient device 2322 may be a spring, such as a coil spring, or resilient material, such as foam, among other devices. The resilient device 2322 may press against the contact device 2320, facilitating movement of the contact device 2320 as the male member 500 and the female member 2100 are coupled together. The force applied to the contact device 2320 and consequently to the male and female terminals 200 and 600, may be adjusted by tightening or loosening the retention device 2324, in addition to altering the spring stiffness or material, among other methods. In some embodiments, the male member 500 may be securely coupled to the female member 2100 by tightening the retention device 2324 so as to eliminate or reduce the ability of the contact device 2320 to move within the resilient housing 2310, thereby forcefully engaging the contact device 2320 with a connector retention feature 507. The contact device 2320 may be spherical ball for example, such as in a ball and spring type of mechanism. However, in other embodiments the contact device 2320 may be any member capable of moving across the surface of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 (only the first male terminal cover 516 is visible in this view), such as a rounded pin, angled member, cylinder, among others. The contact device 2320 may be retained within the resilient housing 2310 between a protruding edge 2312 at one end and the retention device 2324 at the other end. During connection of the male member 500 and the female member 2100, the contact device 2320 may engage the connector retention feature 507 as the male member 500 is fully coupled with the female member 2100. The contact device 2320 and the connector retention feature 507 may be configured to have corresponding or interfacing features, such that when the male member 500 is fully coupled with the female member 2100, a sensory indication of the application device 2320 engaging the connector retention feature 507 may be provided. The sensory indication may be visual, audible, tactile, or a combination of one or more of these sensory indications, in addition to other methods. Another Embodiment Referring now to FIG. 12, this figure shows an orthogonal top view with a cross-section taken through the side of an embodiment of an electrical connector. In this figure, reference number 3000 generally refers to another illustrative embodiment of an electrical connector 3000 constructed according to aspects of the present invention. One difference between the electrical connector 3000 and the previously described electrical connectors may be the replacement of one or more resilient members 300 (FIG. 2) or 2300 (FIG. 11) of the previous illustrative embodiments, with one or more resilient members 3300. Otherwise, the function and materials for the electrical connectors 1000, 2000, and 3000 may be considered to be the same. Similar components may be identified with similar reference numerals used in the previous description, and a detailed explanation of these components may not be repeated. Electrical connector 3000 may comprise a female member 3100 and a male member 500, shown here in a connected state. The female member 3100 may comprise one or more female terminals 200 (only one is visible in this view) and the male member 500 may comprise a corresponding number of male terminals 600. When the female member 3100 and the male member 500 are coupled together, electricity may be able to flow between wire conductors (not shown) through the electrical connector 3000 via the contact areas between the female and male terminals 200 and 600. The female member 3100 may comprise one or more resilient members 3300. The resilient members 3300 may provide a pressing force to facilitate electrical conduction through the contact area between the female terminals 200 and the male terminals 600. In addition, the resilient members 3300 may provide a securing force to inhibit or prevent the inadvertent disconnection of the male member 500 from the female member 3100 during the use of the electrical connector 3300 in a desired application (e.g., such as in a vibratory and dynamic remotely controlled vehicle). In some exemplary embodiments, the number of resilient members 3300 corresponds to the number of electrical connections formed or broken during the connection and disconnection of the electrical connector 3000, two electrical connections are shown in this embodiment. However, the number of resilient members 3300 may not be required to equal the number of electrical connections formed or broken. Each resilient member 3300 may be configured to interfere with a opposing surface of a first and second male terminal cover 516 and 526 (only 516 is visible in this view) when a male member 500 is coupled to a female member 3100. As shown in FIG. 12, the area indicated by cross-hatching may be the area of interference between the resilient member 3300 and the top surface of the first male terminal cover 516, although only a portion of the abutting surfaces may be configured to be interfering. The resilient member 3300 may comprise a rib interfacing with a portion of the respective top surface of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526, or the resilient member 3300 may comprise the wall of the female member housing 3102, among numerous other configurations such as those previously described for the resilient contact portion 320. Essentially, in some embodiments the housing 3102 of the female member 3100 may function as a resilient member, allowing at least some degree of resilient deformation or movement designed to apply a force to at least a portion of an installed male member 500 (e.g., such as the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526, or in some embodiments, the male terminals themselves, among other configurations). Alternatively, the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may function as a resilient member, allowing at least some degree of resilient deformation or movement designed to urge the male terminals 600 together with the corresponding female terminals 200. Further, in some embodiments, both the female housing 3102 and the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 may experience some degree of resilient deformation, combining together to provide a force urging the male terminals 600 together with the corresponding female terminals 200. The resilient member 3300 may further comprise protrusions or features configured to engage with corresponding depressions or features located on the top surfaces of the first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526, such that the male member 500 may be securely coupled to the female member 3000 upon fully connecting the male member 500 to the female member 3100. An example of a protrusion for the resilient member 3300 may be an arcuate ridge corresponding to the connector retention feature 507 shown in FIG. 6B. The resilient member 3300 may at least partially resiliently deform with respect to the area of interference. Alternatively, the resilient member 3300 may take advantage of at least some degree of resilient deformation in the configuration of the female member housing 3102. Another Embodiment Turning now to FIGS. 13A and 13B, the first figure shows a top view of an illustrative embodiment of a male member 1500 configured according to aspects of the present invention, while the second figure shows an orthogonal cross-sectional top view of the male member 1500 of FIG. 13A as viewed along line 13B-13B. One difference between the male member 1500 and the previously described male member 500 (FIG. 1) may be the lack of first and second male terminal covers 516 and 526 (see FIGS. 6A and 6B) in the male member 1500. Another difference may be the use of first and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 in male member 1500 in place of the male terminals 600 shown in male member 500 (see FIG. 2). Otherwise, the function and materials for the male members 500 and 1500 may be considered to be substantially the same. Similar components may be identified with similar reference numerals used in previous descriptions, and a detailed explanation of these components may not be repeated. Male member 1500 may comprise a male housing 1502 and first and second male terminal extensions 1510 and 1520. The first male terminal extension 1510 may comprise the first male terminal 1600, while the second male terminal extension 1520 may comprise the second male terminal 1650. First and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 may be configured to be insertably engaged with the first and second orifices 116 and 126 of the first and second female terminal chambers 110 and 120 of a female member 100 (see FIG. 3A). In some embodiments, some aspects of the first male terminal 1600 may be different than similar aspects of the second male terminal 1650 in order to inhibit the cross-polarizing connection of a male member 1500 and a female member 100. In the embodiment shown, the width W1 of the first male terminal 1600 may be smaller that the width W2 of the second male terminal 1650. Interference between the larger width W2 and the first orifice 116 may inhibit the connection between a female member 100 and an improperly oriented male member 1500 (i.e., the male member 1500 may be improperly oriented with respect to the female member 100). The male housing 1502 may be substantially rectangular in shape and comprise a male conductor housing 504 and a male internal wall 1505 for each of the first and second male terminal extensions 1510 and 1520. Although a substantially rectangular shape is shown for the male housing 1502, embodiments of the present invention may not be limited to this one configuration. Any configuration capable of accommodating one or more first and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 may be used. The male housing 1502 may be manufactured from a dielectric material able to withstand the operating conditions of an intended application and provide sufficient electrical insulation between the current carrying first male terminal 1600 and second male terminal 1650 (i.e., inhibiting the occurrence of an electrical short between the first male terminal 1600 and the second male terminal 1650). The male internal wall 1505 of each of the first and second male terminal extensions 1510 and 1520 may function as a male terminal support. Each of the male terminal supports (i.e., male internal walls 1505) may respectively secure and support the first and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 in the corresponding first and second male terminal extensions 1510 and 1520. The male terminal support may comprise one or more retention members 512 (for example as represented by 512A and 512B) configured to retain the respective first and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 after assembly into a male member 1500. Although a slanted ramp type of retention member 512 is shown in FIG. 13B to facilitate an insertion type of assembly (e.g., inserting a male terminal 1600 from the right to the left in the male housing 1502 with respect to FIG. 13B), a person of ordinary skill in the art would not be limited to just this type of retention member 512. Pins, rivets, fasteners, other mechanical attachments, welding, and chemical adhesives, among other various methods may be used to secure the first and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 within the male housing 1502. Additionally, the first and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 may be core molded along with the male housing 1502 at the time of manufacture. The first and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 may comprise retention members 612 (for example as represented by 612A and 612B, however, only the retention members 612 of the first male terminal 1600 may be seen in FIG. 13B, the second male terminal 1650 may be similarly configured) corresponding to the retention members 512. As with the retention member 512, a slanted ramp type of retention member 612 is shown in FIG. 13B to facilitate an insertion type of assembly, however, a person of ordinary skill in the art would not be limited to just this type of retention member 612. Pins, rivets, fasteners, other mechanical attachments, welding, and chemical adhesives, among other various methods may be used to secure the first and second male terminals 1600 and 1650 within the male housing 1502. Having thus described embodiments of the present invention by reference to certain exemplary embodiments, it is noted that the embodiments disclosed are illustrative rather than limiting in nature. A wide range of variations, modifications, changes, and substitutions are contemplated in the foregoing disclosure. In some instances, some features of an embodiment of the present invention may be employed without a corresponding use of the other features. Many such variations and modifications may be considered desirable by those skilled in the art based upon a review of the foregoing description of the illustrative embodiments. Accordingly, it is appropriate that the appended claims be construed broadly and in a manner consistent with the scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, an electrical connector having a lightweight and compact design is provided wherein a resilient member is configured to enhance electrical connection between a female electrode and a male connector electrode. | H01R13642 | 20170710 | 20171026 | 59121.0 | H01R13642 | 4 | NGUYEN, PHUONG CHI THI | ELECTRICAL CONNECTOR ASSEMBLY | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H01R | 2,017 |
|
15,646,330 | PENDING | CONTROLLED RELEASE AND TASTE MASKING ORAL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS | The invention relates to tablet comprising granules dispersed in at least one hydrophilic compound or matrix. The granules contain an active agent, at least one amphiphilic compound and at least one lipophilic compound. The tablet may include a gastro-resistant film coating. | 1. A controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition consisting essentially of: (1) a tablet core comprising: a) budesonide in an amount to treat intestinal inflammation; b) magnesium stearate, stearic acid, or a mixture thereof; c) lecithin; and d) hydroxyalkyl cellulose; and (2) a coating on said tablet core, said coating consisting essentially of a gastro-resistant film. 2. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein said tablet core further comprises silicon dioxide. 3. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein said tablet core comprises magnesium stearate. 4. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein said tablet core comprises stearic acid. 5. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 3, wherein said tablet core further comprises silicon dioxide. 6. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 4, wherein said tablet core further comprises silicon dioxide. 7. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein said tablet core further comprises starch or a starch derivative. 8. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 2, wherein said tablet core further comprises starch or a starch derivative. 9. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 3, wherein said tablet core further comprises starch or a starch derivative. 10. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 4, wherein said tablet core further comprises starch or a starch derivative. 11. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 5, wherein said tablet core further comprises starch or a starch derivative. 12. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 6, wherein said tablet core further comprises starch or starch derivative. 13. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1, wherein said gastro-resistant film comprises methacrylic acid polymer. 14. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 3, wherein said tablet core further comprises silicon dioxide and starch or a starch derivative, and said gastro-resistant film comprises methacrylic acid polymer. 15. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 14, wherein said tablet core comprises starch. 16. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 14, wherein said tablet core comprises a starch derivative. 17. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 4, wherein said tablet core further comprises silicon dioxide and starch or a starch derivative, and said gastro-resistant film comprises methacrylic acid polymer. 18. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 17, wherein said tablet core comprises starch. 19. The controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 18, wherein said tablet core comprises a starch derivative. 20. A method for treating intestinal inflammatory disease in a patient, comprising administering to the patient the controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 1. 21. A method for treating intestinal inflammatory disease in a patient, comprising administering to the patient the controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 14. 22. A method for treating intestinal inflammatory disease in a patient, comprising administering to the patient the controlled release oral pharmaceutical composition according to claim 17. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 15/369,296 filed on Dec. 5, 2016; which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 14/308,305 filed on Jun. 18, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,532,954; which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 13/617,138 filed on Sep. 14, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,784,888; which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 13/462,409 filed on May 2, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,293,273; which is a continuation of Ser. No. 13/249,839 filed on Sep. 30, 2011, now abandoned; which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 12/210,969 filed on Sep. 15, 2008, which reissued as U.S. Pat. No. RE43,799 from U.S. Pat. No. 8,029,823; which is a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 10/009,532 filed on Dec. 12, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,431,943; which is the 35 U.S.C. 371 national stage of International application PCT/EP00/05356 filed on Jun. 9, 2000; which claimed priority to Italian applications MI2000A000422 and MI99A001317 filed Mar. 3, 2000 and Jun. 14, 1999, respectively. The entire contents of each of the above-identified applications are hereby incorporated by reference. The present invention relates to controlled release and taste-masking compositions containing one or more active principles incorporated in a three-component matrix structure, i.e. a structure formed by successive amphiphilic, lipophilic or inert matrices and finally incorporated or dispersed in hydrophilic matrices. The use of a plurality of systems for the control of the dissolution of the active ingredient modulates the dissolution rate of the active ingredient in aqueous and/or biological fluids, thereby controlling the release kinetics in the gastrointestinal tract, and it also allows the oral administration of active principles having unfavourable taste characteristics or irritating action on the mucosae of the administration site, particularly in the buccal area. The compositions of the invention can contain active principles belonging to the therapeutical classes of analgesics, antiinflammatories, cardioactives, tranquillizers, antihypertensives, disinfectants and topical antimicrobials, antiparkinson drugs, antihistamines and are suitable to the oral administration or for acting topically at some areas of the gastrointestinal tract. TECHNOLOGICAL BACKGROUND The preparation of a sustained, controlled, delayed or anyhow modified release form can be carried out according to different known techniques: 1. The use of inert matrices, in which the main component of the matrix structure opposes some resistance to the penetration of the solvent due to the poor affinity towards aqueous fluids; such property being known as lipophilia. 2. The use of hydrophilic matrices, in which the main component of the matrix structure opposes high resistance to the progress of the solvent, in that the presence of strongly hydrophilic groups in its chains, mainly branched, remarkably increases viscosity inside the hydrated layer. 3. The use of bioerodible matrices, which are capable of being degraded by the enzymes of some biological compartment. All the procedures listed above suffer, however, from drawbacks and imperfections. Inert matrices, for example, generally entail non-linear, but exponential, release of the active ingredient. Hydrophilic matrices have a linear behaviour until a certain fraction of active ingredient has been released; then they significantly deviate from linear release. Bioerodible matrices are ideal to carry out the so-called “site-release”, but they involve the problem of finding the suitable enzyme or reactive to degradation. Furthermore, they frequently release in situ metabolites that are not wholly toxicologically inert. A number of formulations based on inert lipophilic matrices have been described: Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 13 (6), 1001-1022, (1987) discloses a process making use of varying amounts of colloidal silica as a porization element for a lipophilic inert matrix in which the active ingredient is incorporated. The same notion of canalization of an inert matrix is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,608,248 in which a small amount of a hydrophilic polymer is mixed with the substances forming an inert matrix, in a non sequential compenetration of different matrix materials. EP 375,063 discloses a technique for the preparation of multiparticulate granules for the controlled-release of the active ingredient which comprises co-dissolution of polymers or suitable substances to form a inert matrix with the active ingredient and the subsequent deposition of said solution on an inert carrier which acts as the core of the device. Alternatively, the inert carrier is kneaded with the solution containing the inert polymer and the active ingredient, then the organic solvent used for the their dissolution is evaporated off to obtain a solid residue. The resulting structure is a “reservoir”, i.e. is not macroscopically homogeneous along all the symmetry axis of the final form. The same “reservoir” structure is also described in Chem. Pharm. Bull. 46 (3), 531-533, (1998) which improves the application through an annealing technique of the inert polymer layer which is deposited on the surface of the pellets. To the “reservoir” structure also belong the products obtained according to the technique described in WO 93/00889 which discloses a process for the preparation of pellets in hydrophilic matrix which comprises: dissolution of the active ingredient with gastro-resistant hydrophilic polymers in organic solvents; drying of said suspension; subsequent kneading and formulation of the pellets in a hydrophilic or lipophilic matrix without distinction of effectiveness between the two types of application. EP 0 453 001 discloses a multiparticulate with “reservoir” structure inserted in a hydrophilic matrix. The basic multiparticulate utilizes two coating membranes to decrease the release rate of the active ingredient, a pH-dependent membrane with the purpose of gastric protection and a pH-independent methacrylic membrane with the purpose of slowing down the penetration of the aqueous fluid. WO 95/16451 discloses a composition only formed by a hydrophilic matrix coated with a gastro-resistant film for controlling the dissolution rate of the active ingredient. When preparing sustained-, controlled-release dosage forms of a medicament topically active in the gastrointestinal tract, it is important to ensure a controlled release from the first phases following administration, i.e. when the inert matrices have the maximum release rate inside the logarithmic phase, namely the higher deviation from linear release. Said object has been attained according to the present invention, through the combination of an amphiphilic matrix inside an inert matrix, the latter formulated with a lipophilic polymer in a superficial hydrophilic matrix. The compositions of the invention are characterized by the absence of a first phase in which the medicament superficially present on the matrix is quickly solubilized, and by the fact the amphiphilic layer compensate the lack of affinity of the aqueous solvent with the lipophilic compounds forming the inner inert matrix. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The invention provides controlled release and taste masking oral pharmaceutical compositions containing an active ingredient, comprising: a) a matrix consisting of lipophilic compounds with melting point lower than 90° C. and optionally by amphiphilic compounds in which the active ingredient is at least partially incorporated; b) optionally an amphiphilic matrix; c) an outer hydrophilic matrix in which the lipophilic matrix and the optional amphiphilic matrix are dispersed; d) optionally other excipients. A particular aspect of the invention consists of controlled release oral compositions containing one or more active ingredients comprising: a) a matrix consisting of amphiphilic compounds and lipophilic compounds with melting point below 90° C. in which the active ingredient is at least partially incorporated; b) an outer hydrophilic matrix in which the lipophilic/amphiphilic matrix is dispersed; c) optional other excipients. A further aspect of the invention provides taste masking oral pharmaceutical compositions containing one or more active ingredients comprising: an inert or lipophilic matrix consisting of C6-C20-alcohols or C8-C20 fatty acids or esters of fatty acids with glycerol or sorbitol or other polyalcohols with carbon atom chain not higher than six; an amphiphilic matrix consisting of polar lipids of type I or II or glycols partially etherified with C1-C4 alkyl chains; an outer hydrophilic matrix containing the above matrices, mainly formed by saccharide, dextrin, polyalcohol or cellulose compounds or by hydrogels; optional excipients to give stability to the pharmaceutical formulation. DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The compositions of the invention can be prepared by a method comprising the following steps: a) the active ingredient is first inglobated by simple kneading or mixing in a matrix or coating consisting of compounds having amphiphilic properties, which will be further specified below. The active principle(s) can be mixed with the amphiphilic compounds without the aid of solvents or with small amounts of water-alcoholic solvents. b) The matrix obtained in a) is incorporated in a low melting lipophilic excipient or mixture of excipients, while heating to soften and/or melt the excipient itself, which thereby incorporates the active ingredient by simple dispersion. After cooling at room temperature an inert matrix forms, which can be reduced in size to obtain inert matrix granules containing the active ingredient particles. c) The inert matrix granules are subsequently mixed together with one or more hydrophilic water-swellable excipients. The mixture is then subjected to compression or tabletting. This way, when the tablet is contacted with biological fluids, a high viscosity swollen layer is formed, which coordinates the solvent molecules and acts as a barrier to penetration of the aqueous fluid itself inside the new structure. Said barrier antagonizes the starting “burst effect” caused by the dissolution of the medicament inglobated inside the inert matrix, which is in its turn inside the hydrophilic matrix. The amphiphilic compounds which can be used according to the invention comprise polar lipids of type I or II (lecithin, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine), ceramides, glycol alkyl ethers such as diethylene glycol monomethyl ether (Transcutol®). The lipophilic matrix consists of substances selected from unsaturated or hydrogenated alcohols or fatty acids, salts, esters or amides thereof, fatty acids mono-, di- or triglycerides, the polyethoxylated derivatives thereof, waxes, ceramides, cholesterol derivatives or mixtures thereof having a melting point within the range of 40 to 90° C., preferably from 60 to 70° C. If desired, a fatty acid calcium salt may be incorporated in the lipophilic matrix which is subsequently dispersed in a hydrophilic matrix prepared with alginic acid, thus remarkably increasing the hydrophilic matrix viscosity following penetration of the solvent front until contact with the lipophilic matrix granules dispersed inside. According to an embodiment of the invention, an amphiphilic matrix with high content in active ingredient, typically from 5 to 95% w/w, is first prepared by dispersing the active ingredient or the mixture of active ingredients in a mixture of amphiphilic compounds, such as lecithin, other type II polar lipids, surfactants, or in diethylene glycol monoethyl ether; the resulting amphiphilic matrix is then mixed or kneaded, usually while hot, with lipophilic compounds suitable to form an inert matrix, such as saturated or unsaturated fatty acids, such as palmitic, stearic, myristic, lauric, laurylic, or oleic acids or mixtures thereof with other fatty acids with shorter chain, or salts or alcohols or derivatives of the cited fatty acids, such as mono-, di-, or triglycerides or esters with polyethylene glycols, alone or in combination with waxes, ceramides, cholesterol derivatives or other apolar lipids in various ratios so that the melting or softening points of the lipophilic compounds mixtures is within the range of 40 to 90° C., preferably from 60 to 70° C. Alternatively, the order of formation of the inert and amphiphilic matrices can be reversed, incorporating the inert matrix inside the amphiphilic compounds. The resulting inert lipophilic matrix is reduced into granules by an extrusion and/or granulation process, or any other known processes which retain the homogeneous dispersion and matrix structure of the starting mixture. The hydrophilic matrix consists of excipients known as hydrogels, i.e. substances which when passing from the dry state to the hydrated one, undergo the so-called “molecular relaxation”, namely a remarkable increase in mass and weight following the coordination of a large number of water molecules by the polar groups present in the polymeric chains of the excipients themselves. Examples of hydrogels which can be used according to the invention are compounds selected from acrylic or methacrylic acid polymers or copolymers, alkylvinyl polymers, hydroxyalkyl celluloses, carboxyalkyl celluloses, polysaccharides, dextrins, pectins, starches and derivatives, natural or synthetic gums, alginic acid. In case of taste-masking formulations, the use of polyalcohols such as xylitol, maltitol and mannitol as hydrophilic compounds can also be advantageous. The lipophilic matrix granules containing the active ingredient are mixed with the hydrophilic compounds cited above in a weight ratio typically ranging from 100:0.5 to 100:50 (lipophilic matrix: hydrophilic matrix). Part of the active ingredient can optionally be mixed with hydrophilic substances to provide compositions in which the active ingredient is dispersed both in the lipophilic and the hydrophilic matrix, said compositions being preferably in the form of tablets, capsules and/or minitablets. The compression of the mixture of lipophilic and/or amphiphilic matrix, hydrogel-forming compound and, optionally, active ingredient not inglobated in the lipophilic matrix, yields a macroscopically homogeneous structure in all its volume, namely a matrix containing a dispersion of the lipophilic granules in a hydrophilic matrix. A similar result can also be obtained by coating the lipophilic matrix granules with a hydrophilic polymer coating. The tablets obtainable according to the invention can optionally be subjected to known coating processes with a gastro-resistant film, consisting of, for example, methacrylic acids polymers (Eudragit®) or cellulose derivatives, such as cellulose acetophthalate. Active ingredients which can conveniently be formulated according to the invention comprise: analgesics, such as acetaminophen, phenacetin, sodium salicylate; antitussives, such as dextromethorphan, codeine phosphate; bronchodilators, such as albuterol, procaterol; antipsychotics, such as haloperidol, chlorpromazine; antihypertensives and coronary-dilators, such as isosorbide mono- and dinitrate, captopril; selective β 2 antagonists such as salbutamol, terbutaline, ephedrine, orciprenaline sulfate; calcium antagonists, such as nifedipine, nicardipine, diltiazem, verapamil; antiparkinson drugs, such as pergolide, carpidopa, levodopa; non steroid anti-inflammatory drugs, such as ketoprofen, ibuprofen, diclofenac, diflunisal, piroxicam, naproxen, ketorolac, nimesulide, thiaprophenic acid, mesalazine (5-aminosalicylic acid); antihistamines, such as terfenedine, loratadine; antidiarrheals and intestinal antiinflammatories, such as loperamide, 5-aminosalicylic, olsalazine, sulfasalazine, budenoside; spasmolytics such as octylonium bromide; anxiolytics, such as chlordiazepoxide, oxazepam, medazepam, alprazolam, donazepam, lorazepan; oral antidiabetics, such as glipizide, metformin, phenformin, gilclazide, glibenclamide; cathartics, such as bisacodil, sodium picosulfate; antiepileptics, such as valproate, carbamazepine, phenyloin, gabapentin; antitumorals, such as flutamide, etoposide; oral cavity disinfectants or antimicrobials, such as benzalkonium chloride, cetylpyridinium chloride or tibezonium iodide, and some amino derivatives such as benzydamine and chlorhexidine as well as the salts and derivatives thereof; sodium fluoride. The compositions of the invention can further contain conventional excipients, for example bioadhesive excipients such as chitosans, polyacrylamides, natural or synthetic gums, acrylic acid polymers. The compositions of the invention can contain more than one active ingredient, each of them being optionally contained in the hydrophilic matrix or in the inert amphiphilic matrix, and are preferably in the form of tablets, capsules or minitablets. In terms of dissolution characteristics, contact with water or aqueous fluids causes the immediate penetration of water inside the more superficial layer of the matrix which, thanks to the presence of the aqueous solvent, swells due to the distension of the polymeric chains of the hydrogels, giving rise to a high viscosity hydrated front which prevents the further penetration of the solvent itself linearly slowing down the dissolution process to a well determined point which can be located at about half the thickness, until the further penetration of water would cause the disintegration of the hydrophilic layer and therefore the release of the content which, consisting of inert matrix granules, however induces the diffusion mechanism typical of these structures and therefore further slows down the dissolution profile of the active ingredient. The presence of the amphiphilic matrix inside the lipophilic matrix inert allows to prevent any unevenness of the release profile of the active ingredient. The surfactants present in the amphiphilic portion promote wettability of the porous canaliculuses which cross the inert matrix preventing or reducing resistance to penetration of the solvent inside the inert matrix. To obtain taste masking tablets, the components of the hydrophilic matrix are carefully selected to minimize the active substance release time through penetration accelerated by the canalization induced by the hydrophilic compound. The following Examples illustrate the invention in greater detail. EXAMPLE 1 500 g of 5-aminosalicylic-acid and 20 g of octylonium bromide are mixed with 10 g of soy lecithin dissolved in 50 g of a water:ethyl alcohol 1:3 mixture at about 50° C. After homogenization and drying, the granules of the resulting matrix are treated in a kneader with 20 g of carnauba wax and 50 g of stearic acid, heating until homogeneous dispersion, then cold-extruded into small granules. The inert matrix granules are loaded into a mixer in which 30 g of carbopol 971 P and 65 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose are sequentially added. After a first mixing step for homogeneously dispersing the powders, 60 g of microcrystalline cellulose and 5 g of magnesium stearate are added. After mixing, the final mixture is tabletted to unitary weight of 760 mg/tablet. The resulting tablets are film-coated with cellulose acetophthalate or polymethacrylates and a plasticizer to provide gastric resistance and prevent the early release of product in the stomach. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 60 minutes no more than 30%, after 180 minutes no more than 60%, after 5 hours no more than 80%. EXAMPLE 2 50 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether are homogeneously distributed on 500 g of microcrystalline cellulose; then 100 g of Budesonide are added, mixing to complete homogenization. This mix is further added with 400 g of Budesonide, then dispersed in a blender containing 100 g of carnauba wax and 100 g of stearic acid preheated at a temperature of 60° C. After kneading for 5 minutes, the mixture is cooled to room temperature and extruded in granules of size below 1 mm. A suitable mixer is loaded with the matrix granules prepared as above and the following amounts of hydrophilic excipients: 1500 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 500 g of policarbophil. The components are mixed until homogeneous dispersion of the matrices, then added with 2450 g of microcrystalline cellulose, 400 g of lactose, 100 g of colloidal silica and 50 g of magnesium stearate. After further 5 minute mixing, the mix is tabletted to unitary weight of 250 mg/tablet. EXAMPLE 3 850 g of metformin are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 35 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether previously melted with 100 g of stearic acid and 55 g of carnauba wax. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert matrix. The resulting 1040 g of formulation are added with 110 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 20 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tabletted to unitary weight of 1170 mg/tablet equivalent to 850 mg of active ingredient. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 60 minutes no more than 35%, after 180 minutes no more than 60%, after 5 hours no more than 80%. EXAMPLE 4 120 g of octylonium bromide are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 30 g of stearic acid and 15 g of beeswax in which 10 g of diethylene glycol monoethylene had previously been melted. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert matrix. The resulting 10 g of formulation are added with 5 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 5 g of policarbophyl, 2 g of magnesium stearate and 3 g of microcrystalline cellulose. The final mixture is tabletted to unitary weight of 200 mg/tablet equivalent to 120 mg of active ingredient. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 60 minutes no more than 25%; after 180 minutes no more than 50%; after 5 hours no more than 70%. EXAMPLE 5 12 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether are loaded on 6 g of microcrystalline cellulose and 6 grams of calcium carbonate, then 100 g of Gabapentin are added and the mixture is homogenized. After that, 800 g of Gabapentin are added which are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 4.5 g of white wax and 5 g of stearic acid. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert matrix. The resulting 916.5 g of formulation are added with 39.5 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 10 g of alginic acid, 11 g of magnesium stearate and 6 g of syloid. The final mixture is tabletted to unitary weight of 1000 mg/tablet equivalent to 900 mg of active ingredient. EXAMPLE 6 50 g (25 g) of carbidopa and 200 g (100 g) of levodopa are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 60 g (30 g) of stearic acid and 30 g (15 g) of yellow wax, in which 10 (5) g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether had previously been melted. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert matrix. The resulting 340 g (170 g) of formulation are added with 20 g (10 g) of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 10 g (5 g) of xantangum, 16 g (8 g) of microcrystalline cellulose, 4 g (2 g) of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tabletted to unitary weight of 400 (200) mg/tablet equivalent to 50 (25) mg of carbidopa and 200 (100) mg di levodopa. EXAMPLE 7 4 g of Nimesulide are solubilised in 50 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, then 100 g of microcrystalline cellulose are added to obtain a homogeneous mixture. The resulting mixture is added in a granulator/kneader with 196 g of Nimesulide, 50 g of stearic acid and 25 g of carnauba wax. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert and amphiphilic matrix system. 425 g of the resulting granulate are added with 60 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 5 g of policarbophil and 10 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tabletted to unitary weight of 500 mg/tablet equivalent to 200 mg of active ingredient. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 1 hour no more than 25%, after 2 hours no more than 40%, after 4 hours no more than 60%, after 8 hours no more than 90%. EXAMPLE 8 500 g of propionyl carnitine are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 90 g of stearic acid and 40 g of carnauba wax, in which 20 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether had previously been melted. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert/amphiphilic matrix. The resulting 650 g of formulation are added with 60 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 10 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tabletted to unitary weight of 720 mg/tablet equivalent to 500 mg of active ingredient. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 60 minutes no more than 40%, after 180 minutes no more than 60%, after 4 hours no more than 80%, after 8 hours no more than 90%. EXAMPLE 9 One kg of Nimesulide is placed in a high rate granulator, pre-heated to about 70°, together with 200 g of cetyl alcohol and 25 g of glycerol palmitostearate the mixture is kneaded for about 15 minutes and stirred while decreasing temperature to about 30° C. The resulting inert matrix is added, keeping stirring and kneading during cooling, with 50 g of soy lecithin and 50 g of ethylene glycol monoethyl ether. The granulate is extruded through a metallic screen of suitable size and mixed with 50 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 1320 kg of maltodextrins, 2 kg of lactose-cellulose mixture, 50 g of colloidal silica, 40 g of aspartame, 150 g of citric acid, 75 g of flavour and 65 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tabletted to unitary weight of about 500 mg, having hardness suitable for being dissolved in the mouth and a pleasant taste. EXAMPLE 10 Operating as in the preceding example, chewable tablets are prepared replacing dextrin with mannitol and the lactose-cellulose mixture with xylitol. The resulting tablets have pleasant taste and give upon chewing a sensation of freshness enhancing the flavour. EXAMPLE 11 Operating as described in example 9, but with the following components: active ingredient: ibuprofen mg 100 lipophilic/inert matrix component: mg 15 cetyl alcohol amphiphilic matrix component: soy lecithin mg 8 hydrophilic matrix components: mannitol mg 167 maltodextrins mg 150 methylhydroxypropylcellulose mg 30 adjuvants: aspartame mg 15 flavour mg 5 colloidal silica mg 5 magnesium stearate mg 5 500 mg unitary weight tablets are obtained, which undergo progressive erosion upon buccal administration, and effectively mask the bitter, irritating taste of the active ingredient. EXAMPLE 12 Operating as described in example 9, but with the following components: active ingredient: diclofenac sodium mg 25 lipophilic/inert matrix component: mg 5 cetyl alcohol glycerol palmitostearate mg 5 amphiphilic matrix component: mg 7 soy lecithin hydrophilic matrix components: xylitol mg 168 maltodextrins mg 150 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose mg 20 adjuvants: aspartame mg 5 flavour mg 5 colloidal silica mg 5 magnesium stearate mg 5 400 mg unitary weight tablets are obtained, which undergo progressive erosion upon buccal administration, and effectively mask the irritating taste of the active ingredient. EXAMPLE 13 Operating as described in example 9, but with the following components: active ingredient: chlorhexidine mg 2.5 lipophilic/inert matrix component: mg 0.5 cetyl alcohol glycerol palmitostearate mg 0.5 amphiphilic matrix component: mg 0.3 diethylene glycol monoethyl ether hydrophilic matrix components: xylitol mg 38 maltodextrins mg 96 hydroxypropyl methylcellulose mg 10 adjuvants: aspartame mg 3 flavour mg 5 colloidal silica mg 2 magnesium stearate mg 2 150 mg unitary weight tablets are obtained, which undergo progressive erosion upon buccal administration, and effectively mask the irritating taste of the active ingredient. EXAMPLE 14 One Kg of Nimesulide is placed in a high rate granulator, pre-heated to about 70°, together with g 125 of cetyl alcohol: the mixture is kneaded for about 15 minutes and stirred while decreasing temperature to about 30° C., then added with g 30 of lecithin. The resulting matrix is then extruded through a metallic screen of suitable size and mixed with 2.415 kg of lactose, 1.0 kg of maltodextrins, 50 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 50 g of colloidal silica, 40 g of aspartame, 150 g of citric acid, 75 g of flavour and 65 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tabletted to about 500 mg tablets, having hardness suitable for being dissolved in the mouth and pleasant taste. EXAMPLE A 2.7 kg of budesonide, 3.0 kg of lecithin (amphiphilic matrix forming material) and 3.0 kg of stearic acid (lipophilic matrix forming material) are mixing after sieving till an homogeneous mixture is obtained; then add 39.0 kg of inert, functional excipients and 9.0 kg of low viscosity hydroxypropylcellulose (binder) and mix for 10 minutes before adding purified water and kneading to a suitable consistence. Then pass the granulate through a rotating granulator equipped with the suitable screen and transfer the granulate to the fluid bed drier to lower the residual moisture content under 3%. After a new sieving on the dry, the granulate is added of 9.0 kg of hydroxypropylcellulose (hydrophilic matrix forming material) and the suitable amount of functional excipients (in particular, microcrystalline cellulose, lactose and silicon dioxide) and, after 15 minutes of mixing, magnesium stearate in a suitable quantity to act as lubricant is added. After a final blending, tablets of around 300 mg of unitary weight are generated. The core are then subjected to be coated with a suspension obtained introducing into a stainless steel container 5.8 kg of Eudragit™ (methacrylate copolymers), 0.6 kg of triethylcitrate and 3.0 kg of dyes and talc, using alcohol as solvent. The mean dissolution percentage (as average of six or more tablets) obtained with this tablet formulation were around 10-20% at second hour sampling, in the range 25% to 65% at fourth hour and a dissolution greater than 80% was achieved at 8th hour sampling. EXAMPLE B Component mg/tablet Tablet Budesonide 9.0 Stearic Acid 10.0 Lecithin 10.0 Microcristalline cellulose 156.0 Hydroxypropylcellulose 60.0 Lactose monohydrate 50.0 Silicon dioxide 2.0 Magnesium stearate 3.0 Coating materials Eudragit L100 14.0 Eudragit S100 12.0 Talc 7.9 Titanium dioxiede 4.5 Triethylcitrate 1.6 Alcohol q.s. According to the present invention, coated tablets individually weighing about 220 mg are obtained. The above described dissolution test is performed on the tablets of Example B. The results are the following (indicated as average value): after 2 hours at pH 1 resistant (<5%) after 1 hour at pH 6.4 resistant (<5%) after 2 hours at pH 7.2 15% after 4 hours at pH 7.2 37% after 8 hours at pH 7.2 91% EXAMPLE C Budesonide (3.0 kg) is mixed with soybean Lecithin (5.0 kg) till an homogeneous mixture is obtained. Then carnauba wax (2.0 kg) and stearic acid (2.0 kg) sieved through a fine screen are added. After mixing, the powders are added with other functional excipients and kneaded with a binder solution obtained by dissolving medium viscosity polyvinylpirrolidone in water. After drying in a fluid bed and milling throughout a suitable screen, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (35.0 kg) and other excipients, including magnesium stearate as lubricant, in a suitable quantity are added and the mixture is blended till an homogeneous powder dispersion is obtained. The powder mixture is subjected to compression in a rotating tabletting machine and the tablets so obtained are coated in a pan coat with a gastroresistant composition containing Eudragit™, plasticizers, dyes and pigments. According to the present example, coated tablets individually weighing around 105 mg are obtained. The results of the above described dissolution test are the following (indicated as average value of at least six tablets): after 2 hours at pH 1 resistant (<5%) after 1 hour at pH 6.4 resistant (<5%) after 2 hours at pH 7.2 9% after 4 hours at pH 7.2 28% after 8 hours at pH 7.2 86% EXAMPLE D 50 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether are homogeneously distributed on 500 g of microcrystalline cellulose; then 100 g of Budesonide are added, mixing to complete homogenization. This mix is further added with 400 g of Budesonide, then dispersed in a blender containing 100 g of carnauba wax and 100 g of stearic acid preheated at a temperature of 60 [deg.] C. After kneading for 5 minutes, the mixture is cooled to room temperature and extruded in granules of size below 1 mm. A suitable mixer is loaded with the matrix granules prepared as above and the following amounts of hydrophilic excipients: 1500 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 500 g of Policarbophil™ are added. The components are mixed until homogeneous dispersion of the matrices, then added with 2450 g of microcrystalline cellulose, 400 g of lactose, 100 g of colloidal silica and 50 g of magnesium stearate. After further 5 minute mixing, the mix is tabletted to unitary weight of 250 mg/tablet. Tablets are then subjected to coating using a suspension n containing polyacrylate and poly methacrilate copolymers in addition to other dyes, plasticizers and colouring agents in solvent (ethylic alcohol). The results of the dissolution test performed on these coated tablets are the following (indicated as average value of at least six tablets): after 2 hours at pH 1 resistant (<5%) after 1 hour at pH 6.4 resistant (<5%) after 2 hours at pH 7.2 11% after 4 hours at pH 7.2 32% after 8 hours at pH 7.2 76% | <SOH> TECHNOLOGICAL BACKGROUND <EOH>The preparation of a sustained, controlled, delayed or anyhow modified release form can be carried out according to different known techniques: 1. The use of inert matrices, in which the main component of the matrix structure opposes some resistance to the penetration of the solvent due to the poor affinity towards aqueous fluids; such property being known as lipophilia. 2. The use of hydrophilic matrices, in which the main component of the matrix structure opposes high resistance to the progress of the solvent, in that the presence of strongly hydrophilic groups in its chains, mainly branched, remarkably increases viscosity inside the hydrated layer. 3. The use of bioerodible matrices, which are capable of being degraded by the enzymes of some biological compartment. All the procedures listed above suffer, however, from drawbacks and imperfections. Inert matrices, for example, generally entail non-linear, but exponential, release of the active ingredient. Hydrophilic matrices have a linear behaviour until a certain fraction of active ingredient has been released; then they significantly deviate from linear release. Bioerodible matrices are ideal to carry out the so-called “site-release”, but they involve the problem of finding the suitable enzyme or reactive to degradation. Furthermore, they frequently release in situ metabolites that are not wholly toxicologically inert. A number of formulations based on inert lipophilic matrices have been described: Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 13 (6), 1001-1022, (1987) discloses a process making use of varying amounts of colloidal silica as a porization element for a lipophilic inert matrix in which the active ingredient is incorporated. The same notion of canalization of an inert matrix is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,608,248 in which a small amount of a hydrophilic polymer is mixed with the substances forming an inert matrix, in a non sequential compenetration of different matrix materials. EP 375,063 discloses a technique for the preparation of multiparticulate granules for the controlled-release of the active ingredient which comprises co-dissolution of polymers or suitable substances to form a inert matrix with the active ingredient and the subsequent deposition of said solution on an inert carrier which acts as the core of the device. Alternatively, the inert carrier is kneaded with the solution containing the inert polymer and the active ingredient, then the organic solvent used for the their dissolution is evaporated off to obtain a solid residue. The resulting structure is a “reservoir”, i.e. is not macroscopically homogeneous along all the symmetry axis of the final form. The same “reservoir” structure is also described in Chem. Pharm. Bull. 46 (3), 531-533, (1998) which improves the application through an annealing technique of the inert polymer layer which is deposited on the surface of the pellets. To the “reservoir” structure also belong the products obtained according to the technique described in WO 93/00889 which discloses a process for the preparation of pellets in hydrophilic matrix which comprises: dissolution of the active ingredient with gastro-resistant hydrophilic polymers in organic solvents; drying of said suspension; subsequent kneading and formulation of the pellets in a hydrophilic or lipophilic matrix without distinction of effectiveness between the two types of application. EP 0 453 001 discloses a multiparticulate with “reservoir” structure inserted in a hydrophilic matrix. The basic multiparticulate utilizes two coating membranes to decrease the release rate of the active ingredient, a pH-dependent membrane with the purpose of gastric protection and a pH-independent methacrylic membrane with the purpose of slowing down the penetration of the aqueous fluid. WO 95/16451 discloses a composition only formed by a hydrophilic matrix coated with a gastro-resistant film for controlling the dissolution rate of the active ingredient. When preparing sustained-, controlled-release dosage forms of a medicament topically active in the gastrointestinal tract, it is important to ensure a controlled release from the first phases following administration, i.e. when the inert matrices have the maximum release rate inside the logarithmic phase, namely the higher deviation from linear release. Said object has been attained according to the present invention, through the combination of an amphiphilic matrix inside an inert matrix, the latter formulated with a lipophilic polymer in a superficial hydrophilic matrix. The compositions of the invention are characterized by the absence of a first phase in which the medicament superficially present on the matrix is quickly solubilized, and by the fact the amphiphilic layer compensate the lack of affinity of the aqueous solvent with the lipophilic compounds forming the inner inert matrix. | A61K3158 | 20170711 | 20171026 | 98265.0 | A61K3158 | 1 | TRAN, SUSAN T | CONTROLLED RELEASE AND TASTE MASKING ORAL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITIONS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
||
15,646,585 | PENDING | CONTROLLED RELEASE AND TASTE MASKING ORAL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITION | Controlled release and taste masking compositions containing one or more active principles inglobated in a three-component matrix structure, i.e. a structure formed by successive amphiphilic, lipophilic or inert matrices and finally inglobated or dispersed in hydrophilic matrices. The use of a plurality of systems for the control of the dissolution of the active ingredient modulates the dissolution rate of the active ingredient in aqueous and/or biological fluids, thereby controlling the release kinetics in the gastrointestinal tract. | 1. An oral dosage form consisting essentially of (1) a core, and (2) a gastro-resistant film on said core, wherein said core comprises: (a) 9 mg of budesonide; (b) hydroxypropyl cellulose; and (c) magnesium stearate, stearic acid, or a mixture thereof; and wherein following oral administration of the oral dosage form to a human, the oral dosage form provides an AUC0-infinity of said budesonide in said human of about 16431.2±10519.8 (pg)×(h)/mL, wherein said oral dosage form is in the form of a tablet and provides extended release of budesonide in the colon of said human effective to treat ulcerative colitis in said human. 2. The oral dosage form of claim 1, wherein said core further comprises lecithin. 3. The oral dosage form of claim 1, wherein said core further comprises silicon dioxide. 4. The oral dosage form of claim 1, wherein said core comprises magnesium stearate and further comprises starch or a starch derivative. 5. The oral dosage form of claim 4, wherein said core comprises starch. 6. The oral dosage form of claim 4, wherein said core comprises a starch derivative. 7. The oral dosage form of claim 1, wherein said core comprises magnesium stearate, and further comprises lecithin, silicon dioxide, and starch or a starch derivative. 8. The oral dosage form of claim 1, wherein said gastro-resistant coating comprises acrylic acid polymer, methacrylic acid polymer, or a mixture thereof. 9. The oral dosage form of claim 4, wherein said wherein said gastro-resistant coating comprises acrylic acid polymer, methacrylic acid polymer, or a mixture thereof. 10. The oral dosage form of claim 7, wherein said wherein said gastro-resistant coating comprises acrylic acid polymer, methacrylic acid polymer, or a mixture thereof. 11. An oral dosage form consisting essentially of (1) a core, and (2) a gastro-resistant film on said core, wherein said core comprises: (a) 9 mg of budesonide; (b) hydroxypropyl cellulose; (c) magnesium stearate, stearic acid, or a mixture thereof; and wherein following oral administration of the oral dosage form to a human, the oral dosage form provides a Cmax of said budesonide in said human of about 1348.8±958.8 pg/mL, wherein said oral dosage form is in the form of a tablet and provides extended release of budesonide in the colon of said human effective to treat ulcerative colitis in said human. 12. The oral dosage form of claim 11, wherein said core further comprises lecithin. 13. The oral dosage form of claim 1, wherein said core further comprises silicon dioxide. 14. The oral dosage form of claim 11, wherein said core comprises magnesium stearate and further comprises starch or starch derivative. 15. The oral dosage form of claim 14, wherein said core comprises starch. 16. The oral dosage form of claim 14, wherein said core comprises a starch derivative. 17. The oral dosage form of claim 11, wherein said core comprises magnesium stearate and further comprises lecithin, silicon dioxide, and starch or a starch derivative. 18. The oral dosage form of claim 11, wherein said gastro-resistant coating comprises acrylic acid polymer, methacrylic acid polymer, or a mixture thereof. 19. The oral dosage form of claim 14, wherein said wherein said gastro-resistant coating comprises acrylic acid polymer, methacrylic acid polymer, or a mixture thereof. 20. The oral dosage form of claim 17, wherein said wherein said gastro-resistant coating comprises acrylic acid polymer, methacrylic acid polymer, or a mixture thereof. 21. A method of treating a human subject with ulcerative colitis, comprising administering to said human subject an oral dosage form consisting essentially of (1) a core, and (2) a gastro-resistant film on said core, wherein said core comprises: (a) 9 mg of budesonide; (b) hydroxypropyl cellulose; and (c) magnesium stearate, stearic acid, or a mixture thereof; and wherein following oral administration of the oral dosage form to a human, the oral dosage form provides an AUC0-infinity of said budesonide in said human of about 16431.2±10519.8 (pg)×(h)/mL, wherein said oral dosage form is in the form of a tablet and provides extended release of budesonide in the colon of said human effective to treat ulcerative colitis in said human. 22. A method of treating a human subject with ulcerative colitis, comprising administering to said human subject an oral dosage form consisting essentially of (1) a core, and (2) a gastro-resistant film on said core, wherein said core comprises: (a) 9 mg of budesonide; (b) hydroxypropyl cellulose; (c) magnesium stearate, stearic acid, or a mixture thereof; and wherein following oral administration of the oral dosage form to a human, the oral dosage form provides a Cmax of said budesonide in said human of about 1348.8±958.8 pg/mL, wherein said oral dosage form is in the form of a tablet and provides extended release of budesonide in the colon of said human effective to treat ulcerative colitis in said human. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/368,911, filed Dec. 5, 2016, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/202,962, filed Jul. 6, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,592,203, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/832,845, filed Aug. 21, 2015, now abandoned, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/491,363, filed Sep. 19, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,192,581, which in turn is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/585,190, filed Aug. 14, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,132,093, which in turn is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/226,758, filed Sep. 7, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,895,064. Each application is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The present invention relates to controlled release, delayed release, prolonged release, extended release and/or taste masking compositions containing budesonide as active ingredient incorporated in a three-component matrix structure, i.e. a structure formed by successive amphiphilic, lipophilic or inert matrices and finally incorporated or dispersed in hydrophilic matrices. The use of a plurality of systems mechanism for the control of the dissolution of the active ingredient modulates the dissolution rate of the active ingredient in aqueous and/or biological fluids, thereby controlling the release kinetics in the gastrointestinal tract, and it also allows the oral administration of active principles having unfavorable taste characteristics or irritating action on the mucosae of the administration site, particularly in the buccal or gastric area. The compositions of the invention are suitable to the oral administration or the efficaciously deliver the active ingredient acting topically at some areas of the gastrointestinal tract. TECHNOLOGICAL BACKGROUND The preparation of a sustained, controlled, delayed, extended or anyhow modified release form can be carried out according to different techniques: 1. The use of inert matrices, in which the main component of the matrix structure opposes some resistance to the penetration of the solvent due to the poor affinity towards aqueous fluids; such property being known as lipophilia. 2. The use of hydrophilic matrices, in which the main component of the matrix structure opposes high resistance to the progress of the solvent, in that the presence of strongly hydrophilic groups in its chains, mainly branched, remarkably increases viscosity inside the hydrated layer. 3. The use of bioerodible matrices, which are capable of being degraded by the enzymes of some biological compartment. All the procedures listed above suffer, however, from drawbacks and imperfections. Inert matrices, for example, generally entail non-linear, but exponential, release of the active ingredient. Hydrophilic matrices: have a linear behaviour until a certain fraction of active ingredient has been released, then significantly deviate from linear release. Bioerodible matrices are ideal to carry out the so-called “sire-release”, but they involve the problem of finding the suitable enzyme or reactive to degradation. Furthermore, they frequently release in situ metabolites that are not wholly toxicologically inert. A number of formulations based on inert lipophilic matrices have been described: Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 13 (6), 1001-1022, (1987) discloses a process making use of varying amounts of colloidal silica as a porization element for a lipophilic inert matrix in which the active ingredient is incorporated. The same notion of canalization of an inert matrix is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,608,248 in which a small amount of a hydrophilic polymer is mixed with the substances forming an inert matrix, in a non sequential compenetration of different matrix materials. EP 375,063 discloses a technique for the preparation of multiparticulate granules for the controlled-release of the active ingredient which comprises co-dissolution of polymers or suitable substances to form a inert matrix with the active ingredient and the subsequent deposition of said solution on an inert carrier which acts as the core of the device. Alternatively, the inert carrier is kneaded with the solution containing the inert polymer and the active ingredient, then the organic solvent used for the dissolution is evaporated off to obtain a solid residue. The resulting structure is a “reservoir”, i.e. is not macroscopically homogeneous along all the symmetry axis of the final form. The same “reservoir” structure is also described in Chem. Pharm. Bull. 46 (3), 531-533, (1998) which improves the application through an annealing technique of the inert polymer layer which is deposited on the surface of the pellets. To the “reservoir” structure also belong the products obtained according to the technique described in WO 93/00889 which discloses a process for the preparation of pellets in hydrophilic matrix which comprises: —dissolution of the active ingredient with gastro resistant hydrophilic polymers in organic solvents; —drying of said suspension; —subsequent kneading and formulation of the pellets in a hydrophilic or lipophilic matrix without distinction of effectiveness between the two types of application. EP 0 453 001 discloses a multiparticulate with “reservoir” structure inserted in a hydrophilic matrix. The basic multiparticulate utilizes two coating membranes to decrease the release rate of the active ingredient, a pH-dependent membrane with the purpose of gastric protection and a pH-independent methacrylic membrane with the purpose of slowing down the penetration of the aqueous fluid. WO 95/16451 discloses a composition only formed by a hydrophilic matrix coated with a gastro-resistant film for controlling the dissolution rate of the active ingredient. When preparing sustained-, controlled-release dosage forms of a medicament topically active in the gastrointestinal tract, it is important to ensure a controlled release from the first phases following administration, i.e. when the inert matrices have the maximum release rate inside the logarithmic phase, namely the higher deviation from linear release. Said object has been attained according to the present invention, through the combination of an amphiphilic matrix inside an inert matrix, the latter formulated with a lipophilic polymer in a superficial hydrophilic matrix. The compositions of the invention are characterized by the absence of a first phase in which the medicament superficially present on the matrix is quickly solubilized, and by the fact the amphiphilic layer compensate the lack of affinity of the aqueous solvent with the lipophilic compounds forming the inner inert matrix. DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The invention provides controlled release, delayed release, prolonged release, extended release and/or taste masking oral pharmaceutical compositions containing as active ingredient budesonide comprising: a) a matrix consisting of lipophilic compounds with melting point lower than 90° C. and optionally by amphiphilic compounds in which the active ingredient is at least partially incorporated; b) an amphiphilic matrix; c) an outer hydrophilic matrix in which the lipophilic matrix and the amphiphilic matrix are dispersed; d) optionally other excipients. A particular aspect of the invention consists of controlled release, delayed release, prolonged release, extended release and/or taste masking oral compositions containing as active ingredient budesonide comprising: a) a matrix consisting of amphiphilic compounds and lipophilic compounds with melting point below 90° C. in which the active ingredient is at least partially incorporated; b) an outer hydrophilic matrix in which the lipophilic/amphiphilic matrix is dispersed, preferably by mixing; c) optionally other excipients. According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, the active ingredient budesonide is contained in the composition in an amount from 1.5% to 15% w/w, based on the total weight of the composition. According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, budesonide is comprised in an amount from 5 to 10 mgs/dose unit, more preferably in an amount of about 6 mgs/dose unit or 9 mgs/dose unit. A further aspect of the invention provides taste masking oral pharmaceutical compositions budesonide containing comprising: an inert or lipophilic matrix consisting of C6-C20 alcohols or C8-C20 fatty acids or esters of fatty acids with glycerol or sorbitol or other polyalcohols with carbon atom chain not higher than six; an amphiphilic matrix consisting of polar lipids of type I or II or glycols partially etherified with C1-C4 alkyl chains; an outer hydrophilic matrix containing the above matrices, mainly formed by saccharide, dextrin, polyalcohol or cellulose compounds or by hydrogels or their mixtures; optional excipients to give stability to the pharmaceutical formulation. DETAILED DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION The compositions of the invention can be prepared by a method comprising the following steps: a) the active ingredient, represented by budesonide, is first inglobated by simple kneading or mixing in a matrix or coating consisting of compounds having amphiphilic properties, which will be further specified below. The active ingredient can be mixed with the amphiphilic compounds without the aid of solvents or with small amounts of water-alcoholic solvents. b) the matrix obtained as specified under a) is incorporated in a low melting lipophilic excipient or mixture of excipients, if necessary while heating to soften and/or melt the excipient itself, which thereby incorporates the active ingredient by simple dispersion, forming an inert matrix which can be reduced in size to obtain inert matrix granules containing the active ingredient particles. c) the inert matrix granules are subsequently mixed together with one or more hydrophilic water-swellable excipients. The mixture is then subjected to compression or tableting. This way, when the tablet is contacted with biological fluids, a high viscosity swollen layer is formed, which coordinates the solvent molecules and acts as a barrier to penetration of the aqueous fluid itself inside the new structure. Said barrier antagonizes the starting “burst effect” caused by the dissolution of the medicament inglobated inside the inert matrix, which is in its turn inside the hydrophilic matrix. The amphiphilic compounds which can be used according to the invention comprise polar lipids of type I or II (lecithin, phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine), ceramides, glycol alkyl ethers such as diethylene glycol monomethyl ether (Transcutol®). The lipophilic matrix consists of substances selected from unsaturated or hydrogenated alcohols or fatty acids, salts, esters or amides thereof, fatty acids mono-, di- or triglycerides, the polyethoxylated derivatives thereof, waxes, ceramides, cholesterol derivatives or mixtures thereof having melting point within the range of 40° to 90° C., preferably from 60° to 70° C. If desired, a fatty acid calcium salt may be incorporated in the lipophilic matrix which is subsequently dispersed in a hydrophilic matrix prepared with alginic acid, thus remarkably increasing the hydrophilic matrix viscosity following penetration of the solvent front until contact with the lipophilic matrix granules dispersed inside. An amphiphilic matrix with high content in active ingredient, typically from 5% to 95% w/w, in particular from 20% to 70%, or from 1.5% to 15% w/w, is first prepared by dispersing the active ingredient in a mixture of amphiphilic compounds, such as lecithin, other type II polar lipids, surfactants, or in diethylene glycol monoethyl ether; the resulting amphiphilic matrix is then mixed or kneaded, usually while hot, with lipophilic compounds suitable to form an inert matrix, such as saturated or unsaturated fatty acids, such as palmitic, stearic, myristic, lauric, laurylic, or oleic acids or mixtures thereof with other fatty acids with shorter chain, or salts or alcohols or derivatives of the cited fatty acids, such as mono-, di-, or triglycerides or esters with polyethylene glycols, alone or in combination with waxes, ceramides, cholesterol derivatives or other apolar lipids in various ratios so that the melting or softening points of the lipophilic compounds mixtures is within the range of 40° to 90° C., preferably from 60° to 70° C. Alternatively, the order of formation of the inert and amphiphilic matrices can be reversed, incorporating the inert matrix inside the amphiphilic compounds. The resulting inert lipophilic matrix is reduced into granules by an extrusion and/or granulation process, or any other known processes which retain the homogeneous dispersion and matrix structure of the starting mixture. The hydrophilic matrix consists of excipients known as hydrogels, i.e. substances which when passing from the dry state to the hydrated one, undergo the so-called “molecular relaxation”, namely a remarkable increase in mass and weight following the coordination of a large number of water molecules by the polar groups present in the polymeric chains of the excipients themselves. Examples of hydrogels which can be used according to the invention are compounds selected from acrylic or methacrylic acid polymers or copolymers, alkylvinyl polymers, hydroxyalkyl celluloses, carboxyalkyl celluloses, polysaccharides, dextrins, pectins, starches and derivatives, natural or synthetic gums, alginic acid. In case of taste-masking formulations, the use of polyalcohols such as xylitol, maltitol and mannitol as hydrophilic compounds can also be advantageous. The lipophilic matrix granules containing the active ingredient are mixed with the hydrophilic compounds cited above in a weight ratio typically ranging from 100:0.5 to 100:50 (lipophilic matrix:hydrophilic matrix). Part of the active ingredient can optionally be mixed with hydrophilic substances to provide compositions in which the active ingredient is dispersed both in the lipophilic and the hydrophilic matrix, said compositions being preferably in the form of tablets, capsules and/or minitablets. The compression of the mixture of lipophilic and/or amphiphilic matrix, hydrogel-forming compound and, optionally, active ingredient not inglobated in the lipophilic matrix, yields a macroscopically homogeneous structure in all its volume, namely a matrix containing a dispersion of the lipophilic granules in a hydrophilic matrix. A similar result can also be obtained by coating the lipophilic matrix granules with a hydrophilic polymer coating. The tablets obtainable according to the invention can optionally be subjected to known coating processes with a gastro-resistant film/gastro-resistant coating, consisting of, for example, acrylic and/or methacrylic acids polymers (Eudragit®) or copolymers (Eudragit S/L) or cellulose derivatives, such as cellulose acetophthalate/s. According to a preferred embodiment of invention the gastro-protective coating can be represented by a mixture of acrylic and/or methacrylic acid copolymers type A and/or type B (as, for example, Eudragit S100 and/or Eudragit L100). According to a further embodiment of the invention, the mixture of acrylic and/or methacrylic acid copolymers type A and/or type B is preferably in a range ratio from 1:5 to 5:1. According to another further embodiment, the gastro-protective coating also optionally comprises plasticizers, dyes, at least one water-solvent, at least one organic solvent or a mixture thereof. The composition of the invention can further contain conventional excipients, for example bioadhesive excipients such as chitosans, polyacrylamides, natural or synthetic gums, acrylic acid polymers. The compositions of the invention are preferably in the form of tablets, capsules or minitablets. In terms of dissolution characteristics, contact with water or aqueous fluids causes the immediate penetration of water inside the more superficial layer of the matrix which, thanks to the presence of the aqueous solvent, swells due to the distension of the polymeric chains of the hydrogels, giving rise to a high viscosity hydrated front which prevents the further penetration of the solvent itself linearly slowing down the dissolution process to a well determined point which can be located at about half the thickness, until the further penetration of water would cause the disintegration of the hydrophilic layer and therefore the release of the content which, consisting of inert matrix granules, however induces the diffusion mechanism typical of these structures and therefore further slows down the dissolution profile of the active ingredient. The presence of the amphiphilic matrix inside the lipophilic matrix inert allows to prevent any unevenness of the release profile of the active ingredient. The surfactants present in the amphiphilic portion promote wettability of the porous canaliculuses which cross the inert matrix preventing or reducing resistance to penetration of the solvent inside the inert matrix. To obtain taste masking tablets, the components of the hydrophilic matrix are carefully selected to minimize the active substance release time through penetration accelerated by the canalization induced by the hydrophilic compound. The compositions of the present invention are preferably intended for use in the treatment of subjects suffering from Inflammatory Bowel Disease and/or Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Preferably, according to the invention Inflammatory Bowel Disease is Crohn's disease or Ulcerative Colitis. Further object of the invention is then a method for the treatment of a subject suffering from Inflammatory Bowel Disease and/or Irritable Bowel Syndrome comprising administering a pharmaceutical composition comprising an effective amount of budesonide, as above defined and disclosed, to a subject in need of such treatment. Preferably, according to the invention Inflammatory Bowel Disease is Crohn's disease or Ulcerative Colitis. According to a preferred embodiment of the invention the budesonide composition release is: below 15% within the first hour at pH 7.2, greater than 80% within eight hours at pH 7.2. According to a further preferred embodiment of the invention the budesonide composition release is: below 15% within the first hour at pH 7.2, below 25% within two hours at pH 7.2; between 25% and 55% within four hours at pH 7.2; greater than 80% within eight hours at pH 7.2. According to a further preferred embodiment of the invention the budesonide composition release is: below 15% with the first hour at pH 7.2, between 20% and 60% within four hours at pH 7.2; greater than 80% at eight hour at pH 7.2. Experimental Part To test the effective ability of the formulations of the invention to modify the release rate and extent of the active ingredient from the dosage form suitable for the drug administration, before any pharmacokinetic study on patients or volunteers, the dissolution test is taken as monitoring and discriminating tool (according to USP type II apparatus complying with U.S. Pat. No. <711>). Also the bioavailability profile of the formulations of the invention is carried out, in comparison with a marketed formulation Entocort® EC 3×3 mg capsules. As preferred embodiment, the bioavailability study showed a Tmax average value higher than 8 hours and a MRT average value higher than 14 hours. According to the invention, Tmax corresponds to “time to peak concentration”, i.e., time to reach the peak plasma concentration of a drug after oral administration (Cmax) and MRT corresponds to “mean residence time”, i.e., the average total time molecules of a given dose spend in the body. This can only be measured after instantaneous administration. Other pharmacokinetics parameters useful according to the invention are represented by: AUC, which corresponds to “area under the curve”, i.e., the integral of the concentration-time curve (after a single dose or in steady state). In particular, AUC0-t is the area under the curve up to the last point and AUC0-∞ is the area under the curve up to infinite. Cmax, which corresponds to “peak concentration”, i.e., the peak plasma concentration of a drug after oral administration. t1/2, which corresponds to “biological half-time”, i.e., the time required for the concentration of the drug to reach half of its original value. Xu0-36 h (ng), which corresponds to “urinary excretion”, i.e., the active ingredient metabolite urinary excretion during 36 hours time. Tlag, which corresponds to lag time, i.e., the time from administration of a drug to first quantifiable concentration. CI, which corresponds to “confidence intervals”, i.e., a particular kind of interval estimate of a population parameter used to indicate the reliability of an estimate. CV, which corresponds to “coefficient of variation” provides a relative measure of data dispersion with reference to the mean. Dissolution Test Method Tablets according to the present invention undergo to dissolution test to verify the formulation capacity in modulating and controlling the rate by which the active ingredient is leaked by the device or dosage form in the environmental medium, generally a buffered solution simulating gastric or intestinal juices. The dissolution test is performed by introducing individual tablets in a glace vessel containing from 500 to 1000 ml of a buffered solution set to different pH conditions (pH 1, 6.4 and 7.2 are the pH condition generally used in this test applications), so that the whole digestive tract pH conditions, from stomach to large intestine, should be reproduced. To simulate the human body conditions, the test is carried out at a temperature of 37° C.±2° C. and at predetermined time periods samples of the dissolution medium are withdrawn to detect the percentage of active ingredient dissolved over time. The tablets according to the present invention, when designed to be used to treat inflammatory bowel disease, in principle have to show a good resistance, thanks to the polymeric film resistant to the low pH conditions (intended as <5 to simulate the gastric environment) applied to cover the tablet surface, resistance which last at least for two hours; to target the large intestinal sectors, also the pH condition of 6.4 shown unsuitability to determine a drug leakage from the administration device for a short exposition time and only mediums at pH 7.2 have been able to determine an active ingredient dissolution at a progressive and quite constant rate during a timeframe from 6 to 12 hours; the dissolution percentage obtained with this tablet formulation were below 15% at first hour sampling, below 25% at second hour sampling, then values were in the range 25% to 55% at fourth hour and a dissolution greater than 80% was achieved at 8th hour sampling. Bioavailability Study Bioavailability profile of budesonide extended release compositions (6 mg and 9 mg tablets) vs. controlled ileal release formulation (Entocort® 3×3 mg capsules) in healthy volunteers is carried out. The objectives of the study are to compare the bioavailability and PK profile of a 9 mg budesonide extended release tablet formulation of the invention (herein after referred to as T1) versus the market reference formulation, Entocort® EC 3×3 mg capsules (Astra-Zeneca) (herein after referred to as R) and versus a 6 mg budesonide formulation of the invention (herein after referred to as T2). The primary end-point is comparing bioavailability rate through the PK parameters of plasma budesonide Cmax and Tmax after T1 formulation versus reference formulation. The secondary end-point is comparing bioavailability extent through plasma budesonide AUC0-t after T1 formulation versus reference formulation; comparing bioavailability extent through the PK parameters of plasma budesonide AUC0-t after T1 formulation versus T2 formulation; descriptive pharmacokinetics of budesonide; evaluation of main budesonide metabolite excretion in urine and safety of the test and reference formulations. Budesonide MMX™ extended release tablets 9 mgs (T1) and 6 mgs (T2) were orally administered in a single dose under fasting conditions in different study periods with a wash-out interval of at least 5 days. One tablet of T1 (batch MV084) or T2 (batch TV158) was administered together with 240 mL of mineral water; the subjects were instructed to swallow the whole tablet without chewing. The reference therapy was Entocort® EC 3×3 mg capsules (MP0077; Astra-Zeneca, Sweden), orally administered in a single dose under fasting conditions together with 240 mL of mineral water; the subjects were instructed to swallow the whole tablet without chewing. Results: After administration under fasting conditions in 3 consecutive study periods of a single dose of budesonide MMX™ extended release tablets 9 mg (T1), 6 mg (T2) of the invention and Entocort EC 3×3 mg capsules (R) the PK of budesonide was found significantly different. Mean±SD (CV %) of plasma budesonide and urine budesonide metabolite PK parameters are summarized in the Tables 1-4 below for the PP population (N=12) and PP-control population (N=11). TABLE 1 Mean ± SD (CV %) Budesonide PK Parameters after Administration of T1, T2 and R MMX ™ MMX ™ Entocort ® EC 9 mg (T1) 6 mg (T2) 3 × 3 mg (R) PP-population (N = 12) Tmax (h) 13.3 ± 5.9 11.4 ± 5.1 4.8 ± 1.4 (44.5) (44.4) (28.6) Cmax 1348.8 ± 958.8 1158.5 ± 532.4 1555.9 ± 588.0 (pg/mL) (71.1) (46.0) (37.8) AUC0-t 13555.9 ± 7816.9 10818.3 ± 4401.6 13394.6 ± 5983.0 (pg × h/mL) (57.7) (40.7) (44.7) AUC0-∞ 16431.2 ± 10519.8 11533.6 ± 4738.5 14057.0 ± 6378.7 (pg ×. h/mL) (64.0) (41.1) (45.4) Cmax 149.9 ± 106.5 193.1 ± 88.7 172.9 ± 65.3 (pg/mL)/ (71.1) (46.0) (37.8) dose AUC0-t 1506.2 ± 868.5 1803.0 ± 733.6 1488.3 ± 664.8 (pg × h/mL)/ (57.7) (40.7) (44.7) dose t1/2 (h) 8.2 ± 3.7 6.6 ± 2.4 7.7 ± 1.8 (44.7) (36.8) (23.1) MRT (h) 21.4 ± 6.8 17.0 ± 5.7 11.6 ± 2.7 (31.5) (33.7) (23.1) PP-control population (N = 11) Tmax (h) 12.8 ± 6.0 11.0 ± 5.1 4.6 ± 1.4 (46.7) (46.4) (29.4) Cmax 1427.3 ± 964.3 1154.9 ± 558.2 1549.0 ± 616.2 (pg/mL) (67.6) (48.3) (39.8) AUC0-t 13963.7 ± 8063.4 10331.4 ± 4264.1 13741.1 ± 4147.5 (pg × h/mL) (57.7) (41.3) (44.7) AUC0-∞ 17041.8 ± 10807.8 11533.6 ± 4738.5 14462.8 ± 6572.3 (pg ×. h/mL) (63.4) (41.1) (45.4) Cmax 158.6 ± 107.1 192.5 ± 93.0 172.1 ± 68.5 (pg × h/mL)/ (67.6) (48.3) (39.8) dose AUC0-∞ 1551.5 ± 895.9 1721.9 ± 710.7 1526.8 ± 683.1 (pg × h/mL)/ (57.7) (41.3) (44.7) dose t1/2 (h) 8.4 ± 3.7 6.6 ± 2.4 7.9 ± 1.7 (44.0) (36.8) (21.0) MRT (h) 21.4 ± 7.1 17.0 ± 5.7 11.8 ± 2.7 (33.1) (33.7) (23.1) TABLE 2 Mean ± SD (CV %) 6-β-Hydroxy-budesonide Cumulative Excretion (Xu0-36 h) after Administration of T1, T2 and R MMX ™ MMX ™ Entocort ® 9 mg (T1) 6 mg (T2) EC3 × 3 mg (R) PP-population (N = 12) Xu0-36 h 111061.9 ± 53992.6 76683.4 ± 31879.4 161535.4 ± 60309.8 (ng) (48.6) (41.6) (37.3) Xu0-36 h 12340.2 ± 5999.2 12780.6 ± 5313.2 17948.4 ± 6701.1 (ng)/ (48.6) (41.6) (37.3) dose PP-control population (N = 11) Xu0-36 h 114449.9 ± 55273.9 74729.9 ± 32673.4 164572.0 ± 62283.9 (ng) (48.3) (43.7) (37.8) Xu0-36 h 12716.6 ± 6141.5 12455.0 ± 5445.6 18285.8 ± 6920.4 (ng)/ (48.3) (43.7) (37.8) dose TABLE 3 Main Individual and Mean Budesonide PK Parameters after Administration of MMX ™ 9 mg Extended Release Tablets T1 Tmax Cmax AUC0-t AUC0-∞ t1/2 MRT Cmax/dose AUC0-t/dose Subject (h) (pg/mL) (pg × h/mL) (pg × h/mL) (h) (h) (pg/mL) (pg × h/mL) 1 12 1127.8 8744.8 9287.9 5.9 16.4 125.3 971.6 2 18 484.7 9070.4 9713.9 5.3 21.2 53.9 1007.8 3 16 960.4 16569.5 20388.6 10.7 24.6 106.7 1841.1 4 16 949.3 14563.4 18683.2 10.9 28.1 105.5 1618.2 5 6 1692.8 11852.4 12202.8 3.9 13.9 188.1 1316.9 6 7 1472.5 8374.0 10125.2 11.5 18.3 163.6 930.4 8 14 1350.7 9282.6 9857.2 5.7 16.6 150.1 1031.4 9 6 894.9 5957.2 6608.2 5.0 13.5 99.4 661.9 10 24 924.5 18026.7 30408.7 15.7 37.5 102.7 2003.0 11 6 4227.2 35119.3 42027.4 11.1 22.3 469.7 3902.2 12 16 941.3 8946.6 9458.5 5.9 20.2 104.6 994.1 107 18 1159.2 16164.1 18412.6 6.4 24.4 128.8 1796.0 PP population, N = 12 MEAN 13.3 1348.8 13555.9 16431.2 8.2 21.4 149.9 1506.2 SD 5.9 958.8 7816.9 10519.8 3.7 6.8 106.5 868.5 CV % 44.5 71.1 57.7 64.0 44.7 31.5 71.1 57.7 MIN 6 484.7 5957.2 6608.2 3.9 13.5 53.9 661.9 MAX 24 4227.2 35119.3 42027.4 15.7 37.5 469.7 3902.2 N 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 PP-control population, N = 11* MEAN 12.8 1427.3 13963.7 17041.8 8.4 21.4 158.6 1551.5 SD 6.0 964.3 8063.4 10807.8 3.7 7.1 107.1 895.9 CV % 46.7 67.6 57.7 63.4 44.0 33.1 67.6 57.7 MIN 6 894.9 5957.2 6608.2 3.9 13.5 99.4 661.9 MAX 24 4227.2 35119.3 42027.4 15.7 37.5 469.7 3902.2 N 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 *Subject 02 not included in calculations TABLE 4 Main Budesonide PK Parameters after Administration of MMX ™ 6 mg Extended Release Tablets T2 Tmax Cmax AUC0-t AUC0-∞ t1/2 MRT Cmax/dose AUC0-t/dose Subject (h) (pg/mL) (pg × h/mL) (pg × h/mL) (h) (h) (pg/mL) (pg × h/mL) 1 14 498.1 4095.2 4617.4 6.9 19.1 83.0 682.5 2 16 1197.4 16173.8 — — — 199.6 2695.6 3 7 1146.8 11999.5 13717.5 9.3 20.5 191.1 1999.9 4 10 1330.4 9354.8 10383.5 5.9 13.7 221.7 1559.1 5 9 1938.4 13755.9 14299 6.4 12.5 323.1 2292.7 6 6 1300.4 8986.8 9398.9 3.9 11.7 216.7 1497.8 8 10 1781.2 14493.0 15234.8 6.9 13.1 296.9 2415.5 9 7 400.8 3314.1 3643.1 3.3 12.4 66.8 552.4 10 14 869.6 12647.3 15596.5 11.7 25.0 144.9 2107.9 11 8 1948.6 16309.7 17261.7 5.8 14.5 324.8 2718.3 12 12 672.6 6511.4 7292.6 4.7 15.3 112.1 1085.2 107 24 817.2 12178.1 15424.7 7.9 28.9 136.2 2029.7 PP population, N = 12 MEAN 11.4 1158.5 10818.3 11533.6 6.6 17.0 193.1 1803.0 SD 5.1 532.4 4401.6 4738.5 2.4 5.7 88.7 733.6 CV % 44.4 46.0 40.7 41.1 36. 8 33.7 46.0 40.7 MIN 6 400.8 3314.1 3643.1 3.3 11.7 66.8 552.4 MAX 24 1948.6 16309.7 17261.7 11.7 28.9 324.8 2718.3 N 12 12 12 11 11 11 12 12 PP-control population, N = 11* MEAN 11 1154.9 10331.4 11533.6 6.6 17.0 192.5 1721.9 SD 5.1 558.2 4264.1 4738.5 2.4 5.7 93.0 710.7 CV % 46.4 48.3 41.3 41.1 36.8 33.7 48.3 41.3 MIN 6 400.8 3314.1 3643.1 3.3 11.7 66.8 552.4 MAX 24 1948.6 16309.7 17261.7 11.7 28.9 324.8 2718.3 N 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 11 *Subject 02 not included in calculations Pharmacokinetic Results: After administration under fasting conditions in 3 consecutive study periods of a single dose of Budesonide MMX™ extended release tablets 9 mg (T1), 6 mg (T2) and Entocort® EC 3×3 mg capsules (R) the PK of budesonide was found significantly different. Mean±SD (CV %) of plasma budesonide and urine budesonide-metabolite PK parameters are summarised in the table below for the PP population (N=12). Results obtained in the present study on the PP population (see table above) were confirmed by the results of the PK analysis on the PP-control population (i.e. after excluding subject randomisation Nr. 02, who showed pre-dose detectable levels) and therefore were regarded as the primary results of the study, as per protocol. Inter-subject variability was higher for the MMX™ tablet formulation than for Entocort® EC, a finding that can be explained by the broader intestinal tract involved in the drug release from the test products (whole colon and sigmoid) as compared to the reference (terminal ileum, ascending colon) and from the absence of dose fractionation in the MMX™ formulations. Although budesonide elimination is constant and no differences among formulations were found for t1/2 values, the different release/absorption behaviour of MMX™ tablets and Entocort® EC capsules was apparent from MRT values which were higher for the MMX™ formulations. Analysis on T1 and R Cmax and Tmax, showed a different rate of absorption for MMX™ tablets 9 mg (T1) with respect to Entocort® EC 3×3 mg capsules (R). T1 had a lower budesonide concentration peak than R as confirmed by a PE % of 79% and 90% CI limits of 63%-100%, and a significantly higher Tmax (13.3 h for T1 vs. 4.8 h for R). Extent of absorption calculated from the AUC0-t of budesonide after administration of T1 and R was also significantly different. T1 bioavailability over the 36 h period was lower than R bioavailability (PE=91%; 90% CI limits: 77%-108%). Therefore, T1 and R were found to be non-bioequivalent. Analysis on Tmax, and dose-normalized Cmax/dose and AUC0-t/dose showed differences in rate and extent of absorption also for T1 vs. T2, As expected, T1 had a higher concentration peak and bioavailability than T2, although a linear relationship with dose was not observed (PE for Cmax/dose=75%; 90% CI limits: 59%-95%, PE for AUC0-t/dose=80%; 90% CI limits: 67%-94%). Therefore, T1 and T2 were found non-bioequivalent. Tmax differences between T1 and T2 were not statistically significant (p value from t test=0.2244). Analysis on budesonide metabolite urinary excretion (Xu0-36 h), showed a different excretion among formulations, with a bioequivalence not satisfied for T1 vs. R (PE=66%; 90% CI limits: 54%-81%) and almost achieved for T1 vs. T2 (PE=96%, 90% CI limits: 79%-117%). Safety Results: The safety profile of the 3 formulations was similar. Only 3 AEs occurred during the study, 1 with T2 formulation and 2 with R formulation. Of these 3 AEs, only 1 with R formulation (i.e. headache) was judged possibly related to treatment. No meaningful effect of treatment on vital signs, ECGs or laboratory parameters was observed. Conclusions: The formulation Budesonide MMX™ extended release tablets 9 mg was found not bioequivalent to the reference Entocort® EC 3×3 mg capsules in terms of rate and extent of bioavailability since the 90% CI for Cmax and AUC0-t did not fall within the 80%-125% limits required by current guidelines, and Tmax, was statistically different between MMX™ 9 mg and Entocort® EC 3.times.3 mg. This finding is explained by the different release behavior of the test and reference formulations which determines different profiles of budesonide absorption. When MMX™ 9 mg and 6 mg tablet formulations were compared to evaluate dose proportionality, whereas no significant difference was found for Tmax, the analysis of dose normalized Cmax, AUC0-t indicated lack of equivalence since the 90% CI for these parameters did not fall within the 80%-125% limits required by current guidelines. but overlapped them. The safety profile of the 3 formulations was similar and very good. Pharmaco-Scintigraphic and Kinetic Study A single dose, pharmaco-scintigraphic and kinetic study of the gastrointestinal transit and release of a 152Sm-labelled controlled release formulation of budesonide in 12 fasting male healthy volunteers is carried out. The objective of the study is to demonstrate and quantify, by pharmaco-scintigraphy and PK analysis, the release and absorption of budesonide in the target region. Each subject received 1 tablet of budesonide MMX™ 9 mg and an average radioactivity dose of 1.118+0.428 MBq as 153Sm2O3 To define the GI transit behavior of the study formulation, images were recorded at approximately 20 min intervals up to 3 h post-dose and 30 min intervals up to 10 h. Further acquisitions were taken at 12 and 24 h post-dose. The following Regions of Interest (ROIs) were defined: stomach, small intestine, terminal ileum, ileo-caecal junction and caecum, ascending, transverse, descending and sigmoid colon. Quantification of the distribution were achieved by measuring the count rates recorded from the ROIs. Budesonide plasma levels were detected between the 1st and the 12th h post-administration. On the average the appearance of drug plasma levels occurred in 6.79±3.24 h (Tlag). Peak time (Tmax) averaged 14.00±7.73 h, with mean concentration (Cmax) of 1768.7±1499.8 pg/mL. Measured average plasma AUCt in 24 h was 15607±14549 pg×h/mL. The difference Tmax−Tlag accounted for 7.21±5.49 h, a time period which may be representative of the release time of the active from the tablet. The following Table 5 summarizes the main kinetic evidence: TABLE 5 Cmax Tmax AUCt Tlag Tmax − Tlag N = 12 (pg/mL) (h) (pg × h/mL) (h) (h) Mean 1768.7 14.00 15607 6.79 7.21 SD 1499.8 7.734 14549 3.24 5.49 CV 84.80 55.24 93.22 47.66 76.13 Min 337.3 5 2465 1 0 Max 4756.3 24 53163 12 17 Combining the scintigraphic with the kinetic evidence, drug absorption during the time interval of the radioactivity location in the target ROI (i.e. the region comprised between the ascending and the descending-sigmoid colon) could be approximately calculated to amount to 95.88%±4.19% of the systemically bioavailable dose. Results: The systemic availability of budesonide MMX™ 9 mg is mostly ascribable to the drug absorption throughout the whole colon including the sigmoid, see Table 6 below: TABLE 6 AUCcolon/ AUCcolon AUCt AUCt × 100 Mean 15113.46 15606.52 95.88 SD 14401.79 14549.23 4.19 Min 2464.80 2464.80 84.93 Max 52376.20 53162.50 100.00 Example 1 2.7 kg of budesonide, 3.0 kg of lecithin (amphiphilic matrix forming material) and 3.0 kg of stearic acid (lipophilic matrix forming material) are mixing after sieving till an homogeneous mixture is obtained; then add 39.0 kg of inert, functional excipients and 9.0 kg of low viscosity hydroxypropylcellulose (binder) and mix for 10 minutes before adding purified water and kneading to a suitable consistence. Then pass the granulate through a rotating granulator equipped with the suitable screen and transfer the granulate to the fluid bed drier to lower the residual moisture content under 3%. After a new sieving on the dry, the granulate is added of 9.0 kg of hydroxypropylcellulose (hydrophilic matrix forming material) and the suitable amount of functional excipients (in particular, microcrystalline cellulose, lactose and silicon dioxide) and, after 15 minutes of mixing, magnesium stearate in a suitable quantity to act as lubricant is added. After a final blending, tablets of around 300 mg of unitary weight are generated. The core are then subjected to be coated with a suspension obtained introducing into a stainless steel container 5.8 kg of Eudragit™ (methacrylate copolymers), 0.6 kg of triethylcitrate and 3.0 kg of dyes and talc, using alcohol as solvent. The mean dissolution percentage (as average of six or more tablets) obtained with this tablet formulation were around 10%-20% at second hour sampling, in the range 25% to 65% at fourth hour and a dissolution greater than 80% was achieved at 8th hour sampling. Example 2 Component mg/tablet Tablet Budesonide 9.0 Stearic Acid 10.0 Lecithin 10.0 Microcrystalline cellulose 156.0 Hydroxypropylcellulose 60.0 Lactose monohydrate 50.0 Silicon dioxide 2.0 Magnesium stearate 3.0 Coating materials Eudragit L100 14.0 Eudragit S100 12.0 Talc 7.9 Titanium dioxiede 4.5 Triethylcitrate 1.6 Alcohol q.s. The coating of industrial scale tablets of batch MV084 contained 8.0 mg of Eudragit L100 and 8.0 mg of Eudragit 5100 (instead of 14.0 mg and 12.0 mg, respectively) with an individual weight of about 330 mg. According to the present invention, coated tablets individually weighing about 340 mg are obtained. The above described dissolution test is performed on the tablets of Example 2. The results are the following (indicated as average value): after 2 hours at pH 1 resistant (<5%) after 1 hour at pH 6.4 resistant (<5%) after 2 hours at pH 7.2 15% after 4 hours at pH 7.2 37% after 8 hours at pH 7.2 91% Example 3 Budesonide (3.0 kg) is mixed with soybean Lecithin (5.0 kg) until an homogeneous mixture is obtained. Then carnauba wax (2.0 kg) and stearic acid (2.0 kg) sieved through a fine screen are added. After mixing, the powders are added with other functional excipients and kneaded with a binder solution obtained by dissolving medium viscosity polyvinylpyrrolidone in water. After drying in a fluid bed and milling throughout a suitable screen, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (35.0 kg) and other excipients, including magnesium stearate as lubricant, in a suitable quantity are added and the mixture is blended until an homogeneous powder dispersion is obtained. The powder mixture is subjected to compression in a rotating tableting machine and the tablets so obtained are coated in a pan coat with a gastroresistant composition containing Eudragit™, plasticizers, dyes and pigments. According to the present example, coated tablets individually weighing around 105 mg are obtained. The results of the above described dissolution test are the following (indicated as average value of at least six tablets): after 2 hours at pH 1 resistant (<5%) after 1 hour at pH 6.4 resistant (<5%) after 2 hours at pH 7.2 9% after 4 hours at pH 7.2 28% after 8 hours at pH 7.2 86% Example 4 50 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether are homogeneously distributed on 500 g of microcrystalline cellulose; then 100 g of Budesonide are added, mixing to complete homogenization. This mix is further added with 400 g of Budesonide, then dispersed in a blender containing 100 g of carnauba wax and 100 g of stearic acid preheated at a temperature of 60° C. After kneading for 5 minutes, the mixture is cooled to room temperature and extruded in granules of size below 1 mm A suitable mixer is loaded with the matrix granules prepared as above and the following amounts of hydrophilic excipients: 1500 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 500 g of Policarbophil™ are added. The components are mixed until homogeneous dispersion of the matrices, then added with 2450 g of microcrystalline cellulose, 400 g of lactose, 100 g of colloidal silica and 50 g of magnesium stearate. After further 5 minute mixing, the mix is tableted to unitary weight of 250 mg/tablet. Tablets are then subjected to coating using a suspension n containing polyacrylate and poly methacrylate copolymers in addition to other dyes, plasticizers and coloring agents in solvent (ethylic alcohol). The results of the dissolution test performed on these coated tablets are the following (indicated as average value of at least six tablets): after 2 hours at pH 1 resistant (<5%) after 1 hour at pH 6.4 resistant (<5%) after 2 hours at pH 7.2 11% after 4 hours at pH 7.2 32% after 8 hours at pH 7.2 76% Example A 500 g of 5-aminosalicylic-acid and 20 g of octylonium bromide are mixed with 10 g of soy lecithin dissolved in 50 g of a water:ethyl alcohol 1:3 mixture at about 50° C. After homogenization and drying, the granules of the resulting matrix are treated in a kneader with 20 g of carnauba wax and 50 g of stearic acid, heating until homogeneous dispersion, then cold-extruded into small granules. The inert matrix granules are loaded into a mixer in which 30 g of carbopol 971 P and 65 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose “are sequentially added.” After a first mixing step for homogeneously dispersing the powders, 60 g of microcrystalline cellulose and 5 g of magnesium stearate are added. After mixing, the final mixture is tableted to unitary weight of 760 mg/tablet. The resulting tablets are film-coated with cellulose acetophthalate or polymethacrylates and a plasticizer to provide gastric resistance and prevent the early release of product in the stomach. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 60 minutes no more than 30%, after 180 minutes no more than 60%, after 5 hours no more than 80%. Example B 50 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether are homogeneously distributed on 500 g of microcrystalline cellulose; then 100 g of Budesonide are added, mixing to complete homogenization. This mix is further added with 400 g of Budesonide, then dispersed in a blender containing 100 g of carnauba wax and 100 g of stearic acid preheated at a temperature of 60° C. After kneading for 5 minutes, the mixture is cooled to room temperature and extruded in granules of size below 1 mm. A suitable mixer is loaded with the matrix granules prepared as above and the following amounts of hydrophilic excipients: 1500 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 500 g of polycarbophil. The components are mixed until homogeneous dispersion of the matrices, then added with 2450 g of microcrystalline cellulose, 400 g of lactose, 100 g of colloidal silica and 50 g of magnesium stearate. After further 5 minute mixing, the mix is tableted to unitary weight of 250 mg/tablet. Example C 850 g of metformin are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 35 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether previously melted with 100 g of stearic acid and 55 g of carnauba wax. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert matrix. The resulting 1040 g of formulation are added with 110 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 20 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tableted to unitary weight of 1170 mg/tablet equivalent to 850 mg of active ingredient. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 60 minutes no more than 35%, after 180 minutes no more than 60%, after 5 hours no more than 80%. Example D 120 g of octylonium bromide are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 30 g of stearic acid and 15 g of beeswax in which 10 g of diethylene glycol monoethylene had previously been melted. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert matrix. The resulting 10 g of formulation are added with 5 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 5 g of polycarbophyl, 2 g of magnesium stearate and 3 g of microcrystalline cellulose. The final mixture is tableted to unitary weight of 200 mg/tablet equivalent to 120 mg of active ingredient. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 60 minutes no more than 25%; after 180 minutes no more than 50%; after 5 hours no more than 70%. Example E 12 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether are loaded on 6 g of microcrystalline cellulose and 6 grams of calcium carbonate, then 100 g of Gabapentin are added and the mixture is homogenized. After that, 800 g of Gabapentin are added which are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 4.5 g of white wax and 5 g of stearic acid. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert matrix. The resulting 916.5 g of formulation are added with 39.5 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 10 g of alginic acid, 11 g of magnesium stearate and 6 g of Syloid. The final mixture is tableted to unitary weight of 1000 mg/tablet equivalent to 900 mg of active ingredient. Example F 50 g (25 g) of carbidopa and 200 g (100 g) of levodopa are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 60 g (30 g) of stearic acid and 30 g (15 g) of yellow wax, in which 10 (5) g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether had previously been melted. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert matrix. The resulting 340 g (170 g) of formulation are added with 20 g (10 g) of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 10 g (5 g) of xanthan gum, 16 g (8 g) of microcrystalline cellulose, 4 g (2 g) of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tableted to unitary weight of 400 (200) mg/tablet equivalent to 50 (25) mg of carbidopa and 200 (100) mg di levodopa. Example G 4 g of Nimesulide are solubilized in 50 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether, then 100 g of microcrystalline cellulose are added to obtain a homogeneous mixture. The resulting mixture is added in a granulator/kneader with 196 g of Nimesulide, 50 g of stearic acid and 25 g of carnauba wax. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert and amphiphilic matrix system. 425 g of the resulting granulate are added with 60 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 5 g of polycarbophil and 10 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tableted to unitary weight of 500 mg/tablet equivalent to 200 mg of active ingredient. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 1 hour no more than 25%, after 2 hours no more than 40%, after 4 hours no more than 60%, after 8 hours no more than 90%. Example H 500 g of propionyl carnitine are dispersed in a granulator/kneader with 90 g of stearic acid and 40 g of carnauba wax, in which 20 g of diethylene glycol monoethyl ether had previously been melted. The system is heated to carry out the granulation of the active ingredient in the inert/amphiphilic matrix. The resulting 650 g of formulation are added with 60 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and 10 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tableted to unitary weight of 720 mg/tablet equivalent to 500 mg of active ingredient. The resulting tablets, when subjected to dissolution test in simulated enteric juice, have shown a release of the active principles having the following profile: after 60 minutes no more than 40%, after 180 minutes no more than 60%, after 4 hours no more than 80%, after 8 hours no more than 90%. Example I One kg of Nimesulide is placed in a high rate granulator, pre-heated to about 70°, together with 200 g of cetyl alcohol and 25 g of glycerol palmitostearate the mixture is kneaded for about 15 minutes and stirred while decreasing temperature to about 30° C. The resulting inert matrix is added, keeping stirring and kneading during cooling, with 50 g of soy lecithin and 50 g of ethylene glycol monoethyl ether. The granulate is extruded through a metallic screen of suitable size and mixed with 50 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 1320 kg of maltodextrins, 2 kg of lactose-cellulose mixture, 50 g of colloidal silica, 40 g of aspartame, 150 g of citric acid, 75 g of flavor and 65 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tableted to unitary weight of about 500 mg, having hardness suitable for being dissolved in the mouth and a pleasant taste. Example J Operating as in the preceding Example, chewable tablets are prepared replacing dextrin with mannitol and the lactose-cellulose mixture with xylitol. The resulting tablets have pleasant taste and give upon chewing a sensation of freshness enhancing the flavor. Example K Operating as described in Example I, but with the following components: active ingredient: ibuprofen mg 100 lipophilic/inert matrix component: mg 15 cetyl alcohol amphiphilic matrix component: mg 8 soy lecithin hydrophilic matrix components: mannitol mg 167 maltodextrins mg 150 methylhydroxypropylcellulose mg 30 adjuvants: aspartame mg 15 flavor mg 5 colloidal silica mg 5 magnesium stearate mg 5 500 mg unitary weight tablets are obtained, which undergo progressive erosion upon buccal administration, and effectively mask the bitter, irritating taste of the active ingredient. Example L Operating as described in Example I, but with the following components: active ingredient: diclofenac sodium mg 25 lipophilic/inert matrix component: mg 5 cetyl alcohol glycerol palmitostearate mg 5 amphiphilic matrix component: mg 7 soy lecithin hydrophilic matrix components: xylitol mg 168 maltodextrins mg 150 hydroxypropylmethylcellulose mg 20 adjuvants: aspartame mg 5 flavor mg 5 colloidal silica mg 5 magnesium stearate mg 5 400 mg unitary weight tablets are obtained, which undergo progressive erosion upon buccal administration, and effectively mask the irritating taste of the active ingredient. Example M Operating as described in Example I, but with the following components: active ingredient: chlorhexidine mg 2.5 lipophilic/inert matrix component: mg 0.5 cetyl alcohol glycerol palmitostearate mg 0.5 amphiphilic matrix component: mg 0.3 diethylene glycol monoethyl ether hydrophilic matrix components: xylitol mg 38 maltodextrins mg 96 hydroxypropyl methylcellulose mg 10 adjuvants: aspartame mg 3 flavor mg 5 colloidal silica mg 2 magnesium stearate mg 2 150 mg unitary weight tablets are obtained, which undergo progressive erosion upon buccal administration, and effectively mask the irritating taste of the active ingredient. Example N One Kg of Nimesulide is placed in a high rate granulator, pre-heated to about 70°, together with g 125 of cetyl alcohol: the mixture is kneaded for about 15 minutes and stirred while decreasing temperature to about 30° C., then added with g 30 of lecithin. The resulting matrix is then extruded through a metallic screen of suitable size and mixed with 2.415 kg of lactose, 1.0 kg of maltodextrins, 50 g of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, 50 g of colloidal silica, 40 g of aspartame, 150 g of citric acid, 75 g of flavor and 65 g of magnesium stearate. The final mixture is tableted to about 500 mg tablets, having hardness suitable for being dissolved in the mouth and pleasant taste. | <SOH> TECHNOLOGICAL BACKGROUND <EOH>The preparation of a sustained, controlled, delayed, extended or anyhow modified release form can be carried out according to different techniques: 1. The use of inert matrices, in which the main component of the matrix structure opposes some resistance to the penetration of the solvent due to the poor affinity towards aqueous fluids; such property being known as lipophilia. 2. The use of hydrophilic matrices, in which the main component of the matrix structure opposes high resistance to the progress of the solvent, in that the presence of strongly hydrophilic groups in its chains, mainly branched, remarkably increases viscosity inside the hydrated layer. 3. The use of bioerodible matrices, which are capable of being degraded by the enzymes of some biological compartment. All the procedures listed above suffer, however, from drawbacks and imperfections. Inert matrices, for example, generally entail non-linear, but exponential, release of the active ingredient. Hydrophilic matrices: have a linear behaviour until a certain fraction of active ingredient has been released, then significantly deviate from linear release. Bioerodible matrices are ideal to carry out the so-called “sire-release”, but they involve the problem of finding the suitable enzyme or reactive to degradation. Furthermore, they frequently release in situ metabolites that are not wholly toxicologically inert. A number of formulations based on inert lipophilic matrices have been described: Drug Dev. Ind. Pharm. 13 (6), 1001-1022, (1987) discloses a process making use of varying amounts of colloidal silica as a porization element for a lipophilic inert matrix in which the active ingredient is incorporated. The same notion of canalization of an inert matrix is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,608,248 in which a small amount of a hydrophilic polymer is mixed with the substances forming an inert matrix, in a non sequential compenetration of different matrix materials. EP 375,063 discloses a technique for the preparation of multiparticulate granules for the controlled-release of the active ingredient which comprises co-dissolution of polymers or suitable substances to form a inert matrix with the active ingredient and the subsequent deposition of said solution on an inert carrier which acts as the core of the device. Alternatively, the inert carrier is kneaded with the solution containing the inert polymer and the active ingredient, then the organic solvent used for the dissolution is evaporated off to obtain a solid residue. The resulting structure is a “reservoir”, i.e. is not macroscopically homogeneous along all the symmetry axis of the final form. The same “reservoir” structure is also described in Chem. Pharm. Bull. 46 (3), 531-533, (1998) which improves the application through an annealing technique of the inert polymer layer which is deposited on the surface of the pellets. To the “reservoir” structure also belong the products obtained according to the technique described in WO 93/00889 which discloses a process for the preparation of pellets in hydrophilic matrix which comprises: —dissolution of the active ingredient with gastro resistant hydrophilic polymers in organic solvents; —drying of said suspension; —subsequent kneading and formulation of the pellets in a hydrophilic or lipophilic matrix without distinction of effectiveness between the two types of application. EP 0 453 001 discloses a multiparticulate with “reservoir” structure inserted in a hydrophilic matrix. The basic multiparticulate utilizes two coating membranes to decrease the release rate of the active ingredient, a pH-dependent membrane with the purpose of gastric protection and a pH-independent methacrylic membrane with the purpose of slowing down the penetration of the aqueous fluid. WO 95/16451 discloses a composition only formed by a hydrophilic matrix coated with a gastro-resistant film for controlling the dissolution rate of the active ingredient. When preparing sustained-, controlled-release dosage forms of a medicament topically active in the gastrointestinal tract, it is important to ensure a controlled release from the first phases following administration, i.e. when the inert matrices have the maximum release rate inside the logarithmic phase, namely the higher deviation from linear release. Said object has been attained according to the present invention, through the combination of an amphiphilic matrix inside an inert matrix, the latter formulated with a lipophilic polymer in a superficial hydrophilic matrix. The compositions of the invention are characterized by the absence of a first phase in which the medicament superficially present on the matrix is quickly solubilized, and by the fact the amphiphilic layer compensate the lack of affinity of the aqueous solvent with the lipophilic compounds forming the inner inert matrix. | A61K92081 | 20170711 | 20171026 | 98265.0 | A61K920 | 1 | TRAN, SUSAN T | CONTROLLED RELEASE AND TASTE MASKING ORAL PHARMACEUTICAL COMPOSITION | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
||
15,646,621 | PENDING | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR CONFIGURING AND COMMUNICATING WITH HVAC DEVICES | An actuator in a HVAC system includes a mechanical transducer, a processing circuit, a wireless transceiver, and a power circuit. The processing circuit includes a processor and memory and is configured to operate the mechanical transducer according to a control program stored in the memory. The wireless transceiver is configured to facilitate bidirectional wireless data communications between the processing circuit and an external device. The power circuit is configured to draw power from a wireless signal received via the wireless transceiver and power the processing circuit and the wireless transceiver using the drawn power. The processing circuit is configured to use the power drawn from the wireless signal to wirelessly transmit data stored in the memory of the actuator to the external device via the wireless transceiver, wirelessly receive data from the external device via the wireless transceiver, and store the data received from the external device in the memory. | 1. An actuator in a HVAC system, the actuator comprising: a mechanical transducer; a processing circuit comprising a processor and memory, wherein the processing circuit is configured to operate the mechanical transducer according to a control program stored in the memory; a wireless transceiver configured to facilitate bidirectional wireless data communications between the processing circuit and an external device; and a power circuit configured to draw power from a wireless signal received via the wireless transceiver and to power the processing circuit and the wireless transceiver using the drawn power; wherein the processing circuit is configured to use the power drawn from the wireless signal to wirelessly transmit data stored in the memory of the actuator to the external device via the wireless transceiver, to wirelessly receive data from the external device via the wireless transceiver, and to store the data received from the external device in the memory of the actuator. 2. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the external device is a mobile device; wherein the bidirectional wireless data communications between the processing circuit and the external device comprise direct communications between the wireless transceiver of the actuator and a wireless transceiver of the mobile device. 3. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the processing circuit is configured to wirelessly exchange data with the external device without requiring any wired power or data connections to the actuator. 4. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the processing circuit is configured to wirelessly exchange data with the external device while the actuator is contained within packaging that prevents physical access to the actuator. 5. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the data received from the external device comprise firmware for the actuator including the control program used by the processing circuit to operate the mechanical transducer; wherein the control program comprises logic for operating the mechanical transducer based on variable configuration parameters separate from the control program. 6. The actuator of claim 1, wherein at least one of the data transmitted to the external device and the data received from the external device comprise configuration parameters for the actuator. 7. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the processing circuit is capable of operating multiple different actuator models; wherein the data received from the external device comprise model identification parameters identifying a particular actuator model and defining configuration settings specific to the identified actuator model; and wherein the processing circuit uses the model identification parameters to operate the actuator according to configuration settings specific to the identified actuator model. 8. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the processing circuit is configured to perform an actuator diagnostic test and to generate diagnostic information as a result of the test; wherein the data transmitted to the external device comprise the diagnostic information generated by the processing circuit. 9. The actuator of claim 1, wherein the external device is another actuator and at least one of the data transmitted to the external device and the data received from the external device comprise a master-slave detection signal. 10. The actuator of claim 9, wherein the processing circuit is configured to use the master-slave detection signal to select an operating mode for the actuator from a set of multiple potential operating modes comprising a master operating mode and a slave operating mode. 11. A method for configuring and operating an actuator in a HVAC system, the method comprising: drawing power from a wireless signal received at a wireless transceiver of the actuator; using the power drawn from the wireless signal to power a processing circuit of the actuator; transmitting data stored in a memory of the actuator to an external device via the wireless transceiver; receiving data from the external device via the wireless transceiver; storing the data received from the external device in the memory of the actuator; and using the data stored in the memory of the actuator to operate a mechanical transducer of the actuator. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein the external device is a mobile device; the method comprising engaging in bidirectional wireless data communications between the wireless transceiver of the actuator and a wireless transceiver of the mobile device. 13. The method of claim 11, wherein the transmitting and receiving comprise wirelessly exchanging data with the external device without requiring any wired power or data connections to the actuator. 14. The method of claim 11, wherein the transmitting and receiving comprise wirelessly exchanging data with the external device while the actuator is contained within packaging that prevents physical access to the actuator. 15. The method of claim 11, wherein the data received from the external device comprise firmware for the actuator including a control program used by the processing circuit to operate the mechanical transducer; wherein the control program comprises logic for operating the mechanical transducer based on variable configuration parameters separate from the control program. 16. The method of claim 11, wherein at least one of the data transmitted to the external device and the data received from the external device comprise configuration parameters for the actuator. 17. The method of claim 11, wherein the actuator is capable of operating as multiple different actuator models, the method further comprising: obtaining model identification parameters from the data received from the external device, the model identification parameters identifying a particular actuator model and defining configuration settings specific to the identified actuator model; and using the model identification parameters to operate the actuator according to configuration settings specific to the identified actuator model. 18. The method of claim 11, further comprising performing an actuator diagnostic test and generating diagnostic information as a result of the test; wherein the data transmitted to the external device comprise the diagnostic information generated by the processing circuit. 19. The method of claim 11, wherein the external device is another actuator and at least one of the data transmitted to the external device and the data received from the external device comprise a master-slave detection signal. 20. The method of claim 19, further comprising using the master-slave detection signal to select an operating mode for the actuator from a set of multiple potential operating modes comprising a master operating mode and a slave operating mode. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED PATENT APPLICATION This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/475,318 filed Sep. 2, 2014, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND The present disclosure relates generally to the field of control equipment such as actuators, sensors, controllers, and other types of devices that can be used for monitoring or controlling an automated system or process. The present disclosure relates more particularly to systems and methods for configuring and communicating with control equipment in a building automation system. A building automation system (BAS) is, in general, a system of devices configured to control, monitor, and manage equipment in or around a building or building area. A BAS can include a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system, a security system, a lighting system, a fire alerting system, another system that is capable of managing building functions or devices, or any combination thereof. BAS devices may be installed in any environment (e.g., an indoor area or an outdoor area) and the environment may include any number of buildings, spaces, zones, rooms, or areas. A BAS may include METASYS building controllers or other devices sold by Johnson Controls, Inc., as well as building devices and components from other sources. A BAS may include one or more computer systems (e.g., servers, BAS controllers, etc.) that serve as enterprise level controllers, application or data servers, head nodes, master controllers, or field controllers for the BAS. Such computer systems may communicate with multiple downstream building systems or subsystems (e.g., an HVAC system, a security system, etc.) according to like or disparate protocols (e.g., LON, BACnet, etc.). The computer systems may also provide one or more human-machine interfaces or client interfaces (e.g., graphical user interfaces, reporting interfaces, text-based computer interfaces, client-facing web services, web servers that provide pages to web clients, etc.) for controlling, viewing, or otherwise interacting with the BAS, its subsystems, and devices. A BAS may include various types of controllable equipment (e.g., chillers, boilers, air handling units, dampers, motors, actuators, pumps, fans, etc.) that can be used to achieve a desired environment, state, or condition within a controlled space. In some BAS implementations, it may be desirable to arrange two or more actuators in tandem (e.g., in a master-slave configuration). Conventional actuators generally include a physical switch (e.g., a detent potentiometer) attached to the actuator for configuring the actuator to operate as either the master or the slave in a master-slave configuration. It can be challenging to properly configure tandem-mounted actuators, especially when access to the actuators is restricted or when the proper master-slave configuration is unclear. Other types of control equipment also generally require physical access to the equipment for various activities such as commissioning, programming, setting addresses, installing firmware, performing diagnostics, and/or reading a current operating status. For example, physical access to the circuit board of a control device may be required to program the device. It can be difficult to access control devices that are mounted in a confined space or sealed from the external environment. SUMMARY One implementation of the present disclosure is an actuator in a HVAC system. The actuator includes a mechanical transducer, an input data connection, a feedback data connection, and a processing circuit. The processing circuit is configured to use a master-slave detection signal communicated via the feedback data connection to select an operating mode for the actuator from a set of multiple potential operating modes including a master operating mode and a slave operating mode. The processing circuit is configured to operate the mechanical transducer in response to a control signal received via the input data connection according to the selected operating mode. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to generate the master-slave detection signal and to output the master-slave detection signal via the feedback data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to monitor the feedback data connection for a reply signal from another actuator. The reply signal may be generated by the other actuator in response to receiving the output master-slave detection signal. The processing circuit may be configured to select the master operating mode in response to detecting the reply signal from the other actuator at the feedback data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to monitor the input data connection for the master-slave detection signal. The master-slave detection signal may be generated by another actuator. The processing circuit may be configured to select the slave operating mode in response to detecting the master-slave detection signal from the other actuator at the input data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to generate a reply signal in response to detecting the master-slave detection signal at the input data connection. The processing circuit may be configured to output the reply signal via the input data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to monitor the input data connection for the master-slave detection signal and to monitor the feedback data connection for a reply signal. The processing circuit may be configured to select a normal operating mode in response to a determination that the master-slave detection signal is not detected at the input data connection and the reply signal is not detected at the feedback data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to engage in bi-directional communications with another actuator via the feedback data connection. The feedback data connection may be connected with an input data connection of the other actuator. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to engage in bi-directional communications with another actuator via the input data connection. The input data connection may be connected with a feedback data connection of the other actuator. In some embodiments, the actuator further includes memory storing instructions for generating the master-slave detection signal. The processing circuit may generate the master-slave detection signal according to the stored instructions. In some embodiments, the master-slave detection signal includes a series of digital pulses. In some embodiments, the processing circuit includes a master detection circuit configured to monitor the input data connection for the master-slave detection signal, to generate a reply signal in response to detecting the master-slave detection signal at the input data connection, and to output the reply signal via the input data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit includes a slave detection circuit configured to generate the master-slave detection signal, to output the master-slave detection signal via the feedback data connection, and to monitor the feedback data connection for the reply signal. Another implementation of the present disclosure is an actuator in a HVAC system. The actuator includes a mechanical transducer and a processing circuit having a processor and memory. The processing circuit is configured to operate the mechanical transducer according to a control program stored in the memory. The actuator further includes a wireless transceiver configured to facilitate bidirectional wireless data communications between the processing circuit and an external device. The actuator further includes a power circuit configured to draw power from a wireless signal received via the wireless transceiver and to power the processing circuit and the wireless transceiver using the drawn power. The processing circuit is configured to use the power drawn from the wireless signal to wirelessly transmit data stored in the memory of the actuator to the external device via the wireless transceiver, to wirelessly receive data from the external device via the wireless transceiver, and to store the data received from the external device in the memory of the actuator. In some embodiments, the external device is a mobile device. The bidirectional wireless data communications between the processing circuit and the external device may include direct communications between the wireless transceiver of the actuator and a wireless transceiver of the mobile device. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to wirelessly exchange data with the external device without requiring any wired power or data connections to the actuator. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to wirelessly exchange data with the external device while the actuator is contained within packaging that prevents physical access to the actuator. In some embodiments, the data received from the external device includes firmware for the actuator. The firmware may include the control program used by the processing circuit to operate the mechanical transducer. The control program may include logic for operating the mechanical transducer based on variable configuration parameters separate from the control program. In some embodiments, at least one of the data transmitted to the external device and the data received from the external device include configuration parameters for the actuator. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is capable of operating multiple different actuator models. The data received from the external device may include model identification parameters identifying a particular actuator model and defining configuration settings specific to the identified actuator model. The processing circuit may use the model identification parameters to operate the actuator according to configuration settings specific to the identified actuator model. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to perform an actuator diagnostic test and to generate diagnostic information as a result of the test. The data transmitted to the external device may include the diagnostic information generated by the processing circuit. In some embodiments, the external device is another actuator and at least one of the data transmitted to the external device and the data received from the external device include a master-slave detection signal. The processing circuit may be configured to use the master-slave detection signal to select an operating mode for the actuator from a set of multiple potential operating modes including a master operating mode and a slave operating mode Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the summary is illustrative only and is not intended to be in any way limiting. Other aspects, inventive features, and advantages of the devices and/or processes described herein, as defined solely by the claims, will become apparent in the detailed description set forth herein and taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a building serviced by a HVAC system, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2 is a block diagram illustrating a portion of the HVAC system of FIG. 1 in greater detail, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 3 is a block diagram illustrating multiple actuators of the HVAC system of FIG. 1 arranged in tandem, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating the actuators of FIG. 3 in greater detail, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a first process for automatically detecting an actuator arrangement and setting an actuator operating mode in which a master actuator initiates the process, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 6 is a block diagram illustrating a second process for automatically detecting an actuator arrangement and setting an actuator operating mode in which a slave actuator initiates the process, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 7A is a block diagram illustrating the master actuator and slave actuator of FIGS. 3-5 in greater detail, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 7B is a circuit diagram illustrating selected portions of the master actuator and the slave of FIG. 7A, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 8 is a flowchart of a process for automatically selecting an operating mode for a HVAC actuator, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 9 is a flowchart of another process for automatically selecting an operating mode for a HVAC actuator, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 10 is a flowchart of yet another process for automatically selecting an operating mode for a HVAC actuator, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 11 is a block diagram of an actuator configured to wirelessly communicate with an external device without requiring any wired power or data connections to the actuator, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 12 is flowchart of a process for wirelessly configuring and communicating with an actuator in a HVAC system, according to an exemplary embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Referring generally to the FIGURES, systems and methods for configuring and communicating with HVAC devices are shown, according to various exemplary embodiments. The systems and methods described herein may be used to automatically select and set an operating mode (e.g., master, slave, normal, etc.) for actuators in a HVAC system. The systems and methods described herein may also be used to wirelessly configure, control, exchange data, or otherwise wirelessly communicate with an actuator in a HVAC system. Actuators include any apparatus capable of providing forces and/or motion in response to a control signal. Actuators may use any of a variety of force transducers such as rotary motors, linear motors, hydraulic or pneumatic pistons/motors, piezoelectric elements, relays, comb drives, thermal bimorphs, or other similar devices to provide mechanical motion. An actuator may provide any combination of linear, curved, or rotary forces/motion. Some actuators use rotary motors to provide circular motion and/or linear motion (e.g., via a screw drive). Other actuators use linear motors to provide linear motion. Actuators may include a variety of mechanical components such as gears, pulleys, cams, screws, levers, crankshafts, ratchets, or other components capable of changing or affecting the motion provided by the actuating/transducing element. In some embodiments, actuators do not produce significant motion in operation. For example, some actuators may be operated to exert a force or torque to an external element (e.g., a holding force) without affecting significant linear or rotary motion. In some implementations, multiple actuators may be interconnected in a tandem arrangement. The actuators may be identical or substantially identical (e.g., the same manufacturer, model, combination of components, etc.). For example, each actuator may have an input data connection, a feedback data connection, and the same or similar internal processing components. Each actuator may be capable of operating in multiple different operating modes (e.g., as a master actuator, as a slave actuator, in a normal operating mode, etc.). The systems and methods of the present disclosure may be used to automatically identify and configure one of the actuators as a master actuator and one or more of the actuators as slave actuators based on the manner in which the actuators are interconnected. In an exemplary arrangement, the input data connection of a first actuator may be connected (e.g., via a communications bus) to the output of a controller that provides a control signal to the first actuator. The other actuators may be arranged in tandem with the first actuator. For example, the feedback data connection of the first actuator may be connected to the input data connection of a second actuator. In some embodiments, the second actuator may be arranged in parallel with one or more additional actuators. For example, the feedback data connection of the first actuator may be connected with both the input data connection of the second actuator and the input data connections of the one or more additional actuators. In this exemplary arrangement, it would be desirable to identify the first actuator as a master actuator and the other actuators as slave actuators. Each actuator may be configured to generate a master-slave detection signal (e.g., an analog or digital signal protocol) and to output the master-slave detection signal via its feedback data connection. In some embodiments, the master-slave detection signal is generated and output by an actuator when the actuator first receives power. If the feedback data connection of the actuator is connected with the input data connection of another actuator, the master-slave detection signal will be received at the input data connection of the other actuator. Each actuator may be configured to monitor its input data connection for the master-slave detection signal. If an actuator detects the master-slave detection signal at its input data connection, the actuator may determine that it is arranged in a slave configuration (i.e., its input data connection is connected with the feedback data connection of another actuator) and may automatically configure itself to operate in a slave operating mode. In response to detecting the master-slave detection signal at its input data connection, the slave actuator may generate and output a reply signal. The slave actuator may output the reply signal via its input data connection. Each actuator may be configured to monitor its feedback data connection for the reply signal. If an actuator detects the reply signal at its feedback data connection, the actuator may determine that it is arranged in a master configuration (i.e., its feedback data connection is connected with the input data connection of another actuator) and may automatically configure itself to operate in a master operating mode. The master actuator and the slave actuator may engage in bidirectional data communications via a communications bus connecting the feedback data connection of the master actuator with the input data connection of the slave actuator. In some embodiments, if an actuator does not detect the master-slave detection signal at its input data connection and does not detect the reply signal at its feedback data connection, the actuator may determine that it is not arranged in either a master configuration or a slave configuration (i.e., it is not connected with any other actuators) and may automatically configure itself to operate in a normal operating mode. Each actuator may have a mode indicator (e.g., a light, a speaker, an electronic display, etc.) to indicate the operating mode in which the actuator is configured. For example, if the mode indicator is a LED, the LED may be illuminated to indicate that the actuator is operating in the master operating mode. The LED may flash, blink, or illuminate a different color to indicate that the actuator is operating in the slave operating mode. The LED may turn off or illuminate yet a different color to indicate that the actuator is operating in the normal operating mode. In some embodiments, an actuator may be configured to wirelessly communicate with an external device (e.g., a mobile device, a controller, another actuator, etc.) to send and receive various types of data related to the operation of the actuator (e.g., firmware data, control logic, model identification parameters, configuration parameters, diagnostic data, etc.). Advantageously, the actuator may communicate with the external device without requiring any wired power or data connections to the actuator. This allows the actuator to send and receive data in the event that physical access to the actuator is limited. For example, the actuator may be installed in a location that is not readily accessible by a user or service technician. In some embodiments, the actuator can communicate with external devices while the actuator is still in its packaging at a manufacturer facility or a distributor location. The actuator can be constructed and packaged as a generic actuator and subsequently configured with suitable firmware, software, configuration parameters, or other data specific to a particular actuator model and/or implementation. Operational data such as end of line test data or other diagnostic data can be extracted from the actuator without requiring a physical data connection. Exemplary HVAC System and Operating Environment Referring now to FIG. 1, a perspective view of a building 10 is shown. Building 10 is serviced by a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning system (HVAC) system 20. HVAC system 20 is shown to include a chiller 22, a boiler 24, a rooftop cooling unit 26, and a plurality of air handling units (AHUs) 36. HVAC system 20 uses a fluid circulation system to provide heating and/or cooling for building 10. The circulated fluid may be cooled in chiller 22 or heated in boiler 24, depending on whether cooling or heating is required. Boiler 24 may add heat to the circulated fluid by burning a combustible material (e.g., natural gas). Chiller 22 may place the circulated fluid in a heat exchange relationship with another fluid (e.g., a refrigerant) in a heat exchanger (e.g., an evaporator). The refrigerant removes heat from the circulated fluid during an evaporation process, thereby cooling the circulated fluid. The circulated fluid from chiller 22 or boiler 24 may be transported to AHUs 36 via piping 32. AHUs 36 may place the circulated fluid in a heat exchange relationship with an airflow passing through AHUs 36. For example, the airflow may be passed over piping in fan coil units or other air conditioning terminal units through which the circulated fluid flows. AHUs 36 may transfer heat between the airflow and the circulated fluid to provide heating or cooling for the airflow. The heated or cooled air may be delivered to building 10 via an air distribution system including air supply ducts 38 and may return to AHUs 26 via air return ducts 40. HVAC system 20 is shown to include a separate AHU 36 on each floor of building 10. In other embodiments, a single AHU (e.g., a rooftop AHU) may supply air for multiple floors or zones. The circulated fluid from AHUs 36 may return chiller 22 or boiler 24 via piping 34. In some embodiments, the refrigerant in chiller 22 is vaporized upon absorbing heat from the circulated fluid. The vapor refrigerant may be provided to a compressor within chiller 22 where the temperature and pressure of the refrigerant are increased (e.g., using a rotating impeller, a screw compressor, a scroll compressor, a reciprocating compressor, a centrifugal compressor, etc.). The compressed refrigerant may be discharged into a condenser within chiller 22. In some embodiments, water (or another chilled fluid) flows through tubes in the condenser of chiller 22 to absorb heat from the refrigerant vapor, thereby causing the refrigerant to condense. The water flowing through tubes in the condenser may be pumped from chiller 22 to a rooftop cooling unit 26 via piping 28. Cooling unit 26 may use fan driven cooling or fan driven evaporation to remove heat from the water. The cooled water in rooftop unit 26 may be delivered back to chiller 22 via piping 30 and the cycle repeats. Referring now to FIG. 2, a block diagram of a portion of HVAC system 20 is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. In FIG. 2, AHU 36 is shown as an economizer type air handling unit. Economizer type air handling units vary the amount of outside air and return air used by the air handling unit for heating or cooling. For example, AHU 36 may receive return air 82 from building 10 via return air duct 40 and may deliver supply air 86 to building 10 via supply air duct 38. AHU 36 may be configured to operate exhaust air damper 60, mixing damper 62, and outside air damper 64 to control an amount of outside air 80 and return air 82 that combine to form supply air 86. Any return air 82 that does not pass through mixing damper 62 may be exhausted from AHU 36 through exhaust damper 60 as exhaust air 84. Each of dampers 60-64 may be operated by an actuator. As shown in FIG. 2, exhaust air damper 60 may be operated by actuator 54, mixing damper 62 may be operated by actuator 56, and outside air damper 64 may be operated by actuator 58. Actuators 54-58 may communicate with an AHU controller 44 via a communications link 52. AHU controller 44 may be an economizer controller configured to use one or more control algorithms (e.g., state-based algorithms, extremum seeking control algorithms, PID control algorithms, model predictive control algorithms, etc.) to control actuators 54-58. Actuators 54-58 may receive control signals from AHU controller 44 and may provide feedback signals to AHU controller 44. Feedback signals may include, for example, an indication of a current actuator position, an amount of torque or force exerted by the actuator, diagnostic information (e.g., results of diagnostic tests performed by actuators 54-58), status information, commissioning information, configuration settings, calibration data, and/or other types of information or data that may be collected, stored, or used by actuators 54-58. Still referring to FIG. 2, AHU 36 is shown to include a cooling coil 68, a heating coil 70, and a fan 66. In some embodiments, cooling coil 68, heating coil 70, and fan 66 are positioned within supply air duct 38. Fan 66 may be configured to force supply air 86 through cooling coil 68 and/or heating coil 70. AHU controller 44 may communicate with fan 66 via communications link 78 to control a flow rate of supply air 86. Cooling coil 68 may receive a chilled fluid from chiller 22 via piping 32 and may return the chilled fluid to chiller 22 via piping 34. Valve 92 may be positioned along piping 32 or piping 34 to control an amount of the chilled fluid provided to cooling coil 68. Heating coil 70 may receive a heated fluid from boiler 24 via piping 32 and may return the heated fluid to boiler 24 via piping 34. Valve 94 may be positioned along piping 32 or piping 34 to control an amount of the heated fluid provided to heating coil 70. Each of valves 92-94 may be controlled by an actuator. As shown in FIG. 2, valve 92 may be controlled by actuator 88 and valve 94 may be controlled by actuator 90. Actuators 88-90 may communicate with AHU controller 44 via communications links 96-98. Actuators 88-90 may receive control signals from AHU controller 44 and may provide feedback signals to controller 44. In some embodiments, AHU controller 44 receives a measurement of the supply air temperature from a temperature sensor 72 positioned in supply air duct 38 (e.g., downstream of cooling coil 68 and heating coil 70). AHU controller 44 may operate actuators 88-90 to modulate an amount of heating or cooling provided to supply air 86 to achieve a setpoint temperature for supply air 86 or to maintain the temperature of supply air 86 within a setpoint temperature range. In some embodiments, two or more of actuators 54-58 and/or actuators 88-90 may be arranged in a tandem configuration. For example, one actuator may be arranged as a master actuator (e.g., directly connected with AHU controller 44) and other actuators may be arranged as slave actuators (e.g., connected to a feedback data connection of the master actuator). Such a tandem arrangement is described in greater detail with reference to FIG. 3. Advantageously, each of actuators 54-58 and 88-90 may be configured to automatically determine whether it is arranged as a master actuator, a slave actuator, or not linked to any other actuators. Each of actuators 54-58 and 88-90 may be configured to automatically set its own operating mode (e.g., master, slave, non-linked, etc.) based on the determined arrangement. Still referring to FIG. 2, HVAC system 20 is shown to include a supervisory controller 42 and a client device 46. Supervisory controller 42 may include one or more computer systems (e.g., servers, BAS controllers, etc.) that serve as enterprise level controllers, application or data servers, head nodes, master controllers, or field controllers for HVAC system 20. Supervisory controller 42 may communicate with multiple downstream building systems or subsystems (e.g., an HVAC system, a security system, etc.) via a communications link 50 according to like or disparate protocols (e.g., LON, BACnet, etc.). In some embodiments, AHU controller 44 receives information (e.g., commands, setpoints, operating boundaries, etc.) from supervisory controller 42. For example, supervisory controller 42 may provide AHU controller 44 with a high fan speed limit and a low fan speed limit. A low limit may avoid frequent component and power taxing fan start-ups while a high limit may avoid operation near the mechanical or thermal limits of the fan system. In various embodiments, AHU controller 44 and supervisory controller 42 may be separate (as shown in FIG. 2) or integrated. In an integrated implementation, AHU controller 44 may be a software module configured for execution by a processor of supervisory controller 42. Client device 46 may include one or more human-machine interfaces or client interfaces (e.g., graphical user interfaces, reporting interfaces, text-based computer interfaces, client-facing web services, web servers that provide pages to web clients, etc.) for controlling, viewing, or otherwise interacting with HVAC system 20, its subsystems, and/or devices. Client device 46 may be a computer workstation, a client terminal, a remote or local interface, or any other type of user interface device. Client device 46 may be a stationary terminal or a mobile device. For example, client device 46 may be a desktop computer, a computer server with a user interface, a laptop computer, a tablet, a smartphone, a PDA, or any other type of mobile or non-mobile device. Automated Master-Slave Determination and Operating Mode Selection Referring now to FIG. 3, a block diagram illustrating a portion of HVAC system 20 is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. HVAC system 20 is shown to include a controller 100 and several actuators 102, 104, and 106 in a tandem arrangement. Controller 100 may be an AHU controller (e.g., AHU controller 44), an economizer controller, a supervisory controller (e.g., supervisory controller 42), a zone controller, a field controller, an enterprise level controller, a motor controller, an equipment-level controller (e.g., an actuator controller) or any other type of controller that can be used in HVAC system 20. Controller 100 is shown to include an output data connection 120 and an input data connection 122. Controller 100 may provide a control signal for actuators 102-106 via output data connection 120. In some embodiments, the control signal provided via output data connection 120 is a voltage signal. Controller 100 may modulate the voltage signal within a voltage range (e.g., 0-10 VDC) to set a rotational position for actuators 102-106. For example, a voltage of 0.0 VDC may correspond to 0 degrees of rotation and a voltage of 10.0 VDC may correspond to 90 degrees of rotation. The control signal may be communicated to actuators 102-106 via a communications bus 124 connected to output data connection 120. Actuators 102-106 may provide controller 100 with a feedback signal indicating the current rotational position of actuators 102-106. The feedback signal may be a voltage signal similar to the control signal output by controller 100 (e.g., 0-10 VDC) and may be communicated to controller 100 via communications bus 126. Controller 100 may receive the feedback signal at input data connection 122. In some embodiments, the feedback signal includes an amount of torque or force exerted by actuators 102-106, diagnostic information (e.g., results of diagnostic tests performed by actuators 54-58), status information, commissioning information, configuration settings, calibration data, and/or other types of information or data that may be collected, stored, or used by actuators 102-106. Actuators 102-106 may be any actuators of HVAC system 20. For example, actuators 102-106 may be damper actuators (e.g., actuators 54-58), valve actuators (e.g., actuators 88-90), fan actuators, pump actuators, or any other type of actuators that can be used in HVAC system 20. In various embodiments, actuators 102-106 may be linear proportional actuators (i.e., the rotational position of actuators 102-106 is proportional to the voltage provided by controller 100) or non-linear actuators (i.e., the rotational position of actuators 102-106 varies disproportionately with the voltage provided by controller 100). In some embodiments, actuators 102-106 are identical or substantially identical (e.g., the same manufacturer, the same model, the same internal components, etc.). For example, each of actuators 102-106 is shown to include an input data connection (i.e., input data connections 108, 110, and 112) and a feedback data connection (i.e., feedback data connections 114, 116, and 118). Actuators 102-106 may have the same or similar internal processing components (e.g., a processing circuit having a processor, memory, and memory modules). Each of actuators 102-106 may be capable of operating in multiple different operating modes. For example, each of actuators 102-106 may be capable of operating as a master actuator, as a slave actuator, or in a normal (e.g., non-linked) operating mode. Advantageously, each of actuators 102-106 may be configured to automatically identify itself as a master actuator, a slave actuator, or a non-linked actuator and may set its own operating mode based on the manner in which it is interconnected with the other actuators. Still referring to FIG. 3, actuators 102-106 are shown in a tandem arrangement, according to an exemplary embodiment. In the exemplary tandem arrangement, input data connection 108 of actuator 102 is connected (e.g., via communications bus 124) to output data connection 120 of controller 100. Feedback data connection 114 of actuator 102 may be connected to input data connection 110 of actuator 104 via communications bus 128. Communications bus 128 may be a wired or wireless communications link and may use any of a variety of disparate communications protocols (e.g., BACnet, LON, WiFi, Bluetooth, NFC, TCP/IP, etc.). Actuator 104 may be arranged in parallel with actuator 106. For example, feedback data connection 114 of actuator 102 may be connected with both input data connection 110 of actuator 104 and input data connection 112 of actuator 106 via communications bus 128. As shown in FIG. 3, actuator 102 is arranged as a master actuator and actuators 104-106 are arranged as slave actuators. A master actuator may be defined as an actuator having an input data connection that is connected to the output data connection of a controller. The feedback data connection of a master actuator may be connected with the input data connections of one or more slave actuators. A slave actuator may be defined as an actuator having an input data connection that is connected to the feedback data connection of a master actuator. The feedback data connection of a slave actuator may be connected to the input data connection of the controller or may not be connected with anything. Referring now to FIG. 4, a block diagram illustrating actuators 102 and 104 in greater detail is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 4 illustrates another tandem configuration in which actuator 102 is arranged as a master actuator and actuator 104 is arranged as a slave actuator. In FIG. 4, output data connection 120 of controller 100 is connected with input data connection 108 of actuator 102 via communications bus 124. Feedback data connection 114 of actuator 102 may be connected with input data connection 110 of actuator 104 via a bidirectional communications link 228. Bidirectional communications link 228 may be implemented as a communications bus (e.g., communications bus 128), a wired communications interface, or a wireless communications interface. Bidirectional communications link 228 and may utilize any of a variety of disparate communications protocols (e.g., BACnet, LON, TCP/IP, Bluetooth, NFC, WiFi, etc.). Feedback data connection 116 of actuator 104 may be connected with input data connection 122 of controller 100 via communications bus 126. Actuators 102 and 104 may be identical or substantially identical and may include the same or similar internal processing components. For example, each of actuators 102-104 is shown to include a processing circuit 134 including a processor 136 and memory 138. Processor 136 may be a general purpose or specific purpose processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), a group of processing components, or other suitable processing components. Processor 136 is configured to execute computer code or instructions stored in memory 138 or received from other computer readable media (e.g., CDROM, network storage, a remote server, etc.). The term “corresponding actuator” is used throughout this description to specify a particular actuator with respect to a given component. The corresponding actuator for any given component is the actuator that includes the component. For example, the corresponding actuator for all of the components of actuator 102 is actuator 102, whereas the corresponding actuator for all of the components of actuator 104 is actuator 104. The same reference numbers are used for many of the components of each actuator to indicate that each actuator may be identical or substantially identical. Advantageously, each processing circuit 134 may be configured to automatically determine whether the corresponding actuator is arranged as a master actuator, a slave actuator, or in a non-linked arrangement notwithstanding the identical or substantially identical components of each actuator. Processing circuit 134 may select an operating mode for the corresponding actuator based on a result of the determination. Memory 138 may include one or more devices (e.g., memory units, memory devices, storage devices, etc.) for storing data and/or computer code for completing and/or facilitating the various processes described in the present disclosure. Memory 138 may include random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), hard drive storage, temporary storage, non-volatile memory, flash memory, optical memory, or any other suitable memory for storing software objects and/or computer instructions. Memory 138 may include database components, object code components, script components, or any other type of information structure for supporting the various activities and information structures described in the present disclosure. Memory 138 may be communicably connected to processor 136 via processing circuit 134 and may include computer code for executing (e.g., by processor 136) one or more processes described herein. Still referring to FIG. 4, memory 138 is shown to include a feedback generator 140. Each feedback generator 140 may be configured to generate a master-slave detection signal (e.g., a series of digital pulses, an analog signal, etc.) and to output the master-slave detection signal via the feedback data connection of the corresponding actuator (e.g., feedback data connection 114 or 116). In some embodiments, feedback generator 140 generates and outputs the master-slave detection signal when the corresponding actuator first receives power. In some embodiments, feedback generator 140 generates and outputs the master-slave detection signal when the corresponding actuator enters a calibration mode. An actuator may enter the calibration mode, for example, in response to a signal from another component of HVAC system 20 (e.g., a controller, a client device, another actuator, etc.) and/or in response to a user-operable switch of the actuator being moved into a calibration position. The master-slave detection signal output at feedback data connection 114 of actuator 102 may be received at input data connection 110 of actuator 104 since feedback data connection 114 is connected with input data connection 110 via bidirectional communications link 228. However, the master-slave detection signal output at feedback data connection 116 may not be received at input data connection 108 since no direct connection exists between feedback data connection 116 and input data connection 108. This distinction may be used to identify actuator 102 as a master actuator and to identify actuator 104 as a slave actuator, as described in greater detail below. Still referring to FIG. 4, memory 138 is shown to include a master signal detector 142. Master signal detector 142 may be configured to monitor the input data connection of the corresponding actuator for the master-slave detection signal. In the arrangement shown in FIG. 4, the master signal detector 142 of actuator 104 may detect the master-slave detection signal because input data connection 110 is connected with the feedback data connection of another actuator (i.e., feedback data connection 114). However, the master signal detector 142 of actuator 102 may not detect the master-slave detection signal because input data connection 108 is not directly connected with the feedback data connection of any other actuator. In response to detecting the master-slave detection signal, master signal detector 142 may generate a notification for operating mode selector 144 and/or reply signal generator 146. The notification may be an analog or digital signal indicating that the master-slave detection signal has been detected at the input data connection of the corresponding actuator. Operating mode selector 144 may be configured to select an operating mode for the corresponding actuator. If operating mode selector 144 receives an input indicating that the master-slave detection signal has been detected at the input data connection of the corresponding actuator, operating mode selector 144 may determine that the actuator is arranged in a slave configuration and may select a slave operating mode for the actuator. Reply signal generator 146 may be configured to generate and output a reply signal. The reply signal may be a series of digital pulses, an analog signal, or any other type of data signal. In some embodiments, reply signal generator 146 generates and outputs the reply signal in response to a determination (e.g., by operating mode selector 144) that the actuator is arranged in a slave configuration and/or in response to a selection of the slave operating mode. In some embodiments, reply signal generator 146 generates and outputs the reply signal in response to receiving an input (e.g., from master signal detector 142) indicating that the master-slave detection signal has been detected at the input data connection of the corresponding actuator. In the arrangement shown in FIG. 4, the reply signal generator 146 of actuator 104 may generate and output a reply signal because the master-slave detection signal is received and detected at input data connection 110. However, the reply signal generator 146 of actuator 102 may not generate or output a reply signal because the master-slave detection signal is not received or detected at input data connection 108. Reply signal generator 146 may output the reply signal via the input data connection of the corresponding actuator. The reply signal may be communicated from the input data connection back to the feedback data connection of the actuator from which the master-slave detection signal was received. For example, the reply signal generated by the reply signal generator 146 of actuator 104 may be output via data connection 110 and communicated back to feedback data connection 114 via bidirectional communications link 228. Actuators 102-104 may engage in bidirectional data communications via bidirectional communications link 228. For example, actuator 102 may send the master-slave detection signal via bidirectional communications link 228 and may receive the reply signal from actuator 104 via bidirectional communications link 228. Still referring to FIG. 4, memory 138 is shown to include a reply signal detector 148. Reply signal detector 148 may be configured to monitor the feedback data connection of the corresponding actuator for the reply signal. In the arrangement shown in FIG. 4, the reply signal detector 148 of actuator 102 may detect the reply signal that is generated by the reply signal generator in actuator 104 and communicated back to feedback data connection 114 of actuator 102. However, the reply signal detector 148 of actuator 104 may not detect the reply signal because feedback data connection 116 does not receive the reply signal. In response to detecting the reply signal, reply signal detector 148 may generate a notification for operating mode selector 144. The notification may be an analog or digital signal indicating that the reply signal has been received at the feedback data connection of the corresponding actuator. If operating mode selector 144 receives an input indicating that the reply signal has been received at the feedback data connection of the corresponding actuator, operating mode selector 144 may determine that the actuator is arranged in a master configuration and may select a master operating mode for the actuator. In some embodiments, if an actuator does not detect the master-slave detection signal at its input data connection and does not detect the reply signal at its feedback data connection, operating mode selector 144 may determine that the actuator is arranged in neither the master configuration nor the slave configuration. For example, the actuator may not be connected with any other actuators. In response to a determination that the actuator is arranged in neither the master configuration nor the slave configuration, operating mode selector 144 may select a normal (e.g., non-linked) operating mode. Actuators 102-104 may behave differently based on whether operating mode selector 144 selects the master operating mode, the slave operating mode, or the normal operating mode. For example, in the master operating mode, an actuator may accept an input signal of any value within an input signal range (e.g., 0-10 VDC) and may produce a feedback signal at one or more discrete values (e.g., 0 VDC, 5 VDC, 10 VDC, etc.). In the slave operating mode, an actuator may accept an input signal at one or more discrete values (e.g., 0 VDC, 5 VDC, 10 VDC, etc.) and may produce a feedback signal of any value within a feedback signal range (e.g., 0-10 VDC). In the normal operating mode, an actuator may accept an input signal of any value within an input signal range (e.g., 0-10 VDC) and may produce a feedback signal of any value within a feedback signal range (e.g., 0-10 VDC). Still referring to FIG. 4, memory 138 is shown to include a proportional input module 154. Proportional input module 154 may be configured to translate a control signal received from controller 100 into an amount of rotation, linear motion, force, torque, or other physical output provided by transducer 156. For example, proportional input module 154 may translate an input voltage of 0.0 VDC to 0 degrees of rotation and may translate an input voltage of 10.0 VDC to 90 degrees of rotation. The output rotation may be provided to transducer 156 directly from proportional input module 154 or indirectly (e.g., via feedback generator 140). Feedback generator 140 may include one or more filters (e.g., low pass filters), gain stages, and/or buffers applied to the output rotation before the output rotation is communicated as a feedback signal to controller 100. Controller 100 may use the feedback signal to determine the current rotational position of a motor, valve, or damper controlled by the actuator. In some embodiments, actuators 102-106 include a mode indicator 150. Mode indicator 150 may be a light, a speaker, an electronic display, or other component configured to indicate the operating mode selected by operating mode selector 144. For example, mode indicator 150 may be a LED and may be illuminated to indicate that the actuator is operating in the master operating mode. The LED may flash, blink, or illuminate a different color to indicate that the actuator is operating in the slave operating mode. The LED may turn off or illuminate yet a different color to indicate that the actuator is operating in the normal operating mode. Referring now to FIGS. 5-6, a pair of block diagrams illustrating two processes 500 and 600 are shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Processes 500 and 600 may be performed by one or more actuators of a HVAC system to automatically identify an arrangement of the actuators and to automatically select an select an operating mode. In both processes 500 and 600, a bidirectional communications link 228 is formed between a master actuator 102 and a slave actuator 104. Bidirectional communications link 228 connects the feedback data connection 114 of master actuator 102 with the input data connection 110 of slave actuator 104. Bidirectional communications link 228 may be used to exchange various types of data between actuators 102 and 104. For example, bidirectional communications link 228 may be used to communicate a master-slave detection signal, a reply signal, diagnostic information, status information, configuration settings, calibration data, or other types of information or data that may be collected, stored, or used by actuators 102-104. Referring specifically to FIG. 5, process 500 is shown to include master actuator 102 sending a detection signal to slave actuator 104 via bidirectional communications link 228 (step 502). Actuators 102 and 104 may be identical or substantially identical and may be distinguished only by the manner in which actuators 102-104 are interconnected. Either actuator may be capable of functioning as a master actuator or a slave actuator. At the time the detection signal is communicated, it may be unknown whether each of actuators 102-104 is arranged as a master actuator or a slave actuator. Master actuator 102 may generate the detection signal according to stored criteria and may output the detection signal via feedback data connection 114. The detection signal may be a series of digital pulses, an analog signal, or any other type of data signal. Slave actuator 104 may monitor input data connection 110 for the detection signal. Slave actuator 104 may identify the detection signal by comparing the signals received at input data connection 110 with a stored representation of the detection signal. In response to receiving the detection signal at input data connection 110, slave actuator 104 may set its operating mode to a slave operating mode (step 504) and may send a reply signal back to master actuator 102 via bidirectional communications link 228 (step 506). Slave actuator 104 may generate the reply signal according to stored criteria and may output the reply signal via input data connection 110. The reply signal may be a series of digital pulses, an analog signal, or any other type of data signal. Master actuator 102 may monitor feedback data connection 114 for the reply signal. Master actuator 102 may identify the reply signal by comparing the signals received at feedback data connection 114 with a stored representation of the reply signal. In response to receiving the reply signal at feedback data connection 114, master actuator 102 may set its operating mode to a master operating mode (step 508). In process 500, master actuator 102 initiates the master-slave identification process by sending the detection signal to slave actuator 104. Slave actuator 104 then responds with the reply signal. In other embodiments, slave actuator 104 may initiate the process and master actuator 102 may respond with the reply signal. Such an alternative process is illustrated in FIG. 6. Referring specifically to FIG. 6, process 600 is shown to include slave actuator 104 sending a detection signal to master actuator 102 via bidirectional communications link 228 (step 602). Slave actuator 104 may generate the detection signal according to stored criteria and may output the detection signal via input data connection 110. Master actuator 102 may monitor feedback data connection 114 for the detection signal. Master actuator 102 may identify the detection signal by comparing the signals received at feedback data connection 114 with a stored representation of the detection signal. In response to receiving the detection signal at feedback data connection 114, master actuator 102 may set its operating mode to a master operating mode (step 604) and may send a reply signal back to slave actuator 104 via bidirectional communications link 228 (step 606). Master actuator 102 may generate the reply signal according to stored criteria and may output the reply signal via feedback data connection 114. Slave actuator 104 may monitor input data connection 110 for the reply signal. Slave actuator 104 may identify the reply signal by comparing the signals received at input data connection 110 with a stored representation of the reply signal. In response to receiving the reply signal at input data connection 110, slave actuator 104 may set its operating mode to a slave operating mode (step 608). Referring now to FIG. 7A, a block diagram illustrating master actuator 102 and slave actuator 104 in greater detail is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Actuators 102 and 104 may be identical or substantially identical and may include the same or similar components. For example, each of actuators 102 and 104 is shown to include an input connection 736, a feedback connection 734, a slave handshake circuit 702, a proportional input and master detection circuit 710, a microcontroller 716, a slave detection circuit 718, and a feedback output circuit 724. The input connection 736 of master actuator 102 may be connected with output data connection 120 of controller 100. Feedback connection 734 of master actuator 102 may be connected via a bidirectional communications link 732 with input connection 736 of slave actuator 104. Feedback connection 734 of slave actuator 104 may be connected with input connection 122 of controller 100. Proportional input and master detection circuit 710 may be configured to perform the functions of proportional input module 154 and master signal detector 142, as described with reference to FIG. 4. For example, proportional input and master detection circuit 710 is shown to include a division module 712, a low pass filter 714, and a voltage comparator 708. Division module 712 may apply a division factor to the input signal received at input connection 736. Division module 712 may provide the divided signal to low pass filter 714. Low pass filter 714 may filter the divided signal from division module 712 and may provide the filtered signal as an analog input 742 to voltage comparator 708 and microcontroller 716. Voltage comparator 708 may be configured to monitor the output of low pass filter 714 for the master detection signal. The master detection signal may be received from a master actuator if input connection 736 is connected with the feedback connection of another actuator. Voltage comparator 708 may provide an analog or digital input 740 to microcontroller 716 indicating whether the master detection signal is received at input connection 736. Microcontroller 716 may be configured to generate the master detection signal and to provide the master detection signal as an output via feedback connection 734. In some embodiments, microcontroller 716 generates the master detection signal according to a signal protocol. In some embodiments, the master detection signal is a series of voltage pulses. Microcontroller 716 may output the master detection signal via PWM/DO output 744. PWM/DO output 744 may communicate the master detection signal to feedback connection 734 via feedback output circuit 724. Feedback output circuit 724 is shown to include a low pass filter 726, a gain stage 728, and a buffer stage 730. Low pass filter 726 may filter the output signal from PWM/DO output 744 of microcontroller 716. Gain stage 728 may multiply the filtered signal from low pass filter 726 by a multiplication factor and provide the multiplied signal to buffer stage 730. Buffer stage 730 may output the signal from gain stage 728 as a feedback signal via feedback connection 734. Still referring to FIG. 7A, microcontroller 716 may be configured to receive an analog or digital input 740 indicating whether the master detection signal has been received at input connection 736. If input 740 indicates that the master detection signal has been received, microcontroller 716 may generate a reply signal and provide the reply signal as an analog or digital output 746 to input connection 736. In other embodiments, microcontroller 716 causes slave handshake circuit 702 to generate the reply signal. For example, microcontroller 716 may provide a command to slave acknowledge circuit 704 via output 746 and slave acknowledge circuit 704 may generate the reply signal in response to receiving the command from microcontroller 716. If input 740 indicates that the master detection signal has been received, microcontroller 716 may instruct slave acknowledge circuit 704 to generate the reply signal. The reply signal may be communicated through bidirectional communications link 732 to the other controller (i.e., back to the master controller). Microcontroller 716 may be configured to set an operating mode for the corresponding actuator. For example, if digital input 740 indicates that the master detection signal has been received, microcontroller 716 may set the corresponding actuator to operate in the slave operating mode. Microcontroller 716 may be configured to receive analog input 748 and to determine whether analog input 748 matches the reply signal. If analog input 748 matches the reply signal, microcontroller 716 may set the corresponding actuator to operate in the master operating mode. If microcontroller 716 does not observe either the master detection signal or the reply signal as an input, microcontroller 716 may set the corresponding actuator to operate in a normal (i.e., non-linked) operating mode. Slave detection circuit 718 may be configured to perform the functions of reply signal detector 148, as described with reference to FIG. 4. For example, slave detection circuit 718 may monitor feedback connection 734 for the reply signal received via the bidirectional communications link 732. Slave detection circuit 718 is shown to include a voltage comparator 722 and a low pass filter 720. Voltage comparator 722 may determine whether the signal received via bidirectional communications link 732 matches the reply signal and may provide a reply detection signal to low pass filter 720 when the reply signal is detected. Low pass filter 720 may filter the reply detection signal from voltage comparator 722 and may provide the filtered signal as an analog input 748 to microcontroller 716. Referring now to FIG. 7B, a circuit diagram illustrating selected portions of master actuator 102 and slave actuator 104 in greater detail is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Master actuator 102 is shown to include a feedback output circuit 724. Feedback output circuit 724 may include a voltage source V1 configured to generate a voltage signal Vsignal at wire 752. Vsignal may be a series of digital pulses within a predetermined voltage range (e.g., 0-10 VDC). In some embodiments, Vsignal is a pulse width modulated signal. Feedback output circuit 724 may transform Vsignal into a feedback voltage signal Vfb and output the feedback voltage signal Vfb at feedback connection 734. Feedback connection 734 of master actuator 102 may be connected via bidirectional communications link 732 with input connection 736 of slave actuator 104. Slave actuator 104 may receive the feedback voltage signal Vfb at input connection 736. Slave actuator 104 may pass the feedback voltage signal Vfb through a series of resistors (e.g., R7, R4, R1, and R2) and an amplifier Slave actuator 104 is shown to include a master detection circuit 710. Master detection circuit 710 may compare the voltage signal Vfb (or a voltage signal based on Vfb) with a reference voltage Vref. In some embodiments, Vref is a constant voltage signal. Master detection circuit 710 may output a master detection signal Vmaster_detect which may be communicated to microcontroller 716 of slave actuator 104. The master detection signal Vmaster_detect may be a series of digital pulses. Microcontroller 716 may analyze the master detection signal Vmaster_detect to determine whether master detection signal Vmaster_detect matches a stored master detection signal. In response to a determination that the master detection signal Vmaster_detect matches the stored master detection signal, microcontroller 716 may set the operating mode of slave actuator 104 to a slave operating mode. Slave actuator 104 is shown to include a reply signal circuit 750. Reply signal circuit 750 may receive a reply signal Vslv_ack from microcontroller 716 in response to microcontroller 716 determining that the master detection signal received at master detection circuit 710 matches the stored master detection signal. Reply signal circuit 750 may transmit the reply signal Vslv_ack to input connection 736. The reply signal Vslv_ack may be communicated to master actuator 102 across bidirectional communications link 732. Master actuator 102 may receive the reply signal Vslv_ack at feedback connection 734. Master actuator 102 is shown to include a slave detection circuit 718. Slave detection circuit may receive the reply signal Vslv_ack from feedback connection 734. Slave detection circuit may generate a slave detection signal Vslv_detect, which may be communicated to microcontroller 716 of master actuator 102. Microcontroller 716 may analyze the slave detection signal Vslv_detect to determine whether the slave detection signal matches a stored slave detection signal. In response to a determination that the slave detection signal Vslv_detect matches the stored slave detection signal, microcontroller 716 may set the operating mode of master actuator 102 to a master operating mode. Referring now to FIG. 8, a flowchart of a process 800 for automatically selecting an operating mode for a HVAC actuator is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Process 800 may be performed by any actuator in a HVAC system (e.g., damper actuators 54-58, valve actuators 88-90, fan actuators, pump actuators, etc.). In some embodiments, process 800 is performed by a processing circuit of a HVAC actuator. For example, process 800 may be performed by processing circuit 134 or by microcontroller 716 of one or more of actuators 102-106, as described with reference to FIGS. 4-7. Process 800 is shown to include transmitting a first data signal via a bidirectional communications link between a first actuator and a second actuator (step 802). The first data signal may be a master-slave detection signal or a reply signal. If the first data signal is a master-slave detection signal, the first data signal may be transmitted upon the actuator receiving power. If the first data signal is a reply signal, the first data signal may be transmitted in response to receiving the master-slave detection signal from another actuator via a bidirectional communications link. Process 800 is shown to include monitoring the bidirectional communications link for a second data signal (step 804). The second data signal may be a reply signal or a master-slave detection signal. If the first data signal is a master-slave detection signal, the second data signal may be the reply signal. If the first data signal is a reply signal, the second data signal may be the master-slave detection signal. In various embodiments, the order of steps 802 and steps 804 may be reversed. For example, if the first data signal is the master-slave detection signal and the second data signal is the reply signal, step 802 may be performed before step 804. However, if the first data signal is the reply signal and the second data signal is the master-slave detection signal, step 802 may be performed before after 804. Process 800 is shown to include selecting an operating mode for at least one of the first actuator and the second actuator based on whether the second data signal is received via the bidirectional communications link (step 806). If the second data signal is the master-slave detection signal, step 806 may include selecting the slave operating mode for the actuator. If the second data signal is the reply signal, step 806 may include selecting the master operating mode for the actuator. If neither the master-slave detection signal nor the reply signal are received via the bi-directional communications link, step 806 may include selecting the non-linked (e.g., normal) operating mode for the actuator. Referring now to FIG. 9, a flowchart of a process 900 for automatically selecting an operating mode for a HVAC actuator is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Process 900 may be performed by any actuator in a HVAC system (e.g., damper actuators 54-58, valve actuators 88-90, fan actuators, pump actuators, etc.). In some embodiments, process 900 is performed by a processing circuit of a HVAC actuator. For example, process 900 may be performed by processing circuit 134 or by microcontroller 716 of one of actuators 102-106, as described with reference to FIGS. 3-7. Process 900 is shown to include transmitting a master-slave detection signal via a feedback data connection of an actuator (step 902). If the actuator is arranged as a master actuator, the feedback data connection may be connected with an input data connection of another actuator. The connection between actuators may be a bidirectional communications link. However, if the actuator is arranged as a slave actuator or in a non-linked arrangement, the feedback data connection may not be connected with the input data connection of another actuator. Process 900 is shown to include monitoring an input data connection of the actuator for the master-slave detection signal (step 904). If the actuator is arranged as a slave actuator, the input data connection may be connected with a feedback data connection of another actuator. If the other actuator also transmits the master-slave detection signal via its feedback data connection, the master-slave detection signal will be received at the input data connection in step 904. However, if the actuator is arranged as a master actuator or in a non-linked arrangement, the input data connection may not be connected with the feedback connection of another actuator and the master-slave detection signal will not be received in step 904. Process 900 is shown to include transmitting a reply signal via the input data connection in response to detecting the master-slave detection signal at the input data connection (step 906). Step 906 is an optional step that may be performed if the master-slave detection signal is detected in step 904. The master-slave detection signal may be detected in step 904 if the actuator is arranged as a slave actuator. If the actuator is not arranged as a slave actuator, the master-slave detection signal may not be received in step 904 and step 906 may not be performed. Process 900 is shown to include monitoring the feedback data connection for the reply signal (step 908). If the actuator is arranged as a master actuator, the feedback data connection may be connected with an input data connection of another actuator. If the other actuator also performs process 900, the reply signal may be received in step 908. However, if the actuator is arranged as a slave actuator or in a non-linked arrangement, the feedback data connection may not be connected with the input data connection of another actuator and the reply signal will not be received in step 908. Process 900 is shown to include selecting an operating mode for the actuator based on whether the master-slave detection signal or the reply signal is detected by the monitoring (step 910). If the monitoring in step 904 detects the master-slave detection signal, step 910 may include setting the operating mode for the actuator to a slave operating mode. If the monitoring in step 908 detects the reply signal, step 910 may include setting the operating mode for the actuator to a master operating mode. If neither of the monitoring steps detect the master-slave detection signal or the reply signal, step 910 may include setting the operating mode for the actuator to a non-linked (e.g., normal) operating mode. Referring now to FIG. 10, a flowchart of a process 1000 for automatically selecting an operating mode for a HVAC actuator is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Process 1000 may be performed by any actuator in a HVAC system (e.g., damper actuators 54-58, valve actuators 88-90, fan actuators, pump actuators, etc.). In some embodiments, process 1000 is performed by a processing circuit of a HVAC actuator. For example, process 1000 may be performed by processing circuit 134 or by microcontroller 716 of one of actuators 102-106, as described with reference to FIGS. 3-7. Process 1000 is shown to include transmitting a master signal via a feedback data connection of an actuator (step 1002). If the actuator is arranged as a master actuator, the feedback data connection may be connected with an input data connection of another actuator. The connection between actuators may be a bidirectional communications link. However, if the actuator is arranged as a slave actuator or in a non-linked arrangement, the feedback data connection may not be connected with the input data connection of another actuator. Process 1000 is shown to include monitoring an input data connection of the actuator for the master signal (step 1004). If the actuator is arranged as a slave actuator, the input data connection may be connected with a feedback data connection of another actuator. If the other actuator also transmits the master signal via its feedback data connection, the master signal will be received at the input data connection in step 1004. However, if the actuator is arranged as a master actuator or in a non-linked arrangement, the input data connection may not be connected with the feedback connection of another actuator and the master signal will not be received in step 1004. Process 1000 is shown to include determining whether the master signal is detected at the input data connection (step 1006). If the master signal is detected at the input data connection of the actuator in step 1004 (i.e., the result of step 1006 is “yes”), process 1000 may proceed to transmitting a reply signal via the input data connection (step 1008) and selecting a slave operating mode for the actuator (step 1010). If the master signal is not detected at the input data connection of the actuator in step 1004 (i.e., the result of step 1006 is “no”), process 1000 may proceed to monitoring the feedback data connection for the reply signal (step 1012). If the actuator is arranged as a master actuator, the feedback data connection may be connected with an input data connection of another actuator. If the other actuator also performs process 1000, the reply signal may be received in step 1012. However, if the actuator is arranged as a slave actuator or in a non-linked arrangement, the feedback data connection may not be connected with the input data connection of another actuator and the reply signal will not be received in step 1012. Process 1000 is shown to include determining whether the reply signal is detected at the feedback data connection (step 1014). If the reply signal is detected at the feedback data connection of the actuator in step 1012 (i.e., the result of step 1014 is “yes”), process 1000 may proceed to selecting a master operating mode for the actuator (step 1016). If the reply signal is not detected at the feedback data connection of the actuator in step 1012 (i.e., the result of step 1014 is “no”), process 1000 may proceed to selecting a non-linked operating mode for the actuator (step 1018). Wireless Configuration and Communication Referring now to FIG. 11, a block diagram of an actuator 1100 is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. Actuator 1100 may be configured to wirelessly communicate with an external device (e.g., mobile device 1140, a controller, another actuator, etc.) to send and receive various types of data related to the operation of actuator 1100 (e.g., firmware data, control logic, model identification parameters, configuration parameters, diagnostic data, etc.). Advantageously, actuator 1100 may communicate with the external device without requiring any wired power or data connections to actuator 1100. This allows actuator 1100 to send and receive data in the event that physical access to actuator 1100 is limited. For example, actuator 1100 may be installed in a location that is not readily accessible by a user or service technician. In some embodiments, actuator 1100 can communicate with external devices while actuator 1100 is still in its packaging at a manufacturer facility or a distributor location. Actuator 1100 can be constructed and packaged as a generic actuator and subsequently configured with suitable firmware, software, configuration parameters, or other data specific to a particular actuator model and/or implementation. Operational data such as end of line test data or other diagnostic data can be extracted from actuator 1100 without requiring a physical data connection. Still referring to FIG. 11, actuator 1100 is shown to include a transducer 1102, a processing circuit 1104, a power circuit 1110, and a wireless transceiver 1112. Transducer 1102 may be any apparatus capable of providing forces and/or motion in response to a control signal. For example, transducer 1102 may be any of a variety of mechanical transducers such as rotary motors, linear motors, hydraulic or pneumatic pistons/motors, piezoelectric elements, relays, comb drives, thermal bimorphs, or other similar devices to provide mechanical motion. Transducer 1102 may provide any combination of linear, curved, or rotary forces/motion. In some embodiments, transducer 1102 is connected with one or more mechanical components (e.g., gears, pulleys, cams, screws, levers, crankshafts, ratchets, etc.) capable of changing or affecting the motion provided by transducer 1102. In some embodiments, transducer 1102 may not produce significant motion in operation. For example, transducer 1102 may be operated to exert a force or torque to an external element (e.g., a holding force) without affecting significant linear or rotary motion. Processing circuit 1104 may be configured to operate transducer 1102. Processing circuit 1104 is shown to include a processor 1106 and memory 1108. Processor 1106 may be a general purpose or specific purpose processor, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), one or more field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), a group of processing components, or other suitable processing components. Processor 1106 may be configured to execute computer code or instructions stored in memory 1108 or received from other computer readable media (e.g., CDROM, network storage, a remote server, etc.). Memory 1108 may include one or more devices (e.g., memory units, memory devices, storage devices, etc.) for storing data and/or computer code for completing and/or facilitating the various processes described in the present disclosure. Memory 1108 may include random access memory (RAM), read-only memory (ROM), hard drive storage, temporary storage, non-volatile memory, flash memory, optical memory, or any other suitable memory for storing software objects and/or computer instructions. Memory 1108 may include database components, object code components, script components, or any other type of information structure for supporting the various activities and information structures described in the present disclosure. Memory 1108 may be communicably connected to processor 1106 via processing circuit 1104 and may include computer code for executing (e.g., by processor 1106) one or more processes described herein. Memory 1108 may store various types of data related to the operation of actuator 1100. For example, memory 1108 is shown to include firmware 1120, control logic 1122, and configuration parameters 1128. In some embodiments, control logic 1122 is a component of firmware 1120. Control logic 1122 may include one or more control programs that are used by processing circuit 1104 to operate transducer 1102. The control program may include logic for operating transducer 1102 based on variable configuration parameters (e.g., configuration parameters 1128) that are separate from the control program. Configuration parameters 1128 may include, for example, operational parameters such as actuation span (e.g., linear distance, degrees of rotation, etc.), offset, actuation speed, timing, or other parameters that configure actuator 1100 for a specific implementation. Memory 1108 is shown to include model identification parameters 1126. In some embodiments, processing circuit 1104 is capable of operating multiple different actuator models. Model identification parameters 1126 may identify a particular actuator model and/or define configuration settings for a specific actuator model. Processing circuit 1104 may use model identification parameters 1126 to operate transducer 1102 according to configuration settings and/or control logic specific to the actuator model identified by model identification parameters 1126. Memory 1108 is shown to include hyperlinks 1124. Hyperlinks 1124 may be links to a product information webpage, a product catalog, a product manual, an installation manual, an order form, or any other resource related to actuator 1100. In some embodiments, hyperlinks 1124 are specific to a particular actuator model defined by model identification parameters 1126. Hyperlinks 1124 may be communicated to a client device (e.g., mobile device 1140) via wireless transceiver 1112 and used by the client device to locate various resources associated with actuator 1100. Memory 1108 is shown to include a diagnostics module 1132, diagnostics results 1134, and log data 1136. Diagnostics module 1132 may be configured to perform a diagnostic test of actuator 1100. Diagnostic tests may include, for example, a span or range test, a force/torque test, a calibration test, a failure modes test, a timing/speed test, or any other type of diagnostic test that can be performed by actuator 1100. Results of the diagnostic tests may be stored in memory 1108 as diagnostics results 1134. Diagnostics results 1134 may be communicated to an external system or device (e.g., a system controller, a field controller, an economizer controller, a client device, a factory or laboratory diagnostics system, etc.) via wireless transceiver 1112. Log data 1136 may include any information related to the operation of actuator 1100. For example, log data 1136 may include actuator positions, control signal values, feedback signal values, an amount of force or torque exerted by actuator 1100, a measured temperature, or any other variable generated or used by actuator 1100. Log data 1136 may store information with time stamps indicating a time at which the stored values were used or observed by actuator 1100. Log data 1136 may be communicated to an external system or device to evaluate actuator performance and/or to perform external diagnostics. Memory 1108 is shown to include a master/slave detection module 1130. Master-slave detection module 1130 may include the functionality of feedback generator 140, master signal detector 142, reply signal generator 146, reply signal detector 148, and operating mode selector 144, as described with reference to FIG. 4. For example, master-slave detection module 1130 may be configured to use a master-slave detection signal communicated via wireless transceiver 1112 and/or wired communications interface 1114 to select an operating mode for actuator 1100. The operating modes may include a master operating mode, a slave operating mode, and a non-linked operating mode. Processing circuit 1104 may be configured to operate transducer 1102 in response to a control signal received wireless transceiver 1112 and/or wired communications interface 1114 according to the selected operating mode. Still referring to FIG. 11, actuator 1100 is shown to include a power circuit 1110. Power circuit 1110 may be configured to draw power from a wireless signal (e.g., an alternating magnetic or electric field) received via wireless transceiver 1112. For example, wireless transceiver 1112 may include an antenna coil that is exposed to a magnetic or electric field. The field may be produced by mobile device 1140 or another external device. In some embodiments, the magnetic or electric field is a NFC field (i.e., an alternating magnetic field with a frequency of approximately 13.56 MHz, compatible with near field communications (NFC) devices). The magnetic field may induce a voltage in power circuit 1110. In some embodiments, power circuit 1110 stores energy derived from the wireless signal using one or more capacitors. Advantageously, power circuit 1110 may be configured to power processing circuit 1104 and wireless transceiver 1112 using the power drawn from the wireless signal received at wireless transceiver 1112. This advantage allows actuator 1100 to engage in bidirectional communications with an external device regardless of whether actuator 1100 receives power from a wired power connection. For example, actuator 1100 can communicate with external devices while actuator 1100 is still in its packaging at a manufacturer facility or a distributor location. Actuator 1100 can be constructed and packaged as a generic actuator and subsequently configured with suitable firmware, software, configuration parameters, or other data specific to a particular actuator model and/or implementation. Still referring to FIG. 11, actuator 1100 is shown to include a wireless transceiver 1112. Wireless transceiver 1112 may be configured to facilitate bidirectional wireless data communications between processing circuit 1104 and an external device (e.g., mobile device 1140). Wireless transceiver may be used by processing circuit 1104 to transmit data stored in memory 1108 to the external device and/or to wirelessly receive data from the external device. In some embodiments, the external device includes a user interface 1142 that may be used to view the data communicated via wireless transceiver 1112. Data communicated via wireless transceiver 1112 may include firmware data 1120, control logic data 1122, hyperlinks 1124, model identification parameters 1126, configuration parameters 1128, master-slave detection logic or signals, diagnostics logic or results 1134, log data 1136, device identifiers (e.g., serial numbers, MAC addresses, etc.), or any other type of information used by actuator 1100 and/or stored in memory 1108. Processing circuit 1104 may retrieve data from memory 1108 and transmit the retrieved data to the external device via wireless transceiver 1112. Processing circuit 1104 may receive data from the external device via wireless transceiver 1112 and store the received data in memory 1108. Wireless transceiver 1112 may utilize any of a variety of wireless technologies and/or communications protocols for wireless data communications. For example, wireless transceiver 1112 may use near field communications (NFC), Bluetooth, Bluetooth low energy (BLE), WiFi, WiFi direct, radio frequency communication (e.g., RFID, radio waves, etc.), optical communication, electromagnetic signals, sound transmission, or any other wireless communications technology. Wireless transceiver 1112 may be configured to operate in a powered mode or a non-powered mode. In the powered mode, wireless transceiver 1112 may receive power from another energy source (e.g., a wired power connection, a battery, etc.). In the non-powered mode, wireless transceiver 1112 may draw power from an electromagnetic field, wave, or radiation using an antenna or receptor. Wireless transceiver 1112 may use any of a variety of wireless energy transfer technologies (e.g., electrodynamic induction, electrostatic induction, lasers, microwaves, etc.) to obtain or harvest energy wirelessly. Advantageously, wireless transceiver 1112 allows actuator 1100 to engage in bidirectional wireless data communications without requiring a wired power or data connection to an external device. Still referring to FIG. 11, actuator 1100 is shown to include a wired communications interface 1114. In some embodiments, actuator 1100 uses wired communications interface 1114 to communicate with a controller (e.g., controller 100, described with reference to FIGS. 2-6), another actuator, or to an external system or device. In other embodiments, actuator 1100 uses wireless transceiver 1112 for such communications. Wired communications interface 1114 is shown to include an input data connection 1116 and a feedback data connection 1118. If actuator 1100 is arranged as a master actuator, input data connection 1116 may be connected to the output of a controller and feedback data connection 1118 may be connected to the input connection of another actuator. If actuator 1100 is arranged as a slave actuator, input data connection 1116 may be connected to the feedback data connection of another actuator and feedback data connection 1118 may be connected to the input of the controller or may not be connected to anything. Wired communications interface 1114 may allow actuator 1100 to function as any of actuators 54-58, 88-90, or 102-106, as described with reference to FIGS. 2-6. Referring now to FIG. 12, a flowchart of a process for wirelessly configuring and communicating with an actuator in a HVAC system is shown, according to an exemplary embodiment. In some embodiments, process 1200 is performed by actuator 1100, as described with reference to FIG. 11. Process 1200 is shown to include drawing power from a wireless signal received at a wireless transceiver of an actuator (step 1202). Step 1202 may include drawing power from an electromagnetic field, wave, or radiation using an antenna or receptor. Step 1202 may include using any of a variety of wireless energy transfer technologies (e.g., electrodynamic induction, electrostatic induction, lasers, microwaves, etc.) to obtain or harvest energy wirelessly. Process 1200 is shown to include using the power drawn from the wireless signal to power a processing circuit of the actuator (step 1204). The power drawn from the wireless signal may be stored in one or more capacitors within the actuator and may be used to power the processing circuit and/or the wireless transceiver. Advantageously, this allows the actuator to engage in bidirectional wireless data communications without requiring a wired power or data connection to an external device. Process 1200 is shown to include transmitting data stored in a memory of the actuator to an external device via the wireless transceiver (step 1206) and receiving data from the external device via the wireless transceiver (step 1208). In some embodiments, process 1200 may include only one of steps 1206 and step 1208. For example, the actuator may transmit data stored in the memory of the actuator to the external device without receiving data from the external device. Alternatively, the actuator may receive data from the external device without transmitting data stored in the memory of the actuator. One or both of steps 1206 and 1208 may be performed in various implementations. Data communicated via the wireless transceiver may include firmware data 1120, control logic data 1122, hyperlinks 1124, model identification parameters 1126, configuration parameters 1128, master-slave detection logic or signals, diagnostics logic or results 1134, log data 1136, device identifiers (e.g., serial numbers, MAC addresses, etc.), or any other type of information used by the actuator and/or stored in the memory of the actuator. Process 1200 is shown to include storing the data received from the external device in the memory of the actuator (step 1210). Step 1210 may be performed in response to receiving data from the external device via the wireless transceiver. The data received from the wireless transceiver may replace existing data stored in the memory of the actuator or may be stored in free space within the memory of the actuator. For example, the actuator may be constructed and packaged as a generic actuator (e.g., without firmware data, control logic, and/or configuration parameters) and subsequently configured with suitable firmware, software, configuration parameters, or other data specific to a particular actuator model and/or implementation. Configuration of Exemplary Embodiments Embodiments of the subject matter and the operations described in this specification can be implemented in digital electronic circuitry, or in computer software embodied on a tangible medium, firmware, or hardware, including the structures disclosed in this specification and their structural equivalents, or in combinations of one or more of them. Embodiments of the subject matter described in this specification can be implemented as one or more computer programs, i.e., one or more modules of computer program instructions, encoded on one or more computer storage medium for execution by, or to control the operation of, data processing apparatus. Alternatively or in addition, the program instructions can be encoded on an artificially-generated propagated signal, e.g., a machine-generated electrical, optical, or electromagnetic signal, that is generated to encode information for transmission to suitable receiver apparatus for execution by a data processing apparatus. A computer storage medium can be, or be included in, a computer-readable storage device, a computer-readable storage substrate, a random or serial access memory array or device, or a combination of one or more of them. Moreover, while a computer storage medium is not a propagated signal, a computer storage medium can be a source or destination of computer program instructions encoded in an artificially-generated propagated signal. The computer storage medium can also be, or be included in, one or more separate components or media (e.g., multiple CDs, disks, or other storage devices). Accordingly, the computer storage medium may be tangible and non-transitory. The operations described in this specification can be implemented as operations performed by a data processing apparatus on data stored on one or more computer-readable storage devices or received from other sources. The term “client or “server” include all kinds of apparatus, devices, and machines for processing data, including by way of example a programmable processor, a computer, a system on a chip, or multiple ones, or combinations, of the foregoing. The apparatus can include special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC (application-specific integrated circuit). The apparatus can also include, in addition to hardware, code that creates an execution environment for the computer program in question, e.g., code that constitutes processor firmware, a protocol stack, a database management system, an operating system, a cross-platform runtime environment, a virtual machine, or a combination of one or more of them. The apparatus and execution environment can realize various different computing model infrastructures, such as web services, distributed computing and grid computing infrastructures. A computer program (also known as a program, software, software application, script, or code) can be written in any form of programming language, including compiled or interpreted languages, declarative or procedural languages, and it can be deployed in any form, including as a stand-alone program or as a module, component, subroutine, object, or other unit suitable for use in a computing environment. A computer program may, but need not, correspond to a file in a file system. A program can be stored in a portion of a file that holds other programs or data (e.g., one or more scripts stored in a markup language document), in a single file dedicated to the program in question, or in multiple coordinated files (e.g., files that store one or more modules, sub-programs, or portions of code). A computer program can be deployed to be executed on one computer or on multiple computers that are located at one site or distributed across multiple sites and interconnected by a communication network. The processes and logic flows described in this specification can be performed by one or more programmable processors executing one or more computer programs to perform actions by operating on input data and generating output. The processes and logic flows can also be performed by, and apparatus can also be implemented as, special purpose logic circuitry, e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC (application specific integrated circuit). Processors suitable for the execution of a computer program include, by way of example, both general and special purpose microprocessors, and any one or more processors of any kind of digital computer. Generally, a processor will receive instructions and data from a read-only memory or a random access memory or both. The essential elements of a computer are a processor for performing actions in accordance with instructions and one or more memory devices for storing instructions and data. Generally, a computer will also include, or be operatively coupled to receive data from or transfer data to, or both, one or more mass storage devices for storing data, e.g., magnetic, magneto-optical disks, or optical disks. However, a computer need not have such devices. Moreover, a computer can be embedded in another device, e.g., a mobile telephone, a personal digital assistant (PDA), a mobile audio or video player, a game console, a Global Positioning System (GPS) receiver, or a portable storage device (e.g., a universal serial bus (USB) flash drive), to name just a few. Devices suitable for storing computer program instructions and data include all forms of non-volatile memory, media and memory devices, including by way of example semiconductor memory devices, e.g., EPROM, EEPROM, and flash memory devices; magnetic disks, e.g., internal hard disks or removable disks; magneto-optical disks; and CD-ROM and DVD-ROM disks. The processor and the memory can be supplemented by, or incorporated in, special purpose logic circuitry. To provide for interaction with a user, embodiments of the subject matter described in this specification can be implemented on a computer having a display device, e.g., a CRT (cathode ray tube), LCD (liquid crystal display), OLED (organic light emitting diode), TFT (thin-film transistor), plasma, other flexible configuration, or any other monitor for displaying information to the user and a keyboard, a pointing device, e.g., a mouse, trackball, etc., or a touch screen, touch pad, etc., by which the user can provide input to the computer. Other kinds of devices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well; for example, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensory feedback, e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback; and input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic, speech, or tactile input. In addition, a computer can interact with a user by sending documents to and receiving documents from a device that is used by the user; for example, by sending web pages to a web browser on a user's client device in response to requests received from the web browser. Embodiments of the subject matter described in this specification can be implemented in a computing system that includes a back-end component, e.g., as a data server, or that includes a middleware component, e.g., an application server, or that includes a front-end component, e.g., a client computer having a graphical user interface or a Web browser through which a user can interact with an embodiment of the subject matter described in this specification, or any combination of one or more such back-end, middleware, or front-end components. The components of the system can be interconnected by any form or medium of digital data communication, e.g., a communication network. Examples of communication networks include a local area network (“LAN”) and a wide area network (“WAN”), an inter-network (e.g., the Internet), and peer-to-peer networks (e.g., ad hoc peer-to-peer networks). While this specification contains many specific embodiment details, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of any inventions or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features specific to particular embodiments of particular inventions. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable subcombination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a subcombination or variation of a subcombination. Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. In certain circumstances, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, the separation of various system components in the embodiments described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all embodiments, and it should be understood that the described program components and systems can generally be integrated together in a single software product embodied on a tangible medium or packaged into multiple such software products. Thus, particular embodiments of the subject matter have been described. Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims. In some cases, the actions recited in the claims can be performed in a different order and still achieve desirable results. In addition, the processes depicted in the accompanying figures do not necessarily require the particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. In certain embodiments, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. The background section is intended to provide a background or context to the invention recited in the claims. The description in the background section may include concepts that could be pursued, but are not necessarily ones that have been previously conceived or pursued. Therefore, unless otherwise indicated herein, what is described in the background section is not prior art to the description or claims and is not admitted to be prior art by inclusion in the background section. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present disclosure relates generally to the field of control equipment such as actuators, sensors, controllers, and other types of devices that can be used for monitoring or controlling an automated system or process. The present disclosure relates more particularly to systems and methods for configuring and communicating with control equipment in a building automation system. A building automation system (BAS) is, in general, a system of devices configured to control, monitor, and manage equipment in or around a building or building area. A BAS can include a heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) system, a security system, a lighting system, a fire alerting system, another system that is capable of managing building functions or devices, or any combination thereof. BAS devices may be installed in any environment (e.g., an indoor area or an outdoor area) and the environment may include any number of buildings, spaces, zones, rooms, or areas. A BAS may include METASYS building controllers or other devices sold by Johnson Controls, Inc., as well as building devices and components from other sources. A BAS may include one or more computer systems (e.g., servers, BAS controllers, etc.) that serve as enterprise level controllers, application or data servers, head nodes, master controllers, or field controllers for the BAS. Such computer systems may communicate with multiple downstream building systems or subsystems (e.g., an HVAC system, a security system, etc.) according to like or disparate protocols (e.g., LON, BACnet, etc.). The computer systems may also provide one or more human-machine interfaces or client interfaces (e.g., graphical user interfaces, reporting interfaces, text-based computer interfaces, client-facing web services, web servers that provide pages to web clients, etc.) for controlling, viewing, or otherwise interacting with the BAS, its subsystems, and devices. A BAS may include various types of controllable equipment (e.g., chillers, boilers, air handling units, dampers, motors, actuators, pumps, fans, etc.) that can be used to achieve a desired environment, state, or condition within a controlled space. In some BAS implementations, it may be desirable to arrange two or more actuators in tandem (e.g., in a master-slave configuration). Conventional actuators generally include a physical switch (e.g., a detent potentiometer) attached to the actuator for configuring the actuator to operate as either the master or the slave in a master-slave configuration. It can be challenging to properly configure tandem-mounted actuators, especially when access to the actuators is restricted or when the proper master-slave configuration is unclear. Other types of control equipment also generally require physical access to the equipment for various activities such as commissioning, programming, setting addresses, installing firmware, performing diagnostics, and/or reading a current operating status. For example, physical access to the circuit board of a control device may be required to program the device. It can be difficult to access control devices that are mounted in a confined space or sealed from the external environment. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>One implementation of the present disclosure is an actuator in a HVAC system. The actuator includes a mechanical transducer, an input data connection, a feedback data connection, and a processing circuit. The processing circuit is configured to use a master-slave detection signal communicated via the feedback data connection to select an operating mode for the actuator from a set of multiple potential operating modes including a master operating mode and a slave operating mode. The processing circuit is configured to operate the mechanical transducer in response to a control signal received via the input data connection according to the selected operating mode. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to generate the master-slave detection signal and to output the master-slave detection signal via the feedback data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to monitor the feedback data connection for a reply signal from another actuator. The reply signal may be generated by the other actuator in response to receiving the output master-slave detection signal. The processing circuit may be configured to select the master operating mode in response to detecting the reply signal from the other actuator at the feedback data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to monitor the input data connection for the master-slave detection signal. The master-slave detection signal may be generated by another actuator. The processing circuit may be configured to select the slave operating mode in response to detecting the master-slave detection signal from the other actuator at the input data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to generate a reply signal in response to detecting the master-slave detection signal at the input data connection. The processing circuit may be configured to output the reply signal via the input data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to monitor the input data connection for the master-slave detection signal and to monitor the feedback data connection for a reply signal. The processing circuit may be configured to select a normal operating mode in response to a determination that the master-slave detection signal is not detected at the input data connection and the reply signal is not detected at the feedback data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to engage in bi-directional communications with another actuator via the feedback data connection. The feedback data connection may be connected with an input data connection of the other actuator. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to engage in bi-directional communications with another actuator via the input data connection. The input data connection may be connected with a feedback data connection of the other actuator. In some embodiments, the actuator further includes memory storing instructions for generating the master-slave detection signal. The processing circuit may generate the master-slave detection signal according to the stored instructions. In some embodiments, the master-slave detection signal includes a series of digital pulses. In some embodiments, the processing circuit includes a master detection circuit configured to monitor the input data connection for the master-slave detection signal, to generate a reply signal in response to detecting the master-slave detection signal at the input data connection, and to output the reply signal via the input data connection. In some embodiments, the processing circuit includes a slave detection circuit configured to generate the master-slave detection signal, to output the master-slave detection signal via the feedback data connection, and to monitor the feedback data connection for the reply signal. Another implementation of the present disclosure is an actuator in a HVAC system. The actuator includes a mechanical transducer and a processing circuit having a processor and memory. The processing circuit is configured to operate the mechanical transducer according to a control program stored in the memory. The actuator further includes a wireless transceiver configured to facilitate bidirectional wireless data communications between the processing circuit and an external device. The actuator further includes a power circuit configured to draw power from a wireless signal received via the wireless transceiver and to power the processing circuit and the wireless transceiver using the drawn power. The processing circuit is configured to use the power drawn from the wireless signal to wirelessly transmit data stored in the memory of the actuator to the external device via the wireless transceiver, to wirelessly receive data from the external device via the wireless transceiver, and to store the data received from the external device in the memory of the actuator. In some embodiments, the external device is a mobile device. The bidirectional wireless data communications between the processing circuit and the external device may include direct communications between the wireless transceiver of the actuator and a wireless transceiver of the mobile device. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to wirelessly exchange data with the external device without requiring any wired power or data connections to the actuator. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to wirelessly exchange data with the external device while the actuator is contained within packaging that prevents physical access to the actuator. In some embodiments, the data received from the external device includes firmware for the actuator. The firmware may include the control program used by the processing circuit to operate the mechanical transducer. The control program may include logic for operating the mechanical transducer based on variable configuration parameters separate from the control program. In some embodiments, at least one of the data transmitted to the external device and the data received from the external device include configuration parameters for the actuator. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is capable of operating multiple different actuator models. The data received from the external device may include model identification parameters identifying a particular actuator model and defining configuration settings specific to the identified actuator model. The processing circuit may use the model identification parameters to operate the actuator according to configuration settings specific to the identified actuator model. In some embodiments, the processing circuit is configured to perform an actuator diagnostic test and to generate diagnostic information as a result of the test. The data transmitted to the external device may include the diagnostic information generated by the processing circuit. In some embodiments, the external device is another actuator and at least one of the data transmitted to the external device and the data received from the external device include a master-slave detection signal. The processing circuit may be configured to use the master-slave detection signal to select an operating mode for the actuator from a set of multiple potential operating modes including a master operating mode and a slave operating mode Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the summary is illustrative only and is not intended to be in any way limiting. Other aspects, inventive features, and advantages of the devices and/or processes described herein, as defined solely by the claims, will become apparent in the detailed description set forth herein and taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. | F24F11006 | 20170711 | 20171026 | 76614.0 | F24F1100 | 1 | WU, QING YUAN | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR CONFIGURING AND COMMUNICATING WITH HVAC DEVICES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | F24F | 2,017 |
|
15,646,869 | PENDING | METHODS OF TREATING BINGE EATING DISORDER | Provided is a method of treating binge eating disorder (BED) in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. | 1. A method of treating binge eating disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. 2. A method of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and another psychiatric disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the other psychiatric disorder is an anxiety disorder, a substance abuse disorder, depression, bipolar disorder, a personality disorder, a somatoform disorder, or attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder. 4. A method of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and obesity in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. 5. A method of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and fibromyalgia in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane is in pharmaceutically acceptable salt form. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane in pharmaceutically acceptable salt form is an acid addition salt. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane in pharmaceutically acceptable salt form is (1R,5 S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane hydrochloride. 9-10. (canceled) 11. The method of claim 1, wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered at a dosage of 100 mg to 200 mg. 12-13. (canceled) 14. The method of claim 11, wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered once, twice, three, or four times daily. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered concurrently or sequentially, in either order, with at least one other therapeutic agent. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein the other therapeutic agent is selected from an anti-depressant, an anxiolytic, an anti-obesity agent, and an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder agent. 17. The method of claim 15, wherein the other therapeutic agent is a second agent that is capable of treating one or more symptoms of binge eating disorder or conditions associated with binge eating disorder. 18. The method of claim 1, wherein the patient further undergoes at least one of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT), interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), behavioral weight loss treatment (BWL), or dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). 19. The method of claim 1, wherein the binge eating disorder comprises 1-3 binge episodes weekly. 20. The method of claim 1, wherein the binge eating disorder comprises 4-7 binge episodes weekly. 21. The method of claim 1, wherein the binge eating disorder comprises 8-13 binge episodes weekly. 22. The method of claim 1, wherein the binge eating disorder comprises 14 or more binge episodes weekly. | This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/360,956 filed Jul. 11, 2016, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in entirety. BACKGROUND Binge eating disorder (BED) is characterized by binge eating without purging, and is often, but not necessarily, associated with obesity. BED is challenging to treat and carries significant medical and psychological risks. BED is associated with significant morbidity, including medical complications related to obesity (e.g., type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, stroke), eating disorder psychopathology (e.g., weight and shape concerns), psychiatric co-morbidity, reduced quality of life, and impaired social functioning. Psychiatric comorbidities that may occur with BED include depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Analysis of psychological and pharmacological treatments for BED found that psychotherapy and structured self-help treatments had more robust effects on outcomes, including binge abstinence. However, while specialized psychotherapies, such as cognitive behavior therapy and interpersonal therapy, and self-help strategies are effective for reducing binge eating, not all patients respond adequately and these treatments are generally not effective for the obesity associated with BED. Further, some pharmacological treatments may cause a worsening of symptoms. For instance, antidepressants may cause a worsening of depression and weight gain. Meta-analysis of some placebo-controlled studies of antidepressants in patients with BED show significantly higher binge eating remission rates for the antidepressant group compared with the placebo group and no differences are found in the mean frequency of binge eating episodes at the end of treatment, in BMI, or in treatment discontinuation for any reason. Accordingly, there exists a need for new treatments for BED. BRIEF SUMMARY Provided is a method of treating binge eating disorder (BED) in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. Further areas of applicability of the present disclosure will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of this disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used throughout, ranges are used as shorthand for describing each and every value that is within the range. Any value within the range can be selected as the terminus of the range. In addition, all references cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. In the event of a conflict in a definition in the present disclosure and that of a cited reference, the present disclosure controls. (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, also known as (+)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, is shown as Formula I below. “(1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane” and “(+)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane” are used interchangeably herein. (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane is an unbalanced triple reuptake inhibitor with the most potency towards norepinephrine reuptake (NE), one-sixth as much towards dopamine reuptake (DA), and one-fourteenth as much towards serotonin reuptake (5-HT). While stimulants have been used in individuals with binge eating, such treatment may not be optimal because stimulants may result in increased anxiety and come with a risk of abuse, dependency, and diversion. The risk of increased anxiety and abuse and dependency for stimulants may be especially concerning with this patient population as anxiety disorders and substance abuse disorders are often comorbid with BED. However, a drug with minimal to no effect on dopamine may not provide optimal treatment for binge eating disorder either. (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane enhances dopamine function, but without the pronounced dopaminergic activities of stimulants. Thus, in individuals with BED, the unbalanced norepinephrine-dopamine-serotonin reuptake inhibition profile of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane may affect the norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin circuitries without causing increased anxiety and irritability and without triggering substance abuse that may be seen with stimulants. In addition, the multi-functional effects of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane may be useful in treating BED as well as comorbidities, such as depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders, personality disorder, somatoform disorder, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Further, affecting the norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin circuitries with one drug may avoid pharmacologic drug-drug interactions (DDIs). For instance, administering two drugs with different effects on the norepinephrine, dopamine, and/or serotonin circuitries may result in off-target interactions potentially leading to undesirable and unexpected norepinephrine, dopamine, and/or serotonin levels. It has been reported that cytochrome P450 enzyme isoforms (CYPs), which catalyze oxidative reactions, account for the metabolism of 75% of all drugs, and in particular, about 80% of drugs cleared by CYPs are metabolized by four CYP isoforms—CYP3A4, CYP2D6, CYP2C9 and CYP2C19. Thus, these four CYPs are potential candidates for DDIs. Physicians consider potential DDIs and metabolic pathway(s) when selecting treatments. (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane is primarily metabolized by monoamine oxidase A (MAO A), which may spare the liver and may reduce drug-drug interactions if (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane is used in a combination therapy, e.g., with a drug that is metabolized by CYPs. (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane may be synthesized as described in U.S. Pat. No. 8,461,196, U.S. Patent Publication No. 2014/0206740, or International Publication No. WO 2013/019271, each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. As used herein, “(1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane” embraces the compound in any form, for example, free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, e.g., as a pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are known in the art and include salts that are physiologically acceptable at the dosage amount and form to be administered, for example, hydrochloride salts. As used herein, “(1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane” is also to be understood as embracing the compound in crystalline and amorphous form including, for example, polymorphs, solvates (including hydrates), unsolvated polymorphs (including anhydrates), conformational polymorphs, and amorphous forms of the compounds, as well as mixtures thereof. “Crystalline form” and “polymorph” may be used interchangeably herein, and are meant to include all crystalline forms of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, including, for example, polymorphs, solvates (including hydrates), unsolvated polymorphs (including anhydrates), and conformational polymorphs, as well as mixtures thereof, unless a particular crystalline form is referred to. Crystalline and amorphous forms of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane may be used in any combination or in forms that are substantially free of one or more of the other crystalline forms or free of the amorphous form. As used herein, “substantially free of other polymorphic forms” means that the crystalline material contains no more than 10% w/w of any other crystalline form, e.g., no more than 5% w/w of any other crystalline form, e.g., no more than 2% w/w of any other crystalline form, e.g., no more than 1% w/w of any other crystalline form. (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane may in some cases also exist in prodrug form. Prodrugs are considered to be any covalently bonded carriers that release the active parent drug in vivo. As used herein, the term “patient” includes human or non-human (i.e., animal) patient. In some embodiments, patient encompasses both human and nonhuman. In some embodiments, patient means a nonhuman. In other embodiments, patient means a human. As used herein, “concurrently” means the compounds are administered simultaneously or within the same composition. In some embodiments, the compounds are administered simultaneously. In some embodiments, the compounds are administered within the same composition. Anxiety may be characterized by feelings of tension and worried thoughts. Anxiety disorders may cause recurring intrusive thoughts or concerns. As used herein, “anxiety disorder” includes generalized anxiety disorder, panic disorder, social anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, phobias, and post-traumatic stress disorder. As used herein, “substance abuse disorder” includes alcohol-related disorders, nicotine-related disorders, amphetamine-related disorders, cannabis-related disorders, cocaine-related disorders, hallucinogen-use disorders, inhalant-related disorders, and opioid-related disorders. For instance, “substance abuse disorder” includes alcohol abuse, nicotine abuse, opioid abuse, and stimulant (like cocaine and methamphetamine) abuse. As used herein, “somatoform disorder” includes somatization disorder, conversion disorder, pain disorder, hypochondriasis, body dysmorphic disorder, undifferentiated somatoform disorder, and somatoform disorder not otherwise specified (NOS). As used herein, “therapeutically effective amount” refers to an amount effective, when administered to a human or non-human patient, to provide a therapeutic benefit, such as amelioration of symptoms or elimination of the disease. The specific dose of substance administered to obtain a therapeutic benefit will, of course, be determined by the particular circumstances surrounding the case, including, for example, the specific substance administered, the route of administration, the condition being treated, and the individual being treated. As used herein, “treatment” and “treating” encompass amelioration of symptoms or elimination of binge eating disorder, as well as treatment of the cause of binge eating disorder. For example, “treatment” and “treating” encompass suppression or improvement of the symptoms of binge eating disorder. Binge eating disorder involves recurrent episodes of binge eating. A binge-eating episode may encompass eating, in a discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour period), an amount of food that is larger than most people would eat during a similar period of time and under similar circumstances and a sense of lack of control over eating during the episode (e.g., a feeling that one cannot stop eating or control what or how much one is eating). A binge-eating episode may also encompass three (or more) of the following: eating much more rapidly than normal, eating until feeling uncomfortably full, eating large amounts of food when not feeling physically hungry, eating alone because of being embarrassed by how much one is eating, and feeling disgusted with oneself, depressed, or very guilty after overeating. Binge eating disorder may also encompass marked distress regarding binge eating. Binge eating may occur, on average, at least once a week for three months. Binge eating is not associated with the recurrent use of inappropriate compensatory behavior (for example, purging). Provided is a method (Method 1) of treating binge eating disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. Further provided is a method (Method 2) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and another psychiatric disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient, e.g., further provided is i. a method (Method 2i) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and an anxiety disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient; or ii. a method (Method 2ii) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and a substance abuse disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient; or iii. a method (Method 2iii) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and depression in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient; or iv. a method (Method 2iv) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and bipolar disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient; or v. a method (Method 2v) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and a personality disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient; or vi. a method (Method 2vi) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and a somatoform disorder (e.g., body dysmorphic disorder) in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient; or vii. a method (Method 2vii) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. Further provided is a method (Method 3) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and obesity in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. Further provided is a method (Method 4) of treating comorbid binge eating disorder and fibromyalgia in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. Further provided is any of Method 1, 2, 3, or 4, e.g., Method 1, e.g., Method 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), e.g., Method 3, e.g., Method 4, as follows: 1.1 Any of Method 1, 2, (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane is in pharmaceutically acceptable salt form. 1.2 Method 1.1 wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane in pharmaceutically acceptable salt form is an acid addition salt. 1.3 Method 1.2 wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane in pharmaceutically acceptable salt form is (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane hydrochloride. 1.4 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is crystalline. 1.5 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered at a dosage of 1 mg to 1800 mg, e.g., 10 mg to 1800 mg, e.g., 25 mg to 1800 mg, e.g., 10 mg to 1600 mg, e.g., 10 mg to 1200 mg, e.g., 50 mg to 1200 mg, e.g., 50 mg to 1000 mg, e.g., 75 mg to 1000 mg, e.g., 75 mg to 800 mg, e.g., 75 mg to 500 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 750 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 500 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 400 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 300 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 200 mg. 1.6 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered at a dosage of 75 mg to 1000 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 600 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 400 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 200 mg. 1.7 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered at a dosage of 50 mg to 600 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 600 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 400 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 200 mg, e.g., 100 mg, e.g., 200 mg, e.g., 400 mg. 1.8 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered at a dosage of 5 mg to 500 mg, e.g., 5 mg to 10 mg, e.g., 10 mg to 25 mg, e.g., 30 mg to 50 mg, e.g., 10 mg to 300 mg, e.g., 25 mg to 300 mg, e.g., 50 mg to 100 mg, e.g., 100 mg to 250 mg, e.g., 250 mg to 500 mg. 1.9 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered at a dosage of 0.5 mg/kg to 20 mg/kg per day, e.g., 1 mg/kg to 15 mg/kg per day, e.g., 1 mg/kg to 10 mg/kg per day, e.g., 2 mg/kg to 20 mg/kg per day, e.g., 2 mg/kg to 10 mg/kg per day, e.g., 3 mg/kg to 15 mg/kg per day. 1.10 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered once, twice, three, or four times daily. 1.11 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered concurrently or sequentially, in either order, with at least one other therapeutic agent. (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, and the at least one other therapeutic agent may be combined in a single composition or administered in different compositions. 1.12 Method 1.11 wherein the other therapeutic agent is selected from an anti-depressant (e.g., a selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI), a serotonin-norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (SNRI), or a tricyclic anti-depressant), an anxiolytic, an anti-obesity agent, and an attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder agent. 1.13 Method 1.11 wherein the other therapeutic agent is a second agent that is capable of treating one or more symptoms of binge eating disorder or conditions associated with binge eating disorder (e.g., type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, high blood pressure, high cholesterol and/or triglycerides, kidney disease, gallbladder disease, arthritis, bone deterioration, stroke, upper respiratory infection, skin disorders, menstrual irregularities, ovarian abnormalities, pregnancy complications). 1.14 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein the patient further undergoes at least one of cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) (e.g., guided self-help CBT), interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT), behavioral weight loss treatment (BWL), or dialectical behavior therapy (DBT). 1.15 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered in a sustained release pharmaceutical composition, e.g., a composition as described in International Publication No. WO 2015/102826, which also published as U.S. Patent Publication No. 2016/0303077, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entireties. 1.16 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein the binge eating disorder comprises 1-3 binge episodes weekly. 1.17 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein the binge eating disorder comprises 4-7 binge episodes weekly. 1.18 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein the binge eating disorder comprises 8-13 binge episodes weekly. 1.19 Any of Methods 1, 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii), 3, or 4 et seq., wherein the binge eating disorder comprises 14 or more binge episodes weekly. Also provided is use of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, in the manufacture of a medicament for treating binge eating disorder, e.g., for use in any of Method 1 or 1.1-1.19. Also provided is use of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, in the manufacture of a medicament for treating comorbid binge eating disorder and another psychiatric disorder, e.g., for use in any of Method 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii) or 1.1-1.19. Also provided is use of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, in the manufacture of a medicament for treating comorbid binge eating disorder and obesity, e.g., for use in any of Method 3 or 1.1-1.19. Also provided is use of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, in the manufacture of a medicament for treating comorbid binge eating disorder and fibromyalgia, e.g., for use in any of Method 4 or 1.1-1.19. Also provided is a pharmaceutical composition comprising (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier for use in treating binge eating disorder, e.g., for use in any of Method 1 or 1.1-1.19. Also provided is a pharmaceutical composition comprising (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier for use in treating comorbid binge eating disorder and another psychiatric disorder, e.g., for use in any of Method 2 (e.g., any of Method 2i, Method 2ii, Method 2iii, Method 2iv, Method 2v, Method 2vi, or Method 2vii) or 1.1-1.19. Also provided is a pharmaceutical composition comprising (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier for use in treating comorbid binge eating disorder and obesity, e.g., for use in any of Method 3 or 1.1-1.19. Also provided is a pharmaceutical composition comprising (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier for use in treating comorbid binge eating disorder and fibromyalgia, e.g., for use in any of Method 4 or 1.1-1.19. A dose or method of administration of the dose of the present disclosure is not particularly limited. Dosages employed in practicing the present disclosure will of course vary depending, e.g. on the mode of administration and the therapy desired. In general, satisfactory results, e.g. for the treatment of BED are indicated to be obtained on oral administration at dosages of the order from about 0.01 to 2.0 mg/kg. An indicated daily dosage for oral administration may be in the range of from about 0.75 mg to 200 mg, conveniently administered once, or in divided doses 2 to 4 times, daily or in sustained release form. Unit dosage forms for oral administration thus for example may comprise from about 0.2 mg to 75 mg or 150 mg, e.g. from about 0.2 mg or 2.0 mg or 50 mg or 75 mg or 100 mg to 200 mg or 500 mg of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, together with a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent or carrier therefor. (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, may be administered by any suitable route, including orally, parenterally, transdermally, or by inhalation, including by sustained release, although various other known delivery routes, devices and methods can likewise be employed. In some embodiments, (1R,5 S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered in a sustained release pharmaceutical composition, e.g., an oral sustained release pharmaceutical composition, comprising (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, which provides therapeutically effective levels of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane over a sustained delivery period of approximately 6 hours or longer, e.g., 8 hours or longer, e.g., 12 hours or longer, e.g., 18 hours or longer, e.g., 24 hours or longer. In some embodiments, (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, is administered in an immediate release pharmaceutical composition, e.g., an oral immediate release pharmaceutical composition, comprising (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form. Pharmaceutical compositions comprising (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, may be prepared using conventional diluents or excipients and techniques known in the galenic art. Thus, oral dosage forms may include tablets, capsules, solutions, suspensions, and the like. Where two active agents are administered, the therapeutically effective amount of each agent may be below the amount needed for activity as monotherapy. Accordingly, a subthreshold amount (i.e., an amount below the level necessary for efficacy as monotherapy) may be considered therapeutically effective. Indeed, an advantage of administering different agents with different mechanisms of action and different side effect profiles may be to reduce the dosage and side effects of either or both agents, as well as to enhance or potentiate their activity as monotherapy. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Binge eating disorder (BED) is characterized by binge eating without purging, and is often, but not necessarily, associated with obesity. BED is challenging to treat and carries significant medical and psychological risks. BED is associated with significant morbidity, including medical complications related to obesity (e.g., type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, hypertension, stroke), eating disorder psychopathology (e.g., weight and shape concerns), psychiatric co-morbidity, reduced quality of life, and impaired social functioning. Psychiatric comorbidities that may occur with BED include depression, bipolar disorder, anxiety disorders, substance abuse disorders, and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Analysis of psychological and pharmacological treatments for BED found that psychotherapy and structured self-help treatments had more robust effects on outcomes, including binge abstinence. However, while specialized psychotherapies, such as cognitive behavior therapy and interpersonal therapy, and self-help strategies are effective for reducing binge eating, not all patients respond adequately and these treatments are generally not effective for the obesity associated with BED. Further, some pharmacological treatments may cause a worsening of symptoms. For instance, antidepressants may cause a worsening of depression and weight gain. Meta-analysis of some placebo-controlled studies of antidepressants in patients with BED show significantly higher binge eating remission rates for the antidepressant group compared with the placebo group and no differences are found in the mean frequency of binge eating episodes at the end of treatment, in BMI, or in treatment discontinuation for any reason. Accordingly, there exists a need for new treatments for BED. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>Provided is a method of treating binge eating disorder (BED) in a patient in need thereof comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of (1R,5S)-1-(naphthalen-2-yl)-3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexane, in free or pharmaceutically acceptable salt form, to the patient. Further areas of applicability of the present disclosure will become apparent from the detailed description provided hereinafter. It should be understood that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating preferred embodiments, are intended for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to limit the scope of this disclosure. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | A61K31403 | 20170711 | 20180111 | 82278.0 | A61K31403 | 0 | DECK, JASON A | METHODS OF TREATING BINGE EATING DISORDER | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | PENDING | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,647,934 | PENDING | Taste Modifying Product | The present invention relates to the use of a compound according to formula (I) in the form of any one of its stereoisomers or a mixture thereof, and wherein n is an integer from 0 to 2; the dotted line represents a carbon-carbon single or double bond; and each of R1 to R4, when taken independently from each other, represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5, or even a C1 to C3, alkyl group; and optionally one of the groups R1 to R4 represents —OH; and/or when R1 and R2 are taken together, and/or R3 and R4 are taken together, represent a OCH2O group, provided said groups taken together are adjacent substituents of the phenyl group; as an ingredient: to confer, enhance, improve or modify the kokumi or umami taste of a flavored article. | 1. Use of a compound of formula (I) in the form of any one of its stereoisomers or a mixture thereof, and wherein n is an integer from 0 to 2; the dotted line represents a carbon-carbon single or double bond; and each of R1 to R4, when taken independently from each other, represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5 alkyl group; and optionally one of the groups R1 to R4 represents —OH; and/or when R1 and R2 are taken together, and/or R3 and R4 are taken together, represent a OCH2O group, provided said groups taken together are adjacent substituents of the phenyl group; as an ingredient to confer, enhance, improve or modify the kokumi or umami taste of a flavored article. 2. Use according to claim 1, wherein n is 0 or 1; the dotted line represents carbon-carbon single or double bond; and each of R1 to R4, taken independently from each other, represents a hydrogen atom, or represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5 alkyl group. 3. Use according to claim 1, wherein said compound (I) is of formula in the form of any one of its stereoisomers or a mixture thereof, and wherein each of R3 or R4, taken independently from each other, represents a hydrogen atom, or represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5 alkyl group. 4. Use according to claim 1, wherein R3 represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 or OR5 group, and R4 represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5 alkyl group. 5. Use according to claim 1, wherein R3 represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 group, and R4 represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5 alkyl group. 6. Use according to claim 1, wherein said compound (I) or (II) is in the form of a mixture of the E and Z stereoisomers, said mixture comprising at least 50% w/w, or at least 80% w/w, of the stereoisomer E, the remaining being essentially the Z stereoisomer. 7. Use according to claim 1, wherein said compound (I) is selected amongst (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(4-methoxyphenethyl)acrylamide, (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxy-phenyl)-N-(3-methoxyphenethyl)acrylamide, (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3-ethoxy-phenethyl)acrylamide, (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3-propoxyphenethyl)acrylamide, (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(4-isopropoxyphenethyl)acrylamide, (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(4-ethylphenethyl)acrylamide, (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3,4-dimethylphenethyl)acrylamide, (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(4-isopropyl-phenethyl)acrylamide or (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3-methylphenethyl)acrylamide. 8. A compound of formula wherein R3 represents a hydrogen atom or represents a C1 to C5 alkyl group or a OR6 group, R6 representing a C1 to C5 alkyl group; and R4 represents a C1 to C5 alkyl group or a OR6 group, R6 representing a C1 to C5 alkyl group. 9. A compound according to claim 8, wherein R3 represents a hydrogen atom or a C1-3 alkyl group and R4 represents a C1-3 alkyl group or OR6 group, R6 representing a C1 to C3 alkyl group. 10. A taste-modifying composition comprising: i) as taste-conferring or modifying ingredient, at least one compound according to formula (I) as defined in claim 1; ii) at least one ingredient selected from the group consisting of a flavor carrier and a flavor base; and iii) optionally at least one flavor adjuvant. 11. A composition according to claim 10, wherein said flavor base comprises another umami imparting flavor ingredient. 12. A flavored article comprising: i) at least one compound of formula (I), as defined in claim 1; and ii) a foodstuff base. 13. A flavored article according to claim 12, characterized in that the foodstuff base is a seasonings or condiment, a meat-based products, a soup, a carbohydrate-based product, a dairy or fat product, a savory product, an imitation product or a pet or animal food. 14. A flavored article according to claim 12, characterized in that the foodstuff base is a stock, a savory cube, a powder mix, a flavored oil, a sauce, a salad dressing or a mayonnaise; a poultry, beef or pork based product, a seafood, surimi, or a fish sausage; a clear soup, a cream soup, a chicken or beef soup or a tomato or asparagus soup; instant noodles, rice, pasta, potatoes flakes or fried, noodles, pizza, tortillas, wraps; a spread, a cheese, or regular or low fat margarine, a butter/margarine blend, a butter, a peanut butter, a shortening, a processed or flavored cheese; a snack, a biscuit (e.g. chips or crisps) or an egg product, a potato/tortilla chip, a microwave popcorn, nuts , a bretzel, a rice cake, a rice cracker; or a reformed cheese made from oils, fats and thickeners or a vegetarian meat replacer, a vegetarian burger. 15. (canceled) | This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/125,721, filed on Dec. 12, 2013, which is a National Stage Application of International Patent Application Serial No. PCT/EP2012/060641, filed on Jun. 6, 2012, which claims priority to European Patent Application Serial No. 11172035.5, filed on Jun. 30, 2011, and European Patent Application Serial No. 12151273.5, filed on Jan. 16, 2012, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to the field of taste. More particularly, it concerns the use of certain, cinnamic acid derived amides as taste-enhancing ingredients to impart or reinforce the tastes known as kokumi or umami. The present invention also concerns compositions or articles containing at least one of the aforementioned compounds. BACKGROUND AND PRIOR ART Various cinnamic acid derived amides are known to naturally occur in plants such as Zanthoxylum rubescens (Rutaceae) [Amides from Zanthoxylum Rubescens, Adesina, S. K.; Reisch, J. Phytochem. 1989, 3, 839-842.] or Piperaceae [Chemical constituents of peppers (Piper spp.) and application to food preservation: naturally occurring aniioxidative compounds. Nakatani, N.; Inatani, R.; Ohta, H.; Nishioka, A., Environ. Health Perspectives 1986, 67, 135-142]. Since vanilloid amides, such as capsaicin or piperine are usually found in pepper or capsicum species, they generally have a pungent or hot taste. It would be desirable to avoid this. US2003/0152682 (Bayer Polymers LLC) and EP 1 323 356 (Symrise) disclose the use of ferollic acid amides as pungent compounds or heat generating-system for oral hygiene products. Included in this document is the compound trans-rubenamine, but it is not described or even suggested to have an umami taste. EP 2 138 152 (to Henkel) describes mouthwash compositions containing ferrulic acid derived amides among other amides or pungent, or cooling compounds. However, none of these documents anticipate, report or suggest that the compounds described therein have organoleptic properties that can be used to impart or reinforce a kokumi or umami taste. In New Developments in Umami (Enhancing) Molecules, Winkel et al, Chemistry & Biodiversity; Vol 5 (2008), p 1195-1293, a review of known umami modifying compounds is given. However, there is no suggestion of the compounds of the present invention. Kokumi and umami me now established descriptors in the field of taste and are known to supplement, enhance, or modify the taste and/or aroma of a food without necessarily having a strong characteristic taste or aroma of their own. A desire for kokumi and umami exists for a wide range of foods like soups, sauces, savory stacks, prepared meals, condiments, etc. Moreover, they are often found to complement or enhance foodstuffs which have a savory or salty characteristic and, as a result, may be useful where sodium or salt reduction is desired. Umami is one of the five basic tastes sensed by specialized receptor cells present on the human tongue. Umami applies to the sensation of savoriness, and particularly to the detection of glutamates and/or ribolides which are common in meats, cheese and other protein-rich foods. The behavior of umami receptors explains why foods containing monosodium glutamate (MSG) often taste “fuller”. However, some consumers are apparently sensitive to MSG and may suffer from headaches or other illnesses upon consuming it. Thus replacement of MSG, at least partially, can be desirable. Kokumi has been described variously as “deliciousness”, “continuity”, “mouthfulness”, “mouthfeel” and “thickness”. It exists naturally in a variety of foods such as cheese, giving a ‘mature’ cheese taste, vegetable flavors, particularly tomato; meat, where it gives a fullness and longer lasting taste; mayonnaise & dressings, where it can round out acid notes; fat-reduced food products, where it gives a similar fullness to full-fat products; herbs and spice; and soups, especially miso soup. US2006/057268 reports saturated or unsaturated N-alkamide and their use as umami ingredients. It would be desirable to provide a flavor or taste enhancing ingredient that has umami or kokumi characteristics. It would be even more desirable to provide a flavor or taste enhancing ingredient that has umami and kokumi characteristics. DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION We have now surprisingly discovered that a certain class of cinnamic acid derived amide derivatives can be used as flavor or taste enhancing ingredients, for instance to impart or reinforce the kokumi or umami taste of a flavoring composition or of a flavored food. Accordingly, the present invention provides the use of a compound of formula in the form of any one of its stereoisomers or a mixture thereof, and wherein n is an integer from 0 to 2; the dotted line represents a carbon-carbon single or double bond; and each of R1 to R4, when taken independently from each other, represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5, or even a C1 to C3, alkyl group; and optionally one of the groups R1 to R4 represents —OH; and/or when R1 and R2 are taken together, and/or R3 and R4 are taken together, represent a OCH2O group, provided said groups taken together are adjacent substituents of the phenyl group; as an ingredient to confer, enhance, improve or modify the kokumi or umami taste of a flavored article. For the sake of clarity, by the expression “any one of its stereoisomers”, or the similar, it is meant the normal meaning understood by a person skilled in the art, i.e. that the invention's compound can be a pure enantiomer (if chiral) or diastereomer (e.g. the double bond is in a conformation E or Z). For the sake of clarity, by the expression “wherein the dotted line represents carbon-carbon single or doable bond”, or the similar, it is meant the normal meaning understood by a person skilled in the art, i.e. that the whole bonding (solid and dotted line) between the carbon atoms connected by said dotted line is a carbon-carbon single or double bond. One advantage of the present invention is that the compounds confer umami and/or kokumi taste to a product without detrimentally affecting the flavor profile of the product. According to a particular embodiment of the invention, said compound (I) is selected from the group of compounds in which n is 0 or 1; the dotted line represents carbon-carbon single or double bond; and each of R1 to R4, taken independently from each other, represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5, or even a C1 to C3, alkyl group. According to a particular embodiment of the invention, said, compound (I) is selected from the group of compounds in which R1 and R2 both represent methoxy groups and n is 1. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, said dotted line represents a carbon-carbon double bond. According to a particular embodiment of the invention, said compound (I) is a compound of formula in the form of any one of its stereoisomers or a mixture thereof and wherein each of R3 or R4, taken independently from each other, represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5, or even a C1 to C3 alkyl group. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, R3 represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 or OR5 group, and R4 represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5, or even a C1 to C3, alkyl group. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, R3 represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 group, and R4 represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C5, or even a C1 to C3, alkyl group. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, R3 represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 group, and R4 represents a R5, R5 representing a C1 to C5, or even a C1 to C3, alkyl group. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, R5 represents a methyl, ethyl, propyl or iso-propyl group. The compounds of formula (II) wherein: R3 represents a hydrogen atom, or represents a C1 to C5, or even a C1-3, alkyl group or a OR6 group, R6 representing a C1 to C5, or even a C2-3, alkyl group; and R4 represents a C1 to C5, or even a C1-3, alkyl group or a OR6 group, R6 representing a C1 to C5 or even a C1-3, alkyl group; are also novel compounds and therefore they represent another aspect of the invention. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, said novel compounds are those wherein R3 represents a hydrogen atom or a C1-3, alkyl group and R4 represents a C1-3, alkyl group or OR6 group, R6 representing a C1 to C3 alkyl group. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, said compound (I) or (II) is a C19-25 compound, or even a C19-22 compound. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, the non-aromatic carbon-carbon double bond of compound (I) or (II) can be in a configuration Z or E or a mixture thereof. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, said compound (I) or (II) is in the form of a mixture of the E and Z stereoisomers, said mixture comprising at least 50% w/w, or at least 80% w/w, of the stereoisomer E, the remaining being essentially the Z stereoisomer. According to a particular aspect of the present invention, said compound (I) is selected, amongst (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(4-methoxyphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide I), (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3-methoxyphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide 4), (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3-ethoxyphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide 7), (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3-propoxyphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide 8), (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(4-isopropoxyphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide 9), (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(4-ethylphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide 10), (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3,4-dimethylphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide 11), (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(4-isopropylphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide 12) or (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-N-(3-methylphenethyl)acrylamide (referenced in the Examples as Amide 17). The compounds of the invention can be used alone or in mixtures and provide a strong kokumi or umami taste at exceptionally low levels. As mentioned above, the invention concerns the use of a compound of formula (I) as a taste-conferring or enhancing ingredient, and in particular to impart or reinforce kokumi or umami taste. According to a particular embodiment of the invention, said compound (I) is used to impart or reinforce kokumi or umami taste as well as to enhance the saltiness and/or savory perception of a flavor. According to a particular embodiment of the invention, such use is very much appreciated by flavorists to impart or enhance the kokumi or umami taste in savory flavors, such as beef, chicken, pork, and seafood. Surprisingly, in seafood applications such as surimi, or seafood bouillons or snack flavors, compounds according to formula (I) are also found to enhance the perception of sweetness and longevity of the flavor. By contrast, in beef flavors, the compounds according to formula (I) are found to enhance perception of fattiness and tallow notes. Additionally we found that said compounds can increase juiciness in meat based products. In other words the present invention concerns a method to confer, enhance, improve or modify the taste properties, as indicated above, of a flavoring composition or of a flavored article, which method comprises adding to said composition or article an effective amount of at least a compound of formula (I). In the contest of the present invention “use of a compound of formula (I)” includes the use of any composition containing compound (I) and which can be advantageously employed in the flavor industry as active ingredient. In another aspect, the invention provides a taste-modifying composition comprising: i) as a taste-conferring or modifying ingredient, at least one compound according to formula (I) above; ii) at least one ingredient selected from the group consisting of a flavor carrier and a flavor base; and iii) optionally at least one flavor adjuvant. By “flavor carrier” we mean here a material which is substantially neutral from a flavor point of view, insofar as it does not significantly alter the organoleptic properties of flavoring ingredients. The carrier may be a liquid or a solid. Suitable liquid carriers include, for instance, an emulsifying system, i.e. a solvent and a surfactant system, or a solvent commonly used in flavors. A detailed description of the nature and type of solvents commonly used in flavor cannot be exhaustive. Suitable solvents include, for instance, propylene glycol, triacetine, triethyl citrate, benzylic alcohol ethanol, vegetable oils or terpenes. Suitable solid carriers include, for instance, absorbing gums or polymers, or even encapsulating materials. Examples of such materials may comprise wall-forming and plasticizing materials, such as mono, di- or trisaccharides, natural or modified starches, hydrocolloids, cellulose derivatives, polyvinyl acetates, polyvinylalcohols, proteins or pectins, or yet the materials cited in reference texts such as H. Scherz, Hydrokolloids: Stabilisatoren, Dickungs- und Gehermittel in Lebensmittel, Band 2 der Schriftenreihe Lebensmittelchemie, Lebensmittelqualität, Behr's VerlagGmbH & Co., Hamburg, 1996. Encapsulation is a well known process to a person skilled in the art, and may be performed, for instance, using techniques such as spray-drying, agglomeration, extrusion, conservation and the like. By “flavor base” we mean here a composition comprising at least one flavoring ingredient. Said flavoring ingredient is not a compound of formula (I). Moreover, by “flavoring ingredient” it is meant here a compound, which is used in flavoring preparations or compositions to impart a hedonic effect. In other words such an ingredient, to be considered as being a flavoring one, must be recognised by a person skilled in the art as being able to impart or modify in a positive or pleasant way the taste of a composition, and not just as having a taste. The nature and type of the flavoring co-ingredients present in the base do not warrant a more detailed description here, the skilled person being able to select them on the basis of its general knowledge and according to intended use or application and the desired organoleptic effect. In general terms, these flavoring co-ingredients belong to chemical classes as varied as alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, ethers, acetates, nitriles, terpenoids, nitrogenous or sulphurous heterocyclic compounds and essential oils, and said perfuming co-ingredients can be of natural or synthetic origin. Many of these co-ingredients are in any case listed in reference texts such as the book by S. Arctander, Perfume and Flavor Chemicals, 1969, Montclair, N.J., USA, or its more recent versions, or in other works of a similar nature, as well as in the abundant patent literature in the field of flavor. It is also understood that said co-ingredients may also be compounds known to release in a controlled manner various types of flavoring compounds. According to a particular embodiment of the invention, said flavor base comprises another umami imparting flavor ingredient, such as MSG (mono sodium glutamate), and ribotides (a blend, e.g. 50-50 w/w, of IMP (inosine monophosphate) and GMP (guanosine monophosphate)), for example in a MSG/ribotides w/w ratio from 95/5 to 90/10. Or ingredients rich in those compounds mentioned before that are well known to the people skilled in the art. By “flavor adjuvant” we mean here an ingredient capable of imparting additional added benefit such as a color, a particular light resistance, chemical stability, and so on. A detailed description, of the nature and type of adjuvant commonly used in flavoring bases cannot be exhaustive. Nevertheless, such adjuvants are well known to a person skilled in the art, but it has to be mentioned that said ingredients are well known to a person skilled in the art. A composition consisting of at least one compound of formula (I) and at least one flavor carrier represents a particular embodiment of the invention as well as a flavoring composition comprising at least one compound of formula (I), at least one flavor carrier, at least one flavor base, and optionally at least one flavor adjuvant. In a highly preferred embodiment, more than one compound of formula (I) is used in combination since it is found that a synergistic enhancement of the kokumi or umami taste can be achieved in this way. Moreover, it is found that the combination of ingredients can provide the desired kokumi or umami taste without imparting undesirable flavor notes. Moreover, a compound of formula (I) can be advantageously incorporated into flavored articles to positively impart, or modify, the kokumi or umami taste of said articles. Thus, in yet another aspect, the present invention provides a flavored article comprising: i) as taste-conferring or modifying ingredient, at least one compound of formula (I), as defined above, optionally present as part of a flavoring composition; and ii) a foodstuff base. Suitable foodstuff bases, e.g. foods or beverages, can be fried or not, as well as frozen or not, low fat or not, marinated, battered, chilled, dehydrated, instant, canned, reconstituted, retorted or preserved. Typical examples of said foodstuff bases include: a seasonings or condiment, such as a stock, a savory cube, a powder mix, a flavored oil, a sauce (e.g. a relish, barbecue sauce, a dressing, a gravy or a sweet and/or sour sauce), a salad dressing or a mayonnaise; a meat-based product, such as a poultry, beef or pork based product, a seafood, surimi, or a fish sausage; a soup, such as a clear soup, a cream soup, a chicken or beef soup or a tomato or asparagus soup; a carbohydrate-based product, such as instant noodles, rice, pasta, potatoes flakes or fried, noodles, pizza, tortillas, wraps; a dairy or fat product, such as a spread, a cheese, or regular or low fat margarine, a butter/margarine blend, a butter, a peanut butter, a shortening, a processed or flavored cheese; a savory product, such as a snack, a biscuit (e.g. chips or crisps) or an egg product, a potato/tortilla chip, a microwave popcorn, nuts, a bretzel, a rice cake, a rice cracker, etc; an imitation products, such as a dairy (e.g a reformed cheese made from oils, fats and thickeners) or seafood or meat (e.g. a vegetarian meat replacer, veggie burgers) analogue; or a pet or animal food. Particularly preferred foodstuffs in which the compound according to formula (I) finds utility include those having topnotes such as seafood, beef, chicken, vegetables, cheese, fat, tallow and/or marrow are important. For the sake of clarity, It has to be mentioned that, by “foodstuff” we mean here an edible product, e.g. a food or a beverage. Therefore, a flavored article according to the invention comprises one or more compounds according to formula (I), as well as optional benefit agents, corresponding to taste and flavor profile of the desired edible product, e.g. a savory cube. The nature and type of the constituents of the foodstuffs or beverages do not warrant a more detailed description here, the skilled person being able to select them on the basis of his general knowledge and according to the nature of said product. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, the taste-modifying composition and the flavored article according to the invention comprise as taste conferring or modifying ingredient a compound of formula (II) wherein R3 represents a hydrogen atom or represents a R5 group, and R4 represents a R5 or OR5 group, R5 representing a C1 to C3 alkyl group. According to any one of the above embodiments of the invention, R5 represents a methyl, ethyl, propyl or iso-propyl group. The proportions in which the compounds according to the invention can be incorporated into the various aforementioned articles or compositions vary within a wide range of values. These values are dependent on the nature of the article to be flavored and on the desired organoleptic effect as well as the nature of the co-ingredients in a given base when the compounds according to the invention are mixed with flavoring, co-ingredients, solvents or additives commonly used in the art. In the case of flavoring compositions, typical concentrations are in the order of 0.05% to 30%, more preferably 0.1% to 20%, most preferably 0.1% to 10%, of the compounds of the invention based on the weight of the flavoring compositions into which they are incorporated. Concentrations lower than these, such as in the order of 0.5 ppm to 300 ppm by weight more preferably 5 ppm to 75 ppm, most preferably 8 to 50 ppm, can be used when these compounds are incorporated into flavored articles, the percentage being relative to the weight of the article. At these levels the taste is typically described as umami-like, lasting, sweet and lingering. EXAMPLES The invention will now be described in farther detail by way of the following example, wherein the abbreviations have the usual meaning in the art, the NMR spectral data were recorded in CDCl3, with a 400 MHz machine for 1H, and a 100 or 125 MHz machine for 13C, the chemical displacements, δ, are indicated in ppm with respect to TMS as standard, and the coupling constants, J, are expressed in Hz. Example 1 Preparation of Compound According to the Invention Synthesis of Amides With Ethyl Chloroformate, General Procedure: The acid (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)acrylic acid, (typically 33 mmol) and DIEA (diisopropyl ethyl amine, 2 equiv.) were diluted in 200 mL of EtOAc and 50 mL of dichloromethane. The solution was cooled to 15° C. and ethyl chloroformate (1 molar equiv.) was added drop wise. The reaction was stirred for 1 hour before the starting amine (1 molar equiv., diluted 2-3 times in EtOAc) was added. The reaction was stirred overnight at room temperature. It was washed with aqueous 5% KHSO4, brine, aqueous 5% NaHCO3, brine, and then dried Na2SO4 and evaporated under high vacuum for 3 hours. The crude product was purified by flash chromatography (silica gel; cyclohexane/EtOAc, 2:8) or by recrystallization from EtOAc. Yields were between 50 and 80% on the purified product. Amide 1. starting amine: 2-(4-methoxyphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 2.82 (t, J=7.0, 2H), 3.61 (˜q, J=7.0, 5.9, 2H), 3.78 (s, 3H), 3.86 (s, 3H), 3.8 (s, 3H), 5.87 (t, J=5.9, 1H), 6.24 (d, J=15.5, 1H), 6.81 (d, J=8.3, 1H), 6.84 (d, J=8.6, 2H), 6.98 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.05 (dd, J=8.3, 2.0, 1H), 7.13 (d, J=8.6, 2H), 7.55 (d, J=15.5, 1H). 13C NMR: 34.8 (t), 41.0 (t), 55.2 (q), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 114.1 (d), 118.6 (d), 121.9 (d), 127.8 (s), 129.7 (d), 130.9 (s), 140.7 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.5 (s), 158.3 (s), 166.2 (s). Amide 2: starting amine: 2-phenylethanamine 1H NMR: 2.89 (J=6.8, 2H), 3.66 (˜q, J=6.8, 5.5, 2H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 5.72 (t, J=5.5, 1H), 6.21 (d, J=15.5 , 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.3, 1H), 6.99 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.06 (dd, J=8.3, 2.0, 1H), 7.20-7.26 (m, 3H), 7.30-7.34 (m, 2H), 7.56, (d, J=15.5, 1H). —C NMR: 35.7 (t), 40.8 (t), 55.9 (q), 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 118.5 (d) 121.9(d), 126.5 (d), 127.8 (s), 128.7 (d), 128.8 (d), 139.0 (s), 140.9 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 166.1 (s). Amide 3: starting amine: 2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 2.84 (t, J=6.9, 2H), 3.63 (−q, J=6.9, 6.0, 2H), 3.86 (s, 6H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 5.79 (t, J=6.0, 1H), 6.23 (d, J=15.5, 1H), 6,75 (˜d, J=8.0, 1H), 6.77 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 6.81 (d, J=8.0, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.0, 1H), 6.99 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.06 (dd, J=8.3, 2.0, 1H), 7.56 (d, J=15.5, 1H). 13C NMR: 35.2 (t), 40.9 (t), 55.86 (q), 55.88 (q), 55.93 (2 q), 109.6 (d), 111.1 (d), 111.4 (d), 112.0 (d), 118.5 (d), 120.7 (d), 122.0 (d), 127.8 (s), 131.4 (s), 140.9 (d), 147.7 (s), 149.1 (s), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 166.1 (s); Amide 4: starting amine: 2-(3methoxyphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 2.86 (t, J=6.9, 2H), 3.65 (˜q, J=7.0, 5.7, 2H), 3.79 (s, 3H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 5.76 (t, J=5.7, 1H), 6.22 (d, J=15.5, 1H), 6.76-6.82 (m, 3H), 6.83 (d, J 8.4 , 1H), 6.99 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.05 (dd, J=8.4, 2.0, 1H), 7.23 (dt, J=7.5, 1.0, 1H), 7.56 (d, J=15.5, 1H). 13C NMR: 35.7 (t), 40.6 (t), 55.2 (q), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 111.9 (d), 114.5 (d), 118.6 (d), 121.1 (d), 121.9 (d), 127.8 (s), 129.7 (d), 140.6 (s), 140.8 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.6(s), 159.8 (s), 166.2 (s). Amide 5: starting amine: 2-(2-methoxyphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 2.90 (t, J=6.8, 2H), 3.62 (q, J=6.8, 5.6, 2H), 3.84 (s, 3H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 5.91 (t, J=5.6, 1H), 6.22 (d, J=15.5, 1H), 6.82 (d, J=8.3, 1H), 6.87 (˜dd, J=8.4, 1.0, 1H), 6.91 (dd, J=7.5, 1.0, 1H), 6.99 (d, J=1.9, 1H), 7.05 (dd, J=8.3, 1.9, 1H), 7.15 (dd, J=7.5, 1.8, 1H), 7.22 (dt, J=7.5, 1.8, 1H), 7.53 (d, J=15.5, 1H). 13C NMR: 30.3 (t), 39.8 (t), 55.3 (q), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 110.4 (d), 111.1 (d), 118.9 (d), 120.7 (d), 121.8 (d), 127.4 (s), 127.9 (d), 127.9 (s), 130.6 (d), 140.4 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.5 (s), 157.6 (s), 166.1 (s). Amide 6: Starting amine: 2-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 2.82 (t, J=6.9, 2H), 3.64 (˜q, J=6.9, 5.7, 2H), 3.76 (s, 3H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 5.85 (t, J=5.7, 1H), 6.24 (d, J=15.7, 1H), 6.34 (t, J=2.2, 1H), 6.38 (d, J=2.2, 1H), 6.82 (d, J=8.3, 1H), 6.99 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.05 (dd, J=8.3, 2.0, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=15.7, 1H). 13C NMR: 36.0 (t), 40.5 (t), 55.3 (q), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 98.4 (d), 106.8 (d), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 118.6 (d), 122.0 (d), 127.8 (s), 140.8 (d), 141.3 (s), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 161.0 (s), 166.2 (s). Amide 7: starting amine: 2-(3-ethoxyphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 1.40 (t, J=7.0, 3H), 2.85 (t, J=6.9, 2H), 3.65 (˜q, J=6.9, 5.6, 2H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 4.02 (q, J=7.0, 2H), 5.70 (t, J=5.6, 1H), 6.21 (d, J=15.4, 1H), 6.76-6.81 (m, 3H), 6.83 (d, J=8.3, 1H), 7.00 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.06 (dd, J=8.3, 2.0, 1H), 7.20-7.25 (m, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=15.4, 1H). 13C NMR: 14.9 (q), 35.7 (t), 40.6 (t), 55.9 (q), 55.9 (q), 63.4 (t), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 112.4 (d), 115.1 (d), 118.6 (d), 121.0 (d), 122.0 (d), 127.8 (s), 129.7 (d), 140.5 (s), 140.8 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 159.2 (s), 166.1 (s). Amide 8: starting amine: 2-(3-propoxyphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 1.01 (t, J=7.4, 3H), 1.79 (˜hex, J=7.4, 6.5, 2H), 2.85 (t, J=6.9, 2H), 3.65 (˜q, J=6.9, 5.7, 2H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 3.90 (t, J=6.5, 2H), 5.70 (t, J=5.7, 1H), 6.22 (d, J=15.5, 1H), 6.76-6.81 (m, 3H), 6.82 (d, J=8.4, 1H), 6.99 (d, J=1.9, 1H), 7.05 (dd, J=8.4, 2.0, 1H), 7.19-7.23 (m, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=15.4, 1H). 13C NMR: 10.5 (q), 22.6 (t), 35.7 (t), 40.6 (t), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 69.5 (t), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 112.5 (d), 115.1 (d), 118.6 (d) 120.9 (d), 122.0 (d), 127H (s), 129.6 (d), 140.5 (s) 140.8 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 159.4 (s), 166.1 (s). Amide 9: starting amine: 2-(4-isopropoxyphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 1.32 (d, J=6.1, 6H), 2.81 (t, J=6.9, 2H), 3.61 (˜q, J=6.9, 5.8, 2H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 4.51 (hept, J=6.1, 1H), 5.80 (t, J=5.8, 1H), 6.23 (d, J=15.5, 1H), 6.81-6.85 (m, 3H), 6.99 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.05 (dd, J=8.4, 2.0, 1H), 7.11 (˜d: J=8.6, 2H), 7.55 (d, J=15.5, 1H). 1C NMR: 22.1 (q), 34.8 (t), 40.9 (t), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 69.9 (d), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 116.1 (d), 118.6 id), 121.9 (d), 127.8 (s), 129.7 (d), 130.7 (a), 140.8 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.5 (s), 156.6 (s), 166.1 (s). Amide 10: starting amine; 2-(4-ethylphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 1.23 (t, J=7.6, 3H), 2.63 (q, J=7.6, 2H), 2.85 (t, J=6.8, 2H), 3.64 (˜q, J=6.8, 5.6, 2H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 5.73 (t, J=5.6, 1H), 6.22 (d, J=15.6, 1H), 6.81-6.85 (m, 3H), 6.83 (d, J=8.4, 1H), 6.99 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.06 (dd, J=8.4, 2.0, 1H), 7.15 (broad s, 4H), 7.55 (d, J=15.6, 1H). 13C NMR: 15.6 (q), 28.4 (t), 35.3 (t), 40.8 (t), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d). 118.7 (d), 121.9 (d), 127.8 (s), 128.1 (d), 128.7 (d), 136.1 (s) 140.7 (d), 142.4 (s), 149.1 (s), 150.5 (s), 166.1 (s). Amide 11: starting amine: 2-(3,4-dimethylphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 2.24 (broad s, 6H), 2.82 (t, J=7.1, 2H), 3.63 (˜q, J=7.1, 5.5, 2H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 5.75 (t, J=5.5, 1H), 6.22 (d, J=15.6, 1H), 6.82 (d, J=8.4, 1H), 6.95 (dd, J=7.7, 1.8, 1H), 6.98-7.00 (m, 2H), 7.04-7.08 (m, 2H), 7.55 (d, J=15.6, 1H). 13C NMR: 19.3 (q) 19.8 (q), 35.2 (t), 40.8 (t), 55.9 (q), 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 118.6 (d), 121.9 (d), 126.1 (d), 127.9 (s), 129.9 (d), 130.1 (d), 134.7 (s), 136.2 (s), 136.8 (s), 140.7 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 166.1 (s). Amide 12: starting amine: 2-(4-isopropylphenyl)ethanamine 1H NMR: 1.25 (t, J=7.0, 3H), 2.85 (t, 6.9, 2H), 2.89 (hept, J=7.0, 1H), 3.65 (˜q, J=6.9, 5.4, 2H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 5.71 (t, J=5.4, 1H), 6.22 (d, J=15.6, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.4, 1H), 7.00 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.06 (dd, J=8.4, 2.0, 1H), 7.14-7.19 (m, 4H), 7.56 (d, J=15.6, 1H). 13C NMR: 24.0 (q), 33.7 (d), 35.3 (f), 40.8 (t), 55.9 (q) 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 118.6 (d), 121.9 (d), 126.7 (d), 127.9 (s), 128.7 (d), 136.2 (s), 140.8 (d), 147.1 (s), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 166.1 (s). Amide 13: starting amine: 2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine starting acid: (E)-3-(benzo[d][1,3]dioxol-5-yl)acrylic acid 1H NMR, 2.83 (t, J=7.1, 2H), 3.62 (˜q, J=7.1, 5.9, 2H), 3.858 (s, 3H), 3.862 (s, 3H), 5.70 (t, J=5.9, 1H), 5.98 (s, 2H), 6.16 (d, J=15.6, 1H), 6.74-6.83 (m, 4H), 6.96-6.97 (m, 2H), 7.56 (d, J=15.6, 1H). 13C NMR: 35.2 (t), 40.9 (t), 55.9 (q), 55.9 (q), 101.4 (t), 106.3 (d), 108.5 (d), 111.4 (d), 112.0 (d), 118.6 (d), 120.7 (d), 123.8 (d), 129.2 (s), 131.4 (s), 140.8 (d), 147.7 (s), 148.2 (s), 149.0 (s), 149.1 (s), 166.0 (s). Amide 14: starting amine: 2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine starting acid: (E)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)acrylic acid 1H NMR: 2.83 (t, J=6.9, 2H), 3.62 (˜q, J=6.9, 5.7, 2H), 3.80 (s, 3H), 3.83 (s, 3H), 3.84 (s, 3H), 5.97 (t, J=5.7, 1H), 6.25 (d, J=15.6, 1H), 6.73-6.81 (m, 3H), 6.84 (d, J=8.8, 2H), 7.40 (d, J=8.8, 2H), 7.57 (d, J=15.6, 1H). 13C NMR: 35.3 (t), 41.0 (t), 55.3 (q), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 111.4 (d), 112.0 (d), 114.2 (d), 118.4 (d), 120.7 (d), 127.5 (s), 129.3 (d), 131.5 (s), 140.5 (d), 147.7 (s), 149.0 (s), 160.8 (s), 166.3 (s). Amide 15: starting amine; 2-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)ethanamine starting acid: (E)-3-(4-acetoxy-3-methoxyphenyl)acrylic acid. After the coupling, deprotection step was performed in MeOH/5% aq Na2CO3 (1:1). 1H NMR: 2.83 (t, J=6.9, 2H), 3.63 (˜q, J=6.9, 5.7, 2H), 3.86 (s, 3H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.90 (s, 3H), 5.63 (t, J=5.7, 1H), 6.17 (d, J=15.4, 1H), 6.74 (˜d, J=1.9, 1H), 6.76 (˜dd, J=8.0, 1.9, 1H), 6.82 (d, J=8.0, 1H), 6.89 (d, J=8.0, 1H), 6.96 (d, J=1.9, 1H), 7.03 (dd, J=8.2, 1.9, 1H), 7.52 (d, J=15.4, 1H). Exchangeable OH not seen. 13C NMR: 35.2 (t), 40.9 (t), 55.9 (q), 56.0 (q), 109.6 (d), 111.4 (d), 112.0 (d), 114.7 (d), 118.0 (d), 120.7 <d), 122.2 (d), 127.3 (s), 131.4 (s), 141.2 (d), 146.7 (s), 147.4 (s), 147.7 (s), 149.1 (s), 166.3 (s). Amide 16: starting amine: (4-methoxyphenyl)methanamine; starting acid: (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenylacrylic acid 1H NMR 3.79 (s, 3H), 3.87 (s, 3H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 4.49 (d, J=5.7, 2H), 5.93 (t, J=5.7, 1H), 6.29 (d, J=15.5, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.4, 1H), 6.86 (˜d, J=8.7, 2H), 7.00 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.06 (dd, J=8.4, 2.0, 1H), 7.24 (˜d, J=8.7, 2H), 7.59 (d, J=15.5, 1H). 13C NMR: 43.3 (t), 55.3 (q), 55.8 (q), 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 114.1 <d), 118.4 (d), 121.9 (d), 127.8 (s), 129.3 (d), 130.4 (s), 141.1 (d), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 159.1 (s), 165.9 (s). Amide 17: starting amine: 2-(3-methylphenyl)ethanamine starting acid: (E)-3-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)acrylic acid 1H NMR: 2.34 (s, 3H), 2.85 (t, J=7.1, 2H), 3.65 (˜q, J=7.1, 5.4, 2H), 3.88 (s, 3H), 3.89 (s, 3H), 5.67 (t, J=5.4, 1H), 6.21 (d, J=15.5, 1H), 6.83 (d, J=8.3, 1H), 7.00 (d, J=2.0, 1H), 7.02-7.07 (m, 4H), 7.21 (˜d, J=7.5, 1H), 7.55 (d, J=15.5, 1H). 13C NMR: 21.4 (q), 35.6 (t), 40.7 (t), 55.9 (q), 55.9 (q), 109.7 (d), 111.1 (d), 118.6 (d), 121.9 (d), 125.8 (d), 127.3 (d), 127.8 (s), 128.6 (d), 129.6 (d), 138.3 (s), 138.8 (s), 140.8(d), 149.1 (s), 150.6 (s), 166.1 (s). Example 2 Evaluation of the Umami Effect of the Compound According to the Invention (In Water) a) Pure amide in pure water The amides were evaluated at 20 ppm in mineral water in comparison with 0.05% monosodium glutamate (MSG). The trained panelists (5-10) were giving an umami taste intensity note. The Relative umami intensity (RUI) was calculated as follows: RUI=(umami intensity of the amide)/(umami intensity of MSG)*10 The following table gives the average of the notes obtained from all panelists. Amide No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 RUI 5.6 3.8 3.3 10.2 3.2 3.7 9.8 Amide No 8 9 10 11 12 14 17 RUI 9.9 6.5 11.5 13.3 5.9 3.8 12.1 b) In the presence of maltodextrin and MSG Amides 1, 3, 4 and 8 were blended and diluted in maltodextrin at 10% w/w. Each blend was then added into a water solution containing MSG at 500 ppm in order to achieve a concentration ranging between 20 and 100 ppm of the amides, as indicated in the tables below: Sol 1 Sol 2 Sol 3 Sol 4 Sol 5 Sol 6 Sol 7 MSG 500 500 500 500 500 500 500 Amide 1 — — — — 20 — — Amide 3 — 20 35 50 — — — Amide 4 — — — — — 20 — Amide 8 — — — — — — 20 and also: Sol 8 Sol 9 Sol 10 Sol 11 Sol 12 Sol 13 MSG 500 500 500 500 500 500 Amide 7 20 — — — — — Amide 9 — 20 — — — — Amide 10 — — 20 — — — Amide 11 — — — 20 — — Amide 12 — — — — 20 — Amide 17 — — — — — 20 Sol = solution A panel consisted in 15 to 20 trained panelists evaluating the samples for taste properties on a scale of −5 to 5 (−5 denoted no umami effect and 5 denoted extremely strong umami effect, 0 being the umami intensity of a reference umami solution containing Monosodium Glutamate at 0.05%). The samples were evaluated with and without nose clip to focus on taste. Umami intensity Umami intensity Description with nose-clip without nose-clip With nose-clip/without nose-clip Solution 1 0 0 Umami Solution 2 0.91 0.76 Umami, mouthfeel, salivating/nutty, woody Solution 3 0.46 0.65 Umami, mouthfeel, salty/nutty, woody Solution 4 0.95 0.95 Umami, salty, mouthfeel, salivating, astringent, metallic/nutty, earthy Solution 5 1.13 1.25 Umami, salty, sweet, mouthfeel, fatty Solution 6 1.72 1.71 Umami, mouthfeel, salty, sweet/nutty Solution 7 1.25 1.46 Umami, salty, mouthfeel, salivating, hot, cooling Solution 8 1.27 1.34 Umami, sweet, salty, astringent, bitter, mouthfeel Solution 9 0.98 1.16 Umami, sweet Solution 10 0.88 0.94 Umami, sweet, salty, pungent, bitter Solution 11 0.8 0.95 Umami, green, herbal, salivating Solution 12 0.95 1.13 Umami, salty, sweet, herbal, astringent, metallic Solution 13 1.57 1.47 Umami, salty, pungent, mouthfeel., herbal Example 3 Evaluation of the Umami Effect of the Compound According to the Invention (In Applications) 1) Evaluation of amides 1 and 3 in a beef bouillon A beef stock was prepared containing the following ingredients: Ingredients in % w/w Maltodextrin 52 Onion Powder 1.5 Salt 32.7 White pepper 0.1 Yeast extract 3.8 Palm Oil 7.6 Caramel Color 0.7 Beef flavor 1.5 10 g of beef stock was poured in 500 ml of boiling water, MSG and amides 1 and 3 were added to the beef bouillon at the dosages indicated in Table 1. TABLE 1 Ingredients in ppm Bouillon 1 Bouillon 2 Bouillon 3 Bouillon 4 MSG — 700 — — Amide 1 — — — 25 Amide 3 — — 50 — The bouillons were presented to 5 trained panelists on a blind test basis. They were asked to rate the samples for taste properties on a scale of 0 to 10 (0 denoted no umami effect and 10 denoted extremely strong umami effect). The results are reported herein below: TABLE 2 Averages for each bouillon and descriptors Umami intensity Comments Bouillon 1 2.1 Yeasty, oniony, beef fat, flat Bouillon 2 5.1 More salty, round, umami, oniony, juicy, fatty Bouillon 3 3.1 Mouthfeel, salty, body Bouillon 4 3.9 Umami, round 2) Evaluation of amide 1 in a chicken bouillon A chicken stock was prepared containing the following ingredients: Ingredients in % w/w Chicken meat powder 2.5 Maltodextrin 32.2 Garlic powder 0.5 Palm oil 5 Ground white pepper 0.3 Yeast extract 10 Onion powder 3.25 Toasted onion powder 2 Turmeric 0.25 Salt 35 Chicken fat 5 Chicken flavor 4 10 g of chicken stock was poured in 500 ml of boiling water. MSG and amide 1 were added to the chicken bouillon at the dosages indicated in Table 3. TABLE 3 Ingredients in ppm Bouillon 1 Bouillon 2 Bouillon 3 MSG — 500 — Amide 1 — — 20 The bouillons were presented to 5 trained panelists on a blind test basis as described above. The results are reported herein below: TABLE 4 Averages for each bouillon and descriptors Umami intensity Comments Bouillon 1 3.5 Flat, salty Bouillon 2 6.4 Umami, mouthfeel, sweet, pleasant Bouillon 3 6.3 Umami 3) Evaluation of amides 1 and 4 in a pork flavor Amides 1 and 4 were evaluated at 20 ppm by 5 trained panelists in a pork flavor on a blind test basis as described above. The results are reported herein below: TABLE 5 Averages for each bouillon and descriptors Umami intensity Comments Pork flavor 4.5 Meaty, pork, animalic, fatty, mouthfeel, balanced, good Pork flavor + 6 More umami, more meaty, pork notes Amide 1 enhanced, liquorice note, slightly cooling, fatty Pork flavor + 7 More umami, rich strong meaty and pork Amide 4 notes, fatty 4) Evaluation of amides 1, 4, 8, 11, 12 in a chicken bouillon containing MSG and ribosides A chicken bouillon was prepared containing the following ingredients: Ingredients in % w/w Salt 27 MSG 10 Ribotides 0.03 Sugar 4 Vegetable oil 2 Chicken fat 2 White pepper powder 0.1 Yeast powder 1.5 Soy sauce powder 0.5 Chicken powder 4 Maltodextrin 35.77 Corn starch 5 Wheat powder 3 Egg powder 4 Chicken flavor 1.1 1 g of chicken bouillon was poured into 100 ml of boiling water. Amides 1, 4, 8,11,12 were added to the chicken bouillon at the dosages indicated in Table 6: TABLE 6 Ingredients in ppm Bouillon 1 2 3 4 5 6 Amide 1 — 25 — — — — Amide 4 — — 25 — — — Amide 8 — — — 8 — — Amide 11 — — — — 5 — Amide 12 — — — — — 25 The bouillons were presented to 5 trained panelists on a blind test basis as described above. The results are reported herein below: TABLE 7 Averages for each bouillon and descriptors Umami intensity Comments Bouillon 1 5.3 White meat, round, no off notes Bouillon 2 6.3 Sweet, meaty, balanced, very round, full Bouillon 3 6.3 Slow build, mouthfeel, sweet, umami, no off note, round, very balanced Bouillon 4 6.7 Strong umami, sweet, lingering, sweet and umami Bouillon 5 6.7 White meat, slightly astringent, very full, round, lasting, no off notes Bouillon 6 6 Mouthfeel, no off note, umami, sweet, very balanced slightly astringent 5) Evaluation of amides 1 and 3 in marinated chicken A marinade was prepared containing the following ingredients: Ingredients in % w/w Water 90 Salt 4 Hamine phosphate 1 Chicken White Meat Flavor 5 MSG, amides 1 and 3 were added to the marinade at the dosages indicated herein below: Ingredients in % w/w Marinade 1 Marinade 2 Marinade 3 Marinade 4 Marinade 100 100 100 100 MSG — 0.3 — — Amide 1 — — 0.05 — Amide 3 — — — 0.05 Marinades were added with chicken meat in plastic bags in the following quantities: Ingredients in % w/w Marinated Marinated Marinated Marinated chicken 1 chicken 2 chicken 3 chicken 4 Chicken meat 90 90 90 90 Marinade 1 10 — — — Marinade 2 — 10 — — Marinade 3 — — 10 — Marinade 4 — — — 10 Samples were tumbled under vacuum for 25 minutes, and then cooked in a steam oven until meat temperature reaches 75° C. Samples were then frozen and reheat for 20 minutes at in the oven before evaluation. The marinated chicken samples were presented to 5 trained panelists on a blind test basis as described above. The results are reported herein below: TABLE 8 Averages for each marinated chicken and descriptors Umami intensity Comments Marinated chicken 1 1.3 dry Marinated chicken 2 4 Strong, clean, pleasant aftertaste, juicy Marinated chicken 3 4.9 Very similar to MSG, meaty, round, brothy, balanced, sweet, full Marinated chicken 4 3 Clean, pleasant, strong impact, enhances chicken juicy, sweet 6) Evaluation of amides 1 and 3 in surimi Surimi was prepared using the following ingredients in % w/w: Ingredients in % w/w Frozen surimi base 39.8 Salt 1.19 Native Wheat Starch 4.98 Potato Starch 4.98 Sunflower Oil 4.98 Egg White 6.97 Ice 36.6 Crab extract 0.5 The dry ingredients (salt, starches) were first put in a bowl chopper. The ice mix was added until homogenous. The surimi base was then added and mixed for 3 minutes. The oil was added while mixing, followed by the egg white. MSG and the amides 1 and 3 were added to the surimi preparation at the dosages indicated herein below: Surimi 1 Surimi 2 Surimi 3 Surimi 4 MSG — 5000 ppm — — Amide 1 — — 50 ppm — Amide 3 — — — 50 ppm The 4 surimis were put m cooking bags and cooked for 45 minutes in a steam oven at 90° C. The samples were then quickly cooled down. The surimi samples were presented to 5 trained panelists on a blind test basis as described above. The results are reported herein below: TABLE 9 Averages for each surimi and descriptors Umami intensity Comments Surimi 1 2.2 Flat, eggy, slightly amine, not really fishy Surimi 2 5.3 Sweet, umami, round, sweet, salty Surimi 3 3.2 Slightly sweet, umami, juicy, round, fishy, crab Surimi 4 3.7 Crab, slightly amine, sweet, fishy, oyster, crab, juicy | <SOH> BACKGROUND AND PRIOR ART <EOH>Various cinnamic acid derived amides are known to naturally occur in plants such as Zanthoxylum rubescens (Rutaceae) [Amides from Zanthoxylum Rubescens , Adesina, S. K.; Reisch, J. Phytochem. 1989, 3, 839-842.] or Piperaceae [Chemical constituents of peppers ( Piper spp.) and application to food preservation: naturally occurring aniioxidative compounds. Nakatani, N.; Inatani, R.; Ohta, H.; Nishioka, A., Environ. Health Perspectives 1986, 67, 135-142]. Since vanilloid amides, such as capsaicin or piperine are usually found in pepper or capsicum species, they generally have a pungent or hot taste. It would be desirable to avoid this. US2003/0152682 (Bayer Polymers LLC) and EP 1 323 356 (Symrise) disclose the use of ferollic acid amides as pungent compounds or heat generating-system for oral hygiene products. Included in this document is the compound trans-rubenamine, but it is not described or even suggested to have an umami taste. EP 2 138 152 (to Henkel) describes mouthwash compositions containing ferrulic acid derived amides among other amides or pungent, or cooling compounds. However, none of these documents anticipate, report or suggest that the compounds described therein have organoleptic properties that can be used to impart or reinforce a kokumi or umami taste. In New Developments in Umami (Enhancing) Molecules, Winkel et al, Chemistry & Biodiversity; Vol 5 (2008), p 1195-1293, a review of known umami modifying compounds is given. However, there is no suggestion of the compounds of the present invention. Kokumi and umami me now established descriptors in the field of taste and are known to supplement, enhance, or modify the taste and/or aroma of a food without necessarily having a strong characteristic taste or aroma of their own. A desire for kokumi and umami exists for a wide range of foods like soups, sauces, savory stacks, prepared meals, condiments, etc. Moreover, they are often found to complement or enhance foodstuffs which have a savory or salty characteristic and, as a result, may be useful where sodium or salt reduction is desired. Umami is one of the five basic tastes sensed by specialized receptor cells present on the human tongue. Umami applies to the sensation of savoriness, and particularly to the detection of glutamates and/or ribolides which are common in meats, cheese and other protein-rich foods. The behavior of umami receptors explains why foods containing monosodium glutamate (MSG) often taste “fuller”. However, some consumers are apparently sensitive to MSG and may suffer from headaches or other illnesses upon consuming it. Thus replacement of MSG, at least partially, can be desirable. Kokumi has been described variously as “deliciousness”, “continuity”, “mouthfulness”, “mouthfeel” and “thickness”. It exists naturally in a variety of foods such as cheese, giving a ‘mature’ cheese taste, vegetable flavors, particularly tomato; meat, where it gives a fullness and longer lasting taste; mayonnaise & dressings, where it can round out acid notes; fat-reduced food products, where it gives a similar fullness to full-fat products; herbs and spice; and soups, especially miso soup. US2006/057268 reports saturated or unsaturated N-alkamide and their use as umami ingredients. It would be desirable to provide a flavor or taste enhancing ingredient that has umami or kokumi characteristics. It would be even more desirable to provide a flavor or taste enhancing ingredient that has umami and kokumi characteristics. detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | A23L27204 | 20170712 | 20171123 | 90010.0 | A23L2720 | 0 | DEES, NIKKI H | Taste Modifying Product | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-PENDING | A23L | 2,017 |
||
15,649,024 | ACCEPTED | PROCESS OF MAKING STABLE ABUSE-DETERRENT ORAL FORMULATIONS | The present disclosure relates to cured pharmaceutical compositions designed to reduce the potential for improper administration of drugs that are subject to abuse, the process of curing such composition in order to improve the dissolution stability, method of using the same for treatment of pain. | 1. A process comprising: a. Preparing a mixture comprising: (i) one or more drugs, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids, or (ii) one or more drugs in the form of a fatty acid salt and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b. forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c. optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d. curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at a temperature within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours. 2. The process of claim 1, wherein the cured formulated microparticles exhibit less change in the dissolution profile after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH than otherwise identical uncured formulated microparticles after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH, wherein dissolution is conducted at 100 RPM using USP Apparatus I in 900 mL of pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20 at 37° C. 3. The process of claim 1, wherein the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 15% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH, and wherein dissolution is conducted using USP Apparatus I in pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20. 4. The process of claim 1, wherein the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 10% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH, and wherein dissolution is conducted using USP Apparatus I in pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20. 5. The process of claim 1, wherein the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 5% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH, and wherein dissolution is conducted using USP Apparatus I in pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20. 6. The process of claim 1, wherein the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 2.5% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH, and wherein dissolution is conducted using USP Apparatus I in pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20. 7. The process of claim 1, wherein the fatty acid is myristic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 36° C. 8. The process of claim 1, wherein the fatty acid is stearic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 53° C. 9. The process of claim 1, wherein the microparticles or formulated microparticles are cured at a first temperature above the inversion temperature and subsequently a second temperature below the inversion temperature. 10. A pharmaceutical composition prepared by the process of claim 1. 11. A capsule comprising the pharmaceutical composition of claim 10. 12. A pharmaceutical composition prepared by the process of claim 7. 13. A capsule comprising the pharmaceutical composition of claim 12. 14. Pharmaceutically acceptable solid microparticles or formulated microparticles comprising: a mixture prepared from a melt of one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, one or more drugs or salts thereof with one or more fatty acids thereof, and a sufficient amount of the one or more fatty acids to provide said microparticles in substantially homogenous form, wherein said microparticles or formulated microparticles are cured at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hour. 15. The pharmaceutically acceptable solid microparticles or formulated microparticles of claim 14, wherein the fatty acid is myristic acid, and the drug is oxycodone. 16. A method of treating pain comprising administering the pharmaceutical composition of claim 12 to a patient in need thereof. 17. A method of treating pain comprising administering the capsule of claim 13 to a patient in need thereof. 18. A method of treating pain comprising administering the pharmaceutically acceptable microparticles or formulated microparticles of claim 14 to a patient in need thereof. 19. A method of treating pain comprising administering the pharmaceutically acceptable microparticles or formulated microparticles of claim 15 to a patient in need thereof. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/353,839 filed Jun. 23, 2016, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. FIELD The present disclosure is generally directed to the field of pharmaceutical compositions, such as compositions designed to reduce the potential for improper administration of drugs that are subject to abuse, extended-release compositions, methods of making such compositions with improved dissolution stability, and methods of using the same for treatment of pain. BACKGROUND Opioids such as oxycodone in the form of extended-release (ER) formulations are used to manage moderate to severe chronic pain. Although usually a safe and effective treatment option for patients with chronic pain who are appropriately managed and monitored, ER opioid formulations are associated with high rates of misuse, abuse, and diversion. This is in large part because oral ER opioids carry a large opioid load. Abusers often manipulate (e.g., cut, crush, or dissolve) ER formulations to more rapidly release most, if not all, of the active drug, with the goal of achieving a quick drug high. Further, misuse can occur when patients or their caregivers manipulate ER formulations for any number of reasons, including to reduce the dose or make the medication easier to swallow. Manipulation of most ER opioid formulations, regardless of intent, can result in greater exposure to drug than intended, which can lead to adverse consequences or even death. These challenges have led to the development of ER opioid formulations with properties intended to make product manipulation more difficult. Often referred to as abuse-deterrent, many of these formulations incorporate physical or chemical barriers to mechanical or chemical manipulations. The DETERx® platform technology is an abuse-deterrent formulation strategy which consists of an active drug dissolved or dispersed in a melt comprising a hydrophobic fatty acid and a wax matrix (optionally including other excipients) that is then formed into particles, for example microspheres, e.g., using a spinning disk or other suitable atomizing or milling process. The microparticles (or microspheres, if produced by a process resulting in spherical particles), along with small quantities of external processing excipients are encapsulated into hard shell capsules or other suitable dosage forms. The microparticles are designed to preserve the extended release characteristics on physical manipulation by means such as crushing with household tools or by chewing. These properties are a consequence of the small size of the extended-release microparticles, along with the physiochemical properties of the inactive ingredients. Additionally, the fatty acid and active ingredient component of DETERx microspheres are selected such that they are associated via an ionic interaction (i.e., salt) in the solid microparticles. This interaction allows the active component to be dissolved during the melt formulation process, and allows for the formation of a solid solution. The creation of a solid solution of drug in hydrophobic materials further reduces the extractability and contributes to the abuse-deterrent properties of the formulation. The microspheres in oxycodone DETERx are produced using a spray-congealing process from a hot melt. When using a spray congealing process, such as a spinning disk atomization process, the microspheres are formed nearly instantaneously as the melt is atomized. For pharmaceutical products, changes to the product during the normal product shelf-life at recommended storage conditions (i.e., room temperature) should be minimized to the extent possible. For this reason, pharmaceutical products are routinely tested by subjecting the product to stability studies in the commercial packaging configuration. Stability study requirements are outlined in US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidances, including ICH Q1A(R2), “Stability Testing of New Drug Substances and Products”, November 2003. Product attributes tested during stability studies include, for example, tests for potency, purity, microbial attributes and drug release rate using standardized dissolution apparatus. The present invention relates to a process for manufacturing extended-release microparticles with improved dissolution stability. The process of the present invention is related to microparticles comprising an active drug, one or more fatty acids and one or more wax components manufactured by congealing from a hot-melt process. It has been unexpectedly found that curing the product at one or more temperatures within the range from 25° C. up to an inversion temperature, for a minimum period of time, is required to effectively stabilize the dissolution profiles of such compositions. Curing outside this range will have either no significant effect or an adverse effect on product stability. The existence or identification of this inversion temperature and its role in curing has not previously been disclosed for such formulations. The present inventors have developed a manufacturing process that utilizes curing within a specific temperature range to produce pharmaceutical compositions with improved dissolution stability. This process can be applied in making pharmaceutical formulations containing active drugs, such as opioids. SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE This disclosure provides a process of making abuse-deterrent pharmaceutical formulations. In one embodiment, the process requires forming an abuse-deterrent formulation and then curing the composition. In one embodiment, the process of making an abuse-deterrent formulation comprises the steps of: preparing a mixture comprising (i) one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, one or more drugs, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids, or (ii) one or more drugs in the form of a fatty acid salt, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less change in the dissolution profile after storing for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% relative humidity (RH) than otherwise identical uncured formulated microparticles after storing for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH when dissolution is conducted at 100 RPM using USP Apparatus I in 900 mL of pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20 at 37° C. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 15% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In another embodiment, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 10% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In another embodiment, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 5% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In other embodiments, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 2.5% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the fatty acid is myristic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 36° C. In another embodiment of the disclosed process, the fatty acid is stearic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 53° C. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the microparticles are cured at a first temperature above the inversion temperature and subsequently a second temperature below the inversion temperature. In one embodiment, the present disclosure provides a pharmaceutical composition prepared by the process comprising the steps of: a) mixing one or more drugs, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours. In another embodiment, the present disclosure provides a pharmaceutical composition prepared by the process comprising the steps of: a) mixing one or more fatty acid salts of one or more drugs, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours. In another embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition comprises a composition prepared by any of the processes described herein, for example wherein the fatty acid is myristic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 36° C. In another embodiment of the present disclosure, a capsule is provided comprising any one of the pharmaceutical compositions as described herein. This disclosure provides a pharmaceutical formulation with improved dissolution stability. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation is a cured composition. In some embodiments, the cured composition is in a form of solid microparticles or formulated microparticles. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable solid microparticles or formulated microparticles cured at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours comprise: a mixture of one or more drugs, one or more waxes, and a sufficient amount of one or more fatty acids to provide said mixture in substantially homogenous form during the melt manufacture of the microparticles. In one embodiment of the disclosed microparticles, the fatty acid is myristic acid, and the drug is oxycodone. This disclosure provides a method of treating pain comprising administering any one of the pharmaceutical compositions as described herein. In some embodiments of the methods disclosed herein, the pharmaceutical composition is prepared by the process comprising the steps of: a) preparing a mixture comprising (i) one or more drugs, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids, or (ii) one or more drugs in the form of a fatty acid salt and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours; wherein the fatty acid is myristic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 36° C. In another embodiment of the method disclosed herein, a capsule comprising any one of the pharmaceutical compositions as disclosed herein is provided. In another embodiment of the present disclosure, the method of treating pain is provided, wherein pharmaceutically acceptable solid microparticles or formulated microparticles cured at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours, as described herein, e.g. comprising: a mixture of one or more drugs, one or more waxes, and a sufficient amount of one or more fatty acids to provide said mixture in substantially homogenous form during the melt manufacture of the microparticles, is administered to a patient in need thereof. In one embodiment, the method of treating pain as disclosed herein comprises administering a pharmaceutically acceptable microparticles or formulated microparticles comprising myristic acid and oxycodone. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1. shows dissolution of capsules produced with uncured oxycodone containing microspheres after storage at 25° C./60% RH, 30° C./65% RH, and 40° C./75% RH for 3 months. FIG. 2A. shows dissolution of capsules produced with oxycodone containing microspheres after single-stage curing between 32-36° C. for 2 days. FIG. 2B. shows dissolution of capsules produced with oxycodone containing microspheres after single-stage curing between 32-36° C. for 6-7 days. FIG. 3A. compares initial (TO) dissolution of a formulation of uncured oxycodone containing microspheres with dissolution of the same uncured formulation after 6 months of storage at 25° C./60% RH. FIG. 3B. compares initial (TO) dissolution of a formulation of oxycodone containing microspheres cured in a single stage at 34° C. for 1 month with dissolution of the same cured formulation after 6 months of storage at 25° C./60% RH. FIG. 3C. compares initial (TO) dissolution of a formulation of oxycodone containing microspheres cured in a single stage at 32° C. for 1 month with dissolution of the same cured formulation after 6 months of storage at 25° C./60% RH. FIG. 3D. compares initial (TO) dissolution of a formulation of oxycodone containing microspheres cured in a single stage at 30° C. for 1 month with dissolution of the same cured formulation after 6 months of storage at 25° C./60% RH. FIG. 3E. compares initial (TO) dissolution of a formulation of oxycodone containing microspheres cured in a 2-stage process (40° C./4d:30° C./3d) with dissolution of the same cured formulation after 6 months of storage at 25° C./60% RH. FIG. 4A. shows the dissolution behavior of a formulation of microspheres containing oxycodone and stearic acid after single stage curing at 50° C. FIG. 4B. shows the dissolution behavior of a formulation of microspheres containing oxymorphone and stearic acid after single stage curing at 50° C. FIG. 4C. shows the dissolution behavior of formulation of microspheres containing oxymorphone and stearic acid after single stage curing at 55° C. and 60° C. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE Definitions While the following terms are believed to be well understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, the following definitions are set forth to facilitate explanation of the presently disclosed subject matter. The term “a” or “an” refers to one or more of that entity; for example, “a halogen” refers to one or more halogens or at least one halogen. As such, the terms “a” (or “an”), “one or more” and “at least one” are used interchangeably herein. In addition, reference to “an alkyl group” by the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude the possibility that more than one of the alkyl group is present, unless the context clearly requires that there is one and only one of the alkyl groups. As used herein, the verb “comprise” as is used in this description and in the claims and its conjugations are used in its non-limiting sense to mean that items following the word are included, but items not specifically mentioned are not excluded. As used herein, “curing” or “annealing” refers to a process used to stabilize excipients, intermediates and finished products over shorter time frames than would otherwise be realized at room temperature, for example by heating or maintaining under specified temperature, time, and, optionally, RH conditions. As used herein, “formulated” (in the context of “formulated” microparticles) refers to microparticles (cured or uncured) combined with other excipients and/or further processed by means such as, but not limited to, tableting by compression or encapsulation. As used herein “inversion temperature” is the temperature at or below which a composition of the present invention is cured to result in improved dissolution stability as described herein. The inversion temperature of a particular composition of the present invention can be determined empirically, e.g., as described in Example 2 herein. The fatty acid salt is formed by interaction between the one or more fatty acids and one or more drugs wherein the fatty acid is present in excess of or below the concentration required for complete solubilization of the drugs in the melt. The fatty acid salt is dispersed within a wax composition and, optionally, other excipients in a solid, dissolved or melted state. As used herein, “substantially homogenous” with respect to the molten compositions or microparticles of the present disclosure refers specifically to the homogeneity of the fatty acid salt(s) of the one or more drugs in the waxy excipients. A substantially homogeneous combination of the fatty acid salt(s) of the one or more drugs and one or pharmaceutically acceptable waxes and other excipients means at least 50 mole % of the drug is homogeneously dissolved or dispersed in the wax composition. In other embodiments, the mole % of fatty acid salt of the drug dissolved or dispersed in the wax is at least 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 99%, or about 100% As used herein, a “wax” or a “wax-like material” is defined as any pharmaceutically acceptable material, including any of a diverse class of organic compounds that are hydrophobic, malleable solids near ambient temperatures. They include higher alkanes and lipids, typically with melting points above about 40° C. (104° F.), melting to give low viscosity liquids. Waxes are virtually insoluble in water. Natural waxes of different types are produced by plants and animals and occur in petroleum and include those waxes disclosed herein. As used herein, the symbol “≦” means “not more than” or “equal to or less than”; “<” means “less than”; “≧” means “not less than” or “equal to or more than”; and “>” means “more than”. Furthermore, the numerical numbers, when used herein in connection with purity or impurity content, include not only the exact number but also the approximate range around the number. For example, the phrase “purity of 99.0%” denotes a purity of about 99.0%. Pharmaceutical Compositions The present disclosure provides a pharmaceutical composition designed to reduce the potential for improper administration of drugs that are subject to abuse. In one embodiment, the composition is in the form of or comprises microparticles formed from a melt manufacturing process. In another embodiment, the composition or a component of the composition is cured. In another embodiment, the composition of the present disclosure provides improved dissolution stability. In one embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition of the present disclosure is or comprises solid microparticles. In one embodiment, pharmaceutically acceptable solid microparticles or formulated microparticles cured at a temperature within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours comprise: a mixture of one or more drugs, one or more waxes, and a sufficient amount of one or more fatty acids to provide said mixture in substantially homogenous form during the melt manufacture of the microparticles. In one embodiment, one or more drugs are selected from Schedule II, III, IV or V drugs. In another embodiment, the one or more drugs are opioid analgesics. In one embodiment, one or more drugs are selected from 1-phenylcyclohexylamine, 1-piperidinocyclohexanecarbonitrile, alfentanil, alphacetylmethadol, alphaprodine, alprazolam, amobarbital, amphetamine, anileridine, apomorphine, aprobarbital, barbital, barbituric acid derivatives, bemidone, benzoylecgonine, benzphetamine, betacetylmethadol, betaprodine, bezitramide, bromazepam, buprenorphine, butabarbital, butalbital, butorphanol, camazepam, cathine, chloral, chlordiazepoxide, clobazam, clonazepam, clorazepate, clotiazepam, cloxazolam, cocaine, codeine, chlorphentermine, delorazepam, dexfenfluramine, dextromoramide, dextropropoxyphen, dezocine, diazepam, diethylpropion, difenoxin, dihydrocodeine, dihydromorphine, dioxaphentyl butyrate, dipanone, diphenoxylate, diprenorphine, ecgonine, enadoline, eptazocine, estazolam, ethoheptazine, ethyl loflazepate, ethylmorphine, etorphine, femproponex, fencamfamin, fenfluramine, fentanyl, fludiazepam, flunitrazepam, flurazepam, glutethimide, halazepam, haloxazolam, hexalgon, hydrocodone, hydromorphone, isomethadone, hydrocodone, ketamine, ketazolam, ketobemidone, levanone, levoalphacetylmethadol, levomethadone, levomethadyl acetate, levomethorphan, levorphanol, lofentanil, loperamide, loprazolam, lorazepam, lormetazepam, lysergic acid, lysergic acid amide, mazindol, medazepam, mefenorex, mepetidine, meptazinol, metazocine, methadone, methamphetamine, methohexital, methotrimeprazine, methyl dihydromorphinone, methylphenidate, methylphenobarbital, metopon, morphine, nabilone, nalbuphine, nalbupine, nalorphine, narceine, nefopam, nicomorphine, nimetazepam, nitrazepam, nordiazepam, normethadone, normorphine, oxazepam, oxazolam, oxycodone, oxymorphone, pentazocine, pentobarbital. phenadoxone, phenazocine, phencyclidine, phendimetrazine, phenmetrazine, phenetidine, piminodine, prodilidine, properidine, propoxyphene, racemethorphan, racemorphan, racemoramide, remifentanil, secobarbital, sufentanil, talbutal, thebaine, thiamylal, thiopental, tramadol, trimeperidine, or vinbarbital, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or a stereoisomer thereof. In addition, in one embodiment, the following scheduled drugs may be incorporated into the composition: allobarbitone, alprazolam, amylobarbitone, aprobarbital, barbital, barbitone, benzphetamine, brallobarbital, bromazepam, brotizolam, buspirone, butalbital, butobarbitone, bntorphanol, camazepam, captodiame, carbromal, carfentanil, carpipramine, cathine, chloral, chloral betaine, chloral hydrate, chloralose, chlordiazepoxide, chlorhexadol, chlormethiazole edisylate, chlormezanone, cinolazepam, clobazam, potassium clorazepate, clotiazepam, cloxazolam, cyclobarbitone, delorazepam, dexfenfluramine, diazepam, diethylpropion, difebarbamate, difenoxin, enciprazine, estazolam, ethyl loflazepate, etizolam, febarbamate, fencamfamin, fenfluramine, fenproporex, fluanisone, fludiazepam, flunitraam, flunitrazepam, flurazepam, flutoprazepam, gepirone, glutethimide, halazepam, haloxazolam, hexobarbitone, ibomal, ipsapirone, ketazolam, loprazolam mesylatc, lorazepam, lormetazepam, mazindol, mebutamate, medazepam, mefenorex, mephobarbital, meprobamate, metaclazepam, methaqualone, methohexital, methylpentynol, methylphenobarbital, midazolam, milazolam, morphine, nimetazepam, nitrazepam, nordiazepam, oxazepam, oxazolam, paraldehyde, pemoline, pentabarbitone, pentazocine, pentobarbital, phencyclidine, phenobarbital, phendimetrazine, phenmetrazine, phenprobamate, phentermine, phenyacetone, pinazepam, pipradol, prazepam, proxibarbal, quazepam, quinalbaritone, secobarbital, secbutobarbitone, sibutramine, temazepam, tetrazepam, triazolam, triclofos, zalepan, zaleplon, zolazepam, zolpidem, or zopiclone, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt or a stereoisomer thereof. The composition disclosed herein contemplates all such compounds, including cis- and trans-isomers, R- and S-enantiomers, diastereomers, (D)-isomers, (L)-isomers, the racemic mixtures thereof, compounds of different spacial conformations, and other mixtures thereof, as falling within the scope of the invention. Additional asymmetric carbon atoms may be present in a substituent such as an alkyl group. All such isomers, as well as mixtures thereof, are intended to be included in this disclosure. In one embodiment, the one or more drugs is oxycodone or pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In another embodiment, the one or more drugs is oxycodone hydrochloride. In a further embodiment the one or more drugs is a fatty acid salt of oxycodone. Suitable fatty acids include any of the fatty acids disclosed herein. In one embodiment, the one or more drugs are provided in about 1 wt. % to about 60 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microparticles. In another embodiment, the one or more drugs are provided in about 1 wt. % to about 20 wt. % or in about 1 wt. % to about 10 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microparticles. In one embodiment, the one or more drugs are provided in about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7, about 8, about 9, about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, or about 20 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microparticles. In one embodiment, the one or more drugs in a dosage form comprising any one of the compositions disclosed herein contains about 1 to about 100 mg of the drug. In one embodiment, the drug in a dosage form is about 5, 7.5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, or 80 mg. In one embodiment, the dosage form comprises oxycodone or pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof in amounts equivalent to about 9, 13.5, 18, 27, 36, 54, or 72 mg oxycodone base. When the drug is in the form of a salt, the weight percentage of drug salt in the compositions of the present invention is expressed as the equivalent weight of the non-salt (or free-base) form of the drug unless otherwise specified. In one embodiment, the one or more waxes are selected from wax-like materials including natural or synthetic waxes, hydrocarbons, or normal waxes. Examples of waxes include, but are not limited to, beeswax, glycowax, castor wax, carnauba wax, paraffins and candelilla wax. In one embodiment, the one or more waxes are selected from carnauba wax, beeswax, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the one or more waxes are provided in about 1 wt. % to about 80 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microspheres. In another embodiment, the one or more waxes are provided in about 20 wt. % to about 80 wt. % or 30 wt. % to about 50 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microparticles. In one embodiment, the one or more waxes are provided in about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, about 20, about 21, about 22, about 23, about 24, about 25, about 26, about 27, about 28, about 29, about 30, about 31, about 32, about 33, about 34, about 35, about 36, about 37, about 38, about 39, about 40, about 41, about 42, about 43, about 44, about 45, about 46, about 47, about 48, about 49, about 50, about 51, about 52, about 53, about 54, about 55, about 56, about 57, about 58, about 59, or about 60, about 61, about 62, about 63, about 64, about 65, about 66, about 67, about 68, about 69, about 70, wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microparticles. In one embodiment, the one or more fatty acids are selected from free fatty acids. In one embodiment, the one or more fatty acids are selected from lauric acid, myristic acid, stearic acid, or palmitic acid, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the one or more fatty acids are selected from substituted or unsubstituted C12-C40 fatty acids. In other embodiments, the one or more fatty acids are selected from substituted or unsubstituted C12-C20 fatty acids. In one embodiment, the one or more fatty acid is myristic acid. In other embodiments, the one or more fatty acid is stearic acid. In other embodiments, the one or more fatty acids is palmitic acid. In other embodiments the one or more fatty acids are a combination of palmitic and stearic acids. In one embodiment, the one or more fatty acids are provided in an amount of about 1 wt. % to about 80 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microspheres. In another embodiment, the one or more fatty acids are provided in an amount of about 20 wt. % to about 80 wt. % or 40 wt. % to about 60 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microparticles. In one embodiment, the one or more fatty acids are provided in an amount of about 10, about 11, about 12, about 13, about 14, about 15, about 16, about 17, about 18, about 19, about 20, about 21, about 22, about 23, about 24, about 25, about 26, about 27, about 28, about 29, about 30, about 31, about 32, about 33, about 34, about 35, about 36, about 37, about 38, about 39, about 40, about 41, about 42, about 43, about 44, about 45, about 46, about 47, about 48, about 49, about 50, about 51, about 52, about 53, about 54, about 55, about 56, about 57, about 58, about 59, or about 60, about 61, about 62, about 63, about 64, about 65, about 66, about 67, about 68, about 69, or about 70, wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microparticles. In one embodiment, the amount of one or more fatty acids sufficient to provide said mixture in substantially homogenous form during melt manufacture is determined by experimentation. In another embodiment, the amount of one or more fatty acids sufficient to provide said mixture in substantially homogenous form is about 40 wt. % to about 60 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microparticles. In another embodiment, the amount of one or more fatty acids sufficient to provide said mixture in substantially homogenous form is about 52 wt. % of the pharmaceutical composition or the pharmaceutical microspheres. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition of the present disclosure further comprises pharmaceutically acceptable excipients. In one embodiment, suitable pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include fats and fatty substances. Examples of fats and fatty substances include fatty alcohols (such as lauryl, myristyl stearyl, cetyl or cetostearyl alcohol), fatty acid derivatives, including but not limited, fatty acid esters, fatty acid glycerides (mono-, di- and tri-glycerides), fatty amines, and hydrogenated fats. Specific examples include, but are not limited to hydrogenated vegetable oil, hydrogenated cottonseed oil, hydrogenated castor oil, hydrogenated oils available under the trade name Sterotex®, cocoa butter, glyceryl behenate (available under the trade name COMPRITOL 888®), glyceryl dipalmitostearate (available under the trade name PRECIROL®), and stearyl alcohol. In some embodiments, drug containing multiparticulates are coated. Drug containing multiparticulates can be coated with water insoluble materials, slowly water soluble materials, organic insoluble materials and/or materials with pH dependent solubilities. In general, any coating procedure which provides a contiguous coating on each multiparticulate can be used. Coating procedures known in the arts include, but are not limited to, fluid bed coating processes and microencapsulation. Detailed descriptions of these processes can be found in “Remington—The science and practice of pharmacy”, 20th Edition, Jennaro et al., (Phila, Lippencott, Williams, and Wilkens, 2000. The water-insoluble coating materials may be selected from natural or synthetic film-formers used alone, in admixture with each other, or in admixture with plasticizers, pigments and other substances to alter the characteristics of the coating. A water-insoluble but water-permeable diffusion barrier may contain ethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose and mixtures thereof. The water-permeable diffusion barrier may also include ammonio methacrylate copolymers sold under the trade name EUDRAGIT®. (Rohm Pharma), such as EUDRAGIT RS, EUDRAGIT RL, EUDRAGIT NE and mixtures thereof. Other synthetic polymers, for example, polyvinyl acetate (available under the trade name KOLLICOAT®), can also be used to form water-insoluble but permeable coatings. Coating materials may also include one or more pH sensitive polymers which are insoluble in the acid environment of the stomach, and soluble in the more basic environment of the GI tract. These coatings, referred to as enteric coatings, create a dosage form designed to prevent drug release in the stomach. Enteric coated particles can be prepared as described in “Pharmaceutical dosage form tablets”, eds. Liberman et.al. (New York, Marcel Dekker, Inc., 1989), “Remington—The science and practice of pharmacy”, 20th ed., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Baltimore, Md., 2000, and “Pharmaceutical dosage forms and drug delivery systems”, 6th Edition, Ansel et.al., (Media, Pa.: Williams and Wilkins, 1995). Examples of suitable coating materials include, but are not limited to, cellulose polymers, such as cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate; polyvinyl acetate phthalate, acrylic acid polymers and copolymers, and certain methacrylic resins that are commercially available under the trade name EUDRAGIT®. (Rohm Pharma). Additionally the coating material may contain conventional carriers such as plasticizers, pigments, colorants, glidants, stabilization agents, and surfactants. In some embodiments, drug containing multiparticulates are blended with extragranular material and filled into hard shell capsules. The extragranular material can serve several functions. One or more extragranular materials, such as lubricants or glidants, can be used to reduce the tendency of the multiparticulates from agglomerating or to provide better flow properties to the formulation. Examples of suitable materials for this purpose include, but are not limited to, magnesium stearate, zinc stearate, colloidal silicone dioxide, talc, starch, calcium stearate, hydrogenated vegetable oils, stearic acid, sodium stearyl fumarate, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, leucine, sodium oleate, sodium lauryl sulfate, magnesium lauryl sulfate and polyethylene glycol. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include, but are not limited to, silicon dioxide colloidal and magnesium stearate. In other embodiments, the extragranular material is a natural or synthetic gel forming excipient, added to form a gel or viscous environment around the particles when exposed to an aqueous environment. Extragranular material of this type can be used to modulate the release of drug from the dosage form when the dosage form is manipulated (for example for preparation for IV abuse), or in some embodiments when the dosage form is administered intact. In some embodiments, the compositions are coated with an enteric coating. Enteric coatings known in the art are applied directly to the abuse-deterrent multiparticulate or coated multiparticulate compositions or are applied to the surface of a capsule or tablet containing the abuse deterrent multiparticulate and/or coated multiparticulate compositions. Enteric coatings known in the art include, for example, acrylic polymers that are commercially available under the trade name EUDRAGIT®, cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose phthalate, polyvinylacetate phthalate, shellac, hydroxypropyl-methylcellulose succinate, cellulose acetate trimellitate or mixtures thereof. In one embodiment, the particles are coated with cellulose acetate phthalate. Dosage forms can include one or more drugs. When the dosage form includes two or more drugs they can be Scheduled drugs or can be a combination of Scheduled and non-Scheduled drugs. The drugs can be incorporated into the same multiparticulates. Alternatively, the drugs can be incorporated into separate multiparticulate compositions where the Scheduled drugs are incorporated into abuse deterrent multiparticulate compositions and the non-Scheduled drugs are incorporated into abuse deterrent multiparticulate compositions, sustained release compositions known in the art or immediate release compositions known in the art. The compositions containing the different drugs can be formulated into a single solid dosage form suitable for oral administration; for example, they can be incorporated into a hard capsule shell, or combined with appropriate excipients and compressed into a tablet form. Examples of non-scheduled drugs that may be included in dosage forms described herein include, but are not limited to, aspirin, acetaminophen, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, cyclooxygenase II inhibitors, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor antagonists, glycine receptor antagonists, triptans, dextromethorphan, promethazine, fiorinal, guaifenesin, butalbital, and caffeine. In some embodiments, the contemplated compositions comprising a plurality of multiparticulates comprise one or more additional excipients that are combined with the multiparticulates. The one or more additional excipients comprise diluents, lubricants, gel forming excipients, and combinations thereof. In other embodiments, each multiparticulate comprises optional excipients including, but are not limited to diluents, binders, lubricants, disintigrants, colorants, plasticizers and the like. Diluents, also termed “fillers,” are typically necessary to increase the bulk of a solid dosage form so that a practical size is provided for compression of tablets. Examples of diluents include cellulose, dry starch, microcrystalline cellulose, dicalcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, sodium chloride confectioner's sugar, compressible sugar, dextrates, dextrin, dextrose, sucrose, mannitol, powdered cellulose, sorbitol, and lactose. Binders are used to impart cohesive qualities powdered materials and can include materials such as starch, gelatin, sugars, natural and synthetic gums, polyethylene glycol, ethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, carboxymethylcellulose, waxes and polyvinyl pyrrolidone. Lubricants are used to facilitate tablet and capsule manufacture. Examples of lubricants include talc, magnesium stearate, zinc stearate, calcium stearate, hydrogenated vegetable oils stearic acid, sodium stearyl fumarate, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, leucine, sodium oleate, sodium lauryl sulfate, magnesium lauryl sulfate and polyethylene glycol. Disintegrants can be added to pharmaceutical formulations in order to facilitate “breakup” or disintegration after administration. Materials used for this purpose include starches, clays, celluloses, aligns, gums, and cross-linked polymers. A plasticizer may be included in coating materials to alter their mechanical properties. Examples of plasticizers include benzyl benzoate, chlorobutanol, dibutyl sebacate, diethyl phthalate, glycerin, mineral oil, polyethylene glycol, sorbitol, triacetin, triethyl citrate, glycerol, etc. One or more surfactants may also be added to the final dosage form to modulate the release of drug from the multiparticulate composition. Examples include, but are not limited to, lecithin, sodium dodecyl sulfate, poloxamer, Cremophor, polysorbates, and polyoxyglycerides. In addition to the additives above, coloring and flavoring agents may also be incorporated into the composition. Selection of excipients and the amounts used may be readily determined by the formulation scientist based upon experience and consideration of standard procedures and reference works in the field. In one embodiment, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles of the present disclosure exhibit a change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH that is within about 15%, about 10%, about 5%, or about 2.5%, when dissolution is conducted using USP Apparatus I in pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20. In one embodiment, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles of the present disclosure exhibit a change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH within about 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9.5%, 9%, 8.5%, 8%, 7.5%, 7%, 6.5%, 6%, 5.5%, 5%, 4.5%, 4%, 3.5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, or 1.5%. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition of the present disclosure provides an extended-release of the drug upon administration. Process for Making the Pharmaceutical Compositions The present disclosure provides a process of making a pharmaceutical composition designed to reduce the potential for improper administration of drugs that are subject to abuse. In one embodiment, the process involves forming drug containing microparticles. In another embodiment, the process involves a curing step which provides improved dissolution stability of the pharmaceutical compositions. In one embodiment, the process of the present disclosure for making the pharmaceutical composition comprises the steps of: a) mixing one or more drugs, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours. Step (a) can comprise any suitable method of combining one or more fatty acids, one or more drugs, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, in any order, at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogenous melt comprising fatty acid salts dissolved, at least in part, in the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes. By way of non-limiting examples, the one or more drugs, the one or more fatty acids and the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids can be combined together at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; alternatively the one or more drugs can first be reacted with one or more fatty acids to form fatty acid salts of the one or more drugs, then combined with the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes and, optionally, one more other excipients, at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; or alternatively the one or more fatty acids, the one or more drugs, the one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, and, optionally, the one or more other excipients, can be combined sequentially in any order at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt, etc. Any combination or permutation of combining the one or more fatty acids, one or more drugs, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes and excipients is acceptable provided that the end result is the formation of a substantially homogeneous melt comprising a fatty acid salt homogeneously dispersed, at least in part, in the pharmaceutically acceptable wax(es). In a further embodiment, the microparticles disclosed herein can further comprise an additional phase dispersed therein. This additional phase can include solid excipients, such as pore formers, surfactants, anti-static agents, anti-tack agents, lubricants, fillers etc. However, the fatty acid salts or complexes of the one or more drugs are substantially homogeneously dispersed or dissolved in the pharmaceutically acceptable wax(es). In one embodiment, the minimum temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt in step a) is about 50° C. In one embodiment, the minimum temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt is about 60° C. In another embodiment, the minimum temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt is about 70° C. In another embodiment, the minimum temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt is about 80° C. In some embodiments, the temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt is experimentally determined by slowly increasing the temperature with mixing. In some embodiments the substantially homogeneous melt is a true solution in which all components are in a liquid or dissolved state. In one embodiment of the process disclosed herein, forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt in step b) is carried out by feeding the melt from step a) onto a spinning disk. For example, the substantially homogeneous melt can be pumped (e.g., with a gear pump) through a heated feed line which dispenses the melt onto a rapidly spinning disk (e.g., a spinning disk atomizer), at a speed sufficient to break the melt into a spray of droplets of the desired particle size range. The droplets rapidly solidify and are collected in an enclosure to provide suitable particles, e.g. microparticles. The process may result in substantially spherical particles in which case they may be referred to as microspheres. Sieving of microparticles to produce the desired size range may also be carried out. In other embodiments, step b) is carried out by spraying the melt from step a) using any number of congealing devices, including an ultrasonic nozzle, a pressure nozzle or a 2-fluid nozzle. Spray configurations may include top down configurations and fountain configurations whereby the melt is sprayed and atomized in an upward direction. Standard enclosures for collection of the solid microparticles include stainless steel and pharmaceutically acceptable plastic vessels and enclosures. In other embodiments solid microparticles are formed from an extrusion process. In yet a further embodiment, solid microparticles are formed by solidifying the melt into a solid slab and subsequently milling to form suitable microparticles. Sieving of microparticles to produce the desired size range may also be carried out. Other processes, known in the pharmaceutical arts, may be used to produce microparticles of a desired size distribution from the hot melt. The microparticles of the present invention are characterized by a median particle size of less than about 3000 microns. In some embodiments the microparticles are characterized by a median particle size of less than about 1000 microns. In some embodiments the microparticles of the present invention are characterized by a median particle size of less than about 700 microns, about 600 microns, about 500 microns, about 400 microns, about 300 microns or about 200 microns, inclusive of all values, ranges, or subranges therebetween. In some embodiments the microparticles of the present invention are characterized by a median particle size of about 300 microns. As described herein, the term “curing” refers to heating or maintaining the compositions of the present invention at defined temperature(s) for a defined period of time as described herein. Curing, as described herein, can be carried out at any time after preparation of the microparticles. For example, the curing steps described herein may be conducted on microparticles directly, or may be conducted on microparticles that have been further formulated. In addition, curing can be carried out on the finished unit dosage form, e.g., formulated or unformulated microparticles filled into capsules or compressed into a tablet. For example, in some embodiments microparticles are blended or formulated with external excipients, and the curing is conducted on the blended or formulated microparticles. In other embodiments the blended or formulated microparticles may be further encapsulated prior to curing. In yet further embodiments the blended microparticles may be compressed into tablets prior to curing. In one embodiment of the process disclosed herein, curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles in step c) is carried out by a single-stage curing process, by a 2-stage curing process, or by a multi-stage process. In the single-stage curing process the solid microparticles are held at a single temperature that is at or below the inversion temperature for an appropriate time as experimentally determined. A 2-stage curing process utilizes two different curing temperatures for appropriate time(s) as experimentally determined. A 3-stage curing process utilizes three curing temperatures, wherein the first and the third may be same or different. A 4-stage curing process utilizes four curing temperatures, wherein non-consecutive stages can have the same or different temperatures, e.g., the first and the third or the first and the fourth. Additional curing stages can be applied as needed. A gradual temperature ramp may also be applied over time. However, at least one stage should be carried out at a temperature at or below the inversion temperature, for a time sufficient to reduce the change in the dissolution profile after storing for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH when compared to otherwise identical uncured microparticles after storing for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In one embodiment, the process disclosed herein requires a 1-stage curing process. In another embodiment, the process disclosed herein requires a 2-stage curing process. In one embodiment of the process disclosed herein, curing the solid microparticles takes place at a temperature within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature. In another embodiment, the curing process takes place at a temperature falling within the range between 25° C. to about 60° C. or from 25° C. to about 50° C. or from about 25° C. to about 36° C., or from about 30° C. to about 45° C. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the curing takes place at about 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, or about 60° C. In one embodiment, the inversion temperature is about 34, 35, 36, 37, or 38° C. In some embodiments, the curing process disclosed herein is a 2-stage process which involves heating the microparticles to a first temperature above the inversion temperature and subsequently a second temperature at or below the inversion temperature. In one embodiment, the 2-stage curing process is carried out at a first temperature of about 37, 38, 39, 40, 41, or 42° C. and a second temperature of about 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, or 36° C. In one embodiment, the 2-stage curing process is carried out at a first temperature of about 40° C. and a second temperature of about 30° C. In another embodiment, the 2-stage curing process is carried out at a first temperature of about 38° C. and a second temperature of about 32° C. In one embodiment of the process disclosed herein, the time sufficient for curing is the time required to reduce the change in the dissolution profile for cured compositions after storing for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH when compared with the change observed for otherwise identical uncured compositions after storing for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH when dissolution is conducted using USP Apparatus I in pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20. This time can be determined experimentally. To do this, a baseline change for the uncured composition must be established by comparing the dissolution profile for the uncured composition at the time of manufacture with the dissolution profile following storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. The goal of curing is to improve upon, or reduce, this uncured baseline change. To determine the appropriate curing time, the same composition should be cured at a temperature between 25° C. and the inversion temperature, for various times. Subsequently, the dissolution profile of the cured composition at the time of manufacture should be compared with the dissolution profile following storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. An appropriate time is established when the change in the cured composition following storage is less than the corresponding change for the uncured composition. In another embodiment, the time sufficient for curing is a minimum of about 48 hours. In one embodiment, the time sufficient for curing is about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, or 31 days. In some embodiments, the time sufficient for curing is about 7 days. In one embodiment of the process disclosed herein, the time sufficient for curing is the total time, e.g., combined time cured at first temperature and second temperature in a multi-stage curing process. In one embodiment, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles prepared by the disclosed process exhibit a change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH that is less than about 15%, about 10%, about 5%, or about 2.5%, when dissolution is conducted using USP Apparatus I in pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20. In one embodiment, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles of the present disclosure exhibit a change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH within about 15%, 14%, 13%, 12%, 11%, 10%, 9.5%, 9%, 8.5%, 8%, 7.5%, 7%, 6.5%, 6%, 5.5%, 5%, 4.5%, 4%, 3.5%, 3%, 2.5%, 2%, or 1.5%. In one embodiment of the present disclosure, a pharmaceutical composition prepared by any one of the processes disclosed herein is provided. In another embodiment of the present disclosure, a capsule comprising a pharmaceutical composition prepared by any one of the processes disclosed herein is provided. In a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a pharmaceutical composition comprising oxycodone and myristic acid prepared by any one of the processes disclosed herein is provided where the inversion temperature is about 36° C. In another embodiment of the present disclosure, a capsule comprising a pharmaceutical composition comprising oxycodone and myristic acid prepared by any one of the processes disclosed herein is provided where the inversion temperature is about 36° C. Method of Treatment The present disclosure provides a method of administering any one of the pharmaceutical compositions or a capsule as disclosed herein to a subject in need thereof. In some embodiments, the method includes treatment or management of pain. In one embodiment, the pain to be treated can be severe enough to require daily, around-the-clock, long-term opioid treatment and for which alternative treatment options are inadequate. In one embodiment, the disclosed method provides a therapeutically effective amount of the one or more drugs to a subject in need thereof. For the purposes of this disclosure, the composition of the present disclosure can be formulated for administration by a variety of means. In one embodiment, the administration of the method disclosed herein is orally. In one embodiment, a solid oral dosage form, such as a capsule can be used to administer to a subject in need thereof. EXAMPLES Material and Methods Unless otherwise noted, the following material and equipment were used as received or under standard operating conditions. Laboratory ovens and/or stability chambers were used to cure microspheres. Unless otherwise noted, a manual encapsulator or an automated encapsulator was used to fill capsules with blend. Microparticles Excipients were first melted in a stainless steel jacketed vessel. The active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) was dissolved in the melt with stirring. The melt was then processed into microspheres by one of the following procedures: A) The melt was fed to a spinning disk. The disk rotates at a speed designed to produce solid microspheres of the desired particle size distribution. B) The melt was forced through a plastic atomization nozzle mounted on a plastic syringe. The syringe plunger was pressed through the barrel using a pneumatic piston. The piston was activated with an air pressure sufficient to press the melt through the barrel at a speed high enough to atomize the melt and produce microspheres. Curing, blending and encapsulation (where applicable) were carried out as noted in the individual examples. Dissolution Test Product dissolution is conducted using USP Apparatus with media (900 mL, pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer, 0.03% Tween 20) pre-heated to 37° C. For capsule dissolution, USP Apparatus I (baskets) at 100 rpm was utilized. Example 1 Stability of Uncured Microspheres at Different Conditions of Temperature and Humidity Microspheres containing oxycodone, myristic acid, beeswax, carnauba wax and stearoyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides were produced using spinning disk atomization as described above. The microspheres were blended with colloidal silicon dioxide and magnesium stearate and machine encapsulated to form capsules. Capsules were packaged in high-density polyethylene bottles and placed in stability chambers according to ICH conditions; long-term (25° C./60% RH), intermediate (30° C./65%RH) and accelerated (40° C./75%RH) conditions were used in the study. The dissolution profile of the capsules was determined at the time of manufacture and periodically while on stability. The % drug released as a function of time in dissolution is shown in FIG. 1 at time zero and after storage for 3 months at all 3 ICH stability conditions. The behavior of the microspheres was unexpected on stability. The dissolution profile of the uncured microspheres tends to increase (i.e., faster dissolution) on storage at 40° C./75% RH and decrease (i.e., slower dissolution) on storage at 25° C./60% RH or 30° C./65% RH. Given that the microspheres are hydrophobic and absorb virtually no moisture irrespective of humidity level, i.e. dissolution is not impacted by humidity level, the data suggests the presence of an “inversion temperature”, between 30° C. and 40° C., at which the dissolution behavior reverses and rather than tending to decrease, will tend to increase. Furthermore, the decrease observed at long-term conditions (predictive of long-term room temperature storage in a warehouse, pharmacy or medicine cabinet) is greater than desired after 3 months (eg, approximately 15% lower at the 4 hour dissolution time point). Example 2 Establishment of Inversion Temperature On the basis of stability data shown in Example 1, the dissolution behavior of microspheres containing oxycodone, myristic acid, beeswax, carnauba wax and stearoyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides was investigated at temperatures falling between 30° C. and 40° C. Specifically, the microspheres were exposed to elevated temperatures between 32° C-36° C. after 2 days (48 hours) and 6-7 days. FIGS. 2A and 2B display the impact of curing temperature at each individual dissolution time point. FIG. 2A shows the impact of curing for 2 days and FIG. 2B shows the impact of curing for 6-7 days. Both graphs also show the dissolution results for the uncured formulation as a control. After 2 days of curing at 32° C.-34° C., there is only a slight reduction in dissolution versus the uncured formulation. A further drop in dissolution is generally observed with increasing temperature from 34° C. to 36° C., especially at the 8-hour and longer time points. Changes after 6-7 days of curing are not linear with temperature. After curing for 7 days at 32° C., dissolution decreases significantly below the dissolution of uncured material. Dissolution of uncured formulation at the 2-hour, 4-hour, 8-hour and 12-hour dissolution time points is 30.7%, 48.1%, 68.2%, and 83.2%, respectively. The corresponding dissolution after curing for 7 days at 32° C. is 27.3%, 42.04%, 60.3%, and 75.5%, respectively. After curing at 33° C. or 34° C., dissolution remained below that of uncured material. The dissolution is minimal around 35° C. where it was now lower than at 32° C. The slowest dissolution rate was thus observed after 7 days at 35° C.; however, there was an abrupt change in behavior between 35° C. and 36° C., with the dissolution starting an increase to a level that is higher than the dissolution of uncured control material. The behavior between 32° C. and 36° C. was qualitatively consistent with that observed in FIG. 1, i.e. dissolution decreases at low curing temperatures and increases at high curing temperatures; however, between these temperatures the dissolution behavior was non-linear and exhibited an inflection point around approximately 36° C. This is defined as the “inflection or inversion temperature”. This explains the observed increase in dissolution in Example 1 with storage at 40° C., above the inversion temperature. Example 3 Single-Stage Curing Process Based on the dissolution behavior for microspheres containing oxycodone, myristic acid, beeswax, carnauba wax and stearoyl polyoxyl-32 glycerides after exposure to different temperatures, studies to implement a curing process were conducted. The hypothesis was that curing at a temperature above 25° C., but below the inversion temperature (35-36° C.), would improve the dissolution stability of the microspheres when stored at ICH long-term conditions (25° C./75% RH). The process consisted of a single-stage (ie, a single temperature) and a duration of 30 days. For these studies, microspheres were blended with colloidal silicon dioxide and magnesium stearate and encapsulated prior to curing. Uncured microspheres that were similarly blended and encapsulated were also tested as a control. The dissolution stability behavior of uncured capsules that were stored at 25° C./60% RH is shown in FIG. 3A. A relatively large drop in dissolution is observed. Dissolution drops by 15% at the 4-hour time point on storage for 6 months at 25° C./60%RH. The dissolution stability behavior of capsules that were cured at 34° C., 30° C., or 32° C. and then stored at 25° C./60%RH for 6 month is shown in FIG. 3B, FIG. 3C, and FIG. 3D, respectively. Curing below the inversion temperature (34° C., 32° C., and 30° C.) results in considerably more stable product than no curing (compare to FIG. 3A). Example 4 Two-Stage Curing Process A 2-stage curing process was also tested. In the 2-stage curing process, the product is held first at a relatively high temperature above the inversion temperature followed by temperature below the inversion temperature. A 2-stage curing process which consists of holding the microspheres at 40° C. for 4 days followed by a period of 3 days at 30° C. was evaluated (40° C./4d; 30° C./3d). These conditions were applied to the uncured microspheres of Example 3, followed by blending with colloidal silicon dioxide and magnesium stearate, and encapsulation. The capsules were tested for dissolution at time zero and following storage for 6 months at 25° C./60%RH. Comparison of data in FIGS. 3E and 3A show that curing for 4 days at 40° C. followed by 3 days at 30° C. results in a more stable formulation versus uncured formulation stored for 6 months at 25° C./60%RH. Table 1 summarizes the difference in dissolution between time zero (i.e., measured after manufacture) and after 6 months of storage at 25° C. and 65%RH for Example 3 compositions. As shown in the table, the difference is reduced for all curing conditions relative to the microsphere formulation that was not subjected to curing (control condition). For example, at the 4 hour dissolution time point the difference is reduced by at least half for all curing conditions. TABLE 1 Change in dissolution (% Released at Time Zero-% Released after 6 months at 25° C./65% RH) Dissolution Curing at Curing at Curing at Curing at Curing at Time Point Control- 30° C. 32° C. 34° C. 36° C. 40° C. (4 days), (hours) No Curing (1 month) (1 month) (1 month) (1 month) 30° C. (3 days) 1 8.4 0.6 −0.4 1.5 2.3 6.0 2 11.0 1.6 0.2 2.0 4.4 7.1 4 14.7 2.3 0.2 3.0 6.1 7.0 8 15.5 3.0 0.3 3.3 6.8 6.3 12 13.4 2.8 0.2 3.3 7.4 4.6 16 9.4 3.1 0.6 3.1 2.1 5.9 20 5.1 2.9 0.01 3.4 1.5 −0.4 24 2.6 2.6 −0.8 2.4 2.6 −3.0 Example 5 Inversion Temperature for Formulations Comprising Drug, Stearic acid, and Waxes The dissolution behavior of a microsphere formulation comprising oxycodone, stearic acid and waxes before and after single stage curing at 50° C. is shown in FIG. 4A. Dissolution decreases when the formulation is cured at 50° C. The dissolution behavior of a microsphere formulation comprising oxymorphone, stearic acid and waxes before and after curing at 50° C. is shown in FIG. 4B. Here again, dissolution decreases when curing at 50° C. The dissolution behavior of a microsphere formulation comprising oxymorphone, stearic acid and waxes before and after curing at 55° C. or 60° C. is shown in FIG. 4C. Dissolution increases when curing at 55° C. or 60° C. FIG. 4A, FIG. 4B, and FIG. 4C indicate that the inversion temperature is between 50° C. and 55° C. when using stearic acid. These results indicate that the inversion temperature can increase with increasing fatty acid molecular weight or with a change in the formulation. INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE All references, articles, publications, patents, patent publications, and patent applications cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entireties for all purposes. However, mention of any reference, article, publication, patent, patent publication, and patent application cited herein is not, and should not be taken as acknowledgment or any form of suggestion that they constitute valid prior art or form part of the common general knowledge in any country in the world. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Opioids such as oxycodone in the form of extended-release (ER) formulations are used to manage moderate to severe chronic pain. Although usually a safe and effective treatment option for patients with chronic pain who are appropriately managed and monitored, ER opioid formulations are associated with high rates of misuse, abuse, and diversion. This is in large part because oral ER opioids carry a large opioid load. Abusers often manipulate (e.g., cut, crush, or dissolve) ER formulations to more rapidly release most, if not all, of the active drug, with the goal of achieving a quick drug high. Further, misuse can occur when patients or their caregivers manipulate ER formulations for any number of reasons, including to reduce the dose or make the medication easier to swallow. Manipulation of most ER opioid formulations, regardless of intent, can result in greater exposure to drug than intended, which can lead to adverse consequences or even death. These challenges have led to the development of ER opioid formulations with properties intended to make product manipulation more difficult. Often referred to as abuse-deterrent, many of these formulations incorporate physical or chemical barriers to mechanical or chemical manipulations. The DETERx® platform technology is an abuse-deterrent formulation strategy which consists of an active drug dissolved or dispersed in a melt comprising a hydrophobic fatty acid and a wax matrix (optionally including other excipients) that is then formed into particles, for example microspheres, e.g., using a spinning disk or other suitable atomizing or milling process. The microparticles (or microspheres, if produced by a process resulting in spherical particles), along with small quantities of external processing excipients are encapsulated into hard shell capsules or other suitable dosage forms. The microparticles are designed to preserve the extended release characteristics on physical manipulation by means such as crushing with household tools or by chewing. These properties are a consequence of the small size of the extended-release microparticles, along with the physiochemical properties of the inactive ingredients. Additionally, the fatty acid and active ingredient component of DETERx microspheres are selected such that they are associated via an ionic interaction (i.e., salt) in the solid microparticles. This interaction allows the active component to be dissolved during the melt formulation process, and allows for the formation of a solid solution. The creation of a solid solution of drug in hydrophobic materials further reduces the extractability and contributes to the abuse-deterrent properties of the formulation. The microspheres in oxycodone DETERx are produced using a spray-congealing process from a hot melt. When using a spray congealing process, such as a spinning disk atomization process, the microspheres are formed nearly instantaneously as the melt is atomized. For pharmaceutical products, changes to the product during the normal product shelf-life at recommended storage conditions (i.e., room temperature) should be minimized to the extent possible. For this reason, pharmaceutical products are routinely tested by subjecting the product to stability studies in the commercial packaging configuration. Stability study requirements are outlined in US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidances, including ICH Q1A(R2), “Stability Testing of New Drug Substances and Products”, November 2003. Product attributes tested during stability studies include, for example, tests for potency, purity, microbial attributes and drug release rate using standardized dissolution apparatus. The present invention relates to a process for manufacturing extended-release microparticles with improved dissolution stability. The process of the present invention is related to microparticles comprising an active drug, one or more fatty acids and one or more wax components manufactured by congealing from a hot-melt process. It has been unexpectedly found that curing the product at one or more temperatures within the range from 25° C. up to an inversion temperature, for a minimum period of time, is required to effectively stabilize the dissolution profiles of such compositions. Curing outside this range will have either no significant effect or an adverse effect on product stability. The existence or identification of this inversion temperature and its role in curing has not previously been disclosed for such formulations. The present inventors have developed a manufacturing process that utilizes curing within a specific temperature range to produce pharmaceutical compositions with improved dissolution stability. This process can be applied in making pharmaceutical formulations containing active drugs, such as opioids. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE <EOH>This disclosure provides a process of making abuse-deterrent pharmaceutical formulations. In one embodiment, the process requires forming an abuse-deterrent formulation and then curing the composition. In one embodiment, the process of making an abuse-deterrent formulation comprises the steps of: preparing a mixture comprising (i) one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, one or more drugs, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids, or (ii) one or more drugs in the form of a fatty acid salt, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less change in the dissolution profile after storing for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% relative humidity (RH) than otherwise identical uncured formulated microparticles after storing for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH when dissolution is conducted at 100 RPM using USP Apparatus I in 900 mL of pH 4.5 sodium acetate buffer supplemented with 0.03% Tween 20 at 37° C. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 15% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In another embodiment, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 10% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In another embodiment, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 5% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In other embodiments, the cured microparticles or cured formulated microparticles exhibit less than a 2.5% change in the mean percent drug released at the 4 hour dissolution time point after storage for 6 months at 25° C. and 60% RH. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the fatty acid is myristic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 36° C. In another embodiment of the disclosed process, the fatty acid is stearic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 53° C. In one embodiment of the disclosed process, the microparticles are cured at a first temperature above the inversion temperature and subsequently a second temperature below the inversion temperature. In one embodiment, the present disclosure provides a pharmaceutical composition prepared by the process comprising the steps of: a) mixing one or more drugs, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours. In another embodiment, the present disclosure provides a pharmaceutical composition prepared by the process comprising the steps of: a) mixing one or more fatty acid salts of one or more drugs, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours. In another embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition comprises a composition prepared by any of the processes described herein, for example wherein the fatty acid is myristic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 36° C. In another embodiment of the present disclosure, a capsule is provided comprising any one of the pharmaceutical compositions as described herein. This disclosure provides a pharmaceutical formulation with improved dissolution stability. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutical formulation is a cured composition. In some embodiments, the cured composition is in a form of solid microparticles or formulated microparticles. In one embodiment, the pharmaceutically acceptable solid microparticles or formulated microparticles cured at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours comprise: a mixture of one or more drugs, one or more waxes, and a sufficient amount of one or more fatty acids to provide said mixture in substantially homogenous form during the melt manufacture of the microparticles. In one embodiment of the disclosed microparticles, the fatty acid is myristic acid, and the drug is oxycodone. This disclosure provides a method of treating pain comprising administering any one of the pharmaceutical compositions as described herein. In some embodiments of the methods disclosed herein, the pharmaceutical composition is prepared by the process comprising the steps of: a) preparing a mixture comprising (i) one or more drugs, one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes, and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable fatty acids, or (ii) one or more drugs in the form of a fatty acid salt and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable waxes at a temperature sufficient to form a substantially homogeneous melt; b) forming solid microparticles from the substantially homogeneous melt; c) optionally further formulating the solid microparticles with additional pharmaceutically acceptable excipients, and d) curing the solid microparticles or formulated microparticles at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours; wherein the fatty acid is myristic acid, the drug is oxycodone, and the inversion temperature is approximately 36° C. In another embodiment of the method disclosed herein, a capsule comprising any one of the pharmaceutical compositions as disclosed herein is provided. In another embodiment of the present disclosure, the method of treating pain is provided, wherein pharmaceutically acceptable solid microparticles or formulated microparticles cured at one or more temperatures within the range of 25° C. up to and including the inversion temperature, for a minimum of about 48 hours, as described herein, e.g. comprising: a mixture of one or more drugs, one or more waxes, and a sufficient amount of one or more fatty acids to provide said mixture in substantially homogenous form during the melt manufacture of the microparticles, is administered to a patient in need thereof. In one embodiment, the method of treating pain as disclosed herein comprises administering a pharmaceutically acceptable microparticles or formulated microparticles comprising myristic acid and oxycodone. | A61K31485 | 20170713 | 20180515 | 20171228 | 91976.0 | A61K31485 | 2 | MERCIER, MELISSA S | PROCESS OF MAKING STABLE ABUSE-DETERRENT ORAL FORMULATIONS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
15,650,169 | PENDING | Furniture Hinge for Increasing Jumping Length of Furniture Door | A furniture hinge mounted between a furniture wall and a furniture door so as to be used as an opening and closing mechanism of the furniture door, in which, by using the movement part provided on the body part of the furniture hinge and the adjustment part provided at the movement path of the movement part, the entire length of the furniture hinge is changed by advancing and returning the movement part in the opening and closing process of the furniture door such that, since the furniture wall and the furniture door do not come into contact with each other even though the furniture door is completely opened, the peeling damage to the exterior of the furniture is prevented and contact noise is eliminated, thereby improving the satisfaction of consumers. | 1. A furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door, comprising: a body part disposed between a furniture wall and a furniture door; a wall fixing part for coupling the body part to the mounting position of the furniture wall in a locking manner; a movement part for reciprocatingly moving along a guide shaft in a state, in which the movement part is coupled to the body part through the guide shaft; a hinge part for guiding the rotation direction of the furniture door in a state, in which the hinge part is coupled to the movement part through upper and lower rotation plates; a door fixing part for hinge-coupling the hinge part to the mounting position of the furniture door; and an adjustment part for adjusting the advancement and return of the movement part in a state, in which the adjustment part is accommodated in the movement part, wherein the body part comprises an inner plate accommodated inside the inner circumferential surface of the movement part, an outer plate covering the outer circumferential surface of the movement part, a setting bolt for coupling the inner plate and the outer plate in a state, in which the setting bolt is fastened to the bolt hole of the inner plate; and a tension bolt for coupling the inner plate and the outer plate in a state, in which the tension bolt is fastened to the bolt hole of the outer plate. 2. The furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door according to claim 1, wherein the adjustment part comprises: a rotation member integrally formed on the lower rotation plate to simultaneously rotate together with the lower rotation plate in the opening and closing process of the furniture door; and a link member hinge-coupled to the rotation member and the guide shaft to convert the rotational motion of the rotation member into a linear motion, thereby advancing and returning the movement part with respect to the guide shaft. 3. The furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door according to claim 1, wherein the movement part is interposed between the inner plate and the outer plate of the body part, and comprises a guide hole for reciprocatingly moving with respect to the guide shaft, an elongated hole for reciprocating with respect to the tension bolt of the body part, and an elongated hole for reciprocatingly moving with respect to the setting bolt of the body part. 4. A furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door, comprising: a body part disposed between a furniture wall and a furniture door; a wall fixing part for fixing an inner plate of the body part to the furniture wall; a movement part for reciprocatingly moving with respect to a guide shaft in a state, in which the movement part is coupled to an outer plate of the body part through the guide shaft; a hinge part for guiding the rotation direction of the furniture door in a state, in which the hinge part is coupled to the movement part through upper and lower rotation plates; a door fixing part for coupling the hinge part to the furniture door; and a guide part provided at a movement path of the movement part so as to guide the reciprocating movement of the movement part, wherein the body part comprises the inner plate positioned in contact with the inner circumferential surface of the movement part and a buffering groove formed on the top surface of the inner surface so as to reduce a contact area with the movement part and buffer an external load. 5. The furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door according to claim 4, wherein the guide part comprises: a guide hole formed in the outer plate; a guide shaft for reciprocatingly moving along the guide hole in a state, in which the outer plate and the movement part are coupled; and an elastic ring coupled to the outer circumferential surface of the outer plate so as to provide the return force of the guide shaft. | BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a furniture hinge provided to a furniture wall so as to be used as an opening and closing means of a furniture door and, more particularly, to a furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door, in which the length of the furniture hinge is changed according to the opening or closing amount of the furniture door so as to prevent damage as well as noise owing to the friction between the furniture door and a furniture wall. Background Art Generally, a furniture hinge is a steel structure provided to a furniture wall and a furniture door so as to be used as an opening and closing means of the furniture door. As for such a furniture hinge, it is important to minimize the noise and movement that might be generated in the opening and closing process of the furniture door, as well as improve the operability required in the installation process and setting process of the furniture door. As an example, as shown in FIGS. 1 to 3, a furniture hinge 100 includes a body part 110, a door fixing part 120 coupled to a furniture door D by a bolt in a state, in which the door fixing part 120 is coupled to one end portion of the body part 110 through a door hinge 140, and a wall fixing part 130 coupled to a furniture wall B by a bolt in a state, in which the wall fixing part 130 is coupled to the lower surface of the body part 110. In addition, as shown in FIGS. 1 to 3, the hinge part 140 includes an upper rotation plate 142 hinge-coupled to the body part 110 and the door fixing part 120 so as to provide elastic force, and a lower rotation plate 144 hinge-coupled to the body part 110 and the door fixing part 120 so as to guide the operation of the upper rotation plate 142. Therefore, if the furniture door D is opened in a state, in which the furniture hinge 100 is provided in furniture such as a dresser or a sink, the furniture door D is rotated and opened along hinge shafts 125, which connect the body part 110 and the hinge part 140 respectively, in the sequence shown in FIG. 3. However, the furniture hinge 100 is a structure, in which the opening or closing amount of the furniture door D is determined only according to the rotation angle of the hinge part 140. Therefore, when the furniture door D is completely opened, the furniture door D and the furniture wall B are in contact with each other at a portion “A” shown in FIG. 2, thereby generating noise or damage. That is, the furniture hinge 100 has a structure, in which the upper/lower rotation plates 142, 144 rotate only along the hinge shafts 125, wherein, when the furniture door D is opened at an angle of 90 degrees or more, the corner portion of the furniture door D is struck on the outer wall of the furniture wall B and is damaged, so that the service life of the furniture is lowered. Thus, there is an acute need for research to completely block the contact between the corner portion of the furniture door D and the outer wall of the furniture wall B in the opening process of the furniture door D so as to prevent damage to the furniture door D or the furniture wall B as well as contact noise and frictional resistance, thereby maximizing the satisfaction of consumers. PRIOR ART DOCUMENTS Prior Art Document 1: Registered Patent Publication No. KR 10-0770372 (Registered: 19 Oct. 2007) Prior Art Document 2: Patent Laid-open Publication No. KR 10-2013-0108883 (Published: 7 Oct. 2013) SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention has been made to solve the above-mentioned problems occurring in the prior arts, and it is an objective of the present invention to provide a furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door, in which the length of the furniture hinge is changed according to the opening or closing amount of the furniture door so as to prevent damage as well as noise owing to the friction between the furniture door and a furniture wall. To accomplish the above objective, according to the present invention, there is provided a furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door, includes: a body part disposed between a furniture wall and a furniture door; a wall fixing part for coupling the body part to the mounting position of the furniture wall in a locking manner; a movement part for reciprocatingly moving along a guide shaft in a state, in which the movement part is coupled to the body part through the guide shaft; a hinge part for guiding the rotation direction of the furniture door in a state, in which the hinge part is coupled to the movement part through upper/lower rotation plates; a door fixing part for hinge-coupling the hinge part to the mounting position of the furniture door; and an adjustment part for adjusting the advancement and return of the movement part in a state, in which the adjustment part is accommodated in the movement part, wherein the adjustment part includes a rotation member integrally formed on the lower rotation plate so as to simultaneously rotate together with the lower rotation plate in the opening and closing process of the furniture door, and a link member hinge-coupled respectively to the rotation member and the guide shaft so as to convert the rotational motion of the rotation member into a linear motion, thereby advancing and returning the movement part with respect to the guide shaft. The present invention as described above includes at least the following effects. First, the entire length of the furniture hinge is changed according to the opening or closing amount of the furniture door, so that the contact between the furniture door and the corner portion of the furniture wall in the opening and closing process of the furniture door is essentially eliminated. Secondly, even if the furniture door is completely opened, since the furniture wall and the furniture door do not come into contact with each other, peeling damage to the exterior of the furniture is prevented, as well as the contact noise is reduced, thereby improving the satisfaction of consumers. Thirdly, since the total length of the furniture hinge is changed in the opening and closing process of the furniture door, the opening angle of the furniture door is enlarged and thus the furniture door can be formed thick, improving the quality of the furniture. Fourth, since the furniture wall and the furniture door do not come into contact with each other in the opening and closing process of the furniture door, a load applied to the furniture door is not transmitted to the furniture hinge, thereby preventing damage to and deformation of the furniture hinge. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a sectional view showing an installation state of a prior art furniture hinge, FIG. 2 is a sectional view showing a fully opened state of the prior art furniture hinge, FIG. 3 is a perspective view showing an operation process of the prior art furniture hinge, FIG. 4 is a view showing a furniture hinge according to a first embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 5 is a sectional view showing an operation state of the furniture hinge according to the first embodiment, FIG. 6 is a perspective view showing an exploded state of the furniture hinge according to the first embodiment, FIG. 7 is a perspective view showing an operation process of the furniture hinge according to the first embodiment, FIG. 8 is a sectional view showing an operation process of the furniture hinge according to the first embodiment, FIG. 9 is a view showing a furniture hinge according to a second embodiment of the present invention, FIG. 10 is a perspective view showing an exploded state of a furniture hinge according to the second embodiment, and FIG. 11 is a sectional view showing an operation process of the furniture hinge according to the second embodiment, Explanation of essential reference numerals in drawings B: furniture wall D: furniture door 10: body part 12: inner plate 12-2: cutout hole 12-4: bolt hole 12-6, 12-8: front/rear hooks 12-9: buffering groove 14: outer plate 14-2, 14-6: elongated hole 14-4: bolt hole 16: setting bolt 18: tension bolt 20: wall fixing part 22: front holding protrusion 24: rear holding protrusion 30: movement part 31: elongated hole 32: guide shaft 34: guide hole 36: elongated hole 38: elongated hole 40: hinge part 42: upper rotation plate 44: lower rotation plate 50: door fixing part 60: adjustment part 62: rotation member 64: link member 70: guide part 72: guide hole 74: guide shaft 76: elastic ring DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENT Hereinafter, preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail. Embodiment 1 As shown in FIG. 4 to FIG. 8, a furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door, according to the present invention, includes: a body part 10 disposed between a furniture wall B and a furniture door D; a wall fixing part 20 for coupling the body part 10 to the mounting position of the furniture wall B in a locking manner; a movement part 30 for reciprocatingly moving along a guide shaft 32 in a state, in which the movement part 30 is coupled to the body part 10 through the guide shaft 32; a hinge part 40 for guiding the rotation direction of the furniture door D in a state, in which the hinge part 40 is coupled to the movement part 30 through upper/lower rotation plates 42, 44; a door fixing part 50 for hinge-coupling the hinge part 40 to the mounting position of the furniture door D; and an adjustment part 60 for adjusting the advancement and return of the movement part 30 in a state, in which the adjustment part 60 is accommodated in the movement part 30, wherein the adjustment part 60 includes a rotation member 62 integrally formed on the lower rotation plate 44 so as to simultaneously rotate together with the lower rotation plate 44 in the opening and closing process of the furniture door, and a link member 64 hinge-coupled respectively to the rotation member 62 and the guide shaft 32 so as to convert the rotational motion of the rotation member 62 into a linear motion, thereby advancing and returning the movement part 30 with respect to the guide shaft 32. First, the furniture hinge 1 according to the first embodiment includes the body part 10, the wall fixing part 20, the movement part 30, the hinge part 40 and the door fixing part 50, which are coupled to each other, and, particularly, furniture hinge 1 further includes the adjustment part 60 for advancing and returning the movement part 30 in the opening and closing process of the furniture door D. Particularly, the furniture hinge 1 has a structure, in which the length of the movement part 30 is changed corresponding to the length of the guide hole 34 described hereinafter during the advancing or returning of the movement part 30, wherein the corner of the furniture door D and the furniture wall B do not come into contact with each other even though the furniture door D is completely opened, as shown in FIG. 5. Herein, the body part 10 constitutes the exterior of the furniture hinge 1 and supports the entire load of the furniture door D, wherein the body part 10 provides a route for the advancement and return of the movement part 30 in the opening and closing processes of the furniture door D in a state, in which the body part 10 is provided between the furniture wall B and the furniture door D. Besides, the body part 10 includes an inner plate 12 and an outer plate 14 which are coupled to each other and come into contact with the inner circumferential surface and the outer circumferential surface of the movement part 30 and, particularly, includes a setting bolt 16 and a tension bolt 18 which are essentially required for the engagement between the inner plate 12 and the outer plate 14 or between the inner plate 12 and the movement part 30. In addition, the inner plate 12 is fixed to the wall fixing part 20 through front/rear hooks 12-6, 12-8, and includes a cutout hole 12-2 which are fitted to the lower end portion of the tension bolt 18 and a bolt hole 12-4 to which the setting bolt 16 is fastened. Furthermore, the outer plate 14 covers the outer circumferential surface of the movement part 30 so as to perform a cover function, and has an elongated hole 14-2 and a bolt hole 14-4 respectively, such that the elongated hole 14-2 provides a clearance space of the setting bolt 16 and the tension bolt 18 is fastened to the bolt hole 14-4. Of course, the outer plate 14 is formed with an elongated hole 14-6 for reciprocatingly moving with respect to the guide shaft 31 of the movement part 30, which will be described hereinafter. The setting bolt 16 is to set the positions of the inner plate 12 and the outer plate 14 and fastened to the bolt hole 12-4 of the inner plate 12 via the elongated hole 14-2 of the outer plate 14. The tension bolt 18 is to adjust the tension of the inner plate 12 and the outer plate 14 and is coupled to the bolt hole 14-4 of the outer plate 14 via the elongated hole 36 of the movement part 30. Particularly, the tension bolt 18 includes a concave groove formed at the lower end portion thereof such that the cutout hole 12-2 is held on the concave groove. The wall fixing part 20 is coupled by the bolt to the mounting position of the furniture wall B in contact with the mounting position of the furniture wall B, and includes a front holding protrusion 22 and a rear holding protrusion 24, with which the front hook 12-6 and the rear hook 12-8 of the inner plate 12 are respectively engaged. Of course, even though the front holding protrusion 22 and the rear holding protrusion 24 are formed on the wall fixing part 20 in the present application, it is also possible to detachably couple the inner plate 12 within the technical scope of the present application. The movement part 30 is interposed between the inner plate and the outer plate 14 so as to advance and return in the opening and closing process of the furniture door D, wherein the movement part 30 is accommodated in the outer plate 14 and coupled through the guide shaft 32. Further, the movement part 30 includes the guide hole 34, through which the guide shaft 32 passes, the elongated hole 36 for reciprocatingly moving with respect to the tension bolt 18, and an elongated hole 38 for reciprocatingly moving with respect to the setting bolt 16. Particularly, the guide hole 34 is formed in the form of an elongated hole in consideration of the movement amount of the movement part 30. Herein, if the guide shaft 32 is provided at the mounting position of the outer plate 14 in a state, where the movement part 30 is coupled to the outer plate 14 of the body part 10, then the guide shaft 32 passes through the guide hole 34 so that the guide hole 34 is advanced and returned with respect to the guide shaft 32. The hinge part 40 is to couple the movement part 30 and the door fixing part 50, and includes the upper rotation plate 42 hinge-coupled respectively to the movement part 30 and the door fixing part 50 so as to provide elastic force and the lower rotation plate 44 hinge-coupled to the movement part 30 and the door fixing part 50 respectively. The door fixing part 50 is accommodated in the concave groove of the furniture door D and fixed by a bolt, wherein the front end portion of the upper rotation plate 42 and the front end portion of the lower rotation plate 44 are respectively hinge-coupled to the door fixing part 50. The adjustment part 60 is to convert the rotational motion generated in the opening and closing process of the furniture door D into a linear motion so as to provide the operating force required for the advancing and returning the movement part 30, and includes the rotation member 62 accommodated in the movement part 30 and the link member 64 operated by the rotation member 62. In addition, the rotation member 62 provides operating force required for advancing and returning the movement part 30, and is integrally formed at the rear side of the lower rotation plate 44 so as to rotate forward or backward along a hinge shaft P1 of the lower rotation plate 44. Besides, the link member 64 is hinge-coupled to the rotation path of the rotation member 62, preferably to the rotation member 62 and the guide shaft 32 respectively, and adjusts a distance between the rotation member 62 and the guide shaft 32. Herein, the adjustment part 60 transmits the rotational force of the furniture door D by the rotation member 62, and provides the operating force according to the advancing and returning of the movement part 30 by the link member 64. That is, when the rotation member 62 rotates in the clockwise direction in the drawings, the movement part 30 moves forwards, and when the rotation member 62 rotates in the counterclockwise direction in the drawings, the movement part 30 moves backwards. Hereinafter, the operation according to the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 8. First, as shown in FIG. 8(a), when the furniture door D is completely closed on the furniture wall B, the lower rotation plate 44 does not rotate, and thus the rotation member 62 is in position. In addition, when the furniture door D is completely closed, the rotation member 62 and the link member 64 are in a set state, so that the guide shaft 32 is positioned at the left side of the guide hole 34 on the drawing. If the furniture door D is opened as shown in FIG. 8(b) and FIG. 8(c), the lower rotation plate 44 is rotated along the hinge shaft P1 in the clockwise direction on the drawings and, at the same time, the rotation member 62 is rotated in the clockwise direction on the drawings. Subsequently, since the link member 64 coupled to the rotation member 62 through a hinge shaft P2 moves while the rotation member 62 rotates, the distance between the hinge shaft P1 and the guide shaft 32 becomes relatively long. That is, since the guide hole 34 moves in the left direction on the drawings with respect to the guide shaft 32 according to the movement amount of the link member 64, the movement part 30 advances by the rotation amount of the rotation member 62. Herein, since the movement part 30 is in a state, in which the elongated hole 36 and the elongated hole 38 are respectively formed therein, the movement part 30 can move in the left direction on the drawing with respect to the setting bolt 16 and the tension bolt 18 so as to advance. Furthermore, as shown in FIG. 8(c), when the furniture door D is fully opened, the rotation member 62 and the link member 64 are in a completely rotated state and the guide shaft 32 is positioned at the right side of the guide hole 34 in the drawing. Therefore, as the opening amount of the furniture door D increases, the movement part 30 advances and the length of the furniture hinge 1 is increased. Particularly, as shown in FIG. 8(c), the furniture wall B and the furniture door D are sufficiently spaced apart from each other so that the furniture wall B and the furniture door D do not come into contact with each other even if the movement part 30 is fully advanced. That is, even if the furniture door D is completely opened, since the furniture wall B and the corner portion of the furniture door D do not come into contact with each other, the furniture is prevented from being damaged, such as the exterior of the furniture being peeled off and the like, thereby extending the service life. Embodiment 2 As shown in FIG. 9 to FIG. 11, a furniture hinge 1 according to the present invention, includes: a body part 10 disposed between the furniture wall B and the furniture door D; a wall fixing part 20 for fixing an inner plate 12 of the body part to the furniture wall B; a movement part 30 for reciprocatingly moving with respect to a guide shaft 32 in a state, in which the movement part 30 is coupled to an outer plate 14 of the body part 10 through the guide shaft 32; a hinge part 40 for guiding the rotation direction of the furniture door D in a state, in which the hinge part 40 is coupled to the movement part 30 through upper/lower rotation plates 42, 44; a door fixing part 50 for coupling the hinge part 40 to the furniture door D; and a guide part 70 provided at the movement path of the movement part 30 so as to guide the reciprocating movement of the movement part 30. Furthermore, the guide part 70 includes: a guide hole 72 formed in the outer plate 14; a guide shaft 74 for reciprocatingly moving along the guide hole 72 in a state, in which the outer plate 14 and the movement part 30 are coupled; and an elastic ring 76 coupled to the outer circumferential surface of the outer plate 14 so as to provide the return force of the guide shaft 74. Herein, the furniture hinge 1 according to the second embodiment includes the body part 10 such that the wall fixing part 20, the movement part 30, the hinge part 40, and the door fixing part 50 are coupled to each other. Additionally speaking, the furniture hinge 1 according to the second embodiment particularly includes the guide part 70 provided instead of the adjustment part 60 of the first embodiment. The body part 10 has the inner plate 12 and the outer plate 14, which are in contact with the inner circumferential surface and the outer circumferential surface of the movement part 30 respectively, and a buffering groove 12-9, which is formed on the top surface of the inner plate 12, preferably in the center of the top surface of the inner plate 12, so as to reduce a contact area with the movement part 30 and buffer an external load. Particularly, it is different that the inner plate 12 of the body part 10 and the wall fixing part 20 are formed integrally with each other, wherein it is also possible to separately form the inner plate 12 and the wall fixing part 20 from each other within the technical scope of the present application. In addition, the body part 10, the wall fixing part 20, the movement part 30, the hinge part 40 and the door fixing part 50 among the essential constituent elements according to the second embodiment are substantially the same as the corresponding elements according to the first embodiment and thus the explanation thereof will be omitted. Hereinafter, the guide hole 72, the guide shaft 74 and the elastic ring 76 of the guide part 70 will be described. The guide hole 72 is to couple the body part 10 and the movement part 30 to each other and is formed in the form of an elongated hole along the lengthwise direction of the outer plate at both side portions of the outer plate 14. Particularly, the guide hole 72 is formed to have a shape corresponding to that of the guide hole 34 as well as a length and a height corresponding to those of the guide hole 34. In addition, the guide shaft 74 is to couple the body part 10 and the movement part 30 to each other and is mounted along the widthwise direction of the movement part 30 so as to be fixed to the movement part 30, wherein the guide shaft 74 is formed in a shape corresponding to that of the guide shaft 32. Besides, the elastic ring 76 is coupled to both end portions of the guide shaft 74 so as to provide elastic force, thereby increasing the coupling force between the outer plate 14 and the movement part 30 as well as preventing the separation thereof. Therefore, the body part 10 and the movement part 30 are coupled to each other through the guide shafts 32, 74 and the guide holes 34, 72 so that the advancing and returning of the movement part 30 is performed in the opening and closing process of the furniture door D. Hereinafter, the operation according to the present invention will be described with reference to FIG. 11. First, as shown in FIG. 11(a), when the furniture door D is completely closed on the furniture wall B, the upper/lower rotation plates 42, 44 do not rotate, and thus the movement part 30 is in position. Besides, when the furniture door D is completely closed, the guide shaft 32 is positioned at the left side of the guide hole 34 in the drawing, and the guide shaft 74 is positioned at the right side of the guide hole 72 in the drawing. If the furniture door D is opened, as shown in FIG. 11(b) and FIG. 11(c), the upper/lower rotation plates 42, 44 rotate along the hinge shafts P1, P2 so that the movement part 30 advances by the rotation amount of the upper/lower rotation plates. That is, the movement part 30 moves with respect to the guide shaft 32 and the guide hole 72 in the left direction in the drawings. Particularly, as shown in FIG. 11(c), when the furniture door D is fully opened, the guide shaft 32 is positioned at the right side of the guide hole 34 in the drawing, and the guide shaft 74 is positioned at the left side of the guide hole 72 in the drawing. Meanwhile, when closing the furniture door D, the furniture door D is closed slowly in the sequence shown in FIG. 11(c) to FIG. 11(a), wherein the return process of the guide shaft 74 is smoothly carried out by the elastic force of the elastic ring 75. Therefore, it would be understood that the furniture hinge according to the present invention described hereinabove is not limited to the forms described in the example embodiments and it would be apparent to a person skilled in the art, to which the present invention belongs, that the technical and protective scope of the present invention shall be defined by the following claims. In addition, it should be also understood that all modifications, changes and equivalences within the technical scope of the present invention defined by the following claims belong to the technical scope of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the present invention has been made to solve the above-mentioned problems occurring in the prior arts, and it is an objective of the present invention to provide a furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door, in which the length of the furniture hinge is changed according to the opening or closing amount of the furniture door so as to prevent damage as well as noise owing to the friction between the furniture door and a furniture wall. To accomplish the above objective, according to the present invention, there is provided a furniture hinge for increasing the jumping length of a furniture door, includes: a body part disposed between a furniture wall and a furniture door; a wall fixing part for coupling the body part to the mounting position of the furniture wall in a locking manner; a movement part for reciprocatingly moving along a guide shaft in a state, in which the movement part is coupled to the body part through the guide shaft; a hinge part for guiding the rotation direction of the furniture door in a state, in which the hinge part is coupled to the movement part through upper/lower rotation plates; a door fixing part for hinge-coupling the hinge part to the mounting position of the furniture door; and an adjustment part for adjusting the advancement and return of the movement part in a state, in which the adjustment part is accommodated in the movement part, wherein the adjustment part includes a rotation member integrally formed on the lower rotation plate so as to simultaneously rotate together with the lower rotation plate in the opening and closing process of the furniture door, and a link member hinge-coupled respectively to the rotation member and the guide shaft so as to convert the rotational motion of the rotation member into a linear motion, thereby advancing and returning the movement part with respect to the guide shaft. The present invention as described above includes at least the following effects. First, the entire length of the furniture hinge is changed according to the opening or closing amount of the furniture door, so that the contact between the furniture door and the corner portion of the furniture wall in the opening and closing process of the furniture door is essentially eliminated. Secondly, even if the furniture door is completely opened, since the furniture wall and the furniture door do not come into contact with each other, peeling damage to the exterior of the furniture is prevented, as well as the contact noise is reduced, thereby improving the satisfaction of consumers. Thirdly, since the total length of the furniture hinge is changed in the opening and closing process of the furniture door, the opening angle of the furniture door is enlarged and thus the furniture door can be formed thick, improving the quality of the furniture. Fourth, since the furniture wall and the furniture door do not come into contact with each other in the opening and closing process of the furniture door, a load applied to the furniture door is not transmitted to the furniture hinge, thereby preventing damage to and deformation of the furniture hinge. | E05D70009 | 20170714 | 20180118 | 63582.0 | E05D700 | 0 | MORGAN, EMILY M | Furniture Hinge for Increasing Jumping Length of Furniture Door | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | E05D | 2,017 |
|
15,650,362 | ACCEPTED | SYSTEM WITH WIRELESS EARPHONES | Apparatus comprises adapter and speaker system. Adapter is configured to plug into port of personal digital audio player. Speaker system is in communication with adapter, and comprises multiple acoustic transducers, programmable processor circuit, and wireless communication circuit. In first operational mode, processor circuit receives, via adapter, and processes digital audio content from personal digital audio player into which adapter is plugged, and the multiple acoustic transducers output the received audio content from the personal digital audio player. In second operational mode, wireless communication circuit receives digital audio content from a remote digital audio source over a wireless network, processor circuit processes the digital audio content received from remote digital audio source, and the multiple acoustic transducers output the audio content received from the remote digital audio source. | 1. An apparatus comprising: an adapter that is configured to plug into a port of a personal digital audio player; and a speaker system in communication with the adapter, wherein the speaker system comprises: multiple acoustic transducers; a programmable processor circuit that is in communication with the multiple acoustic transducers and the adapter; a wireless communication circuit that is in communication with the processor circuit, wherein the wireless communication circuit is for communicating via one or more wireless networks; and wherein: in a first mode, the processor circuit is for receiving, via the adapter, and processing digital audio content from the personal digital audio player into which the adapter is plugged, and the multiple acoustic transducers are for outputting the received audio content from the personal digital audio player; and in a second mode, the wireless communication circuit is for receiving digital audio content from a remote digital audio source over a wireless network, the processor circuit is for processing the digital audio content received from the remote digital audio source, and the multiple acoustic transducers are for outputting the audio content received from the remote digital audio source. | PRIORITY CLAIM The present application claims priority as a continuation to U.S. nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 15/293,785, filed Oct. 14, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 15/082,040, filed Mar. 28, 2016, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,497,535, issued on Nov. 15, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 14/695,696, filed Apr. 24, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,438,987, issued on Sep. 6, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 13/609,409, filed Sep. 11, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,049,502, issued Jun. 2, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 13/459,291, filed Apr. 30, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,571,544, issued Oct. 29, 2013, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/936,488, filed Dec. 20, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,190,203, issued May 29, 2012, which is a national stage entry of PCT/US2009/039754, filed Apr. 7, 2009, which claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/123,265, filed Apr. 7, 2008, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties. CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS U.S. nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 14/031,938, filed Sep. 13, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,655,420, issued Feb. 18, 2014, is also a continuation of U.S. nonprovisional patent application Ser. No. 13/609,409, filed Sep. 11, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,049,502, mentioned above. BACKGROUND Digital audio players, such as MP3 players and iPods, that store and play digital audio files, are very popular. Such devices typically comprise a data storage unit for storing and playing the digital audio, and a headphone set that connects to the data storage unit, usually with a ¼″ or a 3.5 mm jack and associated cord. Often the headphones are in-ear type headphones. The cord, however, between the headphones and the data storage unit can be cumbersome and annoying to users, and the length of the cord limits the physical distance between the data storage unit and the headphones. Accordingly, some cordless headphones have been proposed, such as the Monster iFreePlay cordless headphones from Apple Inc., which include a docking port on one of the earphones that can connect directly to an iPod Shuffle. Because they have the docking port, however, the Monster iFreePlay cordless headphones from Apple are quite large and are not in-ear type phones. Recently, cordless headphones that connect wirelessly via IEEE 802.11 to a WLAN-ready laptop or personal computer (PC) have been proposed, but such headphones are also quite large and not in-ear type phones. SUMMARY In one general aspect, the present invention is directed to a wireless earphone that comprises a transceiver circuit for receiving streaming audio from a data source, such as a digital audio player or a computer, over an ad hoc wireless network. When the data source and the earphone are out of range via the ad hoc wireless network, they may transition automatically to a common infrastructure wireless network (e.g., a wireless LAN). If there is no common infrastructure wireless network for both the data source and the earphone, the earphone may connect via an available infrastructure wireless network to a host server. The host server may, for example, broadcast streaming audio to the earphone and/or transmit to the earphone a network address (e.g., an Internet Protocol (IP) address) for a network-connected content server that streams digital audio. The earphone may then connect to the content server using the IP address. The content server may be an Internet radio server, including, for example, an Internet radio server that broadcasts streaming audio from the data source or some other content. These and other advantageous, unique aspects of the wireless earphone are described below. FIGURES Various embodiments of the present invention are described herein by way of example in conjunction with the following figures, wherein: FIGS. 1A-1E are views of a wireless earphone according to various embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 2A-2D illustrate various communication modes for a wireless earphone according to various embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a wireless earphone according to various embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 4A-4B show the wireless earphone connected to another device according to various embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 5 is a diagram of a process implemented by a host server according to various embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 6 is a diagram of a process implemented by the wireless earphone to transition automatically between wireless networks according to various embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 7, 8 and 10 illustrate communication systems involving the wireless earphone according to various embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 9 is a diagram of a headset including a wireless earphone and a microphone according to various embodiments of the present invention; and FIG. 11 is a diagram of a pair of wireless earphones with a dongle according to various embodiments of the present invention. DESCRIPTION In one general aspect, the present invention is directed to a wireless earphone that receives streaming audio data via ad hoc wireless networks and infrastructure wireless networks, and that transitions seamlessly between wireless networks. The earphone may comprise one or more in-ear, on-ear, or over-ear speaker elements. Two exemplary in-ear earphone shapes for the wireless earphone 10 are shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, respectively, although in other embodiments the earphone may take different shapes and the exemplary shapes shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B are not intended to be limiting. In one embodiment, the earphone transitions automatically and seamlessly, without user intervention, between communication modes. That is, the earphone may transition automatically from an ad hoc wireless network to an infrastructure wireless network, without user intervention. As used herein, an “ad hoc wireless network” is a network where two (or more) wireless-capable devices, such as the earphone and a data source, communicate directly and wirelessly, without using an access point. An “infrastructure wireless network,” on the other hand, is a wireless network that uses one or more access points to allow a wireless-capable device, such as the wireless earphone, to connect to a computer network, such as a LAN or WAN (including the Internet). FIGS. 1A and 1B show example configurations for a wireless earphone 10 according to various embodiments of the present invention. The examples shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B are not limiting and other configurations are within the scope of the present invention. As shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the earphone 10 may comprise a body 12. The body 12 may comprise an ear canal portion 14 that is inserted in the ear canal of the user of the earphone 10. In various embodiments, the body 12 also may comprise an exterior portion 15 that is not inserted into user's ear canal. The exterior portion 15 may comprise a knob 16 or some other user control (such as a dial, a pressure-activated switch, lever, etc.) for adjusting the shape of the ear canal portion 14. That is, in various embodiments, activation (e.g. rotation) of the knob 16 may cause the ear canal portion 14 to change shape so as to, for example, radially expand to fit snugly against all sides of the user's ear canal. Further details regarding such a shape-changing earbud earphone are described in application PCT/US08/88656, filed 31 Dec. 2008, entitled “Adjustable Shape Earphone,” which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The earphone 10 also may comprise a transceiver circuit housed within the body 12. The transceiver circuit, described further below, may transmit and receive the wireless signals, including receive streaming audio for playing by the earphone 10. The transceiver circuit may be housed in the exterior portion 15 of the earphone 10 and/or in the ear canal portion 14. Although the example earphones 10 shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B include a knob 16 for adjusting the shape of the ear canal portion 14, the present invention is not so limited, and in other embodiments, different means besides a knob 16 may be used to adjust the ear canal portion 14. In addition, in other embodiments, the earphone 10 may not comprise a shape-changing ear canal portion 14. In various embodiments, the user may wear two discrete wireless earphones 10: one in each ear. In such embodiments, each earphone 10 may comprise a transceiver circuit. In such embodiments, the earphones 10 may be connected by a string or some other cord-type connector to keep the earphones 10 from being separated. In other embodiments, as shown in FIG. 1C, a headband 19 may connect the two (left and right) earphones 10. The headband 19 may be an over-the-head band, as shown in the example of FIG. 1C, or the headband may be a behind-the-head band. In embodiments comprising a headband 19, each earphone 10 may comprise a transceiver circuit; hence, each earphone 10 may receive and transmit separately the wireless communication signals. In other embodiments comprising a headband 19, only one earphone 10 may comprise the transceiver circuit, and a wire may run along the headband 19 to the other earphone 10 to connect thereby the transceiver circuit to the acoustic transducer in the earphone that does not comprise the transceiver circuit. The embodiment shown in FIG. 1C comprises on-ear earphones 10; in other embodiments, in-ear or over-ear earphones may be used. In other embodiments, the earphone 10 may comprise a hanger bar 17 that allows the earphone 10 to clip to, or hang on, the user's ear, as shown in the illustrated embodiment of FIGS. 1D-1E. FIG. 1D is a perspective view of the earphone and FIG. 1E is a side view according to one embodiment. As shown in the illustrated embodiment, the earphone 10 may comprise dual speaker elements 106-A, 106-B. One of the speaker elements (the smaller one) 106-A is sized to fit into the cavum concha of the listener's ear and the other element (the larger one) 106-B is not. The listener may use the hanger bar to position the earphone on the listener's ear. In that connection, the hanger bar may comprise a horizontal section that rests upon the upper external curvature of the listener's ear behind the upper portion of the auricula (or pinna). The earphone may comprise a knurled knob that allows the user to adjust finely the distance between the horizontal section of the hanger bar and the speaker elements, thereby providing, in such embodiments, another measure of adjustability for the user. More details regarding such a dual element, adjustable earphone may be found in U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 61/054,238, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. FIGS. 2A-2D illustrate various communication modes for a wireless data communication system involving the earphone 10 according to embodiments of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 2A, the system comprises a data source 20 in communication with the earphone 10 via an ad hoc wireless network 24. The earphone 10, via its transceiver circuit (described in more detail below), may communicate wirelessly with a data source 20, which may comprise a wireless network adapter 22 for transmitting the digital audio wirelessly. For example, the data source 20 may be a digital audio player (DAP), such as an mp3 player or an iPod, or any other suitable digital audio playing device, such as a laptop or personal computer, that stores and/or plays digital audio files. In other embodiments, the data source 20 may generate analog audio, and the wireless network adapter 22 may encode the analog audio into digital format for transmission to the earphone 10. The wireless network adapter 22 may be an integral part of the data source 20, or it may be a separate device that is connected to the data source 20 to provide wireless connectivity for the data source 20. For example, the wireless network adapter 22 may comprise a wireless network interface card (WNIC) or other suitable transceiver that plugs into a USB port or other port or jack of the data source 20 (such as a TRS connector) to stream data, e.g., digital audio files, via a wireless network (e.g., the ad hoc wireless network 24 or an infrastructure wireless network). The digital audio transmitted from the data source 20 to the earphone 10 via the wireless networks may comprise compressed or uncompressed audio. Any suitable file format may be used for the audio, including mp3, lossy or lossless WMA, Vorbis, Musepack, FLAC, WAV, AIFF, AU, or any other suitable file format. When in range, the data source 20 may communicate with the earphone 10 via the ad hoc wireless network 24 using any suitable wireless communication protocol, including Wi-Fi (e.g., IEEE 802.11a/b/g/n), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16), Bluetooth, Zigbee, UWB, or any other suitable wireless communication protocol. For purposes of the description to follow, it is assumed that the data source 20 and the earphone 10 communicate using a Wi-Fi protocol, although the invention is not so limited and other wireless communication protocols may be used in other embodiments of the invention. The data source 20 and the earphone 10 are considered in range for the ad hoc wireless network 24 when the signal strengths (e.g., the RSSI) of the signals received by the two devices are above a threshold minimum signal strength level. For example, the data source 20 and the earphone 10 are likely to be in range for an ad hoc wireless network when then are in close proximity, such as when the wearer of the earphone 10 has the data source 20 on his/her person, such as in a pocket, strapped to their waist or arm, or holding the data source in their hand. When the earphone 10 and the data source 20 are out of range for the ad hoc wireless network 24, that is, when the received signals degrade below the threshold minimum signal strength level, both the earphone 10 and the data source 20 may transition automatically to communicate over an infrastructure wireless network (such as a wireless LAN (WLAN)) 30 that is in the range of both the earphone 10 and the data source 20, as shown in FIG. 2B. The earphone 10 and the data source 20 (e.g., the wireless network adapter 22) may include firmware, as described further below, that cause the components to make the transition to a common infrastructure wireless network 30 automatically and seamlessly, e.g., without user intervention. The earphone 10 may cache the received audio in a buffer or memory for a time period before playing the audio. The cached audio may be played after the connection over the ad hoc wireless network is lost to give the earphone 10 and the data source 20 time to connect via the infrastructure wireless network. For example, as shown in FIG. 2B, the infrastructure network may comprise an access point 32 that is in the range of both the data source 20 and the earphone 10. The access point 32 may be an electronic hardware device that acts as a wireless access point for, and that is connected to, a wired and/or wireless data communication network 33, such as a LAN or WAN, for example. The data source 20 and the earphone 10 may both communicate wirelessly with the access point 32 using the appropriate network data protocol (a Wi-Fi protocol, for example). The data source 20 and the earphone 10 may both transition automatically to an agreed-upon WLAN 30 that is in the range of both devices when they cannot communicate satisfactorily via the ad hoc wireless network 24. A procedure for specifying an agreed-upon infrastructure wireless network 30 is described further below. Alternatively, the infrastructure wireless network 30 may have multiple access points 32a-b, as shown in FIG. 2C. In such an embodiment, the data source 20 may communicate wirelessly with one access point 32b and the earphone 10 may communicate wirelessly with another access point 32a of the same infrastructure wireless network 30. Again, the data source 20 and the earphone 10 may transition to an agreed-upon WLAN. If there is no suitable common infrastructure wireless network over which the earphone 10 and the data source 20 can communicate, as shown in FIG. 2D, the earphone 10 may transition to communicate with an access point 32a for an available (first) wireless network (e.g., WLAN) 30a that is in the range of the earphone 10. In this mode, the earphone 10 may connect via the wireless network 30a to a network-enabled host server 40. The host server 40 may be connected to the wireless network 30a via an electronic data communication network 42, such as the Internet. In one mode, the host server 40 may transmit streaming digital audio via the networks 33a, 42 to the earphone 10. In another mode, the host server 40 may transmit to the earphone 10 a network address, such as an Internet Protocol (IP) address, for a streaming digital audio content server 70 on the network 42. Using the received IP address, the earphone 10 may connect to the streaming digital audio content server 70 via the networks 30a, 42 to receive and process digital audio from the streaming digital audio content server 70. The digital audio content server 70 may be, for example, an Internet radio station server. The digital audio content server 70 may stream digital audio over the network 42 (e.g., the Internet), which the earphone 10 may receive and process. In one embodiment, the streaming digital audio content server 70 may stream digital audio received by the streaming digital audio content server 70 from the data source 20. For example, where the data source 20 is a wireless-capable device, such as a portable DAP, the data source 20 may connect to the streaming digital audio content server 70 via a wireless network 30b and the network 42. Alternatively, where for example the data source 20 is non-wireless-capable device, such as a PC, the data source 20 may have a direct wired connection to the network 42. After being authenticated by the streaming digital audio content server 70, the data source 20 may stream digital audio to the streaming digital audio content server 70, which may broadcast the received digital audio over the network 42 (e.g., the Internet). In such a manner, the user of the earphone 10 may listen to audio from the data source 20 even when (i) the earphone 10 and the data source 20 are not in communication via an ad hoc wireless network 24 and (ii) the earphone 10 and the data source 20 are not in communication via a common local infrastructure wireless network 30. FIG. 3 is a block diagram of the earphone 10 according to various embodiments of the present invention. In the illustrated embodiment, the earphone 10 comprises a transceiver circuit 100 and related peripheral components. As shown in FIG. 3, the peripheral components of the earphone 10 may comprise a power source 102, a microphone 104, one or more acoustic transducers 106 (e.g., speakers), and an antenna 108. The transceiver circuit 100 and some of the peripheral components (such as the power source 102 and the acoustic transducers 106) may be housed within the body 12 of the earphone 10 (see FIG. 1). Other peripheral components, such as the microphone 104 and the antenna 108 may be external to the body 12 of the earphone 10. In addition, some of the peripheral components, such as the microphone 104, are optional in various embodiments. In various embodiments, the transceiver circuit 100 may be implemented as a single integrated circuit (IC), such as a system-on-chip (SoC), which is conducive to miniaturizing the components of the earphone 10, which is advantageous if the earphone 10 is to be relatively small in size, such as an in-ear earphone (see FIGS. 1A-1B for example). In alternative embodiments, however, the components of the transceiver circuit 100 could be realized with two or more discrete ICs or other components, such as separate ICs for the processors, memory, and RF (e.g., Wi-Fi) module, for example. The power source 102 may comprise, for example, a rechargeable or non-rechargeable battery (or batteries). In other embodiments, the power source 102 may comprise one or more ultracapacitors (sometimes referred to as supercapacitors) that are charged by a primary power source. In embodiments where the power source 102 comprises a rechargeable battery cell or an ultracapacitor, the battery cell or ultracapacitor, as the case may be, may be charged for use, for example, when the earphone 10 is connected to a docking station or computer. The docking station may be connected to or part of a computer device, such as a laptop computer or PC. In addition to charging the rechargeable power source 102, the docking station and/or computer may facilitate downloading of data to and/or from the earphone 10. In other embodiments, the power source 102 may comprise capacitors passively charged with RF radiation, such as described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,027,311. The power source 102 may be coupled to a power source control module 103 of transceiver circuit 100 that controls and monitors the power source 102. The acoustic transducer(s) 106 may be the speaker element(s) for conveying the sound to the user of the earphone 10. According to various embodiments, the earphone 10 may comprise one or more acoustic transducers 106. For embodiments having more than one transducer, one transducer may be larger than the other transducer, and a crossover circuit (not shown) may transmit the higher frequencies to the smaller transducer and may transmit the lower frequencies to the larger transducer. More details regarding dual element earphones are provided in U.S. Pat. No. 5,333,206, assigned to Koss Corporation, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The antenna 108 may receive and transmit the wireless signals from and to the wireless networks 24, 30. A RF (e.g., Wi-Fi) module 110 of the transceiver circuit 100 in communication with the antenna 108 may, among other things, modulate and demodulate the signals transmitted from and received by the antenna 108. The RF module 110 communicates with a baseband processor 112, which performs other functions necessary for the earphone 10 to communicate using the Wi-Fi (or other communication) protocol. The baseband processor 112 may be in communication with a processor unit 114, which may comprise a microprocessor 116 and a digital signal processor (DSP) 118. The microprocessor 116 may control the various components of the transceiver circuit 100. The DSP 114 may, for example, perform various sound quality enhancements to the digital audio received by the baseband processor 112, including noise cancellation and sound equalization. The processor unit 114 may be in communication with a volatile memory unit 120 and a non-volatile memory unit 122. A memory management unit 124 may control the processor unit's access to the memory units 120, 122. The volatile memory 122 may comprise, for example, a random access memory (RAM) circuit. The non-volatile memory unit 122 may comprise a read only memory (ROM) and/or flash memory circuits. The memory units 120, 122 may store firmware that is executed by the processor unit 114. Execution of the firmware by the processor unit 114 may provide various functionality for the earphone 10, such as the automatic transition between wireless networks as described herein. The memory units 120, 122 may also cache received digital audio. A digital-to-analog converter (DAC) 125 may convert the digital audio from the processor unit 114 to analog form for coupling to the acoustic transducer(s) 106. An I2S interface 126 or other suitable serial or parallel bus interface may provide the interface between the processor unit 114 and the DAC 125. An analog-to-digital converter (ADC) 128, which also communicates with the I2S interface 126, may convert analog audio signals picked up by the microphone 104 for processing by the processor unit 114. The transceiver circuit 100 also may comprise a USB or other suitable interface 130 that allows the earphone 10 to be connected to an external device via a USB cable or other suitable link. As shown in FIG. 4A, the external device may be a docking station 200 connected to a computer device 202. Also, in various embodiments, the earphone 10 could be connected directly to the computer 202 without the docking station 200. In addition, the external device may be a DAP 210, as shown in FIG. 4B. In that way, the earphone 10 could connect directly to a data source 20, such as the DAP 210 or the computer 202, through the USB port 130. In addition, through the USB port 130, the earphone 10 may connect to a PC 202 or docking station 202 to charge up the power source 102 and/or to get downloads (e.g., data or firmware). According to various embodiments, the earphone 10 may have an associated web page that a user may access through the host server 40 (see FIG. 2D) or some other server. An authenticated user could log onto the website from a client computing device 50 (e.g., laptop, PC, handheld computer device, etc., including the data source 20) (see FIG. 2D) to access the web page for the earphone 10 to set various profile values for the earphone 10. For example, at the web site, the user could set various content features and filters, as well as adjust various sound control features, such as treble, bass, frequency settings, noise cancellation settings, etc. In addition, the user could set preferred streaming audio stations, such as preferred Internet radio stations or other streaming audio broadcasts. That way, instead of listening to streaming audio from the data source 20, the user could listen to Internet radio stations or other streaming audio broadcasts received by the earphone 10. In such an operating mode, the earphone user, via the web site, may prioritize a number of Internet radio stations or other broadcast sources (hosted by streaming digital audio content servers 70). With reference to FIG. 7, the host server 40 may send the IP address for the earphone user's desired (e.g., highest priority) Internet radio station to the earphone 10. A button 11 on the earphone 10, such as on the rotating dial 16 as shown in the examples of FIGS. 1A and 1B, may allow the user to cycle through the preset preferred Internet radio stations. That is, for example, when the user presses the button 11, an electronic communication may be transmitted to the host server 40 via the wireless network 30, and in response to receiving the communication, the host server 40 may send the IP address for the user's next highest rated Internet radio station via the network 42 to the earphone 10. The earphone 10 may then connect to the streaming digital audio content server 70 for that Internet radio station using the IP address provided by the host server 40. This process may be repeated, e.g., cycled through, for each preset Internet radio station configured by the user of the earphone 10. At the web site for the earphone 10 hosted on the host server 40, in addition to establishing the identification of digital audio sources (e.g., IDs for the user's DAP or PC) and earphones, the user could set parental or other user controls. For example, the user could restrict certain Internet radio broadcasts based on content or parental ratings, etc. That is, for example, the user could configure a setting through the web site that prevents the host server 40 from sending an IP address for a streaming digital audio content server 70 that broadcasts explicit content based on a rating for the content. In addition, if a number of different earphones 10 are registered to the same user, the user could define separate controls for the different earphones 10 (as well as customize any other preferences or settings particular to the earphones 10, including Internet radio stations, sound quality settings, etc. that would later be downloaded to the earphones 10). In addition, in modes where the host server 40 streams audio to the earphone 10, the host server 40 may log the files or content streamed to the various earphones 10, and the user could view at the web site the files or content that were played by the earphones 10. In that way, the user could monitor the files played by the earphones 10. In addition, the host server 40 may provide a so-called eavesdropping function according to various embodiments. The eavesdropping service could be activated via the web site. When the service is activated, the host server 40 may transmit the content that it is delivering to a first earphone 10a to another, second earphone 10b, as shown in FIG. 8. Alternatively, the host server 40 may transmit to the second earphone 10b the most recent IP address for a streaming digital audio content server 70 that was sent to the first earphone 10a. The second earphone 10b may then connect to the streaming digital audio content server 70 that the first earphone 10a is currently connected. That way, the user of the second earphone 10b, which may be a parent, for example, may directly monitor the content being received by the first earphone 10a, which may belong to a child of the parent. This function also could be present in the earphones 10 themselves, allowing a parent (or other user) to join an ad-hoc wireless network and listen to what their child (or other listener) is hearing. For example, with reference to FIG. 10, a first earphone 10a may receive wireless audio, such as from the data source 20 or some other source, such as the host server 40. The first earphone 10a may be programmed with firmware to broadcast the received audio to a second earphone 10b via an ad hoc wireless network 24. That way, the wearer of the second earphone 10b can monitor in real-time the content being played by the first earphone 10a. At the web site, the user may also specify the identification number (“ID”) of their earphone(s) 10, and the host server 40 may translate the ID to the current internet protocol (IP) addresses for the earphone 10 and for the data source 20. This allows the user to find his or her data source 20 even when it is behind a firewall or on a changing IP address. That way, the host server 40 can match the audio from the data source 20 to the appropriate earphone 10 based on the specified device ID. The user also could specify a number of different data sources 20. For example, the user's DAP may have one specified IP address and the user's home (or work) computer may have another specified IP address. Via the web site hosted by the host server 40, the user could specify or prioritize from which source (e.g., the user's DAP or computer) the earphone 10 is to receive content. The host server 40 (or some other server) may also push firmware upgrades and/or data updates to the earphone 10 using the IP addresses of the earphone 10 via the networks 30, 42. In addition, a user could download the firmware upgrades and/or data updates from the host server 40 to the client computing device 202 (see FIG. 4A) via the Internet, and then download the firmware upgrades and/or data updates to the earphone 10 when the earphone 10 is connected to the client computer device 202 (such as through a USB port and/or the docking station 200). Whether the downloads are transmitted wirelessly to the earphone 10 or via the client computing device 202 may depend on the current data rate of the earphone 10 and the quantity of data to be transmitted to the earphone 10. For example, according to various embodiments, as shown in the process flow of FIG. 5, the host server 40 may be programmed, at step 50, to make a determination, based on the current data rate for the earphone 10 and the size of the update, whether the update should be pushed to the earphone 10 wirelessly (e.g., via the WLAN 30a in FIG. 2D). If the update is too large and/or the current data rate is too low that the performance of the earphone 10 will be adversely affected, the host server 40 may refrain from pushing the update to the earphone 10 wirelessly and wait instead to download the update to the client computing device 202 at step 51. Conversely, if the host server 40 determines that, given the size of the update and the current data rate for the earphone 10 that the performance of the earphone 10 will not be adversely affected, the host server 40 may transmit the update wirelessly to the earphone 10 at step 52. As mentioned above, the processor unit 114 of the speakerphones 14 may be programmed, via firmware stored in the memory 120, 122, to have the ability to transition automatically from the ad hoc wireless network 24 to an infrastructure wireless network 30 (such as a WLAN) when the quality of the signal on the ad hoc wireless network 24 degrades below a suitable threshold (such as when the data source 20 is out of range for an ad hoc wireless network). In that case, the earphone 10 and the data source 20 may connect to a common infrastructure wireless network (e.g., WLAN) (see, for example, FIGS. 2B-2C). Through the web site for the earphone 10, described above, the user could specify a priority of infrastructure wireless networks 30 for the data source 20 and the earphone 10 to connect to when the ad hoc wireless network 24 is not available. For example, the user could specify a WLAN servicing his/her residence first, a WLAN servicing his/her place of employment second, etc. During the time that the earphone 10 and the data source 20 are connected via the ad hoc wireless network 24, the earphone 10 and the data source 20 may exchange data regarding which infrastructure networks are in range. When the earphone 10 and the data source 20 are no longer in range for the ad hoc wireless network 24 (that is, for example, the signals between the device degrade below an acceptable level), they may both transition automatically to the highest prioritized infrastructure wireless network whose signal strength is above a certain threshold level. That way, even though the earphone 10 and the data source 20 are out of range for the ad hoc wireless network 24, the earphone 10 may still receive the streaming audio from the data source 20 via the infrastructure wireless network 30 (see FIGS. 2B-2C). When none of the preferred infrastructure networks is in range, the earphone 10 may connect automatically to the host server 40 via an available infrastructure wireless network 30 (see FIG. 2D), e.g., the infrastructure wireless network 30 having the highest RSSI and to which the earphone 10 is authenticated to use. The host server 40, as mentioned above, may transmit IP addresses to the earphone 10 for streaming digital audio content servers 70 or the host sever 40 may stream digital audio to the earphone 10 itself when in this communication mode. FIG. 6 is a diagram of the process flow, according to one embodiment, implemented by the transceiver circuit 100 of the earphone 10. The process shown in FIG. 6 may be implemented in part by the processor unit 114 executing firmware stored in a memory unit 120, 122 of the transceiver circuit 100. At step 61, the earphone 10 may determine if it can communicate with the data source 20 via an ad hoc wireless network 24. That is, the earphone 10 may determine if the strength of the wireless signals from the data source 20 exceed some minimum threshold. If so, the data source 20 and the earphone 10 may communicate wirelessly via the ad hoc wireless network 24 (see FIG. 2A). While in this communication mode, at step 62, the data source 20 and the earphone 10 also may exchange data regarding the local infrastructure wireless networks, if any, in the range of the data source 20 and the earphone 10, respectively. For example, the earphone 10 may transmit the ID of local infrastructure wireless networks 30 that the earphone 10 can detect whose signal strength (e.g., RSSI) exceeds some minimum threshold level. Similarly, the data source 20 may transmit the ID the local infrastructure wireless networks 30 that the data source 20 can detect whose signal strength (e.g., RSSI) exceeds some minimum threshold level. The earphone 10 may save this data in a memory unit 120, 122. Similarly, the data source 20 may store in memory the wireless networks that the earphone 10 is detected. The data source 20 and the earphone 10 may continue to communicate via the ad hoc wireless network mode 24 until they are out of range (e.g., the signal strengths degrade below a minimum threshold level). If an ad hoc wireless network 24 is not available at block 61, the transceiver circuit 100 and the data source 20 may execute a process, shown at block 63, to connect to the user's highest prioritized infrastructure wireless network 30. For example, of the infrastructure wireless networks whose signal strength exceeded the minimum threshold for both the earphone 10 and the data source 20 determined at step 62, the earphone 10 and the data source 20 may both transition to the infrastructure wireless network 30 having the highest priority, as previously set by the user (seen FIGS. 2B-2C, for example). For example, if the user's highest prioritized infrastructure wireless network 30 is not available, but the user's second highest prioritized infrastructure wireless network 30 is, the earphone 10 and the data source 20 may both transition automatically to the user's second highest prioritized infrastructure wireless network 30 at block 64. As shown by the loop with block 65, the earphone 10 and the data source 20 may continue to communicate via one of the user's prioritized infrastructure wireless networks 30 as long as the infrastructure wireless network 30 is available. If the infrastructure wireless network becomes unavailable, the process may return to block 61. If, however, no ad hoc wireless network and none of the user's prioritized infrastructure wireless networks are available, the earphone 10 may transition automatically to connect to the host server 40 at block 66 (see FIG. 2D) using an available infrastructure wireless network 30. At block 67, the host server 40 may transmit an IP address to the earphone 10 for one of the streaming digital audio content servers 70, and at block 68 the earphone 10 may connect to the streaming digital audio content server 70 using the received IP address. At step 69, as long as the earphone 10 is connected to the streaming digital audio content server 70, the earphone 10 may continue to communicate in this mode. However, if the earphone 10 loses its connection to the digital audio content server 70, the process may return to block 61 in one embodiment. As mentioned above, at block 67, instead of sending an IP address for a streaming digital audio content server 70, the host server 40 may stream digital audio to the earphone 10. The user, when configuring their earphone 10 preferences via the web site, may specify and/or prioritize whether the host server 40 is to send IP addresses for the streaming digital audio content servers 70 and/or whether the host server 40 is to stream audio to the earphone 10 itself. In another embodiment, the earphone 10 may be programmed to transition automatically to the host server 40 when the earphone 10 and the data source 20 are not in communication via the ad hoc wireless network 24. That is, in such an embodiment, the earphone 10 may not try to connect via a local infrastructure wireless network 30 with the data source 20, but instead transition automatically to connect to the host server 40 (see FIG. 2D). In various embodiments, as shown in FIG. 1B, the button 11 or other user selection device that allows the wearer of the earphone 10 to indicate approval and/or disapproval of songs or other audio files listened to by the wearer over an Internet radio station. The approval/disapproval rating, along with metadata for the song received by the earphone 10 with the streaming audio, may be transmitted from the transceiver circuit 100 of the earphone 10 back to the host server 40, which may log the songs played as well as the ratings for the various songs/audio files. In addition to being able to view the logs at the website, the host server 40 (or some other server) may send an email or other electronic communication to the earphone user, at a user specified email address or other address, which the user might access from their client communication device 50 (see FIG. 2D). The email or other electronic communication may contain a listing of the song/audio files for which the user gave approval ratings using the button 11 or other user selection device. Further, the email or other electronic communication may provide a URL link for a URL at which the user could download song/audio files that the user rated (presumably song/audio files for which the user gave an approval rating). In some instances, the user may be required to pay a fee to download the song/audio file. The user song ratings also may be used by the host server 40 to determine the user's musical preferences and offer new music that the user might enjoy. More details about generating user play lists based on song ratings may be found in published U.S. patent applications Pub. No. 2006/0212444, Pub. No. 2006/0206487, and Pub. No. 2006/0212442, and U.S. Pat. No. 7,003,515, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. In addition or alternatively, the user could log onto a web site hosted by the host server 40 (or some other server) to view the approval/disapproval ratings that the user made via the button 11 on the earphone 10. The web site may provide the user with the option of downloading the rated songs/audio files (for the host server 40 or some other server system) to their client computer device 50. The user could then have their earphone 10 connect to their client computer device 50 as a data source 20 via an ad hoc wireless network 24 (see FIG. 2A) or via an infrastructure wireless network (see FIGS. 2B-2D) to listen to the downloaded songs. In addition, the user could download the song files from their client computer device 50 to their DAP and listen to the downloaded song files from their DAP by using their DAP as the data source 20 in a similar manner. Another application of the headsets may be in vehicles equipped with Wi-Fi or other wireless network connectivity. Published PCT application WO 2007/136620, which is incorporated herein by reference, discloses a wireless router for providing a Wi-Fi or other local wireless network for a vehicle, such as a car, truck, boat, bus, etc. In a vehicle having a Wi-Fi or other local wireless network, the audio for other media systems in the vehicle could be broadcast over the vehicle's wireless network. For example, if the vehicle comprises a DVD player, the audio from the DVD system could be transmitted to the router and broadcast over the vehicle's network. Similarly, the audio from terrestrial radio stations, a CD player, or an audio cassette player could be broadcast over the vehicle's local wireless network. The vehicle's passengers, equipped with the earphones 10, could cycle through the various audio broadcasts (including the broadcasts from the vehicle's media system as well as broadcasts from the host server 40, for example) using a selection button 11 on the earphone 10. The vehicle may also be equipped with a console or terminal, etc., through which a passenger could mute all of the broadcasts for direct voice communications, for example. As described above, the earphones 10 may also include a microphone 104, as shown in the example of FIG. 9. The headset 90 shown in FIG. 9 includes two earphones 10, both of which may include a transceiver circuit 100 or only one of which may include the transceiver circuit, as discussed above. The microphone 104 could be used to broadcast communications from one earphone wearer to another earphone wearer. For example, one wearer could activate the microphone by pressing a button 92 on the headset 90. The headset 90 may then transmit a communication via an ad hoc wireless network 24 or other wireless network to a nearby recipient (or recipients) equipped with a headset 90 with a transceiver circuit 100 in one or both of the earphones 10. When such communication is detected by the recipient's headset 90, the streaming audio received over the wireless network by the recipient's headset 90 may be muted, and the intercom channel may be routed to the transducer(s) of the recipient's headset 90 for playing for the recipient. This functionality may be valuable and useful where multiple wearers of the headsets 90 are in close proximity, such as on motorcycles, for example. Another exemplary use of the earphones 10 is in a factory, warehouse, construction site, or other environment that might be noisy. Persons (e.g., workers) in the environment could use the earphones 10 for protection from the surrounding noise of the environment. From a console or terminal, a person (e.g., a supervisor) could select a particular recipient for a communication over the Wi-Fi network (or other local wireless network). The console or terminal may have buttons, dials, or switches, etc., for each user/recipient, or it could have one button or dial through which the sender could cycle through the possible recipients. In addition, the console or terminal could have a graphical user interface, through which the sender may select the desired recipient(s). As mentioned above, the earphones 10 may comprise a USB port. In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 11, the user may use an adapter 150 that connects to the USB port of each earphone 10. The adapter 150 may also have a plug connector 152, such as a 3.5 mm jack, which allows the user to connect the adapter 150 to devices having a corresponding port for the connector 152. When the earphones 10 detect a connection via their USB interfaces in such a manner, the Wi-Fi (or other wireless protocol) components may shut down or go into sleep mode, and the earphones 10 will route standard headphone level analog signals to the transducer(s) 106. This may be convenient in environments where wireless communications are not permitted, such as airplanes, but where there is a convenient source of audio contact. For example, the adapter 150 could plug into a person's DAP. The DSP 118 of the earphone 10 may still be operational in such a non-wireless mode to provide noise cancellation and any applicable equalization. The examples presented herein are intended to illustrate potential and specific implementations of the embodiments. It can be appreciated that the examples are intended primarily for purposes of illustration for those skilled in the art. No particular aspect of the examples is/are intended to limit the scope of the described embodiments. According to various embodiments, therefore, the present invention is directed to an earphone 10 that comprises a body 12, where the body 12 comprises: (i) at least one acoustic transducer 106 for converting an electrical signal to sound; (ii) an antenna 108; and (iii) a transceiver circuit 100 in communication with the at least one acoustic transducer 106 and the antenna 108. The transceiver circuit 100 is for receiving and transmitting wireless signals via the antenna 108, and the transceiver circuit 100 is for outputting the electrical signal to the at least one acoustic transducer 106. The wireless transceiver circuit also comprises firmware, which when executed by the transceiver circuit, causes the transceiver circuit to: (i) receive digital audio wirelessly from a data source 20 via an ad hoc wireless network 24 when the data source 20 is in wireless communication range with the earphone 10 via the ad hoc wireless network 24; and (ii) when the data source 20 is not in wireless communication range with the earphone 10 via the ad hoc wireless network 24, transition automatically to receive digital audio via an infrastructure wireless network 30. According to various implementations, the data source may comprise a portable digital audio player, such as an MP3 player, iPod, or laptop computer, or a nonportable digital audio player, such as a personal computer. In addition, the transceiver circuit 100 may comprise: (i) a wireless communication module 110 (such as a Wi-Fi or other wireless communication protocol module); (ii) a processor unit 114 in communication with the wireless communication module 110; (iii) a non-volatile memory unit 122 in communication with the processor unit 114; and (iv) a volatile memory 120 unit in communication with the processor unit 114. The infrastructure wireless network may comprise a WLAN. The transceiver circuit 100 may receive digital audio from the data source 20 via the infrastructure wireless network 30 when the data source 20 is not in wireless communication range with the earphone 10 via the ad hoc wireless network 24. The transceiver circuit firmware, when executed by the transceiver circuit 100, may cause the transceiver circuit 100 of the earphone 10 to transition automatically to a pre-set infrastructure wireless network 30 that the data source 20 transitions to when the data source 20 is not in wireless communication range with the earphone 10 via the ad hoc wireless network 24 and when the pre-set infrastructure wireless network 30 is in range of both the earphone 10 and the data source 20. In addition, the transceiver circuit firmware, when executed by the transceiver circuit 100, may cause the transceiver circuit 100 of the earphone 10 to transmit data via the ad hoc wireless network 24 to the data source 20 regarding one or more infrastructure wireless networks 30 detected by the transceiver circuit 100 when the earphone 10 and the data source 20 are communicating via the ad hoc wireless network 24. In addition, the transceiver circuit firmware, when executed by the transceiver circuit 100, may cause the transceiver circuit 100 of the earphone 10 to connect to a host server 40 via an available infrastructure wireless network 30 when the data source 20 is not in wireless communication range with the earphone 10 via the ad hoc wireless network 24. The earphone 10 may receive streaming digital audio from the host server 40 via the infrastructure wireless network 30. In addition, the earphone 10 may receive a first network address for a first streaming digital audio content server 70 from the host server 40 via the infrastructure wireless network 30. In addition, the earphone 10 may comprise a user control, such as button 11, dial, pressure switch, or other type of user control, that, when activated, causes the earphone 10 to transmit an electronic request via the infrastructure wireless network 30 to the host server 40 for a second network address for a second streaming digital audio content server 70. In other embodiments, the present invention is directed to a system that comprises: (i) a data source 20 for wirelessly transmitting streaming digital audio; and (ii) a wireless earphone 10 that is in wireless communication with the data source 20. In yet other embodiments, the present invention is directed to a communication system that comprises: (i) a host server 40; (ii) a first streaming digital audio content server 70 that is connected to the host server 40 via a data network 42; and (iii) a wireless earphone 10 that is in communication with the host server 40 via a wireless network 30. The host server 40 is programmed to transmit to the earphone 10 a first network address for the first streaming digital audio content server 70 on the data network 42. The host server 40 and the streaming digital audio content server(s) 70 each may comprise one or more processor circuits and one or more memory circuits (e.g., ROM circuits and/or RAM circuits). In yet another embodiment, the present invention is directed to a headset that comprises: (i) a first earphone 10a that comprises one or more acoustic transducers 10b for converting a first electrical signal to sound; and (ii) a second earphone 10b, connected to the first earphone 10a, wherein the second earphone 10b comprises one or more acoustic transducers 10b for converting a second electrical signal to sound. In one embodiment, the first earphone 10a comprises: (i) a first antenna 108; and (ii) a first transceiver circuit 100 in communication with the one or more acoustic transducers 106 of the first earphone 10a and in communication with the first antenna 108. The first transceiver circuit 100 is for receiving and transmitting wireless signals via the first antenna 108, and for outputting the first electrical signal to the one or more acoustic transducers 10b of the first earphone 10a. The first transceiver circuit 100 also may comprise firmware, which when executed by the first transceiver circuit 100, causes the first transceiver circuit 100 to: (i) receive digital audio wirelessly from a data source 20 via an ad hoc wireless network 24 when the data source 20 is in wireless communication range with the first earphone 10a via the ad hoc wireless network 24; and (ii) when the data source 20 is not in wireless communication range with the first earphone 10a via the ad hoc wireless network 24, transition automatically to receive digital audio via an infrastructure wireless network 30. In various implementations, the headset further may comprise a head band 19 that is connected to the first and second earphones 10. In addition, the headset 19 further may comprise a microphone 104 having an output connected to the first transceiver circuit 100. In one embodiment, the first transceiver circuit 100 is for outputting the second electrical signal to the one or more acoustic transducers 106 of the second earphone 10b. In another embodiment, the second earphone 10b comprises: (i) a second antenna 108; and (ii) a second transceiver circuit 100 in communication with the one or more acoustic transducers 106 of the second earphone 10b and in communication with the second antenna 108. The second transceiver circuit 100 is for receiving and transmitting wireless signals via the second antenna 108, and for outputting the second electrical signal to the one or more acoustic transducers 106 of the second earphone 10b. The second transceiver circuit 100 may comprise firmware, which when executed by the second transceiver circuit 100, causes the second transceiver circuit 100 to: (i) receive digital audio wirelessly from the data source 20 via the ad hoc wireless network 24 when the data source 20 is in wireless communication range with the second earphone 10b via the ad hoc wireless network 24; and (ii) when the data source 20 is not in wireless communication range with the second earphone 10b via the ad hoc wireless network 24, transition automatically to receive digital audio via the infrastructure wireless network 30. In addition, according to various embodiments, the first earphone 10a may comprise a first data port and the second earphone 10b may comprise a second data port. In addition, the headset may further comprise an adapter or dongle 150 connected to the first data port of the first earphone 10a and to the second data port of the second earphone 10b, wherein the adapter 150 comprises an output plug connector 152 for connecting to a remote device. In addition, according to other embodiments, the present invention is directed to a method that comprises the steps of: (i) receiving, by a wireless earphone, via an ad hoc wireless network, digital audio from a data source when the data source is in wireless communication with the earphone via the ad hoc wireless network; (ii) converting, by the wireless earphone, the digital audio to sound; and (iii) when the data source is not in wireless communication with the earphone, transitioning automatically, by the earphone, to receive digital audio via an infrastructure wireless network. In various implementations, the step of transitioning automatically by the earphone to receive digital audio via an infrastructure wireless network may comprises transitioning automatically to receive digital audio from the data source via an infrastructure wireless network when the data source is not in wireless communication range with the earphone via the ad hoc wireless network. In addition, the method may further comprise the step of receiving by the wireless earphone from the data source via the ad hoc wireless network data regarding one or more infrastructure wireless networks detected by data source when the earphone and the data source are communicating via the ad hoc wireless network. In addition, the step of transitioning automatically by the earphone to receive digital audio via an infrastructure wireless network comprises may transitioning automatically to receive digital audio from a host sever via the infrastructure wireless network when the data source is not in wireless communication range with the earphone via the ad hoc wireless network. Additionally, the step of transitioning automatically by the earphone to receive digital audio via an infrastructure wireless network may comprise: (i) receiving, by the wireless earphone via the infrastructure wireless network, from a host server connected to the infrastructure wireless network, a network address for a streaming digital audio content server; and (ii) connecting, by the wireless earphone, to the streaming digital audio content server using the network address received from the host server. It is to be understood that the figures and descriptions of the embodiments have been simplified to illustrate elements that are relevant for a clear understanding of the embodiments, while eliminating, for purposes of clarity, other elements. For example, certain operating system details for the various computer-related devices and systems are not described herein. Those of ordinary skill in the art will recognize, however, that these and other elements may be desirable in a typical processor or computer system. Because such elements are well known in the art and because they do not facilitate a better understanding of the embodiments, a discussion of such elements is not provided herein. In general, it will be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art that at least some of the embodiments described herein may be implemented in many different embodiments of software, firmware and/or hardware. The software and firmware code may be executed by a processor or any other similar computing device. The software code or specialized control hardware that may be used to implement embodiments is not limiting. For example, embodiments described herein may be implemented in computer software using any suitable computer software language type. Such software may be stored on any type of suitable computer-readable medium or media, such as, for example, a magnetic or optical storage medium. The operation and behavior of the embodiments may be described without specific reference to specific software code or specialized hardware components. The absence of such specific references is feasible, because it is clearly understood that artisans of ordinary skill would be able to design software and control hardware to implement the embodiments based on the present description with no more than reasonable effort and without undue experimentation. Moreover, the processes associated with the present embodiments may be executed by programmable equipment, such as computers or computer systems and/or processors. Software that may cause programmable equipment to execute processes may be stored in any storage device, such as, for example, a computer system (nonvolatile) memory, an optical disk, magnetic tape, or magnetic disk. Furthermore, at least some of the processes may be programmed when the computer system is manufactured or stored on various types of computer-readable media. A “computer,” “computer system,” “host,” “host server,” “server,” or “processor” may be, for example and without limitation, a processor, microcomputer, minicomputer, server, mainframe, laptop, personal data assistant (PDA), wireless e-mail device, cellular phone, pager, processor, fax machine, scanner, or any other programmable device configured to transmit and/or receive data over a network. Such components may comprise: one or more processor circuits; and one more memory circuits, including ROM circuits and RAM circuits. Computer systems and computer-based devices disclosed herein may include memory for storing certain software applications used in obtaining, processing, and communicating information. It can be appreciated that such memory may be internal or external with respect to operation of the disclosed embodiments. The memory may also include any means for storing software, including a hard disk, an optical disk, floppy disk, ROM (read only memory), RAM (random access memory), PROM (programmable ROM), EEPROM (electrically erasable PROM) and/or other computer-readable media. In various embodiments disclosed herein, a single component may be replaced by multiple components and multiple components may be replaced by a single component to perform a given function or functions. Except where such substitution would not be operative, such substitution is within the intended scope of the embodiments. Any servers described herein, such as the host server 40, for example, may be replaced by a “server farm” or other grouping of networked servers (such as server blades) that are located and configured for cooperative functions. It can be appreciated that a server farm may serve to distribute workload between/among individual components of the farm and may expedite computing processes by harnessing the collective and cooperative power of multiple servers. Such server farms may employ load-balancing software that accomplishes tasks such as, for example, tracking demand for processing power from different machines, prioritizing and scheduling tasks based on network demand and/or providing backup contingency in the event of component failure or reduction in operability. While various embodiments have been described herein, it should be apparent that various modifications, alterations, and adaptations to those embodiments may occur to persons skilled in the art with attainment of at least some of the advantages. The disclosed embodiments are therefore intended to include all such modifications, alterations, and adaptations without departing from the scope of the embodiments as set forth herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Digital audio players, such as MP3 players and iPods, that store and play digital audio files, are very popular. Such devices typically comprise a data storage unit for storing and playing the digital audio, and a headphone set that connects to the data storage unit, usually with a ¼″ or a 3.5 mm jack and associated cord. Often the headphones are in-ear type headphones. The cord, however, between the headphones and the data storage unit can be cumbersome and annoying to users, and the length of the cord limits the physical distance between the data storage unit and the headphones. Accordingly, some cordless headphones have been proposed, such as the Monster iFreePlay cordless headphones from Apple Inc., which include a docking port on one of the earphones that can connect directly to an iPod Shuffle. Because they have the docking port, however, the Monster iFreePlay cordless headphones from Apple are quite large and are not in-ear type phones. Recently, cordless headphones that connect wirelessly via IEEE 802.11 to a WLAN-ready laptop or personal computer (PC) have been proposed, but such headphones are also quite large and not in-ear type phones. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In one general aspect, the present invention is directed to a wireless earphone that comprises a transceiver circuit for receiving streaming audio from a data source, such as a digital audio player or a computer, over an ad hoc wireless network. When the data source and the earphone are out of range via the ad hoc wireless network, they may transition automatically to a common infrastructure wireless network (e.g., a wireless LAN). If there is no common infrastructure wireless network for both the data source and the earphone, the earphone may connect via an available infrastructure wireless network to a host server. The host server may, for example, broadcast streaming audio to the earphone and/or transmit to the earphone a network address (e.g., an Internet Protocol (IP) address) for a network-connected content server that streams digital audio. The earphone may then connect to the content server using the IP address. The content server may be an Internet radio server, including, for example, an Internet radio server that broadcasts streaming audio from the data source or some other content. These and other advantageous, unique aspects of the wireless earphone are described below. | H04R11041 | 20170714 | 20180529 | 20171102 | 64856.0 | H04R110 | 1 | DOAN, KIET M | SYSTEM WITH WIRELESS EARPHONES | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04R | 2,017 |
15,650,915 | PENDING | METHOD APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS FOR ENABLING DELIVERY AND ACCESS OF APPLICATIONS AND SERVICES | The invention provides a system, a method and a computer program product that facilitate access to one or more applications by a computing device. The invention includes determining one or more contexts associated with at least one of the computing device and a user of the computing device, such that the one or more contexts describe at least one of an environment and an activity of the at least one of the user and the computing device. Thereafter at least one contextual tag corresponding to the one or more contexts is generated. Subsequently, the one or more applications associated with the at least one contextual tag are identified and the computing device is enabled to access the one or more applications. | 1. A first non-transitory computer-readable storage medium having at least a first plurality of information stored therein, said first plurality of information capable of being processed on a first generator device, processing of at least a portion of said first plurality of information enables said first generator device to at least: a. receive a first set of instructions on at least one communication interface associated with said generator device, said first set of instructions capable of being executed on said first generator device; b. enable execution of at least said first set of instructions, said execution enables said first generator device to at least enable sending a first plurality of information on at least one communication interface associated with said generator device, said first plurality of information comprising at least a portion of information related to a user, said sending of said first plurality of information enables a computing device to: i. identify a first application; ii. enable at least one of access to and execution of, at least one instruction associated with said first application; iii. enable display of information related said first application on a display associated with said computing device; and iv. enable transmission of a second plurality of information on a communication interface associated with said computing device; and c. receive a third plurality of information on a communication interface associated with said generator device; d. determine a contextual tag based on at least a portion of said third plurality of information; e. determine one or more second set of instructions based on at least a portion of said contextual tag; and f. enable access to, or enable execution of at least one instruction from said second set of instructions. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application claims the benefit of U.S. (Provisional) Application No. 61/370,472, filed Aug. 4, 2010, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. This is a continuation of application Ser. No. 14/468,350, filed Aug. 26, 2014, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 14/229,097, filed Mar. 28, 2014, which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 13/193,380, filed Jul. 28, 2011, which is a non-provisional of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/370,472 filed Aug. 4, 2010, each of which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF INVENTION The present invention relates generally to management of applications and/or services, and in particular to systems, methods and apparatus for provisioning and/or managing applications and/or services, based on contextual information. BACKGROUND With advent of portable computing such as smart phones, tablet computers, wearable PCs, e-book readers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), etc. users of these devices have access to a large number of applications, with each application used for one or more tasks. The Android™ platform of Google, Inc., and supported by Open Handset Alliance (OHA), for example supports tens of thousands of applications in different areas that include health, lifestyle, entertainment, games, shopping, social, tools, productivity, etc. among others. The applications for Android platform are generally made available to consumer devices on Android Market of Google, Inc. Similarly, the App Store™ of Apple, Inc., provides tens of thousands of applications in various areas of interest, which can be run on devices such as iPhone™, iPad™, iPod Touch™, etc. of Apple, Inc. To help users choose applications for installation and use on their devices, Android Market, App Store, other distribution platforms and websites classify applications into various categories such as social, productivity, tools, finance, etc. In some cases, the applications are sorted based on factors such as popularity, user reviews, staff reviews, featured applications or the like. Determining an application to be installed and/or used for a given task can be tedious in such distribution platforms. Examples of specific tasks include providing feedback on a service provided at a given store, recording the schedule (such as date and time) of a sale described in a media advertisement, etc. The classification of applications on distribution platforms and/or websites is based on general factors/categories and choosing an application for a given task can be tedious and/or difficult and/or time consuming. In some cases, users of consumer devices are made aware of applications using a bar-code, and/or uniform resource locator (URL) which can be used to download/install the application. The bar code and/or URL can be made available on websites, or on paper prints that are posted on areas such as walls, posted on billboards, etc. These methods of communicating applications have some disadvantages. These methods for example require that users scan a bar code using a camera or bar code scanner on the consumer device, or have users type in the URL manually to an application manager on the consumer device. The process needs to be repeated once for each application (made available using this scheme) installed by the user, which can be tedious or not very user-friendly. The user needs to first locate the bar code and/or URL. Once the user has located the bar-code and/or URL, the user needs to make a decision of installing the application, and then launch the application manager or bar-code scanner to help with installation. This process is therefore not very practical and/or user-friendly. If the tasks managed by the user is changing wherein each task is managed by different application, having the user determine the applications for each task, and installing them for each use is not practical. An example of such scenario is the case of applications in context of media consumption. Having a user install applications for each ask he/she needs to accomplish can be tedious and/or impractical because locating application for each task can involve one or more of looking up distribution platforms, web sites, identifying bar-codes and/or urls of applications, etc. This process can discourage a user from installing or using applications. Consider scenario wherein a user can interact with a media that's being telecast, using an application on a consumer device. A TV show can, for example, accept ratings from users based on performance by a set of candidates using an application on consumer devices. A TV advertisement for a food product can, for example, provide nutritional information about the product using a “nutrition application”—while the advertisement is telecast. Each track/segment of media can be associated with different applications. Another situation where the application changes, is when user goes from one store to other. In situations where each store can provide services using consumer devices with applications specific to each store, a user is required to install applications for different stores in order to access their services. Having a user install applications for each store he/she visits can be tedious and/or impractical because locating each application can involve one or more of looking up distribution platforms, web sites, identifying bar-codes and/or urls of applications, etc. This process can discourage a user from installing applications. The applications provided by a store may not be popular on distribution platforms such as Android Market, Apple, Inc.'s App Store, etc., but can help achieve a specific task for a user while he/she is at the store. An example of such case is an application provided by a restaurant that recommends items from the restaurants menu, based on user preferences. The application can be supported only by a specific restaurant in which case, a user can be discouraged from locating the application and installing it just to address a one-time need of determining suggested menu items. Applications that have a short use-time such as these can therefore not be used very much. This can result in users not leveraging advantages associated with these applications. A simplification in the management of applications on consumer devices can help various entities (such as stores, web sites, libraries, offices, restaurants, media services, or the like) in providing services to users, using applications on consumer devices. Changing services and/or conditions can help in providing different services to users using applications that can be specific to the new service and/or condition. For example, the services (using applications on CDs) provided by a store can change on a holiday or when the store is running a sale event. A different set of services can be provided by a store for example, by new applications. Improved techniques in regard to application management on consumer devices can help in providing new services to users by deploying the new applications for use on CDs. In some scenarios, users have a number of applications installed on their consumer devices. Users select an application for a task by browsing through the list of installed applications. An increase in the number of applications installed on the consumer device can make it difficult for the user to search and/or determine the application to use for a task at hand. It would therefore be desirable to provide improved techniques, methods, systems and apparatus to facilitate provisioning and/or managing of applications associated with consumer devices. SUMMARY In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, a system is provided for facilitating access to a set of applications by a computing device. The system includes a context module configured to determine contexts associated with either or both of the computing device and a user of the computing device. The context describes an environment and/or an activity of the user and/or the computing device and helps generate at least a first portion of one or more contextual tags. In other words the context module can act as a generating device that generates contextual tags or a portion of the contextual tags in addition to determining contexts. Accordingly, for the purpose of easy understanding by persons skilled in the art, some embodiments explained hereinafter, refer to the context module as generating device. Also, the terms “computing device” and “consumer device” may be interchangeably used during description of the invention for ease of understanding of exemplary embodiments. The system also includes at least one processor communicatively associated with the context module, and configured to at least one of: generate a second portion of the contextual tags, and provide the contextual tags to the computing device, thereby enabling the computing device to identify one or more applications associated with the one or more contextual tags. The one or more applications are identified according to context based information contained in the one or more contextual tags, and thereafter the one or more applications are received by the computing device. In such embodiments the processor acts as the providing device, and is accordingly referred to in some exemplary embodiments in the subsequent description for easy understanding. Also, the applications, as described according to the various embodiments of the invention are content that can be accessed or viewed or processed using a computing device like a mobile phone, tablet computer, portable compute devices such as book readers, portable audio/video devices, laptop computers, desktop computers, and the like. Examples of applications, include but are not limited to, mobile applications, plugins, applets, scripts, URLs providing a link to different applications, web pages, web content, audio, video, images, applications based on various platforms such as Android and iOS, and other similar services. In some embodiments, after identifying the one or more applications according to the context based information the computing device can access the one or more applications. In an embodiment, the one or more applications can be accessed from a service such as a website. In some embodiments, the applications can also be retrieved from other systems, databases, devices, etc. In yet other embodiments, the applications present on the compute device can be enabled and/or activated and/or provided to the user. The contextual tag, in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, can include at least one of a manual tag, a dial-an-app tag, a static tag, a dynamic tag, an extracted tag, a derived info tag, a web based tag, a transaction driven tag, and a social aspect tag. These types of tags are explained in detail in the detailed description section of the application. In an embodiment, once the one or more applications have been identified, the processor enables the computing device to access the one or more applications. For example, the processor may enable the computing device to initiate a download of the one or more applications on the computing device. In some embodiments, the one or more applications are activated on the computing device as soon as they are downloaded. Further, in some embodiments only some of the one or more applications are automatically activated. In a further embodiment, at least a portion of a contextual tag may be stored in one or more intermediate devices before the one or more applications are associated with the contextual tag. For example, in an embodiment, the contextual tag after being generated may be stored in a providing device or a generating device or other devices on a network like a set-top box or a router, before being transferred to the computing device. In some embodiments, the one or more applications identified corresponding to the one or more contextual tags may be already present on the computing device. In further embodiments, determination of context is triggered manually or scheduled to be repeated regularly after a predefined time interval. In some embodiments, the one or more applications are identified based on only a portion of the contextual tag and not the complete contextual tag. In some embodiments, a URL can be determined using at least a portion of the one or more contextual tags. The computing device is, thereafter, enabled to access and activate an application configured to utilize the URL. In further embodiment of the present invention, the user can select one or more applications. The selected applications can then be accessed and/or activated by the computing device. In another embodiment, the computing device is allowed to access the one or more applications associated with a phone number being dialed by the user of the computing device. In yet another embodiment, cleaning up of the one or more applications can be performed, i.e. the one or more applications on the computing device in case a change in the one or more contexts is determined, or the user is found to be not interacting with an earlier executed application for a predefined time, or the one or more applications is inactive, or there has been a lapse of a predefined time spent during or after accessing the one or more applications. We describe various elements separately for ease of understanding and to describe logical differences in the functions performed by each element. However, that the elements may be physically separate. Rather, a skilled person will appreciate, in light of this disclosure, that two elements described herein can be combined into a single element that performs functions of both the elements described herein. Conversely, the functionality of a single element described herein can be divided and performed by multiple elements. For example, in some embodiments a processor and a context module may perform the functions of the generating device and the provider device, while being two separate devices. While in some embodiments the system may have a single system including both the context module and the processor, thereby allowing a single system to perform both the functions of the generating device and the functions of the providing device. In yet other embodiments, the generating device and the provider device can be a embedded in the computing device and can be implemented as a part of the computing device, such that the computing device is enabled to perform the functions of both the provider device and the generating device. Further, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the term “one or more context” is also referred to as “context information” or “information” during the subsequent description for easy understanding. Similarly, the term “computing device” is also referred as “consumer device”, the term “contextual tag” is referred to as “tag” and the term “memory module” is referred to as “store”. To better summarize the system for facilitating access of a set of applications by the computing device in accordance with the present invention, some exemplary embodiments are described in the subsequent paragraphs. In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, a consumer device (CD) communicatively coupled to one or more provider device (PD) can be used to provision and/or manage applications using contextual information provided by one or more PDs. The contextual information referred to herein as a “tag” can encompass any type of data that facilitates determination of an application (app). One or more instances of Tag related information (TRI) are generated by Generator Device (GD). GD communicatively coupled to (or associated with) one or more PD can communicate TRIs to the PD. PDs can communicate tags that can include some/all of TRI received from GD, to CD. In one embodiment of the invention, each instance of TRI generated by a GD is used by a PD to generate/provide an instance of a tag. The content of TRIs can be determined by GD using methods that are specific to each embodiment. Various methods of determining the content are possible. In one embodiment, a tag can include a URL. In some embodiments, the URL included in a tag can be used identify a location on internet where the application can be downloaded from. In other embodiments, the tag can include a tag-type. Tag type can be a value from a set that can include values such as GroceryInfo, ClothesInfo, WebForm, ParkingLot, Video, Audio, DerivedMediaInfo, SampledMedia, TvLiveVoting, SaleSchedule, Feedback, UserOrderinStore, or the like. In some embodiments, the tag type can be used to determine an application and/or a URL. The URL in such embodiments can identify an application or a location on internet where the application can be downloaded from. In some embodiments, a tag can include information that can be used by the application determined using or associated with the tag. A TvLiveVoting tag, for example, can be associated with a Voting application. The Voting application in one embodiment can interact with a user to determine the user's vote. The TvLiveVoting tag in such embodiments can include a URL where the results determined by Voting application can be submitted. In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, a method is disclosed for facilitating access to a set of applications by a computing device. The method includes a step of determining contexts associated with either or both the computing device and a user of the computing device. The context describes an environment and/or an activity of the user and/or the computing device and helps generate one or more contextual tags. The method also includes identifying one or more applications associated with the one or more contextual tags. The one or more applications are identified according to context based information contained in the one or more contextual tags and the one or more applications are thereafter received by the computing device. To better summarize the method for facilitating access to a set of applications by the computing device in accordance with the present invention, some exemplary embodiments are described in the subsequent paragraphs. One aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a method performed by a CD in determining an application associated with a tag. In embodiments where a tag can include an app URL, a CD can determine the application based on the app URL in the tag. The app URL in some embodiments can represent the URL where the application can be downloaded from. In embodiments where a tag can include a tagType, a CD can determine an application, or a URL where the application can be downloaded from, based on the tagType. In other embodiments, the tag can itself include the application associated with the tag. When a URL specifying the location of application is determined, a CD can download the application from the URL and install it on the CD, for use by the user. Other methods of determining applications associated with the tag are possible in various embodiments. In some embodiments, a CD can also maintain a set of applications along with their associated app URLs or tagTypes, in a store on the CD. The set of applications downloaded by the CD 102 as a result of processing the tags received by the CD can also be stored in the store. When such a set is maintained, a CD can use an application from that store, instead of downloading the application from a network. The set of applications maintained in the store can be made available for use by the user of CD when a tag for the application is not available. The applications can also be made available for use by the user, when the CD is not associated with a PD. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to the association of a CD with one or more PDs. In some embodiments a CD can be communicatively coupled or associated with one PD. At other times, the CD can be communicatively associated to more than one PD. When a CD is coupled to more than one PD, the CD can receive tags from some or all of the PDs. The association of a CD with a PD can be established by a user connecting an interface on a CD to an interface on a PD using a wire, for example. In some embodiments, a wireless communication channel can be used to associate a CD with some PDs. Example of wireless communication channels can include technologies such as Bluetooth, wifi, 802.11b, 802.11a, RF, other custom communication technologies or the like The association can be established using other means such as configuration on CD and/or PDs. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a CD determining PDs that it can associate with, using a service. A CD can connect to a service say over the internet, to determine a list of PDs. The CD in such embodiments can provide some information to the service to help determine the list of PDs. In some embodiments, this can include the physical location co-ordinates (such as latitude, longitude, elevation). In other embodiments, the information can include information such as a telephone number associated with the PDs. The information provided to the service can include other information. Other types of services are possible in other embodiments. Such services can also use methods not described here. In some embodiments, a CD can exchange messages with PDs identified using different schemes such as wires, wireless, configuration, services, etc. described earlier, before the association can be considered successful. In such embodiments, an unsuccessful message exchange between a CD and a given PD can result in a CD not using and/or receiving the tags from the PD. In some embodiments, a CD can interact with the user once the CD has determined a set of PDs. The interaction with the user can determine the set of PDs that the CD can associate with. The set of PDs to associate with can also be determined by the CD, without interacting with the user. In some non-interactive embodiments, a set of rules associated with/configured on the CD can be used to determine the set of PDs that the CD can associate with. In some embodiments, the rules can specify that a CD can associate with PDs when the PD provides tags whose tagType matches one of a set of tagTypes. In some embodiments, the set of tagTypes used for selection of providers can be configured by a user. Other methods of associating CDs with PDs can be used in various embodiments. Another aspect of embodiments of present invention relates to the disassociation of a CD with one or more PDs. A CD, after associating with some PDs can disassociate with some/all of the PDs. The disassociation results in CD not processing and/or receiving tags from the disassociated PDs. The disassociation can be due to user interaction. The disassociation can also be due to other events such as loss of communication (e.g., wireless communication) due to a user walking away with the CD, from the proximity of a PD. Other methods of disassociation can be used. Another aspect of embodiments of the present invention relates to the assocType of a tag. A tag in some embodiments can include information related to assocType. The assocType can be one of Unicast, Multicast or Broadcast. An assocType of value Unicast can imply that the tag is meant to be received and/or processed only by one CD. An assocType of value Multicast can imply that the tag can be processed by some set of CDs. An assocType of value Broadcast can imply that the tag can be processed by any CD receiving the tag. For tags of assocType Unicast, the tag can include a consumerId that can identify the CD which can receive and/or process the tag. A consumerId can include one of many types of identifiers such as MAC address, IP address, a telephone number or the like. Other aspects of embodiments of present invention relates to processing of tags by a CD. A CD can receive tags from one or more PDs, and can run the applications associated with the received tags. In some embodiments, the applications associated with received tags can be presented to the user of CD. In such embodiments, an application can be run based on a decision made by the user's interaction with the CD (such as selection of an application using the user interface of CD). In other embodiments, a CD can receive tags from PDs as a result of user interaction with the CD. In one embodiment, user interaction can involve user selecting a PD (using the user interface of CD) to receive the tags from. In yet other embodiments, a CD can receive tags from a PD as a result of a user interaction with the PD. User interactions with CD and/or PD can be implemented using one or more of touch screens, mouse, keyboard, etc. or the like. Tags received by CD as a result of user interaction with CD and/or PD can be processed in the same way as the tags received by CD without user interaction. Other aspects of embodiments of the present invention relates to processing of tags received by a CD. A CD in some embodiments can store the tag and/or the associated application in a set of tags and/or applications maintained in a store on the CD. When the set of tags and/or applications are maintained in a store, a user interface can be used to present the stored tags and/or applications to the user using the user interface of CD. The application associated with stored set can be run based on a decision made by user interaction. In some embodiments, the tag (and/or associated application) stored by a CD in its store can be received by the CD as a result of user interaction with the CD. In yet other embodiments, the tag (and/or associated application) stored by a CD in its store can be received by the CD as a result of user interaction with a PD. User interactions with CD and/or PD can be implemented using one or more of touch screens, mouse, keyboard, etc. or the like. Other methods of processing the tags are possible in various embodiments. In yet other embodiments of the present invention, tags provided by a PD can be stored in a store associated with the PD. The set of tags stored in the PD's store can be determined either based on user interaction with PD or CD or automatically. When the tags are stored in a PD, the tags can be transferred to a CD, when the CD is associated with PD. In other embodiments, the PD can also download applications associated with tags, and store them along with tags, in its store. In such embodiments, the tags and associated applications can later be transferred from PD to CD. Other methods of storing the tags in PD and/or communicating the stored tags to PD are possible in various embodiments. Other aspects of embodiments of the present invention relates to a method of receiving contexts and/or downloading applications. In some embodiments, contexts and/or applications are received using traditional client server models with CD acting as a client. The PD can act as a server of tag, while a computer system in a network can act as a server of the application. Other embodiments of application providing servers such as Desktops, Laptops, a network of computers, etc. can be used. In yet other embodiments, systems such as peer to peer networks, distributed hash tables, tracker-less peer to peer systems, BitTorrent, GnuTella, Tapestry, Pastry or the like can be used by CD and/or PD to download/retrieve applications. Such systems can also be used by PD to provide tags and/or CD to receive tags. Peer to peer networks, distributed hash tables, tracker-less peer to peer systems, BitTorrent, GnuTella, Tapestry, Pastry or the like, can help with supporting application downloads for a large number of CDs. Other methods of providing applications and/or tags to CDs can be used. In other embodiments, a CD and/or PD can use more than one networks to download parts of application. Different networks can include technologies such as WiFi, Cellular, Bluetooth, Ethernet, other custom communication technologies or the like. Among other advantages, the method of downloading over multiple networks can provide with faster download of an application. When using multiple networks to download application, CD and/or PD can use more than one networks of the same type. In some embodiments, one or more networks can be virtual—such as virtual private networks. CD and PD can use similar methods (associated with multiple networks) for receiving and providing tags respectively. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a CD. The CD can include a storage medium (STORE), a storage interface (SI), among others. The SI along with STORE can be used by CD to store and/or manage tags and/or applications, along with storing other aspects associated with the CD. A CD can also include a tag processor (TP), a provider manager (PM), an application (app) manager (AM), a state store (STATE), an application processor (APPP), a user interface engine (UIE), a set of audio/video/user interfaces among others. The PM can help in managing associations with PDs, while the TP can help manage the receipt and/or processing of tags from PDs, sending requests for tags to PDs, etc. The AM can help with managing the applications according to various methods described earlier. STATE can be used by the CD to maintain some state associated with managing tags, applications or the like. STATE can be associated with storage that can store information while the STATE can be provided with electrical power. An example of STATE can include RAM. A CD can also include one or more network interface (NI)s. A CD can receive messages/tags from PDs, send messages to PDs, download applications from networks using NIs. In some embodiments the NI meant for associating with or receiving tags from PDs can be different from NI associated with downloading applications. In other embodiments the association with PDs, receipt of tags from PDs, sending/receiving messages to/from PDs, downloading applications can all use the same NI. Some NIs on associated with a CD can use wired technologies such as Ethernet, cable modem, firewire, USB, other custom technologies or the like. Some other NIs associated with a CD can use wireless technologies like Bluetooth, wifi, 802.11b, 802.11a, RF, or the like. Another aspect of embodiments of the present invention relates to the methods performed by a PD. Among various methods performed by PD, the PD can associate/disassociate with CDs and communicate tags to CDs. The PD can be communicatively coupled or associated with one or more Generator Device (GD)s. A TRI generated by a GD can be communicated to one or more PDs by the GD. The PD can then communicate the tag including TRI to CDs. A PD can be associated with one or more GDs using various forms of communication that can be setup using physical wires, or wireless connectivity. A PD can be associated with GDs over a network—such an intranet, internet, or the like. A PD can be configured with information that can help associate the PD with the GDs. Information related to the configuration can include IP addresses of GD, DNS addresses of GDs, or the like. The association can also be established using services wherein the information related to identification of GDs can be retrieved from a service. When a service is used to retrieve the identification of GDs, the PD can provide an identification of the PD to the service. The identification of PD can include MAC address, IP address, DNS address, or the like. In some embodiments, PDs can exchange messages with GDs, after the GDs have been identified. A successful exchange of messages between a PD and GD can imply that the PD and GD are associated with each other for exchanging TRI. Other methods of association can be used in various embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to the method followed by a PD in sending tags to CDs. In some embodiments, a PD can send tags to CDs as soon as the PD receives TRI from GD. In one embodiment, a tag sent by a PD to CDs can include the TRI provided by a GD to the PD. In other embodiments, a PD can store the TRIs that it receives from GD in its STORE and communicate tags including the TRIs to CDs when the CDs request tags using a message. In other embodiments, a PD can store only one TRI it last received from GD. In such embodiments, the PD can provide only a tag associated with latest TRI upon receiving a request from CD(s). In other embodiments, a PD can store many TRIs it receives from GDs in its local STORE and communicate tags associated with the stored TRIs to CDs once every time interval. In such embodiments, the PD can remove the TRIs from its STORE once it sends the tags associated with TRIs to the CDs. In yet other embodiments, a request for a tag from a CD can be handled by a PD, by retrieving a latest TRI from GD and communicating tag associated with latest TRI to CD. In some embodiments, a PD can retrieve a latest TRI from GD by sending a RequestLatestTag message to GD. Other methods of communicating tags to CDs, receiving TRIs from GDs are possible in various embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a PD. The PD can include a storage (STORE), a storage interface (SI), among others. The SI along with STORE can be used by PD to store and/or manage tags/TRIs and/or applications, along with storing other aspects associated with the PD. A PD can also include a tag processor (TP), a generator manager (GM), a consumer manager (CM), a user interface engine (UIE), a set of audio/video/user interfaces among others. The GM can help in managing associations with GDs, while the TP can help manage the receipt/processing of TRIs from GDs, and transmission of tags to CDs. The CM can help with managing the associations with CDs. A PD can also include one or more network interface (NI)s. A PD can receive messages/TRIs from GDs, send tags to CDs, receive messages from CDs, send messages to CDs and GDs, and download applications from networks using NIs. In some embodiments the NI meant for associating with or receiving TRIs from GDs can be different from NI associated sending tags to or associating with CDs, or NI associated with downloading applications. In other embodiments the association with GDs, association with CDs, receipt of TRIs from GDs, sending tags to CDs, sending/receiving messages to/from CDs and GDs, downloading applications can all use the same NI. Some NIs on PD associated with a CD can use wired technologies such as Ethernet, cable modem, firewire, USB, other custom technologies or the like. Some other NIs associated with a PD can use wireless technologies like Bluetooth, wifi, 802.11b, 802.11a, RF, or the like. In yet other embodiments, an instance of PD can include an instance of GD in the PD such that the combination of PD and GD is used as a single device. Other aspects an embodiment of the present invention relates to the methods/apparatus of a GD. Various forms of GDs can be used. In some embodiments, GDs communicate pre-provisioned information in TRIs. In other embodiments, GDs extract information from systems such as media and communicate that information in the TRIs. In yet other embodiments, GDs can generate the TRI using sensors such as acceleration sensor, orientation sensor, etc. In yet other embodiments, GDs can generate TRI as a result of processing performed using a combination of software, firmware and hardware. Examples of such generators include a system that can take pictures of a parking lot regularly to determine the spaces that are available for parking. The parking lot generator can use various image processing techniques to compare different images to determine the free/available parking spaces. In yet other embodiments, GDs can generate information for TRI based on the information that is provided to GD. For example, a GD can generate a feedbackId for a purchase made by a customer at a store. The purchase in such embodiments can be associated with a purchaseId. The feedbackId can be used by a CD to provide feedback associated with a purchase (that is associated with purchaseId). In this example, the GD can lookup a database with the purchaseId along with any other information to determine the feedbackId. Other embodiments of GDs and interactions with GDs are possible in various embodiments. An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a GD sending a TRI to one or more PDs. In some embodiments, a TRI can be sent by a GD to all the PDs associated with the GD. The GD can send the TRI whenever a new TRI is generated by the GD, or upon expiry of certain time interval. The GD can also send the TRI to a PD that requests the latest TRI. The events that cause the GD to send the TRIs and/or PDs to which the TRIs are sent, can be specific to each embodiment. An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by a GD can include pre-provisioned content. GDs can be associated with user interface that can allow setting and/or changing of some or all of the content included in TRIs. An embodiment which uses such GD includes a store's aisle where a GD can send TRIs which can include information related to the products in the aisle. The GD can include in the TRIs, the category of products such as BeautyProducts, Groceries, Clothes, or the like. The GD can also include sub categories in each tag, such as Men, Women, Teens, Toddlers, Girls, Boys, etc. for the Clothes tag. The GD can also include in TRIs, a URL wherein detailed information associated with products in the aisle can be accessed. A GD such as the one described in this embodiment can send the same information in TRIs over a period of time. The GD can send the information regularly, once every time interval. Some or all of information included in TRIs by the GD can be changed using the user interface of GD. Other methods of changing the information included in TRIs are possible. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information retrieved from sensors associated with the GD. Examples of sensors include a temperature sensor, an acceleration sensor, an orientation sensor or the like. The TRI sent by a GD can include information retrieved from one or more sensors associated with the GD. The GD can send the TRI regularly, once every time interval. The GD can send TRIs with information from some sensors (say acceleration or orientation) with low time intervals. The GD can send TRIs with information for some sensors (such as temperature) with high time intervals. The GD can send TRIs that can include information from more than one sensor. When a TRI is sent by GD, the GD can include the latest information retrieved from the sensors. The GD can also send TRIs at different rates based on some configuration, or request by a PD. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information that is a result of some transaction performed external to the system described in this embodiment. An example of such embodiment is a GD that can include a feedbackId in a TRI, which can be used by an application in submitting feedback. The feedbackId included in a TRI can be associated with an orderId which can identify the services received or products purchased by a customer. In this embodiment, the GD can determine the feedbackId for a given orderId by looking up a database system that can provide a feedbackId for a given orderId. The GD can lookup the database by providing the orderId (along with any other information) to determine the feedbackId. The GD can then generate a TRI that can include the feedbackId and orderId. The GD can generate a TRI when it is provided with a message that includes a request for generating the TRI. A message with a request for generating the TRI can include an orderId that can be used to determine the feedbackId in the TRI. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information extracted from a media stream. In some embodiments, media can be tagged with a variety of information. An example of such media stream is video stream in MPEG-47 format. In this embodiment, the TRI generated by a GD can include information extracted from MPEG-47 media stream. MPEG-47 media stream can be tagged with information that can include information such as app URL, tag type, appData, or the like. In some embodiments, MPEG-47 media stream can be classified into tracks. Each track can include a media stream that is produced separately or considered logically separate from other tracks. Examples of tracks include an advertisement, a song, an episode of a TV program, or the like. In some embodiments, each track can be tagged with information that can help determine the content included in a single TRI. A track can also be tagged with information that can help determine information included in multiple TRIs. The information extracted from media stream can be included in the TRI generated by GD. The GD can also include other information derived by GD, in a TRI. Example of such information includes the channel number, channel frequency, the time TRI is generated, channel name, or the like. The derived information can help a CD in determining information associated with the media that is not encoded in the media stream. The GD can also include a sample of the media in the TRI generated by the GD. TRIs can be generated by a GD, once for each track. TRIs can also be generated by a GD regularly once every time interval. When a TRI is generated by GD, the TRI can include one or more of last retrieved, last derived or last sampled-media information. Other methods of determining the information related-to or extracted-from media streams are possible in different embodiments. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information extracted or derived from web content. An example of such embodiment includes a GD that is associated with a web browser on a personal computer or a computer system. GD in some embodiments can be implemented entirely in software. The GD in this example can help generate TRIs that can include information about the fields that need to be filled on a form in the web page currently displayed by the browser. Information about the fields can include First Name, Last Name, Address, User ID, etc. among others. The TRI in this example embodiment can also include information about the method of communicating the values associated with fields back to the browser—such as an IP address and port number. When a tag including the information about the fields in a form is received by a CD, an application associated with this tag on the CD can retrieve the information from CD's STORE and convey the information back to the browser. In this example, a CD maintains the information that can be filled in web forms in the STORE. The TRIs generated by GD for each web page/web site can be different and/or handled by different applications on CDs. The notion of web page or web content can be extended to pages/content handled in localized networks such as intranets. The form filler GD for example can be used along with a CD of a patient, to fill forms on a computer associated with a hospital. Different types of tags can be used for different web pages and/or content. The trigger for sending the TRIs by GD can also be different for different web pages and/or content. For some web pages, the trigger can be the completion of display by a web browser, while for some other web pages the trigger can be a selection associated a user interface element such as a click of a button. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information derived due to processing by a combination of software, firmware and hardware. An example of such an embodiment includes a ParkingLot GD. The GD in this example can be associated with one or more cameras that take pictures of a parking lot at regular time intervals—such as 5 seconds. A set of processes that can include a combination of software, firmware and hardware, on GD can compare pictures from one or more cameras to determine the spaces that are available for parking in the parking lot. The GD can generate a TRI that includes information about the spaces that are free in the parking lot, along with the location (such as latitude, longitude, elevation, building, floor, parking lot area number, etc.) of those free spaces. The tag when received by a CD can be associated with an application that provides directions to free parking spaces. The method of using a combination of software, firmware and hardware to determine some or all of the content of tags can be used in other embodiments too. The tag associated with ParkingLot example embodiment can be generated once every time interval. Other events that trigger sending of tags/TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information determined using a combination of information from CD, information from some service, and information specific to the embodiment in which the GD is used. An example of such embodiment is a GD at a restaurant that provides TRIs which can include ratings of items at the restaurant as provided by the friends of a user associated with a CD. In this embodiment, a GD can generate a TRI in response to a request message from a CD. The request message can include a userId of the user of CD. The GD can associate with social networking services such as facebook, twitter, etc. to determine the list of friends associated with the userId. The GD can then determine the ratings of products served at the restaurant, as provided by friends of users retrieved from external service (facebook, twitter, etc.) The TRI generated by GD can include these ratings. Different methods of using information from a combination of devices and/or services to determine information that can be included in a TRI can be used in other embodiments. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to the GD. The GD can be implemented using a hardware device as in pre-provisioning embodiments. In these embodiments, a GD can be implemented using RF devices, plug computers such as Sheeva Plug, or the like. In other embodiments such as ParkingLot described earlier, the GD can be implemented using a computer system such as a personal computer (PC), Desktop, Laptop, or the like. The GD in the sensor embodiments can be associated with sensors internal or external to the GD. When external to the GD, the sensors can be communicatively coupled with GD using a combination of wired/wireless connectivity. In embodiments such as where information is extracted from media, the GD can be a separate hardware device that can include a combination of hardware, firmware and software to extract data from media stream. Some embodiments of GD, as in case of those driven by transactions, can be interfaced with other elements of the system—such as transaction system using a combination of software and/or hardware interfaces. Software interfaces such as CORBA, RPC, message passing, etc. can be used. Hardware interfaces such as Ethernet, firewire, USB, custom hardware, etc. can be used as well. In some embodiments, the GD can be associated with external services using a combination of software, firmware and hardware. Example of such embodiment is the SocialRating restaurant rating embodiment described earlier. Some embodiments of GD can include a STORE coupled to a storage interface (SI). The SI can be used to store information in or retrieve information from the STORE. In some embodiments GD can be associated with a provider manager (PM) that can be used to associate the GD with one or more PDs. Some instances of GD can also be associated with user interfaces that can allow configuration of GD based on the embodiment. In some embodiments, GD can be integrated into a device along with a PD, such that the combination of PD and GD is available as a single hardware device. For example, the extractor GD and PD for media can be integrated into devices such as set top box, televisions, or the like. Aspects of GD, or the entire GD, can be implemented completely in software. An example of a software version of GD is the web page extractor described earlier. Parts of GD can be implemented in software, parts in firmware and parts in hardware. The GD can also have a variety of wired interfaces such as USB, firewire, Ethernet, other custom wired technologies etc. and/or wireless interfaces such as USB, firewire, wifi, 802.11b, other custom wireless technologies or the like. Other embodiments of GD are also possible in various embodiments. In yet another embodiment of present invention a computer program product is provided for facilitating access of a computing device to a set of applications. The computer program product includes instructions for determining contexts associated either or both the computing device and a user of the computing device. The context describes an environment and/or an activity of the user and/or the computing device and helps generate one or more contextual tags. The computer program product also includes instructions for identifying one or more applications associated with the one or more contextual tags. The one or more applications are identified according to context based information contained in the one or more contextual tags and the one or more applications are thereafter received by the computing device. It will be appreciated that embodiments of the invention described herein may include one or more conventional processors and unique stored program instructions that control the system of the invention to implement, in conjunction with certain non-processor circuits, some, most, or all of the functions of application identification described herein. The non-processor circuits may include, but are not limited to, a radio receiver, a radio transmitter, signal drivers, clock circuits, power source circuits, and user input devices. As such, these functions may be interpreted as steps of a method to enable a computing device to access to a set of applications. Methods and means for these functions have been described herein. Further, it is expected that one of ordinary skill, notwithstanding possibly significant effort and many design choices motivated by, for example, available time, current technology, and economic considerations, when guided by the concepts and principles disclosed herein will be readily capable of generating such software instructions and programs and ICs with minimal experimentation. The following detailed description together with accompanying drawings will provide a better understanding of the nature and advantages of aspects of various embodiments associated with the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES The features and aspects of the present invention, which are believed to be novel, are set forth with particularity in the appended claims. The invention may best be understood by reference to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. These drawings and the associated description are provided to illustrate some embodiments of the invention, and not to limit the scope of the invention. FIG. 1A illustrates a Consumer Device (CD) for managing applications according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1B-E illustrate CDs for managing applications according to other embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 2A illustrates a Provider Device (PD) for providing tags to CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2B-C illustrate PDs for providing tags to CDs according to other embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 3A illustrates a Generator Device (GD) for generating TRIs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3B-C illustrate GDs for generating TRIs according to other embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 4A-B illustrates a list of types, one of which can be associated with a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 5 illustrates types of fields/content associated with a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6 illustrates some of the fields generated and/or provided by GDs, and which can be included in a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates fields associated with a sample of media included in tags and TRIs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 8 illustrates a list of types, one of which can be associated with an interface of CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 9 illustrates a list of association types, one of which can be associated with a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 illustrates a list of types, one of which can be associated with a message that is exchanged among various devices according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 illustrates a list of fields that can be included in messages exchanged among various devices according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 12 illustrates a list of values, one of which can be associated with an idProvider field used in messages according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 13 illustrates fields associated with (ConsumerInfo or CI) that can be associated with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 illustrates fields associated with state maintained by a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 15 illustrates fields associated with (ProviderInfo or PI) that can be associated with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 16 illustrates fields associated with state maintained by a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 17 illustrates fields associated with (GeneratorInfo or GI) that can be associated with a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 18 illustrates fields associated with state maintained by a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 19 illustrates fields that can be associated with an application according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 20 illustrates fields determined by a GD and which can be carried in a tag of type MultiType according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 21 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 22 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in getting CI according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 23 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of DeleteConsumerInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 24 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of ConsumerInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 25 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of ProviderInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 26 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of DeleteProviderInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 27 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of GeneratorInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 28 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of DelGeneratorInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 29 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD when a PD is selected for association with the CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 30 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD when a PD is selected for disassociation with the CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 31 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in handling messages received by the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 32 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining PIs for PDs associated with a service identifier, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 33 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining the PDs and associating with them according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 34 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining the PD and the PI associated with PD, when PD is connected to CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 35 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining the PD and the PI associated with PD, when CD is configured with information of PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 36 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining the PDs and the PI associated with PDs, when CD is configured with service related information, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 37 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in selecting a list of PDs using an interactive method, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 38 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in selecting a list of PDs using a non-interactive method, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 39A-C illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in associating with a list of PDs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 40A-C illustrate the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in disassociating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 41 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in initializing part of the state (ProviderState—pState) maintained by the PD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 42 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in initializing part of pState maintained by the PD according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 43 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in determining GDs and associating with them according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 44 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting GeneratorInfo message from GD, when the PD is connected to the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 45 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting GeneratorInfo message from GD, when the PD is configured with information associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 46 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD getting GeneratorInfo message from GD, when the PD is configured with service related information, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 47 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting GeneratorInfo message from GD, wherein the PD discovers the GDs, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 48A-D illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a PD in handling messages received by the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 49 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in associating with a CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 50 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting CI associated with a CD that is connected to the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 51 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting CI associated with a CD, where PD is configured with information associated with the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 52 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting CI associated with a CD that is discovered by the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 53 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in disassociating with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 54 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in updating pState when the PD is associated with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 55 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in updating pState when the PD is disassociated with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 56 illustrates a system showing a CD associated with, a computer system that includes aspects associated with a PD and a GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 57 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD when it is associating with a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 58 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in disassociating with a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 59 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of state (gState) maintained by the GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 60 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of state (gState) maintained by the GD according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 61 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in handling messages received by the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 62 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in updating gState when the GD is associating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 63 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in updating gState when the GD is disassociating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 64 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in associating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 65 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in getting PI from a PD, when the GD is connected physically to the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 66 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in getting PI from a PD, when the GD is configured with information associated with the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 67 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in getting PI from a PD, when the GD discovers the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 68A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD to determine if a tag received by the CD can be used by the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 69A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in associating with PDs and handling tags received by the CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 70A-B illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in associating with PDs and handling tags received by the CD according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 71A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed in handling association of PDs with CDs, communication of tags between PDs and CDs, and handling of tags by CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 72A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed in handling association of PDs with CDs, communication of tags between PDs and CDs, and handling of tags by CDs according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 73A-B illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in associating with PDs and handling of tags received by the CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 74A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed in handling association of PDs with CDs, communication of tags between PDs and CDs, and handling of tags by CDs according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 75A-B illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in associating with CDs, and managing tags according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 76A-C illustrate the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining an application that can be associated with a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 77 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in handling applications associated with tags in a non-interactive manner according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 78 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining the application that has been selected in the past, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 79A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in handling the selection of an application for a given tag according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 80 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining an application that can be associated with a given tag type, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 81 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in accessing an application from the storage medium associated with the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 82 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in storing an application in the storage medium associated with the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 83 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in providing tags according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 84A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a PD in sending tags to CD(s) according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 85 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD on receiving messages from GD that can include tag related information, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 86 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD on receiving messages from GD, that include tag related information, according to another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 87A-E illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be associated with tags, and communicating information related to tags to PDs, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 88A-C illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be associated with tags, and communicating information related to tags to PDs, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 89 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in sending TRIs to PD(s) according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 90A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in handling tags, when the CD is providing services, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 91 illustrates a system showing association between a CD, a PD, and a media device that includes aspects of GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 92 illustrates a system showing association between a CD that includes aspects of PD, and a media device that includes aspects of a GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 93 illustrates a system showing a device that includes aspects of a CD, a PD and a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 94 illustrates a system showing a media device associated with a device that includes aspects of a CD, a PD and a GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 95 illustrates a GD for generating tags according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 96 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining TRI, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 97 illustrates a system showing the usage of GD, and a CD that includes aspects associated with a PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 98 illustrates a GD for generating TRIs according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 99 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD in association with temperature sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 100 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD in association with acceleration sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 101 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD in association with orientation sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 102 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD in association with ParkingLot sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 103 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 104 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD associated with temperature sensors, in determining information that can be used for initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 105 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD associated with acceleration sensors, in determining information that can be used for initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 106 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD associated with orientation sensors, in initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 107 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD associated with ParkingLot sensors, in initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 108 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining TRI, and communicating TRI, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 109 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining TRI wherein GD is associated with temperature sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 110 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining TRI wherein GD is associated with acceleration sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 111 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining TRI wherein GD is associated with orientation sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 112 illustrates fields associated with a structure of information referred to as ContextApp (CA) according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 113 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining TRI wherein GD is associated with ParkingLot sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 114 illustrates a system showing the usage of a GD, PDs, and a CD for a parking-lot system according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 115 illustrates a GD for generating tags according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 116 illustrates a GD for generating tags according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 117 illustrates a GD for generating tags according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 118 illustrates fields associated with TRI determined by a GD, and some/all of which can be included in a tag associated with Feedback type, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 119 illustrates fields associated with TRI determined by a GD, and some/all of which can be included in a tag associated with OrderInfo type, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 120 illustrates fields associated with TRI determined by a GD, and some/all of which can be included in a tag associated with DerivedRating type, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 121 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing gState associated with the GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 122 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining TRI, and communicating TRI according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 123 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining part of information that can be included in tags associated with Feedback type, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 124 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining part of information that can be included in tags associated with OrderInfo type, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 125 illustrates a system showing the usage of a GD, PDs and CDs wherein tags are generated for transactions that occur in the system, according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 126 illustrates a GD associated with PDs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 127 illustrates a PD associated with CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 128 illustrates associations among GDs, PDs and CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 129 illustrates associations among GDs, PDs and CDs according to yet another embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 130 illustrates association between, a device that includes aspects of a GD and a PD, and CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 131 illustrates a device that includes aspects of a GD, a PD and a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 132 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of state (gState) associated with the GD according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 133 illustrates a system showing associations between a CD, a PD and a GD, wherein GD generates TRIs using information extracted from media according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 134 illustrates a system showing association between a CD, and a GD that includes aspects of PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention; Those with ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that the elements in the figures are illustrated for simplicity and clarity and are not necessarily drawn to scale. For example, the dimensions of some of the elements in the figures are not in proportion relative to other elements, in order to improve the understanding of the present invention. There may be additional structures described in the foregoing application that are not depicted on one or more of the described drawings. In the event such a structure is described, but not depicted in a drawing, the absence of such a drawing should not be considered as an omission of such design from the specification. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EXEMPLARY EMBODIMENTS First Embodiment Before describing the embodiments of the present invention in detail, it should be observed that the embodiments of the present invention utilize a combination of method steps, system components and a computer program product related to a method that facilitates a computing device to access a set of applications by determining contexts such as an environment and/or activity of the computing device and/or a user of the computing device. Accordingly the apparatus components and the method steps have been represented where appropriate by conventional symbols in the drawings, showing only specific details that are pertinent for an understanding of the embodiments of the present invention so as not to obscure the disclosure with details that will be readily apparent to those with ordinary skill in the art having the benefit of the description herein. While the specification concludes with the claims defining the features of the invention that are regarded as novel, it is believed that the invention will be better understood from a consideration of the following description in conjunction with the drawings, in which like reference numerals are carried forward. As required, detailed embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein; however, it is to be understood that the disclosed embodiments are merely exemplary of the invention, which can be embodied in various forms. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a basis for the claims and as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present invention in virtually any appropriately detailed structure. Further, the terms and phrases used herein are not intended to be limiting but rather to provide an understandable description of the invention. The terms “a” or “an”, as used herein, are defined as one or more than one. The term “another”, as used herein, is defined as at least a second or more. The terms “including” and/or “having” as used herein, are defined as comprising (i.e. open transition). The term “coupled” or “operatively coupled” as used herein, is defined as connected, although not necessarily directly, and not necessarily mechanically. An instance ‘x’ is also used in various methods, flow diagrams, figures, or the like, to associate a means of communicating certain values to another methods, flow diagrams, or the like. For example, a flow diagram or a method A interested in communicating values v1, v2 and v3, to a flow diagram or a method B can associate v1, v2 and v3 with an instance x. Similarly the method B can associate some values with an instance x to communicate back with method A. One of the examples wherein an instance x can be used is when values are passed to “functions” as modeled in C programming language. Instance x can also be used to return values from “functions”. The use of functions and C programming language is illustrative only, and other forms of exchanging information between processes can be used. Structure of First Embodiment In one embodiment of the present invention, a system is provided for facilitating access to one or more applications by a computing device. The system includes a context module configured to determine one or more contexts associated with at least one of the computing device and a user of the computing device. The context describes an environment and/or an activity of the user and/or the computing device and helps generate at least a first portion of the one or more contextual tags corresponding to the one or more contexts. The context includes a set of data that provides any information relating to the environment of the user and/or the computing device, including but not limited to conditions, background, internal features of computing device (like other applications, operating systems, sensors, components, etc.), data from the internal features, external features (like WiFi devices, physical signs, bar codes, location, some third party devices, third party systems, or the like), data from the external features (WiFi scan, signals from a satellite, signals from a device such as Bluetooth or other devices, NFC device, data over networks such as intranet/internet, or the like), data from external systems and/or services (including data provided by a service over networks such as internet/intranet), settings and situation of the user and/or the computing device. Also, the context can include a set of data that provides any information relating to the activity of the user and/or the computing device, including, interaction between the user and the computing device, interaction between the user/the computing device and a third party device and/or service, state of the user/the computing device, internal operations of the computing device, or the like. The system also includes a processor communicatively associated with the context module, and configured to at least one of: generating a second portion of the contextual tags, and providing the contextual tags to the computing device, thereby enabling the computing device to identify one or more applications associated with the one or more contextual tags. The one or more applications are identified according to context based information contained in the one or more contextual tags and the one or more applications are thereafter received by and/or accessed by and/or activated on the computing device. In other words, the processor generates the second portion of the contextual tag if the context module generates only the first portion of the contextual tag, else if the context module generates the complete contextual tag, then the processor relays the contextual tag to the computing device, thereby enabling the computing device to access the one or more applications corresponding to the contextual tag. The system includes two elements (a processor and a context module) that are described herein. In an embodiment, the two elements can be combined into a single device that includes both the elements. Conversely, the functionality of the two elements described herein can be performed by two different devices. For example, in some embodiments a processor and a context module may perform the functions of the providing device and the generating device respectively, while being two separate devices. Whereas in some embodiments the system may be just a single device that includes both the context module and the processor, thereby allowing the single device to perform both the functions of the generating device and the functions of the providing device. In yet other embodiments, the generating device and the provider device can be a embedded in the computing device and can be implemented as a part of the computing device, such that the computing device is enabled to perform the functions of both the provider device and the generating device. Other combinations of generator device, provider device and computing device are possible. Moving on, once the contextual tag is generated in the form of any one or more of a manual tag, a dial-an-app tag, a static tag, a dynamic tag, an extracted tag, a derived info tag, a web based tag, a transaction driven tag, a social aspect tag or other tags, then one or more applications corresponding to the contextual tag are identified. In an embodiment, the processor, by relaying the contextual tag to the computing device, enables the computing device to access the one or more applications. In some embodiment, the applications are activated simultaneously while being downloaded, whereas in other embodiments, some of the applications are automatically activated on the computing device. In yet other embodiments, the one or more applications identified corresponding to the one more contextual tags may already be present on the computing device and may be accessed from there. Further, according to an embodiment of the invention, at least a part of the contextual tag may be stored in one or more intermediate devices before the one or more applications are associated with the contextual tag. For example in an embodiment, the contextual tag after being generated may be stored in the providing device or the generating device or other devices connected to a network like a set top box or a router, before being transferred to the computing device. In some cases, the one or more applications are identified based on only a portion of the contextual tag and not the complete contextual tag. As discussed, there could be various types of contextual tags that are generated and there could be various ways of identifying the one or more contexts. For example, in an embodiment, a URL can be determined using at least a portion of the contextual tag and thereafter, the computing device can be enabled to access and activate an application that can utilize/access the URL. In another scenario, the computing device can be allowed to access the one or more applications associated with a phone number being dialed by the user of the computing device. Further, according to an embodiment of the invention, the user is also given an option to select one or more applications. The selected applications can then be accessed and/or activated by the computing device. In further embodiments, the one or more contexts are determined when a user selects to do so manually or in other cases the determination of the one or more contexts can be scheduled to be repeated regularly after a predefined time interval. However, it should be appreciated by the person skilled in the art that other methods of determining contexts are also possible. Some embodiments of the invention also provide an option of cleaning up or removing of the one or more applications from the computing device. This can be possible in case of one or more of a change in the one or more contexts is determined, or the user is found to be not interacting with an earlier activated/accessed application for a predefined time, or the one or more applications is inactive, or there has been a lapse of a predefined time spent during or after accessing the one or more applications. Going forward, we describe various elements separately for ease of understanding and to describe logical differences in the functions performed by each element. In this regard, the term “processor” has been also mentioned as a “providing device” and the term “context module” has been referred to as “generating device” in some embodiments for easier description of the invention. Also, the term “one or more context” is mentioned as “context information” or “information” or alike. Similarly, the term “computing device” is also referred as “consumer device” and the term “contextual tag” and “tag” have been interchangeably used in description of the embodiments of the present invention. Also, the term “memory module” and “store” have been interchangeably used in description of some embodiments of the present invention. The system according to the present invention for facilitating access of a computing device to a set of applications is defined herein with the help of exemplary embodiments. Referring now to drawings FIG. 1A illustrates a computing device. Computing device is referred here as a consumer Device (CD) 102 for managing applications according to an embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment CD 102 can include tag processor (TAGP) 108, provider manager (PMAN) 110, application manager (AMAN) 112, application (APP) 136, state (STATE) 114, storage interface (STI) 116, storage (STORE) 118, user interface engine (UIE) 120, audio output device 122, video output device 124, user interface 126, network interface 106, antenna 104 and network cable 138. In one embodiment, audio device 122 can include, e.g., a conventional headphones jack and/or one or more speakers. Video Output 124 can include, e.g., an LCD screen. User Interface 126 can include, e.g., one or more buttons, touch pads, touch screens, scroll wheels, click wheels, or any other control(s) capable of generating electrical signals corresponding to manipulations of the control(s) by a user. Embodiments of CD 102 can be associated with portable media devices (PMD), personal digital assistants (PDA), media servers, devices such as mobile phones, PCs, server computers, laptops, set top boxes such as those associated with television sets, or the like. An instance of CD 102 can be static and not moving physically like a desktop computer, or can be a mobile device—such as a laptop or a mobile phone. In some embodiments, instances of CD 102 can be connected to other entities of the system by a variety of network technologies that can include wired and/or wireless communications, such as Ethernet, USB, modems, cable modems, firewire, wifi, cellular communication networks, or the like. User Interface Engine 120 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that enables a user to control operation of CD 102. In one embodiment, user interface engine 120 receives user inputs from user interface 126 and provides commands to AMAN 112 and/or PMAN 110 and/or APP 136. User interface engine 120 can also receive data from AMAN 112 and/or PMAN 110 and/or APP 136, and provide output to user via audio output device 122 and/or video output device 124. Further, APP 136 can include any combination of firmware and/or instructions and/or circuitry that can allow the CD 102 in providing one or more services to a user of CD 102. An instance of CD 102 can be associated with one or more instances of APP 136. In one embodiment, APP 136 can interact with user using audio device 122, video output device 124 and/or user interface 126, with help from user interface engine 120. In one embodiment APP 136 can allow the user to purchase a product. Other examples of APP 136 can allow the user to make stock transactions online, search for an item among a set maintained by a server, update personal information associated with a user at a server, providing a rating/vote related to participants in a live reality TV show, get information related to items in an aisle of a grocery store, provide information regarding availability of spaces in a parking lot, record the schedule related to a sale that is currently advertised on a TV, get information related to items purchased at a store, mall or online; provide feedback related to a service/purchase received/made by the user, among others. APP 136 can be associated with graphical interfaces in some embodiments. In some embodiments, some or all aspects of APP 136 can be retrieved by AMAN 112 from a network using NI 106. In some embodiments, some or all aspects of APP 136 can be stored in STORE 118. An instance of APP 136 can be made available for providing services to users of CD 102 by AMAN 112. AMAN 112 can retrieve an APP 136 from network using NI 106 or from STORE 118 before making the APP 136 provide services to user of CD 102. Examples of APP 136 can include Applications (that can include Activity, Service, etc.) associated with Android Operating System, Applications associated with iOS such as the one related to the operating system running on iPhone, iPad, iPod Touch, or the like; or applications associated with other operating systems, platforms, or the like. In one embodiment, Applications related to Android Operating system can be associated with APP 136. In this example, android application can be downloaded from network by AMAN 112 using NI 106 or stored in STORE 118. An application can be made active (or made to run) by AMAN 112 by retrieving the application from STORE 118, retrieving the application from NI 106, or the like. In some embodiments, one or more instances of APP 136 can be dormant and/or not providing services to user of CD 102. In such embodiments, APP 136 can be made active or provide services to user of CD 102, by AMAN 112 using mechanisms that can be specific to the embodiment (such as using Intents on Android Operating System). In some embodiments, there can be more than one instance of APP 136 running on CD 102, each providing a different service to the user. APP 136 can use NI 106 in communicating with devices or services in the network. In some embodiments, APP 136 does not interact with a user. An instance of APP 136 in such embodiments can be providing services to another application associated with CD 102. Instances of APP 136 can be providing services to more than one application associated with CD 102. Network interface 106 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow CD 102 and/or aspects of CD 102 in communicating with other devices in a network. Network interface 106 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. Network interface 106 can also include components such as NICs, Network interface 106 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 104 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. Network interface 106 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 138 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. Network interface 106 can be connected to antenna 104 and/or cable 138 with or without a connector. Storage 118 can be used to store information that can include one or more of APP 136 retrieved from network, media assets (e.g, music, video, podcasts, photos, or other still images, etc.) as well as tags provided by PDs. Storage device 118 can include, e.g., magnetic or optical disk, flash memory, or any other storage medium that supports storage of data for an arbitrary period of time (e.g., until deleted by a user). Storage Interface 116 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that manages access to storage 118. In one embodiment, SI 116 supports reading from and writing to STORE 118. STATE 114 can be used to store information that can include information related to one or more PDs that CD 102 can be associated with, identifiers related to CD 102 that can be related to associations with PDs, or the like. Various entities of information can be stored in STATE 114 in a way such that different entities can be accessed separately. In one embodiment, information illustrated in FIG. 14 can be stored in STATE 114. Information described in FIG. 14 stored in STATE 114, is referred to as cState for use in the description of other apparatus, methods and systems. Other information related to APP 136 can be stored in STATE 114. STATE 114 can include e.g., SRAM, DRAM, RAM, NVRAM or any other medium that supports storage. In some embodiments, STATE 114 can maintain information as long as electrical power can be provided to STATE 114. In some embodiments, information stored in STATE 114 can instead be stored in STORE 118. In such embodiments, STATE 114 can not be included in the CD. TAGP 108 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow CD 102, to receive and process tags. In one embodiment of the invention, TAGP 108 can receive tags from PDs. TAGP 108 can determine if the received tag can be used by the CD 102. In embodiments where cState as illustrated in FIG. 14 is stored in STATE 114, TAGP 108 can use information related to cState in determining if a tag received by the CD 102 can be used by the CD. TAGP 108 can also communicate received tags to AMAN 112. PMAN 110 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow CD 102, in associating with instances of PD 202. In one embodiment of the invention PMAN 110 can include a detection aspect and an association aspect. The detection aspect of PMAN 110 can include various methods of detecting instances of PD 202 that the PMAN 110 can associate with. In one embodiment, PMAN 110 can use mechanisms that can be made available by NI 106 in detecting new instances of PD 202. In embodiments wherein NI 106 is related to USB interface, PMAN 110 can communicate with USB in determining if NI 106 detected new instances of PD 202. PMAN 110 can also send/receive messages to/from instances of PD 202 using NI 106. PMAN 110 can send/receive messages when (dis)associating with instances of PD 202. PMAN 110 can also use/update information related to cState stored in STATE 114. In one embodiment, PMAN 110 can interact with UIE 120 to present a list of PD 202 instances detected by PMAN 110. In such embodiment, a user of CD 102 can select one or more instances of PD 202 using UI 126. PMAN 110 can associate with instances of PD 202 selected by the user, in such embodiments. AMAN 112 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow CD 102, in managing one or more instances of APP 136. In one embodiment of the invention, AMAN 112 can manage more than one instance of APP 136. AMAN 112 can receive tags from TAGP 108. AMAN 112 can associate tags to instances of APP 136 that are active and providing services to users of CD 102, or can associate tags to instances of APP 136 that can be retrieved from network or STORE 118. When tags can be associated with instances of APP 136 from network or STORE 118, AMAN 112 can retrieve APP 136 from network or STORE 118. The retrieved APP 136 can be activated, which can result in APP 136 starting to provide services. In embodiments wherein some/all aspects of CD 102 can be included in devices such as smart phone supporting Android operating system, AMAN 112 can be implemented using an application on Android operating system. AMAN 112 in such embodiment can be associated with one or more aspects of Android operating system such as Activity, Service, Intents, including others. Instances of APP 136 retrieved from network by AMAN 112 can be stored in STORE 118 in a way that the instances of APP 136 stored by AMAN 112 can be differentiated from instances of APP 136 that are not stored by AMAN 112. In the example embodiment of smart phone running Android operating system, a user of CD 102 can choose to download applications by browsing the applications provided by Android Market. The set of applications download by the user using Android Market, in such embodiments can be maintained separately from the applications downloaded and stored in STORE 118 by AMAN 112. The set of APP 136 instances stored in STORE 118 due to methods that can not involve AMAN 112 is referred to as manualAppStore for use in apparatus, methods and systems of the invention and related embodiments. The set of APP 136 instances stored in STORE 118 by AMAN 112 is referred to as appStore for use in apparatus, methods and systems of the invention and related embodiments. In some embodiments where a file system can be available to manage STORE 118, appStore and manualAppStore can be implemented using different directories in the file system. Examples of file systems include FAT-16, JFFS, EXT2, or the like, supported by various operating systems that can include Windows from Microsoft Corporation, Linux, Android, or the like. Aspects of NI 106, TAGP 108, PMAN 110, AMAN 112, APP 136, STATE 114, STI 116, STORE 118, UIE 120, audio device 122, video device 124, UI 126 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. CD 102 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, CD 102 can include a camera that can allow CD 102 to be used in taking still/motion pictures. Camera on CD 102 can be associated with some of instances of APP 136 that can provide services to users of CD 102. Now referring to FIG. 1B a Consumer Device (CD) 140, an embodiment of CD 102 is shown, for managing applications according to an embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment CD 140 can include tag processor (TAGP) 108, provider manager (PMAN) 110, application manager (AMAN) 112, application (APP) 136, state (STATE) 114, storage interface (STI) 116, storage (STORE) 118, user interface engine (UIE) 120, audio output device 122, video output device 124, user interface 126, network interface (NI) 148, antenna 144, network cable 143, provider interface (PINT) 146, antenna 142, and network cable 141. Aspects of CD 140 such as TAGP 108, PMAN 110, AMAN 112, APP 136, STATE 114, STI 116, STORE 118, UIE 120, audio output device 122, video output device 124, and user interface 126 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with CD 102. An embodiment of CD 140 can allow using PINT 146 for communication with PDs, while using NI 148 for retrieving instances of APP 136 from network. NI 148 can also be used by instances of APP 136 in communicating with other devices/services in the network. In some embodiments, PINT 146 can be associated with networks such as wifi, while NI 148 can be associated with cellular communication networks. PINT 146 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow CD 140 and/or aspects of CD 140 in communicating with other PDs. PINT 146 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. PINT 146 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. PINT 146 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 142 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. PINT 146 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 143 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. PINT 146 can be connected to antenna 142 and/or cable 143 with or without a connector. PINT 146 can be used by PMAN 110 in detecting and/or associating with instances of PDs. PINT 146 can also be used by TAGP 108 in receiving tags from PDs that can be associated with the CD. In one embodiment, PINT 146 can be associated with an interface related to wifi networks. NI 148 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow CD 140 and/or aspects of CD 140 in communicating with devices and/or services in a network. NI 148 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. NI 148 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. NI 148 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 144 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. NI 148 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 143 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. NI 148 can be connected to antenna 144 and/or cable 143 with or without a connector. In the embodiment described here, NI 148 can be used by AMAN 112 in retrieving APP 136 from the network. NI 148 can also be used by instances of APP 136 in communicating with other devices and/or services in the network. In one embodiment NI 148 can be associated with an interface related to cellular communication networks. Other aspects of TAGP 108, PMAN 110, AMAN 112, APP 136, STATE 114, STI 116, STORE 118, UIE 120, audio device 122, video device 124, UI 126, PINT 146, NI 148 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. CD 140 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, CD 102 can include a camera that an allow CD 140 to be used in taking still/motion pictures. Camera on CD 140 can be associated with some of instances of APP 136 that can provide services to users of CD 102. The Consumer Device (CD) 166 as illustrated in FIG. 1D, is an embodiment of CD 140, for managing applications according to an embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment CD 166 can include tag processor (TAGP) 108, provider manager (PMAN) 110, application manager (AMAN) 112, application (APP) 136, DHT Router (DHTR) 168, state (STATE) 114, storage interface (STI) 116, storage (STORE) 118, user interface engine (UIE) 120, audio output device 122, video output device 124, user interface 126, network interface (NI) 148, antenna 144, network cable 143, provider interface (PINT) 146, antenna 142, and network cable 141. Aspects of CD 166 such as PINT 146, antenna 142, network cable 141, NI 148, antenna 144, network cable 143, TAGP 108, PMAN 110, AMAN 112, APP 136, STATE 114, STI 116, STORE 118, UIE 120, audio output device 122, video output device 124, and user interface 126 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with CD 140. An embodiment of CD 166 can allow using of DHTR 168 by AMAN 112 in retrieving instances of APP 136 from network. In some embodiments, use of DHT based network access can result in being able to retrieve data from a network at a faster rate when compared to retrieving data where in DHT based schemes are not used. Instances of APP 136 can also use DHTR 168 in communicating with services and/or devices on the network. Embodiments of APP 136 can access data from network using DHTR 168 that can result in faster retrieval of data accessed by the APP. While AMAN 112 can retrieve applications, and APP 136 can access data over network using DHTR 168, DHTR 168 can be used for other purposes as well. AMAN 112 and/or APP 136 can also use NI 148 in communicating with devices/services over the network in a way that can not use DHTR 168. Now the DHT Router (DHTR) 168 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow sending/receiving messages to store/retrieve values for a given key in a distributed hash table (DHT). In one embodiment, AMAN 112 can retrieve instances of APP 136 using DHT. Methods of storing/retrieving values from a DHT based system can allow for advantages that can include faster retrieval of data from network, load balancing of data retrieval among others. AMAN 112 can use DHTR 168 in retrieving instances of APP 136 in order to enable a faster retrieval of APP 136. AMAN 112 can use DHTR 168 for other functionality as well. APP 136 can also use DHT to store/retrieve/communicate values using a DHT. Instances of APP 136 can provide a variety of services to users of CD 102, and in embodiments where APP 136 can wish to take advantages presented by DHT based communication schemes (such as downloading large amounts of data from network), APP 136 can use DHTR 168. AMAN 112 and instances of APP 136, while using functionality associated with DHTR 168, can continue to communicate with some devices/services on the network using mechanisms that do not include use of DHTR 168. DHTs can be implemented using several widely known schemes such as Tapestry, Pastry, Chord, etc. Information regarding Tapestry, an implementation of DHT is described generally in the article ‘Tapestry—A Resilient Global-Scale Overlay for Service Deployment by Zhao (2004)’. This article is incorporated by reference herein. DHTR 168 can send (or receive) messages over a network by interacting with network interface 148. In some embodiments, DHTR 168 can be used to receive and/or send messages from other aspects of the system as part of DHTR functionality, and such messages are not meant for use by the CD that the DHTR is associated with. Aspects of TAGP 108, PMAN 110, AMAN 112, APP 136, DHTR 168, STATE 114, STI 116, STORE 118, UIE 120, audio device 122, video device 124, UI 126, PINT 146, NI 148 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. CD 140 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, CD 140 can include a camera that an allow CD 140 to be used in taking still/motion pictures. Camera on CD 140 can be associated with some of instances of APP 136 that can provide services to users of CD 140. Now considering FIG. 1E a Consumer Device (CD) 170, for managing applications according to an embodiment of the present invention. This embodiment of CD includes aspects related to CD 102 and CD 166. In this embodiment CD 170 can include tag processor (TAGP) 108, provider manager (PMAN) 110, application manager (AMAN) 112, application (APP) 136, DHT Router (DHTR) 168, state (STATE) 114, storage interface (STI) 116, storage (STORE) 118, user interface engine (UIE) 120, audio output device 122, video output device 124, user interface 126, network interface (NI) 106, antenna 104, and network cable 138. Aspects of CD 170 such as NI 106, antenna 104, network cable 138, TAGP 108, PMAN 110, AMAN 112, APP 136, STATE 114, STI 116, STORE 118, UIE 120, audio output device 122, video output device 124, and user interface 126 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with CD 102. Aspects of CD 170 such as DHTR 168 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with CD 166. In the embodiment of CD 170 illustrated in FIG. 1E, NI 106 can be used by TAGP 108, PM 110, AMAN 112 and APP 136 in ways that are similar to the embodiment of CD 102. AMAN 112 and/or APP 136 can use DHTR 168 in ways similar to the embodiment of CD 166. TAGP 108 can use DHTR 168 in communicating tags from PDs. Some embodiments can be associated with tags that can have large amount of associated data. Receiving a tag by TAGP 108 in such embodiments can use DHTR 168. The use of DHTR 168 can help in faster retrieval of data associated with tags. An embodiment of a tag can be associated with core.additionalInfo field as illustrated in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6. In some embodiments, core.additionalInfo field can be an instance of APP 136. In such embodiments, receiving a tag can include retrieval of an instance of APP 136. When APP 136 associated with a tag is very large, retrieval of tags can include using DHTR 168. Other embodiments wherein data associated with a tag can be large can include tags associated with media. Tags associated with media can include core.additionalInfo that can represent a sample or all of media that can be represented by the tag. In such embodiments, DHTR 168 can be used by TAGP 108 to receive the tag. PMAN 110 can use DHTR 168 in communicating with PDs. PMAN 110 can communicate with PDs to have CD 166 associate or disassociate with the PDs. Information exchanged during association/disassociation can include information related to CD 166 and/or PD. An example of information that can be exchanged during association between CDs and PDs is illustrated in FIG. 13 and FIG. 15. In some embodiments, CDs and PDs can choose to include information not illustrated in FIG. 13 and FIG. 15, in messages during (dis)association. An example of such information can include still/motion pictures related to the CD and/or PD. In such embodiments, PMAN 110 can use DHTR 168 in communicating values with PDs, or exchanging messages with PDs. Aspects of TAGP 108, PMAN 110, AMAN 112, APP 136, DHTR 168, STATE 114, STI 116, STORE 118, UIE 120, audio device 122, video device 124, UI 126, NI 106 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. CD 170 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, CD 170 can include a camera that an allow CD 170 to be used in taking still/motion pictures. Camera on CD 170 can be associated with some of instances of APP 136 that can provide services to users of CD 170. FIG. 1C illustrates a Consumer Device (CD) 172, for managing applications and providing services according to an embodiment of the present invention. This embodiment of the invention illustrates aspects of CD that can include providing services that can not be associated with services provided by APP 136. In this embodiment, CD 172 can provide a telephony service to a user of CD 172. The telephony service provided by CD 172 can not be related to association of CD 172 with PDs, processing of tags by TAGP 108, management of APP 136 by AMAN 112, or the like. CD 172 can provide telephony services to a user of CD 172. CD 172 at the same time can be associated/communicating with PDs using PMAN 110, processing tags by TAGP 108, managing applications by AMAN 112 and providing services related to APP 136. CD 172 can provide telephony services, while CD 172 is not associated with any active instances of app 136. The use of telephony service in this embodiment is illustrative only. Other embodiments can choose to provide one or more services that can be managed in a way that can not be related to management of APP 136. An example embodiment of the invention can include a smart phone such as the G1 phone from HTC running Android Operating System. The G1 phone can be providing telephony service, along with an Android application (an embodiment of AMAN 112) that can be can be managing other Android applications (APP 136). Telephony Service (TSER) 174 any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow CD 102 in providing services related to telephony. A telephony service can be provided by TSER in association with various communication technologies/networks such as cellular communication networks, GSM technology, CDMA technology, VoIP technology, or any other technologies. TSER 174 can provide telephony service in association with a telephony interface (TINT) 176. TINT 176 can be used for associating the CD 172 with one or more service providers. TSER 174 can allow for user interaction using UI 126 in association with UIE 120. TSER 174 can interact with user to allow for methods that can allow a user providing a telephone number to dial, accepting a telephone call, switching between more than one active call, establishing conference calls or the like. Aspects of TSER 174 can be associated with an application on CD 172. An example of such an embodiment includes G1 phone from HTC running Android Operating System. TSER 174 can provide telephony service and interact with user using a combination of one or more physical buttons on the device, or using a Dialer application in combination with the touch screen on the device, or a combination of the above. TINT 176 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow CD 172 and/or aspects of CD 172 in communicating with a telephony network. TINT 176 can include components such as those associated with POTS (plain old telephone service) or NICs (as in case of VoIP phones with Ethernet connectivity). TINT 176 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 179 capable of communicating with a telephony network. TINT 176 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 122 capable of communicating with a telephony network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet (as in case of VoIP technology), POTS, or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. TINT 176 can be connected to antenna 178 and/or cable 179 with or without a connector. Aspects of TAGP 108, PMAN 110, AMAN 112, APP 136, STATE 114, STI 116, STORE 118, UIE 120, audio device 122, video device 124, UI 126, NI 148, PI 146, TSER 174, TINT 176 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. CD 172 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, CD 172 can include a camera that an allow CD 172 to be used in taking still/motion pictures. Camera on CD 172 can be associated with some of instances of APP 136 that can provide services to users of CD 172. FIG. 2A illustrates a Provider Device (PD) 202 for providing tags to CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment PD 202 can include tag processor (TAGP) 208, generator manager (GMAN) 210, consumer manager (CMAN) 212, state (STATE) 214, storage interface (STI) 216, storage (STORE) 218, user interface engine (UIE) 220, audio output device 222, video output device 224, user interface 226, network interface 206, antenna 204 and network cable 238. In one embodiment, audio device 122 can include, e.g., a conventional headphones jack and/or one or more speakers. Video Output 124 can include, e.g., an LCD screen. User Interface 126 can include, e.g., one or more buttons, touch pads, touch screens, scroll wheels, click wheels, or any other control(s) capable of generating electrical signals corresponding to manipulations of the control(s) by a user. Embodiments of PD 202 can be associated with set top boxes such as those associated with television sets, media servers, PCs, server computers, laptops, wifi routers such as those associated with providing wireless network connectivity including 802.11b, 802.11n, 802.11g; audio receivers such as those associated with music systems, plug computers such as sheeva plug, or the like devices. An instance of PD 202 can be static and not moving physically like a desktop computer or a set top box, or can be a mobile device—such as a laptop. In some embodiments, instances of PD 202 can be connected to other entities of the system by a variety of network technologies that can include wired and/or wireless communications, such as Ethernet, USB, modems, cable modems, firewire, wifi, cellular communication networks, or the like. PD 202 can associate with instances of CD 102. In some embodiments, a PD can associate with more than one CD. Tags can be provided by a PD to instances of CD associated with the PD. In the embodiment described here, PD can associate with instances of CD using messages. Messages can be exchanged between a PD and a CD for association using NI 206. Messages can also be exchanged between a PD and a CD for disassociation using NI 206. PD 202 can associate with instances of GD 302. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can associate with up to one instance of GD 302. Tag related information generated by a GD can be communicated by GD to instances of PD associated with the GD. Tag related information can be communicated by GD to instances of PD in messages that can be received by PD using NI 206. In the embodiment described here, PD can associate with an instance of GD using messages. Messages can be exchanged between a PD and a GD for association using NI 206. Messages can also be exchanged between a PD and a GD for disassociation using NI 206. User Interface Engine 220 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that enables a user to control operation of PD 202. In one embodiment, user interface engine 220 receives user inputs from user interface 226 and provides commands to CMAN 212 and/or GMAN 210. User interface engine 220 can also receive data from CMAN 212 and/or GMAN 210, and provide output to user via audio output device 222 and/or video output device 224. Network interface 206 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow PD 202 and/or aspects of PD 202 in communicating with other devices in a network. Network interface 206 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. Network interface 206 can also include components such as NICs, Network interface 206 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 204 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. Network interface 206 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 238 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. Network interface 206 can be connected to antenna 204 and/or cable 238 with or without a connector. Storage 218 can be used to store information that can include tag related information communicated to PD 202 from an instance of GD 302. In some embodiments, tag related information provided by a GD can include an instance of APP 136 of CD 102. In other embodiments, tag related information can include a sample of media. Some or all of tag related information provided by GD 302 in such embodiments can be stored in STORE 218. Storage 218 can include, e.g., magnetic or optical disk, flash memory, or any other storage medium that supports storage of data for an arbitrary period of time (e.g., until deleted by a user). Storage Interface 216 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that manages access to storage 218. In one embodiment, SI 216 supports reading from and writing to STORE 218. STATE 214 can be used to store information that can include information related to one or more CDs that PD 202 can be associated with, information related to a GD 302 that the PD can be associated with, tag related information that can be provided by a GD, or the like. Various entities of information can be stored in STATE 214 in a way such that different entities can be accessed separately. In one embodiment, information illustrated in FIG. 16 can be stored in STATE 214. Information described in FIG. 16 stored in STATE 214, is referred to as pState for use in the description of other apparatus, methods and systems. STATE 214 can include e.g., SRAM, DRAM, RAM, NVRAM or any other medium that supports storage. In some embodiments, STATE 214 can maintain information as long as electrical power can be provided to STATE 214. In some embodiments, information stored in STATE 214 can instead be stored in STORE 218. In such embodiments, STATE 214 can not be included in the PD. TAGP 208 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow PD 202 to receive tag related information from GD 302, provide tags to one or more CDs, and process tag related information including others. In one embodiment, TAGP 208 can receive messages from GD 302 that can include tag related information. TAGP 208 can extract tag related information from messages sent by GD, and associate the information with pState stored in STATE 214. TAGP 208 can use the information related to pState stored in STATE 214 and/or, messages including tag related received from GD 302, to generate tags that can be communicated to one or more instances of CD 102 associated with the PD. In one embodiment, functionality associated with CD 102 can be included in smart phones capable of Wi-Fi communication, running Android operating system; functionality associated with PD 202 can be included in a wifi capable provider device such as a Sheeva Plug; and functionality associated with GD 302 can be included in a set top box such as those associated with television sets. In such embodiment, the set top box can communicate tag related information extracted from media processed by the set top box, to TAGP 208 associated with Sheeva plug. TAGP 208 of Sheeva plug can provide tags to one or more instances of smart phones associated with Sheeva plug GMAN 210 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow PD 202 to associate/disassociate with GD 302. In one embodiment of the invention GMAN 210 can include a detection aspect and an association aspect. The detection aspect of GMAN 210 can include various methods of detecting instances of GD 302 that the GMAN 210 can associate with. In one embodiment, GMAN 210 can use mechanisms that can be made available by NI 206 in detecting new instances of PD 202. In embodiments wherein NI 206 is related to USB interface, GMAN 210 can communicate with USB in determining if NI 206 detected new instances of GD 302. GMAN 210 can also send/receive messages to/from instances of GD 302 using NI 206. GMAN 210 can send/receive messages when (dis)associating with instances of GD 302. GMAN 210 can also use/update information related to pState stored in STATE 214 when disassociating/associating with GD 302. In one embodiment, GMAN 210 can interact with UIE 220 to present a list of GD 302 instances detected by GMAN 210. In such embodiment, a user associated with PD 202 can select an instance of GD 302 using UI 226. GMAN 210 can associate with instances of GD 302 selected by the user, in such embodiments. Messages sent by CMAN 212 for (dis)associating with GD 302 can include some or all of information illustrated in FIG. 15. Information illustrated in FIG. 15 is referred to as ProviderInfo (PI) in methods, apparatus and systems associated with embodiments of the invention. CMAN 212 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow PD 202 to associate/disassociate with one or more instances of CD 102. In one embodiment of the invention CMAN 212 can include a detection aspect and an association aspect. The detection aspect of CMAN 212 can include various methods of detecting instances of CD 102 that the CMAN 212 can associate with. In one embodiment, CMAN 212 can use mechanisms that can be made available by NI 206 in detecting new instances of CD 102. In embodiments wherein NI 206 is related to USB interface, CMAN 212 can communicate with USB in determining if NI 206 detected new instances of CD 102. CMAN 212 can also send/receive messages to/from instances of CD 102 using NI 206. CMAN 212 can send/receive messages when (dis)associating with instances of CD 102. CMAN 212 can also use/update information related to pState stored in STATE 214 when disassociating/associating with instances of CD 102. In one embodiment, CMAN 212 can associate with any instance of CD 102 that can be detected by NI 206. In other embodiments, CMAN 212 can interact with UIE 220 to present a list of CD 102 instances detected by CMAN 212 in association with NI 206. In such embodiment, a user associated with PD 202 can select one or more instances of CD 102 using UI 226. CMAN 212 can associate with instances of CD 102 selected by the user, in such embodiments. Messages sent by CMAN 212 for (dis)associating with one or more CD 102 can include some or all of information illustrated in FIG. 15. Information illustrated in FIG. 15 is referred to as ConsumerInfo (CI) in relation to apparatus, methods and systems associated with embodiments of the invention. In the embodiment of smart phones and Sheeva plug described in relation to TAGP 208, smart phones related to any user can be associated with the Sheeva plug, when Sheeva plug is providing tags at public places such as Coffee Shop, Restaurant, Library, or the like. When Sheeva plug is providing tags related to media that is played at a home, a UI 322 associated with the Sheeva Plug can be used to control the set of smart phones that can associate and/or receive the tags provided by the Sheeva plug. UI 322 can be supported by Sheeva Plug using a web service that can be accessed using either a smart phone (that can access web services), a laptop computer, a desk top computer, or any other computer system. UI 322 can be made available by Sheeva plug using other mechanisms. Aspects of TAGP 208, GMAN 210, CMAN 212, STATE 214, STI 216, STORE 218, UIE 220, audio device 222, video device 224, UI 226, NI 206 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. PD 202 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of PD 202 such as a Sheeva Plug, can associate with smart phones for providing tags, while at the same time can provide other services such as a multimedia server to a DLNA enabled player. FIG. 2B illustrates a Provider Device (PD) 240, an embodiment of PD 202, that can be used for providing tags to CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment PD 240 can include generator tag processor (GTAGP) 250, generator manager (GMAN) 210, consumer tag processor (CTAGP) 252, consumer manager (CMAN) 212, state (STATE) 214, storage interface (STI) 216, storage (STORE) 218, user interface engine (UIE) 220, audio output device 222, video output device 224, user interface 226, generator interface (GINT) 246, antenna 242, network cable 241, consumer interface (CINT) 248, antenna 244 and network cable 245. Aspects of PD 240 such as GMAN 210, CMAN 212, STATE 214, STI 216, STORE 218, UIE 220, audio output device 222, video output device 224, and user interface 226 can be related to respective aspects associated with PD 202. An embodiment of PD 240 can allow for using GINT 246 by GTAGP in processing messages including tag related information sent by GD that the PD can be associated with. GINT 246 can also be used by GMAN 210 in exchanging messages with GDs during (dis)association. CINT 248 can be used by CTAGP 252 in communicating or providing tags to instances of CD 102. CINT 248 can also be used by CMAN in associating with instances of CD 102. In one embodiment of the invention, a Sheeva Plug can be used as an instance of PD 240. Sheeva plug can be associated with a set top box including GD 302 using USB connectivity. Sheeva plug in such embodiment can be associated with smart phones including CD 102, using wifi connectivity. CINT 248 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow PD 240 and/or aspects of PD 240 in communicating with CDs. CINT 248 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. CINT 248 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. CINT 248 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 244 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. CINT 248 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 245 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. CINT 248 can be connected to antenna 244 and/or cable 245 with or without a connector. CINT 248 can be used by CTAGP 252 in providing tags to instances of CD that can be associated with the PD. CINT 248 can also be using by CMAN 212 in sending/receiving messages for associating/disassociating with instances of CD. GINT 246 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow PD 240 and/or aspects of PD 240 in communicating with an instance of GD 302. GINT 246 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. GINT 246 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. GINT 246 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 242 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. GINT 246 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 241 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. GINT 246 can be connected to antenna 242 and/or cable 241 with or without a connector. In the embodiment described here, GINT 246 can be used by GTAGP 250 in receiving messages that can include tag related information from GD 302 associated with the PD. GINT 246 can also be used by GMAN 210 in sending/receiving messages for associating/disassociating with an instance of GD. GTAGP 250 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow PD 202 to receive tag related information from GD 302, and process tag related information including others. In one embodiment, GTAGP 250 can receive messages from GD 302 that can include tag related information. GTAGP 250 can extract tag related information from messages sent by GD, and associate the information with pState stored in STATE 214. In one embodiment, functionality associated with CD 102 can be included in smart phones capable of Wi-Fi communication, running Android operating system; functionality associated with PD 240 can be included in a wifi capable provider device such as a Sheeva Plug; and functionality associated with GD 302 can be included in a set top box such as those associated with television sets. In such embodiment, the set top box can communicate tag related information extracted from media processed by the set top box, to GTAGP 250 associated with Sheeva plug. CTAGP 252 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow PD 202 to provide tags to one or more CDs, and process tag related information including others. CTAGP 252 can use the information related to pState stored in STATE 214 and/or, messages including tag related information received by GTAGP 250 from GD 302, to generate tags that can be communicated to one or more instances of CD 102 associated with the PD. In one embodiment, functionality associated with CD 102 can be included in smart phones capable of Wi-Fi communication, running Android operating system; functionality associated with PD 202 can be included in a wifi capable provider device such as a Sheeva Plug; and functionality associated with GD 302 can be included in a set top box such as those associated with television sets. In such embodiment, CTAGP 252 of Sheeva plug can provide tags to one or more instances of smart phones associated with Sheeva plug. CTAGP 252 can communicate with GTAGP 250 and/or use information associated with pState stored in STATE 214 in generating tags. Aspects of GTAGP 250, GMAN 210, CTAGP 252, CMAN 212, STATE 214, STI 216, STORE 218, UIE 220, audio device 222, video device 224, UI 226, GINT 246, CINT 248 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. PD 240 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of PD 240 such as a Sheeva Plug, can associate with smart phones for providing tags, while at the same time can provide other services such as a multimedia server to a DLNA enabled player. FIG. 2C illustrates a Provider Device (PD) 260, an embodiment of PD 202, for providing tags to CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. In this embodiment PD 260 can include tag processor (TAGP) 208, generator manager (GMAN) 210, consumer manager (CMAN) 212, DHT Router (DHTR) 262, state (STATE) 214, storage interface (STI) 216, storage (STORE) 218, user interface engine (UIE) 220, audio output device 222, video output device 224, user interface 226, network interface 206, antenna 204 and network cable 238. Aspects of PD 260 such as TAGP 208, GMAN 210, CMAN 212, STATE 214, STI 216, STORE 218, UIE 220, audio output device 222, video output device 224, user interface 226, network interface 206, antenna 204 and network cable 238 can be similar to respective aspects associated with PD 202. In some embodiments, information related to tags can include fields such as additionalInfoUrl and additionalInfo such as the ones illustrated in FIG. 6 and associated with fields in FIG. 5. In some embodiments, additionalInfoUrl can refer to information that can be very large such as a media clip. In such embodiments, PD 202 can retrieve information represented by additionalInfoUrl and associate the retrieved information with additionalInfo field. This can be done in some embodiments to support instances of CD 102 that can take a long time to retrieve information represented by additionalInfoUrl. In one embodiment, functionality associated with CD 102 can be included in smart phones capable of Wi-Fi communication, running Android operating system; functionality associated with PD 202 can be included in a wifi capable provider device such as a Sheeva Plug; and functionality associated with GD 302 can be included in a set top box such as those associated with television sets. In such embodiment, Sheeva plug can be connected to a network using gigabit Ethernet connectivity, which can provide faster speeds of retrieval/downloads as compared to the amount of time taken by an instance of CD 102. In embodiments where PD 260 can retrieve large amount of information, PD 260 can use DHTR 262 to retrieve the information. PD 260 can use DHTR 262 to retrieve information not described here. DHT Router (DHTR) 262 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow sending/receiving messages to store/retrieve values for a given key in a distributed hash table (DHT). In one embodiment, TAGP 208 can use DHTR 262 to retrieve some information from network that can be associated with tags provided by the PD. Methods of storing/retrieving values from a DHT based system can allow for advantages that can include faster retrieval of data from network, load balancing of data retrieval among others. TAGP 208 can use DHTR 262 in retrieving information related to tags in order to enable faster retrieval. Aspects of PD 260 can use DHTR 168 for other functionality as well. DHTs can be implemented using several widely known schemes such as Tapestry, Pastry, Chord, etc. Information regarding Tapestry, an implementation of DHT is described generally in the article ‘Tapestry—A Resilient Global-Scale Overlay for Service Deployment by Zhao (2004)’. DHTR 262 can send (or receive) messages over a network by interacting with network interface 206. In some embodiments, DHTR 262 can be used to receive and/or send messages from other aspects of the system as part of DHTR functionality, and such messages are not meant for use by the CD that the DHTR is associated with. Aspects of TAGP 208, GMAN 210, DHTR 262, CMAN 212, STATE 214, STI 216, STORE 218, UIE 220, audio device 222, video device 224, UI 226, NI 206 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. PD 260 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of PD 260 such as a Sheeva Plug, can associate with smart phones for providing tags, while at the same time can provide other services such as a multimedia server to a DLNA enabled player. Referring to FIG. 3A a Generator Device (GD) 302 for generating tags is illustrated according to an embodiment of the present invention. GD 302 can be any device capable of receiving and/or processing media. GD 302 can be used to generate tag related information associated with media received and/or processed by the GD. In the embodiment of FIG. 3A, GD 302 includes state (STATE) 314, store interface (SINT) 316, store (STORE) 318, tag extractor (TEXT) 310, user interface (UI) 322, provider manager (PMAN) 312, provider interface (PINT) 324, provider antenna 328, provider cable 329, content interface (CONINT) 326, content antenna 330, content cable 331, content extractor (CEXT) 320, receiver 308, antenna 306 and cable 304. GD 302 can be used to receive broadcasts via one or more media; any broadcast medium or combination of media can be supported. In this example, receiver 308 can connect to antenna 306, which can be capable of detecting broadcasts via a wireless medium (e.g., FM or AM radio in standard and/or HD formats, over the air TV, satellite TV or radio, WiFi, cellular communication network, etc.). Receiver 308 can also connect to cable 304 and thus be capable of receiving broadcasts via a wired medium (e.g., cable TV service, wired internet connection, or the like). Receiver 308 can include any hardware and/or instructions elements usable to extract broadcast data from wired and/or wireless media as desired; the particular components can depend on the medium (or media) supported. Any combination or sub-combination of wired and/or wireless media can be supported. Receiver 308 can deliver signals corresponding to received broadcasts to CEXT 320 to deliver media content. CEXT 320 can include appropriate decoding and processing components to extract audio and/or video signals from received broadcast; these components can generate analog and/or digital signals suitable for driving video and/or audio output devices (not explicitly shown in FIG. 3A), such as display devices and/or speakers. Such output devices can be integrated into GD 302 or supplied as external components coupled to GD 302 via suitable connections. In one embodiment, such external components can be coupled to GD 302 using CONINT 326. External components can be associated with CONINT 326 by means of antenna 330 or content cable 331. User interface 322 of GD 302 can provide input and/or output devices to allow a user to control the operation of GD 302, CEXT 320, and/or TEXT 310. For example UI 322 can include a button that a user can operate to instruct TEXT 310 to capture or record tag related information for a currently playing track. Other buttons can allow the user to select broadcast sources and/or channels for receiver 308, adjust volume and/or picture settings, allow for GD 302 to associate and/or disassociate with instances of PD 302, and so on. TEXT 310 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can help GD 302 in generating tag related information associated with media that is processed by GD 302. In embodiments where media received by RECEIVER 308 and provided to TEXT 310 is tagged, TEXT 310 can extract information from tagged media. Examples of such embodiments can include mpeg-47 video, HD Radio PSD, HD Radio SIS, or the like. An exampled of structure and content of information that can be extracted from media is illustrated in FIG. 6. In some embodiments, TEXT 310 can generate tag related information that can include information related to media such as time of generation, channel name, channel frequency, channel number, location of broadcast, service provider name, or the like. An example of information derived by an instance of GD 302 is illustrated in FIG. 21. In some embodiments, such information can be used to determine information related to the media by presenting the generated information to a service. A service on the internet can provide information about media, given the channel name, channel number, channel frequency and location of telecast. Information such as this can also be generated by instances of GD 302. In some embodiments of GD 302, information related to tags that can be generated by the GD can include a sample of media as determined/captured by TEXT 310 and/or CEXT 320 of FIG. 3A. An example structure of information related to media samples is illustrated in FIG. 7. PMAN 312 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow GD 302, in associating with instances of PD 202. In one embodiment of the invention PMAN 312 can include a detection aspect and an association aspect. The detection aspect of PMAN 312 can include various methods of detecting instances of PD 202 that the PMAN 312 can associate with. In one embodiment, PMAN 312 can use mechanisms that can be made available by PINT 324 in detecting new instances of PD 202. In embodiments wherein PINT 324 is related to USB interface, PMAN 312 can communicate with USB in determining if PINT 324 detected new instances of PD 202. PMAN 312 can also send/receive messages to/from instances of PD 202 using PINT 324. PMAN 312 can send/receive messages when (dis)associating with instances of PD 202. PMAN 312 can also use/update information related to gState stored in STATE 314. In one embodiment, PMAN 312 can interact with UI 322 to present a list of PD 202 instances detected by PMAN 312. In such embodiment, a user of GD 302 can select one or more instances of PD 202 using UI 126. PMAN 312 can associate with instances of PD 202 selected by the user, in such embodiments. PINT 324 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow GD 302 and/or aspects of GD 302 in communicating with other PDs. PINT 324 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. PINT 324 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. PINT 324 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 328 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. PINT 324 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 329 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. PINT 324 can be connected to antenna 328 and/or cable 329 with or without a connector. PINT 324 can be used by PMAN 312 in detecting and/or associating with instances of PDs. In one embodiment, PINT 324 can be associated with an interface related to wifi networks. TEXT 310 can store the generated tag related information in STORE 318. STI 316 can be used for storing the information in STORE 318. In some embodiments, GD 302 can be operating in a standalone mode when it is not associated with any instances of PD 202. In such mode, a user can choose to have GD 302 store the generated tag related information in STORE 318. STORE 318 can be implemented using nonvolatile storage (e.g., magnetic or optical disk, flash memory or other storage media) and can thus store tags indefinitely, regardless of whether power is continuously supplied to GD 302. As described below, in some embodiments, tag related information that a user opts to capture while GD 302 is in standalone mode can be stored in STORE 318 until such time as GD 302 is next associated with, a PD 202. At that point, PINT 324 of GD 302 can deliver the stored set of tag related information to PD 202 via NI 206. In other embodiments, GD 302 might not include non-volatile tag storage and preservation of tags may not be possible when GD 302 is operating in standalone mode. Aspects of STATE 314, SINT 316, STORE 318, TEXT 310 UI 322, PMAN 312, PINT 324, CONINT 326, content antenna 330, content cable 331, CEXT 320, RECEIVER 308 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. GD 302 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of GD 302 can be associated with a set top box that can allow for playing DVDs or storing media. Embodiments of GD 302 can also include digital video recorder (DVR), or a Tivo Premier produced by Tivo, Inc that can allow for storing media to be allowed to played back on demand as requested by a user. Other functionality associated with embodiments of GD 302 can include playing media that can be retrieved from internet. FIG. 3B illustrates a Generator Device (GD) 340, an embodiment of GD 302, for generating tag relating information according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of FIG. 3B, GD 340 includes state (STATE) 314, store interface (SINT) 316, store (STORE) 318, tag extractor (TEXT) 310, user interface (UI) 322, provider manager (PMAN) 312, communication interface (COMINT) 342, antenna 344, cable 345, content extractor (CEXT) 320, receiver 308, antenna 306 and cable 304. In some embodiments, the mechanism of communicating tag related information generated by TEXT 310, and the context extracted by CEXT 320 can use a single communication interface as illustrated by COMINT 342 of FIG. 3B. An example of such embodiment can include a CD 102 such as G1 smart phone developed by HTC, running the Android operating system. In this embodiment, the G1 phone can also include functionality associated with PD 202. G1 smart phone can communicate with GD 340 using wifi technology. Tags generated by GD 340 can be communicated to PD 202 of G1 smart phone using wifi connectivity. The content as extracted by CEXT 320 can be provided to G1 using wifi connectivity, which can be played by a media player application associated with G1 smart phone. COMINT 342 in this embodiment can be associated with wifi connectivity. Other embodiments of GD 340 are possible. Aspects of GD 340 including STATE 314, SINT 316, STORE 318, TEXT 310, UI 322, PMAN 312, CEXT 320, receiver 308, antenna 306 and cable 304 are similar to the respective aspects associated with GD 302 of FIG. 3A. COMINT 342 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow GD 340 and/or aspects of GD 340 in communicating with PDs and media content consumers. COMINT 342 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. COMINT 342 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. COMINT 342 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 344 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. COMINT 342 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 345 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. COMINT 342 can be connected to antenna 344 and/or cable 345 with or without a connector. COMINT 342 can be used by TEXT 310 in providing tag related information to instances of PD that can be associated with the GD. COMINT 342 can also be using by CEXT 320 in communicating the content to a content consumer that can include devices such as television sets, media players, media player software associated with various devices, or the like. Aspects of STATE 314, SINT 316, STORE 318, TEXT 310, UI 322, PMAN 312, CEXT 320, COMINT 342, receiver 308 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. GD 340 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of GD 340 can be associated with a set top box that can allow for playing DVDs or storing media. Embodiments of GD 340 can also include digital video recorder (DVR), or a Tivo Premier produced by Tivo, Inc that can allow for storing media to be allowed to played back on demand as requested by a user. Other functionality associated with embodiments of GD 340 can include playing media that can be retrieved from internet. FIG. 3C illustrates a Generator Device (GD) 360 for generating tags according to an embodiment of the present invention. GD 360 can be any device capable of receiving and/or processing web related content. GD 360 can be used to generate tag related information associated with web content received and/or processed by the GD. In the embodiment of FIG. 3C, GD 360 includes state (STATE) 314, store interface (SINT) 316, store (STORE) 318, tag extractor (TEXT) 363, user interface (UI) 322, provider manager (PMAN) 312, provider interface (PINT) 324, provider antenna 328, provider cable 329, network interface (NI) 366, antenna 368, cable 369, web data retriever (WRET) 364, web data extractor (WEXT) 362. Aspects of GD 360 such as STATE 314, SINT 316, STORE 318, UI 322, PMAN 312, PINT 324 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with GD 302. In the embodiment of GD 360, tag related information can be generated by GD 360 using information that can include extracting information from web content. As described earlier, tag related information can be generated automatically without user interaction or can be generated due to interaction that can involve UI 322. TEXT 363 of GD 360 can be used in generating tag related information. TEXT 363 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can enable generating tag related information using information extracted from web content. In one embodiment TEXT 363 can be implemented using a plug-in for a browser. In some embodiments, web content such as web pages including html content can associate tag related information using one or more EMBED tags. The browser plugin and EMBED tags can, in such case be associated with the same mime type. The mime type associated with EMBED tags and browser plugin in this embodiment can be tag/embed. A HTML page containing an advertisement indicating a sale, can for example include a html EMBED tag that can be associated with information specific to SaleSchedule tag. In such a case, the EMBED tag can be associated with a mime type of tag/embed, a TAGTYPE attribute with a value of ‘SaleSchedule’, an APPLICATION attribute specifying a URL where an application can be downloaded from, and, DATE, and TIME attributes that can specify the date and time of sale. In some embodiments, all information extracted from web content (such as html, java scripts, audio, video, etc.) can be made available for associating with one or more tags. In the HTML web page embodiment described earlier, information extracted from each (one or more) EMBED html tag included in the web page and associated with tag/embed mime type can be made available for associating with a tag. In some embodiments, tag related information generated by TEXT 363 can include providing information related to the web content—such as the URL from where the web content is retrieved, the time at which the web content is retrieved, or the like. CD 102 (or any other aspects of the system) can use such information in association with a service or system to determine tag related information related to web content. In some embodiments, tag related information is not included in the web content, and a service or system can be used to associate information related to web content, with tag related information of the content. An example of such a service can be a service over internet that can provide tag related information, when the service is provided with information that can include a URL, time at which web content is retrieved, or any other related information. Other methods of determining tag related information using information related to web content are possible. In other embodiments, tag related information generated by TEXT 363 can include some/all of the web content. TEXT 363 can be provided with web content by WRET 364. The functionality associated with TEXT 363 can be controlled using UI 322. For example, UI 322 can be used to disable generation of tag related information by TEXT 363 temporarily for some amount of time, or disable generation for web content related to one or more web sites, or the like. Generation of tag related information can be disabled for web content related to some websites due to interests that can include one or more of privacy, security, or the like. In embodiments where TEXT 363 can be implemented as part of a browser that can include Internet Explorer™ from Microsoft Corporation, Google Chrome™ from Google, Inc., and Mozilla Firefox™ from Mozilla Foundation, etc., aspects of UI 322 related to controlling TEXT 363 can be provided by the user interface associated with the browser. Tag related information generated by TEXT 363 can be provided to one or more instances of PD 202 that can be associated with the GD. It can be noted that while the example embodiment illustrates TEXT 363 as a plug-in associated with a browser, TEXT 363 can be implemented using other aspects in other embodiments. WRET 364 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow GD 360 in retrieving web related content, according to an embodiment of the present invention. WRET 364 can retrieve web related content from networks such as internet, intranet, or the like. WRET 364 can use NI 366 in retrieving web content. Web content retrieved by WRET can include content such as html web pages, audio content, video content, or the like. The web content retrieved by WRET can include other aspects such as Java Script, CGI scripts, or other information associated with web content. In one embodiment, WRET 364 can be implemented in a web browser such as Internet Explorer, Mozilla, Chrome, or the like. Web content can be retrieved by WRET 364 due to events that can include user interaction (such as a user typing a URL in a web browser, user clicking on a link or button associated with a web page). Web content can be retrieved by WRET 364 due to events that cannot include user interaction. Web content can be retrieved automatically due to expiry of a timer interval (such as URL redirects associated with html web pages), or due to a script (such as a perl script) retrieving web content due to events that can be specific to the embodiment. Web content retrieved by WRET can be provided to WEXT 362 and/or TEXT 363. It can be noted that while the example embodiment illustrates the association of WRET 364 with a web browser, WRET 364 can be implemented in other forms in other embodiments. For example WRET 364 can be included in accessories such as set top boxes that can allow browsing of web on a television set. WEXT 362 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow GD 360 in extracting content from data retrieved by WRET 364, in allowing the extracted content to be usable. A variation of the web page embodiment with EMBED tags illustrated earlier, can allow tag related information to be included in html pages using tags that are not recognized by web browsers. An example of such tag can be MYOWNTAG tag. In such embodiments, information included in the html web page, associated with MYOWNTAG can be removed from the web page before using the web page for presenting to the user. In this example embodiment, all MYOWNTAG tags can be removed as well, before the web page is used for processing by the browser. In the example embodiment of web browser, the web browser can use WEXT 362 to remove information that can be related to tags, before using the content for processing (such as displaying on the browser window). It can be noted that while the example embodiment illustrates the association of WEXT 362 with a web browser, WEXT 362 can be implemented in other forms in other embodiments. For example WEXT 362 can be included in accessories such as set top boxes that can allow removing of tag related information, before using the content for displaying on a television set. Network interface 366 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow GD 360 and/or aspects of GD 360 in communicating with other devices or services in a network. Network interface 366 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. Network interface 366 can also include components such as NICs, Network interface 366 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 368 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. Network interface 366 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 369 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. Network interface 366 can be connected to antenna 368 and/or cable 369 with or without a connector. Aspects of STATE 314, SINT 316, STORE 318, UI 322, PMAN 312, PINT 324, TEXT 363, WEXT 362, WRET 364, NI 366 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. Aspects of GD 360 can be implemented in different ways. In some embodiments, NI 366 and PINT 324 can be implemented using a single interface such as a wifi interface. In some embodiments, WEXT 362, WRET 364, TEXT 363, UI 322 and PMAN 312 can all be part of a browser. In such embodiments, there can be multiple browsers each associated with an instance of WEXT 362, WRET 364, TEXT 363, UI 322 and PMAN 312. In some embodiments, multiple browsers can share an instance of PMAN 312. Other embodiments are also possible. GD 340 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of GD 340 can be associated with a set top box that can allow for playing DVDs or storing media. Embodiments of GD 340 can also include digital video recorder (DVR), or a Tivo Premier produced by Tivo, Inc that can allow for storing media to be allowed to played back on demand as requested by a user. Other functionality associated with embodiments of GD 340 can include playing media that can be retrieved from internet. Content of Information/Contexts FIG. 4A-B illustrates a list of types, one of which can be associated with a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention. The type associated with tag can be used to differentiate one set of tags from other set of tags, wherein all tags in a set can be associated with same tag type. In some embodiments, the type of the tag can be used to determine the structure and content of information exchanged in the tags. In some embodiments, the type associated with tags can be used to determine the application associated with the tag. The list of types illustrated in FIG. 4A-B is illustrative only. Other embodiments can use types that are not described in FIG. 4A-B. The list of types in FIG. 4A-B are illustrative only and are not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Each tag received by a CD can be associated with a different tag type. In some embodiments, a CD can associate an application for only some tag types. The set of types that a CD can associate an application with can vary with each embodiment. The type of a tag can be represented in various forms that can include—an enumeration in “C” programming language, a string in Java programming language, an integer value, the value of an XML TYPE node, or the like Moving on, each tagType/ContextType can also be associated with one or more properties referred to as ContextClass(es) or Class(es). The ContextClass of tags illustrated in FIG. 4A-B is indicated in column titled ‘Context Class’. Various Classes of tags are possible, various examples of tags include, but are not limited to, manual tag, static tag, dynamic tag, extracted tag, derived info tag, web based tag, transaction driven tag, and social aspect tags, among others. The class of the tag is determined based on type of content carried in the tag, how the content is determined, and so on. A tagType can also be classified into multiple classes based on the nature of information carried in the tag. It should be appreciated that other classes of tags can also exist in other embodiments. For example, static class (also referred to herein as the static tag) carries information that does not change over a period of time. The information carried in the static tag can be changed by manual intervention—such as programming the GD and/or the PD. When the GD and/or the PD are programmed with new information, the static tags generated can include new information. Examples of the static tags include, but are not limited to, groceries tag, clothes tag, hospital counter tag and address info tag, from the list of tags illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. Similarly, a tagType of manual class (also referred to herein as a manual tag) includes information that has been manually provided. An example of such a tag is a dial-an-app tag wherein, the tag includes a phone number dialed by a user of a phone. In some embodiments, the dial-an-app tag is used to determine one or more applications associated with the phone number, and activate corresponding application(s) on the phone used to dial the phone number. A tagType of dynamic class (also referred to herein as a dynamic tag) includes information that changes over time. Examples of such tags include, but are not limited to, temperature, acceleration, orientation, etc. among the list of tags illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. A tagType of extracted class (also referred to herein as an extracted tag) includes information that is extracted from media content, or extracted from devices associated with media. Examples of such tags include, but are not limited to, sampleMedia, TvLiveVoting, etc. from the list of tags illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. Some of the extracted tags are also dynamic tags because the information contained in such tags can change. A tagType of derived info class (also referred to herein as a derived info tag) can include information that is generated based on processing of some information. Examples of such tags include DerivedRating tag as illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. A derived info tag can also be a dynamic tag because the information provided in such tags can change over time. A tagType of web based class (also referred to herein as a web based tag) can include information that is derived from data on the web (or traversing the internet). Information included can be content filled out by a user in a web form, a URL typed by a user, content from a web page, and so on. Examples of such tag include a WebForm tag as illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. A web based tag can also be dynamic tag because the information provided in such tags can change over time. A tagType of transaction driven class (also referred to herein as a transaction driven tag) can include information derived from a transaction being performed. Transactions include purchases, bank transactions, electronic payments, electronic reservations, order placements, bookings, etc. A transaction driven tag can also be a dynamic tag because the information provided in such tags can change over time. Example of the transaction driven tags include, but are not limited to, UserOrderinStore and Feedback tags as illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. A tagType of social aspect class (also referred to herein as a social aspect tag) can include information determined using data from social networks. Examples of such tag include DerivedRating and NearMe tags as illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. It can be noted that a given tagType can be associated with one or more classes. The set of classes described here is illustrative only, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or its embodiments. Other embodiments can have tagTypes that can be associated with classes not described herein. FIG. 5 illustrates fields included in a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention. Some fields of the tag such as provId, assocType, consumerId, type, genId, version, appLocation and autoRun can be represented using structures or forms that are same across tags of different types. The additionalInfo field associated with tag can carry information whose structure and content can be specific to the type associated with the tag. A tag can be represented in various forms that can include a struct in C programming language, class in Java, an XML document, XML node or the like. Other forms of representation are also possible. Tags can be carried in messages exchanged over networks such as the internet, intranet, peer to peer networks, or the like. Tags can be stored in transient memories such as DRAM. Tags can also be stored in a storage media such as flash, hard drive, a CDROM, or the like. Tags can be sent or included in emails. Tags can also be represented in documents—such as a HTML document, an XML document or the like. Other uses and/or representation of tags are possible in various embodiments. TRIs are generated by GDs. GDs can communicate TRIs to PDs. PDs can communicate the tags including/containing, TRIs received from GDs, to CDs. The content of TRIs can be determined by GDs using methods that are specific to each embodiment. GDs can generate TRIs due to events that are specific to each embodiment. In the embodiment described herein, GD 302 can generate TRI under various conditions, which can include the availability of data in the media received by the RX 308. With reference to FIG. 6 fields associated with information that can be included in a tag provided by PDs, and/or TRI generated by GDs. The information as represented by FIG. 6 is referred to as CoreInfo (CRI). The version field associated with CRI can be used to represent the version number associated with other fields of CRI. In some embodiments, the version field is set to 1 on an instance of CRI when the CRI instance is initialized, and is incremented when one or more fields associated with the CRI instance are changed. The appLocation field of CRI can be used to represent a URL (Uniform Resource Locator) associated with an application referred to by the CRI. The additionalInfo field associated with CRI can be used to represent information that can be specific to the embodiment. In some embodiments, a CRI generated by GD can have only the additionalInfo field changed as compared to an instance of CRI generated by the GD at an earlier point of time. The additionalInfoUrl field associated with CRI can be used to provide URL (such as a URL on internet) associated with other information that is not included in CRI. It can be noted that the structure and/or contents of CRI as represented here are illustrative and meant for use according to the embodiments illustrated here. Other embodiments can choose to include other information and/or exclude some/all of the information illustrated in FIG. 6. The structure and/or contents associated with FIG. 6 are not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 7 illustrates fields associated with a sample of media such as audio or video, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described herein, a sample of media can be represented using a list or an array of bytes. A sample of media, as described in FIG. 7 can be carried in tags for use by the CD. A sample of media can have a structure in the array of bytes. In some embodiments, the list of bytes can represent an MPEG (Moving Picture Experts Group)4 media stream. When the list of bytes represents an MPEG4 media stream, some bytes can represent the header associated with MPEG4 format, while some other bytes can represent the sample of the media as indicated by MPEG4 format. Other representations of media sample are also possible. The media sample can be a sampling of a video stream, sampling of an audio stream, or a mix of both. When different types of media can be included in the sample, additional information identifying type of sample can be included along with the sample. The structure and content of the media samples described herein are illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here, and are not meant to limit the scope of the invention and its embodiments. Other structures can be used, and other types of media can be sampled in various embodiments. FIG. 8 illustrates a list of types, one of which can be associated with an interface on which a CD can receive tags, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In embodiment of FIG. 1A, NI 106 of CD 102 can be associated with a type. In some embodiments, the type of an interface on which a CD receives a tag can be used in determining if the tag is meant for use by the CD. An interface can be a SingleDest interface or a MultiDest interface. Tags received on a SingleDest interface are associated with the CD receiving the tag. SingleDest interfaces are associated with connectivity wherein there can be only two interfaces involved in the connectivity. One of the two interfaces can be associated with a PD and the other associated with a CD. A CD receiving a tag on a SingleDest interface can use the tag for processing. MultiDest interfaces on the other hand can be used for connecting more than two devices. Connectivity among MultiDest interfaces can involve more than one interface. Example of such an interface is Ethernet. More than two interfaces can be connected to each other at any time using Ethernet interfaces by means of an Ethernet bridge, an Ethernet hub, or the like. On such MultiDest interfaces, a tag received by a device need not be meant for use by the device. The Tags in such connectivity can be associated with an identifier that identifies the recipient device. Each interface on a device can be associated with an identifier and the device can compare the identifiers of its interfaces with the identifier included in the tag to determine if the tag is meant for use by the device. Other examples of MultiDest interfaces include USB, FireWire, IEEE 1394, or the like. The examples of SingleDest and MultiDest interfaces, and the method for determining if a tag can be used by a CD described herein are illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here, and are not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Other custom interfaces and/or custom methods can be used as well in various embodiments. FIG. 9 illustrates a list of tag association types, one of which can be associated with a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention. In some embodiments, the association type associated with a tag, can be included in the tag. Tags associated with a Unicast association type can be used only by one CD that can be independent of the number of CDs receiving the tag. Tags associated with a Broadcast association type can be used by any CD that receives the tag. Tags associated with a Multicast association type on the other hand can be used by a subset of CDs receiving the tag. The set of association types associated with a tag is specific to this embodiment and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Other embodiments can define and/or use other association types not described herein. In some other embodiments, the association type can be implicit and is not included in the tag in such embodiments. FIG. 10 illustrates a list of types, one of which can be associated with a message according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described herein, the type associated with a message can be included in the message. In the embodiment described herein, some devices in the system can be associated with exchanging messages of only some types. A CD for example does not exchange messages of type GeneratedInfo, GetGeneratorInfo, GeneratorInfo, and DeleteGeneratorInfo. In some embodiments, new types can be defined that are not described herein. In some other embodiments, the type associated with a message is not included in the message. When the type associated with a message is not included in the message, the type can be determined using mechanisms implicit to the embodiment. In some embodiments, the type associated with a message can also be derived using some other fields in the message. Some embodiments can choose to use only a subset of the messages described in FIG. 10. The list of types described in FIG. 10 is illustrative only, for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 11 is a table illustrating various aspects of information that can be included in a message exchanged among various aspects (CDs, PDs and GDs), according to an embodiment of the present invention. The messages exchanged among instances of CD 102, PD 202 and GD 302 can include a subset or entirety of all fields described in FIG. 11. In some embodiments, the structure and content of “info” field of the message can be specific to the type associated with the message. A message of type ConsumerInfo can associate ConsumerInfo information illustrated in FIG. 13, with the info field, while a message of type ProviderInfo can associate ProviderInfo information illustrated in FIG. 15 with the info field. Other types can associate other information with the field. The senderContact field associated with the message can be used by a receiver of the message to respond with a different message, if needed. When the receiver of a message sends a message back to the sender, the response message can be sent to the address identified by senderContact field of the received message. The senderContact field can carry the contact information in a variety of forms. In one embodiment, the senderContact can include a combination of IP address, port number and a protocol which can be TCP or UDP. In other embodiments, an Ethernet MAC address can be used. Other embodiments can choose to use other addresses for senderContact field of the message. Other embodiments of the invention can choose to include fields in the message, not described here, or choose to exclude some or all fields illustrated in FIG. 11. Fields can be included in the message using a variety of representation mechanisms such as TLV (type-length-value) format, XML format, or the like. Other custom representations are also possible in various embodiments. FIG. 12 illustrates a list of values, one of which can be associated with an idProvider field used in some messages exchanged among aspects (GDs, PDs and CDs) according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, identifiers can be associated with the devices in the system. An identifier associated with a CD that is associated with a PD, can be determined either by the CD or the PD. The idProvider field exchanged in some messages can help determine if the PD provides the identifier for CD, or CD uses his own identifier, or that an identifier is not associated with CD in context of the PD. The determination of ID provider can be specific to the embodiment described herein. Some embodiments can choose to assign identifiers in a manner different from what is described in this embodiment. In some other embodiments, identifiers need not be used. The notion of idProvider, and the list of values described in FIG. 12 is illustrative only, for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 13 illustrates fields associated with information that can be associated with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The information associated with a CD is referred to herein as ConsumerInfo (CI). In the embodiment described herein, CI can be associated with consumerId and contact fields. The consumerId field of CI can be used to identify a CD among instances of CDs, PDs and GDs. The contact field of CI can be used to represent an address to which messages meant for the CD can be sent. The contact field can include a combination of IP address, port number and a protocol which can be TCP or UDP. In other embodiments, an Ethernet MAC address can be used. Other embodiments can choose to use other addresses for contact field of CI. Other embodiments of the invention can choose to include fields in CI, not described here, or choose to exclude some or all fields illustrated in FIG. 13. The set of fields described in FIG. 13 is illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 14 illustrates a list of fields associated with state maintained by a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The state maintained by a CD is referred to as ConsumerState (cState). cState can be stored in STATE 114 associated with CD 102. The description of each of the fields maintained in cState is described in FIG. 14. For every PD that a CD is associated with, the PD can provide a ProviderInfo (PI) to the CD. The PI provided by the PD can be maintained in provs field associated with cState, the provs field being a list of instances of PI. If a PD provides an identifier for CD, the identifier can be maintained in consumerId field of cState, the consumerId field being a list of identifiers. In the embodiment described here, the list of consumerIds and the list of provs maintained in cState are implemented using arrays as explained in programming languages such as C, Java, etc. The first numProvs elements of provs and consumerId lists are valid elements according to this embodiment of the invention. Other embodiments can choose to include fields not described herein, and/or exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 14. The list of fields described here is illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meat to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 15 illustrates fields associated with information that can be associated with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The information associated with a PD is referred to herein as ProviderInfo (PI). The description of each of the fields maintained in PI is described in FIG. 15. The PI associated with PD can maintain, among other fields, the type associated with the tags provided by PD. The PI can also maintain the association type of the tags provided by PD. The PI can also maintain the idProvider field the value of which can be used to determine if it's the PD or CD that provides an identifier for CDs associated with the PD. In one embodiment, this can be used along with mcastConsumerId to assign mcastConsumerId to CDs associated with PD. In such embodiments, the association type field of PI can be set to Multicast. The contact field of PI can be used to represent an address to which messages meant for the PD can be sent. The contact field can include a combination of IP address, port number and a protocol which can be TCP or UDP. In other embodiments, an Ethernet MAC address can be used. Other embodiments can choose to use other addresses for contact field of PI. Other embodiments of the invention can choose to include fields in PI, not described here, or choose to exclude some or all fields illustrated in FIG. 15. The set of fields and semantics associated with them as described in FIG. 15 is illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 16 illustrates fields associated with state maintained by a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The state maintained by a PD is referred to as ProviderState (pState). pState can be stored in STATE 214 associated with PD 202. The description of each of the fields maintained in pState is described in FIG. 16. In the embodiment described herein, pState can include, among others, a list of CI maintained in consumerInfo field, one for each CD that is associated with the PD. pState can also include a generatorInfo field that can be used to store the GeneratorInfo (GI) received from a GD that the PD can be associated with. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 16, while others can choose to exclude a subset or all of the fields described in FIG. 16. In embodiments wherein a PD can include aspects of GD, the generatorInfo can be implicit and/or hardcoded. In other embodiments, other fields associated with pState can be implicit. The set of fields described in FIG. 16 is illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 17 illustrates fields associated with information that can be associated with a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The information associated with a GD is referred to herein as GeneratorInfo (GI). The description of each of the fields maintained in GI is described in FIG. 17. GI can include a contact field that can specify the address wherein the GD that GI is associated with, can have messages sent to. The address specified by contact field can be represented a variety of forms. In one embodiment, the contact can include a combination of IP address, port number and a protocol which can be TCP or UDP. In other embodiments, an Ethernet MAC address can be used. Other embodiments can choose to use other addresses for contact field of GI. Some embodiments can choose to include fields in GI, not described herein. Some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 17. In embodiments wherein a PD can include some or all aspects of GD, the entire GI can be implicit and/or pre-determined. In embodiments wherein the GD associated with PD is pre-determined, the genId field associated with GI is not used. An example of such embodiment is where a PD can be associated with only one GD at any time, such as the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 2A. The set of fields described in FIG. 17 is illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 18 illustrates fields associated with state maintained by a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The state maintained by a GD is referred to as GeneratorState (gState). gState can be stored in STATE 314 associated with GD 302. The description of each of the fields maintained in gState is described in FIG. 18. In the embodiment described herein, gState can include, among others, a list of PI maintained in providerInfo field, one for each PD that is associated with the GD. The list of PI can be maintained as an array of PI. The notion of arrays is similar to the arrays as described in programming languages such as C and Java. gState can also include a gInfo field that can be used to store the GeneratorInfo (GI) that the GD can be associated with. The core field associated with gState of FIG. 18 can include some of the information included by GD when a TRI is generated by the GD. The core field of the GD can also be updated by the GD due to events that can be specific to the embodiment. In the embodiment described herein, some state associated with core can be updated by GD when a TRI is extracted from the media by tag extractor 310 associated with GD 302. In other embodiments, core can be updated due to other events. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 18, while others can choose to exclude a subset or all of the fields described in FIG. 18. In embodiments wherein a PD can include aspects of GD, the providerInfo can be implicit and/or hard coded. In other embodiments, other fields associated with pState can be implicit. The set of fields described in FIG. 18 is illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 19 illustrates fields associated with an application according to an embodiment of the present invention. One of the fields, execProgram that is associated with an application can be an executable program. The execProgram can be a sequence of bytes that can represent some instructions that can be processed or executed using a combination of a CPU and/or firmware and/or hardware. Examples of such instructions are executable on various CPUs such as Intel's Pentium, Samsung's 32-bit RISC ARM 1176JZ (F)-S, Samsung's S5PC100 ARM cortex-A8, or the like. In some embodiments, a given execProgram can be processed or executed by a variety of CPUs and/or hardware that can share a given architecture (such as ×86). In some other embodiments, the execProgram can be associated with a platform such as iOS® from Apple, Inc. that runs on iPhone, iPad, etc.; Android Operating System from Google, Inc., Windows 7, Windows Mobile, etc. from Microsoft Corp.; Linux, or the like. In some embodiments, the execProgram can be interpreted by virtual machines such as a Java Virtual Machine. In other embodiments, execProgram can be a script such as a Perl script that can be interpreted using some software. The execProgram can interact with other entities that can include components such as flash, clocks, disks, or the like. In some embodiments, the downloadWhileRunning field associated with an application as described in FIG. 19, can be used to indicate that the execProgram field associated with the application does not include an entire executable program. In such embodiments, execProgram can be used to represent only part of executable instructions. When such an execProgram is processed and/or executed, the environment responsible for processing and/or executing the execProgram can provide methods and/or mechanisms that can allow the remaining portions of execProgram to be downloaded while the execProgram is being processed and/or executed. An example of such embodiment is a java virtual machine executable set of java classes, represented using java byte code. The execProgram, in this embodiment, does not include all the classes required by the execProgram to complete processing. Java programming language environment supports ClassLoader classes that can allow execProgram to download java classes while the execProgram is processed/executed. The downloaded classes can also be executed or interpreted by the java virtual machine as part of execProgram. In some other embodiments, execProgram can include some parts that are executable or interpretable, while others are not. An example of such embodiment is a web page that can includes html content, and java script. The html content can be used for example, for some display on a browser, while the java script can be interpreted or executed. In some other embodiments, the execProgram can be provided as input to some software. An example of such embodiment is a web page that does not include any executable content. In such case, the web page can be input to a browser or some software that can display the content. In some other embodiments, the execProgram can include portions that act as firmware. The firmware in such embodiments can be used to program devices such as FPGA. The execProgram in such embodiments can also include portions that are executed, and/or portions that are provided as input to some software. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described here, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 19. The set of fields associated with an application as described in FIG. 19 and their usage is illustrative—for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 20 illustrates fields that can be determined by a GD and which can be carried in a TRI according to an embodiment of the present invention. The instance of GD described in FIG. 3A can be used to determine fields described in FIG. 20. When the TEXT 310 of GD 302 can be used to extract data from tagged media, the extracted data can be used to determine the type field of FIG. 20. In such embodiments, assocType and consumerId fields described in FIG. 20 can also be determined using information extracted from tagged media. Other information can also be determined using data extracted from tagged media. The core field associated with FIG. 20 can be used to carry other extracted information. The structure and content of core field described in FIG. 20 can be specific to the value of type field of FIG. 20. The set of fields described in FIG. 20 is referred to as MultitypeInfo (MI). One or more instances of MI information can be carried in a TRI generated by the GD. When more than one instance of MI is carried in a TRI, each instance of MI can be used for providing a tag. A PD that can receive such TRI can extract each instance of MI and use each extracted instance in providing a tag to instances of CD 102. In such embodiments, the type field associated with MI instance can be used as type of this newly determined tag provided by the PD. In some embodiments, a PD can receive the TRI containing one or more instances of MI, in a message of type GeneratedInfo. An example of an embodiment is when an advertisement associated with a tagged media track is used to determine a MI with type of SaleSchedule, followed by a TV show that can be used to determine a MI of type VotingApplication. In such cases, a TRI can be used to carry two instances of MI—one of type SaleSchedule and one of type VotingApplication. When a PD receives this TRI, it can extract the first SaleSchedule MI and use it to determine information related to a tag of type SaleSchedule before providing the tag of type SaleSchedule. The PD can then extract the VotingApplication MI and use it to determine information related to a tag of type VotingApplication before providing the tag of type VotingApplication. It can be noted that while the examples illustrate use of MI determined using data extracted from tagged media, MI determined using other means can be included in a TRI. MI can be used in TRI in other embodiments wherein a GD is capable of providing instances of data of different types (each instance of data can be an instance of MI), in which each data instance can be used to provide a tag of type based on type of MI. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described here, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 20. The set of fields associated with an MI as described in FIG. 20 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment describe here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 21 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The set of information described in FIG. 21 is referred to as DerivedInfo (DI). In the embodiment described herein, DI can be used to carry information determined by an instance of GD 302 described in FIG. 3A. The information described by DI can be used to identify media, without extracting data from tagged media. In embodiments wherein media is not tagged, an instance of DI can be used in combination with a service to determine the media identified by the DI, and any associated information. A service can maintain an association of different instances of DI to the media and any associated information represented by the respective DI and/or media. For example, given a channelName (such as “CNN News Channel”, “Discovery Main Channel”, etc.), day, time of telecast, a service can provide the media (including Name of the Program, the production company, artists, etc.) that was/is played on the channel at a given day and time. The service can be provided using a system over the internet. Other methods of providing the service are also possible. In some embodiments, an instance of DI can be associated with the ‘core’ field of an MI instance. In such case, the type field of MI can be set to DerivedMediaInfo. The instance of MI can then be carried in a TRI. A TRI can carry more than one instance of MI of type DerivedMediaInfo. Instances of DerivedMediaInfo MI can be intermixed with instances of MI of other types (such as VotingApplication, SaleSchedule, etc.) when the instances are carried in a TRI. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 21, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 21. The set of fields associated with a DI as described in FIG. 21 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment describe here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 112 illustrates fields associated with a structure of information referred to as ContextApp (CA) according to an embodiment of the present invention. The structure can be used to associate an application with a tag. The structure consists of two fields—tag and app. The tag field of CA is a tag, the structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 5. The app field can be an application. An app can be associated with a structure as indicated in FIG. 19. In some embodiments, a list or an array of instances of CA can be used to associate a set of tags—each with an application. An example of such use can be the learntAppSet. learntAppSet can be maintained in STATE 114 of CD 102 in FIG. 1A. In some embodiments, learntAppSet can be used to maintain a list of tags for which an application has been selected or determined in the past. The selection or determination can be made in an interactive or non-interactive manner. In an interactive selection, a user can select an application for a given tag when the tag is received by CD 102. When such a selection is made an association between the tag and the application can be added to learntAppSet, in some embodiments. The learntAppSet can be used in some embodiments to associate an application for a received tag, by comparing the type associated with the received tag, with the type of each CA, and using the application of the CA whose type matches the type of the received tag. In some embodiments, a list or array of instances of CA can be used to associate a set of tags—each with an application. An example of such use can be the cfgAppSet. cfgAppSet can be maintained in STORE 118 of CD 102 in FIG. 1A. In some embodiments, cfgAppSet can be used to maintain a list of tags for which an application is associated by means of configuration by user interaction or some other provisioning mechanisms. The associations can be setup by a user in an interactive manner using UI 126. One method of user interaction can involve providing tags and application information using UI 126. The associations can be stored in STORE 118 and made available for use by processes of FIG. CD 102. The set of CAs in cfgAppSet can be modified or deleted as determined using user interaction or some other provisioning mechanisms. In some embodiments, the set of CAs maintained in learntAppSet can be managed automatically without a user of CD 102 being aware of or managing associations in learntAppSet. Addition, removal or management of CAs in cfgAppSet on the other hand can require user interaction, in some embodiments. In some embodiments, the tag maintained in an instance of CA in cfgAppSet can, include only part of all the information that can be represented by/in the tag. For example, the tag in an instance of CA of cfgAppSet can have valid values only for the type field associated with the tag. Other fields associated with the tag in such embodiments are not used. Other embodiments can choose to use only some or all fields of tag, for instances of CA in cfgAppSet, in a manner not described here. Messaging Scheme Messages can be sent using a variety of mechanisms. In embodiments where in the devices are associated with IP addresses, messages can be sent using UDP datagrams with a destination IP address matching with the contact of the device to which the message is sent. The contact can also be associated with a port number that can be used as the destination port associated with UDP datagram. Other methods of sending a message are possible. Messages can be sent in various embodiments using mechanisms that can include messages over TCP, messages implemented using electrical signaling, or any other custom mechanisms. The messages allow interaction between the CD, the PD and the GD. Further, the messages also allow the method to be processed in order to provide the computing device or the CD with access to the one or more applications. In the description provided below various embodiments and steps of the method for facilitating the computing device to access a set of applications is described. The method includes a step of determining contexts associated with either or both the computing device and a user of the computing device. The context describes an environment and/or an activity of the user and/or the computing device and helps generate one or more contextual tags. The context includes a set of data that provides any information relating to the environment of the user and/or the computing device, including but not limited to conditions, background, internal features of computing device (like other applications, operating systems, sensors, components, etc.), data from those internal features, external features (like WiFi devices, physical signs, bar codes, location, some third party devices, third party systems, or the like), data from those external features (WiFi scan, signals from a satellite, signals from a device such as Bluetooth or other devices, NFC device, data over networks such as intranet/internet, or the like), data from external systems and/or services (including data provided by a service over networks such as internet/intranet), settings and situation of the user and/or the computing device. Also, the context can include a set of data that provides any information relating to the activity of the user and/or the computing device, including, interaction between the user and the computing device, interaction between the user/the computing device and a third party device (or system or service), state of the user/the computing device, internal operations of the computing device, or the like. The method also includes identifying one or more applications associated with the one or more contextual tags. The one or more applications are identified according to context based information contained in the one or more contextual tags and the one or more applications are thereafter received/accessed by the computing device. Moving on, once the contextual tag is generated in the form of any one or more of a manual tag, a dial-an-app tag, a static tag, a dynamic tag, an extracted tag, a derived info tag, a web based tag, a transaction driven tag, a social aspect tag, and other tags, then one or more applications corresponding to the contextual tag is identified. Thereafter, the computing device is enabled to access the one or more applications corresponding to the contextual tag. In some embodiments, the applications are activated simultaneously while being downloaded, whereas in other embodiments, some of the applications are automatically activated on the computing device. In yet other embodiments, the one or more applications identified corresponding to the one more contextual tags may already be present on the computing device and may be accessed from there. Further, according to the invention, the context or the contextual tag may be stored in one or more intermediate devices before the one or more applications are associated with the contextual tag. For example, the contextual tag after being generated may be stored in the providing device or the generating device, or other devices on a network like a set-top box or a router, before being transferred to the computing device. In some cases, the one or more applications are identified based on only a portion of the contextual tag and not the complete contextual tag. As discussed, there could be various types of contextual tags that are generated and there could be various ways of identifying the one or more contexts. For example, in an embodiment, a URL can be determined using at least a portion of the contextual tag and thereafter, the computing device can be enabled to access and activate an application configured to utilize/access the URL. In another scenario, the computing device can be allowed to access the one or more applications associated with a phone number being dialed by the user of the computing device. Further, according to the invention, the user is also given an option to select one or more applications. The selected applications can then be accessed and/or activated by the computing device. In further embodiments, the one or more contexts are determined when a user selects to do so manually or in other cases the determination of the one or more contexts can be scheduled to be repeated regularly after a predefined time interval. However, it should be appreciated by the people skilled in the art that other methods to determine contexts are also possible in other embodiments. In some embodiments, the invention also provides an option of cleaning up of the one or more applications from the computing device. This can be possible in case of one or more of a change in the one or more contexts is determined, or the user is found to be not interacting with an earlier activated/accessed application for a predefined time interval, or the one or more applications is inactive, or there has been a lapse of a predefined time spent during or after activating/accessing the one or more applications. Going forward, various aspects linked to method of the present invention are described for ease of understanding. In this regard, the term “processor” has been also mentioned as a “providing device” and the term “context module” has been referred to as “generating device” in some embodiments for easier description of the invention. Also, the term “one or more context” is mentioned as “context information” or “information” or alike. Similarly, the term “computing device” is also referred as “consumer device” and the term “contextual tag” and “tag” have been interchangeably used in description of the present invention. Also, the term “memory module” and “store” have been interchangeably used in description of some embodiments of the present invention. The invention also provides a computer program product that includes instructions that enables the execution of the method described as per the invention. To better summarize the method for facilitating access to a set of applications by the computing device in accordance with the present invention, some exemplary embodiments are described in the subsequent paragraphs. However, it is understood that the various methods described below are not limited to the order in which the steps are listed. Further, it will also be apparent to those ordinarily skilled in the art that the methods may include one or more additional steps for further enhancement of the effectiveness of the methods, however, are not essential to the methods, in accordance with the embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 22 illustrates the flow diagram of a process for followed in getting CI from a device associated with a contact, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can use this process to get a CI from an instance of PD 202. The process illustrated in FIG. 22 can be used by an instance of CD 102 to get CI from one or more instances of PD 202. The process of getting a CI from multiple instances can be performed in parallel, or in a serial fashion. Other methods of getting CI are possible. Instance ‘x’ associated with this process can be provided with information that can include senderContact and provContact. senderContact can be used to specify the contact associated with the sender device of the message. When an instance of CD 102 uses this process to send a message, the contact associated with CD 102 is used for senderContact. provContact can be used to specify the contact associated with a device that the message is meant to be sent to. In embodiments where an instance of CD 102 sends a message using this process to an instance of PD 202, the contact associated with the PD is used for provContact. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by processes that use the process described here and shown in FIG. 22. The process for sending a message starts in step 2202 and moves on to step 2204. At step 2204, a new message can be created. The creation of a message can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a message can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a message can involve allocating message handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the message. The message created in this step is referred to as mesg in subsequent steps of this process/flow-diagram. At step 2204, mesg.type is set o GetConsumerInfo, mesg.senderContact to x.senderContact and mesg.info to Null. The process can then move to step 2206. At step 2206, the message is sent to the contact represented by x.provContact. In embodiments where messages are sent using UDP, the datagram containing the message can be sent to the destination at this step. The process can then move to step 2208. At step 2208, the process can wait to receive a message from the device associated with x.provContact contact. In embodiments where the process associated with FIG. 22 is implemented using instructions of the computer program product executing in a UNIX OS related process, this step suggests that the UNIX process can sleep at this time, until a message is received by the UNIX process. Once a response message is received, the process can move to step 2210. At step 2210, the response message is named as mesgNew. This name is used to refer to the received message in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 2212. Step 2212 indicates mesgNew.info can be used as a CI. Embodiments/Processes that use the process of FIG. 22 to get a CI can be provided with a CI using mesgNew.info. The process can then move to step 2214. The process of getting a CI completes in step 2214. FIG. 23 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of DeleteConsumerInfo, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can use this process to send a message to an instance of PD 202. The process illustrated in FIG. 23 can be used by an instance of CD 102 to send messages to one or more instances of PD 202. The process of sending messages to multiple instances can be performed in parallel, or in a serial fashion. Other methods of sending messages are possible. Instance ‘x’ associated with this process can be provided with information that can include senderContact, provContact and consumerId. x.senderContact can be used to specify the contact associated with the sender device of the message. When an instance of CD 102 uses this process to send a message, the contact associated with CD 102 is used for x.senderContact. x.provContact can be used to specify the contact associated with a device that the message is meant to be sent to. In embodiments where an instance of CD 102 sends a message using this process to an instance of PD 202, the contact associated with the PD is used for x.provContact. x.consumerId can be used to specify an identifier associated with CD 102 when an instance of CD 102 sends the message. In some embodiments, myConsumerId field associated with cState can be associated with x.consumerId. In other embodiments, one among the list of consumerId associated with cState can be associated with x.consumerId. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by processes that use the process described here and shown in FIG. 23. The process for sending a message starts in step 2302 and moves on to step 2304. At step 2304, a new message can be created. The creation of a message can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a message can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a message can involve allocating message handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the message. The message created in this step is referred to as mesg in subsequent steps of this process/flow-diagram. At step 2304, mesg.type is set to DeleteConsumerInfo, mesg.senderContact to x.senderContact and mesg.info to x.consumerId. The process can then move to step 2306. At step 2306, the message mesg can be sent to the contact represented by x.provContact. In embodiments where messages are sent using UDP, the datagram containing the message can be sent to the destination at this step. The process can then move to step 2308. Step 2308 indicates the completion of process shown in FIG. 23. FIG. 24 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of ConsumerInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can use this process to send a message to an instance of PD 202. An instance of PD 202 can also use this process to send a message to an instance of CD 102. The message of type ConsumerInfo can also be sent in response to a message associated with type GetConsumerInfo. The process illustrated in FIG. 24 can be used by an instance of CD 102 to send messages to one or more instances of PD 202. The process can also be used by an instance of PD 202 to send messages to one or more instances of CD 102. The process of sending messages to multiple instances can be performed in parallel, or in a serial fashion. Other methods of sending messages are possible. Instance ‘x’ associated with this process can be provided with information that can include senderContact, destContact, consId and consContact. x.senderContact can be used to specify the contact associated with the sender device of the message. When an instance of CD 102 uses this process to send a message, the contact associated with CD 102 is used for x.senderContact. x.destContact can be used to specify the contact associated with a device that the message is meant to be sent to. In embodiments where an instance of CD 102 sends a message using this process to an instance of PD 202, the contact associated with the PD can be used for x.destContact. x.consId can be used to specify an identifier associated with CD 102. In embodiments where an instance of CD 102 can use this process, myConsumerId associated with cState can be associated with x.consId. In embodiments where an instance of PD 202 can use this process, pInfo.mcastConsumerId associated with pState can be associated with x.consId. x.consContact can be associated with the contact of CD 102, when CD 102 uses this process. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by processes that use the process described here and shown in FIG. 24. The process for sending a message starts in step 2402 and moves on to step 2404. At step 2404 a new instance of CI can be created. This instance can be referred to as cInfo. In some embodiments of the invention, the creation of an instance of CI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. cInfo.consumerId can be set to x.consId, and cInfo.contact can be set to x.consContact. The process can then move to step 2406. At step 2406, a new message can be created. The creation of a message can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a message can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a message can involve allocating message handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the message. The message created in this step is referred to as mesg in subsequent steps of this process/flow-diagram. At step 2406, mesg.type is set to ConsumerInfo, mesg.senderContact to x.senderContact and mesg.info to cInfo created in step 2404. In some embodiments, the setting of mesg.info to cInfo can involve copying of content associated with cInfo to mesg.Info. In some embodiments, this can involve copying of data from one location in memory to other location in memory, when memory is implemented using hardware components/devices such as RAM, DRAM, SRAM or the like. The process can then move to step 2408. At step 2408, the message mesg can be sent to the contact represented by x.destContact. In embodiments where messages are sent using UDP, the datagram containing the message can be sent to the destination at this step. The process can then move to step 2410. Step 2410 indicates the completion of process shown in FIG. 24. FIG. 25 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of ProviderInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can use this process to send a message to instances of CD 102 and/or GD 302. The message of type ProviderInfo can also be sent in response to a message associated with type GetProviderInfo. The process can also be used by an instance of PD 202 to send messages to one or more instances of CD 102 and/or GD 302. The process of sending messages to multiple instances can be performed in parallel, or in a serial fashion. Other methods of sending messages are possible. Instance ‘x’ associated with this process can be provided with information that can include senderContact, pInfo, and genContact. x.senderContact can be used to specify the contact associated with the sender device of the message. When an instance of PD 202 uses this process to send a message, the contact associated with PD 202 is used for x.senderContact. x.genContact can be used to specify the contact associated with a device that the message is meant to be sent to. In embodiments where an instance of PD 202 sends a message using this process to an instance of GD 302, the contact associated with the GD can be used for x.genContact. x.pInfo can be associated with, pInfo which is an instance of PI, associated with pState of PD 202. In some embodiments, the association of x.pInfo to pInfo associated with pState can involve copying of content associated with pState.pInfo to x.pInfo. In some embodiments, this can involve copying of data from one location in memory to other location in memory, when memory is implemented using hardware components/devices such as RAM, DRAM, SRAM or the like. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by processes that use the process described here and shown in FIG. 25. The process for sending a message starts in step 2502 and moves on to step 2504. At step 2504, a new message can be created. The creation of a message can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a message can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a message can involve allocating message handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the message. The message created in this step is referred to as mesg in subsequent steps of this process/flow-diagram. At step 2504, mesg.type is set to ProviderInfo, mesg.senderContact to x.senderContact and mesg.info to x.pInfo. In some embodiments, the setting of mesg.info to x.pInfo can involve copying of content associated with x.pInfo to mesg.Info. In some embodiments, this can involve copying of data from one location in memory to other location in memory, when memory is implemented using hardware components/devices such as RAM, DRAM, SRAM or the like. The process can then move to step 2506. At step 2506, the message mesg can be sent to the contact represented by x.genContact. In embodiments where messages are sent using UDP, the datagram containing the message can be sent to the destination at this step. The process can then move to step 2508. Step 2508 indicates the completion of process shown in FIG. 25. FIG. 26 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of DeleteProviderInfo, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can use this process to send a message to an instance of GD 302. The process illustrated in FIG. 26 can be used by an instance of PD 202 to send messages to one or more instances of GD 302. The process of sending messages to multiple instances can be performed in parallel, or in a serial fashion. Other methods of sending messages are possible. Instance ‘x’ associated with this process can be provided with information that can include senderContact, genContact and pInfo. x.senderContact can be used to specify the contact associated with the sender device of the message. When an instance of PD 202 uses this process to send a message, the contact associated with PD 202 is used for x.senderContact. x.genContact can be used to specify the contact associated with a device that the message is meant to be sent to. In embodiments where an instance of PD 202 sends a message using this process to an instance of GD 302, the contact associated with the GD is used for x.genContact. x.pInfo can be set to an instance of PI, such as pState.pInfo associated with an instance of PD 202. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by processes that use the process described here and shown in FIG. 26. The process for sending a message starts in step 2602 and moves on to step 2604. At step 2604, a new message can be created. The creation of a message can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a message can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a message can involve allocating message handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the message. The message created in this step is referred to as mesg in subsequent steps of this process/flow-diagram. At step 2604, mesg.type is set to DeleteProviderInfo, mesg.senderContact to x.senderContact and mesg.info to x.pInfo. The process can then move to step 2606. At step 2606, the message mesg can be sent to the contact represented by x.genContact. In embodiments where messages are sent using UDP, the datagram containing the message can be sent to the destination at this step. The process can then move to step 2608. Step 2608 indicates the completion of process shown in FIG. 26. FIG. 27 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of GeneratorInfo according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of GD 302 can use this process to send a message to instances of PD 202. The message of type GeneratorInfo can also be sent in response to a message associated with type GetGeneratorInfo. The process can also be used by an instance of GD 302 to send messages to one or more instances of PD 202. The process of sending messages to multiple instances can be performed in parallel, or in a serial fashion. Other methods of sending messages are possible. Instance ‘x’ associated with this process can be provided with information that can include senderContact, cInfo, gInfo and dest. x.senderContact can be used to specify the contact associated with the sender device of the message. When an instance of GD 302 uses this process to send a message, the contact associated with GD 302 can be used for x.senderContact. x.dest can be used to specify the contact associated with a device that the message is meant to be sent to. In embodiments where an instance of GD 302 sends a message using this process to an instance of PD 202, the contact associated with the PD can be used for x.dest. x.gInfo can be associated with, gState.gInfo of GD 302, which is an instance of GI. In some embodiments, the association of x.gInfo to gInfo associated with gState can involve copying of content associated with gState.gInfo to x.gInfo. In some embodiments, this can involve copying of data from one location in memory to other location in memory, when memory is implemented using hardware components/devices such as RAM, DRAM, SRAM or the like. In some embodiments, x.cInfo can be associated with gState.core of GD 302, which is an instance of CRI. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by processes that use the process described here and shown in FIG. 27. The process for sending a message starts in step 2702 and moves on to step 2704. At step 2704, a new message can be created. The creation of a message can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a message can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a message can involve allocating message handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the message. The message created in this step is referred to as mesg in subsequent steps of this process/flow-diagram. At step 2704, mesg.type is set to GeneratorInfo and mesg.senderContact to x.senderContact. x.gInfo and x.cInfo can both be associated with mesg.info. In some embodiments, this can be done using a TLV (type, length, value) structure wherein, more than one TLV can be associated with mesg.info. The type and length fields associated with a TLV structure can be 2 bytes each, in an embodiment of the invention. The first TLV can be associated with x.gInfo and second TLV with x.cInfo. A value of ‘1’ for type, the size of x.gInfo in bytes for length, and x.gInfo for value can be used for the first TLV. A value of ‘2’ for type, the size of x.cInfo in bytes for length, and x.cInfo for value can be used for the second TLV. In one embodiment wherein mesg.info can be associated with a sequence of bytes in DRAM (or other memory devices), the first TLV can be copied to mesg.info. Starting at location in memory that follows the last byte of first TLV in mesg.info, the second TLV can be copied. The first TLV followed in memory by second TLV, together can represent mesg.info. Other methods of associating x.gInfo and x.cInfo with mesg.info can be used. The association can be made in a way such that x.gInfo and x.cInfo can be extracted from mesg.info after the association is made. The extracted gInfo and cInfo are respectively same as the x.gInfo and x.cInfo that are associated with mesg.info. The process can then move to step 2706. At step 2706, the message mesg can be sent to the contact represented by x.dest. In embodiments where messages are sent using UDP, the datagram containing the message can be sent to the destination at this step. The process can then move to step 2708. Step 2708 indicates the completion of process shown in FIG. 27. FIG. 28 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed in sending a message associated with a type of DeleteGeneratorInfo, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described herein, the process illustrated in FIG. 28 can be used by an instance of GD 302 to send messages to one or more instances of PD 202. The process of sending messages to multiple instances can be performed in parallel, or in a serial fashion. Other methods of sending messages are possible. Instance ‘x’ associated with this process can be provided with information that can include senderContact, dest and gInfo. x.senderContact can be used to specify the contact associated with the sender device of the message. When an instance of GD 302 uses this process to send a message, the contact associated with GD 302 can be used for x.senderContact. x.dest can be used to specify the contact associated with a device that the message is meant to be sent to. In embodiments where an instance of GD 302 sends a message using this process to an instance of PD 202, the contact associated with the PD is used for x.dest. x.gInfo can be set to an instance of GI, such as gState.gInfo associated with an instance of GD 302. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by processes that use the process described here and shown in FIG. 28. The process for sending a message starts in step 2802 and moves on to step 2804. At step 2804, a new message can be created. The creation of a message can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a message can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a message can involve allocating message handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the message. The message created in this step is referred to as mesg in subsequent steps of this process/flow-diagram. At step 2804, mesg.type is set to DeleteGeneratorInfo, mesg.senderContact to x.senderContact and mesg.info to x.gInfo. The process can then move to step 2806. At step 2806, the message mesg can be sent to the contact represented by x.dest. In embodiments where messages are sent using UDP, the datagram containing the message can be sent to the destination at this step. The process can then move to step 2808. Step 2808 indicates the completion of process shown in FIG. 28. Operation of First Embodiment FIG. 29 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD, when a PD is selected for association with the CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, the process illustrated by FIG. 29 is followed by an instance of CD 102 in updating cState, when the CD is associated with an instance of PD 202. The process indicated in FIG. 29 can be followed after the CD is associated with a PD 202, and before the CD starts to process tags provided by the PD. The process can also be followed once for every PD 202 that the CD associates with. The process illustrated in FIG. 29 is illustrative only. Other embodiments can maintain/update state beyond what is indicated in FIG. 29. Other embodiments can also choose to perform actions or process not indicated in FIG. 29. The process associated with FIG. 29 is illustrative only, meant for use by the embodiment described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 2902 and moves to step 2904. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with fields prov and consId. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 29. In this embodiment, x.prov is an instance of PI, and x.consId indicates an identifier that can be associated with a CD. At step 2904, values associated with ‘x’ are extracted and a local copy made for use by subsequent steps of the process. A local copy rxProv is associated with the value of x.prov, and a local copy rxConsId is associated with the value of x.consId. The process can then move to step 2906. At step 2906, numProvs can be set to cState.numProvs. In the embodiment described here, numProvs can indicate the number of PDs that the CD 102 is associated with. The process can then move to step 2908. At step 2908, rxProv is added to cState.provs list, and rxConsId is added to cState.consumerId list and an association is made between rxProv in cState.provs list and rxConsId in cState.consumerId list. In the embodiment described here, this is done by setting the numProvs-th element of cState.consumerId to rxConsId and numProvs-th element of cState.provs to rxProv. The process can then move to step 2910. At step 2910, cState.numProvs is incremented to indicate that an additional element of cState.consumerId and cState.provs lists is valid. The process can then move to step 2912. Step 2912 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 29 is complete. FIG. 30 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in updating cState when the CD is disassociating with a PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 30 can be used by CD 102 in updating cState associated with the CD when the CD is disassociating with an instance of PD 202. The update of cState can include removing PI of the PD that is being disassociated, from cState.provs list. The removal of the PI from cState.provs can be accomplished by identifying the PI in cState.provs list. The identification can be accomplished by finding an element of PI in cState.provs whose provId matches the provId of the PI associated with the PD. cState.numProvs can indicate the number of elements of cState.provs array that are valid. Along with removing the PI from cState.provs, the consumerId that can be provided by the PD when the PD is associated to the CD and stored in cState.consumerId list can be removed. In other embodiments, other methods of maintaining a set of PI can be used. Mechanisms can include hash tables, linked lists or the like. The completion of process illustrated in FIG. 30 can indicate that the disassociation of CD with the PD is complete. The process starts at step 3002 and moves to step 3004. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with provId field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 30. x.provId is an identifier associated with the PD 202 instance that the CD is disassociating with. A local copy of x.provId is made in step 3004. The local copy is referred to as rxProvId for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 3006. At step 3006, numIds is set to cState.numProvs. The process then moves to step 3008. At step 3008, i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 3010. At step 3010 a check is made to determine if i is less than numIds. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 3016. If not, the process can move to step 3012. Step 3012 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 30 is complete. Returning to step 3016, a check is made to determine if the rxProvId determined in step 3004 matches the provId associated with i-th element of cState.provs. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 3018. If not, the process can move to step 3024. At step 3024, i is incremented and the process moves to step 3010. The incremented value of i can be used to access/retrieve the next element of cState.provs, if possible. Returning to step 3018, the element at index i can indicate that the PI that needs to be removed has been found in cState.provs array. The element of cState.provs at index (numIds-1) is copied to element at index i of cState.provs. Also, the element of cState.consumerId at index (numIds-1) is copied to element at index i of cState.consumerId. The process can then move to step 3020. At step 3020, cState.numProvs is decremented. This can indicate that the number of valid PI elements in cState.provs is reduced by 1. The process can then move to step 3022. Step 3022 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 30 is complete. FIG. 31 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in handling messages received by the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 31 to handle messages received by the CD. The flow diagram illustrated in FIG. 31 can be used to handle messages that are received due to reasons that cannot include responses to messages sent by the CD, in the embodiment described here. An example of such a case is messages of type GetConsumerInfo received by the CD. In some embodiments instances of PD 202 can send messages of type GetConsumerInfo to CD 102 to get CI from instances of CD 102 detected by PD 202. Other methods can include handling of messages associated with types beyond the ones illustrated in FIG. 31. Other methods of handling messages received by CD 102 can be used in other embodiments of the invention. The process starts at step 3102 and moves to step 3104. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with mesg field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 31. In one embodiment, the process associated with FIG. 31 can be used when NI 106 of CD 102 detects receipt of a message and there is no other method followed by CD 102 that is expecting to handle received message. x.mesg can refer to the message received by CD 102. At step 3104, a local copy of x.mesg is made for use by subsequent steps of the process. This local copy is referred to as ‘mesg’ in the other steps associated with this process. The process can then move to step 3106. At step 3106, a check is made to determine if the type associated with mesg is GetConsumerInfo. If the type associated with mesg is not GetConsumerInfo, the process moves to step 3110, by taking the “No” path indicated at step 3106. If the type is indeed GetConsumerInfo, the process moves to step 3108. At step 3108, a message associated with type ConsumerInfo is sent. In embodiment of the invention described here, the process associated with FIG. 24 can be used to send the message. Instance ‘x’ associated with FIG. 24 can be provided with information such that x.destContact is set to mesg.senderContact, x.senderContact is set to cState.contact, x.consId is set to cState.myConsumerId and x.consContact is set to cState.contact. Instance ‘x’ can be used by process associated with FIG. 24 to send the message. When FIG. 24 is used to send the message at step 3108, the completion of process associated with FIG. 24 can indicate that the process of FIG. 31 can move to step 3110. Step 3110 indicates the completion of process associated with FIG. 31. FIG. 32 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining PIs for PDs associated with a service identifier, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of the present invention, an instance of CD 102 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 32 to determine PIs for PDs associated with a given serviceId. The process works by determining the list of PDs associated with a given serviceId, using a service, and then determining the PI associated with each of the determined PD. Other methods of determining PI are possible. For example, the service can instead provide the PI for the PDs associated with a given serviceId. The method described in FIG. 32 is illustrative only, meant for use in one embodiment, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process illustrated in FIG. 32 starts at step 3202 and moves to step 3204. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with a serviceId field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 32. At step 3204, a local copy of x.serviceId is made. The local copy is referred to as rxServiceId for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 3206. At step 3206, a service is contacted for determining the contact of a list of PD 202 instances associated with rxServiceId. The service is provided with information that can include rxServiceId. The service can return a list (an array in this embodiment) of contacts. Each contact of the list can be associated with an instance of PD 202. The list of contacts is referred to as provContacts for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 3208. At step 3208, a list of PI is created. The creation of a list of PI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a PI can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a PI can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the PI. The list of PI created is referred to as pil for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 3210. At step 3210, an i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 3212. At step 3212 a check is made to determine if i is less than the length of provContacts determined in step 3206. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 3218. If not, the process can move to step 3214. At step 3214, the set of PIs stored in pil can be used as the result of the process associated with FIG. 32. The process can then move to step 3216. Step 3216 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 32 is complete. Returning to step 3218, a GetProviderInfo message is sent to an instance of PD 202 that is associated with contact stored in i-th element of provContacts. The process can then move to step 3220. The sending of a GetProviderInfo message to PD 202 can result in PD 202 responding with a ProviderInfo message. CD 102 waits in step 3220 for the ProviderInfo message from the PD. Once the CD receives the ProviderInfo message, the process can move to step 3222. At step 3222, the message is retrieved. The message is referred to as mesg. The process can then move to step 3224. At step 3224, the info field retrieved from mesg is added to pil. The info field of mesg can be used as an instance of PI. The process can then move to step 3226. At step 3226, i is incremented and the process moves to step 3212. FIG. 33 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in associating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, an instance of CD 102 uses the process illustrated in FIG. 33 to associate with an instance of PD 202. Each instance of CD 102 can be associated with one or more instances of PD 202. When associated with more than one PD, CD 102 can receive tags from one or all of the PDs associated with the CD. When associated with more than one instance of PD 202, CD 102 can receive messages and tags from one or all of the associated PD 202 instances on NI 106. CD 102 can send messages to one or more instances of PD 202 on NI 106. An instance of CD 102 can repeat the process illustrated in FIG. 33 once for each detected PD 202. In some other embodiments, CD 102 can be associated with more than one instance of NI 106. When an instance of CD 102 is associated with more than one instance of NI 106, instances of NI 106 can be of same or different types. For example one instance of NI 106 on an instance of CD 102 can be a wifi interface, while another instance of NI 106 on the CD can be a USB interface, and yet other instance of NI 106 on the CD can be an Ethernet interface. An instance of CD 102 can be associated with more than one instance of PD 202 such that some instances of PD 202 can be associated via one instance of NI 106, and some other instances of PD 202 can be associated via another instance of NI 106 on the CD. When a CD 102 is associated with more than one PD 202 across more than one instance of NI 106 of CD 102, the CD can be receiving tags and/or messages from some or all of the instances of PD 202 across multiple instances of NI 106. The CD 102 instance can also be sending messages to instances of PD 202 using different instances of NI 106 on CD 102. The process starts at step 3302 and moves to step 3304. At step 3304, CD 102 can identify or detect new instances of PD 202. The availability of new instances of PD 202 can be determined in ways that can be specific to the embodiment. For example in an embodiment wherein a PD can be connected to a CD using Ethernet cable, one end of which is associated with NI 206 of PD 202 and other end with NI 106 of CD 102, the presence of a PD can be determined by CD 102 when the link associated with the NI 106 of CD 102 indicates that it is connected to a neighbor device (i.e., link comes up). Another example is an embodiment wherein a CD can be configured using information associated with PD 202. CD 102 can be configured or provided with contact information associated with PD 202 using UI 126 of CD 102. The configuration event wherein the contact information associated with PD 202 is available can indicate the presence of a new PD. In other embodiments, the presence of a new PD can be detected using discovery mechanisms such as the ones used by Bluetooth technology. In yet other embodiments, the contact information associated with instances of PD 202 can be provided by a service. A service over the internet for example can provide contacts of a list of PD 202 instances. The method of communicating tags and/or messages between instances of CD 102 and PD 202 can also be specific to each embodiment. For example, tags and/or messages can be enclosed in Ethernet frames when an instance of CD 102 is connected to an instance of PD 202 using Ethernet. In yet other embodiment, tags and/or messages can also be provided using an embodiment independent mechanism. An example of such mechanism is UDP (User Datagram Protocol). When UDP is used to exchange tags and/or messages, each tag and/or message can be enclosed in a UDP datagram before sending the datagram. In some embodiments, the detection of instances of PD 202 can also be associated with determining the contact associated with the PD 202. If an instance of CD 102 is associated with an instance of PD 202 using Ethernet, the contact information of PD 202 can be provided to CD 202 in LLDP (Link Layer Discovery Protocol) messages. Other methods of determining contact associated with PD 202 instances can be used. The methods of detecting new instances of PD 202, the associated contact information of PD 202 instances, usage of multiple instances of NI 106, etc. described here are illustrative only and other methods can be used. Once CD 102 detects a new PD and determines contact associated with detected PD, the process can move to step 3306. At step 3306, PI associated with the detected PD can be determined. The method of determining PI associated with the PD can be specific to each embodiment. In one embodiment, a GetProviderInfo message can be sent by the CD to the PD using the contact information associated with the PD that is determined in step 3306. In other embodiments, other mechanisms can be used. FIG. 34-36 illustrates among other aspects, the mechanism of determining PI associated with PD in different embodiments. The process can then move to step 3308. At step 3308, the CD can associate with the PD. The association can be performed using the process illustrated in FIG. 39A-C. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 39A. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a ‘allProviders’ field. ‘x.allProviders’ indicates an array of PIs. PI determined in step 3306 can be copied to the first element of x.allProviders. The process illustrated in FIG. 33 can move to step 3310 once the process associated with FIG. 39A is complete. Step 3310 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 33 is complete. FIG. 34 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in getting PI from a PD, when the CD is connected using physical means to the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of invention an instance of PD 202 is physically connected using wires to an instance of CD 102. An example of such wiring is Ethernet. The physical wiring and associated technology can help in detecting the connection of a partner device. In Ethernet technology, this can be accomplished by a device if the link associated with the Ethernet interface on the device comes up. In other embodiments, an instance of CD 102 can be connected to an instance of PD 202 when CD 102 is “docked” to PD 202. An example of such docking can be implemented when NI 206 of PD 202 and NI 106 of CD 102 are implemented using USB such that CD 102 can be plugged into PD 202. A similar form of connectivity exists when a thumb drive is plugged into a laptop's USB port. In this embodiment, physical wires are not present, but a direct connection between PD 202 and CD 102 is established. Other methods of connecting CD 102 with PD 202 are possible. The process starts at step 3402 and moves to step 3404. At step 3404, CD 102 sends a GetProviderInfo message to the PD that the CD is connected to. The method of associating the message to the PD can be specific to each embodiment. USB for example provides a mechanism to address messages to the connected partner device. The process can then move to step 3406. The sending of a GetProviderInfo message to PD 202 can result in PD 202 responding with a ProviderInfo message. CD 102 waits in step 3406 for the ProviderInfo message from the PD. Once the CD receives the ProviderInfo message from the PD, the info field associated with the received message can be used as the PI associated with the PD. The process can then move to step 3408. Step 3408 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 34 is complete. FIG. 35 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in getting PI from a PD, when the CD is configured with information associated with the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In some embodiments, an instance of CD 102 can be provisioned with information that can include contact associated with PD 202. An example of such an embodiment is when the CD 102 and PD 202 can communicate with each other using a network such as the Internet. In such embodiments, CD 102 can be configured with an IP address and port number associated with PD 202. CD 102 can also be configured with a DNS name of PD 202, while the port number can be implicit. In such embodiments, the presence of configuration information can indicate the presence of instances of PD 202 that the CD can associate with. The method of connectivity, the configuration information that are described here are illustrative only. Other forms of connectivity and configuration are possible. In some embodiments, CD 102 can be configured with information that can contain PI of PD 202. Other methods or configurations are possible. The process starts at step 3502 and moves to step 3504. At step 3504, the CD can determine if PI associated with a PD 202 can be determined from the configured information. If the CD is provisioned with information from which PI associated with the PD can be determined, the process can move to step 3506. If not, the process can move to step 3508. At step 3506, PI associated with PD 202 can be determined from the provisioned information. The process can then move to step 3512. Returning to step 3508, CD 102 can sends a GetProviderInfo message to the PD that the CD is configured with. The configuration in this case includes the contact associated with PD 202. In embodiments wherein IP address and port number of PD 202 are included in configuration, the IP address and port number from configuration can be used for the contact of PD 202. The sending of a GetProviderInfo message to PD 202 can result in PD 202 responding with a ProviderInfo message. CD 102 waits in step 3510 for the ProviderInfo message from the PD. Once the CD receives the ProviderInfo message from PD, the info field associated with the received message can be used as the PI associated with the PD. The process can then move to step 3512. Step 3512 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 35 is complete. FIG. 36 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining the PDs and the PI associated with PDs, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described for this process, an instance of CD 102 can use a service to determine PIs associated with one or more instances of PD 202. A service can be associated with instances of CD 102 to help determine a list of PDs. An example of such a service is a service that can be provided over the internet. An instance of CD 102 can provide information that can be used by the service to determine a list of PDs that can be associated with the provided information. The service can then provide the list of determined PDs to the CD. Information related to the PDs provided in the response to a request from an instance of CD 102 can include information such as the contact information of each PD. Other information included in the list can include PI associated with each PD. Other information can be included in the response list. Information presented to the service by an instance of CD 102 can include a variety of information that can be specific to each embodiment. In one embodiment, CD 102 can provide a telephone number associated with a location or store or home or the like. that CD 102 wishes to determine the list of PD 202 instances for. The method of using telephone number to determine the list of PDs can have advantages in some embodiments. For example, a CD 102 instance can associate with PD 202 instances associated with a store, while the CD 102 is located remotely (not at the store). This can allow a method of associating with PD 202 instances at a store, by remote instances of CD 102, when the telephone number associated with the store is known to CD 102 (say by user input, or retrieved from “Contacts” list which can be maintained in STORE 118 of CD 102). The association with instances of PD 202 remotely, can help in running applications as determined using the tags provided by the instances of PD. The applications can be used to provide services to users of CD 102. In other embodiment, CD 102 can provide an identifier that can be used to identify a list of PD 202 instances. The identifier and association of the identifier to a set of instances of PD 202 can be determined using mechanisms specific to each embodiment. In one embodiment, the identifier can be a 16 digit PIN determined for use with a home. The set of PD 202 instances at the home can be associated with this 16-digit PIN, by the service. In one embodiment, this can allow for determining the list of PDs associated with a home using an identifier that is not available to instances of CD 102 unless provided explicitly. The embodiment of using telephone number to determine the list of PDs is not preferred in some cases because any instance of CD 102 that is provided with the telephone number of a home can determine the list of PDs associated with the home. Using a 16-digit PIN can be used to limit the instances of CD 102 that can determine the list of PDs associated with the home. The identifier can be provided to instances of CD 102 using a variety of methods. In one embodiment, the identifier associated with a set of PD 202 instances can be provisioned on the CD 102 instance using UI 126. In other embodiment, the identifier can be provided using Bluetooth technology. In other embodiment, the identifier can be printed on a paper using a bar-code format which can be scanned by instances of CD 102 to determine the identifier. In other embodiments, the identifier associated with a location such as a store, home, etc. can be provided on wifi network(s). The identifier can also be provided as part of mechanisms that provide an IP address, such as DHCP. The methods of determining a list of PD 202 instances as described here is illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here and is not meant to be limiting the scope of invention or any of its embodiments. Other methods of providing the identifier are possible. Other forms of services are also possible. For example a service can be provided that is not accessed over the internet. An example of such a service includes a database system on an instance of CD 102 that can store information related to a list of PD 202 instances and provide information related to a list of PD 202 instances associated with a request. Another example of a service includes a database system over an intranet. The process associated with FIG. 36 starts at step 3602 and moves to step 3604. At step 3604, an identifier associated can be determined. This determination can be specific to the embodiment. In embodiment where the identifier is provisioned using configuration information, the identifier can be retrieved from the configuration. Such configuration can be stored on STORE 118 of CD 102. This identifier is referred to as serviceId for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 3606. At step 3606, a list of PI for the PDs associated with serviceId is determined. In the embodiment described here, the CD can use the process illustrated in FIG. 32 in determining a list of PIs for a list of PDs associated with the serviceId. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a field serviceId. ‘x.serviceId’ can be set to the serviceId as determined in earlier steps of FIG. 32, for use by process of FIG. 32. The process associated with FIG. 36 can move to step 3608, once the process associated with FIG. 32 is complete. Step 3608 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 36 is complete. FIG. 37 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in selecting a list of PDs using an interactive method, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can use the method illustrated in FIG. 37 to select a list of instances of PD 202 that the CD can associate with or receive tags from. An instance of CD 102 can detect a number of instances of PD 202 that can provide tags which can be used by CD 102. In some embodiments, the list of PD 202 instances that the CD 102 can receive tags from can be restricted to a subset of all the detected PDs. The subset of PDs that the instance of CD 102 can associate with and/or process tags from can be determined in an interactive fashion as described using the process illustrated in FIG. 37. The process starts in step 3702 and moves to step 3704. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with allProviders. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 37. At step 3704, a copy of x.allProviders is made and stored in allProviders for use in subsequent steps of the process. x.allProviders and allProviders are each a list of instances of PI. Each instance of PI associated with allProviders can be associated with an instance of PD 202 detected by CD 102. The process then moves to step 3706. At step 3706, the list of PDs as indicated by allProviders can be presented on UI 126 of CD 102 using UIE 120. A user of CD 102 can select the list of PDs that the CD 102 can associate with and/or receive tags from using the UI 126. For example, a list of PDs can be provided on the UI 126 along with some information associated with each PD (that can be derived from PI associated with the PD or any other external means) to assist the user in the selection of PDs. Mechanisms such as placing most recently associated PD, most frequently used PD, etc. with a higher priority on the UI 126 can be used to help the user with selection of PDs. A user can choose to select one or more PDs that the CD can associate with/receive tags from. The user can also choose to not select any of the PDs presented on UI 126. An example wherein a user can choose to select a subset of PDs is an embodiment wherein an instance of CD 102 detects more than one instance of PD 202. Each instance of PD 202 in this case is associated with a separate instance of GD 302. Each instance of GD 302 is again associated with separate television sets. Each instance of PD 202 is therefore associated with a separate television set. Each instance of PD 202 can be provisioned with the address, location, model number, etc. related to the television set that the PD is associated with. This information can be relayed in the PI of each PD (not shown). One of the instances of PD 202 can be related to a television owned by the user of CD 102, while the other instances of PD 202 can be related to televisions associated with the user's neighbors. In this embodiment, the user can choose to associate with the instance of PD 202 that is associated with the user's television set. The decision can be made by the user, using the information provided in UI 126. In this embodiment, the information presented via UI 126 can include an address, a model number, location that are associated with the PI of each PD 202. Returning to step 3706, the user selects some or all or none of the PDs associated with the information provided via UI 126. The set of selected PDs is referred to as shortlist, for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 3708. If the process associated with FIG. 37 is used by other processes, then the shortlist as determined in step 3706 can be returned to the process that uses FIG. 37. The process in FIG. 37 can then move to step 3710. Step 3710 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 37 is complete. FIG. 38 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in selecting a list of PDs using a non-interactive method, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 38 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in selecting instances of PD 202 from a list of determined instances of PD 202, in a non-interactive manner Instances of CD 102 can detect instances of PD 202 using a variety of mechanisms that can be specific to the embodiment. Once the list of instances of PD 202 is determined, a selection can be made to determine the list of PD 202 instances that the CD 102 can choose to associate with. For example, an instance of CD 102 can choose to not associate with instances of PD 202 that can provide tags associated with type Groceries. In other embodiments, an instance of CD 102 can choose to not associate with instances of PD 202 wherein the association type of tags generated by the PD is Broadcast. In embodiments wherein a CD 102 can detect a large number of instances of PD 202, it can be convenient to have CD 102 determine the list of PD 202 instances that it can associate with, in a non-interactive manner. In other embodiments, an instance of CD 102 can be detecting instances of PD 202 when the CD 102 is mobile. For example, a mobile phone (embodiment of CD 102) can be detecting PD 202 instances as the user carrying the mobile phone is walking in a mall or in a store. In such embodiments, user can choose to have the mobile phone in a mode whereby the mobile phone can choose to associate with some PD 202 instances in a non-interactive manner. The method of making decision to choose the PD 202 instance for association, the rules for making the decision (checking the type associated with tags, in the method described here) described here, is illustrative only. Other embodiments can choose to have rules not described here or can choose to exclude some or all of the rules described here. In some other embodiments, the methods for making the decision can be different from what is described here. The methods and/or rules illustrated in FIG. 38 is illustrative only and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 3802 and moves to step 3804. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with allProviders field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 38. x.allProviders is an array of instances of PI. A local copy of x.allProviders is made in step 3804. The local copy is referred to as allProviders for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 3806. At step 3806, an array of PI is created. The array does not hold any valid instances of PI upon creation. The array is referred to as shortlist for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an array of PI instances can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a PI instance array can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a PI instance array can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the PI instance array. The process can then move to step 3808. At step 3808, an i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 3810. At step 3810, a check is made to determine if i is less than the lengths of allProviders array. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 3812. If the check fails, the process can move to step 3820. At step 3820, the shortlist can contain the PI associated with instances of PD 202 that have been chosen for association with the CD. This shortlist can be provided to any process that uses FIG. 38 to determine the instances of PD 202. The process can then move to step 3822. Step 3822 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 38 is complete. Returning to step 3812, a cType is set to the type field associated with i-th element of allProviders. The process can then move to step 3814. At step 3814, a check is made to determine if the CD can associate with the PD that is referred to by the PI stored at i-th element of allProviders. An instance of CD 102 can be configured or provided with a list of types that the CD 102 can use to determine the instances of PD 202 to associate with. If the type associated with the tag generated by a PD 202, is present in the list, the CD can choose to associate with the PD. This list can be provided to the CD via the UI 126 of CD 102. In other embodiments, the list of types can be hard coded in CD 102. In other embodiments, a configuration file stored in the STORE 118 of CD 102 can contain the list of types. The cType as determined at step 3812 can be compared with the list of types as known to CD 102 to see if cType is in the list. If cType is in the list, the process moves to step 3816. If not, the process can move to step 3818. At step 3818, i is incremented. The process can then move to step 3810. Returning to step 3816, the PI associated with i-th element of allProviders can be added to the shortlist. The process can then move to step 3818. It can be noted that at step 3814, the CD 102 has chosen to include PD 202 for association (by adding the PI to shortlist) if the type associated with tags provided by PD 202 is present in the list of types maintained by CD 102. In other embodiments, the CD can choose to not associate with a PD 202 that can provide a tag of type that is present in the list maintained by the CD. In other embodiments, each type in the list of types maintained by CD can be associated with an “accept” or “deny” value. A value of “accept” associated with a type present in the list of types maintained by CD can specify that the CD can accept association with a PD that can provide tags of this type. A value of “deny” associated with a type present in the list of types maintained by CD can specify that the CD can not accept association with a PD that can provide tags of this type. The use of types associated with tags to determine if a PD can be associated with the CD, is specific to the method illustrated here. Other methods can choose to use other mechanisms that can include one or more of, using the location of PD 202 device, using the location of CD 102 device, using the contact associated with PD 202 device, or the like. Other values that can be associated with PD 202 and/or CD 102 devices not described here can be used. Other values and/or methods and/or rules not described here can be used as well. The set of values and the methods described here are illustrative only and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 39A-C illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in associating with a list of PDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process can be used by an instance of CD 102 in associating with instances of PD 202. The instances of PD 202 can be detected by CD 102 in some embodiments. The process can be provided with a list of PI instances associated with instances of PD 202. The process can first select a set of PD 202 instances. After the selection, the CD can start associating with one instance of PD 202 followed by another, from the list of selected PD instances. In embodiments where the assocType of tag provided by an instance of PD 202 is Multicast, the identifier associated with CD 102 when it is associated with the PD (that can provide tags of association type Multicast) can be provided by the PD. In other embodiments, the CD 102 can choose the identifier for the CD 102 when it is associated with the PD. In some embodiments, the CD 102 can send a CI to the PD 202 that it is associating with. In some embodiments, the CD 102 does not send a CI to PD 202. An example of such embodiments is when the association type associated with a tag is of Broadcast. In such embodiments, instances of PD 202 can, not maintain a list of CI in pState. The method of association between CD 102 and instances of PD 202 described here is illustrative only. Other embodiments can choose to have other methods of association, and the method described here is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 3902 and moves to step 3904. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with allProviders field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 39A-C. x.allProviders is an array of instances of PI. A local copy of x.allProviders is made in step 3904. The local copy is referred to as allProviders for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 3906. At step 3906, a list of instances of PI from allProviders is selected. The selection can be done to determine the list of instances of PD 202 that the CD can associate with. The list/array of selected PIs is referred to as selectedProvs for use in subsequent steps of the process. The CD can associate with instances of PD 202 that are referred to by instances of PI in selectedProvs list. The selection can be done in a variety of ways. In some embodiments, the selection can be done in an interactive manner Information related to PD 202, extracted from allProviders can be presented to the user using UI 126. The user can select the list of PD 202 instances to associate with. In some embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 37 can be used to determine the selectedProvs list. The selection can also be done in a non-interactive manner. In some embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 38 can be used to determine the selectedProvs list. Other methods not described here can be used to determine the selectedProvs list. The process can then move to step 3908. At step 3908, numProvs is set to the number of valid PI instances in selectedProvs, and i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 3910. At step 3910, a check is made to determine if i is less than numProvs. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 3914. If the check fails, the process can move to step 3912. Step 3912 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 39 is complete. Returning to step 3914, a prov is set to i-th element of selectedProvs. The process can then move to step 3916. At step 3916, the idProvider field of prov is checked to see if it indicates Consumer. The idProvider field can be associated with one of the values described in FIG. 12. if the check succeeds, the process can move to step 3918. If the check fails, the process can move to step 3920. Step 3918 indicates that the process can move to step 3930 associated with FIG. 39B. Returning to step 3916, a value of Consumer for idProvider field of prov can indicate that the identifier for CD 102 when it is associated with the PD represented by prov, can be determined by the CD. Returning to step 3920, a check is made to determine if the idProvider field associated with prov indicates a value of Provider. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 3922. If the check fails, the process can move to step 3924. Step 3922 indicates that the process can move to step 3938 of FIG. 39C. Returning to the check of step 3920, a value of Provider for idProvider field of prov can indicate that the identifier for CD 102 when it is associated with the PD referred to by prov, is provided by the PD. This can be used in embodiments where the association type for the tag provided by the PD is Multicast. For tags of association type Multicast, a group of CD 102 instances can be identified by a single identifier. At step 3924, the CD 102 can associate with the PD 202 referred to by prov. In some embodiments, the process illustrated by FIG. 29 can be used to update cState associated with the CD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 29. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a prov field and consId field. x.prov can be set to the prov and x.consId can be set to a Null value before initiating the process of FIG. 29. The process can then move to step 3926. Step 3926 indicates that the process can move to step 3928. At step 3928, i is incremented. The process can then move to step 3910. Referring to step 3930 of FIG. 39B, step 3930 indicates that the process can move to step 3932. At step 3932, CD 102 can send a ConsumerInfo message to the PD 202 associated with prov. In some embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 24 can be used to send the message. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 24. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields destContact, senderContact, consId and consContact. x.destContact can be set to contact associated with i-th element of selectedProvs, x.senderContact can be set to cState.contact, x.consId can be set to cState.myConsumerId, and x.consContact can be set to cState.contact before the process associated with FIG. 24 can be initiated. The process can move to step 3934, after the process associated with FIG. 24 is complete. At step 3934, cState of CD 102 can then be updated. The process illustrated by FIG. 29 can be used to update cState associated with the CD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 29. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a prov field and consId field. x.prov can be set to the prov and x.consId can be set to a cState.myConsumerId value before initiating the process of FIG. 29. The process associated with FIG. 39A-C can move to step 3936, after the process associated with FIG. 29 is complete. Step 3936 indicates that the process can move to step 3926 of FIG. 39A. Referring to step 3938 of FIG. 39C, step 3938 indicates that the process can move to step 3940. At step 3940, CD 102 can get an instance of CI from the PD referred to by prov. The instance of CI provided by the PD can include information related to the identifier that the CD 102 can use for association with the PD 202. In some embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 22 can be used to request CI from the PD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 22. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with provContact and senderContact fields. x.provContact can be set to prov.contact and x.senderContact can be set to cState.contact before initiating the process illustrated in FIG. 22. The process associated with FIG. 39A-C can return to step 3942 after process associated with FIG. 22 is complete. The value returned by FIG. 22 can be referred to as cInfo. cInfo is an instance of CI. At step 3942, consId is set to cInfo.consumerId. consId is the identifier for CD 102 as provided by the PD that the CD is associating with. The process can then move to step 3944. At step 3944, cState of CD 102 can then be updated. The process illustrated by FIG. 29 can be used to update cState associated with the CD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 29. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a prov field and consId field. x.prov can be set to the prov and x.consId can be set to a consId value before initiating the process of FIG. 29. The process associated with FIG. 39A-C can move to step 3946 after the process associated with FIG. 29 is complete. Step 3946 indicates that the process can move to step 3926 of FIG. 39A. FIG. 40A-C illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in disassociating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process can be used by an instance of CD 102 in disassociating with an instance of PD 202. The disassociation can be initiated by an instance of CD 102 due to reasons that can be specific to the embodiment. In one embodiment, the disassociation can be initiated because of an event that can involve user interaction via UI 126. A user of CD 102 can request using UI 126, that CD 102 stop communicating with an instance of PD 202. This can happen in embodiments where CD 102 can be capable of presenting information on UI 126 related to instances of PD 202 that the CD is associated with. In other embodiments, an instance of CD 102 can initiate disassociation due to events that can be non-interactive in nature. An example of such event can include reaching usage limits on CD 102. For example, each instance of CD 102 can be limited in the amount of information exchanged using NI 106 on a monthly basis. This can be due to limits that can be put by a service provider. For example, the amount of data that can be downloaded by an iPhone can be limited to 2 GBytes by AT&T which provides data service to iPhone. In such embodiments, an instance of CD 102 can stop using NI 106 for exchanging messages, receiving tags, or downloading applications in context of this invention or its embodiments, when the monthly usage reaches some threshold level (say, 1.8 GB in case of the iPhone example illustrated above). Other events not described here can also result in an instance of CD 102 initiating disassociation with one or more instances of PD 202. The events that can trigger disassociation of CD 102 with an instance of PD 202 can be different from events that can trigger disassociation of the CD with other instances of PD 202. The events that trigger the association, the method of disassociation described here are illustrative only. Other embodiments can choose to use other methods not described here for disassociating with instances of PD 202. Other embodiments can also trigger disassociation due to events not described here. The method and events described here are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 4002 and moves to step 4004. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with provId field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 40A-C. x.provId is an identifier associated with instance of PD 202 that the CD chooses to disassociate with. A local copy of x.provId is made in step 4004. The local copy is referred to as provId for use in subsequent steps of the process. At step 4004, numProvs is set to cState.numProvs. The process can then move to step 4008. At step 4008, i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 4010. At step 4010, a check is made to determine if i is less than numProvs. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 4014. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4012. Step 4012 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 40 is complete. Returning to step 4014, a prov is set to i-th element of cState.provs. The process can then move to step 4048. At step 4048 a check is made to determine if the provId as determined in step 4004 is same as the provId field of prov. If the check succeeds the process can move to step 4016. If the check fails the process can move to step 4050. Step 4050 indicates that the process can move to step 4026. Returning to step 4048, the check associated with this step can be used to determine if the i-th element of cState.provs is an instance of PI that can refer to PD 202 that the CD is disassociating with. This can be determined by a matching provId. At step 4016, the idProvider field of prov is checked to see if it indicates Consumer. The idProvider field can be associated with one of the values described in FIG. 12. if the check succeeds, the process can move to step 4018. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4020. Step 4018 indicates that the process can move to step 4030 associated with FIG. 40B. Returning to step 4016, a value of Consumer for idProvider field of prov can indicate that the identifier for CD 102 when it is associated with the PD represented by prov, can be determined by the CD. Returning to step 4020, a check is made to determine if the idProvider field associated with prov indicates a value of Provider. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 4022. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4024. Step 4022 indicates that the process can move to step 4038 of FIG. 40C. Returning to the check of step 4020, a value of Provider for idProvider field of prov can indicate that the identifier for CD 102 when it is associated with the PD referred to by prov, is provided by the PD. This can be used in embodiments where the association type for the tag provided by the PD is Multicast. For tags of association type Multicast, a group of CD 102 instances can be identified by a single identifier. At step 4024, the CD 102 can disassociate with the PD 202 referred to by prov. In some embodiments, the process illustrated by FIG. 30 can be used to update cState associated with the CD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 30. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a provId field. x.provId can be set to the prov.provId before initiating the process of FIG. 30. The process can then move to step 4026 after the process associated with FIG. 30 is complete. Step 4026 indicates that the process can move to step 4028. At step 4028, i is incremented. The process can then move to step 4010. Referring to step 4030 of FIG. 40B, step 4030 indicates that the process can move to step 4032. At step 4032, CD 102 can send a DeleteConsumerInfo message to the PD 202 associated with prov. In some embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 23 can be used to send the message. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 23. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields provContact, consumerId, and senderContact. x.provContact can be set to contact associated with prov, x.senderContact can be set to cState.contact, x.consumerId can be set to cState.myConsumerId before the process associated with FIG. 23 can be initiated. The process can move to step 4034, after the process associated with FIG. 23 is complete. At step 4034, cState of CD 102 can then be updated. The process illustrated by FIG. 30 can be used to update cState associated with the CD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 30. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a provId field. x.provId can be set to the prov.provId before initiating the process of FIG. 30. The process associated with FIG. 40A-C can move to step 4036, after the process associated with FIG. 30 is complete. Step 4036 indicates that the process can move to step 4026 of FIG. 40A. Referring to step 4038 of FIG. 40C, step 4038 indicates that the process can move to step 4040. At step 4040, CD 102 can send a DeleteConsumerInfo message to the PD 202 associated with prov. In some embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 23 can be used to send the message. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 23. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields provContact, consumerId, and senderContact. x.provContact can be set to contact associated with prov, x.senderContact can be set to cState.contact, x.consumerId can be set to i-th element of cState.consumerId array, before the process associated with FIG. 23 can be initiated. The process can move to step 4044, after the process associated with FIG. 23 is complete. At step 4044, cState of CD 102 can then be updated. The process illustrated by FIG. 30 can be used to update cState associated with the CD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 30. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a provId field. x.provId can be set to the prov.provId before initiating the process of FIG. 30. The process associated with FIG. 40A-C can move to step 4046 after the process associated with FIG. 30 is complete. Step 4046 indicates that the process can move to step 4026 of FIG. 40A. FIG. 41 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in initializing part of the state (ProviderState—pState) maintained by the PD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can use the process described in FIG. 41 to initialize some of pState maintained by the PD, when PD 202 associates with an instance of GD 302. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 41 can be used after PD 202 chooses to associate with a GD 302, and before PD starts processing the tags generated by the GD. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can be associated with only one GD 302 at any time. pState associated with PD 202 can be stored in STATE 214 of PD 202. Other embodiments can maintain/update state beyond what is indicated in FIG. 41. Other embodiments can also choose to perform actions or process not indicated in FIG. 41. The process associated with FIG. 41 is illustrative only, meant for use by the embodiment described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 41 to initialize part of pState, in combination with an instance of GD 302 that can use the process illustrated in FIG. 59 to initialize part of gState associated with the GD. In the embodiment described here, a yet another method of initializing part of state associated with pState and/or gState can be used. An instance of PD 202 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 42 to initialize part of pState, in combination with an instance of GD 302 that can use the process illustrated in FIG. 60 to initialize part of gState associated with the GD. The process illustrated in FIG. 41 starts at step 4102 and moves to step 4104. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with fields gInfo and coreInfo. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 41. x.gInfo can be associated with an instance of GI, while x.coreInfo can be associated with an instance of CRI. At step 4104, a local copy of x.gInfo is made, and the local copy is referred to as rxGenInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4106. At step 4106, a local copy of x.coreInfo is made, and the local copy is referred to as rxCoreInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process then moves to step 4108. At step 4108, an instance of PI is created. The creation of an instance of PI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a PI can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a PI can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the PI. The instance of PI created is referred to as pInfo. The process can then move to step 4110. At step 4110, pInfo.provId is set to ipAddrPortProvId. pInfo.provId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of PD 202 among all PDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, pInfo.provId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with PD 202. An ipAddrPortProvId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortProvId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine pInfo.provId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. At step 4110, pInfo.type can be set to a type associated with the tags that PD 202 can provide to instances of CD 102. In the embodiment described here, pInfo.type is set to MultiType at step 4110. In an embodiment wherein PD 202 is constructed to provide tags of only a given type, the pInfo.type can be set to that type. An example of such embodiment is a PD that always provides tags of type Groceries. In such embodiments, pInfo.type can be set to Groceries. pInfo.type can be set to different values based on the embodiment. In other embodiments, the tag provided by the PD 202 can be programmable. In such case, the type determined based on programmed values can be used to determine pInfo.type. The methods of determining the type described here is illustrative only. Other methods of determining the type of tags provided by PD 202 are possible. At step 4110, pInfo.assocType can be set to one of the values related to association type as illustrated in FIG. 9. In the embodiment described here, pInfo.assocType can be set to Broadcast. In other embodiments other values of association type can be used to set pInfo.assocType. At step 4110, pInfo.idProvider can be set to one of the values related to ID provider as illustrated in FIG. 12. In the embodiment described here, pInfo.idProvider can be set to None. At step 4110, pInfo.contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the PD that is associated with the pInfo. In the embodiment described here, pInfo.contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the PD uses to communicate messages with instances of CD 102 and GD 302. At step 4110, pInfo.genId can be set to rxGenInfo.genId. pInfo.genId is an identifier that can be associated with GD 302 that the instance of GI rxGenInfo is associated with. The process can then move to step 4112. At step 4112, pInfo.mcastConsumerId can be set to the mcastConsumerId associated with the embodiment. In the embodiment described here, mcastConsumerId is Null. pInfo.mcastConsumerId can be used in embodiment wherein pInfo.assocType can be set to Multicast. The process can then move to step 4114. At step 4114, pState.pInfo is set to pInfo determined in earlier steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4116. At step 4116, pState.core is set to rxCoreInfo. The process can then move to step 4118. At step 4118, pState.generatorInfo is set to rxGenInfo. pState.numInfo is set to 0, which can indicate that the PD is not associated with any instances of CD 102, while the PD is at step 4118. The process can then move to step 4120. Step 4120 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 41 is complete. FIG. 42 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in initializing part of the state (ProviderState—pState) maintained by the PD according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can use the process described in FIG. 42 to initialize some of pState maintained by the PD, when PD 202 associates with an instance of GD 302. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 42 can be used after PD 202 chooses to associate with a GD 302, and before PD starts processing the tags generated by the GD. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can be associated with only one GD 302 at any time. pState associated with PD 202 can be stored in STATE 214 of PD 202. Other embodiments can maintain/update state beyond what is indicated in FIG. 42. Other embodiments can also choose to perform actions or process not indicated in FIG. 42. The process associated with FIG. 42 is illustrative only, meant for use by the embodiment described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 42 to initialize part of pState, in combination with an instance of GD 302 that can use the process illustrated in FIG. 132 to initialize part of gState associated with the GD. The process illustrated in FIG. 42 starts at step 4202 and moves to step 4204. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with fields gInfo and coreInfo. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 42. x.gInfo can be associated with an instance of GI, while x.coreInfo can be associated with an instance of CRI. At step 4204, a local copy of x.gInfo is made, and the local copy is referred to as rxGenInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4206. At step 4206, a local copy of x.coreInfo is made, and the local copy is referred to as rxCoreInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process then moves to step 4208. At step 4208, an instance of PI is created. The creation of an instance of PI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a PI can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a PI can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the PI. The instance of PI created is referred to as pInfo. The process can then move to step 4210. The process associated with FIG. 42 differs from process associated with FIG. 41 in that some of the values used to initialize part of pState can be determined using rxGenInfo in process associated with FIG. 42. The values used to initialize pInfo.type, pInfo.assocType, pInfo.idProvider and pInfo.mcastConsumerId can be determined using values associated with rxGenInfo, in the process of FIG. 42. The values for these fields in process of FIG. 41 are determined without using the values from rxGenInfo (Compare steps 4110/4112 with steps 4210/4212). At step 4210, pInfo.genId is set to rxGenInfo.genId, pInfo.type to rxGenInfo.type, pInfo.assocType to rxGenInfo.assocType, pInfo.idProvider to rxGenInfo.idProvider, and pInfo.mcastConsumerId to rxGenInfo.mcastConsumerId. In some embodiments, the method of determining values for pState using values provided by GI can help in PD associating with more than one class of GD 302 devices. For example, a PD 202 using the process of FIG. 42 can be used to associate with an instance of GD 302 that can provide tags of type MultiType. The same PD can also be used to associate with an instance of GD 302 that can provide tags of type Feedback. Other advantages are also possible. The process can then move to step 4212. At step 4212, pInfo.provId is set to ipAddrPortProvId. pInfo.provId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of PD 202 among all PDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, pInfo.provId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with PD 202. An ipAddrPortProvId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortProvId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine pInfo.provId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. At step 4212, pInfo.contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the PD that is associated with the pInfo. In the embodiment described here, pInfo.contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the PD uses to communicate messages with instances of CD 102 and GD 302. The process can then move to step 4214. At step 4214, pState.pInfo is set to pInfo determined in earlier steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4216. At step 4216, pState.core is set to rxCoreInfo. The process can then move to step 4218. At step 4218, pState.generatorInfo is set to rxGenInfo. pState.numInfo is set to 0, which can indicate that the PD is not associated with any instances of CD 102, while the PD is at step 4218. The process can then move to step 4220. Step 4220 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 42 is complete. FIG. 43 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in associating with a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, an instance of PD 202 uses the process illustrated in FIG. 43 to associate with an instance of GD 302. PD 202 can send messages to the instance of GD 302 on NI 206. PD 202 can start processing tags generated by GD 302 after PD is associated with the GD. In some other embodiments, PD 202 can be associated with more than one instance of NI 206. When an instance of PD 202 is associated with more than one instance of NI 206, instances of NI 206 can be of same or different types. For example one instance of NI 206 on an instance of PD 202 can be a wifi interface, while another instance of NI 206 on the PD can be a USB interface, and yet other instance of NI 206 on the PD can be an Ethernet interface. An instance of PD 202 can be associated with more than one instance of GD 302 such that some instances of GD 302 can be associated via one instance of NI 206, and some other instances of GD 302 can be associated via another instance of NI 206 on the PD. When a PD 202 is associated with more than one GD 302 across more than one instance of NI 206 of PD 202, the PD can be receiving tags and/or messages from some or all of the instances of GD 302 across multiple instances of NI 206. The PD 202 instance can also be sending messages to instances of GD 302 using different instances of NI 206 on PD 202. The process starts at step 4302 and moves to step 4304. At step 4304, PD 202 can identify or detect new instances of GD 302. The availability of new instances of GD 302 can be determined in ways that can be specific to the embodiment. For example in an embodiment wherein a GD can be connected to a PD using Ethernet cable, one end of which is associated with PINT 324 of GD 302 and other end with NI 206 of PD 202, the presence of a GD can be determined by PD 202 when the link associated with the NI 206 of PD 202 indicates that it is connected to a neighbor device (i.e., link comes up). Another example is an embodiment wherein a PD can be configured using information associated with GD 302. PD 202 can be configured or provided with contact information associated with GD 302 using UI 126 of PD 202. The configuration event wherein the contact information associated with GD 302 is available can indicate the presence of a new GD. In other embodiments, the presence of a new GD can be detected using discovery mechanisms such as the ones used by Bluetooth technology. In yet other embodiments, the contact information associated with instances of GD 302 can be provided by a service. A service over the internet for example can provide contacts of a list of GD 302 instances. The method of communicating tags and/or messages between instances of PD 202 and GD 302 can also be specific to each embodiment. For example, tags and/or messages can be enclosed in Ethernet frames when an instance of PD 202 is connected to an instance of GD 302 using Ethernet. In yet other embodiment, tags and/or messages can also be provided using an embodiment independent mechanism. An example of such mechanism is UDP (User Datagram Protocol). When UDP is used to exchange tags and/or messages, each tag and/or message can be enclosed in a UDP datagram before sending the datagram. In some embodiments, the detection of instances of GD 302 can also be associated with determining the contact associated with the GD 302. If an instance of PD 202 is associated with an instance of GD 302 using Ethernet, the contact information of GD 302 can be provided to PD 302 in LLDP (Link Layer Discovery Protocol) messages. Other methods of determining contact associated with GD 302 instances can be used. The methods of detecting new instances of GD 302, the associated contact information of GD 302 instances, usage of multiple instances of NI 206, etc. described here are illustrative only and other methods can be used. Once PD 202 detects a new GD and determines contact associated with detected GD, the process can move to step 4306. At step 4306, a pInfo is set to pState.pInfo. The process can then move to step 4308. At step 4308, message of type GeneratorInfo sent by the GD can be processed by the PD. The method used in receiving the message from GD can be specific to the embodiment. The embodiments illustrated in FIG. 44-47 illustrate some example methods. Other methods can be used in receiving a message from GD. A message of type GeneratorInfo can include a GI and a CI, in the embodiment described here. The message received by the GD is referred to as mesg for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4310. At step 4310, GI from mesg.info is retrieved. The retrieved GI is referred to as genInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4312. At step 3212, CI from mesg.info is retrieved. The retrieved CI is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4314. At step 4314, the PD can associate with the GD that sent the mesg. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the PD can use the method illustrated in FIG. 57 in associating with the GD. genInfo and cInfo retrieved in earlier steps can be provided to the process of FIG. 57 using instance ‘x’. The process can then move to step 4316. At step 4316, the PD can send a message of type ProviderInfo to the GD that the PD is associating with. The message can be sent to the GD at the address specified by genInfo.contact. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process associated with FIG. 25 can be used to send the message. genInfo.contact, pState.pInfo and pInfo.contact can be provided to the process of FIG. 25 via instance ‘x’. The PD can start receiving information related to tags generated by the GD once the PD has sent the message. The process can then move to step 4318. Step 4318 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 43 is complete. FIG. 44 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting message of type GeneratorInfo from a GD, when the PD is connected using physical means to the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of invention an instance of GD 302 is physically connected (say using a cable) to an instance of PD 202. An example of such wiring is Ethernet. The physical wiring and associated technology can help in detecting the connection of a partner device. In Ethernet technology, this can be accomplished by a device if the link associated with the Ethernet interface on the device comes up. In other embodiments, an instance of PD 202 can be connected to an instance of GD 302 when PD 202 is “docked” to GD 302. An example of such docking can be implemented when PINT 324 of GD 302 and NI 206 of PD 202 are implemented using USB such that PD 202 can be plugged into GD 302. A similar form of connectivity exists when a thumb drive is plugged into a laptop's USB port. In this embodiment, physical wires are not present, but a direct connection between GD 302 and PD 202 is established. Other methods of connecting PD 202 with GD 302 are possible. The process starts at step 4402 and moves to step 4404. At step 4404, PD 202 sends a GetGeneratorInfo message to the GD that the PD is connected to. The method of associating the message to the GD can be specific to each embodiment. USB for example provides a mechanism to address messages to the connected partner device. The process can then move to step 4406. The sending of a GetGeneratorInfo message to GD 302 can result in GD 302 responding with a message of type GeneratorInfo. PD 202 waits in step 4406 for the GeneratorInfo message from the GD. Once the PD receives the GeneratorInfo message, the process can then move to step 4408. Step 4408 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 44 is complete. In some embodiments, a PD associating with a GD using the process of FIG. 43 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 44 as part of step 4308 for getting the message of type GeneratorInfo from GD 302. Once the process associated with FIG. 44 is complete, the process can then move to step 4308, and continue with the process of FIG. 43. FIG. 45 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting message of type GeneratorInfo from a GD, when the PD is configured with information associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In some embodiments, an instance of PD 202 can be provisioned with information that can include contact associated with GD 302. An example of such an embodiment is when the PD 202 and GD 302 can communicate with each other using a network such as the Internet. In such embodiments, PD 202 can be configured with an IP address and port number associated with GD 302. In some other embodiments, PD 202 can be configured with a DNS name of GD 302, and the port number can be implicit. In such embodiments, the presence of configuration information can indicate the presence of instances of GD 302 that the PD can associate with. The method of connectivity, the configuration information that are described here are illustrative only. Other forms of connectivity and configuration are possible. The process starts at step 4502 and moves to step 4504. At step 4504, the PD can determine contact associated with GD 302 from the provisioned information. In some embodiments, this can include retrieving configuration (provisioned) information from STORE 218 associated with PD 202, and parsing the configuration to extract and/or determine the contact from the configuration. In embodiments wherein IP address and port number of GD 302 are included in configuration, the IP address and port number from configuration can be used for the contact of GD 302. The process can then move to step 4506. At step 4506, the PD can send a message of type GetGeneratorInfo to GD 302 using the contact determined in step 4504. The sending of a GetGeneratorInfo message to GD 302 can result in GD 302 responding with a GeneratorInfo message. PD 202 waits in step 4508 for the GeneratorInfo message from the GD. Once the PD receives the GeneratorInfo message from GD, the process can then move to step 4510. Step 4510 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 45 is complete. In some embodiments, a PD associating with a GD using the process of FIG. 43 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 45 as part of step 4308 for getting the message of type GeneratorInfo from GD 302. Once the process associated with FIG. 45 is complete, the process can then move to step 4308, and continue with the process of FIG. 43. FIG. 46 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in retrieving a message of type GeneratorInfo, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described for this process, an instance of PD 202 can use a service to get message of type GeneratorInfo associated with an instance of GD 302. A service can be associated with instances of PD 202 to help retrieve messages of type GeneratorInfo. An example of such a service is a service that can be provided over the internet. An instance of PD 202 can provide information that can be used by the service to determine GeneratorInfo message that can be associated with the provided information. The service can then provide the message to the PD. Other information can be included in the response sent by the service. In one embodiment, PD 202 can provide an identifier that can be used by a service to determine a message of type GeneratorInfo that can be associated with an instance of GD 302. The service can send the message (that can be associated with the GD) in response, to the PD. The identifier and association of the identifier to an instance of GD 302 can be determined using mechanisms specific to each embodiment. In one embodiment, the identifier can be one among a list of 16 digit PINs determined for use with a home. An instance of GD 302 at the home can be associated with the 16-digit PIN, by the service. In one embodiment, this can allow for determining a GD associated with a home using an identifier that is not available to instances of PD 202 unless provided explicitly. The identifier can be provided to instances of PD 202 using a variety of methods. In one embodiment, the identifier associated with an instance of GD 302 can be provisioned on the PD 202 instance using UI 226. In other embodiment, the identifier can be provided using Bluetooth technology. In other embodiment, the identifier can be printed on a paper using a bar-code format which can be scanned by instances of PD 202 to determine the identifier. In other embodiments, the identifiers associated with a location such as a store, home, etc. can be provided on wifi network(s). The identifier can also be provided as part of mechanisms that provide an IP address, such as DHCP. The methods of determining the identifiers as described here is illustrative, for use in the embodiment described here and is not meant to be limiting the scope of invention or any of its embodiments. Other methods of providing the identifier are possible. Other forms of services are also possible. For example a service can be provided that is not accessed over the internet. An example of a service includes a service over an intranet. The process associated with FIG. 46 starts at step 4602 and moves to step 4604. At step 4604, an identifier can be determined. This determination can be specific to the embodiment. In embodiment where the identifier is provisioned using configuration information, the identifier can be retrieved from the configuration. Such configuration can be stored on STORE 218 of PD 202. This identifier is referred to as serviceId for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4606. At step 4606, the PD can provide the serviceId determined in step 4604, to the service. The provisioning of a serviceId to a service can result in service responding with a GeneratorInfo message. PD 202 waits in step 4606 for the GeneratorInfo message from the service. Once the PD receives the GeneratorInfo message from service, the process can then move to step 4608. Step 4608 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 46 is complete. In some embodiments, a PD associating with a GD using the process of FIG. 43 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 46 as part of step 4308 for getting the message of type GeneratorInfo. Once the process associated with FIG. 46 is complete, the process can then move to step 4308, and continue with the process of FIG. 43. FIG. 47 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting message of type GeneratorInfo from a GD, when the PD discovers the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. An example of such embodiment is when PINT 324 of GD 302 and NI 206 of PD 302 can include support for Bluetooth connectivity. PD 202 can detect GD 302 using mechanisms provided by Bluetooth technology. The process starts at step 4702 and moves to step 4704. The GD, at step 4704 can send a GetGeneratorInfo message to the GD that has been discovered using Bluetooth. The sending of a GetGeneratorInfo message to GD 302 can result in GD 302 responding with a GeneratorInfo message. The PD can then move to step 4706. PD 202 waits in step 4706 for the GeneratorInfo message from the GD. Once the PD receives the GeneratorInfo message from GD, the process can move to step 4708. Step 4708 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 47 is complete. In some embodiments, a PD associating with a GD using the process of FIG. 43 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 47 as part of step 4308 for getting the message of type GeneratorInfo. Once the process associated with FIG. 47 is complete, the process can then move to step 4308, and continue with the process of FIG. 43. FIG. 48A-D illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a PD in handling messages received by the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of the present invention, the process associated with FIG. 48A-D can be used by an instance of PD 202 in handling messages received by the PD. The messages handled by the PD as illustrated in FIG. 48A-D can be related to messages exchanged between the PD and an instance of CD 102 and/or GD 302. The flow diagram illustrated in FIG. 48A-D can be used to handle messages that are received due to reasons that cannot include responses to messages sent by the PD, in the embodiment described here. Other methods can include handling of messages associated with types beyond the ones illustrated in FIG. 48A-D. Other methods of handling messages received by PD 202 can be used in other embodiments of the invention. The process starts at step 4802 and moves to step 4804. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with mesg field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 48A-D. In one embodiment, the process associated with FIG. 48A-D can be used when NI 206 of PD 202 detects receipt of a message and there is no other method followed by PD 202 that is expecting to handle received message. x.mesg can refer to the message received by PD 202. At step 4804, a local copy of x.mesg is made for use by subsequent steps of the process. This local copy is referred to as ‘mesg’ in the other steps associated with this process. At step 4804, a local copy of pState.pInfo is also made. This local copy is referred to as pInfo for use by subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4806. At step 4806, a check is made to determine if the type associated with mesg is GetConsumerInfo. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4810. If the check passes, the process can move to step 4808. Step 4808 indicates that the process can move to step 4828 of FIG. 48B. An instance of PD 202 can receive a message of type GetConsumerInfo from an instance of CD 102 that is requesting the PD provide a CI. This can happen in embodiments where the association type of tag provided by the PD is Multicast. Returning to step 4810, a check is made at this step to determine of mesg.type is ConsumerInfo. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4816. If the check passes, the process can move to step 4812. An instance of PD 202 can receive a ConsumerInfo message from an instance of CD 102 that is associating with the PD. At step 4812, the PD can associate with the CD that sent the message by updating pState of the PD 202. The process illustrated by FIG. 54 can be used to update pState associated with the PD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 54. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a consumer field that is an instance of CI. x.consumer can be set to the mesg.info before initiating the process of FIG. 54. The process associated with FIG. 48A-D can move to step 4814 after the process associated with FIG. 54 is complete. Step 4814 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D is complete. At step 4816, a check is made to determine if the type associated with mesg is DeleteConsumerInfo. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4820. If the check passes, the process can move to step 4818. Step 4818 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D can move to step 4838 of FIG. 48C. In the embodiment of the invention described here, a message of type DeleteConsumerInfo can be sent by an instance of CD 102 to a PD 202 that the CD is associated with. The CD can send the message when it is disassociating with the PD. Returning to step 4820, a check is made at this step to determine if the type associated with mesg is GetProviderInfo. If the check passes, the process can move to step 4822. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4824. Step 4824 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D can move to step 4846 of FIG. 48D. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 and/or GD 302 can send a message of type GetProviderInfo. The message can be sent by an instance of CD 102 during association with the PD. The message can be sent by an instance of GD 302 during association with the PD. At step 4822, PD 202 can send a ProviderInfo message to the CD or GD that sent the message. The process associated with FIG. 25 can be used to send a ProviderInfo message. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 25. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields genContact, pInfo and senderContact. x.genContact can be set to mesg.senderContact, x.pInfo to pState.pInfo and x.senderContact to pInfo.contact before using the process associated with FIG. 25. Step 4822 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D moves to step 4826, after the process associated with FIG. 25 is complete. Step 4826 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D is complete. Referring to step 4828, the step indicates that the process can move to step 4830. At step 4830 a ConsumerInfo message is sent as response to the GetConsumerInfo message. In one embodiment of the invention the process associated with FIG. 24 can be used to send the message. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 24. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields destContact, senderContact, consId and consContact. x.destContact can be set to mesg.senderContact, x.senderContact can be set to pInfo.contact, x.consId can be set to pInfo.mcastConsumerId, and x.consContact can be set to IpAddrNull (which can be 0 in some embodiments) before the process associated with FIG. 24 can be initiated. The process can move to step 4832, after the process associated with FIG. 24 is complete. At step 4832, an instance of CI is created. The creation of an CI instance can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a CI instance can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a CI instance can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the CI instance. The created CI instance is referred to as cInfo. At step 4832, cInfo.consumerId is set to pInfo.mcastConsumerId and cInfo.contact is set to mesg.senderContact. The process can then move to step 4834. At step 4834, the PD can complete association with the CD that sent the message. The process illustrated by FIG. 54 can be used to update pState associated with the PD. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 54. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a consumer field that is an instance of CI. x.consumer can be set to the cInfo (created in step 4832) before initiating the process of FIG. 54. The process associated with FIG. 48A-D can move to step 4836 after the process associated with FIG. 54 is complete. Step 4836 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D is complete. Returning to step 4838, the step indicates that the process can move to step 4840. At step 4840 an instance of CI is created. The instance is referred to as cInfo3 for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of a CI instance can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a CI instance can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a CI instance can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the CI instance. At step 4840, cInfo.consumerId is set to mesg.info and cInfo.contact is set to mesg.senderContact. The process can then move to step 4842 At step 4842, the PD can complete disassociation with the CD that sent the message. In one embodiment, the process associated with FIG. 55 can be used to update pState that can help complete the disassociation. Instance ‘x’ can be prepared with field cInfo for use by the process of FIG. 55. x.cInfo is set to cInfo3 determined in step 4840 before process of FIG. 55 is initiated. The process associated with FIG. 48C can move to step 4844 after the process associated with FIG. 55 is complete. Step 4844 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D is complete. Step 4846 of the process indicates that the process can move to step 4848. At step 4848, a check is made to determine if mesg.type is GeneratedInfo. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4852. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 4850. In some embodiments, a message associated with type GeneratedInfo can be sent by the GD 302 that the PD is associated with. A message of type GeneratedInfo can include information related to a tag that can be generated by the GD. At step 4850, mesg can be processed. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process associated with FIG. 86 can be used to process mesg. Instance ‘x’ can be prepared with field mesg for use by the process of FIG. 86. x.mesg is set to mesg determined in step 4804 before process of FIG. 86 is initiated. The process associated with FIG. 48D can move to step 4856 after the process associated with FIG. 86 is complete. Step 4856 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D is complete. In other embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 85 can be used at step 4850 in processing mesg. Other methods of processing mesg (at step 4850) can be used in different embodiments. Returning to step 4852, a check is made at this step to determine if mesg.type is GeneratorInfo. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 4858. If the check fails, the process can move to step 4854. Step 4854 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D is complete. A message of type GeneratorInfo can be sent by an instance of GD 302 that is associating with the PD. The mesg.info associated with a message of type GeneratorInfo can include an instance of GI and an instance of CRI as illustrated by the process associated with FIG. 27. In embodiments where TLV structures can be used to include an instance of GI and an instance of CRI in mesg.info, the two instances can be determined using mesg.info. In the embodiment as described in FIG. 27, some first sequence of bytes from mesg.info can be used for the firstTlv. The value field associated with first TLV (that is of firstTlv.length bytes, into offset of 4 bytes of mesg.info) can be used as an instance of GI. The sequence of bytes that start after (firstTlv.length+4) bytes into mesg.info can be used to represent the second TLV. The length field associated with first tlv (firstTlv.length) can represent the size of GI instance in bytes. The type and length fields can each be 2 bytes long. The second TLV can be used to determine an instance of CRI. The value field associated with the second TLV can represent an instance of CRI. The secondTlv.length set of bytes into offset (firstTlv.length+4+4) of mesg.info can be used as an instance of CRI. Step 4858 indicates that the instance of GI can be extracted from mesg.info. The extracted instance is referred to as gInfo for use by subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4860. Step 4860 indicates that the instance of CRI can be extracted from mesg.info. The extracted instance is referred to as cInfo for use by subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 4862. At step 4862, the PD can begin the process of completing association with the GD that sent the message. This can include updates to pState. In some embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 57 can be used. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields genInfo and cInfo. x.cInfo is set to cInfo determined in step 4860, and x.genInfo is set to gInfo determined in step 4858 before process of FIG. 57 is initiated. The process associated with FIG. 48D can move to step 4864 after the process associated with FIG. 57 is complete. Step 4864 indicates that the PD can send a message of type ProviderInfo to the GD that sent the message. The process associated with FIG. 25 can be used to send a ProviderInfo message. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 25. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields genContact, pInfo and senderContact. x.genContact can be set to mesg.senderContact, x.pInfo to pState.pInfo and x.senderContact to pInfo.contact before using the process associated with FIG. 25. Step 4864 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D moves to step 4866, after the process associated with FIG. 25 is complete. Step 4866 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 48A-D is complete. The completion of sending a message of type ProviderInfo at step 4864 can indicate that the PD is associated to the GD that sent mesg. FIG. 49 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in associating with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The process associated with FIG. 39A-C illustrates methods of association between instances of CD 102 and instances of PD 202 that involves CD initiating association by requesting ProviderInfo message from PD 202 and providing/requesting ConsumerInfo message to/from PD 202 without PD requesting for ConsumerInfo message. FIG. 49 illustrates another method of association of a CD 102 to an instance of PD 202 wherein the CD does not send/request a ConsumerInfo message automatically upon receipt of a ProviderInfo message. The process starts at step 4902 and moves to step 4904. At step 4904, PD 202 can identify or detect new instances of CD 102. The availability of new instances of CD 102 can be determined in ways that can be specific to the embodiment. For example in an embodiment wherein a CD can be associated to a PD using Ethernet cable one end of which is associated with NI 106 of CD 102 and other end with NI 206 of PD 202, the presence of a CD can be determined by PD 202 when the link associated with the NI 206 of PD 202 indicates that it is connected to a neighbor device (i.e., link comes up). Another example is an embodiment wherein a PD can be configured with information associated with CD 102. PD 202 can be configured or provided with contact information associated with CD 102 using UI 226 of PD 202. The configuration event wherein the contact information associated with CD 102 is available to PD 202 can indicate the presence of a new CD. In other embodiments, the presence of a new CD can be detected using discovery mechanisms such as the ones used by Bluetooth technology. The methods of detecting new instances of CD 102 described here are illustrative only and other methods of detecting instances of CD 102 can be used. Once PD 202 detects a new CD, the process can move to step 4906. At step 4906, CI associated with the detected CD can be determined. The method of determining CI associated with CD can be specific to each embodiment. As illustrated in the process of FIG. 39A-C, a GetConsumerInfo message can be sent to the CD. In other embodiments, other mechanisms can be used. FIG. 50-52 illustrates among other aspects, the mechanism of determining CI associated with CD in different embodiments. The process can then move to step 4908. At step 4908, the PD can associate with the CD. The association can be performed using the process illustrated in FIG. 54. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 54. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a ‘cInfo’ field. ‘x.cInfo’ can be set to the CI determined in step 4906. The process illustrated in FIG. 49 can move to step 4910 once the process associated with FIG. 54 is complete. Step 4910 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 49 is complete. FIG. 50 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting CI from a CD, when the PD is connected using physical means to the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of invention an instance of CD 102 is physically connected using wires to an instance of PD 202. An example of such wiring is Ethernet. The physical wiring and associated technology can help in detecting the connection of a partner device. In Ethernet technology, this can be accomplished by a device if the link associated with the Ethernet interface on the device comes up. In other embodiments, an instance of PD 202 can be connected to an instance of CD 102 when PD 202 is “docked” to CD 102. An example of such docking can be implemented when NI 106 of CD 102 and NI 206 of PD 202 are implemented using USB such that PD 202 can be plugged into CD 102. A similar form of connectivity exists when a thumb drive is plugged into a laptop's USB port. In this embodiment, physical wires are not present, but a direct connection between CD 102 and PD 202 is established. Other methods of associating PD 202 with CD 102 are possible. The process starts at step 5002 and moves to step 5004. At step 5004, PD 202 sends a GetConsumerInfo message to the CD that the PD is connected to. The method of associating the message to the CD can be specific to each embodiment. USB for example provides a mechanism to address messages to the connected partner device. The process can then move to step 5006. The sending of a GetConsumerInfo message to CD 102 can result in CD 102 responding with a ConsumerInfo message. PD 202 waits in step 5006 for the ConsumerInfo message from the CD. Once the PD receives the ConsumerInfo message from CD, the info field associated with the received message can be used as the CI associated with the CD. The process can then move to step 5008. Step 5008 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 50 is complete. FIG. 51 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting CI from a CD, when the PD is configured with information associated with the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In some embodiments, an instance of PD 202 can be provisioned with information that can include contact associated with an instance of CD 102. An example of such an embodiment is when the PD 202 and CD 102 can communicate with each other using a network such as the Internet. In such embodiments, PD 202 can be configured with an IP address and port number associated with CD 102. PD 202 can also be configured with a DNS name of CD 102, while the port number can be implicit. In such embodiments, the presence of configuration information can indicate the presence of instances of CD 102 that the PD can associate with. The method of connectivity, the configuration information that are described here are illustrative only. Other forms of connectivity and configuration are possible. In some embodiments, PD 202 can be configured with information that can contain CI of CD 102. Other methods or configurations are possible. The process starts at step 5102 and moves to step 5104. At step 5104, the PD can determine if CI associated with a CD 102 can be determined from the configured information. If the PD is provisioned with information from which CI associated with the CD can be determined, the process can move to step 5106. If not, the process can move to step 5108. At step 5106, CI associated with CD 102 can be determined from the provisioned information. The process can then move to step 5112. Returning to step 5108, PD 202 can send a GetConsumerInfo message to the CD that the PD is configured with. The configuration in this case includes the contact associated with CD 102. In embodiments wherein IP address and port number of CD 102 are included in configuration, the IP address and port number from configuration can be used for the contact of CD 102. The sending of a GetConsumerInfo message to CD 102 can result in CD 102 responding with a ConsumerInfo message. PD 202 waits in step 5110 for the ConsumerInfo message from the CD. Once the PD receives the ConsumerInfo message from CD, the info field associated with the received message can be used as the CI associated with the CD. The process can then move to step 5112. Step 5112 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 51 is complete. FIG. 52 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in getting CI from a CD, when the PD discovers the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. An example of such embodiment is when NI 206 of PD 202 and NI 106 of CD 102 can include support for Bluetooth connectivity. PD 202 can detect CD 102 using mechanisms provided by Bluetooth technology. The process starts at step 5202 and moves to step 5204. The PD, at step 5204 can send a GetConsumerInfo message to the CD that has been discovered using Bluetooth. The sending of a GetConsumerInfo message to CD 102 can result in CD 102 responding with a ConsumerInfo message. PD 202 waits in step 5206 for the ConsumerInfo message from the CD. Once the PD receives the ConsumerInfo message from CD, the info field associated with the received message can be used as the CI associated with the CD. The process can then move to step 5208. Step 5208 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 52 is complete. FIG. 53 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in disassociating with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The process associated with FIG. 53 can be used by an instance of PD 202 in disassociating with an instance of CD 102. The process associated with FIG. 53 can be used by the PD when the association setup between CD 102 and PD 202 is not terminated using messages sent by CD 102. This can happen for example, when the communication media associated with sending messages is faulty or if the media no longer exists. If the communication media for association between an instance of CD 102 and PD 202 is a cable that is plugged into both CD 102 and PD 202, the method illustrated in FIG. 53 can be used when the cable is unplugged from PD 202. The method can also be used if the PD 202 can determine that the cable indicates a faulty or unusable status, after the association between CD 102 and PD 202 is complete. The disassociation can also happen due to other reasons, in various embodiments. The process starts at step 5302 and moves to step 5304. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with field cInfo. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 53. x.cInfo is instance of CI related to CD 102 that the PD chose to disassociate with. x.cInfo can be one of the values maintained in pState.consumerInfo list. A local copy of x.cInfo is made for use by subsequent steps of the process. The local copy is referred to as cInfo. The process then moves to step 5306. At step 5306, the PD can initiate disassociation. The process associated with FIG. 55 can be used for disassociation. Instance ‘x’ can be prepared with field cInfo for use by the process of FIG. 55. x.cInfo is set to cInfo determined in step 5304 before process of FIG. 55 is initiated. The process associated with FIG. 53 can move to step 5308 after the process of FIG. 55 is complete. Step 5308 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 53 is complete. FIG. 54 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in updating pState when the PD is associated with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, an instance of PD 202 can use this process to update a list of CI that is maintained in pState associated with the PD. This process can be used by the PD when the PD is associated with an instance of CD 102. Instance ‘x’ associated with this process can be provided with consInfo. x.consInfo is an instance of CI. The process starts at step 5402 and moves to step 5404. At step 5404, a local copy of x.consInfo is made. This local copy is referred to as rxConsInfo in the process shown in FIG. 54. The process then moves to step 5406. At step 5406, the number of instances of CI maintained by the PD can be determined. The number of instances of CI maintained can be represented using pState.numInfo A copy of pState.numInfo is made in step 5406. The copy of pState.numInfo is referred to as numInfo in the process shown in FIG. 54. In the embodiment described here, the PD maintains a list of instances of CI in pState.consumerInfo. In the embodiment where pState can be represented using the “struct” aspect of C programming language, pState.consumerInfo is an array of instances of CI. Other methods of maintaining a list of CI in pState can be used. The process can then move to step 5408. At step 5408, rxConsInfo determined in step 5404 can be added to pState.consumerInfo. In embodiments as in the one described here, where pState.consumerInfo is an array of CI, rxConsInfo can be stored at index numInfo of pState.consumerInfo list. The process can then move to step 5410. At step 5410, pState.numInfo can be incremented to indicate that the number of elements maintained in pState.consumerInfo is increased by 1. In the embodiment described here, pState.consumerInfo array maintains a list of instances of CI. The first pState.numInfo instances of CI maintained in pState.consumerInfo are the list of valid CI instances maintained by the PD. Instances of CI beyond pState.numInfo index of pState.consumerInfo are considered unused elements. New instances of CI can be placed in unused elements of pState.consumerInfo. The process can then move to step 5412. Step 5412 indicates the completion of process illustrated by FIG. 54. FIG. 55 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in updating pState when the PD is disassociating with a CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 55 can be used by PD 202 in updating pState associated with the PD when the PD is disassociating with an instance of CD 102. The update of pState can include removing CI of the CD that is being disassociated from pState.consumerInfo list. The removal of the CI from pState.consumerInfo can be accomplished by identifying the CI in pState.consumerInfo list. The identification can be accomplished by finding an element of CI in pState.consumerInfo whose consumerId matches the consumerId of the CI associated with the CD. pState.numInfo can indicate the number of elements of pState.consumerInfo array that are valid. In other embodiments, other methods of maintaining a set of CI can be used. Mechanisms can include hash tables, linked lists or the like. The completion of process illustrated in FIG. 55 can indicate that the disassociation of CD with the PD is complete. The process starts at step 5502 and moves to step 5504. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with consInfo field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 55. x.consInfo is an instance of CI. A local copy of x.consInfo is made in step 5504. The local copy is referred to as rxConsInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 5506. At step 5506, numIds is set to pState.numInfo. The process then moves to step 5508. At step 5508, i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 5510. At step 5510 a check is made to determine if i is less than numIds. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 5514. If not, the process can move to step 5512. Step 5512 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 55 is complete. Returning to step 5514, i-th element of pState.consumerInfo is retrieved and csInfo is set to the retrieved CI. The process can then move to step 5516. At step 5516, a check is made to determine if the consumerId associated with rxConsInfo matches the consumerId associated with csInfo. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 5518. If not, the process can move to step 5524. At step 5524, i is incremented and the process moves to step 5510. The incremented value of i can be used to access/retrieve the next element of pState.consumerInfo, if possible. Returning to step 5518, the element at index i can indicate that the CI that needs to be removed has been found in pState.consumerInfo array. The element of pState.consumerInfo at index (numIds-1) is copied to element at index i. The process can then move to step 5520. At step 5520, pState.numInfo is decremented. This can indicate that the number of valid CI elements in pState.consumerInfo is reduced by 1. The process can then move to step 5522. Step 5522 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 55 is complete. FIG. 57 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD during association with a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the present invention, an instance of PD 202 follows the process illustrated in FIG. 57 in updating pState when the PD is associating with an instance of GD 302. The process starts at step 5702 and moves to step 5704. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with fields genInfo and cInfo. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 57. x.genInfo can be associated with an instance of GI, while x.cInfo can be associated with an instance of CRI. At step 5704, a local copy of x.genInfo is made, and the local copy is referred to as rxGenInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. At step 5704, a local copy of x.cInfo is made, and the local copy is referred to as rxCInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process then moves to step 5706. At step 5706, the PD can initialize part of the pState. In the embodiment described here, PD 202 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 42. Field gInfo of instance ‘x’ is associated with rxGenInfo and field coreInfo of instance ‘x’ is associated with rxCInfo for providing instance ‘x’ to the process of FIG. 42. The process associated with FIG. 57 moves to step 5708 after the process of FIG. 42 completes. At step 5708, pState.generatorInfo is set to rxGenInfo. The process can then move to step 5710. Step 5710 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 57 is complete. FIG. 58 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in disassociating with a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202 can use the process described in FIG. 58 in disassociating with an instance of GD 302 that the PD is associated with. The instance of PD 202 can no longer process the tags generated by the GD once the disassociation is complete. The process starts in step 5802 and moves to step 5804. At step 5804, PD 202 can send a DeleteProviderInfo message to the instance of GD 302 that the PD chooses to disassociate with. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 26 can be used to send the message. Instance ‘x’ can be prepared for providing to the process of FIG. 26. In preparation of instance ‘x’, x.genContact can be set to pState.generatorInfo.contact, x.pInfo to pState.pInfo and x.senderContact to pState.contact. The process associated with FIG. 58 moves to step 5806 after the process associated with FIG. 26 completes. At step 5806, pState.generatorInfo can be set to NULL that can indicate that pState.generatorInfo is not valid any longer. The process can then move to step 5808. Step 5808 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 58 is complete. FIG. 59 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of state (gState) maintained by GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, the process illustrated in FIG. 59 can be used to initialize part of gState maintained by GD 302. In the embodiment described here, gState can be maintained by GD 302 in STATE 314. The process illustrated by FIG. 59 can be performed by an instance of GD 302 before the GD can associate with instances of PD 202. The process illustrated in FIG. 59 can be used in association with a PD 202 that can use process of FIG. 41 to initialize part of pState. The process associated with FIG. 59 can be used by GD that does not determine some values associated with GI such as mcastConsumerId, assocType, and idProvider. In such embodiments, the PD 202 can determine mcastConsumerId, assocType and idProvider for pState as described in FIG. 41 and related description. The process illustrated in FIG. 59 is illustrative, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Other embodiments can choose to not initialize additional fields associated with gState, or can choose to initialize only gState.core. Other embodiments can choose to initialize the gState of GD 302 and/or pState of PD 202 in ways not described here. The process starts at step 5902 and moves to step 5904. At step 5904, an instance of GI is created. The created GI is referred to as gInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 5906. At step 5906, an instance of CRI is created. The created CRI is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of GI and/or CRI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a GI and/or CRI can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a GI and/or CRI can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the GI and/or CRI. The process can then move to step 5908. At step 5908, some fields associated with gInfo are set to Null and some other fields are initialized to some values. The fields initialized to Null include gInfo.mcastConsumerId, gInfo.assocType and gInfo.idProvider. At step 5908, gInfo.genId is set to ipAddrPortGenId. gInfo.genId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of GD 302 among all GDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, gInfo.genId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with GD 302. An ipAddrPortGenId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortGenId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine gInfo.genId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. At step 5908, gInfo.contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the GD that is associated with the gInfo. In the embodiment described here, gInfo.contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the GD uses to communicate messages with instances of PD 202. At step 5908, gInfo.type can be set to a type associated with the tags that GD 302 can generate. In an embodiment wherein GD 302 is constructed to provide tags of only a given type, the gInfo.type can be set to that type. An example of such embodiment is a GD that always provides tags of type Groceries. In such embodiments, gInfo.type can be set to Groceries. gInfo.type can be set to different values based on the embodiment. In other embodiments, the tag provided by the GD 302 can be programmable. In such case, the type determined based on programmed values can be used to determine gInfo.type. The methods of determining the type described here is illustrative only. Other methods of determining the type of tags provided by GD 302 are possible. The process can then move to step 5910. At step 5910, fields associated with cInfo are initialized. Field cInfo.version is set to 1. Field cInfo.appLocation is set to an appLocation that can be specific to the embodiment. Field cInfo.additionalInfoUrl is set to a URL that can be specific to the embodiment. Field cInfo.additionalInfo is set to additionalInfo that can be specific to the embodiment. cInfo can be used to determine values in tags when tags are generated by the GD, and values associated with initializing cInfo can vary based on the embodiment in which the GD is used. While the GD is active (and/or generating tags), the values associated with cInfo can be static and not changing, determined using a programmed value, can be determined from sensors, extracted from media, determined using some software and/or hardware processing, determined using a system that involves transactions, or the like. Various embodiments have different methods of initializing cInfo. The method of determining these values for various embodiments will become obvious by examining the methods associated with different embodiments described in FIG. 132, FIG. 103-107, FIG. 121, and FIG. 126. The method described here in FIG. 59 can be extended to other embodiments where embodiment specific values can be used. The process can then move to step 5912. At step 5912, gState.gInfo is set to gInfo, gState.core is set to cInfo and gState.numInfo is set to 0. The value of 0 for gState.numInfo is used to indicate that the GD is not yet associated with any instances of PD 202. The process can then move to step 5914. Step 5914 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 59 is complete. FIG. 60 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of state (gState) maintained by GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, the process illustrated in FIG. 60 can be used to initialize part of gState maintained by GD 302. In the embodiment described here, gState can be maintained by GD 302 in STATE 314. The process illustrated by FIG. 60 can be performed by an instance of GD 302 before the GD can associate with instances of PD 202. The process illustrated in FIG. 60 can be used in association with a PD 202 that can use process of FIG. 42 to initialize part of pState. The process associated with FIG. 60 can be used by GD that can determine values of mcastConsumerId, assocType and idProvider associated with GI. This is in contrast to the process illustrated in FIG. 59 wherein these values are not determined by the GD. The process illustrated in FIG. 60 is illustrative, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Other embodiments can choose to initialize the gState of GD 302 and/or pState of PD 202 in ways not described here. A variation and/or embodiment of the process described by FIG. 60 is illustrated by FIG. 132. The embodiment described here uses the process described in FIG. 132 for initializing part of gState maintained by the GD. FIG. 132 can be used by GD 302 for initialization in embodiments where PD 202 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 42 for initializing part of pState associated with the PD. The process starts at step 6002 and moves to step 6004. At step 6004, an instance of GI is created. The created GI is referred to as gInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 6006. At step 6006, an instance of CRI is created. The created CRI is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of GI and/or CRI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a GI and/or CRI can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a GI and/or CRI can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the GI and/or CRI. The process can then move to step 6008. At step 6008, some fields associated with gInfo are initialized. At step 6008, gInfo.genId is set to ipAddrPortGenId. gInfo.genId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of GD 302 among all GDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, gInfo.genId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with GD 302. An ipAddrPortGenId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortGenId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine gInfo.genId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. At step 6008, gInfo.contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the GD that is associated with the gInfo. In the embodiment described here, gInfo.contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the GD uses to communicate messages with instances of PD 202. At step 6008, gInfo.type can be set to a type associated with the tags that GD 302 can generate. In an embodiment wherein GD 302 is constructed to provide tags of only a given type, the gInfo.type can be set to that type. An example of such embodiment is a GD that always provides tags of type Groceries. In such embodiments, gInfo.type can be set to Groceries. gInfo.type can be set to different values based on the embodiment. In other embodiments, the tag provided by the GD 302 can be programmable. In such case, the type determined based on programmed values can be used to determine gInfo.type. The methods of determining the type described here is illustrative only. Other methods of determining the type of tags provided by GD 302 are possible. The process can then move to step 6010. At step 6008, other fields associated with gInfo such as mcastConsumerId, assocType and idProvider are initialized. The values associated with these fields are embodiment specific. The method of determining these values for various embodiments will become obvious by examining the methods associated with different embodiments described in FIG. 132, FIG. 103-107, FIG. 121, and FIG. 126. The method described here in FIG. 60 can be extended to other embodiments where embodiment specific values can be used. At step 6010, fields associated with cInfo are initialized. Field cInfo.version is set to 1. Field cInfo.appLocation is set to an appLocation that can be specific to the embodiment. Field cInfo.additionalInfoUrl is set to a URL that can be specific to the embodiment. Field cInfo.additionalInfo is set to additionalInfo that can be specific to the embodiment. cInfo can be used to determine values in tags when tags are generated by the GD, and values associated with initializing cInfo can vary based on the embodiment in which the GD is used. While the GD is active (and/or generating tags), the values associated with cInfo can be static and not changing, determined using a programmed value, can be determined from sensors, extracted from media, determined using some software and/or hardware processing, determined using a system that involves transactions, or the like. Various embodiments have different methods of initializing cInfo. The method of determining these values for various embodiments will become obvious by examining the methods associated with different embodiments described in FIG. 132, FIG. 103-107, FIG. 121, and FIG. 126. The method described here in FIG. 60 can be extended to other embodiments where embodiment specific values can be used. The process can then move to step 6012. At step 6012, gState.gInfo is set to gInfo, gState.core is set to cInfo and gState.numInfo is set to 0. The value of 0 for gState.numInfo is used to indicate that the GD is not yet associated with any instances of PD 202. The process can then move to step 6014. Step 6014 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 60 is complete. FIG. 61 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in handling messages received by the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of GD 302 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 61 to handle messages received by the GD. The flow diagram illustrated in FIG. 61 can be used to handle messages that are received due to reasons that cannot include responses to messages sent by the GD, in the embodiment described here. Other methods can include handling of messages associated with types beyond the ones illustrated in FIG. 61. Other methods of handling messages received by GD 302 can be used in other embodiments of the invention. The process starts at step 6102 and moves to step 6104. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with mesg field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 61. In one embodiment, the process associated with FIG. 61 can be used when PINT 328 of GD 302 detects receipt of a message and there is no other method followed by GD 302 that is expecting to handle received message. x.mesg can refer to the message received by GD 302. At step 6104, a local copy of x.mesg is made for use by subsequent steps of the process. This local copy is referred to as ‘mesg’ in the other steps associated with this process. At step 6104, a local copy of gState.gInfo is also made. This local copy is referred to as gInfo for use by subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 6106. At step 6106, a check is made to determine if the type associated with message is ProviderInfo. If the type is ProviderInfo, the process moves to step 6108. If not, the process moves to step 6112. At step 6108, the GD can associate with the PD that sent the message that is being processed. The process associated with FIG. 62 can be used for the association. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 62. The instance ‘x’ can be associated with a field ‘prov’. x.prov can be set to the content of mesg.info, for use by process of FIG. 62. The process associated with FIG. 61 can move to step 6110 after the process associated with FIG. 62 is complete. Step 6110 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 61 is complete. At step 6112, a check is made to determine if the type associated with message is DeleteProviderInfo. If the type is DeleteProviderInfo, the process moves to step 6114. If not, the process moves to step 6118. At step 6114, the GD can disassociate with the PD that sent the message that is being processed. The process associated with FIG. 63 can be used for disassociation. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 63. The instance ‘x’ can be associated with a field ‘pInfo’. x.pInfo can be set to the content of mesg.info, for use by process of FIG. 63. The process associated with FIG. 61 can move to step 6116 after the process associated with FIG. 63 is complete. Step 6116 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 61 is complete. At step 6118, a check is made to determine if the type associated with message is GetGeneratorInfo. If the type is GetGeneratorInfo, the process moves to step 6120. If not, the process moves to step 6124. Step 6124 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 61 is complete. Returning to step 6120, the GD can send GeneratorInfo message to the sender of the message that is being processed. According to one aspect of the embodiment, a GetGeneratorInfo message can be sent by an instance of PD 202 that is in the process of associating with an embodiment of GD 302. The process associated with FIG. 27 can be used for sending the message. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 27. The instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields dest, gInfo, coreInfo and senderContact. x.dest can be set to mesg.senderContact, x.gInfo can be set to gState.gInfo, x.coreInfo can be set to gState.core and x.senderContact can be set to gInfo.contact for use by process of FIG. 27. The process associated with FIG. 61 can move to step 6122 after the process associated with FIG. 27 is complete. Step 6122 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 61 is complete. FIG. 62 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in updating gState when the GD is associating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 62 can be used by GD 302 in updating gState associated with the GD. The update of gState can include adding PI of the PD that is being associated, to gState.providerInfo list. gState.numInfo can indicate the number of elements of gState.providerInfo array that are valid. In other embodiments, other methods of maintaining a set of PI can be used. Mechanisms can include hash tables, linked lists or the like. The completion of process illustrated in FIG. 62 can indicate that the association of PD to the GD is complete. The process starts at step 6202 and moves to step 6204. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with provInfo field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 62. x.provInfo is an instance of PI. A local copy of x.provInfo is made in step 6204. The local copy is referred to as rxProvInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 6206. At step 6206, numInfo is set to gState.numInfo. The process then moves to step 6208. At step 6208, rxProvInfo is added to gState.providerInfo. rxProvInfo is added by copying rxProvInfo to numInfo-th element of gState.providerInfo array. The process then moves to step 6210. At step 6210, gState.numInfo is incremented. This can indicate that an additional element of gState.providerInfo is valid. The process then moves to step 6212. Step 6212 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 62 is complete. FIG. 63 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in updating gState when the GD is disassociating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 63 can be used by GD 302 in updating gState associated with the GD when the GD is disassociating with an instance of PD 202. The update of gState can include removing PI of the PD that is being disassociated from gState.providerInfo list. The removal of the PI from gState.providerInfo can be accomplished by identifying the PI in gState.providerInfo list. The identification can be accomplished by finding an element of PI in gState.providerInfo whose provId matches the provId of the PI associated with the PD. gState.numInfo can indicate the number of elements of gState.providerInfo array that are valid. In other embodiments, other methods of maintaining a set of PI can be used. Mechanisms can include hash tables, linked lists or the like. The completion of process illustrated in FIG. 63 can indicate that the disassociation of PD with the GD is complete. The process starts at step 6302 and moves to step 6304. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with provInfo field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 63. x.provInfo is an instance of PI. A local copy of x.provInfo is made in step 6304. The local copy is referred to as rxProvInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 6306. At step 6306, numIds is set to gState.numInfo. The process then moves to step 6308. At step 6308, i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 6310. At step 6310 a check is made to determine if i is less than numIds. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 6314. If not, the process can move to step 6312. Step 6312 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 63 is complete. Returning to step 6314, i-th element of gState.providerInfo is retrieved and csInfo is set to the retrieved PI. The process can then move to step 6316. At step 6316, a check is made to determine if the provId associated with rxProvInfo matches the provId associated with csInfo. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 6318. If not, the process can move to step 6324. At step 6324, i is incremented and the process moves to step 6310. The incremented value of i can be used to access/retrieve the next element of gState.providerInfo, if possible. Returning to step 6318, the element at index i can indicate that the PI that needs to be removed has been found in gState.providerInfo array. The element of gState.providerInfo at index (numIds-1) is copied to element at index i. The process can then move to step 6320. At step 6320, gState.numInfo is decremented. This can indicate that the number of valid PI elements in gState.providerInfo is reduced by 1. The process can then move to step 6322. Step 6322 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 63 is complete. FIG. 64 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in associating with a PD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The first embodiment of the invention illustrated methods of association between instances of PD 202 and instances of GD 302 that involves PD initiating association by requesting GeneratorInfo message from GD 302 and providing ProviderInfo message to GD 302 without GD requesting for ProviderInfo message. FIG. 64 illustrates a method of association of a PD 202 to an instance of GD 302 wherein the PD does not send a ProviderInfo message automatically upon receipt of a GeneratorInfo message. The process starts at step 6402 and moves to step 6404. At step 6404, GD 302 can identify or detect new instances of PD 202 that the GD can associate with. The availability of new instances of PD 202 can be determined in ways that can be specific to the embodiment. For example in an embodiment wherein a PD can be associated to a GD using Ethernet cable one end of which is associated with NI 206 of PD 202 and other end with PINT 324 of GD 302, the presence of a PD can be determined by GD 302 when the link associated with the PINT 324 of GD 302 indicates that it is connected to a neighbor device (i.e., link comes up). Another example is an embodiment wherein a GD can be configured using information associated with PD 202. GD 302 can be configured or provided with contact information associated with PD 202 using UI 322 of GD 302. The configuration event wherein the contact information associated with PD 202 is available can indicate the presence of a new PD. In other embodiments, the presence of a new PD can be detected using discovery mechanisms such as the ones used by Bluetooth technology. The methods of detecting new instances of PD 202 described here are illustrative only and other methods of detecting instances of PD 202 can be used. Once GD 302 detects a new PD, the process can move to step 6406. At step 6406, PI associated with the detected PD can be determined. The method of determining PI associated with PD can be specific to each embodiment. As illustrated in the first embodiment, a GetProviderInfo message can be sent to the PD. In other embodiments, other mechanisms can be used. FIG. 65-67 illustrates among other aspects, the mechanism of determining PI associated with PD in different embodiments. The process can then move to step 6408. At step 6408, the GD can associate with the PD. The association can be performed using the process illustrated in FIG. 62. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 62. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a ‘prov’ field. ‘x.prov’ can be set to the PI determined in step 6406. The process illustrated in FIG. 64 can move to step 6410 once the process associated with FIG. 62 is complete. Step 6410 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 64 is complete. FIG. 65 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in getting PI from a PD, when the GD is connected using physical means to the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of invention an instance of PD 202 is physically connected using wires to an instance of GD 302. An example of such wiring is Ethernet. The physical wiring and associated technology can help in detecting the connection of a partner device. In Ethernet technology, this can be accomplished by a device if the link associated with the Ethernet interface on the device comes up. In other embodiments, an instance of GD 302 can be connected to an instance of PD 202 when GD 302 is “docked” to PD 202. An example of such docking can be implemented when NI 206 of PD 202 and PINT 324 of GD 302 are implemented using USB such that GD 302 can be plugged into PD 202. A similar form of connectivity exists when a thumb drive is plugged into a laptop's USB port. In this embodiment, physical wires are not present, but a direct connection between PD 202 and GD 302 is established. Other methods of associating GD 302 with PD 202, are possible. The process starts at step 6502 and moves to step 6504. At step 6504, GD 302 sends a GetProviderInfo message to the PD that the GD is connected to. The method of associating the message to the PD can be specific to each embodiment. USB for example provides a mechanism to address messages to the connected partner device. The process can then move to step 6506. The sending of a GetProviderInfo message to PD 202 can result in PD 202 responding with a ProviderInfo message. GD 302 waits in step 6506 for the ProviderInfo message from the PD. Once the GD receives the ProviderInfo message from PD, the info field associated with the received message can be used as the PI associated with the PD. The process can then move to step 6508. Step 6508 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 65 is complete. FIG. 66 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in getting PI from a PD, when the GD is configured with information associated with the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In some embodiments, an instance of GD 302 can be provisioned with information that can include contact associated with PD 202. An example of such an embodiment is when the GD 302 and PD 202 can communicate with each other using a network such as the Internet. In such embodiments, GD 302 can be configured with an IP address and port number associated with PD 202. GD 302 can also be configured with a DNS name of PD 202, while the port number can be implicit. In such embodiments, the presence of configuration information can indicate the presence of instances of PD 202 that the GD can associate with. The method of connectivity, the configuration information that are described here are illustrative only. Other forms of connectivity and configuration are possible. In some embodiments, GD 302 can be configured with information that can contain PI of PD 202. Other methods or configurations are possible. The process starts at step 6602 and moves to step 6604. At step 6604, the GD can determine if PI associated with a PD 202 can be determined from the configured information. If the GD is provisioned with information from which PI associated with the PD can be determined, the process can move to step 6606. If not, the process can move to step 6608. At step 6606, PI associated with PD 202 can be determined from the provisioned information. The process can then move to step 6612. Returning to step 6608, GD 302 can sends a GetProviderInfo message to the PD that the GD is configured with. The configuration in this case includes the contact associated with PD 202. In embodiments wherein IP address and port number of PD 202 are included in configuration, the IP address and port number from configuration can be used for the contact of PD 202. The sending of a GetProviderInfo message to PD 202 can result in PD 202 responding with a ProviderInfo message. GD 302 waits in step 6610 for the ProviderInfo message from the PD. Once the GD receives the ProviderInfo message from PD, the info field associated with the received message can be used as the PI associated with the PD. The process can then move to step 6612. Step 6612 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 66 is complete. FIG. 67 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in getting PI from a PD, when the GD discovers the PD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. An example of such embodiment is when PINT 324 of GD 302 and NI 206 of PD 302 can include support for Bluetooth connectivity. GD 302 can detect PD 302 using mechanisms provided by Bluetooth technology. The process starts at step 6702 and moves to step 6704. The GD, at step 6704 can send a GetProviderInfo message to the PD that has been discovered using Bluetooth. The sending of a GetProviderInfo message to PD 202 can result in PD 202 responding with a ProviderInfo message. GD 302 waits in step 6706 for the ProviderInfo message from the PD. Once the GD receives the ProviderInfo message from PD, the info field associated with the received message can be used as the PI associated with the PD. The process can then move to step 6708. Step 6708 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 67 is complete. FIG. 68A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD to determine if a tag received by a CD can be used by the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of the invention, an instance of CD 102 can use the process associated with FIG. 68A-B in determining if a tag received by the CD can be used by it. In some embodiments, tags can be used by a CD in starting applications on the CD, downloading applications by the CD, and updating any state associated with the CD, among others. Instances of CD can use tags in ways not described here. The process associated with FIG. 68A-B can determine if a tag received by a CD is meant for use by the CD using a variety of information. Information used can include assocType associated with tag, the instance of NI 106 on which the tag is received, the type of NI 106 on which the tag is received, including others. The method of determining if a tag can be used by the CD, as illustrated in FIG. 68A-B is illustrative only and meant for use by the embodiment of the invention described here. Other embodiments can use other information and/or other methods to determine if a tag received by a CD can be used by the CD. The methods, information used, etc. as described in FIG. 68A-B is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 6802 and moves to step 6804. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with fields source and tag. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 68A-B. x.source is an instance of ContextTransport (CT) and x.tag is an instance of Tag. At step 6804, a local copy of x.source is made. The local copy is referred to as rxSrc for use in subsequent steps of the process. A local copy of x.tag is also made. The local copy is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 6806. At step 6806, a check is done to determine if the rxSrc holds a value of MultiDest. If the check succeeds the process can move to step 6814. If not, the process can move to step 6808. Step 6808 indicates that the process can move to step 6810. A value of MultiDest for rxSrc can indicate that the tag can be received by multiple instances of CD 102 because of the nature of NI 106. An example of such an interface can be based on Ethernet or Wifi, or the like. Ethernet frames sent on an Ethernet cable can be received by any device that is attached to the cable. A SingleDest value for rxSrc associated with an instance of NI 106 can imply that the CD receiving the tag is the only recipient of the tag. This can indicate that the tag is meant for use by the CD. An example of such an interface is an Ethernet interface wherein the NI 106 of CD 102 is connected directly to NI 206 of a PD. There can be no other instance of CD 102 that can receive the tag provided by the PD in this embodiment. Other SingleDest interface can include a custom interface that can use hardware signaling to communicate the tag provide by a PD to a CD. The interface (and related connectivity—wired or wireless) can be designed to support only two devices—one PD and one CD. Returning to step 6808, step 6808 can imply that the tag received by the CD can be used by the CD. The process can move to step 6810. Step 6810 can indicate that the tag is meant for use by the CD. The process can move to step 6812. Step 6812 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 68A-B is complete. Returning to step 6814, a check is done to determine if the tag received by the CD is meant for the CD due to reasons that can be specific to the embodiment. In some embodiments, a tag can be meant for use by the CD implicitly due to reasons that can be specific to the embodiment. An example of such a reason is when a tag is received by a CD 102 on an instance of NI 106 which supports Bluetooth. Bluetooth technology can help associate the NI 106 interface of CD 102 with an interface of NI 206 of PD 202 (which supports Bluetooth). In such embodiments, PD 202 can send a tag to the CD 102 by using Bluetooth addressing scheme. In such case, the receipt of a tag can indicate that the tag was addressed to CD 102 using Bluetooth addressing scheme. Another example is when an interface NI 106 is of type Ethernet. In such embodiments, a tag can be addressed to an instance of CD 102 using an Ethernet frame with the destination Ethernet address in Ethernet frame matching the Ethernet address of NI 106 on which the Ethernet frame containing the tag is received. CD 102 receiving a tag on such interface can imply that the tag can be used by the CD. In some embodiments of CD 102, tags received on a NI 106 interface of type wifi, can be meant for use by any CD that can receive the tags using wifi. The implicit reasons mentioned here are illustrative only. Other embodiments can have other methods of determining if a tag can be used by a CD that receives it. The reasons and/or methods can be specific to the embodiment. If the tag is meant for use by the CD according to the embodiment, the process can move to step 6816. Step 6816 indicates that the process can move to step 6808. If the check at step 6814 fails, the process can move to step 6818. At step 6818, a check can be made to determine if assocType associated with rxTag holds a value of Broadcast. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 6820. Step 6820 indicates that the process can move to step 6808. If the check at step 6818 fails, the process can move to step 6822. An assocType holding a value of Broadcast can indicate that the tag can be used by any instance of CD 102 that receives the tag, according to this embodiment of the invention. Returning to step 6822, a check is made at this step to determine if the consumerId associated with rxTag is same as cState.myConsumerId. A successful check can indicate that the tag is addressed to the CD 102 that is processing the tag. If the check is success, the process can move to step 6824. Step 6824 can indicate that the process can move to step 6808. If the check at step 6822 fails, the process can move to step 6826. Step 6826 indicates that the process can move to step 6828 of FIG. 68B. Step 6828 indicates that the process can move to step 6830. The portion of the process starting at step 6830 can be used to determine if the consumerId associated with rxTag matches any of the values as maintained by cState.consumerId list. At step 6830, an i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 6832. At step 6832, a check is made to determine if i is less than cState.numProvs If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 6834. If the check fails, the process can move to step 6840. At step 6840, a determination can be made that the tag is not meant for use by the CD. The process can then move to step 6842. Step 6842 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 68A-B is complete. Returning to step 6834, a check can be made at this step to determine if consumerId associated with rxTag matches the i-th element of State.consumerId array. If the check fails, the process can move to step 6838. At step 6838, i is incremented and the process can move to step 6832. If the check at step 6834 is a success, it can indicate that the consumerId associated with rxTag matches the consumerId as provided by an instance of PD referred to by i-th element of cState.provs array. This can happen if the assocType of tag generated by the PD associated with i-th element of cState.provs is Multicast. A successful check at step 6834 can cause the process to move to step 6836. Step 6836 indicates that the process can move to step 6808 of FIG. 68A. FIG. 69A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in associating with PDs and handling tags received by the CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, an instance of CD 102 can use the method illustrated in FIG. 69A-B to perform functions that can include association of a CD 102 with instances of PD 202, processing of tags received by the CD, running applications associated with the received tags, among others. In the embodiment described here, a CD 102 can associate tags received by the CD with applications, determine if the application can be run, and run the application, in addition to performing other functionality. The method followed in processing the tags, handling of applications associated with tags, association with instances of PD, and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 69A-B is illustrative and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to perform the functions differently, and can choose to not include some or all of the steps illustrated here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 69A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 6902 and moves to step 6904. At step 6904, the CD 102 can first associate with any instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process associated with FIG. 69A-B can then move to step 6906. At step 6906 a determination can be done if the process associated with FIG. 69A-B needs to be terminated. If the process needs to be terminated, the process can move to step 6910. Step 6910 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 69A-B is complete. In some embodiments as in case of smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system, the process associated with FIG. 69A-B can be used when an Android service is activated. The process associated with FIG. 69A-B can be stopped when the Android service is stopped. If the check at step 6906 determines that the process does not need to be terminated, the process can move to step 6912. At step 6912, a determination can be made if the CD 102 can detect and/or associate with any new instances of PD 202. Some embodiments of CD 102 can be detecting and/or associating with new instances of PD 202 along with processing tags and/or running applications associated with tags. In some other embodiments, it can be possible to stop detection and/or association with new instances of PD 202. In an embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 69A-B can be implemented using Android service mechanism, an Activity in Android, associated with the service can notify the service to stop associations with new instances of PD 202. In some other embodiments, new instances of PD 202 cannot be detected because of other reasons that can include disabling of NI 106 on CD 102. A disable of NI 106 of CD 102 can result in CD 102 not being able to detect and/or associate with new instances of PD 202. In some embodiments, a disable of NI 106 can be achieved using UI 126 of CD 102. When the process associated with FIG. 69A-B is implemented on a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, a user of the device can choose to disable interfaces associated with the devices such as Wifi interfaces, or Bluetooth devices, or the like, while the service associated with FIG. 69A-B is running. If the check at step 6912 determines that the CD can associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 6914. At step 6914, the CD can detect and associate with any new instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process can then move to step 6916. If the check at step 6912 determines that the CD cannot detect/associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 6916. At step 6916, a check is made to determine if CD 102 has any new tags available for processing. In one embodiment, new tags can be received by an instance of CD 102 when the tags can be provided by instances of PD 202 that the CD 102 can be associated with. In one embodiment, where tags can be provided by instances of PD 202 using wifi network, tags can be included in an Ethernet frame that can be associated with a well known protocol type. In such embodiment, the receipt of an Ethernet frame associated with the well known protocol type on the wifi interface can indicate the availability of new tag for processing by FIG. 69A-B. In another embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 69A-B can be implemented as a service on Android operating system, tags can be provided to the process using Intent mechanism of Android. Other methods can be used to provide tags to the process of FIG. 69A-B. If the check at step 6916 determines that the process has new tags for processing, the process can move to step 6920. If not, the process can move to step 6918. Step 6918 indicates that the process can move to step 6908. Step 6908 indicates that the process can move to step 6906. Returning to step 6920, the tag available for processing by the process can be retrieved at this step. The retrieved tag is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The method of retrieving a tag can be specific to the embodiment. In embodiments wherein the tags are provided in Ethernet frames on wifi networks, on devices running Android operating system, the method of retrieving the tag can involve the process making a system call or calling an API of Android operating system to retrieve the Ethernet frame. The tag can then be retrieved from the frame. The process can then move to step 6922. Step 6922 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 69A-B can then move to step 6924 of FIG. 69B. Step 6924 indicates that the process can move to step 6926. At step 6926, the transport associated with rxTag can be determined. The transport determined at this step is referred to as rxSource for use in subsequent steps of the process. rxSource can take one of the values as illustrated in FIG. 8. The method of determining rxSource can be specific to the embodiment. In embodiments wherein the tag is received using an Ethernet frame on wifi interface with a destination Ethernet address of Broadcast Ethernet address, rxSource can be determined to be MultiDest. If the Ethernet frame has a destination Ethernet address matching the address of wifi interface, rxSource can be set to SingleDest. If the tag is provided using the Intent mechanism of Android operating system, tags associated with Implicit Intents can be associated with MultiDest, whereas tags associated with Explicit Intents can be associated with SingleDest transport. Other methods of determining rxSource can be possible in other embodiments. The process can then move to step 6928. At step 6928, a check is done to determine if the rxTag that can be associated with rxSource is meant for use by the CD. In one embodiment of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 68A-B can be used to make the determination. rxTag and rxSource can be provided to the methods of FIG. 68A-B via instance ‘x’. ‘x.source’ can be set to rxSource and x.tag can be set to rxTag before the process associated with FIG. 68A-B can be used. If it is determined that rxTag can be used by the CD, the process can move to step 6930. If not, the rxTag can be ignored (not used/not processed) and process can move to step 6936. Step 6936 indicates that the process can move to step 6908 of FIG. 69A. Returning to step 6930, a determination can be made at this step to check if application that can be associated with rxTag can be run. In the embodiment described here, an autoRun field associated with rxTag as illustrated in FIG. 5 can be used to determine if the application associated with rxTag can be run. In other embodiments, CD 102 can be associated with a configuration that can specify a set of types associated with tags for which associated applications can be run automatically. Other embodiments can use other methods of determining if an application associated with a given tag can be run automatically. If the check at step 6930 indicates that application associated with rxTag can be run automatically, the process can move to step 6932. If not, the process can move to step 6936. Referring to step 6932, an application can be selected for association with rxTag at this step. The application associated with rxTag can be referred to as appForRun, for use in subsequent steps of the process. In some embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 76A-C can be used to select an application. In other embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 77 can be used to select an application. The process can then move to step 6934. At step 6934, appForRun application can be launched or run. The launch or run of an application can involve starting a program associated with the application, in some embodiments. The starting of program can include one or more of reading a program from storage, creating a process for the program, and transferring control to the program. In other embodiments, as in case of Android, launching of an application can include starting an activity, starting a service, or the like. Launching an activity can include sending of a message. The launching/run of an application can include providing parameters to the application. The parameters include options that can be specific to the application. The parameters can also include options that can be specific to the embodiment (as in environment variables as described in Linux Operating System). It can be noted that the launch/run of an application as described here is illustrative and other methods of launching/running an application are possible in other embodiments. rxTag can be provided as input to the run of appForRun. Other rxTag specific data, or any other embodiment specific data can be provided as input to the run of appForRun. In an environment that can support run of multiple applications at any time (such as the Android operating system/platform), the process can move to step 6936 while appForRun is running. If the environment associated with CD 102 that can include the operating system which does not support run of multiple applications, the process associated with FIG. 69A-B can wait in step 6934 for completion of run of appForRun. In such embodiments, the process can move to step 6936 after the run of appForRun is complete. Other embodiments can choose to move to step 6936 after appForRun is launched in step 6934. It can be noted that in some embodiments, there cannot be an application that can be associated with rxTag at step 6932. In some embodiments, this can be indicated by a Null value for appForRun. Under such conditions, an application is not launched and/or run at step 6934. FIG. 70A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in associating with PDs and handling tags received by the CD according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, an instance of CD 102 can use the method illustrated in FIG. 70A-B to perform functions that can include association of a CD 102 with instances of PD 202, processing of tags received by the CD, selection of applications interactively, running applications (based on a selection by a user) associated with the received tags, among others. In the embodiment described here, a CD 102 can associate tags received by the CD with applications, interactively determine if the application can be run, and run the application, in addition to performing other functionality. The method followed in processing the tags, handling of applications associated with tags, association with instances of PD, and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 70A-B is illustrative and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to perform the functions differently, and can choose to not include some or all of the steps illustrated here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 70A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process illustrated by FIG. 70A-B differs from the process in FIG. 69A-B in that the process as illustrated with FIG. 70A-B can include a method to allow for a user (of CD 102) to launch the applications, after tag(s) is/are associated with application(s). The methods of FIG. 69A-B on the other hand can determine if an application can be run/launched using method(s) that can not include user interaction. In an embodiment where CD 102 can be implemented on devices such as smart phones/tablet computers running Android operating system, an Activity of Android can be used to present tags and associated applications as a list using UI 126 of CD 102. An event that can include a selection of an application from the list by a user of CD 102 can result in the application being launched/run by CD 102. The list of tags and applications can be presented after the tags can be associated with applications, in some embodiments. In other embodiments, UI 126 can be used to present a list of tags. A selection of tags on UI 126 can be used to determine an application that can be associated with the selected tag(s). The application(s) associated with selected tags can be presented to user. A selection of the application presented to the user can result in CD 102 launching/running the selected application(s). In some embodiments, the applications determined for selected tags can not be presented to user via UI 126. Rather, the applications can be launched/run once the applications can be determined for the selected tags. The method illustrated in FIG. 70A-B includes the association of tags to applications, and includes presenting of applications for user selection via UI 126. It can be noted that the method of using user interaction to determine a selected set of tags and/or applications as indicated here is illustrative, meant for use by the embodiments described here. Other methods of involving user interaction in determining the applications to be launched, tags to be used, PDs that the CD can associate with, can be used. The methods, processes and information used here are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 7002 and moves to step 7004. At step 7004, the CD 102 can first associate with any instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process associated with FIG. 70A-B can then move to step 7006. At step 7006 a determination can be done if the process associated with FIG. 70A-B needs to be terminated. If the process needs to be terminated, the process can move to step 7010. Step 7010 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 70A-B is complete. In some embodiments as in case of smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system, the process associated with FIG. 70A-B can be used when an Android service is activated. The process associated with FIG. 70A-B can be stopped when the Android service is stopped. If the check at step 7006 determines that the process does not need to be terminated, the process can move to step 7012. At step 7012, a determination can be made if the CD 102 can detect and/or associate with any new instances of PD 202. Some embodiments of CD 102 can be detecting and/or associating with new instances of PD 202 along with processing tags and/or running applications associated with tags. In some other embodiments, it can be possible to stop detection and/or association with new instances of PD 202. In an embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 70A-B can be implemented using Android service mechanism, an Activity in Android, associated with the service can notify the service to stop associations with new instances of PD 202. In some other embodiments, new instances of PD 202 cannot be detected because of other reasons that can include disabling of NI 106 on CD 102. A disable of NI 106 of CD 102 can result in CD 102 not being able to detect and/or associate with new instances of PD 202. In some embodiments, a disable of NI 106 can be achieved using UI 126 of CD 102. When the process associated with FIG. 70A-B is implemented on a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, a user of the device can choose to disable interfaces associated with the devices such as Wifi interfaces, or Bluetooth devices, or the like, while the service associated with FIG. 70A-B is running. If the check at step 7012 determines that the CD can associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7014. At step 7014, the CD can detect and associate with any new instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process can then move to step 7016. If the check at step 7012 determines that the CD cannot detect/associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7016. At step 7016, a check is made to determine if CD 102 has any new tags available for processing. In one embodiment, new tags can be received by an instance of CD 102 when the tags can be provided by instances of PD 202 that the CD 102 can be associated with. In one embodiment, where tags can be provided by instances of PD 202 using wifi network, tags can be included in an Ethernet frame that can be associated with a well known protocol type. In such embodiment, the receipt of an Ethernet frame associated with the well known protocol type on the wifi interface can indicate the availability of new tag for processing by FIG. 70A-B. In another embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 70A-B can be implemented as a service on Android operating system, tags can be provided to the process using Intent mechanism of Android. Other methods can be used to provide tags to the process of FIG. 70A-B. If the check at step 7016 determines that the process has new tags for processing, the process can move to step 7020. If not, the process can move to step 7018. Step 7018 indicates that the process can move to step 7008. Step 7008 indicates that the process can move to step 7006. Returning to step 7020, the tag available for processing by the process can be retrieved at this step. The retrieved tag is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The method of retrieving a tag can be specific to the embodiment. In embodiments wherein the tags are provided in Ethernet frames on wifi networks, on devices running Android operating system, the method of retrieving the tag can involve the process making a system call or calling an API of Android operating system to retrieve the Ethernet frame. The tag can then be retrieved from the frame. The process can then move to step 7022. Step 7022 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 70A-B can then move to step 7024 of FIG. 70B. Step 7024 indicates that the process can move to step 7026. At step 7026, the transport associated with rxTag can be determined. The transport determined at this step is referred to as rxSource for use in subsequent steps of the process. rxSource can take one of the values as illustrated in FIG. 8. The method of determining rxSource can be specific to the embodiment. In embodiments wherein the tag is received using an Ethernet frame on wifi interface with a destination Ethernet address of Broadcast Ethernet address, rxSource can be determined to be MultiDest. If the Ethernet frame has a destination Ethernet address matching the address of wifi interface, rxSource can be set to SingleDest. If the tag is provided using the Intent mechanism of Android operating system, tags associated with Implicit Intents can be associated with MultiDest, whereas tags associated with Explicit Intents can be associated with SingleDest transport. Other methods of determining rxSource can be possible in other embodiments. The process can then move to step 7028. At step 7028, a check is done to determine if the rxTag that can be associated with rxSource is meant for use by the CD. In one embodiment of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 68A-B can be used to make the determination. rxTag and rxSource can be provided to the methods of FIG. 68A-B via instance ‘x’. ‘x.source’ can be set to rxSource and x.tag can be set to rxTag before the process associated with FIG. 68A-B can be used. If it is determined that rxTag can be used by the CD, the process can move to step 7032. If the rxTag cannot be used by the CD, the process can move to step 7030. Step 7030 indicates that the process can move to step 7038. Step 7038 indicates that the process can move to step 7036. Referring to step 7032, an application can be selected for association with rxTag at this step. The application associated with rxTag can be referred to as appForRun, for use in subsequent steps of the process. In some embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 76A-C can be used to select an application. In other embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 77 can be used to select an application. The process can then move to step 7034. At step 7034, the rxTag and appForRun pair can be associated with a list of (tag, application) pairs that can allow for selection of a pair by a user of CD 102. The set of (tag, application) pairs can be presented to user using UI 126 of CD 102. The process can then move to step 7036. At step 7036, a determination is made to see if a user has selected an application from the list presented using UI 126. If the user has made a selection that can be associated with a (tag, application) pair from the list, the process can move to step 7040. If not, the process can move to step 7044. Step 7044 indicates that the process can move to step 7008 of FIG. 70A. Returning to step 7040, the (tag, application) pair associated with a user selection can be retrieved. The tag of selected pair can be referred to as selTag, and application of selected pair can be referred to as selAppForRun for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 7042. At step 7042, the selected pair can be handled. In one embodiment, selAppForRun can be launched/run at this step. selTag can be provided as input to the run of selAppForRun. Other selTag specific data, or any other embodiment specific data can be provided as input to the run of selAppForRun. In an environment that can support run of multiple applications at any time (such as the Android operating system/platform), the process can move to step 7044 while selAppForRun is running. If the environment associated with CD 102 that can include an operating system, does not support run of multiple applications, the process associated with FIG. 70A-B can wait in step 7042 for completion of run of selAppForRun. In such embodiments, the process can move to step 7044 after the run of selAppForRun is complete. Other embodiments can choose to move to step 7044 after selAppForRun is launched in step 7042. It can be noted that in some embodiments, there cannot be an application that can be associated with rxTag at step 7034. In some embodiments, this can be indicated by a Null value for appForRun. Under such conditions, a (rxTag, appForRun) pair is not added to the list for user selection, and the process can move to step 7008. FIG. 71A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed in handling association of PDs with CDs, communication of tags between PDs and CDs, and handling of tags by CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, an instance of CD 102 and any associated instances of PD 202, can use the method illustrated in FIG. 71A-B to perform functions that can include association of a CD 102 with instances of PD 202, processing of tags received by the CD, communication of tag requests and tags between PD and CD, running applications associated with the received tags, among others. In the embodiment described here, a PD 202 can provide a tag to an instance of CD 102 upon receiving a request for a tag sent by the CD. CD 102 can request PD 202 to provide a tag to the CD, due to events that can include user interaction on UI 126 of CD 102. In some embodiments, PD 202 can send tags to instances of CD 102 when CD 102 requests for the tag(s). In embodiments wherein CD 102 can request tags from PD 202 due to an interactive selection, the availability of tags with the associated PD(s) can be indicated on UI 126 of CD 102 and/or UI 226 of PD 202. In embodiments wherein a CD 102 can be implemented using a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, the availability of tags can be indicated by placing an icon on the Notification Bar associated with the user interface of the device. UI 126 of CD 102 can also allow for differentiating the availability of tags from multiple instances of PD 202 that the CD can be associated with. In some embodiments, UI 226 of PD 202 can indicate the availability of tags. In embodiments wherein a PD 202 can be implemented using a set-top box, an LED on the front panel of the set top box can be lit up, set to a specific color, or the like, when the set top box can provide a tag. Other methods of indicating the availability of tags are possible. The method followed in processing the tags, handling of applications associated with tags, association with instances of PD, requesting tags by the CD, and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 71A-B is illustrative and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to perform the functions differently, and can choose to not include some or all of the steps illustrated here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 71A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can request tag(s) from one or more instances of PD 202 that the CD can be associated with. The request can be sent by CD 102 due to an event that can include user interaction using UI 126 of CD 102. User interaction with CD 102 can involve user pushing down a physical key on CD 102, selecting a button displayed on a touch screen associated with CD 102 or the like. In embodiments where a CD 102 can be associated with more than one PD 202 instances, each instance of PD 202 can be related to a separate user interface element associated with CD 102, such as a number of soft buttons—each associated with a PD 202 instance. When the user interface element associated with a PD 202 is selected, CD 102 can request a tag from the PD 202 corresponding to the selected user interface element. An instance of CD 102 can also be associated with user interface elements that can allow a user to initiate the CD requesting tags from all instances of PD 202 that the CD 102 can be associated with. In another embodiment of the invention, CD 102 can initiate requests for all associated PD 202 instances in a way that can not involve user interaction. In this embodiment, a CD 102 can request tags from instances of PD 202 once every time interval. Other methods of initiating requests for PD 202 instances, by the CD are possible. The process starts at step 7102 and moves to step 7104. At step 7104, the CD 102 can first associate with any instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process associated with FIG. 71A-B can then move to step 7106. At step 7106 a determination can be done if the process associated with FIG. 71A-B needs to be terminated. If the process needs to be terminated, the process can move to step 7110. Step 7110 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 71A-B is complete. In some embodiments as in case of smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system, the process associated with FIG. 71A-B can be used when an Android service is activated. The process associated with FIG. 71A-B can be stopped when the Android service is stopped. If the check at step 7106 determines that the process does not need to be terminated, the process can move to step 7112. At step 7112, a determination can be made if the CD 102 can detect and/or associate with any new instances of PD 202. Some embodiments of CD 102 can be detecting and/or associating with new instances of PD 202 along with processing tags and/or running applications associated with tags. In some other embodiments, it can be possible to stop detection and/or association with new instances of PD 202. In an embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 71A-B can be implemented using Android service mechanism, an Activity in Android, associated with the service can notify the service to stop associations with new instances of PD 202. In some other embodiments, new instances of PD 202 cannot be detected because of other reasons that can include disabling of NI 106 on CD 102. A disable of NI 106 of CD 102 can result in CD 102 not being able to detect and/or associate with new instances of PD 202. In some embodiments, a disable of NI 106 can be achieved using UI 126 of CD 102. When the process associated with FIG. 71A-B is implemented on a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, a user of the device can choose to disable interfaces associated with the devices such as Wifi interfaces, or Bluetooth devices, or the like, while the service associated with FIG. 71A-B is running. If the check at step 7112 determines that the CD can associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7114. At step 7114, the CD can detect and associate with any new instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process can then move to step 7116. If the check at step 7112 determines that the CD cannot detect/associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7116. At step 7116, a check is made to determine if the user of the CD 102 has requested for getting tags from instances of PD 202. If the user did not indicate a need for getting tags, the process can move to step 7118. Step 7118 indicates that the process can move to step 7108. Returning to step 7116, if it is determined that the user has indicated to get tags from an instance of PD 202, the process can move to step 7120. At step 7120, CD 102 can send a message to the PD that can be associated with user selection, indicating that the CD 102 needs a copy of the tag from the PD 202. The contact information associated with PI of the PD 202 can be used by the CD to send a message. The process can then move to step 7122. Step 7122 indicates that the process can then move to step 7124 of FIG. 71B. Step 7124 indicates that the process can move to step 7126. At step 7126, the CD 102 waits for a tag from the PD. A PD 202 receiving a request for a tag from a CD 102 can provide the tag to the CD. CD 102 at step 7126 moves to step 7128 when it receives a tag from the PD. At step 7128, the tag sent by the PD is retrieved. The retrieved tag is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 7130. At step 7130, an application can be selected for association with rxTag. The application associated with rxTag can be referred to as appForRun, for use in subsequent steps of the process. In some embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 76A-C can be used to select an application. In other embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 77 can be used to select an application. The process can then move to step 7132. At step 7132, the application appForRun can be handled. In one embodiment, appForRun can be launched/run at this step. rxTag can be provided as input to the run of appForRun. Other rxTag specific data, or any other embodiment specific data can be provided as input to the run of appForRun. In an environment that can support run of multiple applications at any time (such as the Android operating system/platform), the process can move to step 7134 while appForRun is running. If the environment associated with CD 102 that can include an operating system, does not support run of multiple applications, the process associated with FIG. 71A-B can wait in step 7132 for completion of run of appForRun. In such embodiments, the process can move to step 7134 after the run of appForRun is complete. Other embodiments can choose to move to step 7134 after appForRun is launched in step 7132. It can be noted that in some embodiments, there can not be an application that can be associated with rxTag at step 7130. In some embodiments, this can be indicated by a Null value for appForRun. Under such conditions, appForRun is not launched in step 7132 and the process can move to step 7134. FIG. 72A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed in handling association of PDs with CDs, communication of tags between PDs and CDs, and handling of tags by CDs according to a yet another embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, an instance of CD 102 and any associated instances of PD 202, can use the method illustrated in FIG. 72A-B to perform functions that can include association of a CD 102 with instances of PD 202, processing of tags received by the CD, communication of tags between PD and CD, running applications associated with the received tags, among others. In the embodiment described here, a PD 202 can provide a tag to an instance of CD 102 upon a request made to PD 202. Requests for sending tags can be provided to PD 202 by means that can include an interactive selection associated with UI 226 of PD 202. In embodiments wherein PD 202 can provide tags due to an interactive selection, the availability of tags with the associated PD(s) can be indicated on UI 226 of PD 202. In embodiments wherein a PD 202 can be implemented using a set-top box, an LED on the front panel of the set top box can be lit up, set to a specific color, or the like, when the set top box can provide a tag. Other methods of indicating the availability of tags are possible. The method followed in processing the tags, handling of applications associated with tags, association with instances of PD, requesting tags from the PD, and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 72A-B is illustrative and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to perform the functions differently, and can choose to not include some or all of the steps illustrated here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 72A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202, upon request, can provide tag(s) to one or more instances of CD 102 that the PD can be associated with. The request can be associated with PD 202 due to an event that can include user interaction using UI 226 of PD 202. User interaction with PD 202 can involve user pushing down a physical key on PD 202. User interaction with PD 202 can also involve user selection involving pushing down a key on a remote device associated with PD 202. The remote device and PD 202 can communicate with each other using technologies that can include infrared technology, RF technology, or the like. This can be similar to pressing a key on the remote associated with a set top box. In embodiments where a PD 202 can be associated with more than one CD 102 instances, each instance of CD 102 can be associated with a separate user interface element of PD 202, such as a number of buttons on the remote—each associated with a separate CD 102 instance. When the user interface element associated with the PD and related to a CD 102 is selected, PD 202 can provide a tag to a CD 102 corresponding to the selected user interface element. An instance of PD 202 can also be associated with user interface elements that can allow a user to initiate the PD providing tags to all instances of CD 102 that the PD 202 can be associated with. In another embodiment of the invention, PD 202 can provide tags for all associated CD 102 instances in a way that can not involve user interaction. In this embodiment, a PD 202 can provide tags to instances of CD 102 once every time interval. Other methods of providing tags to CD 102 instances by the PD are possible. The process starts at step 7202 and moves to step 7204. At step 7204, the CD 102 can first associate with any instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process associated with FIG. 72A-B can then move to step 7206. At step 7206 a determination can be done if the process associated with FIG. 72A-B needs to be terminated. If the process needs to be terminated, the process can move to step 7210. Step 7210 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 72A-B is complete. In some embodiments as in case of smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system, the process associated with FIG. 72A-B can be used when an Android service is activated. The process associated with FIG. 72A-B can be stopped when the Android service is stopped. If the check at step 7206 determines that the process does not need to be terminated, the process can move to step 7212. At step 7212, a determination can be made if the CD 102 can detect and/or associate with any new instances of PD 202. Some embodiments of CD 102 can be detecting and/or associating with new instances of PD 202 along with processing tags and/or running applications associated with tags. In some other embodiments, it can be possible to stop detection and/or association with new instances of PD 202. In an embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 72A-B can be implemented using Android service mechanism, an Activity in Android, associated with the service can notify the service to stop associations with new instances of PD 202. In some other embodiments, new instances of PD 202 cannot be detected because of other reasons that can include disabling of NI 106 on CD 102. A disable of NI 106 of CD 102 can result in CD 102 not being able to detect and/or associate with new instances of PD 202. In some embodiments, a disable of NI 106 can be achieved using UI 126 of CD 102. When the process associated with FIG. 72A-B is implemented on a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, a user of the device can choose to disable interfaces associated with the devices such as Wifi interfaces, or Bluetooth devices, or the like, while the service associated with FIG. 72A-B is running. If the check at step 7212 determines that the CD can associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7214. At step 7214, the CD can detect and associate with any new instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process can then move to step 7216. If the check at step 7212 determines that the CD cannot detect/associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7216. At step 7216, a check is made by a PD to determine if a request has been made by a user for providing tags. If the user did not indicate a need for providing tags, the process can move to step 7218. Step 7218 indicates that the process can move to step 7208. Returning to step 7216, if it is determined by the PD that the user has indicated a request to provide tag(s), the process can move to step 7220. At step 7220, PD 202 can provide a tag to the CD that can be associated with user selection. The contact information associated with CI of the CD 102 can be used by the PD to send a tag. The process can then move to step 7222. Step 7222 indicates that the process can then move to step 7224 of FIG. 72B. Step 7224 indicates that the process can move to step 7228. At step 7228, the tag sent by the PD is retrieved by the CD. The retrieved tag is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 7230. At step 7230, an application can be selected for association with rxTag, by the CD. The application associated with rxTag can be referred to as appForRun, for use in subsequent steps of the process. In some embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 76A-C can be used to select an application. In other embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 77 can be used to select an application. The process can then move to step 7232. At step 7232, the application appForRun can be handled. In one embodiment, appForRun can be launched/run at this step. rxTag can be provided as input to the run of appForRun. Other rxTag specific data, or any other embodiment specific data can be provided as input to the run of appForRun. In an environment that can support run of multiple applications at any time (such as the Android operating system/platform), the process can move to step 7234 while appForRun is running. If the environment associated with CD 102 that can include an operating system, does not support run of multiple applications, the process associated with FIG. 72A-B can wait in step 7232 for completion of run of appForRun. In such embodiments, the process can move to step 7234 after the run of appForRun is complete. Other embodiments can choose to move to step 7234 after appForRun is launched in step 7232. It can be noted that in some embodiments, there cannot be an application that can be associated with rxTag at step 7230. In some embodiments, this can be indicated by a Null value for appForRun. Under such conditions, appForRun is not launched in step 7232 and the process can move to step 7234. FIG. 73A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in associating with PDs and handling tags received by the CD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, an instance of CD 102 can use the method illustrated in FIG. 73A-B to perform functions that can include association of a CD 102 with instances of PD 202, processing of tags received by the CD, running applications associated with the tags, managing tags in STORE 118, among others. In the embodiment described here, a CD 102 can associate tags received by the CD with applications, store the tags and information related to application associated with the tags, determine if the application can be run, and run the application, in addition to performing other functionality. The method followed in processing the tags, handling of applications associated with tags, storing of tags and information related to associated applications, association with instances of PD, and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 73A-B is illustrative and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to perform the functions differently, and can choose to not include some or all of the steps illustrated here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 73A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process associated with FIG. 73A-B differs from processes associated with FIG. 69A-B, FIG. 70A-B and other related embodiments, in that the process of FIG. 73A-B can store the tags received by an instance of CD 102 in STORE 118. In some embodiments, as the one described here, each tag handled by the process can be stored by CD 102 in STORE 118. Information related to the application that can be associated with the tag, can also be stored along with the tag in STORE 118 by CD 102. This can be useful in some embodiments wherein a user can not be interacting with CD 102 at the time the tag(s) is/are received by CD 102. The tags and associated applications stored in STORE 118 can be presented to the user using UI 126. The application associated with the tag stored in STORE 118 can be launched/run upon an event that can include selection of an application and/or tag using UI 126. An example of such an embodiment can include smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system. The CD 102 running Android can implement an Android Service that can be associated with process illustrated in FIG. 73A-B. The Android Service can store the tags and related applications in the STORE 118 associated with the device. The CD 102 running Android can also provide an Android Activity (that can be started at a later point of time as compared to the time at which the tags and/or application information can be stored) that can allow a user to view the list of tags and/or applications received by CD 102 and stored in STORE 118. The Android Activity can also allow the user to launch applications from the list of tags/applications presented using UI 126. The process starts at step 7302 and moves to step 7304. At step 7304, the CD 102 can first associate with any instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process associated with FIG. 73A-B can then move to step 7306. At step 7306 a determination can be done if the process associated with FIG. 73A-B needs to be terminated. If the process needs to be terminated, the process can move to step 7310. Step 7310 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 73A-B is complete. In some embodiments as in case of smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system, the process associated with FIG. 73A-B can be used when an Android service is activated. The process associated with FIG. 73A-B can be stopped when the Android service is stopped. If the check at step 7306 determines that the process does not need to be terminated, the process can move to step 7312. At step 7312, a determination can be made if the CD 102 can detect and/or associate with any new instances of PD 202. Some embodiments of CD 102 can be detecting and/or associating with new instances of PD 202 along with processing tags and/or running applications associated with tags. In some other embodiments, it can be possible to stop detection and/or association with new instances of PD 202. In an embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 73A-B can be implemented using Android service mechanism, an Activity in Android, associated with the service can notify the service to stop associations with new instances of PD 202. In some other embodiments, new instances of PD 202 cannot be detected because of other reasons that can include disabling of NI 106 on CD 102. A disable of NI 106 of CD 102 can result in CD 102 not being able to detect and/or associate with new instances of PD 202. In some embodiments, a disable of NI 106 can be achieved using UI 126 of CD 102. When the process associated with FIG. 73A-B is implemented on a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, a user of the device can choose to disable interfaces associated with the devices such as Wifi interfaces, or Bluetooth devices, or the like, while the service associated with FIG. 73A-B is running. If the check at step 7312 determines that the CD can associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7314. At step 7314, the CD can detect and associate with any new instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process can then move to step 7316. If the check at step 7312 determines that the CD cannot detect/associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7316. At step 7316, a check is made to determine if CD 102 has any new tags available for processing. In one embodiment, new tags can be received by an instance of CD 102 when the tags can be provided by instances of PD 202 that the CD 102 can be associated with. In one embodiment, where tags can be provided by instances of PD 202 using wifi network, tags can be included in an Ethernet frame that can be associated with a well known protocol type. In such embodiment, the receipt of an Ethernet frame associated with the well known protocol type on the wifi interface can indicate the availability of new tag for processing by FIG. 73A-B. In another embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 73A-B can be implemented as a service on Android operating system, tags can be provided to the process using Intent mechanism of Android. Other methods can be used to provide tags to the process of FIG. 73A-B. If the check at step 7316 determines that the process has new tags for processing, the process can move to step 7320. If not, the process can move to step 7318. Step 7318 indicates that the process can move to step 7338. Step 7338 indicates that the process can move to step 7336. Returning to step 7320, the tag available for processing by the process can be retrieved at this step. The retrieved tag is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The method of retrieving a tag can be specific to the embodiment. In embodiments wherein the tags are provided in Ethernet frames on wifi networks, on devices running Android operating system, the method of retrieving the tag can involve the process making a system call or calling an API of Android operating system to retrieve the Ethernet frame. The tag can then be retrieved from the frame. The process can then move to step 7326. At step 7326, the transport associated with rxTag can be determined. The transport determined at this step is referred to as rxSource for use in subsequent steps of the process. rxSource can take one of the values as illustrated in FIG. 8. The method of determining rxSource can be specific to the embodiment. In embodiments wherein the tag is received using an Ethernet frame on wifi interface with a destination Ethernet address of Broadcast Ethernet address, rxSource can be determined to be MultiDest. If the Ethernet frame has a destination Ethernet address matching the address of wifi interface, rxSource can be set to SingleDest. If the tag is provided using the Intent mechanism of Android operating system, tags associated with Implicit Intents can be associated with MultiDest, whereas tags associated with Explicit Intents can be associated with SingleDest transport. Other methods of determining rxSource can be possible in other embodiments. The process can then move to step 7322. Step 7322 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 73A-B can then move to step 7324 of FIG. 73B. Step 7324 indicates that the process can move to step 7328. At step 7328, a check is done to determine if the rxTag that can be associated with rxSource is meant for use by the CD. In one embodiment of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 68A-B can be used to make the determination. rxTag and rxSource can be provided to the methods of FIG. 68A-B via instance ‘x’. ‘x.source’ can be set to rxSource and x.tag can be set to rxTag before the process associated with FIG. 68A-B can be used. If it is determined that rxTag can be used by the CD, the process can move to step 7330. If not, the rxTag can be ignored (not used/not processed) and process can move to step 7336. Step 7336 indicates that the process can move to step 7338. Returning to step 7330, a determination can be made at this step to check if rxTag can be stored. In the embodiment described here, CD 102 can be associated with a configuration that can specify a set of types associated with tags, each type can be associated with information that can specify if a tag associated with the type can be stored automatically. Other embodiments can use other methods of determining if a tag can be stored. If the check at step 7330 indicates that rxTag can be stored automatically, the process can move to step 7332. If not, the process can move to step 7336. Referring to step 7332, an application can be selected for association with rxTag at this step. The application associated with rxTag can be referred to as appForRun, for use in subsequent steps of the process. In some embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 76A-C can be used to select an application. In other embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 77 can be used to select an application. The process can then move to step 7334. At step 7334, the (rxTag, appForRun) pair can be stored in STORE 118, adding to the list of (tag, application) pairs that can be already stored in STORE 118. If there are no (tag, application) pairs stored in STORE 118, the (rxTag, appForRun) pair can be stored in STORE 188. The (tag, application) pairs can be stored in STORE 118 in various formats. In some embodiments, application can be stored in STORE 118 as a file in a file system, and the path/filename of the application file can be stored along with the tag. The tag and path/filename pairs can be stored in an XML file in STORE 118. In other embodiments, (tag, application) pair can be stored as a record in a relational database such as SQL table. Other methods and/or formats/structures of storing (tag, application) pairs are possible in other embodiments. The process can then move to step 7336. The set of (tag, application) pairs stored in STORE 118 can be presented as a list to user using UI 126 of CD 102. At step 7336, a determination is made to see if a user has made a selection from the list presented using UI 126. If the user has made a selection that can be associated with a (tag, application) pair from the list, the process can move to step 7340. If not, the process can move to step 7344. Step 7344 indicates that the process can move to step 7308 of FIG. 73A. Returning to step 7340, the (tag, application) pair associated with a user selection can be retrieved. The tag of selected pair can be referred to as selTag, and application of selected pair can be referred to as selAppForRun for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 7342. At step 7342, the selected pair can be handled. In one embodiment, selAppForRun can be launched/run at this step. selTag can be provided as input to the run of selAppForRun. Other selTag specific data, or any other embodiment specific data can be provided as input to the run of selAppForRun. In an environment that can support run of multiple applications at any time (such as the Android operating system/platform), the process can move to step 7344 while selAppForRun is running. If the environment associated with CD 102 that can include an operating system, does not support run of multiple applications, the process associated with FIG. 73A-B can wait in step 7342 for completion of run of selAppForRun. In such embodiments, the process can move to step 7344 after the run of selAppForRun is complete. Other embodiments can choose to move to step 7344 after selAppForRun is launched in step 7342. It can be noted that in some embodiments, there cannot be an application that can be associated with rxTag at step 7332. In some embodiments, this can be indicated by a Null value for appForRun. Under such conditions, a (rxTag, appForRun) pair is not stored in STORE 118, and the process can move to step 7308. FIG. 74A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed in handling association of PDs with CDs, communication of tags between PDs and CDs, and handling of tags by CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, an instance of CD 102 and any associated instances of PD 202, can use the method illustrated in FIG. 74A-B to perform functions that can include association of a CD 102 with instances of PD 202, processing of tags received by the CD, communication of tag requests and tags between PD and CD, storing tags and any information related to applications associated with tags, running applications associated with the tags, among others. In the embodiment described here, a PD 202 can provide a tag to an instance of CD 102 upon receiving a request for a tag that can be sent by the CD. CD 102 can request PD 202 to provide a tag to the CD, due to events that can include user interaction on UI 126 of CD 102. In some embodiments, PD 202 can send tags to instances of CD 102 when CD 102 requests for the tag(s). In embodiments wherein CD 102 can request tags from PD 202 due to an interactive selection, the availability of tags with the associated PD(s) can be indicated on UI 126 of CD 102 and/or UI 226 of PD 202. In embodiments wherein a CD 102 can be implemented using a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, the availability of tags can be indicated by placing an icon on the Notification Bar associated with the user interface of the device. UI 126 of CD 102 can also allow for differentiating the availability of tags from multiple instances of PD 202 that the CD can be associated with. In some embodiments, UI 226 of PD 202 can indicate the availability of tags. In embodiments wherein a PD 202 can be implemented using a set-top box, an LED on the front panel of the set top box can be lit up, set to a specific color, or the like, when the set top box can provide a tag. Other methods of indicating the availability of tags are possible. The method followed in processing the tags, handling of applications associated with tags, association with instances of PD, requesting tags by the CD, storing of tags and applications by CD, and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 74A-B is illustrative and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to perform the functions differently, and can choose to not include some or all of the steps illustrated here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 74A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can request tag(s) from one or more instances of PD 202 that the CD can be associated with. The request can be sent by CD 102 due to an event that can include user interaction using UI 126 of CD 102. User interaction with CD 102 can involve user pushing down a physical key on CD 102, selecting a button displayed on a touch screen associated with CD 102 or the like. In embodiments where a CD 102 can be associated with more than one PD 202 instances, each instance of PD 202 can be related to a separate user interface element associated with CD 102, such as a number of soft buttons—each associated with a PD 202 instance. When the user interface element associated with the CD 102, and related to a PD 202 is selected, CD 102 can request a tag from the PD 202 corresponding to the selected user interface element. An instance of CD 102 can also be associated with user interface elements that can allow a user to initiate the CD requesting tags from all instances of PD 202 that the CD 102 can be associated with. In another embodiment of the invention, CD 102 can initiate requests for all associated PD 202 instances in a way that can not involve user interaction. In this other embodiment, a CD 102 can request tags from instances of PD 202 once every time interval. Other methods of initiating requests for PD 202 instances, by the CD are possible. In some embodiments, as the one described here, each tag handled by the process can be stored in STORE 118. Information related to the application that can be associated with the tag, can also be stored along with the tag in STORE 118 by CD 102. This can be useful in some embodiments wherein a user can request tags from instances of PD 202 associated with the CD, and store them for later use. When tags are stored by instances of CD 102 in STORE 118, applications associated with the tags can be launched/run at a later point of time (as compared to the time at which the tag(s) is/are received/stored). The tags and associated applications stored in STORE 118 can be presented to the user using UI 126. The application associated with the tag stored in STORE 118 can be launched/run upon an event that can include selection of an application and/or tag using UI 126. An example of such an embodiment can include smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system. The CD 102 running Android can implement an Android Service and a related Android activity which can be associated with process illustrated in FIG. 73A-B. The Android Service can store the tags and related applications in the STORE 118 associated with the device. The Android Activity can be used to help request tags from PD(s) associated with the CD, provide the list of tags stored in STORE 118 using UI 126 for user selection, among others. The Android Activity can also allow the user to launch applications from the list of tags/applications presented using UI 126. The process starts at step 7402 and moves to step 7404. At step 7404, the CD 102 can first associate with any instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process associated with FIG. 74A-B can then move to step 7406. At step 7406 a determination can be done if the process associated with FIG. 74A-B needs to be terminated. If the process needs to be terminated, the process can move to step 7410. Step 7410 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 74A-B is complete. In some embodiments as in case of smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system, the process associated with FIG. 74A-B can be used when an Android service is activated. The process associated with FIG. 74A-B can be stopped when the Android service is stopped. If the check at step 7406 determines that the process does not need to be terminated, the process can move to step 7412. At step 7412, a determination can be made if the CD 102 can detect and/or associate with any new instances of PD 202. Some embodiments of CD 102 can be detecting and/or associating with new instances of PD 202 along with processing tags and/or running applications associated with tags. In some other embodiments, it can be possible to stop detection and/or association with new instances of PD 202. In an embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 74A-B can be implemented using Android service mechanism, an Activity in Android, associated with the service can notify the service to stop associations with new instances of PD 202. In some other embodiments, new instances of PD 202 cannot be detected because of other reasons that can include disabling of NI 106 on CD 102. A disable of NI 106 of CD 102 can result in CD 102 not being able to detect and/or associate with new instances of PD 202. In some embodiments, a disable of NI 106 can be achieved using UI 126 of CD 102. When the process associated with FIG. 74A-B is implemented on a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, a user of the device can choose to disable interfaces associated with the devices such as Wifi interfaces, or Bluetooth devices, or the like, while the service associated with FIG. 74A-B is running. If the check at step 7412 determines that the CD can associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7414. At step 7414, the CD can detect and associate with any new instances of PD 202. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in detecting instances of PD 202 and/or associating with them. The process can then move to step 7416. If the check at step 7412 determines that the CD cannot detect/associate with new instances of PD 202, the process can move to step 7416. At step 7416, a check is made to determine if the user of the CD 102 has requested for getting tags from instances of PD 202. If the user did not indicate a need for getting tags, the process can move to step 7418. Step 7418 indicates that the process can move to step 7438. Returning to step 7416, if it is determined that the user has indicated to get tags from an instance of PD 202, the process can move to step 7420. At step 7420, CD 102 can send a message to the PD that can be associated with user selection, indicating that the CD 102 needs a copy of the tag from the PD 202. The contact information associated with PI of the PD 202 can be used by the CD to send a message. The process can then move to step 7422. Step 7422 indicates that the process can then move to step 7424 of FIG. 74B. Step 7424 indicates that the process can move to step 7426. At step 7426, the CD 102 waits for a tag from the PD. A PD 202 receiving a request for a tag from a CD 102 can provide the tag to the CD. CD 102 at step 7426 moves to step 7428 when it receives a tag from the PD. At step 7428, the tag sent by the PD is retrieved. The retrieved tag is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 7430. At step 7430, an application can be selected for association with rxTag. The application associated with rxTag can be referred to as appForRun, for use in subsequent steps of the process. In some embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 76A-C can be used to select an application. In other embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 77 can be used to select an application. The process can then move to step 7434. At step 7434, the (rxTag, appForRun) pair can be stored in STORE 118, adding to the list of (tag, application) pairs that can be already stored in STORE 118. If there are no (tag, application) pairs stored in STORE 118, the (rxTag, appForRun) pair can be stored in STORE 188. The (tag, application) pairs can be stored in STORE 118 in various formats. In some embodiments, application can be stored in STORE 118 as a file in a file system, and the path/filename of the application file can be stored along with the tag. The tag and path/filename pairs can be stored in an XML file in STORE 118. In other embodiments, (tag, application) pair can be stored as a record in a relational database such as SQL table. Other methods and/or formats/structures of storing (tag, application) pairs are possible in other embodiments. The process can then move to step 7436. The set of (tag, application) pairs stored in STORE 118 can be presented as a list to user using UI 126 of CD 102. At step 7436, a determination is made to see if a user has made a selection from the list presented using UI 126. If the user has made a selection that can be associated with a (tag, application) pair from the list, the process can move to step 7440. If not, the process can move to step 7444. Step 7444 indicates that the process can move to step 7408 of FIG. 74A. Returning to step 7440, the (tag, application) pair associated with a user selection can be retrieved. The tag of selected pair can be referred to as selTag, and application of selected pair can be referred to as selAppForRun for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 7442. At step 7442, the selected pair can be handled. In one embodiment, selAppForRun can be launched/run at this step. selTag can be provided as input to the run of selAppForRun. Other selTag specific data, or any other embodiment specific data can be provided as input to the run of selAppForRun. In an environment that can support run of multiple applications at any time (such as the Android operating system/platform), the process can move to step 7444 while selAppForRun is running. If the environment associated with CD 102 that can include an operating system, does not support run of multiple applications, the process associated with FIG. 74A-B can wait in step 7442 for completion of run of selAppForRun. In such embodiments, the process can move to step 7444 after the run of selAppForRun is complete. Other embodiments can choose to move to step 7444 after selAppForRun is launched in step 7442. It can be noted that in some embodiments, there can not be an application that can be associated with rxTag at step 7430. In some embodiments, this can be indicated by a Null value for appForRun. Under such conditions, a (rxTag, appForRun) pair is not stored in STORE 118, and the process can move to step 7436. FIG. 75A-B illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in associating with CDs, and managing tags according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process illustrated in FIG. 75A-B can be used by an instance of PD 202 in associating with CD 102 instances, managing tags that can include storing tags in PD, and communicating tags to associated CD 102 instances, among others. In some embodiments of the invention PD 202 can allow for storing tags in STORE 218 of PD 202. PD 202 can also allow for providing tags to instance(s) of CD 102 associated with the PD. In the embodiment described here, request for tags can result in storing the tags in STORE 218 by PD 202 when there can be no instance of CD 102 associated with the PD. When one or more instances of CD 102 can be associated with the PD, request for tags can be handled by the PD by providing tags to the instances of CD 102 associated with the PD. Requests for tags can be provided to PD 202 by means that can include an interactive selection associated with UI 226 of PD 202. In embodiments wherein PD 202 can provide/store tags due to an interactive selection, the availability of tags with the PD can be indicated on UI 226 of PD 202. In embodiments wherein functionality associated with PD 202 can be included in a set-top box, an LED on the front panel of the set top box can be lit up, set to a specific color, or the like, when a tag is available with the set top box. Other methods of indicating the availability of tags are possible. The method followed in processing the tags, association with instances of CD, requesting tags with the PD, storing tags in PD, providing tags to CD(s), transfer of tags from PD to CDs, and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 75A-B is illustrative and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to perform the functions differently, and can choose to not include some or all of the steps illustrated here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 75A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment described here, an instance of PD 202, upon request, can either store tags in STORE 118 when the PD is not associated with any CD(s), or, provide tag(s) to one or more instances of CD 102 that the PD can be associated with. The request can be associated with PD 202 due to an event that can include user interaction using UI 226 of PD 202. User interaction with PD 202 can involve user pushing down a physical key associated with PD 202. User interaction with PD 202 can also involve user selection involving pushing down a key on a remote device associated with PD 202. The remote device and PD 202 can communicate with each other using technologies that can include infrared technology, RF technology, or the like. This can be similar to pressing a key on the remote associated with a set top box. In another embodiment of the invention, PD 202 can provide tags for all associated CD 102 instances in a way that can not involve user interaction. In some embodiments, the instance of PD 202 can also store tags in STORE 218 of PD 202 in a way that does not involve user interaction. In some embodiments, a PD 202 can provide tags to instances of CD 102 or store tags in STORE 218, once every time interval. Other methods of providing tags to CD 102 instances or storing tags in STORE 218 by the PD are possible. In embodiments of the present invention, tags that can be stored by PD 202 in STORE 218 can be provided by the PD to instance(s) of CD 102 when they become associated with the PD. In the embodiment described here, tags stored in STORE 218 can be transferred/provided to the first CD 102 that is associated with the PD 202 after PD 202 has stored tags in STORE 218. In this embodiment, PD 202 can be providing tags instead of storing them, while PD 202 can be associated with at least one CD 102 instance. The process starts at step 7502 and moves to step 7506. At step 7506, a determination can be done to see if PD 202 needs to stop the processing associated with FIG. 75A-B. If the process needs to be stopped, the process can move to step 7510. Step 7510 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 75A-B is complete. If the process does not need to be stopped, the process can move to step 7512. In embodiments wherein functionality associated with PD 202 can be included in a set-top box, the set top box can be associated with a user interface element such as a button that can allow for stopping the storage/providing of tags. This can be done due to a user preference in not communicating the information related to the media consumed by the user. At step 7512, a check is made to determine if the PD is associated with any instances of CD 102. This can be determined by checking the value of pState.numInfo A non-zero value of pState.numInfo can indicate that the PD is associated with at least one instance of CD. In such case, the process can move to step 7516. At step 7516, tags that are stored in STORE 218 can be provided to one of the CDs associated with PD. Once the tags have been provided to a CD, they can be deleted/removed from STORE 218. The process can then move to step 7518. Returning to step 7512, if it is determined that the PD is not associated with any instance of CD, the process can move to step 7514. At step 7514, the PD can try associating with a CD. This can be accomplished in some embodiments using the process illustrated in FIG. 49-52. The process can then move to step 7518. At step 7518, the process can perform anything that can be specific to the embodiment. The process can then move to step 7520. At step 7520, PD can determine if there is a request for a tag. If there is no request for a tag, the process can move to step 7522. Step 7522 indicates that the process can move to step 7508. Step 7508 indicates that the process can move to step 7506. If the check at step 7520 indicates that there is a request for a tag, the process can move to step 7524. Step 7524 indicates that the process can move to step 7526 of FIG. 75B. Step 7526 indicates that the process can move to step 7528. At step 7528, a check can be done to determine if the PD is associated with at least one CD. This can be determined by checking the value of pState.numInfo A non-zero value can indicate that the PD is associated with at least one CD. If the check is successful, the process can move to step 7530. At step 7530, the tag available at PD can be provided to the CD(s) associated with the PD. The process can then move to step 7532. Step 7532 indicates that the process can move to step 7508 of FIG. 75A. Returning to step 7528, if the check associated with this step fails, the process can move to step 7534. At step 7534, a check is done to determine if there is space available in STORE 218 for storing the tag. If space is available, the process can move to step 7538, wherein the tag can be stored in STORE 218 of PD 202. If a set/list of tags are already stored in STORE 218, the new tag can be added/appended to the set/list of tags in STORE 218. The process can then move to step 7540. Step 7540 indicates that the process can move to step 7508 of FIG. 75A. If the check at step 7534 fails, the process can move to step 7536. At step 7536, an alert can be indicated on UI 226 of PD 202 indicating that the PD does not have space available to store the tag. In embodiments wherein the functionality of PD 202 can be included in a set top box, an LED on the front panel of the set-top box can be set to a specific color—like orange. The process can then move to step 7540. FIG. 76A-C illustrate the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining the application that can be associated with a tag according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 76A-C can be used by an instance of CD 102 in associating a tag with an application. The process starts at step 7602 and moves to step 7604. At step 7604, rxTag associated with instance x is extracted and a local copy made. The local copy is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 7606. At step 7606, a check is made to determine if rxTag.appLocation is Null. rxTag.appLocation can represent a URL in some embodiments. A Null rxTag.appLocation can indicate that the rxTag.appLocation does not provide a URL. In some embodiments, rxTag.appLocation can specify a URL from where an application can be downloaded. If rxTag.appLocation is Null, the process can move to step 7610. If rxTag.appLocation is not Null, it can imply that rxTag.appLocation can be used as a URL from where an application can be downloaded. The process can in such embodiments move to step 7608. Step 7608 indicates that the process can move to step 7628 of FIG. 76B. Step 7628 indicates that the process can move to step 7630. At step 7630, a check can be made to determine if the application that can be downloaded from rxTag.appLocation is already present and/or available to the CD. If the application is already available, an instance of CD 102 can choose to not download the application from rxTag.appLocation URL. In some embodiments, the availability/presence of an application with CD 102 can be determined using the process illustrated in FIG. 81. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 81. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with field appLocation. x.appLocation can be set to rxTag.appLocation, before using the process associated with FIG. 81. The process associated with FIG. 76A-C can use the result of FIG. 81. If the result associated with FIG. 81 indicates that an application is available with CD 102, the process can move to step 7636. If not, the process can move to step 7632. Step 7632 indicates that the CD 102 can download the application from rxTag.appLocation URL. The downloaded application can be referred to as an app. Various methods of downloads are possible. Methods of download can use protocols such as http, ftp or the like. In some embodiments, downloads can also be based on peer to peer technologies such as BitTorrent, GnuTella, etc. In some other embodiments, downloads can also be based on trackerless peer to peer technologies. Other methods of downloads not described here can also be used. The downloads can use the instance of NI 106 of CD 102 which can also be used in receiving tags by the CD, or any other instance of NI 106 on CD 102 can be used for the downloads. Downloads can use wired and/or wireless technologies. Downloads can also use technologies such as Wifi, cellular communications, or the like. The process at step 7632 can then move to step 7634. At step 7634, the downloaded app can be saved in STORE 118 of CD 102. In some embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 82 can be used for saving app in STORE 118. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 82. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with fields appLocation and app. x.appLocation can be set to rxTag.appLocation, and x.app can be set to app, before using the process associated with FIG. 82. The process associated with FIG. 76A-C can move to step 7638 after the process associated with FIG. 82 is complete. Step 7638 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 76A-C is complete. The process can also provide the ‘app’ to the process that uses process associated with FIG. 76A-C. Returning to step 7636, the application associated with rxTag.appLocation can be retrieved from STORE 118. In some embodiments, this can be determined using the process illustrated in FIG. 81. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 81. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with field appLocation. x.appLocation can be set to rxTag.appLocation, before using the process associated with FIG. 81. The process associated with FIG. 76A-C can use the application returned by process illustrated in FIG. 81. The result provided by process of FIG. 81 can be referred to as app. The process can then move to step 7638. Returning to step 7610 of FIG. 76A, a check can be made at this step to determine if an application can be determined based on a selection in the past, based on the type associated with rxTag. In some embodiments, this can be determined using the process illustrated in FIG. 78. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 78. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a field ‘type’. x.type can be set to rxTag.type, before using the process associated with FIG. 78. The process associated with FIG. 76A-C can use the result of FIG. 78. If the result associated with FIG. 78 indicates that an application associated with the given type can be determined based on an earlier selection, the process can move to step 7612. If not, the process can move to step 7616. At step 7612, an application can be determined based on a selection that has been made in the past. The selection can be made due to various forms of interactions with a user via UI 126 of CD 102. The interactions can involve user selecting an application from a list of applications, in some embodiments. In other embodiments, the interactions can involve user selection of one or more tags from a list of tags. In some embodiments, the interaction can also involve UI 226 of PD 202. In some embodiments an application can be determined using the process illustrated in FIG. 78. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 78. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a field ‘type’. x.type can be set to rxTag.type, before using the process associated with FIG. 78. The process associated with FIG. 76A-C can use the result of FIG. 78. The result provided by process of FIG. 78 can be referred to as app, for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can move to step 7614, after the process associated with FIG. 78 is complete. Step 7614 indicates that the process can move to step 7658 of FIG. 76C. Step 7658 indicates that the process can move to step 7656. Step 7656 indicates that the ‘app’ as determined in earlier steps can be provided as a result of the process illustrated in FIG. 76A-C. Step 7656 also indicates that the process associated with FIG. 76A-C is complete. Returning to step 7616 of FIG. 76A, a check can be made at this step to see if an application can be determined based on the type associated with rxTag. In some embodiments, this can be determined using the process illustrated in FIG. 80. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 80. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a field ‘type’. x.type can be set to rxTag.type, before using the process associated with FIG. 80. The process associated with FIG. 76A-C can use the result of FIG. 80. If the result associated with FIG. 80 indicates that an application associated with the given type can be determined, the process can move to step 7618. If not, the process can move to step 7622. At step 7618, an application can be determined based on the type associated with rxTag. In some embodiments, the determination of an application can be made on some configuration. The configuration can be provided by user via UI 126 of CD 102 at an earlier point of time. The configuration can also be provided using some other provisioning mechanisms. The configuration in some embodiments can help determine an application based on the type associated with a tag. In some embodiments an application can be determined using the process illustrated in FIG. 80. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 80. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with a field ‘type’. x.type can be set to rxTag.type, before using the process associated with FIG. 80. The process associated with FIG. 76A-C can use the result of FIG. 80. The result provided by process of FIG. 80 can be referred to as app, for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can move to step 7620, after the process associated with FIG. 80 is complete. Step 7620 indicates that the process can move to step 7658 of FIG. 76C. Returning to step 7622, this step indicates that the process can move to step 7652 of FIG. 76C. Step 7652 indicates that the process can move to step 7654. At step 7654, an alert can be provided to user of CD 102 indicating that an application could not be determined for rxTag. ‘app’ can be set to Null which can indicate that an application is not available. In some embodiments, an alert that can be provided in this step can include mechanisms such as displaying a message on VIDEO 124 of CD 102. In other embodiments, the alert can include making an audio beep using AUDIO 122. In other embodiments, a small icon can be placed on UI 126 indicating that some tags could not be resolved into applications. In some other embodiments, an alert cannot be provided. The process can then move to step 7656. The method of determining an application for a given tag, as illustrated in FIG. 76A-C is illustrative only, and meant for use by the embodiment of the invention described here. Other embodiments can choose to include methods not described here, exclude some or all of the methods described in FIG. 76A-C. The methods and the information used by the methods of FIG. 76A-C, are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 77 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in handling applications associated with tags in a non-interactive manner according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of the present invention, an instance of CD 102 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 77 to run applications associated with some tags received by the CD. In some embodiments, applications for some tags can be run in a non-interactive manner. The applications that can be run in such embodiments can not involve user interacting with the application. An example of such an embodiment is a tag of type SaleSchedule. A tag of such type can be associated with an application that can update the calendar of user associated with CD 102 with the schedule of a sale as can be indicated by the tag. The application for this tag type can be run automatically when the tag is received, without involving user interaction. Various methods can be used in determining if an application associated with a tag can be run in a in a non-interactive manner. In the embodiment described here, an autoRun field associated with AppData as illustrated in FIG. 19 can be used to determine if the application can be run without user interaction. In other embodiments, CD 102 can be associated with a configuration that can specify a set of types associated with tags for which applications can be run without user interaction. Other embodiments can use other methods of determining if an application for a given tag can be run non-interactively. The methods and information as illustrated in FIG. 77 is meant for use according to the embodiment of the invention described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 7702 and moves to step 7704. At step 7704, cAppSet associated with instance x is extracted and a local copy made. The local copy is referred to as rxCAppSet for use in subsequent steps of the process. rxCAppSet is an array of instances of type CA. Each instance of a CA can be associated with a tag and an application. The process can then move to step 7706. At step 7706, numApps can be set to rxCAppSet.length—the number of valid CA instances available in rxCAppSet. The process can then move to step 7708. At step 7708, i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 7710. At step 7710 a check is made to determine if i is less than numApps. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 7714. If not, the process can move to step 7712. Step 7712 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 77 is complete. Returning to step 7714, i-th element of rxCAppSet is retrieved and contextApp is set to the retrieved CA instance. The process can then move to step 7722. At step 7722, a ctx is set to tag associated with contextApp. The process can then move to step 7716. At step 7716, a check is made to determine if the app associated with contextApp can be run in a non-interactive manner. In the embodiment described here, the autoRun field associated with contextApp.app can be checked. If contextApp.app.autoRun indicates true, the check at step 7716 can indicate a success of check. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 7718. If not, the process can move to step 7724. At step 7724, i is incremented and the process moves to step 7710. The incremented value of i can be used to access/retrieve the next element of rxCAppSet, if possible. Returning to step 7718, the element at index i can indicate that the application associated with it can be run. The application contextApp.app can be run at this step. contextApp.tag can be provided as input to the run of contextApp.app. Other contextApp.tag specific data, or any other embodiment specific data can be provided as input to the run of contextApp.app. In an environment that can support run of multiple applications at any time (such as the Android operating system/platform), the process can move to step 7720. If the environment associated with CD 102, that can include the operating system, does not support run of multiple applications, the process associated with FIG. 77 waits in step 7718 for completion of run of contextApp.app. In such embodiments, the process can move to step 7720 after the run of contextApp.app is complete. Step 7720 indicates that the contextApp can be deleted from rxCAppSet. The process can then move to step 7724. FIG. 78 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining an application that has been selected in the past, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process associated with FIG. 78 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in determining an application that can be associated with a given tag type. The determination can be done based on the selection of an application in the past for another tag associated with a type which matches the type provided to the process of FIG. 78. Other methods of associating a given type with an application based on events in the past can be used. The method of associating a type (or a tag) to an application based on selections made on CD 102 in the past, as described in FIG. 78 is illustrative only. Other embodiments can choose to use other events associated with CD 102 to help associate a given tag type to an application. The process starts at step 7802 and moves to step 7804. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with ctxType field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 78. x.ctxType is an instance of type that can be associated with a tag, as illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. A local copy of x.ctxType is made in step 7804. The local copy is referred to as rxCtxType for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 7806. At step 7806, numApps is set to number of valid elements in learntAppSet. The process then moves to step 7808. At step 7808, i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 7810. At step 7810 a check is made to determine if i is less than numApps. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 7814. If not, the process can move to step 7826. Step 7826 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 78 is unable to determine an application for the given type. The process can then move to step 7812. Step 7812 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 78 is complete. Returning to step 7814, i-th element of learntAppSet is retrieved and ctx is set to the retrieved CA. The process can then move to step 7816. At step 7816, a check is made to determine if the type associated with ctx matches rxCtxType. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 7818. If not, the process can move to step 7824. At step 7824, i is incremented and the process moves to step 7810. The incremented value of i can be used to access/retrieve the next element of learntAppSet, if possible. Returning to step 7818, the element at index i can indicate that the application selected in the past for a tag type matching rxCtxType has been found in learntAppSet array. ctx.app is then associated with app. The process can then move to step 7820. At step 7820, a determination is made that ‘app’ as determined in step 7818 is the result of the process associated with FIG. 78. The process can then move to step 7822. Step 7822 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 78 is complete. FIG. 79A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in handling the selection of an application, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process illustrated in FIG. 79A-B can be followed by an instance of CD 102 when a user of CD 102 selects an application for a given tag. An application can be selected by a user of CD 102 from a list of applications for received tags, using UI 126. The method can also be used when an application is selected based on a user interaction that can determine the tags (and hence the resulting applications) received by CD 102. The method can also be used in embodiments wherein a user interaction can select tags instead of applications. The method of handling selection of applications and/or tags (which can indirectly imply the selection of applications, since tags are associated with applications) as described in this embodiment is illustrative. Other embodiments can choose to handle selection of applications and/or tags in a manner different from what is described here. The methods described here are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the method described in FIG. 79A-B, the selection of an application and/or tags can involve updating the learntAppSet. This can be done to associate the type of tag to the application, which can be provided to the process. This can be useful in determining an application to be used for tags that can be received by the CD 102, in future. The application associated with the selection can be launched as well. When an application is launched, the tag can be provided to application, along with any other data that can be specific to the embodiment or the tag. Other methods of handling application or tag selection can be used in other embodiments. The process starts at step 7902 and moves to step 7904. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with ctxApp field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 79. x.ctxApp is an instance of CA. A local copy of x.ctxApp is made in step 7904. The local copy is referred to as rxCtxApp for use in subsequent steps of the process. rxCtxApp includes a tag and an application. In some embodiments, the application associated with rxCtxApp can be the selected aspect, while in some other embodiments, the tag can be a selected aspect. The process can then move to step 7906. At step 7906, rxContext is set to rxCtxApp.tag and rxApp is set to rxCtxApp.app. The process can then move to step 7908. At step 7908, an rxType is set to rxContext.type. The process can then move to step 7910. At step 7910, numApps is set to length of learntAppSet—the number of valid CA instances maintained in learntAppSet. The process can then move to step 7912. At step 7912, an i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 7914. Step 7914 indicates that the process can move to step 7916 of FIG. 79B. Step 7916 of FIG. 79B indicates that the process can move to step 7918. At step 7918, a check is done to determine if i is less than numApps. If the check fails, the process can move to step 7932. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 7920. At step 7920, i-th element of learntAppSet is retrieved and is copied to ctxApp for use in subsequent steps of the process. At step 7922, a ctx is set to ctxApp.tag. The process then moves to step 7924 where a ctxType is set to ctx.type. The process can then move to step 7926. At step 7926, a check is done to determine if rxType is same as ctxType. If the check passes, the process can move to step 7928. If the check fails the process can move to step 7930. At step 7930, i is incremented and the process moves to step 7918. Referring to step 7926, a check that passes can indicate that the i-th element in learntAppSet is associated with a tag whose type matches rxType. At step 7928, the i-th element is deleted from learntAppSet. This can be done to add the new CA instance to the set. In some embodiments, this can be done so that the application that can be selected for a tag based on learntAppSet can be the application that has been chosen last for a given type and/or tag. The process in step 7928 can then move to step 7930. Referring to step 7932, the rxCtxApp determined in step 7904 can be added to learntAppSet. The process can then move to step 7934. At step 7934 the application rxApp as determined in step 7906 can be launched. The application can be provided with input that can include rxContext determined in step 7906. The application can also be provided with input that can include embodiment specific data and/or data specific to the tag that can be related to the embodiment. The input can be provided using interactive or non-interactive schemes. This can include mechanisms such as arguments that are provided to software written in programming languages such as C, Java, etc. Programs written in C are provided with parameters to a main( ) function in program, that can specify the arguments to the program. These arguments can be specified on command line when the program is invoked interactively. In other embodiments where programs are invoked non-interactively, parameters can be specified to programs in manner specific to the embodiment. For example, when a C program is invoked from a shell script, parameters can be specified to C programs in a manner similar to how the parameters are specified at command line. The parameters in such embodiment are provided by the script that invokes the program. Other methods can be used to provide parameters to the application. The process associated with FIG. 79A-B can then move to step 7936. Step 7936 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 79A-B is complete. FIG. 80 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in determining an application that can be associated a given tag type, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process associated with FIG. 80 can be used by an instance of CD 102 in determining an application that can be associated with a given tag type. The determination can be done based on the associations between tags and applications maintained by cfgAppSet in STORE 118 of CD 102. In one embodiment, cfgAppSet maintains an association between tags and applications using an array of CA instances. The set of instances of CA in cfgAppSet can be managed by user interaction via UI 126 or some other configuration provisioning mechanisms. The method of associating a tag type to an application based on cfgAppSet configuration by CD 102, as described in FIG. 80 is illustrative only. Other embodiments can choose to use other methods and/or other configuration associated with CD 102 to help associate a given tag type to an application. The process starts at step 8002 and moves to step 8004. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with ctxType field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 80. x.ctxType is an instance of type that can be associated with a tag, as illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. A local copy of x.ctxType is made in step 8004. The local copy is referred to as rxCtxType for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 8006. At step 8006, numApps is set to number of valid elements in cfgAppSet. The process then moves to step 8008. At step 8008, i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 8010. At step 8010 a check is made to determine if i is less than numApps. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8014. If not, the process can move to step 8026. Step 8026 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 80 is unable to determine an application for the given type. The process can then move to step 8012. Step 8012 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 80 is complete. Returning to step 8014, i-th element of cfgAppSet is retrieved and ctx is set to the retrieved CA instance. The process can then move to step 8016. At step 8016, a check is made to determine if the type associated with ctx matches rxCtxType. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8018. If not, the process can move to step 8024. At step 8024, i is incremented and the process moves to step 8010. The incremented value of i can be used to access/retrieve the next element of cfgAppSet, if possible. Returning to step 8018, the element at index i can indicate that the application for a tag type matching rxCtxType has been found in cfgAppSet array. ctx.app is then associated with app. The process can then move to step 8020. At step 8020, a determination is made that ‘app’ as determined in step 8018 is the result of the process associated with FIG. 80. The process can then move to step 8022. Step 8022 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 80 is complete. FIG. 81 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in accessing or retrieving an application from the storage medium associated with the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can store applications in APPSTORE associated with STORE 118. Applications can be stored in APPSTORE using STI 116. FIG. 81 is related to FIG. 82 in a way such that while the method illustrated in FIG. 82 is used to store applications in APPSTORE, the method illustrated in FIG. 81 is used to retrieve or access applications from APPSTORE. The notion of identifiers, association of applications to identifiers, appLocations, association of appLocations to applications, the association of appLocations to applications when application is stored in APPSTORE, the use of associative arrays for storing, the use of hash table for application management in other embodiments, etc. (and all related aspects and embodiments) as applicable to method of FIG. 82 are applicable to FIG. 81. The method illustrated by FIG. 81 is illustrative, meant to be used with the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process begins at step 8102 and moves to step 8104. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with appLocation. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 81. In the embodiment described here, x.appLocation can be a URL. At step 8104, a local copy of x.appLocation is made in appLocation. The process then moves to step 8106. At step 8106, APPSTORE is examined to determine if an application associated with appLocation is stored in APPSTORE. If it is determined that an application associated with appLocation exists in APPSTORE, the process can move to step 8110. If not, the process can move to step 8108. At step 8110, the application associated with appLocation is retrieved from APPSTORE. The retrieved application is referred to as ‘app’. The process can then move to step 8112. Returning back to step 8108, where an application associated with appLocation does not exist, ‘app’ can be set to NULL. The NULL value for app can indicate that there is no application in APPSTORE that can be associated with appLocation. The process can then move to step 8112. At step 8112, app determined either in steps 8108 or 8110 is provided as the result of the process described in FIG. 81. If the process described in FIG. 81 is used by other processes to retrieve applications from APPSTORE, ‘app’ can be returned to the process that uses FIG. 81. The process can then move to step 8114. Step 8114 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 81 is complete. FIG. 82 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a CD in storing an application in the storage medium associated with the CD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 102 can store applications in APPSTORE associated with STORE 118. Applications can be stored in APPSTORE using STI 116. Each application stored in APPSTORE can be associated with information that can include an identifier. In the embodiment described here, the identifier can be associated with an appLocation. In some embodiments, the appLocation can represent a URL from which the application is downloaded. In other embodiments, an appLocation associated with an application does not represent a URL from where the application is downloaded. The appLocation in some embodiments can be used to associate a unique identifier with an application among a set of applications. The use of appLocation for identifiers, URL for appLocation, etc. is illustrative only. Other identifiers can be used as well. Other methods of storing applications in and/or retrieving applications from APPSTORE can be used in other embodiments. The method illustrated by FIG. 82 is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the method associated with FIG. 82, each application is associated with an appLocation. The appLocation can indicate the URL from where the application can be downloaded. When an application is provided to APPSTORE for storage, the APPSTORE can be provided with information that can include appLocation. The APPSTORE associated with STORE 118 can be used to store applications such that the applications can be retrieved from APPSTORE when the APPSTORE is presented with information that can include appLocation. The method of storage and retrieval can be implemented using an associative array. Associative arrays allow for storing elements in a way such that the array can be indexed using elements that need not be integers. Regular arrays, such as those provided with C programming languages can be indexed using integers only. The management of applications in APPSTORE can also be implemented using hash tables, with appLocation acting as the key for the hash table. Other methods of storing applications associated with appLocations can be implemented. In the embodiment described in FIG. 82, associative arrays are used to store the application. The process begins at step 8202 and moves to step 8204. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with app and appLocation. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 82. In the embodiment described here, x.app can be associated with an application as described in FIG. 19. x.appLocation can be associated with a URL. The values associated with instance ‘x’ are extracted and a local copy made for use in the process described in FIG. 82. The process then moves to step 8206. At step 8206, the app extracted from instance ‘x’ is stored in APPSTORE. Along with providing app to APPSTORE, APPSTORE is also provided with appLocation extracted from ‘x’. The process can then move to step 8208. Step 8208 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 82 is complete. FIG. 83 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD in providing tags according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, tag(s) can be provided by an instance of PD 202 upon expiry of a time interval. The tag(s) can be provided to instances of CD 102 in a manner that can be determined by information that can include information related to the type of tag, the association type of the tag or the like. The events that can trigger provisioning of tag by the PD can be specific to each embodiment. For the embodiment described here, tags can be provided by a PD upon expiry of a time interval. The events that trigger providing of tags, the information that can be used to trigger events, or the method of providing tags as described here is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Other embodiments can trigger sending of tags by a PD due to events not described here. The methods used for providing tags can be different as well, in other embodiments. Other examples of events that trigger sending of tags are explained in context of other embodiments described in this application. In some embodiments the process associated with FIG. 83 can be used whenever a time interval expires. A timer can be implemented in different ways in different embodiments. In some embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 83 can be invoked when a hardware timer provides an interrupt to a CPU once every time interval. In such embodiment, process associated with FIG. 83 can be implemented as an interrupt handler, in software. In other embodiments, an operating system such as Unix, Linux, Windows 7, etc. can provide mechanisms to register function handlers that can be invoked once every time interval. Other methods of implementing process of FIG. 83 once every time interval can be implemented. The process starts at step 8302 and can move to step 8304. The timer associated with invoking this process is referred to herein as a Tag Provider Timer. In some embodiments, the Tag Provider Timer can be stopped to allow for the process to provide tags. The timer can be stopped at step 8304. The process can then move to step 8306. At step 8306, the process can provide tags. In one embodiment, the process associated with FIG. 84A-B can be used to send/provide tags. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 84A-B. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with field consumerId. x.consumerId can be set to Null (can be 0 in some embodiments) before using the process associated with FIG. 84A-B. The process associated with FIG. 83 can move to step 8308, after the process associated with FIG. 84A-B is complete. In some embodiments where the Tag Provider Timer is stopped at step 8304, the Tag Provider Timer can be started in step 8308. The process can then move to step 8310. Step 8310 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 83 is complete. FIG. 84A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a PD in sending tags to CD(s) according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process associated with FIG. 84A-B can be used by an instance of PD 202 in sending (or providing) tags. The process can be used in sending tags that can be associated with one of different association types. The sending of tags can also be related to the type of NI 206. NI 206 can be associated with different transport types as illustrated in FIG. 8, and described in related description. For tags that can be associated with Unicast association type, the process illustrated in FIG. 84A-B can be used once for every instance of CD 102 that the PD can choose to send tags for. For tags that can be associated with Multicast or Broadcast association type, the process illustrated by FIG. 84A-B can be used only once for all instances of CD 102 associated with the PD, when the PD chooses to send a tag. It can be noted that the method of sending tags, processes used for sending tags of different association types, the use of interface types, etc. in sending tags as described in FIG. 84A-B are specific to this embodiment. Other methods and/or processes can be used in sending the tags, and the methods described in FIG. 48A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 8402 and moves to step 8404. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with a consId field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 84. x.consId is an identifier that can be associated with a CD. The identifier can also hold a special value such as Null that cannot be associated with any instance of CD 102. A local copy of x.consId is made in step 8404. The local copy is referred to as rxConsId for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 8406. At step 8406, a new instance of Tag is created. The structure of information that can be stored in the created instance is illustrated in FIG. 5. The created instance is referred to as tag1 for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of a Tag instance can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a Tag instance can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a Tag instance can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the Tag instance. The process can then move to step 8408. At step 8408, a pInfo is set to pState.pInfo. The process can then move to step 8410. At step 8410, a cInfo is set to pState.core. The process can then move to step 8412. Various fields associated with tag1 are set, as illustrated in step 8412. The process can then move to step 8414. At step 8414, some other fields associated with tag1 are setup. The process can then move to step 8416. At step 8416, a check is done to determine if pInfo.assocType is one of Multicast or Broadcast. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8420. If the check passes, the process can move to step 8418. At step 8418, tag1 created and setup in earlier steps, is sent out, once on each of the NI 206 interfaces associated with the PD. In some embodiments, tag1 can be sent out on only some NI 206 interfaces associated with the PD. In some embodiments, tag1 can be sent out only on some NI 206 interfaces wherein a CD 102 can associate with the PD using that NI 206 interface. In some embodiments, tag1 can be sent out only on some NI 206 interfaces wherein a CD 102 is associated with the PD using that NI 206 interface. Other methods of determining NI 206 interfaces on which to send the tags are possible. Returning to step 8420, this step indicates that the process can move to step 8422 of FIG. 84B. Step 8422 indicates that the process can move to step 8448. At step 8448, i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 8450. At step 8450 a check is made to determine if i is less than pState.numInfo. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8454. If not, the process can move to step 8452. Step 8452 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 84A-B is complete. Returning to step 8454, i-th element of pState.consumerInfo is retrieved and cInfo is set to the retrieved CI. The process can then move to step 8456. At step 8456, a check is made to determine if the rxConsId matches cInfo.consumerId. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8458. If not, the process can move to step 8464. At step 8464, i is incremented and the process moves to step 8450. The incremented value of i can be used to access/retrieve the next element of pState.consumerInfo, if possible. Returning to step 8458, the element at index i can indicate that the CD 102 for which the tag needs to be sent, as specified by rxConsId, has been found in pState.consumerInfo array. The consumerId associated with tag1 is set to cInfo.consumerId. The process can then move to step 8460. At step 8460, tag1 is sent to the CD identified by rxConsId using cInfo.contact. The process can then move to step 8464. FIG. 85 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD on receiving messages from GD that can include tag related information, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the present invention, an instance of PD 202 can use the process illustrated by FIG. 85 in handling messages that can include information related to a tag. In the embodiment described here, the type associated with such messages can be GeneratedInfo. The process followed by a PD 202 can use the information related to the tag in the message, to send tags to one or more instances of CD 102. In embodiments where the association type related to a tag can be Unicast, the message received by the PD can also include information related to the CD 102 that the tag can be associated to. In the process described in FIG. 85, the tag as determined by PD using information from the message, is sent or provided without any delay to instances of CD 102, upon receipt of a message. In other embodiments of the process, the information related to the tags can be stored by the PD in pState and sent to instances of CD 102 at a later time. The method illustrated in FIG. 85 is illustrative only and specific to the embodiment described here. Other methods of processing messages, that can include tag related information, received by PD 202, are possible. The content of messages carrying information related to tags, the methods followed in extracting information, and sending tags by PD described here specific to this embodiment and is illustrative only. The methods, content and the methods of using that content, described here is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the flow diagram of FIG. 85, two types of tags can be handled differently from other types of tags. The types of tag are Feedback and OrderInfo. In relation to the values that can be associated with type of tags as described in FIG. 4A-B, tags associated with type Feedback and OrderInfo can have an association type of Unicast. Information specific to CD 102 that can associate the tags with specific instances of CD 102 can include a consumerId. This consumerId can be provided in tag-type specific information such as FeedbackInfo (FI) and OrderInfo (OI). The structure and content of this tag-type specific information is described in FIG. 118 and FIG. 119. The use of Feeback and OrderInfo tag types, and consumerId for these tags is illustrative only. Other types of tags can be of type Unicast. For these other Unicast tags, other methods and/or information can be used to associate tags with specific instance(s) of CD 102. The process starts at step 8502 and moves to step 8504. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with mesg field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 85. The x.mesg field can be associated with a message of type GeneratedInfo, according to one embodiment of the present invention. At step 8504, x.mesg is extracted and a local copy is made. The local copy is referred to as mesg for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 8506. At step 8506, an assocType is set to pState.generatorInfo.assocType, and type1 is set to pState.generatorInfo.type. The process can then move to step 8508. At step 8508, a consId is set to Null. The process can then move to step 8510. At step 8510, a check is done to determine if type1 determined at step 8506 is Feedback. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8516. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8512. At step 8512, mesg.info can be used as an instance of FI. This instance is referred to as feedbackInfo. consId can be set to feedbackInfo.consumerId. consId can be used to associate the tag provided by the PD to an instance of CD 102 whose cState.myConsumerId matches consId. The process can then move to step 8514. Step 8514 indicates that the process can move to step 8522. Step 8522 indicates that the process can move to step 8524. Returning to step 8516, a check is done to determine if type1 determined at step 8506 is OrderInfo. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8524. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8518. At step 8518, mesg.info can be used as an instance of OI. This instance is referred to as orderInfo. consId can be set to orderInfo.consumerId. consId can be used to associate the tag to an instance of CD 102 whose cState.myConsumerId matches consId. The process can then move to step 8520. Step 8520 indicates that the process can move to step 8522. Step 8522 indicates that the process can move to step 8524. At step 8524, a check is made to determine if the PD 202 is operating with instance(s) of GD 302 wherein the message provides all information related to a tag, or only partial information related to a tag. In some embodiments, messages that can include tag specific information can provide all information (CRI) related to a tag. In such embodiments, the process can move to step 8528 wherein pState.core is set to data in mesg.info. The process can then move to step 8530. Returning to step 8524, there can be embodiments wherein information related to tags that can be included in a message can be partial. In some embodiments, information included in a message can include additionalInfo field associated with the tag. In such embodiments, the process moves to step 8526. At step 8526, pState.core.additionalInfo can be set to mesg.info. The process can then move to step 8530. In some embodiments, fields associated with a CRI, other than additionalInfo—such as appLocation, assocType, autoRun, etc. cannot change while an instance of GD is associated with an instance of PD. In such embodiments, messages including information related to tags generated by an instance of GD need not include information other than additionalInfo. In other embodiments, some or all fields associated with a CRI, other than additionalInfo can be implicit for the embodiment. The appLocation associated with a CRI for a tag of a given type, can be hard-coded in the system of methods related to CD 102. Such embodiments can use step 8526. In some other embodiments, any field associated with a tag can change while an instance of GD is associated with an instance of PD. In such embodiments, all information related to a tag can be included in the GeneratedInfo message. Such embodiments can use step 8528. At step 8530, a tag can be provided by PD to one or more instances of CD. In one embodiment, the process associated with FIG. 84A-B can be used to send the tag. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 84A-B. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with field consumerId. x.consumerId can be set to consId as determined in earlier steps of the process, before using the process associated with FIG. 84A-B. The process associated with FIG. 85 can move to step 8532 after process associated with FIG. 84A-B is complete. Step 8532 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 85 is complete. FIG. 86 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a PD on receiving messages from GD that can include tag related information, according to another embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process associated with FIG. 86 can be used by an instance of PD 202 in handling messages that can include tag related information. In the embodiment described here, the type associated with such messages can be GeneratedInfo. The process followed by a PD 202 can use the information related to tag(s) in the message, to send tags to one or more instances of CD 102. In some embodiments, information related to tags can be associated with a type and a sub-type. An example of such embodiment is a tag associated with type MultiType. Messages of type GeneratedInfo can carry information related to tags of type MultiType. The info field of such a message can include a list of instances of MI as described in FIG. 20. Each instance of MI can be associated with information that can include an assocType, a type and an instance of CRI, among others. Each instance of MI can be used by a PD to provide a tag. This method of generating and/or providing tags can be used in embodiments wherein some or all of information related to tags that can include assocType, can be generated by a GD. An example of such embodiment is when information related to tags can be extracted from media. Another way of understanding the concept is that a tag of MultiType can be used to carry information related to a set of tags each of which can be associated with different tag types. In case of media embodiment, information extracted from media can help determine type, assocType and CRI associated with each instance of MI. The method of processing messages that can include information related to a variety of tags as illustrated in FIG. 86 is specific to the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to handle messages containing information related to a number/variety of tags in a way not described here. Other embodiments can also choose to handle messages that can contain information related to tags generated by a GD due to information extracted from media, in a way not described here. The methods and processing illustrated in FIG. 86 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 8602 and moves to step 8604. The process is provided with instance ‘x’ that can be associated with mesg field. The values associated with instance ‘x’ can be provided by a process that uses the method illustrated by FIG. 86. The x.mesg field can be associated with a message of type GeneratedInfo, according to one embodiment of the present invention. The process can then move to step 8606. At step 8606, an assocType can be set to pState.generatorInfo.assocType, a type can be set to pState.generatorInfo.type, a pInfo can be set to pState.pInfo and infoList can be set to mesg.info. In the embodiment of the invention described here, infoList can be a list of instances of MI. Each info can include information related to assocType, a type, a consumerId and an instance of CRI. The type field of MI can be associated with values of a tag type as illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. The process can then move to step 8608. At step 8608, a check is made to determine if infoList is empty. If the list is empty, the process can move to step 8610. Step 8610 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 86 is complete. If the infoList as checked at step 8608 is not empty, the process can move to step 8612. At step 8612, an instance of info is retrieved from infoList. The instance of info is referred to as currInfo, for use in subsequent steps of the process. When an instance of info is retrieved from infoList, the number of instances of info in infoList reduces by 1. The process can then move to step 8614. At step 8614, pInfo.assocType can be set to currInfo.assocType, pInfo.type can be set to currInfo.type, and pInfo.core can be set to currInfo.core. The process can then move to step 8616. At step 8616 a tag can be provided by the PD. In one embodiment, the process associated with FIG. 84A-B can be used to send the tag. Instance ‘x’ can be provided to process of FIG. 84A-B. Instance ‘x’ can be associated with field consumerId. x.consumerId can be set to pState.core.consumerId, before using the process associated with FIG. 84A-B. The process associated with FIG. 86 can move to step 8608, after the process associated with FIG. 84A-B is complete. FIG. 132 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of state (GS) associated with the GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process illustrated in FIG. 132 can be used by an instance of GD 302 in initializing some or all of gState associated with the GD. The embodiment of GD 302 as described here can generate tags that can be associated with type MultiType. gState.core associated with an instance of GD 302 can be used to maintain a list of instances of MI. The structure of MI, as used by this embodiment is illustrated in FIG. 7. Information related to tags generated by GD 302 can be determined using data extracted from media by TEXT 310 of FIG. 3A. In some embodiments of GD 302, information related to tags that can be generated by the GD can include derived information. An example of information derived by an instance of GD 302 is illustrated in FIG. 21. In some embodiments of GD 302, information related to tags that can be generated by the GD can include a sample of media as determined/captured by TEXT 310 and/or CEXT 320 of FIG. 3A. An example structure of information related to media samples is illustrated in FIG. 7. The method illustrated in FIG. 132 can be used by GD 302 before GD 302 can start associating with instances of PD 202, in some embodiments of the invention. The structure of information maintained in gState, the initialization of values associated with gState, the values associated with information maintained in gState, and the methods used in initialization as illustrated in FIG. 132 is specific to the embodiment described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 13202 and moves to step 13204. At step 13204, an instance of GeneratorInfo is created. The created instance is referred to as gInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 13206. At step 13206, an instance of CoreInfo is created. The created instance is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of GeneratorInfo in step 13204 and/or an instance of CoreInfo in step 13206, can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 13208. At step 13208, fields associated with gInfo can be initialized. gInfo.type is set to MultiType at this step, that can indicate that the tags generated by this embodiment of GD 302 can be associated with type of MultiType. gInfo.assocType can be set to Broadcast, which can indicate that the tags related to information generated by this GD, and provided by an instance of PD can be used by any instance of CD 102 that can receive the tag. gInfo.idProvider can be set to None and gInfo.mcastConsumerId can be set to Null. idProvider and mcastConsumerId fields can be used in embodiments where the assocType related to tags can be Multicast. At step 13208, gInfo.genId is set to ipAddrPortGenId. gInfo.genId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of GD 302 among all GDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, gInfo.genId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with GD 302. An ipAddrPortGenId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortGenId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine gInfo.genId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. gInfo.contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the GD that is associated with the gInfo. In the embodiment described here, gInfo.contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the GD can use to communicate messages with instances of PD 202. The process can then move to step 13210. At this step, cInfo.version is set to 1, cInfo.appLocation can be set to Null, cInfo.additonalInfoUrl can be set to Null. Null values for appLocation and additonalInfoUrl of cInfo can be used to indicate that these fields do not hold valid values. The process can then move to step 13212. At step 13212, gState.gInfo is set to gInfo, gState.core is set to cInfo and gState.numInfo is set to 0. A value of 0 for gState.numInfo can indicate that the GD is not associated (yet) with any instances of PD 202, and that gState.providerInfo list is empty. The process can then move to step 13214. Step 13214 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 132 is complete. FIG. 87A-E illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be associated with tags, and communicating information that can be associated with tags to PDs, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention, the process illustrated by FIG. 87A-E can be used by an instance of GD 302 in determining information that can be associated with tags, and communicating determined information, including other functionality. In the embodiment described here, an instance of GD 302 can determine information that can be associated with tags using information that can be extracted from tagged media content. An example of data that can be extracted from media is illustrated in FIG. 20. Information can be extracted from media that can help determine some or all information that can be included in a tag. In the example illustrated in FIG. 20, the information includes a subset of all the information that can be associated with a tag. In some embodiments, information that can be associated with tags can be determined by GD 302 by deriving/determining some information which can be related to media content. An example of data that can be derived/determined by GD 302 is illustrated in FIG. 21. In embodiments wherein media is not tagged, or data cannot be extracted from tagged media, DerivedInfo (DI) as illustrated in FIG. 21 can be associated with a tag. A CD 102 receiving a tag that can include DI, can use the DI in tag to determine information related to the media associated with DI, using mechanisms that can include a service. The CD in such embodiments can present one or more instances of DI to a service, which can respond to the CD with information that can be related to media associated with the DI instances. In some other embodiments, information that can be associated with tags can include a sample of media which can be captured/determined by GD 302. An example structure of information that can be associated with a sample of media is illustrated in FIG. 7. In some embodiments, a sample of media that can be associated with a tag that can be used by an instance of CD 102 to determine information related to the media sample. This can be used in embodiments wherein media is not tagged with information. An instance of CD 102 can determine information related to the media by submitting the media sample to a service (such as a service over internet) that can interpret the sample and help determine information related to the media, and/or associated tags. GD 302, according to this embodiment can help generate information that can be associated with tags of type MultiType. The process associated with FIG. 87A-E can be used to update gState associated with GD 302, using the information that can be determined in the process. The information that can be associated with a tag such as one illustrated in FIG. 20, FIG. 21, FIG. 7, and the information that can be updated by processes FIG. 87A-E and the processes associated with FIG. 87A-E are illustrative, and meant for use by the embodiment of the invention described here. Some embodiments can choose to determine only part of the information, and/or include information not described here, and/or exclude some/all of the fields described here. The methods of determining the information, the information that can be associated with the tags, and the method of communicating the determined information as illustrated in FIG. 87A-E are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 8702 and moves to step 8704. At step 8704, a check is done to determine if GD 302 is currently associated with media content. In some embodiments, this can be determined by the presence of a signal associated with media at TEXT 310 and/or CEXT 320 of GD 302. If the GD is not associated with media, the process can move to step 8708. Step 8708 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 87A-E is complete. If the GD is associated with media, as determined at step 8704, the process can move to step 8710. At step 8710, a check is done to determine if the media associated with GD 302 is tagged with information. TEXT 310 can determine this using the media that it can receive from RCV 308. In some embodiments, an instance of GD 302 can be capable of receiving media that is tagged. In such embodiments, the check associated with step 8710 can result in a success. In other embodiments, TEXT 310 can determine if the media is tagged using a variety of methods that can include the transmission mode and/or format of the media such as analog transmissions, digital transmissions, digital transmissions with content in MPEG4 format, or the like. Digital media can indicate that the media can be tagged. In some other embodiments, GD 302 can be provisioned with data that can specify if the media is tagged based on the frequency that RCV 308 is tuned to. In such embodiments, TEXT 310 can determine if the media is tagged using the provisioned data, and the frequency that RCV 306 is tuned to. Other methods of determining if the media is tagged, are possible. If the media is tagged as determined in step 8710, the process can move to step 8712. Step 8712 indicates that the process can move to step 8762 of FIG. 87B. If it is determined at step 8710 that the media is not tagged, the process can move to step 8714. At step 8714, an alert can be indicated that information cannot be extracted from media. This can be done in some embodiments. An example of such an embodiment is when a set top box associated with television sets can include the functionality of GD 302. In this example embodiment, the set top box can be associated with multiple channel frequencies, each of which can indicate a channel of media as presented to users of set-top box and/or television set. Media associated with some channels can be tagged, while media associated with other channels cannot be tagged. In this example embodiment, UI 322 associated with the set top box such as an LED on the front panel can be set to a specific color like orange when the media channel processed by the set top box is not tagged. The LED can be set to another color, like green, when the media that is processed by the set top box is tagged. The process associated with FIG. 87A-E can then move to step 8718. Referring to step 8762, the step indicates that the process can move to step 8764. At step 8764 an instance of CRI is created. The instance of CRI is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 8766. At step 8766, an instance of MI is created. The instance of MI is referred to as mInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of instances of CRI and MI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of instances of CRI and MI can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances of CRI and MI. The process can then move to step 8768. At step 8768, various fields associated with cInfo can be set to data extracted from media. Data extracted from media by TEXT 310 can be used to set cInfo.version, cInfo.appLocation, cInfo.additionalInfoUrl and cInfo.additionalInfo. In embodiments where some of the information related to cInfo cannot be extracted from media, the fields associated with cInfo (for which information cannot be determined from extracted data) can be set to Null. A Null value can indicate the unavailability of that field in the media. For example, in embodiment wherein the information associated with media does not include information related to additionalInfoUrl, cInfo.additionalInfoUrl can be set to Null. The process can then move to step 8770. At step 8770, fields associated with mInfo are set. mInfo.type can be set to a type that can be determined using data extracted from the media. mInfo.core can be set to cInfo. The process can then move to step 8772. At step 8772, GD 302 can determine if the information generated by GD 302 can be associated with a tag that can be used by any instance of CD 102 or a specific instance of CD 102. In some embodiments, UI 322 of GD 302 can be used to indicate to the GD that the information generated by GD 302 can be associated with a specific instance or all instances of CD 102 which can be associated with a PD 202 (The PD can in turn be associated with the GD). An example of such embodiment is a set top box (such as ones that can be used with television sets) that can include functionality associated with GD 302. The set top box can also be associated with a remote device. The remote device can communicate with set-top box using technologies such as RF, infrared, or the like. In this example embodiment, the remote device can be associated with keys, one of which when pressed, can indicate to the GD to generate information that can be provided in tags to a specific instance of CD 102. In some embodiments, each instance of CD 102 can be associated with a separate user interface element of UI 322. In the example embodiment, each instance of CD 102 can be associated with a separate key on the remote device. UI 322 of GD 302 can also be associated with user interface elements that indicate to the GD that information generated by GD can be associated with tags that can be used by all instances of CD 102 (that can receive the tag). When UI 322 of GD 302 can be associated with elements that can indicate the association of information generated by GD with tags for a specific instance of CD 102, UI 322 can also allow for elements that can specify an identifier associated with the CD 102. The association of user interface elements to identifiers of CD 102 can be stored by GD 302 in STORE 318. In the example set-top box embodiment, each key on the remote device can be associated with an instance of CD 102. In the example embodiment, a smart phone can include the functionality associated with CD 102. The smart phone can be associated with wifi interface for NI 106, and the Ethernet address associated with NI 106 can be used as a an identifier of CD 102. The Ethernet address associated with the wifi interface can be provided to GD 302 using UI 322, along with information that can specify the key on the remote device that is associated with the Ethernet address. In some embodiments, as in the smart phone example illustrated earlier, a phone number associated with the voice service of smart phone can be used as an identifier of CD 102 included in the smart phone. Referring to step 8772, a check is made to determine if the information generated by GD 302 can be associated with a specific instance of CD 102. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8778. If not, the process can move to step 8776. At step 8776, mInfo.consumerId can be set to Null and mInfo.assocType can be set to Broadcast. A Null value for mInfo.consumerId can indicate that the consumerId is not associated with any instance of CD 102. A value of Broadcast for mInfo.assocType can indicate that tags generated using the determined information can be used by any instance of CD 102 that can receive the tag. The process can then move to step 8774. Step 8774 indicates that the process can then move to step 8734 of FIG. 87C. Step 8734 indicates that the process can then move to step 8736. Returning to step 8778, mInfo.consumerId can be associated to the consumerId of CD 102 that the tag including the information generated by GD 302 can be associated with. mInfo.assocType can be set to Unicast. A Unicast value for mInfo.assocType can indicate that a tag generated using information determined by GD 302 can be associated with a specific instance of CD 102. The process can then move to step 8774. Various embodiments of GD 302 can make available the information extracted from media, differently in different embodiments. In some embodiments, all instances of information extracted by GD 302 can be made available for association with tags. In other embodiments, GD 302 can make available the extracted information when the information can be associated with one of a set of types, each of which can indicate the type associated with a tag. In the set top box example illustrated earlier, the set top box can make available the extracted information when the extracted information can be related to ProgramSchedule tags. The set top box cannot make available the extracted information when the extracted information can be related to SaleSchedule tags, in some embodiments. The information specifying the set of types for which extracted information can be made available for association with tags, can be provisioned to instance of GD 302 in a variety of ways that can include using UI 322. In other embodiments, information generated by GD 302 can be made available for association with a tag upon a request that can include user interaction with UI 322 of GD 302. In the set top box example embodiment illustrated earlier, a request for making the information extracted by GD available, can be indicated by pressing a key on the remote device associated with the set top box. In some other embodiments, an instance of GD 302 can be capable of extracting tags associated with one or all of channels that can be received by the RCV 308 of GD 302. In such embodiments, the GD can extract information from all the channels and make the information available for association with one or more tags. Returning to step 8736, a check is made at this step to determine if all information extracted from media can be made available for use in associating with tags. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8742. If the check passes, the process can move to step 8738. At step 8738, mInfo determined in earlier steps of the process can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8740. Step 8740 indicates that the process can move to step 8716 of FIG. 87A. Step 8716 indicates that the process can move to step 8718. Returning to step 8742, a check is made at this step to determine if the information extracted can be made available for association with a tag, based on a match of mInfo.type against a list of types. In an embodiment of the invention, the list of types can indicate some or all of values that can be associated with type of a tag, for which the extracted information can be made available. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8748. If the check passes, the process can move to step 8744. At step 8744, mInfo determined in earlier steps of the process can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8746. Step 8746 indicates that the process can move to step 8716 of FIG. 87A. Returning to step 8748, a check is made at this step to determine if there is a request to make available, the information extracted, for association with a tag. In some embodiments, request for allowing the information to be made available can be indicated by a user interaction that can involve UI 322 of FIG. 3A. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8754. If the check passes, the process can move to step 8750. At step 8750, mInfo determined in earlier steps of the process can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8752. Step 8752 indicates that the process can move to step 8716 of FIG. 87A. Returning to step 8754, a check is made at this step to determine if information can be extracted from all channels that can be available to RCV 308 and/or TEXT 310, and make all the extracted information available for association with one or more tags. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8758. If the check passes the process can move to step 8756. At step 8756, mInfo and cInfo can be determined using processes similar to steps 8768 and 8770 once for each channel, and mInfo determined for each channel can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8760. Step 8760 indicates that the process can move to step 8716 of FIG. 87A. In embodiments where information can be extracted from one channel associated with RCV 308 and/or TEXT 310 at any given time, step 8754 can be skipped and the process can move from step 8748 to step 8758. Step 8758 indicates that the process can move to step 8716. Returning to step 8718, a check is made at this step to determine if GD 302 can include information that can be derived/determined, with information that can be associated with a tag. In some embodiments, media received by GD 302 cannot be tagged. This can be due to reasons that can include lack of support for tagging as in case of analog transmissions. In some embodiments, GD 302 can generate information that can be used to determine information related to the media that the generated information is associated with. In an example embodiment, generated information can include telecast time, telecast date, channel frequency and channel name associated with media that is processed by the GD 302. This generated information can be used in association with a service which can provide information related to the media. In some embodiments, a database can maintain information related to media, in relation to the channel on which the media is telecast, the day and time of telecast, the frequency with which the media can be telecast or the like. The database system which can include other functionality, can be used to determine information related to the media, given the day and time of a telecast, the frequency of telecast, and channel name. In one embodiment, the information that can be determined/generated by an instance of GD 302 is illustrated in FIG. 21. Other embodiments can choose to determine information not described here, and/or can choose to exclude some or all of the information described here. The information as described in FIG. 21 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In embodiments where the determined information can be included, the process can move to step 8720. Step 8720 indicates that the process can move to step 8780 of FIG. 87D. If information cannot be determined by GD 302, or in embodiments where GD 302 can choose to not include the determined information, the process can move to step 8722. Step 8780 of FIG. 87D indicates that the process can move to step 8782. At step 8782 an instance of DerivedInfo (DI) as illustrated in FIG. 21, can be created. The instance can be referred to as dInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 8784. At step 8784, an instance of CRI can be created. The instance can be referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of instances of DI and CRI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of instances of CRI and DI can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances of CRI and DI. The process can then move to step 8786. At step 8786, various fields associated with dInfo can be set. The method of determining values that can be associated with these fields can be specific to the embodiment of GD 302. In some embodiments, the channelId and channelFrequency associated with dInfo can be determined using information that can be derived from analog signaling used for content by CEXT 320 OF GD 302. In some embodiments, the location associated with dInfo can be set to a pre-determined value. In embodiments wherein the functionality of GD 302 can be included in a set top box such as those associated with television sets, the location can be set to one of locations such as UsEastCoast, UsWestCoast, UsMidWest, or the like. The set top boxes provided for use in East coast states in United States of America, can be constructed in a way such that they always include UsEastCoast as the location in dInfo. In other embodiments, a GPS (global positioning system) device (not shown) that can be included in GD 302 can be used to determine the location which can be associated with dInfo.location. Other methods of determining location are possible. The dayAndTime of dInfo can be determined using a clock device/chip (not shown) that can be included in and/or associated with GD 302. The serviceProviderName of dInfo can be set to a pre-determined value, in some embodiments. In embodiments where set-top boxes associated with television sets are made available for use by a service provider such as Comcast, the serviceProviderName can be set to Comcast. The process can then move to step 8788. At step 8788, cInfo.version can be set to 1, cInfo.appLocation can be set to Null, cInfo.addiontalInfoUrl can be set to Null, and cInfo.additionalInfo can be set to dInfo. A Null value for fields appLocation and addiontalInfoUrl can be used to indicate that they are not associated with valid values. In some other embodiments, cInfo.appLocation can be set to a pre determined URL. The URL can provide information related to a location on Internet wherein an application that can handle tags associated with type DerivedMediaInfo can be downloaded. The process can then move to step 8790. At step 8790, mInfo.type can be set to DerivedMediaInfo, mInfo.assocType can be set to Broadcast and mInfo.core can be set to cInfo. A value of Broadcast for mInfo.assocType can indicate that any CD 102 that can receive a tag associated with information generated by the GD, can use the tag. The process can then move to step 8792. At step 8792, mInfo can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8794. Step 8794 indicates that the process can move to step 8724 of FIG. 87A. Step 8724 indicates that the process can move to step 8722. At step 8722, a determination can be made whether to include a sample of media that can be currently processed by CEXT 320 of GD 302. In some embodiments, a sample of media currently received/processed by GD 302 can be included in a tag. This can be used by instances of CD 102 in a variety of ways. In embodiments wherein a smart phone can include functionality associated with CD 102, the media sample can be used as a ring tone. In other embodiments, the sample can be submitted by an instance of CD 102 to a service that can determine information associated with the sample by analyzing the media sample. The service can provide the result of analysis to the CD. This can be useful in embodiments wherein media received/processed by GD 302 is not tagged. If it is determined that a sample can be associated with information that can be included in a tag, the process can move to step 8726. If not, the process can move to step 8728. Step 8726 indicates that the process can move to step 8796 of FIG. 87E. Step 8796 indicates that the process can move to step 8798. At step 8798, an instance of MediaInfo (MEDI) can be created. In one embodiment of the invention, an instance of MEDI can contain information that is illustrated in FIG. 7. The created instance is referred to as medInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of MEDI instance can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of MEDI instance can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the MEDI instance. The process can then move to step 8799. At step 8799, a sample of media is extracted and stored in medInfo.mediaInfo. A sample of media can be extracted by CEXT 320. The structure and content of the sample can be specific to the embodiment. In some embodiments, the sample can be associated with MPEG4 format. The process can then move to step 8797. At step 8797, an instance of CRI can be created. The created instance is referred to as cInfoSam for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of CRI instance can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of CRI instance can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the CRI instance. The process can then move to step 8795. At step 8795, cInfoSam.version can be set to 1, cInfoSam.appLocation can be set to Null, cInfoSam.addiontalInfoUrl can be set to Null, and cInfoSam.additionalInfo can be set to medInfo determined in step 8798. A Null value for fields appLocation and addiontalInfoUrl can be used to indicate that the fields do not hold valid values. In some other embodiments, cInfoSam.appLocation can be set to a pre determined URL. The URL can provide information related to a location on Internet wherein an application that can handle tags associated with type SampleMedia can be downloaded. The process can then move to step 8793. At step 8793, mInfo.type can be set to SampleMdia, mInfo.assocType can be set to Broadcast and mInfo.core can be set to cInfoSam. A value of Broadcast for mInfo.assocType can indicate that any CD 102 that can receive a tag associated with information generated by the GD, can use the tag. The process can then move to step 8791. At step 8791, mInfo can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8789. Step 8789 indicates that the process can move to step 8730 of FIG. 87A. Step 8730 indicates that the process can move to step 8728. Returning to step 8728, a trigger can be indicated for sending messages to instances of PD 202. The messages can include information relating to tags generated in earlier steps of the process. The messages can be sent to instances of PD 202 that can be associated with the GD. The trigger indicated in step 8728 can be used in some embodiments to send messages to PDs at step 8728. In other embodiments, a check can be made at this step for expiry of a timer interval. If the timer interval has expired, GD 302 can send the messages to PDs. Other embodiments can choose to send messages including tag related information due to other events not described here. The process can then move to step 8732. Step 8732 indicates that the process can move to step 8706. FIG. 88A-C illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be associated with tags, and communicating information related to tags to PDs, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention described here, an instance of GD 360 (of FIG. 3C) can use the process illustrated in FIG. 88A-C in determining information that can be associated with tags. An instance of GD 360 can determine some/all of information associated with tags, using data retrieved from web content. An instance of GD 360 can access web content in a variety of formats that can include audio, video, html pages, xml documents, java scripts, multipart mime based email messages, or the like. In one embodiment of the present invention, HTML pages can be associated with information that can help determine information related to one or more tags. When such a HTML page is rendered or retrieved by a browser, in the example embodiment, information related to the tags can be extracted from HTML page (and any other related pages/files) and make the information available for providing tags to instances of CD 102. In the embodiment wherein information extracted from HTML pages can be used for determining information associated with tags, information related to tags can be embedded in HTML pages using EMBED HTML tag. Each instance of EMBED tag in a HTML page can be used to represent information that can be associated with a single tag. Parameters associated with EMBED tag can be used to represent the information. The EMBED tag can, for example, be associated with a APPLOCATION attribute that can be used to determine appLocation field associated with a tag. Some or all of the steps associated with FIG. 88A-C can be implemented using a browser plugin. The browser plugin and EMBED tags can, in such case be associated with the same mime type. The mime type associated with EMBED tags and browser plugin in this embodiment can be tag/embed. A HTML page containing an advertisement indicating a sale, can for example include a html EMBED tag that can be associated with information specific to SaleSchedule tag. In such a case, the EMBED tag can be associated with a mime type of tag/embed, a TAGTYPE attribute with a value of ‘SaleSchedule’, an APPLOCATION attribute specifying a URL where an application can be downloaded from, and, DATE, and TIME attributes that can specify the date and time of sale. In some embodiments, all information extracted from web content (such as html, java scripts, audio, video, etc.) can be made available for associating with one or more tags. In the HTML web page embodiment described earlier, information extracted from each EMBED html tag included in the web page and associated with tag/embed mime type can be made available for associating with a tag. In other embodiments, information extracted from web content and which can be associated with one among a list of types, each type related to the type of a tag, can be made available for association with a tag. If information extracted from web content can be associated with a type not included in the list, the information cannot be made available for association with a tag. In the HTML web page embodiment illustrated earlier, an example embodiment can allow making the information associated with an EMBED tag available if the TAGTYPE attribute of EMBED html tag can be associated with a value of ‘ProgramSchedule’. Information extracted from an EMBED tag with TAGTYPE attribute of ‘SaleSchedule’ cannot be made available for association with a tag. The list of tag types for which information can be made available from EMBED tags can be provisioned. In the HTML web page embodiment, the list of types can be configured using a configuration option associated with the browser. In yet other embodiments, information extracted from web content can be made available upon explicit requests which can include user interaction. In the HTML web page example illustrated earlier, some/all information associated with a HTML page (and/or related files) can be made available for associating with a tag, when a user clicks on a button associated with the HTML page in a web browser. The HTML web page embodiment can achieve this functionality by including information associated with a tag in a file and referring to the file from the web page using <A HREF> html tag. The tag file can be associated with a mime type of tag/href in one embodiment. An example file called fileTag.href can contain attributes related to the tag. Information that can be included in the file, in the example embodiment, can include TAGTYPE, APPLOCATION, including others. The browser can also be associated with a plugin that can handle mime type tag/href. The plugin can then make the information retrieved from fileTag.href available for association with the tag. In one example embodiment, HTML page can include the following tag snippet: <a href=“tag1.href”>Click Here!</a>. In this example, content of tag1.href file is associated with tag/href mime type. When a user clicks on the “Click Here!” link displayed on the web page, the browser plugin associated with tag/href mime type can retrieve information from tag1.href file and make the information from tag1.href available for association with a tag. In the HTML web page embodiment, more than one file (of mime type tag/href) can be associated with a web page. Each file associated with a web page can be associated with different tag types as illustrated in FIG. 4A-B. Each file associated with a web page can be made available due to different events that can include user clicking on different links, or the like. It can be noted that the method of representing the information in web content (that can be associated with the tag), the method of extracting information, the method of making the information available, the events that can result in making the information available, and others as illustrated above are meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to perform the functions differently, in a way not described here. The methods, events, information, mechanisms, and others as illustrated above are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. For example, tag related information can be included in emails, in a multipart mime type email message. Information from emails can be made available for association with tags due to events that can include opening the email, opening the attachments of email, including others. The process starts at step 8802 and moves to step 8804. At step 8804, a check is done to determine if GD 360 is currently associated with web content. In some embodiments, GD 360 can determine if it is associated with web content when WDR 364 of GD 360 retrieves web related content. GD 360 cannot be associated with web content when WDT 364 cannot have web content associated with it. If the GD is not associated with web content, the process can move to step 8808. Step 8808 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 88A-C is complete. If the GD is associated with web content, as determined at step 8804, the process can move to step 8810. At step 8810, a check is done to determine if the web content associated with GD 360 is tagged with information. TEXT 310 can determine this using the web content that it can receive from WDR 364. In some embodiments, an instance of GD 360 can be capable of receiving web content that is tagged. When the instance of GD 360 receives tagged web content, the check associated with step 8810 can result in a success. In other embodiments, TEXT 310 can determine if the web content is tagged using a variety of methods that can include retrieving any files/data related to web content currently associated with GD 360. Other methods of determining if the media is tagged, are possible. For the HTML example embodiment illustrated earlier, the availability of information related to tags in a web page can be indicated by the presence of EMBED tags with an associated mime type of tag/embed. Presence of tags can also be indicated when files related to <a href> html tags can be associated with tag/href mime type. If the web content is tagged as determined in step 8810, the process can move to step 8812. Step 8812 indicates that the process can move to step 8862 of FIG. 88B. If it is determined at step 8810 that the web content is not tagged, the process can move to step 8814. At step 8814, an alert can be indicated that information cannot be extracted from web content. This can be done in some embodiments. An example of such embodiment can include a web browser that can indicate the presence of tags in a web page by placing a “tag” icon on browsers UI that cannot be related to the display of web content. Lack of information related to tags in a web page can be indicated by not displaying the “tag” icon on browsers UI. This can be similar to a “lock” icon displayed by a browser when the connectivity established by the web page displayed by the browser, is secure. The process associated with FIG. 88A-C can then move to step 8828. Referring to step 8862, the step indicates that the process can move to step 8864. At step 8864 an instance of CRI is created. The instance of CRI is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 8866. At step 8866, an instance of MI is created. The instance of MI is referred to as mInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of instances of CRI and MI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of instances of CRI and MI can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances of CRI and MI. The process can then move to step 8868. At step 8868, various fields associated with cInfo can be set to data extracted from web content. Data extracted from web content by TEXT 310 can be used to set cInfo.version, cInfo.appLocation, cInfo.additionalInfoUrl and cInfo.additionalInfo. In embodiments where some of the information related to cInfo cannot be extracted from web content, the fields associated with cInfo (for which information cannot be determined from extracted data) can be set to Null. A Null value can indicate the unavailability of that field in the web content. For example, in embodiment wherein the information associated with web content does not include information related to additionalInfoUrl, cInfo.additionalInfoUrl can be set to Null. In the embodiment of HTML web page with EMBED tags illustrated earlier, attributes associated with EMBED tags can be used to determine fields that can include version, appLocation, additionalInfoUrl and additionalInfo. In the example HTML web page embodiment with EMBED html tags, attributes associated with EMBED html tags can include VERSION, TAGTYPE, APPLOCATION, ADDITIONALINFOURL and ADDITIONALINFO, among others. The process can then move to step 8870. At step 8870, fields associated with mInfo are set. mInfo.type can be set to a type that can be determined using data extracted from the web content. For the HTML web page embodiment with EMBED tags, the TAGTYPE attribute associated with EMBED HTML tag can be used to determine value associated with mInfo.type. mInfo.core can be set to cInfo. The process can then move to step 8872. At step 8872, GD 360 can determine if the information generated by GD 360 can be associated with a tag that can be used by any instance of CD 102 or a specific instance of CD 102. In some embodiments, UI 322 of GD 360 can be used to indicate to the GD that the information generated by GD 360 can be associated with tags which can be associated a specific instance or all instances of CD 102. An example of such embodiment is a web browser (and associated components that can include hardware and/or firmware and/or instructions components) that can include functionality associated with GD 360. The browser can also be associated with a user interface that can allow associating a mode with the browser. The mode can be used by the browser to generate information related to a tag, which can be made available to an instance of CD 102. This mode can be referred to as Unicast mode. This can be used in embodiments wherein the information related to tags can include private and/or confidential information related to the user of CD 102 that the tags can be associated with. The browser can also be associated with a different mode (called Broadcast) wherein information generated by the browser can be associated with tags that can be used by any CD 102 that receives it. When UI 322 of GD 360 can be associated with elements that can indicate the association of information generated by GD with tags for a specific instance of CD 102, UI 322 can also allow for elements that can be used to specify an identifier associated with the CD 102. The association of user interface elements to identifiers of CD 102 can be stored by GD 360 in STORE 318. In the example web browser embodiment, when the mode associated with the browser can be set to Unicast, the browser can provide user interfaces that can allow for specifying the identifier associated with CD 102. In the example embodiment, a smart phone can include the functionality associated with CD 102. The smart phone can be associated with wifi interface for NI 106, and the Ethernet address associated with NI 106 can be used as a an identifier of CD 102. The Ethernet address associated with the wifi interface can be provided to GD 360 using UI 322, along with changing the mode of browser to Unicast. In some embodiments, as in the smart phone example illustrated earlier, a phone number associated with the voice service of smart phone can be used as an identifier of CD 102 included in the smart phone. Referring to step 8872, a check is made to determine if the information generated by GD 360 can be associated with a specific instance of CD 102. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8878. If not, the process can move to step 8876. At step 8876, mInfo.consumerId can be set to Null and mInfo.assocType can be set to Broadcast. A Null value for mInfo.consumerId can indicate that the consumerId is not associated with any instance of CD 102. A value of Broadcast for mInfo.assocType can indicate that tags generated using the determined information can be used by any instance of CD 102 that can receive the tag. The process can then move to step 8874. Step 8874 indicates that the process can then move to step 8834 of FIG. 88C. Step 8834 indicates that the process can then move to step 8836. Returning to step 8878, mInfo.consumerId can be associated to the consumerId of CD 102 that the tag including the information generated by GD 360 can be associated with. mInfo.assocType can be set to Unicast. A Unicast value for mInfo.assocType can indicate that a tag generated using information determined by GD 360 can be associated with a specific instance of CD 102. The process can then move to step 8874. Returning to step 8836, a check is made at this step to determine if all information extracted from web content can be made available for use in associating with tags. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8842. If the check passes, the process can move to step 8838. At step 8838, mInfo determined in earlier steps of the process can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8840. Step 8840 indicates that the process can move to step 8816 of FIG. 88A. Step 8816 indicates that the process can move to step 8828. Returning to step 8842, a check is made at this step to determine if the information extracted can be made available for association with a tag, based on a match of mInfo.type against a list of types. In an embodiment of the invention, the list of types can indicate some or all of values that can be associated with type of a tag, for which the extracted information can be made available. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8848. If the check passes, the process can move to step 8844. At step 8844, mInfo determined in earlier steps of the process can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8846. Step 8846 indicates that the process can move to step 8816 of FIG. 88A. Returning to step 8848, a check is made at this step to determine if there is a request to make available, the information extracted, for association with a tag. In some embodiments, request for allowing the information to be made available can be indicated by a user interaction that can involve UI 322 of FIG. 3A. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8858. If the check passes, the process can move to step 8850. At step 8850, mInfo determined in earlier steps of the process can be added to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8852. Step 8852 indicates that the process can move to step 8816 of FIG. 88A. Returning to step 8858, the step indicates that the process can move to step 8816. Returning to step 8828, a trigger can be indicated for sending messages to instances of PD 202. The messages can include information relating to tags generated in earlier steps of the process. The messages can be sent to instances of PD 202 that can be associated with the GD. The trigger indicated in step 8828 can be used in some embodiments to send messages to PDs at step 8828. In other embodiments, a check can be made at this step for expiry of a timer interval. If the timer interval has expired, GD 302 can send the messages to PDs. Other embodiments can choose to send messages including tag related information due to other events not described here. The process can then move to step 8832. Step 8832 indicates that the process can move to step 8806. FIG. 89 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in sending tags to PD(s) according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process illustrated in FIG. 89 can be followed by an instance of GD 302 in sending messages that can include information related to tags, to instances of PD 202. In the embodiment described here, information related to tags, generated/maintained by GD 302 can be communicated to one or more instances of PD 202 in messages associated with type GeneratedInfo. In some embodiments, information related to tags generated by GD can include changes to additonalInfo field associated with a tag, while a GD is associated with one or more PDs. In such embodiments, the value/data associated with additionalInfo field in a tag can be different from the value/data associated with the same field in another tag generated by an instance of GD 302. The additionalInfo field associated with a tag can include embodiment specific information. Examples of the information that can be associated with additionalInfo in different embodiments are illustrated in FIG. 7, FIG. 20, FIG. 21, FIG. 99-102, FIG. 118-120. In some other embodiments, information related to a tag generated by a GD can include changes to fields such as appLocation, additionalInfoUrl, version, and additionalInfo, while a GD is associated with one or more PDs. In such embodiments, the value/data associated with appLocation, additionalInfoUrl, version, and additionalInfo fields associated with a tag can be different from the value/data associated with the respective fields in another tag generated by an instance of GD 302. In other embodiments, tags generated by an instance of GD can include changes to other fields associated with the tags. Two or more tags generated by a GD in other embodiments can include changes to some or all or none of the fields associated with the tag. The process starts at step 8902 and moves to step 8904. At step 8904, an i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 8906. At step 8906, a check is done to see if i is less than gState.numInfo. gState.numInfo can indicate the number of instances of PD 202 that can be associated with the GD. If the check succeeds, the process can move to step 8912. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8908. Step 8908 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 89 is complete. Returning to step 8912, a pInfo is set to i-th element of gState.providerInfo array. pInfo is an instance of PI. The process can then move to step 8914. At step 8914, the contact associated with pInfo is retrieved and a local copy made for use by subsequent steps of the process. The contact determined at this step can specify an address at which an instance of PD referred to by pInfo can have messages sent to. The process can then move to step 8916. At step 8916, a Message can be created. The created message is referred to as mesg for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of a message can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, message handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a message can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a message can involve allocating message handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the message. The process can then move to step 8918. At step 8918, the type associated with mesg is set to GeneratedInfo, and mesg.senderContact is set to gState.gInfo.contact. The process can then move to step 8920 At step 8920, a check is done to determine if the information related to tags generated by GD results in changes to only additionalInfo field associated with the tag. If the check succeeds the process can move to step 8924. If the check fails, the process can move to step 8922. Step 8922 indicates embodiments wherein information generated by a GD can result in changes to fields appLocation, additionalInfoUrl, version, and additionalInfo associated with the tag. Step 8922 indicates that mesg.info can be set to gState.core. The process can then move to step 8926. Returning to step 8924, mesg.info can be set to gState.core.additionalInfo. The process can then move to step 8926. In other embodiments, information related to tags generated by a GD can include changes to other fields associated with a tag. In such embodiments, mesg.info can include information related to all the fields that can change. The set of fields that can change, and the method of including the information related to changed fields, and the method of communicating the changed fields, as described in FIG. 89, is illustrative, for use in the embodiment of the invention described here. The set of fields that can change, the method of including information related to changed fields and the method of communicating the changed fields in other embodiments can be different. The methods/process illustrated in FIG. 89 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Returning to step 8926, the mesg message is sent to the contact as determined in step 8914. The process can then move to step 8928. At step 8928 i is incremented and the process can move to step 8930. Step 8930 indicates that the process can move to step 8910. Step 8910 indicates that the process can move to step 8906. FIG. 90A-B illustrate the flow diagrams of a process followed by a CD in handling tags, when the CD is providing services, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of the invention, an instance of CD 172 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 90A-B in processing tags, while providing other services. The services that can be provided can include a voice service that can be similar to service provided by telephones. An example of such embodiment can include a smart phone such as G1 phone from HTC running Android Operating System, iPhone from Apple, Inc., or the like. In other embodiments, instances of CD 172 can provide services not illustrated here. An example could be a device that as an iPad that can allow users to browse web, read news online, or the like. The iPad device can at the same time allow for processing of tags. The functionality associated with CD 172 can be included in devices such as computers, laptops, PCs, desktops, or the like. In such embodiments, the computers can provide other services not described here. The set of services, the method of processing tags, the method of providing services and processing tags, and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 90A-B is illustrative only, and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can choose to provide services not described here, provide services and process tags in ways not described here. The methods and processes associated with FIG. 90A-B are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment described here, an instance of CD 172 can provide voice services that can be related to telephony, along with processing tags. The CD can allow for accepting phone calls, receiving tags, interacting with applications associated with tags, and the like. In one embodiment the CD, can allow for interacting with applications and/or can process tags while the CD is not associated with an active phone call. The CD can also allow for interacting with applications and/or process tags while a phone call is on hold. The CD can also allow for accepting phone calls, while the CD is processing tags and/or allowing a user to interact with applications associated with tags. The method of processing tags in relation to phone calls as described here is illustrative, and specific to an embodiment described here. The process starts at step 9002 and moves to step 9004. At step 9004, the CD 172 can first associate with any instances of PD 240. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 172 in detecting instances of PD 240 and/or associating with them. The process associated with FIG. 90A-B can then move to step 9006. At step 9006 a determination can be done if the process associated with FIG. 90A-B needs to be terminated. If the process needs to be terminated, the process can move to step 9010. Step 9010 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 90A-B is complete. In some embodiments as in case of smart phones or tablet computers running Android operating system, the process associated with FIG. 90A-B can be used when an Android service related to processing tags is activated. The process associated with FIG. 90A-B can be stopped when the Android service is stopped. If the check at step 9006 determines that the process does not need to be terminated, the process can move to step 9012. At step 9012, a determination can be made if the CD 172 can detect and/or associate with any new instances of PD 240. In the smart phone embodiment of CD 172 illustrated earlier, the CD can be detecting and/or associating with new instances of PD 240, processing tags and/or running applications associated with tags, and providing services related to phone calls. In some other embodiments, it can be possible to stop detection and/or association with new instances of PD 240. In an embodiment wherein the process associated with FIG. 90A-B can be implemented using Android service mechanism, an Activity in Android, associated with the service can notify the service to stop associations with new instances of PD 240. In some other embodiments, new instances of PD 240 cannot be detected because of other reasons that can include disabling of PI 146 on CD 172. A disable of PI 146 of CD 172 can result in CD 172 not being able to detect and/or associate with new instances of PD 240. In some embodiments, a disable of PI 146 can be achieved using UI 126 of CD 172. When the process associated with FIG. 90A-B is implemented on a device such as a smart phone or tablet computer running Android operating system, a user of the device can choose to disable interfaces associated with the devices such as Wifi interfaces, or Bluetooth devices, or the like, while the service associated with FIG. 90A-B is active. If the check at step 9012 determines that the CD can associate with new instances of PD 240, the process can move to step 9014. At step 9014, the CD can detect and associate with any new instances of PD 240. The method(s) illustrated in FIG. 33-36 can be used by an instance of CD 172 in detecting instances of PD 240 and/or associating with them. The process can then move to step 9036. If the check at step 9012 determines that the CD cannot detect/associate with new instances of PD 240, the process can move to step 9036. At step 9036, a check is made to determine if CD 172 is receiving a phone call. If the CD is receiving a phone call, the process can move to step 9038. At step 9038, the phone call can be accepted. In some embodiments, the phone call can be accepted if a user has indicated a willingness to accept the phone call using UI 126 of CD 172. A user of CD 172 can indicate a willingness to accept the phone call by pressing a physical key, or selecting a soft key associated with a touch screen, or the like. The phone call can be accepted at step 9038. The process can then move to step 9040. If at step 9036, it is determined that no phone call is being received, the process can move to step 9040. At step 9040, a check is made to determine if the CD 172 is associated with a phone call that is active. Phone calls on hold are not considered active, in this embodiment. If there is no active call as determined at step 9040, the process can move to step 9042. Step 9042 indicates that the process can move to step 9048 of FIG. 90B. If the CD is associated with an active phone call as determined at step 9040, the process can move to step 9044. Step 9044 indicates that the CD 172 is associated with an active phone call. At this step, CD 172 can provide services related to the active phone call. The process can then move to step 9046. Step 9046 indicates that the process can move to step 9008. Returning to step 9050, a check is made to determine if an application is active at this step. In some embodiments, an application can be active, if the application is activated prior to an active phone call, and the process moves to step 9050, after the phone call is deactivated. If an application is active as determined at step 9050, the process can move to step 9052. If the active application is interactive in nature, user of CD 172 can interact with the application at step 9052. If the active application is not interactive, CD 172 cannot perform a function at step 9052. The process can then move to step 9018. Step 9018 indicates that the process can move to step 9008 of FIG. 90A. Returning to step 9050, if the check at this step determines that there is no active application, the process can move to step 9016. At step 9016, a check is made to determine if the user of the CD 172 has indicated a request for getting tags from instances of PD 240. If the user did not indicate a request for getting tags, the process can move to step 9018. Step 9018 indicates that the process can move to step 9008. Returning to step 9016, if it is determined that the user has indicated to request tags from an instance of PD 240, the process can move to step 9020. At step 9020, CD 172 can send a message to the PD that can be associated with user selection, indicating that the CD 172 needs a copy of a tag from the PD 240. The contact information associated with PI of the PD 240 can be used by the CD to send a message. The process can then move to step 9026. At step 9026, the CD 172 waits for a tag from the PD. A PD 240 receiving a message indicating a request for a tag from CD 172 can provide a tag to the CD. CD 172 at step 9026 moves to step 9028 when it receives a tag from the PD. At step 9028, the tag sent by the PD is retrieved. The retrieved tag is referred to as rxTag for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 9030. At step 9030, an application can be selected for association with rxTag. The application associated with rxTag can be referred to as app, for use in subsequent steps of the process. In some embodiments of the invention, the process associated with FIG. 76A-C can be used to select an application. In other embodiments, the process associated with FIG. 77 can be used to select an application. The process can then move to step 9032. At step 9032, rxTag can be associated with app. The association can be setup by creating an instance of CA. The instance of CA can be referred to as cApp for use in subsequent steps of the process. The cApp.tag can be set to rxTag, and cApp.app can be set to app. The process can then move to step 9034. At step 9034, a determination is made that the application app has been associated with rxTag, and that the app has been selected. In some embodiments, the app can be activated (launched or run) at this step. In the embodiment described here, the process associated with FIG. 79A-B can be used to handle the selection. The process can then move to step 9056. Step 9056 indicates that the process can move to step 9008 of FIG. 90A. Systems of First Embodiment FIG. 126 illustrates a system of connectivity and association between a GD and PDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. The system includes a GD 13402, PD 13404, PD 13406, PD 13408, and PD 13410. GD 13402 can include any of the embodiments of GD illustrated in FIG. 3A (GD 302), FIG. 3B (GD 340), FIG. 3C (GD 360), FIG. 95 (GD 9502), FIG. 98 (GD 9802), FIG. 115 (GD 11502), FIG. 116 (GD 11602), FIG. 117 (GD 11702), or the like. PDs 13404, 13406, 13408 and 13410 can each include any of the embodiments illustrated in FIG. 2A (PD 202), FIG. 2B (PD 240), FIG. 2C (PD 260), or the like. It is to be noted that the embodiments of GD and PD illustrated for use in FIG. 126 is specific to the related embodiments. Other embodiments can have GDs or PDs that are different from the embodiments illustrated herein, and the illustration of FIG. 126 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. GD 13402 is associated with PDs in the system using various forms of connectivity—wired and wireless. GD 13402 is connected to PD 13404, and PD 13406 using wired forms of connectivity—13412 and 13414 respectively. Wired forms of connectivity can include various technologies Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Other custom forms of connectivity are also possible. Each PD connected to GD can be connected using a different technology. In one embodiment of FIG. 126, 13412 can be associated with Ethernet technology, while 13414 can be associated with USB. GD 13402 can be connected to PDs using wireless technology. Wireless technology can include technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. Other custom wireless technologies are also possible. GD 13402 in FIG. 126 is connected to PD 13408 and PD 13410 using wireless communication—13416 and 13418 respectively. The wireless communication technologies used by a GD in connecting to each PD can be different. In the embodiment of FIG. 126, GD 13402 can be connected to PD 13408 using Bluetooth technology, while GD 13402 can be connected to PD 13410 using wifi technology. It is to be noted that the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 126 is meant to illustrate the connectivity and association between a GD and one or more PDs. Other embodiments can have a different number of PDs. Some embodiments can allow only for wired connectivity, while some others can allow for wireless only connectivity. Other embodiments can choose to have GDs and/or PDs that are different from the ones illustrated herein, and the illustration associated with FIG. 126 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 127 illustrates a system of connectivity and association between a PD and CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. The system includes a PD 13502, CD 13506, CD 13508, CD 13504, and CD 13510. PD 13502 can include any of the embodiments illustrated in FIG. 2A (PD 202), FIG. 2B (PD 240), FIG. 2C (PD 260), or the like. CDs 13506, 13508, 13504, and 13510 can include any of the embodiments illustrated in FIG. 1A (CD 102), FIG. 1B (CD 140), FIG. 1D (CD 166), FIG. 1E (CD 170), FIG. 1C (CD 172), or the like. It is to be noted that the embodiments of PD and CD illustrated for use in FIG. 127 is specific to the related embodiments. Other embodiments can have CDs or PDs that are different from the embodiments illustrated herein, and the illustration of FIG. 127 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. PD 13502 is associated with CDs in the system using various forms of connectivity—wired and wireless. PD 13502 is connected to CD 13504, and CD 13506 using wired forms of connectivity—13512 and 13514 respectively. Wired forms of connectivity can include various technologies Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Other custom forms of connectivity are also possible. Each CD connected to PD can be connected using a different technology. In one embodiment of FIG. 127, 13512 can be associated with Ethernet technology, while 13514 can be associated with USB. PD 13502 can be connected to CDs using wireless technology. Wireless technology can include technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. Other custom wireless technologies are also possible. PD 13502 in FIG. 127 is connected to CD 13508 and CD 13510 using wireless communication—13516 and 13518 respectively. The wireless communication technologies used by a PD in connecting to each CD can be different. In the embodiment of FIG. 127, PD 13502 can be connected to CD 13508 using Bluetooth technology, while PD 13502 can be connected to CD 13510 using wifi technology. It is to be noted that the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 127 is meant to illustrate the connectivity and association between a PD and one or more CDs. Other embodiments can have a different number of CDs. Some embodiments can allow only for wired connectivity, while some others can allow for wireless only connectivity. Other embodiments can choose to have PDs and/or CDs that are different from the ones illustrated herein, and the illustration associated with FIG. 127 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 128 illustrates a system of connectivity and association among GD, PDs and CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. The embodiment of FIG. 128 includes a GD 13602, PD 13604, PD 13606, CD 13608, CD 13610, and CD 13612. GD 13602 can include any of the embodiments of GD illustrated in FIG. 3A (GD 302), FIG. 3B (GD 340), FIG. 3C (GD 360), FIG. 95 (GD 9502), FIG. 98 (GD 9802), FIG. 115 (GD 11502), FIG. 116 (GD 11602), FIG. 117 (GD 11702), or the like. PD 13604 and PD 13606 can each include any of the embodiments illustrated in FIG. 2A (PD 202), FIG. 2B (PD 240), FIG. 2C (PD 260), or the like. CDs 13608, 13612, and 13610 can include any of the embodiments illustrated in FIG. 1A (CD 102), FIG. 1B (CD 140), FIG. 1D (CD 166), FIG. 1E (CD 170), FIG. 1C (CD 172), or the like. It is to be noted that the embodiments of GD, PD and CD illustrated for use in FIG. 128 is specific to the related embodiments. Other embodiments can have GDs, CDs or PDs that are different from the embodiments illustrated herein. The illustration of FIG. 128 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 128, a GD can be associated with zero or more PDs, the association between GD and each PD using one of several embodiments of communication—that can include wired and wireless communication. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 128, each PD can be associated with zero or more CDs, the association between each PD and each associated CDs using one of several embodiments of communication—that can include wired and wireless communication. GD 13602 is associated with PDs in the system using various forms of connectivity—wired and wireless. GD 13602 is communicatively coupled to PD 13604 using 13614—a wired form of connectivity. Wired forms of connectivity can include various technologies Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Other custom forms of connectivity are also possible. Each PD associated to a GD can use a different technology for communication. GD 13602 can be communicatively coupled to PDs using wireless technology. Wireless technology can include technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. Other custom wireless technologies are also possible. GD 13602 in FIG. 128 is communicatively coupled to PD 13604 using 13620—a wireless form of communication. The wireless communication technologies used by a GD in associating with each PD can be different. In the embodiment of FIG. 128, GD 13602 can be communicatively coupled to PD 13606 using Bluetooth technology. Each PD—PD 13604 and PD 13606 can be associated with CDs in the system using various forms of connectivity—wired and wireless. PD 13604 is communicatively coupled to CD 13608, and PD 13606 is communicatively coupled to CD 13612 using wired forms of connectivity—13616 and 13622 respectively. Wired forms of connectivity can include various technologies Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Other custom forms of connectivity are also possible. Each CD communicatively coupled to PD can be use a different technology for communication. In one embodiment of FIG. 128, 13616 can be associated with Ethernet technology, while 13622 can be associated with USB connectivity. PDs can be communicatively coupled to CDs using wireless technology. In the embodiment of FIG. 128, PD 13604 is communicably coupled to CD 13610 using wireless technology. Wireless technology can include technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. Other custom wireless technologies are also possible. PD 13604 in FIG. 128 is communicatively coupled to CD 13610 using wireless communication—13618. The wireless communication technologies used by a PD in associating with each CD can be different. In the embodiment of FIG. 128, PD 13604 can be communicatively coupled to CD 13610 using Bluetooth technology. It is to be noted that the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 128 is meant to illustrate the communication modes and association among a GD, PDs and CDs. Other embodiments can have a different number of PDs and/or different number of CDs. Some embodiments can allow only for wired connectivity, while some others can allow for wireless only connectivity. Other embodiments can choose to have PDs and/or CDs that are different from the ones illustrated herein, and the illustration associated with FIG. 128 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 129 illustrates a system of connectivity and association among GDs, PDs and CDs according to yet another embodiment of the present invention. The embodiment of FIG. 129 includes a GD 13652, GD 13662, PD 13654, PD 13664, CD 13656, CD 13658, and CD 13666. Each of GD 13652 and GD 13662 can include any of the embodiments of GD illustrated in FIG. 3A (GD 302), FIG. 3B (GD 340), FIG. 3C (GD 360), FIG. 95 (GD 9502), FIG. 98 (GD 9802), FIG. 115 (GD 11502), FIG. 116 (GD 11602), FIG. 117 (GD 11702), or the like. PD 13654 and PD 13664 can each include any of the embodiments illustrated in FIG. 2A (PD 202), FIG. 2B (PD 240), FIG. 2C (PD 260), or the like. CDs 13656, 13658, and 13666 can include any of the embodiments illustrated in FIG. 1A (CD 102), FIG. 1B (CD 140), FIG. 1D (CD 166), FIG. 1E (CD 170), FIG. 1C (CD 172), or the like. It is to be noted that the embodiments of GD, PD and CD illustrated for use in FIG. 129 is specific to the related embodiments. Other embodiments can have GDs, CDs or PDs that are different from the embodiments illustrated herein. The illustration of FIG. 129 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In the embodiment of FIG. 129, each GD can be associated with zero or more PDs, each PD can be associated with zero or more CDs, and each CD can be associated with zero or more PDs. The association among embodiments of GDs, PDs and CDs can use various forms of communication that can include wired and/or wireless communication. Each CD can be processing tags provided by PDs that the CD can be associated with. In one embodiment of FIG. 129, a CD can be only be associated with PDs that are associated with a GD. This can be used where CD can be associated with PDs that can generate tags. A PD can generate tags when it is associated with a GD in such embodiments. GD 13652 and GD 13662 are associated with PDs in the system using various forms of connectivity that can include wired and wireless connectivity. GD 13652 is communicatively coupled to PD 13654 using 13668—a wired form of connectivity. Wired forms of connectivity can include various technologies Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Other custom forms of connectivity are also possible. Each PD associated to a GD can use a different technology for communication. A GD can be communicatively coupled to PDs using wireless technology. Wireless technology can include technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. Other custom wireless technologies are also possible. GD 13662 in FIG. 129 is communicatively coupled to PD 13664 using 13670—a wireless form of communication. The wireless communication technologies used by a GD in associating with each PD can be different. In the embodiment of FIG. 129, GD 13662 can be communicatively coupled to PD 13664 using Bluetooth technology. Each CD—CD 13656, CD 13658 and CD 13666 can be associated with PDs in the system using various forms of connectivity—that can include wired and wireless connectivity. Each CD can be associated with more than one PD in the system. CD 13658 in system of FIG. 129 is associated with PDs 13654 and 13664. When a CD is associated with a multiple of PDs, the CD can be associated with each PD using communication technologies that can included wired and/or wireless. Wired forms of communication can include various technologies such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Wireless technology can include technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. Other custom technologies are also possible. In the embodiment of FIG. 129, CD 13658 is associated with PD 13654 using wifi technology, while CD 13658 is associated with PD 13664 using Bluetooth technology. While it is not illustrated, CD 13658 can also be associated with PDs using wired forms of communication. In the embodiment of FIG. 129, CD 13656 is associated with PD 13654 using wired communication—13672, and CD 13666 is associated with PPD 13664 using wired communication. Each of the wired communications—13672 and 13678 can include technologies such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Other custom technologies are also possible. It is to be noted that while the CDs illustrated in FIG. 129 is associated with one or two PDs, other embodiments can have CDs that can be associated with more or less PDs, the association with each PD can use one of several forms of communication—that can include wired and/or wireless technologies. When a CD is associated with more than one PD, the CD can be processing tags provided by each associated PD. In the embodiment of FIG. 129, CD 13658 can process tags provided by PD 13654 and PD 13664. When a CD is associated with one PD, the CD can be processing tags provided by the associated PD. In the embodiment of FIG. 129, CD 13656 can process tags provided by PD 13654, while CD 13666 can process tags provided by PD 13664. In some embodiments, instances of CD not associated with any PDs do not process any tags. While a CD is associated with, and processing tags provided by some PDs, the CD can detect and associate with more PDs. Once the CD is associated with more PDs, the CD can start processing tags from the newly associated PDs. In the embodiment of FIG. 129, CD 13656 can be processing tags provided by PD 13654. While CD 13656 is associated with, and processing tags provided by PD 13654, CD 13656 can detect and associate with PD 13664. Once the CD is associated with PD 13664, the CD can process tags provided by both PDs—PD 13664 and PD 13654. While a CD is associated with some PDs, the CD can disassociate with some or all of the PDs. When the CD is disassociated with some PDs, the CD can stop processing tags provided by the disassociated PDs. In the embodiment of FIG. 129, CD 13658 can disassociate with PD 13654. Once CD 13658 is disassociated with PD 13654, CD 13658 can stop processing tags provided by PD 13654. In yet other embodiments, CDs can associate with PDs that are associated with GDs. It is to be noted that the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 129 is meant to illustrate the communication modes and association among GDs, PDs and CDs. Other embodiments can have a different number of PDs and/or different number of CDs and/or different number of GDs. Some embodiments can allow only for wired connectivity, while some others can allow for only wireless connectivity. Yet other embodiments can allow for a PD to be associated with more than one GD. Other embodiments can choose to have PDs and/or CDs and/or GDs that are different from the ones illustrated herein, and the illustration associated with FIG. 129 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 130 illustrates a system consisting of a GenProvider device (GPD) and association of GPD with CDs according to an embodiment of the present invention. A GPD, as illustrated in this embodiment, includes functionality associated with a GD and a PD. The PD aspect of GPD is associated with GD aspect of GPD. The association between the PD and GD aspects of GPD, in the GPD can be implemented using a variety of mechanisms. PD can be associated to GD using communication channels that can be implemented using a variety of mechanisms that can include—wired communication, wireless communication, logic circuits, software based communication, other custom methods, or the like. Wired communication can include technologies such as Ethernet, usb, or the like. Wireless communication can include technologies such as Bluetooth, wifi, or the like. Communication between aspects of GD and PD in GPD, can also be implemented in hardware and/or firmware using logic circuits or any other hardware mechanisms. When some/all aspects of GD and PD are implemented using software, the communication between aspects of GD and PD can include software based mechanisms such as function calls from GD to PD and vice versa, or the like. Other communication methods are possible in various embodiments. Each CD—CD 13704 and CD 13706 can be associated with GPD in the system using various forms of connectivity—that can include wired and wireless connectivity. Each CD can be associated with more than one GPD in the system (not shown). When a CD is associated with a multiple of GPDs, the CD can be associated with each GPD using communication technologies that can include wired and/or wireless communication. Wired forms of communication can include various technologies such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Wireless technology can include technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. Other custom technologies are also possible. In the embodiment of FIG. 130, CD 13704 is associated with GPD 13702 using wired communication—13708. Wired communications 13708 can include technologies such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. Other custom technologies are also possible. In the embodiment of FIG. 130, CD 13706 is associated with GPD 13702 using wireless communication—13710. Wireless communications 13710 can include technologies such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. Other custom technologies are also possible. When a CD is associated with more than one GPD, the CD can be processing tags provided by each associated GPD. When a CD is associated with one GPD, the CD can be processing tags provided by the associated GPD. In some embodiments, instances of CD not associated with any GPDs do not process tags provided by GPDs. While a CD is associated with, and processing tags provided by some GPDs, the CD can detect and associate with more GPDs. Once the CD is associated with more GPDs, the CD can start processing tags provided by the newly associated GPDs. A CD in such case can process tags from some/all of GPDs that the CD is associated with. While a CD is associated with some GPDs, the CD can disassociate with some or all of the GPDs. When the CD is disassociated with some GPDs, the CD can stop processing tags provided by the disassociated GPDs. It is to be noted that the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 130 is meant to illustrate the communication modes and association among GPDs, and CDs. Other embodiments can have a different number of GPDs and/or different number of CDs. Some embodiments can allow only for wired connectivity, while some others can allow for only wireless connectivity, while others can allow a mix of wired and wireless communication. In yet other embodiments, the system can include a mix of CDs, GPDs, GDs and, PDs. In such embodiments, a CD can associate with GPDs and/or PDs. The CD can process tags provided by the GPDs and/or PDs that the CD is associated with. Other embodiments can choose to have GPDs and/or CDs that are different from the ones illustrated herein, and the illustration associated with FIG. 130 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 131 illustrates a GenProvCons device (GPCD) according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of FIG. 131, GPCD 13802 includes functionality associated with a GD, PD and CD. Aspects of GD, PD and CD can be implemented using a combination of hardware, firmware and software. The association and communication between aspects of GD and PD of GPCD; aspects of PD and CD of GPCD can be implemented using a variety of mechanisms that can be specific to the embodiment. Mechanisms can include—wired communication, wireless communication, logic circuits, software based communication, other custom methods, or the like. Wired communication can include technologies such as Ethernet, usb, or the like. Wireless communication can include technologies such as Bluetooth, wifi, or the like. Communication between aspects of GD and PD in GPCD, PD and CD in GPCD can also be implemented in hardware and/or firmware using logic circuits or any other hardware mechanisms. When some/all aspects of GD, PD and CD are implemented using software, the communication between aspects of GD and PD; aspects of PD and CD can include mechanisms specific to software based communication such as function calls or the like. Other methods of communication are also possible. CD 140, PD 240 and GD 302 can be realized in a variety of devices having varying form factors, components, and connections. FIG. 1-7 illustrate a few of the many possible configurations. In FIG. 133, Plug computer 14104 embodies aspects of PD 240, set top box 14106 embodies aspects of GD 302 and portable media device (PMD) 14102 embodies aspects of CD 140. PMD 14102 can connect to plug computer 14104 via cable 14112. In this embodiment, PMD 14102 includes connector 14138 adapted to connect to one end 14140 of cable 14112, while plug computer 14104 includes connector 14136 adapted to connect to the other end 14134 of cable 14112. Connectors 14138 and 14136 might or might not have the same form factor, number of pins, etc. For example, connector 14138 can be a 30-pin connector such as is used on iPod media players while connector 14136 can be a Universal Serial Bus (“USB”) or firewire connector or other standard or custom connector. In still other embodiments, PMD 14102 and plug computer 14104 can each include a wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth) allowing PMD 14102 and plug computer 14104 to communicate with each other without a physical connection. Plug computer (PC) 14104 can connect to set top box (STB) 14106 via cable 14114. In this embodiment, PC 14104 includes connector 14130 adapted to connect to one end 14132 of cable 14114, while STB 14106 includes connector 14128 to connect to other end 14126 of cable 14114. Connectors 14130 and 14128 might or might not have the same form factor, number of pins, etc. For example connector 14130 can be a Universal Serial Bus (“USB”), and connector 14128 can be firewire connector or other standard or custom connector. In still other embodiments, PC 14104 and STB 14106 can each include a wireless interface (e.g., WiFi or Bluetooth) allowing PC 14104 and STB 14106 to communicate with each other without a physical connection. STB 14106 can connect to a media player such as a television set (TV) 14108 via cable 14116. In this embodiment STB includes connector 14118 adapted to connect to one end 14120 of cable 14116, while TV 14108 includes connector 14124 adapted to connect to other end 14122 of cable 14116. Connectors 14118 and 14122 might or might not have the same form factor, number of pins, etc. For example connector 14118 can be a High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) connector, and connector 14124 can be a RCA connector (also called as phono connector or cinch connector), or other standard or custom connector. In still other embodiments, STB 14106 and TV 14108 can each include a wireless interface such as those supporting IEEE 802.15.3 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) or any other custom wireless interface that can allow STB 14106 and TV 14108 to communicate with each other without a physical connection. STB 14106 can be associated with an antenna 14148 that can allow STB 14106 in receiving media broadcasts. An example of such embodiment includes a dish antenna such as those supported by Dish Networks, Direc TV, or the like, in providing video services (including any others). In some embodiments, STB 14106 can include a cable that delivers media broadcasts to STB 14106. An example of such embodiment includes media delivered by cable such as the ones delivered by Comcast Inc. PMD 14102 can include a connector 14144 adapted to connect to one end 14142 of cable 14146. Cable 14146 can allow for PMD 14102 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 14110. Network 14110 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 14146 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, PMD 14102 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow PMD 14102 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. FIG. 134 illustrates another configuration in which PMD 14202 can be connected to STB 14204 using cable 14206. In this embodiment, STB 14204 embodies aspects of PD 240 and GD 302. Aspects of PD 240 are illustrated by PD 14208 of STB 14204. In such embodiment, aspects of PD 14208 can communicate with aspects of STB 14204 using connectivity and/or interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc.) or custom. In some embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of PD 14208 and other aspects of STB 14204 can be implemented using software. PMD 14202 and STB 14204 can each include a wireless interface (e.g., Wifi) allowing PMD 14202 and STB 14204 to communicate with each other without a physical connection. STB 14204 can be associated with antenna 14210 that can allow STB 14204 in receiving media broadcasts. An example of such embodiment includes a dish antenna such as those supported by Dish Networks, Direc TV, or the like, in providing video services (including any others). In some embodiments, STB 14204 can include a cable that delivers media broadcasts to STB 14204. An example of such embodiment includes media delivered by cable such as the ones delivered by Comcast Inc. STB 14204 can connect to a media player such as a television set (TV) 14216 via cable 14212 using standard and/or custom interfaces. In other embodiments, STB 14204 and TV 14216 can each include a wireless interface such as those supporting IEEE 802.15.3 Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) or any other custom wireless interface that can allow STB 14204 and TV 14216 to communicate with each other without a physical connection. PMD 14202 can also be associated with cable 14214 can allow for PMD 14202 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 14210. Network 14210 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 14214 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, PMD 14202 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow PMD 14202 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. FIG. 91 illustrates a yet another configuration, in which PMD 14302 embodies aspects of CD 140, plug computer 14304 embodies aspects of PD 240, and television (TV) set 14306 embodies aspects of GD 302 and a television/media player. PMD 14302 can connect to plug computer 14304 via cable 14314. In some embodiments, PMD 14302 and plug computer 14304 can each include a wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth) allowing PMD 14302 and plug computer 14304 to communicate with each other without a physical connection. PMD 14302 can also be associated with cable 14316 can allow for PMD 14302 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 14318. Network 14318 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 14316 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, PMD 14302 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow PMD 14302 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. Plug computer (PC) 14304 can be connected to TV 14306 via cable 14312. GD 14308 of TV 14306 can also communicate with PC 14304 using cable 14312. In some embodiments, PC 14304 and TV 14306 can each include a wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth, Wifi, etc.) that can allow PC 14304 and TV 14306 to communicate with each other without a physical connection. TV 14306 embodies aspects of GD 302 as illustrated by GD 14308 of TV 14306. In this embodiment, aspects of GD 14308 can communicate with media playing aspects of TV 14306 using connectivity and/or interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc.) or custom. Such interfaces and/or connectivity can be internal to TV 14306. In other embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of GD 14308 and other aspects of TV 14306 can be implemented using software. TV 14306 can be associated with antenna 14310 that can allow TV 14306 in receiving media broadcasts. An example of such embodiment includes a dish antenna such as those supported by Dish Networks, Direc TV, or the like, in providing video services (including any others). In some embodiments, TV 14306 can include a cable that delivers media broadcasts to TV 14306. An example of such embodiment includes media delivered by cable such as the ones delivered by Comcast Inc. GD 14308 of TV 14306 can receive media broadcasts as captured by antenna 14310. GD 14308 can extract content from captured broadcasts and communicate the content to media playing aspects of TV 14306. Tag related information extracted from captured media broadcasts can be communicated by GD 14308 to PC 14304 using cable 14312. FIG. 92 illustrates a yet another configuration wherein, PMD 14402 includes aspects associated with CD 140 and PD 240, including others. Television (TV) 14406 embodies aspects associated with GD 302, and aspects associated with a television set such as a display, audio controls, video controls, or the like. PMD 14402 can be connected to TV 14406 via cable 14412. Aspects of TV 14406 can communicate with aspects of PMD 14402 using cable 14412. GD 14408 of TV 14406 can communicate with PD 14404 of PMD 14402 using cable 14412. In some embodiments, PMD 14402 and TV 14406 can each include a wireless interface (e.g., Bluetooth, Wifi, etc.) that can allow aspects of PMD 14402 and aspects of TV 14406 to communicate with each other without a physical connection. TV 14406 embodies aspects of GD 302 as illustrated by GD 14408 of TV 14406. In this embodiment, aspects of GD 14408 can communicate with media playing aspects of TV 14406 using connectivity and/or interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc.) or custom. Such interfaces and/or connectivity can be internal to TV 14406. In other embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of GD 14408 and other aspects of TV 14406 can be implemented using software. TV 14406 can be associated with antenna 14410 that can allow TV 14406 in receiving media broadcasts. An example of such embodiment includes a dish antenna such as those supported by Dish Networks, Direc TV, or the like, in providing video services (including any others). In some embodiments, TV 14406 can include a cable that delivers media broadcasts to TV 14406. An example of such embodiment includes media delivered by cable such as the ones delivered by Comcast Inc. GD 14408 of TV 14406 can receive media broadcasts as captured by antenna 14410. GD 14408 can extract content from captured broadcasts and communicate the content to media playing aspects of TV 14406. Tag related information extracted from captured media broadcasts can be communicated by GD 14408 to PD 14404 of PMD 14402 using cable 14412. PMD 14402 embodies aspects of PD 240 as illustrated by PD 14404 of PMD 14402. In this embodiment, aspects of PD 14404 can communicate with other aspects of PMD 14402 (such as user interfaces, services [e.g., telephony] associated with PMD, aspects associated with communication to entities outside of PMD, or the like) using connectivity and/or interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc) or custom. Such interfaces and/or connectivity can be internal to PMD 14402. In other embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of PD 14404 and other aspects of PMD 14402 can be implemented using software. PD 14404 of PMD 14402 can receive tag related information from GD 14408 of TV 14406 using cable 14412. PD 14404 can provide tags associated with information generated by GD 14408, to aspects of PMD 14402. Aspects of PMD 14402 that can receive the tags can relate to selection, determination, downloads, launching, and other aspects of applications. Other aspects of PMD 14402 can also receive tags provided by PD 14404 of PMD 14402. In some embodiments, aspects of PMD 14402 that can receive the tags provided by PD 14404 can be changing (or different) based on mechanisms that can be specific to the embodiment. When some aspects of PD 14404 and PMD 14402 are implemented using software, aspects of PMD 14402 receiving the tags provided by PD 14404 can be determined by means of registration mechanisms that can be specific to a software implementation. PMD 14402 can also be associated with cable 14414 can allow for PMD 14402 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 14418. Network 14418 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 14414 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, PMD 14402 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow PMD 14402 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. FIG. 93 illustrates yet another configuration wherein television (TV) set 14502 can include aspects associated with CD 140, PD 240, GD 302, media related aspects associated with television sets such as a video display, audio devices, audio/video controls, including others. GD 14504 of TV 14502 embodies aspects associated with GD 302, PD 14506 of TV 14502 embodies aspects associated with PD 240, and CD 14508 embodies aspects associated with CD 140. TV 14502 can be associated with antenna 14512 that can allow TV 14502 in receiving media broadcasts. An example of such embodiment includes a dish antenna such as those supported by Dish Networks, Direc TV, or the like, in providing video services (including any others). In some embodiments, TV 14502 can include a cable that delivers media broadcasts to TV 14502. An example of such embodiment includes media delivered by cable such as the ones delivered by Comcast Inc. GD 14504 of TV 14502 can receive media broadcasts as captured by antenna 14512. GD 14504 can extract content from captured broadcasts and communicate the content to media playing aspects of TV 14502. Tag related information extracted from captured media broadcasts can be communicated by GD 14504 to PD 14506. PD 14506 can provide tags using information generated by GD 14504. The tags provided by PD 14506 can be received by CD 14508 of TV 14502. Aspects of CD 14508 that can receive the tags can relate to selection, determination, downloads, launching, and other aspects of applications. Other aspects of CD 14508 can also receive tags provided by PD 14506. In some embodiments, aspects of CD 14508 that can receive the tags provided by PD 14506 can be changing (or different) based on mechanisms that can be specific to the embodiment. When some aspects of PD 14506 and CD 14508 are implemented using software, aspects of CD 14508 receiving the tags provided by PD 14506 can be determined by means of registration mechanisms that can be specific to a software implementation. GD 14504 can communicate tag related information to PD 14506 using interfaces and connectivity that can be specific to the embodiment. In some embodiments, the connectivity can be provided by interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc) or custom. Such interfaces and/or connectivity can be internal to TV 14502. In other embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of GD 14504 and PD 14506 can be implemented using software. PD 14506 can provide tags CD 14508 using interfaces and connectivity that can be specific to the embodiment. In some embodiments, the connectivity can be provided by interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc) or custom. Such interfaces and/or connectivity can be internal to TV 14502. In other embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of CD 14508 and PD 14506 can be implemented using software. TV 14502 can also be associated with cable 14510 can allow for TV 14502 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 14514. Network 14514 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 14510 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, TV 14502 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow TV 14502 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. In this embodiment, aspects of user interface related to CD 14508 can be associated with audio/video controls of TV 14502. User input for CD 14508 can be associated with user controls of TV 14502. User controls of TV 14502 can be located physically on TV 14502 (not shown) or be associated with a remote device. The remote device can communicate with TV 14502 using a variety of communication technologies that can include one or more of RF, WiFi, or the like. FIG. 94 illustrates yet another configuration wherein a television (TV) set 14602 is used in association with a set top box (STB) 14604. TV 14602 is associated with aspects related to a television set such as a video display, audio/video controls, or the like. STB 14604 can be associated with aspects of CD 140, PD 240 and GD 302. GD 14606 of STB 14604 embodies aspects associated with GD 302, PD 14608 of STB 14604 embodies aspects associated with PD 240, and CD 14610 embodies aspects associated with CD 140. STB 14604 can be associated with antenna 14612 that can allow STB 14604 in receiving media broadcasts. An example of such embodiment includes a dish antenna such as those supported by Dish Networks, Direc TV, or the like, in providing video services (including any others). In some embodiments, STB 14604 can include a cable that delivers media broadcasts to STB 14604. An example of such embodiment includes media delivered by cable such as the ones delivered by Comcast Inc. GD 14606 of STB 14604 can receive media broadcasts as captured by antenna 14612. GD 14606 can extract content from captured broadcasts and communicate the content to TV 14602. Tag related information extracted from captured media broadcasts can be communicated by GD 14606 to PD 14608. PD 14608 can provide tags using information generated by GD 14606. The tags provided by PD 14608 can be received by CD 14610 of STB 14604. Aspects of CD 14610 that can receive the tags can relate to selection, determination, downloads, launching, and other aspects of applications. Other aspects of CD 14610 can also receive tags provided by PD 14608. In some embodiments, aspects of CD 14610 that can receive the tags provided by PD 14608 can be changing (or different) based on mechanisms that can be specific to the embodiment. When some aspects of PD 14608 and CD 14610 are implemented using software, aspects of CD 14610 receiving the tags provided by PD 14608 can be determined by means of registration mechanisms that can be specific to a software implementation. GD 14606 can communicate tag related information to PD 14608 using interfaces and connectivity that can be specific to the embodiment. In some embodiments, the connectivity can be provided by interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc) or custom. Such interfaces and/or connectivity can be internal to STB 14604. In other embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of GD 14606 and PD 14608 can be implemented using software. PD 14608 can provide tags CD 14610 using interfaces and connectivity that can be specific to the embodiment. In some embodiments, the connectivity can be provided by interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc) or custom. Such interfaces and/or connectivity can be internal to STB 14604. In other embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of CD 14610 and PD 14608 can be implemented using software. STB 14604 can also be associated with cable 14614 can allow for STB 14604 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 14616. Network 14616 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 14614 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, STB 14604 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow STB 14604 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. In this embodiment, aspects of user interface related to CD 14610 can be associated with audio/video controls of STB 14604 and/or TV 14602. User input for CD 14610 can be associated with user controls of STB 14604 and/or TV 14602. User controls of STB 14604 can be located physically on STB 14604 (not shown) or be associated with a remote device. The remote device can communicate with STB 14604 using a variety of communication technologies that can include one or more of RF, WiFi, or the like. User controls of TV 14602 can be located physically on TV 14602 (not shown) or be associated with a remote device. The remote device can communicate with TV 14602 using a variety of communication technologies that can include one or more of RF, WiFi, or the like. FIG. 56 illustrates another configuration wherein a PMD 14702 embodies aspects of CD 140. Computer system (CS) 14704 embodies aspects associated with PD 240 and GD 302, including other aspects. GD 14706 of CS 14704 embodies aspects associated with GD 302, while PD 14708 of CS 14704 embodies aspects associated with PD 240. CS 14704 can include aspects that can allow communication with entities in network 14716 using cable 14714. CS 14704 can communicate with network 14716 to access media related content. CS 14704 can be associated with wireless interfaces that can allow CS 14704 to communicate with entities in network 14716 without using a physical connection. Some entities in network 14716 can provide tagged media content that can be accessed by CS 14704. GD 14706 of CS 14704 can retrieve the tag related information associated with tagged media accessed by CS 14704 and provide it to PD 14708. Media extracted by GD 14706 can be used by aspects of CS 14704 in displaying the media using display of CS 14704, output audio using audio devices associated with CS 14704, or the like. Tags can be provided by PD 14708 to PMD 14702 using cable 14710. In some embodiments, CS 14704 and PMD 14702 can be associated with wireless interfaces (e.g., Bluetooth, Wifi, etc.) that can allow CS 14704 and PMD 14702 to communicate with each other without using a physical connection. Other aspects of CS 14704 and PMD 14702 can also communicate using 14710. PMD 14702 can also be associated with cable 14712 can allow for PMD 14702 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 14716. Network 14716 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 14712 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, PMD 14702 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow PMD 14702 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. GD 14706 can communicate tag related information to PD 14708 using interfaces and connectivity that can be specific to the embodiment. In some embodiments, the connectivity can be provided by interfaces that can be standard (such as PCIe, Ethernet, USB, etc) or custom. Such interfaces and/or connectivity can be internal to CS 704. In other embodiments, aspects of communication between aspects of GD 14706 and PD 14708 can be implemented using software. It is to be noted that the methods, apparatus, systems, messages, content/structure of information, and others associated with FIG. 4A-B-21, 22-38, 39A-C, 40A-C, 41-47, 48A-D, 49-55, 57-67, 68A-B, 69A-B, 70A-B, 71A-B, 72A-B, 73A-B, 74A-B, 75A-B, 76A-B, 76C, 77-78, 79A-B, 80-83, 84A-B, 85-86, 90A-B, 112, 126-127, 128-129, 130-131 are used in association with apparatus, methods, information, messages, systems and others, described in other (second, third, fourth) embodiments of the invention described below. Second Embodiment The subsequent paragraphs describe another embodiment of the present invention. While the description is with respect to specific embodiments, one skilled in the art will recognize that numerous modifications are possible and elements of different embodiments can be combined and associated with each other as and where necessary. Structure of Second Embodiment FIG. 95 illustrates a Generator Device (GD) 9502 for generating tag related information according to another exemplary embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 95, GD 9502 can include state (STATE) 314, store interface (SI) 316, store (STORE) 318, TRI generator (TGEN) 9504, user interface (UI) 9506, provider manager (PMAN) 312, provider interface (PINT) 324, antenna 328 and network cable 329. Embodiments of GD 9502 can generate tag related information using information retrieved from STORE 318. This can be used in embodiments where tag related information can change infrequently. Examples of such embodiments can include GDs used in store aisles generating tag related information related to groceries located in the aisle. Tag related information generated by the GD can change when the groceries located in the aisle change. Information stored in STORE 318 can be provisioned in one embodiment using UI 9506. Aspects of GD 9502 such as STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, PINT 324, antenna 328 and cable 329 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with GD 302 illustrated in FIG. 3A. TGEN 9504 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can enable GD 9502 in providing tag related information using information stored in STORE 318. In some embodiments, TGEN 9504 can be implemented using software that can retrieve information from STORE 318, and communicate the information to PD 202 instances associated with the GD, once every time interval. In some embodiments, STORE 318 can store more than one instance of tag related information. TGEN 9504 in such embodiments can retrieve all the instances of tag related information from STORE 318. When TGEN 9504 has multiple instances of tag related information, TGEN 9504 can provide one instance of information for a given time interval. TGEN 9504 can provide the second instance of information for the next time interval. Other methods of providing multiple sets of tag related information stored in STORE 318 are possible. For example, a GD located in a store can be providing tag related information related to coffee in morning, while the GD can be providing tag related information related to food at breakfast or lunch time. The number of instances of information stored in STORE 318 and the methods of providing that information to PDs can be specific to each embodiment. TGEN 9504 can use PINT 324 in communicating the generated tag related information to PDs associated with the GD. UI 9506 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for storing information or changing information stored in STORE 318. UI 9506 can also allow for changing the rules to be used by TGEN 9504 in communicating the information stored in STORE 318. In some embodiments, UI 9506 can include a hardware aspect such as a touch screen, keyboard, or buttons associated with GD 9502. In some other embodiments, UI 9506 can include software aspect that can allow for interaction in a remote way. For example, UI 9506 can be associated with a web interface that can be accessed using a computer using a network interface (not shown) on GD 9502. UI 9506 can be associated with “burning” the information in STORE 318, when STORE 318 can be implemented using programmable ROMs. Other methods of controlling GD 9502 using different mechanisms related to UI 9506, are possible. Aspects of STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, PINT 324, TGEN 9504, ui 9506 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. GD 9502 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of GD 9502 can be included in (or associated with) a set top box that can allow for playing DVDs or storing media. The set top box can be playing media, while at the same time providing tag related information to instances of PD. Operation of Second Embodiment FIG. 96 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be included in the tags generated by the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment illustrated here, an instance of GD 9502 of FIG. 95 can use the process associated with FIG. 96 in determining the tag related information. The process illustrated in FIG. 96 can be used when information related to tags can be provisioned to GD 9502 using UI 322 or any other provisioning mechanisms. The process can also be used when GD 9502 can start providing tag related information, as when GD 9502 is powered on. In embodiments where GD 9502 can be implemented using software, the process associated with FIG. 95 can be started when the software is launched or running or activated. The method followed in updating tag related information, the information that can be updated by the process, and other methods as illustrated in FIG. 95 are illustrative and meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other methods can choose to include/update information not described here, can choose to exclude some or all of information described here, can use methods not described here, and the process/methods illustrated by FIG. 95 are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 9602 and moves to step 9604. At step 9604, an instance of CRI is created. The created instance is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of CRI can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of a CRI instance can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of a CRI instance can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the CRI. The process can then move to step 9606. At step 9606, cInfo.appLocation can be set to appLocation, cInfo.additionalInfoUrl can be set to additionalInfoUrl and cInfo.additionalInfo can be set to additionalInfo appLocation, additionalInfoUrl and additionalInfo can be determined using provisioning mechanisms—such as user input associated with UI 322. In embodiments where the process associated with FIG. 96 is used when GD 9502 starts to provide tags (as when GD is powered on), the information retrieved from STORE 318 using SI 316 can be used. The process can then move to step 9608. At step 9608, cInfo.version can be set to 1 or incremented. cInfo.version can be incremented if the process associated with FIG. 96 is used as a result of provisioning of new information. cInfo.version can be set to 1 if the process associated with FIG. 96 is used as a result of GD starting up. The process can then move to step 9610. At step 9610, gState.core can be set to cInfo. The process can then move to step 9612. At step 9612, information associated with appLocation, additionalInfoUrl and additionalInfo can be stored in STORE 318 using SI 316. This can be needed if the process associated with FIG. 96 is used in association with a provisioning mechanism that can involve UI 322 of GD 9502. The process can then move to step 9614. Step 9614 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 96 is complete. In one embodiment that can use GD 9502, information related to tags can be provided by GD to instances of PD associated with the GD, upon expiry of a time interval. GD can provide tag related information to PDs associated with the GD once every time interval. In other embodiments other events can be used by GD in providing tag related information to instances of PD. System of Second Embodiment FIG. 97 illustrates an embodiment of a system wherein a plug computer (PC) 97102 is used to generate tag related information that can be received by a portable media device (PMD) 97104. PC 97102 embodies aspects of GD 9502, while PMD 97104 embodies aspects of CD 140, PD 240, including others. System illustrated in FIG. 97 can be associated with static embodiments wherein information generated by PC 97102 is relatively static. Examples of such embodiments can include GDs used in store aisles generating tag related information related to groceries located in the aisle. Tag related information generated by the GD can change when the groceries located in the aisle change. It is to be noted that while the system illustrated in FIG. 97 demonstrates the use of one GD, and one PMD, other embodiments can have a different number of instances of each of these devices. For example, tag related information generated by a GD in an aisle can be received by more than one instance of PMD in the aisle. In other embodiment, a PMD can be receiving tag related information from more than one GD. The number of instances of each devices, their association and communication illustrated in FIG. 97 is illustrative only and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. PC 97102 and PMD 97104 include wireless interfaces that can allow aspects of PC 97102 and PMD 97104 in communicating with each other. The wireless interfaces can be used by PC 97102 in communicating tag related information generated by the PC. In other embodiments, PC and PMD can be associated with connectors that can allow using a cable plugged into the connectors of PC and PMD in order to have aspects of PC and PMD communicate with each other. In the embodiment illustrated here, the wireless connectivity can be used by PD 97108 of PMD 97104 in receiving tag related information. PMD 97104 can include aspects of PD 240 as illustrated by PD 97108 of PMD 97104. PD 97108 can receive tag related information communicated by PC 97102 and provide tags to aspects of PMD 97104. Aspects of PMD 97104 that can receive the tags can relate to selection, determination, downloads, launching, and other aspects of applications. Other aspects of PMD 97104 can also receive tags provided by PD 97108 of PMD 97104. In some embodiments, aspects of PMD 97104 that can receive the tags provided by PD 97108 can be changing (or different) based on mechanisms that can be specific to the embodiment. When some aspects of PD 97108 and PMD 97104 are implemented using software, aspects of PMD 97104 receiving the tags provided by PD 97108 can be determined by means of registration mechanisms that can be specific to a software implementation. PMD 97104 can include a connector 97106 adapted to connect to one end 97110 of cable 97112. Cable 97112 can allow for PMD 97104 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 97114. Network 97114 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 97146 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, PMD 97104 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow PMD 97104 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. Third Embodiment The subsequent paragraphs describe another embodiment of the present invention. While the description is with respect to specific embodiments, one skilled in the art will recognize that numerous modifications are possible and elements of different embodiments can be combined and associated with each other as and where necessary. Structure of Third Embodiment FIG. 98 illustrates a Generator Device (GD) 9802 for generating tag related information according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 98, GD 9802 can include state (STATE) 314, store interface (SI) 316, store (STORE) 318, TRI generator (TGEN) 9804, user interface (UI) 9818, provider manager (PMAN) 312, provider interface (PINT) 324, antenna 328, network cable 329, sensor a (SENA) 9808, sensor b (SENB) 9810 and sensor interface (SINT) 9806. GD 9802 can be used in some embodiments to generate tag related information using information provided by one or more sensors. In some embodiments, tag related information can include information generated by sensors such as the ones generated by temperature sensors, acceleration sensors, orientation sensors or the like. Sensors that can be used by GD 9802 to generate tag related information can include hardware based sensors such as acceleration sensor, orientation sensor, temperature sensor or the like, wherein one or more of components can interact to generate data related to the functionality of the sensor. Sensors that GD 9802 can retrieve data from can also include those that generate data using systems that can be a combination of one or more of hardware, firmware and software. An example of such a sensor is a parking lot sensor that can generate data related to availability of spaces in a parking lot. The parking lot sensor can generate data using video/web cameras that take pictures of parking lot at regular intervals. The parking lot sensor can also be associated with a software aspect that can identify spaces in parking lot that are free, by processing the pictures taken by the camera(s). Sensors can be associated physically with GD 9802 as illustrated by SENA 9808 and SENB 9810. These sensors are referred to as local sensors herein. Sensors can be located outside of GD 9802 (remotely) and be communicably coupled to GD 9802 using one or more sensor interfaces, such as the one illustrated by SINT 9806. Such sensors are referred to herein, as remote sensors. An embodiment of GD 9802 can be associated with sensors or sensor interfaces different in number, than the number illustrated in FIG. 98. Some embodiments may not have any local sensors, while some can have more number of sensors interfaces (more than one). Other configurations are also possible. Aspects of GD 9802 such as STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, PINT 324, antenna 328 and cable 329 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with GD 302 of FIG. 3A. TGEN 9804 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can be used to generate tag related information using data retrieved from sensors. TGEN 9804 can communicate with local sensors such as SENA 9808 and SENB 9810 using mechanisms that can be specific to the sensor and/or the embodiment of GD. In some embodiments, TGEN 9804 can retrieve information available from sensors like temperature sensors, acceleration sensors, orientation sensors, etc. using inter-integrated circuit or SMBus protocols. Inter-integrated circuit and SMBus are serial buses that can allow communication between one or more entities using a defined protocol. TGEN 9804 can retrieve information available from sensors using other mechanisms. TGEN 9804 can communicate with remote sensors using SINT 9806. The method of retrieving data from remote sensors can be specific to the embodiment of SINT 9806, and/or embodiment of remote sensor and/or embodiment of GD 9802. In some embodiments aspects of SINT 9806 can be implemented using software interfaces such as API, CORBA, RPC, or the like. In such embodiments, aspects of TGEN 9804 that involve communication with SINT 9806, can be implemented in software. In such embodiments, TGEN 9804 can retrieve data provided by remote sensors by having communication related aspects of TGEN 9804 make a function call into the software associated with SINT 9806. For example, SINT 9806 associated with parking lot sensor can provide software based mechanisms (API) to retrieve data generated by the associated parking lot sensor. Aspects of TGEN 9804 in such embodiment can retrieve data generated by parking lot sensor by making a function call into aspects of SINT 9806. TGEN 9804 can retrieve data from sensors due to events that can be specific to the embodiment. In one embodiment, TGEN 9804 can retrieve data from sensors, once every time interval. At the expiry of a time interval, TGEN 9804 can retrieve data from sensors and generate tag related information. The generated tag related information can be provided to PDs associated with the GD. Other events can also be used by TGEN 9804 to retrieve data generated by sensors, in various embodiments. SINT 9806 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for aspects of GD 9802 in communicating with and/or retrieving data from remote sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment, SINT 9806 can include a software aspect. The software aspect can be related to providing a software interface such as an API, a class declaration, or the like. Software interface can be provided by SINT 9806 to allow for communicating with and/or retrieving data from sensor associated with SINT 9806. The remote sensor can be a hardware sensor like a temperature sensor. The remote sensor can also include a combination of one or more of software, firmware and hardware. SINT 9806 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. SINT 9806 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. SINT 9806 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 9812 capable of sending/receiving messages to/from remote sensor. SINT 9806 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 9816 capable of receiving/sending messages from/to a remote sensor. The connectivity between SINT 9806 and remote sensor can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The connectivity can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The communication channel between SINT and remote sensor can also include communication over internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. SINT 9806 can be connected to antenna 9812 and/or cable 9816 with or without a connector. Referring to the parking lot sensor described earlier, SINT 9806 in such embodiment can include a software API that can enable TGEN 9804 in retrieving data from the parking lot sensor. SINT 9806 can be associated with cellular communication networks using antenna 9812 to allow for communication with remote sensor. The remote sensor in this embodiment includes a combination of one or more cameras in association with a computer that is capable of processing images captured by cameras to determine the vacancy of spaces in a parking lot. SINT 9806 can also be associated with the remote sensor using wired communication such as Ethernet. UI 9818 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for aspects of GD 9802 in controlling aspects of TGEN 9804, PMAN 312 and others. UI 9818 can be used in some embodiments to enable/disable generation of tag related information by TGEN 9804 for some or all of sensors associated with GD 9802. For example, in an embodiment of GD 9802 that is associated with temperature, orientation and parking lot sensors, UI 9818 can allow for enabling/disabling generation of tag related information for some/all of the sensors associated with the GD. A user can use UI 9818 to disable generation of tag related information associated with parking lot sensor, while having the generation of information related to temperature and orientation sensors active. UI 9818 can also be used to control the rate at which data is retrieved from sensors, rate at which tag related information is generated, the events that can be used to trigger generation of tag related information, or the like. UI 9818 can also be used for other aspects associated with GD 9802 Aspects of STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, PINT 324, TGEN 9804, UI 9818, SINT 9806, SENA 9808, SENB 9810 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. GD 9802 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of GD 9802 can be included in (or associated with) a set top box that can allow for playing DVDs or storing media. The set top box can be playing media, while at the same time providing tag related information to instances of PD. Content of Information FIG. 99 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD in association with temperature sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. The set of information described in FIG. 99 is referred to as TemperatureInfo (TI). The instance of GD described in FIG. 98 can be used to determine information described in FIG. 99. GD 9802 can determine information related to TI using temperature sensor associated with the GD. Some fields of TI, such as currTemp can be determined using information provided by temperature sensors. Other fields of TI such as minTemp, maxTemp, avgTemp can be determined by GD 9802 using temperatures provided by temperature sensors over a period of time. In some embodiments information associated with an instance of TI can be associated with a tag of type Temperature. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 99, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 99. The set of fields associated with a TI as described in FIG. 99 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 100 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD in association with acceleration sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. The set of information described in FIG. 100 is referred to as AccelerationInfo (AI). The instance of GD described in FIG. 98 can be used to determine information described in FIG. 100. GD 9802 can determine information related to AI using acceleration sensor (AS). Some fields of AI, such as acceleration can be determined using information provided by AS. Other fields of AI such as timeCaptured and deviceName can be determined or provided by GD 9802. In some embodiments information associated with an instance of AI can be associated with a tag of type Acceleration. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 100, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 100. The set of fields associated with a AI as described in FIG. 100 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 101 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD in association with orientation sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. The set of information described in FIG. 101 is referred to as OrientationInfo (OI). The instance of GD described in FIG. 98 can be used to determine information described in FIG. 101. GD 9802 can determine information related to OI using orientation sensor (OS). Some fields of OI, such as azimuth, pitch and roll can be determined using information provided by OS. Other fields of OI such as deviceName can be determined or provided by GD 9802. In some embodiments information associated with an instance of OI can be associated with a tag of type Orientation. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 101, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 101. The set of fields associated with OI as described in FIG. 101 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 102 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD in association with ParkingLot sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. The set of information described in FIG. 102 is referred to as ParkingLotInfo (PLI). The instance of GD described in FIG. 98 can be used to determine information described in FIG. 102. GD 9802 can determine information related to PLI using ParkingLot sensor (PLS). In some embodiments, PLS can be accessed using SI 9808. Some fields of PLI, such as spotFree can be determined using information provided by PLS. Other fields of PLI such as numSpotsTotal, numSpotsFree, spotLatitude, spotLongitude, level and timeDetermined can be determined or provided by GD 9802. In some embodiments information associated with an instance of PLI can be associated with a tag of type ParkingLot. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 102, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 102. The set of fields associated with PLI as described in FIG. 102 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Operation of Third Embodiment FIG. 103 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of state (gState) associated with the GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process illustrated in FIG. 103 can be used by an instance of GD 9802 in initializing some or all of gState associated with the GD. The embodiment of GD 9802 as described here can be used in various environments. Embodiments of GD 9802 can determine tag related information that can be associated with tags of type ParkingLot, TemperatureSensor, AccelerationSensor, OrientationSensor, or other embodiments which can include retrieving data from sensors. gState.core associated with an instance of GD 9802 can be used to maintain information specific to each embodiment. The structure of information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo in various embodiments is illustrated in FIG. 99-102. Tag related information can be determined by GD 9802 using data generated by TGEN 9804. TGEN 9804 of GD 9802 can generate data by communicating with sensors using SENI 9806, or SENSOR 9808, SENSOR 9810, or the like. The method illustrated in FIG. 103 can be used by GD 9802 before GD 9802 can start associating with instances of PD 240, in some embodiments of the invention. The structure of information maintained in gState, the initialization of fields associated with gState, the values associated with information maintained in gState, and the methods used in initialization as illustrated in FIG. 103 is specific to the embodiments described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 10302 and moves to step 10316. At step 10316, various data that can be used to initialize gState associated with GD 9802 can be determined. The value associated with various fields of gState can be specific to the embodiment. For the ParkingLot embodiment, values associated with various fields can be determined as illustrated in FIG. 107. For the Temperature Sensor embodiment, values associated with various fields can be determined as illustrated in FIG. 104. For the Acceleration Sensor embodiment, values associated with various fields can be determined as illustrated in FIG. 105. For the Orientation Sensor embodiment, values associated with various fields can be determined as illustrated in FIG. 106. Values determined at step 10316 for various embodiments can include contextType, genId, mcastConsumerId, idProvider, assocType, contact and additionalInfo. The process can move to step 10304. At step 10304, an instance of GeneratorInfo is created. The created instance is referred to as gInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 10306. At step 10306, an instance of CoreInfo is created. The created instance is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of GeneratorInfo in step 10304 and/or an instance of CoreInfo in step 10306, can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 10308. At step 10308, various values associated with gInfo can be set to values determined in step 10316. Values associated with gInfo can be different in different embodiments that can be based on the values determined in step 10316. The values determined in step 10316 can be specific to each embodiment. Other embodiments can choose to determine these values in a way specific to each embodiment. The process can then move to step 10310. At this step, cInfo.version is set to 1, cInfo.appLocation can be set to a location that can be a URL, cInfo.additionalInfo can be set to additionalInfo determined in step 10316, and cInfo.additonalInfoUrl can be set to Null. Null value for additonalInfoUrl of cInfo can be used to indicate that this field does not hold a valid value. The URL associated with cInfo.appLocation can be related to a URL where application that can process tags of type contextType, can be downloaded from. The additionalInfo determined in step 10316 can indicate the set and structure of information that can be generated in each embodiment. The structure and information generated in each embodiment is illustrated in FIG. 99-102. The process can then move to step 10312. At step 10312, gState.gInfo is set to gInfo, gState.core is set to cInfo and gState.numInfo is set to 0. A value of 0 for gState.numInfo can indicate that the GD is not associated (yet) with any instances of PD 240, and that gState.providerInfo list is empty. The process can then move to step 10314. Step 10314 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 103 is complete. FIG. 104 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD associated with temperature sensors, in determining information that can be used for initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention that can be associated with GD 9802, GD 9802 can be associated with temperature sensors. The embodiment of GD can be used in generating tag related information that can be associated with tags of type Temperature. The process associated with FIG. 104 can be used in determining information that can be used for initialization of gState associated with the GD. In one embodiment, the information determined by the process in FIG. 104 can be used in step 10316 of FIG. 103 to help initialize gState associated with the GD. In the Temperature Sensor embodiment illustrated here, the structure of information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo is illustrated in FIG. 99. The information maintained, the values associated with initialization, the method of initialization, and other aspects as illustrated in FIG. 104 can be specific to the embodiment illustrated here. Other embodiments can choose to include information not described here, exclude some or all of information described here, can choose to initialize state with values different from what is described here, or can choose to follow a different method for initializing the state. The methods and processes followed here are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 10402 and moves to step 10404. At step 10404, various values are determined. At step 10404, contextType is set to Temperature indicating that the tag related information that generated by the GD can be associated with tags of type Temperature. Next, genId is set to ipAddrPortGenId. genId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of GD among all GDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, genId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with GD. An ipAddrPortGenId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortGenId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine genId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. At step 10404, contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the GD. In the embodiment described here, contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the GD can use to communicate messages with instances of PD. For this embodiment, assocType is set to value Broadcast, mcastConsumerId is set to Null and idProvider to None. idProvider and mcastConsumerId fields can be used in embodiments where the assocType related to tags can be Multicast. A value of Broadcast for assocType indicates that tags generated using information generated by the GD can be used by any CD 102 that can receive the tag. The process can then move to step 10406. At step 10406, an instance of TemperatureInfo can be created. The created instance is referred to as additionalInfo. An example structure of information that can be represented by TemperatureInfo is illustrated in FIG. 99. The creation of an instance of TemperatureInfo in step 10406 can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 10408. Step 10408 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 104 is complete. FIG. 105 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD associated with acceleration sensors, in determining information that can be used for initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention that can be associated with GD 9802, GD 9802 can be associated with acceleration sensors. The embodiment of GD can be used in generating tag related information that can be associated with tags of type Acceleration. The process associated with FIG. 105 can be used in determining information that can be used for initialization of gState associated with the GD. In one embodiment, the information determined by the process in FIG. 105 can be used in step 10316 of FIG. 103 to help initialize gState associated with the GD. In the Acceleration Sensor embodiment illustrated here, the structure of information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo is illustrated in FIG. 100. The information maintained, the values associated with initialization, the method of initialization, and other aspects as illustrated in FIG. 105 can be specific to the embodiment illustrated here. Other embodiments can choose to include information not described here, exclude some or all of information described here, can choose to initialize state with values different from what is described here, or can choose to follow a different method for initializing the state. The methods and processes followed here are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 10502 and moves to step 10504. At step 10504, various values are determined. At step 10504, contextType is set to Acceleration indicating that the tag related information that generated by the GD can be associated with tags of type Acceleration. Next, genId is set to ipAddrPortGenId. genId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of GD among all GDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, genId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with GD. An ipAddrPortGenId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortGenId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine genId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. At step 10504, contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the GD. In the embodiment described here, contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the GD can use to communicate messages with instances of PD. For this embodiment, assocType is set to value Broadcast, mcastConsumerId is set to Null and idProvider to None. idProvider and mcastConsumerId fields can be used in embodiments where the assocType related to tags can be Multicast. A value of Broadcast for assocType indicates that tags generated using information generated by the GD can be used by any CD 102 that can receive the tag. The process can then move to step 10506. At step 10506, an instance of AccelerationInfo can be created. The created instance is referred to as additionalInfo. An example structure of information that can be represented by AccelerationInfo is illustrated in FIG. 100. The creation of an instance of AccelerationInfo in step 10506 can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 10508. Step 10508 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 105 is complete. FIG. 106 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD associated with orientation sensors, in determining information that can be used for initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention that can be associated with GD 9802, GD 9802 can be associated with orientation sensors. The embodiment of GD can be used in generating tag related information that can be associated with tags of type Orientation. The process associated with FIG. 106 can be used in determining information that can be used for initialization of gState associated with the GD. In one embodiment, the information determined by the process in FIG. 106 can be used in step 10316 of FIG. 103 to help initialize gState associated with the GD. In the Orientation Sensor embodiment illustrated here, the structure of information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo is illustrated in FIG. 101. The information maintained, the values associated with initialization, the method of initialization, and other aspects as illustrated in FIG. 106 can be specific to the embodiment illustrated here. Other embodiments can choose to include information not described here, exclude some or all of information described here, can choose to initialize state with values different from what is described here, or can choose to follow a different method for initializing the state. The methods and processes followed here are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 10602 and moves to step 10604. At step 10604, various values are determined. At step 10604, contextType is set to Orientation indicating that the tag related information that generated by the GD can be associated with tags of type Orientation. Next, genId is set to ipAddrPortGenId. genId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of GD among all GDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, genId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with GD. An ipAddrPortGenId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortGenId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine genId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. At step 10604, contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the GD. In the embodiment described here, contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the GD can use to communicate messages with instances of PD. For this embodiment, assocType is set to value Broadcast, mcastConsumerId is set to Null and idProvider to None. idProvider and mcastConsumerId fields can be used in embodiments where the assocType related to tags can be Multicast. A value of Broadcast for assocType indicates that tags generated using information generated by the GD can be used by any CD 102 that can receive the tag. The process can then move to step 10606. At step 10606, an instance of OrientationInfo can be created. The created instance is referred to as additionalInfo. An example structure of information that can be represented by OrientationInfo is illustrated in FIG. 101. The creation of an instance of OrientationInfo in step 10606 can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 10608. Step 10608 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 106 is complete. FIG. 107 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD associated with Parking Lot sensors, in determining information that can be used for initializing part of gState associated with the GD, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an embodiment of the invention that can be associated with GD 9802, GD 9802 can be associated with Parking Lot sensors. The embodiment of GD can be used in generating information that can be associated with tags of type ParkingLot. The process associated with FIG. 107 can be used in determining information that can be used for initialization of gState associated with the GD. In one embodiment, the information determined by the process in FIG. 107 can be used in step 10316 of FIG. 103 to help initialize gState associated with the GD. In the Parking Lot Sensor embodiment illustrated here, the structure of information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo is illustrated in FIG. 102. The information maintained, the values associated with initialization, the method of initialization, and other aspects as illustrated in FIG. 107 can be specific to the embodiment illustrated here. Other embodiments can choose to include information not described here, exclude some or all of information described here, can choose to initialize state with values different from what is described here, or can choose to follow a different method for initializing the state. The methods and processes followed here are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 10702 and moves to step 10704. At step 10704, various values are determined. At step 10704, contextType is set to ParkingLot indicating that the tag related information that is generated by the GD can be associated with tags of type ParkingLot. Next, genId is set to ipAddrPortGenId. genId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of GD among all GDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, genId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with GD. An ipAddrPortGenId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortGenId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine genId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. At step 10704, contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the GD. In the embodiment described here, contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the GD can use to communicate messages with instances of PD. For this embodiment, assocType is set to value Multicast, mcastConsumerId is set to areaId and idProvider to Provider. A value of Multicast for assocType can be used to indicate that the tag associated with information generated by the GD can be consumed by a group of CD 102 instances. The value of ‘Provider’ for idProvider can be used to indicate that the PD 240 instances that can be associated with the GD can provide an identifier for instances of CD that associate with the PDs. The value associated with mcastConsumerId can specify the identifier that can be provided to CD instances associating with the PD instances. In one embodiment, mcastConsumerId can be set to an areaId. areaId can indicate the area of a parking lot that the data generated by the GD can be associated with. An example method of determining an areaId can include using the street address number associated with parking lot (as in 310 from street address: 310, Elan Village Lane), parking building number (the number of a building when there are multiple buildings each of which have parking lots—say building A(1), building B(2), or the like), floor level (the floor level of parking lot—floor 1, 2, etc.) and location (one among, say, 4 locations—East(0), West(1), North (2), South(4)—the numbers in parenthesis indicate the values for location). An example of determining areaId can include taking values associated with these fields, and placing them side by side to form the areaId. For example, the areaId associated with a GD that can generate information related to the South side of 2nd floor in building 5 of parking lot located at street address “310, Elan Village Lane” can be 310524 (310 for street addr, 5 for building number, 2 for floor level, and 4 for location). Other methods can include expanding each of the individual numbers to include say 5 digits. When a number is less than 5 digits, the number can be prefixed with zeros. For example the areaId using such method for the example illustrated, can be 00310 00005 00002 00004. Other methods of determining areaId are possible. At step 10706, an instance of ParkingLotInfo can be created. The created instance is referred to as additionalInfo. An example structure of information that can be represented by ParkingLotInfo is illustrated in FIG. 102. The creation of an instance of ParkingLotInfo in step 10706 can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 10708. Step 10708 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 107 is complete. FIG. 108 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be included in tags, and communicating the generated information to PDs, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of the invention, an instance of GD 9802 as illustrated in FIG. 98 can use the process in FIG. 108 in determining information related to tags by communicating with sensors. The sensors can be associated with GD 9802 as illustrated in by SENSOR 9808 and SENSOR 9810 of GD 9802. The sensors can also be located outside the GD and aspects of GD can communicate with such sensors using an interface as illustrated by SENI 9806. Embodiments of the invention can use sensors such as temperature sensors, acceleration sensors or orientation sensors that can be associated with instances of SENSOR 9808. Embodiments of the invention can use sensors such as a parking lot sensor based on video cameras located outside of GD 9802. In such embodiments, GD 9802 can communicate with the video cameras using SENI 9806. In the embodiment of the invention described here, GD 9802 can retrieve information determined by sensors, to determine information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. The structure and content of gState.core.additionalInfo can be embodiment specific. Examples of embodiment specific information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo are illustrated in FIG. 99-102. Information associated with gState can be used by the GD to send messages including tag related information to PDs associated with the GD. The methods used in retrieving data from sensors, the information determined by sensors, the method of determining information related to gState.core.additionalInfo, the methods of communicating the determined information to PDs and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 108 is meant for use by the embodiment(s) described here. Other embodiments can communicate with other types of sensors, can determine information different from what is described here, and communicate the tag related information to PDs in ways not described here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 108 are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 10802 and moves to step 10804. At step 10804, a check is done to determine if GD 9802 is currently active. GD 9802 can be generating tag related information and communicating the information to PDs while it is active, in some embodiments. In some embodiments, some/all of methods illustrated in FIG. 108 can be implemented using software. In such embodiments, GD 9802 can be generating and communicating tag related information while the software is active or running. If GD 9802 and/or related processes are not active, the process can move to step 10808. Step 10808 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 108 is complete. If at step 10804, it is determined that the GD (and/or any processes related to FIG. 108) is active, the process can move to step 10810. At step 10810, a check is made to determine if new information needs to be determined for one or more sensors, or if information generated by the GD needs to be communicated to instances of PD associated with the GD. In some embodiments tag related information can be generated by GD 9802 by retrieving data from sensors once every time interval. In some embodiments, information generated by the GD can be communicated to instances of PD once every time interval. In such embodiments, a check can be made at this step to see if any timer interval has expired. Other embodiments can choose to generate new information or communicate the generated information under circumstances not described here. If the check at step 10810 succeeds, the process can move to step 10812. At step 10812, TGEN 9804 of GD 9802 can determine the information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. The method of determining information can be specific to each embodiment. FIG. 109-111 and FIG. 113 illustrate methods of determining information in different embodiments. Information determined at this step is referred to as newAdditionalInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 10814. At step 10814, TGEN 9804 can set gState.core.additionalInfo to newAdditionalInfo determined at step 10812. gState.core.version can be incremented in this step. The process can then move to step 10816. At step 10816, messages including information determined in earlier steps can be sent to PDs associated with the GD. Tag related information generated by the GD can be communicated to PDs differently in different embodiments. In the embodiment illustrated here, tag related information can be communicated to PDs every time information is generated by the GD. The method illustrated in FIG. 89 can be used by the GD in communicating the tag related information. The process can then move to step 10818. Step 10818 indicates that the process can move to step 10806. Step 10806 indicates that the process can move to step 10804. Returning to step 10810, if the check at this step fails, the process can move to step 10818. FIG. 109 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be included in tags wherein GD is associated with temperature sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, GD 9802 can be associated with sensors which can provide information related to a temperature. GD 9802 in such embodiments can use the information provided by temperature sensors to determine tag related information, an example structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 99. The information determined in FIG. 109 can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. In one embodiment, GD 9802 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 108 to determine tag related information associated with tags of type Temperature. In such embodiment, the process illustrated in FIG. 109 can be used as part of determining information in step 10812 of FIG. 108. The methods of retrieving information from temperature sensors, and the method of determining information associated with gState.core.additionalInfo, and other methods/processes illustrated in FIG. 109 are meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can use other methods, can choose to include/determine information not described here, can choose to exclude some/all of the information described here, and the process of FIG. 109 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 10902 and moves to step 10904. At step 10904, a new instance of TemperatureInfo (TI) the structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 99, is created. The new instance is referred to as tInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of TI in step 10904, can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 10906. At step 10906, TGEN 9804 of GD 9802 can communicate with temperature sensor SENSOR 9808 (in this embodiment, SENSOR 9808 is a temperature sensor) to retrieve the latest temperature from sensor. The method of retrieving temperature from temperature sensor can be specific to the type/embodiment of sensor. In some embodiments mechanism including a combination of one or more of software, firmware and hardware can be used to retrieve temperature from the sensor. tInfo.currTemp can be set to the temperature provided by the sensor. minTemp, maxTemp and avgTemp of tInfo can be determined by using the current read temperature and a number of previously read temperatures. tInfo determined at this step is the result of the process illustrated in FIG. 109. In the process illustrated by FIG. 108, gState.core.additionalInfo can be set to tInfo. tInfo is referred to as newAdditionalInfo in step 10812 of FIG. 108. The process associated with FIG. 109 can then move to step 10908. Step 10908 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 109 is complete. FIG. 110 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be included in tags wherein GD is associated with acceleration sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, GD 9802 can be associated with sensors which can provide information related to a acceleration. GD 9802 in such embodiments can use the information provided by acceleration sensors to determine tag related information, an example structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 100. The information determined in FIG. 110 can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. In one embodiment, GD 9802 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 108 to determine tag related information associated with tags of type Acceleration. In such embodiment, the process illustrated in FIG. 110 can be used as part of determining information in step 10812 of FIG. 108. The methods of retrieving information from acceleration sensors, and the method of determining information associated with gState.core.additionalInfo, and other methods/processes illustrated in FIG. 110 are meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can use other methods, can choose to include/determine information not described here, can choose to exclude some/all of the information described here, and the process of FIG. 110 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 11002 and moves to step 11004. At step 11004, a new instance of AccelerationInfo (AI) the structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 100, is created. The new instance is referred to as aInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of TI in step 11004, can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 11006. At step 11006, TGEN 9804 of GD 9802 can communicate with acceleration sensor SENSOR 9808 (in this embodiment, SENSOR 9808 is a acceleration sensor) to retrieve the latest acceleration from sensor. The method of retrieving acceleration from acceleration sensor can be specific to the type/embodiment of sensor. In some embodiments mechanism including a combination of one or more of software, firmware and hardware can be used to retrieve acceleration from the sensor. aInfo.timeCaptured can be set to a time at which the data is retrieved from the sensor. aInfo.acceleration can be set to the acceleration value provided by sensor. aInfo.deviceName can be set to a name associated with the sensor. aInfo determined at this step is the result of the process illustrated in FIG. 110. In the process illustrated by FIG. 108, gState.core.additionalInfo can be set to aInfo. aInfo is referred to as newAdditionalInfo in step 10812 of FIG. 108. The process associated with FIG. 110 can then move to step 11008. Step 11008 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 110 is complete. FIG. 111 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be included in tags wherein GD is associated with orientation sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, GD 9802 can be associated with sensors which can provide information related to orientation. GD 9802 in such embodiments can use the information provided by orientation sensors to determine tag related information, an example structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 101. The information determined in FIG. 111 can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. In one embodiment, GD 9802 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 108 to determine tag related information associated with tags of type Orientation. In such embodiment, the process illustrated in FIG. 111 can be used as part of determining information in step 10812 of FIG. 108. The methods of retrieving information from orientation sensors, and the method of determining information associated with gState.core.additionalInfo, and other methods/processes illustrated in FIG. 111 are meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can use other methods, can choose to include/determine information not described here, can choose to exclude some/all of the information described here, and the process of FIG. 111 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 11102 and moves to step 11104. At step 11104, a new instance of OrientationInfo (0I) the structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 101, is created. The new instance is referred to as oInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of OI in step 11104, can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 11106. At step 11106, TGEN 9804 of GD 9802 can communicate with orientation sensor SENSOR 9808 (in this embodiment, SENSOR 9808 is a orientation sensor) to retrieve the latest orientation from sensor. The method of retrieving orientation from orientation sensor can be specific to the type/embodiment of sensor. In some embodiments mechanism including a combination of one or more of software, firmware and hardware can be used to retrieve orientation from the sensor. oInfo.azimuth can be set to the azimuth provided by the orientation sensor. oInfo.pitch can be set to the pitch provided by the orientation sensor. oInfo.roll can be set to the roll provided by the orientation sensor. oInfo.deviceName can be set to a name associated with the orientation sensor. oInfo determined at this step is the result of the process illustrated in FIG. 111. In the process illustrated by FIG. 108, gState.core.additionalInfo can be set to oInfo. oInfo is referred to as newAdditionalInfo in step 10812 of FIG. 108. The process associated with FIG. 111 can then move to step 11108. Step 11108 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 111 is complete. FIG. 113 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be included in tags wherein GD is associated with parking lot sensors, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, GD 9802 can be associated with sensors which can provide information related to spaces in a parking lot. GD 9802 can be communicating with these sensors using SENI 9806. The sensors can provide information related to the occupancy of each parking space—occupied or free. Each sensor can provide information related to the occupancy of one or more parking spaces. GD 9802 can be communicating with one or more sensors using SENI 9806. When more than one sensor can be associated with SENI 9806, GD 9802 can identify the sensor (say by using the address associated with a sensor) when it is communicating with the sensor. Each sensor can be associated with one or more parking spaces. The set of parking spaces, the location of each parking space (latitude, longitude, etc.) associated with each sensor can be provisioned to GD 9802 via UI 322, and stored in STORE 318. An example of such a sensor can be implemented using a computer and one or more web cams associated to the computer. The web cam can be capturing pictures of the parking lot every time interval. Software associated with the computer can process the pictures of parking spaces taken by the web cams to determine if a space is free. Image processing techniques can be used to determine if a parking space is free. In one embodiment, each parking space can be painted with a specific pattern. Software associated with the computer can compare the picture of a parking space to determine if the space is associated with the pattern. If the space is not associated with a pattern, the spot can be considered to be occupied. If the space is associated with the pattern, the spot can be considered to be free. Embodiment of GD 9802 can be communicating with computer based sensors such as the ones described here. In one embodiment, GD 9802 can be communicating with computer based sensors using an IP network. Each computer based sensor can be associated with an IP address. The IP address associated with the computer based sensor can be used as the identifier of the sensor. In such embodiment, GD 9802 can maintain an association of each IP address (associated with computer based sensors) with information related to the set of parking spaces that the computer based sensor related to the IP address, can provide information about. Such information can be provisioned to GD 9208 using UI 322, or any other provisioning mechanisms. GD 9802 in these embodiments can use the information provided by parking lot sensors to determine tag related information, an example structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 102. The information determined in FIG. 113 can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. In one embodiment, GD 9802 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 108 to determine tag related information associated with tags of type ParkingLot. In such embodiment, the process illustrated in FIG. 113 can be used as part of determining information in step 10812 of FIG. 108. The methods of retrieving information from parking lot sensors, the methods of determining information related to each parking space, and the method of determining information associated with gState.core.additionalInfo, and other methods/processes illustrated in FIG. 113 are meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can use other methods, can choose to include/determine information not described here, can choose to exclude some/all of the information described here, and the process of FIG. 113 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 11302 and moves to step 11304. At step 11304, a new instance of ParkinglotInfo (PLI) the structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 102, is created. The new instance is referred to as pInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of PLI in step 11304 can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 11306. At step 11306, TGEN 9804 of GD 9802 can communicate with Parking Lot sensors using SENI 9806 (in this embodiment, SENI 9806 can be used to communicate with the parking lot sensor) to retrieve the latest information related to parking lot spaces, from the sensors. The method of retrieving information from parking lot sensors can be specific to the type/embodiment of sensor. In some embodiments mechanism including a combination of one or more of software, firmware and hardware can be used to retrieve information from the sensors. In embodiments where GD 9802 can communicate with computer based parking lot sensors as illustrated earlier, GD can send messages to each sensor requesting information regarding the parking spaces that they are associated with. The process associated with FIG. 113 can wait in step 11306 till TGEN receives information from all the sensors. After TGEN receives occupancy information from each sensor, TGEN can process the information from all sensors to determine numSpotsFree which indicates the total number of parking spaces that are free. pInfo.numSpotsFree can be set to numSpotsFree, pInfo.numSpotsTotal can be set to the total number of parking spaces that are associated with all the sensors that GD 9802 can be communicating with. pInfo.timeDetermined can be set to the time at which the GD has retrieved information from the sensors. The process can then move to step 11308. At step 11308, an i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 11310. At step 11310, a check is done to determine if i is less than NumSpotsMax. NumSpotsMax can indicate the total number of spaces that can be associated with the sensors that GD is associated with. If the check fails, the process can move to step 11312. pInfo at this step is the result of the process illustrated in FIG. 113. In the process illustrated by FIG. 108, gState.core.additionalInfo can be set to pInfo. pInfo is referred to as newAdditionalInfo in step 10812 of FIG. 108. Step 11312 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 113 is complete. If the check at step 11310 fails, the process can move to step 11314. At step 11314, information related to each space can be retrieved from STORE 318 and associated with pInfo. In the embodiment described here, i-th element of pInfo.spotLatitude, pInfo.spotLongitude, pInfo.level, and pInfo.spotFree can indicate the latitude, longitude, floor level and occupancy of a parking space. i-th element of pInfo.spotLatitude, pInfo.spotLongitude and pInfo.level of a parking space can be determined using information stored in STORE 318, while i-th element of pInfo.spotFree can be determined using information provided by the parking lot sensor. The process can then move to step 11316. At step 11316, i is incremented and the process moves to step 11310. System of Third Embodiment FIG. 114 illustrates an embodiment of a system wherein GD 114102 embodies aspects of GD 9802. PD 114108a and PD 114108b each embody aspects associated with PD 240. PMD 114104 embodies aspects associated with CD 140. The system illustrated in FIG. 114 allows for a GD to generate tag related information (related to vacancy of parking spaces) that is communicated to one or more instances of PD. Tags provided by PDs can be used by instances of PMD to provide information related to vacancy of parking spaces to users of PMD. It is to be noted that while the system illustrated in FIG. 114 shows one instance of GD, two instances of PDs, two instances of cameras and one instance of PMD, a different number of each of these devices can be used in other embodiments. In one embodiment, there can be a multiple instances of PMD receiving tags provided by each PD. The system illustrated by FIG. 114 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. In this embodiment, cameras 114116a and 114116b are used by GD 114102 in generating tag related information. GD 114102 generates tag related information that can provide information related to vacancy of parking spaces. GD 114102 uses camera 114116a to generate information related to spaces in parking lot 114118a, while the camera 114116b is used by the GD to generate information related to spaces in parking lot 114118b. GD 114102 can retrieve images captured by camera 114116a using cable 114120a connected to GD 114102 and camera 114116a. GD 114102 can also retrieve images captured by camera 114116b using cable 114120b connected to GD 114102 and camera 114116b. In other embodiments, GD 114102 and some or all of cameras associated with the GD can include wireless interfaces (e.g., Wifi, etc.) that can allow GD 114102 in communicating with the cameras. Tag related information generated by GD 114102 can be communicated by the GD to PD 114108a and/or PD 114108b. GD 114102 can communicate tag related information to PD 114108a using cable 114122a, and to PD 114108b using cable 114122b. Two ends of cable 114122a can be connected to GD 114102 and PD 114108a using connectors (not shown) on GD 114102 and PD 114108a. Two ends of cable 114122b can be connected to GD 114102 and PD 114108b using connectors (not shown) on GD 114102 and PD 114108b. In other embodiments GD 114102 and some or all of PDs can include wireless interfaces (e.g., Wifi, etc.) that can allow GD 114102 in communicating tag related information. In one embodiment, PD 114108a and PD 114108b are each located near parking lots 114118a and 114118b respectively. Tags provided by the PDs can be received by instances of PMDs located in the parking lots. In one embodiment, instance of PMD 114104 located in parking lot 114118a can receive tags provided by PD 114108a, and another instance of PMD 114104 located in parking lot 114118b can receive tags provided by PD 114108b. Instances of PMD 114104 can include a connector 114106 adapted to connect to one end 114110 of cable 114112. Cable 114112 can allow for PMD 114104 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 114114. Network 114114 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 114112 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, PMD 114104 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow PMD 114104 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. Fourth Embodiment The subsequent paragraphs describe another embodiment of the present invention. While the description is with respect to specific embodiments, one skilled in the art will recognize that numerous modifications are possible and elements of different embodiments can be combined and associated with each other as and where necessary. Structure of Fourth Embodiment FIG. 115 illustrates a Generator Device (GD) 11502 for generating tag related information according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 115, GD 11502 can include STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, PINT 324, antenna 328, cable 329, TRI Generator (TGEN) 11512, user interface (UI) 11516, transaction interface (TINT) 11508, antenna 11510, cable 11514, database interface (DBI) 11504, and database (DB) 11506. In some embodiments of the invention, GD 11502 can be used to generate tag related information using information related to transactions. Transactions can include events such as purchase of products/services such as at stores, malls, restaurants, etc.; acceptance/provisioning of services such as borrowing books at a library; making payments as in case of rents, bills, etc.; person/entity presenting an identification card; person/entity presenting a club card, a person/entity logging in to a website, or the like. Transactions can be associated with any event that can be distinguished from other events, the distinguishing factors can include information that can be associated with each event. Information related to the events described earlier that can be used for differentiating one event from others, can include one or more of transaction identifier, club card number, user identifier, payment number, account number, credit card number, or the like. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 11502, information related to transaction can be stored in DB 11506 by systems that process transactions. Information related to transactions can also be provided to TGEN 11512 that can associate the transaction with information related to the transaction stored in DB 11506. TGEN 11512 can use the transaction related information provided to it, including any information related to transaction from DB 11506, in generating tag related information. In one embodiment, each purchase made at a store can be associated with an orderId. Information related to the purchase, such as the items purchased, the price of each item, the number of items, including others, can be stored in DB 11506. In such embodiment, each purchase can be associated with a unique orderId. orderId can be provided to TGEN 11512. TGEN 11512 can retrieve information related to orderId from DB 11506 and generate a tag using information retrieved from DB 11506. DB 11506 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for storing information related to transactions. An example of a database system can include database systems supported by MySql, Oracle databases, or the like. DB 11506 can be accessed using DBI 11504. DB 11506 can also include a storage aspect that can be implemented using nonvolatile storage (e.g., magnetic or optical disk, flash memory or other storage media) and can thus store database records related to transactions indefinitely, regardless of whether power is continuously supplied to GD 11502. DBI 11504 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for accessing contents of DB 11506. In one embodiment, DBI 11504 can be implemented in software using JDBC (Java Data Base Connectivity). Other methods of implementing DBI 11504 are possible. TINT 11508 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for storing information related to transactions in DB 11506, providing information related to transactions to TGEN 11512, including others. TINT 11508 can include an aspect that can allow storing information related to transactions in DB 11506. In one embodiment TINT 11508 can allow for storing transaction related information in DB 11506 by providing a software interface that can be implemented using mechanisms such as CORBA, Java RPC, or the like. The software interface can be used by transaction systems to store transaction related information for some/all transactions in DB 11506. In one embodiment of the invention, transactions can be associated with purchases. Each purchase can be uniquely identified using an orderId, that can be a sequence of digits. Each purchase can result in TINT 11508 receiving information related to the purchase such as orderId, items purchased, number of items, prices of each time, etc., that can be stored in DB 11506 by TINT 11508. In some embodiments of the invention, TINT 11508 can be related to aspects that can include communicating with purchase order systems. Purchase order systems such as Cash Register Express sold by International Point of Sale, Microsoft Dynamic Point of Sale 2009 from Microsoft Corp., Microsoft Retail Management System from Microsoft Corp., etc. can be used in Grocery stores to help facilitate purchases made by customers, including other functionality. Purchase order systems similar to the ones illustrated above can communicate with TINT 11508 in providing information related to each purchase. TINT 11508 in such embodiment can store information related to purchases, provided by purchase order systems, in DB 11506 using DBI 11504. TINT 11508 can include another aspect that can allow for providing transaction related information to TGEN 11512. In some embodiments, TINT 11508 can be used to provide information related to one or more transactions to TGEN 11512. In one embodiment TINT 11508 can allow for providing some/all of transaction related information to TGEN 11512 by providing a software interface that can be implemented using mechanisms such as CORBA, Java RPC, or the like. The software interface can be used by transaction systems to provide transaction related information for some/all transactions in the system. In the embodiment of purchase order system described earlier, Purchase order systems can use TINT 11508 to provide information related to the purchase such as the orderId to TGEN 11512. TINT 11508 can also be associated with aspects that can allow for communication between aspects of GD 11502 and other systems/devices that can include transaction systems. In one embodiment, TINT 11508 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. TINT 11508 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. TINT 11508 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 11510 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. TINT 11508 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 11514 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. TINT 11508 can be connected to antenna 11510 and/or cable 11514 with or without a connector. TGEN 11512 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for generating tag related information, related to transactions associated with a transaction system. In the purchase order embodiment, TGEN 11512 can use the orderId provided by TINT 11508 to retrieve transaction related information from DB 11506. Information generated by TINT 11508 can include some or all of information related to transaction retrieved from DB 11506. Tag related information generated by TINT 11508 can also include an orderId. In other embodiments, TINT 11508 can provide additional/other information not illustrated here. The structure of tag related information generated by TGEN 11512 can be specific to the embodiment. An example of tag related information generated by TGEN 11512 is illustrated in FIG. 119. TGEN 11512 can generate tag related information for some/all transactions whose information can be communicated to TGEN 11512 by TINT 11508. Tag related information generated by TGEN 11512 can be communicated to instances of PD associated with the GD. User interface (UI) 11516 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for controlling aspects of GD 11502. In some embodiments, UI 11516 can be used to control aspects related to TINT 11514 and/or DB 11506 and/or TGEN 11512. In some embodiments UI 11516 can be used to associate GD 11502 with transaction systems. UI 11516 can also be used to manage DB 11506. UI 1516 can also be used to manage TGEN 11512 that can include specifying the information that can be included in tag related information generated by TGEN 11512. UI 11516 can also be used for controlling and managing aspects of GD 11502 not described here. Aspects of STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, PINT 324, TGEN 11512, UI 11516, DBI 11504, DB 11506, TINT 11508 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. GD 11502 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of GD 11502 can be included in (or associated with) a set top box that can allow for playing DVDs or storing media. The set top box can be playing media, while at the same time providing tag related information to instances of PD. FIG. 116 illustrates a Generator Device (GD) 11602, an embodiment of GD 11502, for generating tag related information according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 116, GD 11602 can include STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, TRI Generator (TGEN) 11512, user interface (UI) 11516, communication interface (CINT) 11604, antenna 11606, cable 11614, database interface (DBI) 11504, and database (DB) 11506. In some embodiments of the invention, GD 11602 can be used to generate tag related information using information related to transactions. Aspects of GD 11602 including, STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, TGEN 11512, UI 11516, DBI 11504, and DB 11506 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with GD 11502. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 116, GD 11602 can associate with PDs and communicate with transaction systems using CINT 11604. CINT 11604 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for GD 11602 in associating with PDs, communicating with transaction systems to store information related to transactions in DB 11506, communicating with transaction systems to provide transaction related information to TGEN 11512, including others. CINT 11604 can include some/all of the functionality/aspects associated with PINT 324 and TINT 11508 of GD 11502. CINT 11604 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. CINT 11604 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. CINT 11604 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 11606 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. CINT 11604 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 11614 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. CINT 11604 can be connected to antenna 11606 and/or cable 11614 with or without a connector. Aspects of STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, TGEN 11512, UI 11516, DBI 11504, DB 11506, CINT 11604 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. GD 11602 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of GD 11602 can be included in (or associated with) a set top box that can allow for playing DVDs or storing media. The set top box can be playing media, while at the same time providing tag related information to instances of PD. FIG. 117 illustrates a Generator Device (GD) 11702, an embodiment of GD 11602, for generating tag related information according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 117, GD 11702 can include STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, TRI Generator (TGEN) 11512, user interface (UI) 11516, communication interface (CINT) 11706, antenna 11708, cable 11712, and database interface (DBI) 11710. In some embodiments of the invention, GD 11702 can be used to generate tag related information using information related to transactions. Aspects of GD 11702 including, STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, TGEN 11512, and UI 11516 can be similar to the respective aspects associated with GD 11602. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 117, the database storing information related to transactions is not associated with GD 11702. In this embodiment, database can be stored/managed by systems external to GD 11702. Databases can be managed by a variety of computer systems. Information related to transactions can be accessed from such external databases using DBI 11710. In this embodiment, GD 11702 can associate with PDs and communicate with transaction systems using CINT 11706. CINT 11706 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for GD 11702 in associating with PDs, communicating with transaction systems to provide transaction related information to TGEN 11512, communicating with external databases by DBI 11710, including others. Aspect of CINT 11706 in associating with PDs can be similar to the respective aspect associated with CINT 11604 of FIG. 115. Aspect of CD 11706 in communicating transaction related information to TGEN 11512 can be similar to the respective aspect associated with CINT 11604. CINT 11706 can also be associated with aspects that can allow for DBI 11710 to communicate with external databases. In some embodiments, this can be implemented using software aspects such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. Other methods of allowing DBI 11710 to communicate with external databases are possible. CINT 11706 can include components such as TCP sockets, UDP sockets, etc. CINT 11706 can also include components such as NICs, USB interface, or the like. CINT 11706 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to connect to antenna 11708 capable of sending/receiving messages over a network. CINT 11706 can also include a connector (not shown) providing mechanical and/or electrical coupling to cable 11712 capable of receiving/sending messages over a network. The network can include wired communication medium such as Ethernet, firewire, cable modem interface, USB or the like. The network can also include wireless medium such as Bluetooth, WiFi, cellular communication network or the like. The network over which the messages are sent can include internet, local area network, wide area network, cellular communication network, 3G communications, or the like. CINT 11706 can be connected to antenna 11708 and/or cable 11712 with or without a connector. DBI 11710 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow aspects of GD 11702 to communicate with databases external to GD 11702. TGEN 11512 can use DBI 11710 to retrieve information related to a transaction from the external database system. In one embodiment, DBI 11710 can be implemented using software. DBI 11710 can be implemented in software in some embodiments using JDBC (Java DataBase Connectivity). Other methods of implementing DBI 11710 are possible. DBI 11710 can use CINT 11706 in communicating with the external database. User interface (UI) 11716 can include any combination of circuitry and/or instructions that can allow for controlling aspects of GD 11702. In some embodiments, UI 11716 can be used to control aspects related to TGEN 11512 and/or CINT 11706 and/or DBI 11710. In some embodiments UI 11716 can be used to associate GD 11702 with transaction systems. UI 11716 can also be used to manage DBI 11710. In some embodiments UI 11716 can be used to associate DBI 11710 with an external database. In embodiments where CINT can be associated with IP networks, information related to external database such as an IP address or an IP address and a port number or the like, can be associated with DBI 11710 using UI 11716. DBI 11710 can use such information to associate with external database. UI 11716 can also be used to manage TGEN 11512 that can include specifying the information that can be included in tag related information generated by TGEN 11512. UI 11716 can also be used for controlling and managing aspects of GD 11702 not described here. Aspects of STATE 314, SI 316, STORE 318, PMAN 312, TGEN 11512, UI 11716, DBI 11710, CINT 11706 can be implemented e.g., using instructions of the computer program product executing on one or more suitably configured microprocessors or microcontrollers (not explicitly shown). Other implementations are also possible. GD 11702 can also include other aspects in addition to or instead of those shown here. For example, an embodiment of GD 11702 can be included in (or associated with) a set top box that can allow for playing DVDs or storing media. The set top box can be playing media, while at the same time providing tag related information to instances of PD. Content of Information FIG. 118 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The set of information described in FIG. 118 is referred to as FeedbackInfo (FI). The instance of GD described in FIG. 115 can be used to determine information described in FIG. 118. GD 11502 can determine some/all information related to FI using a service that can be implemented using a combination of hardware and/or instructions and/or firmware. Some fields associated with FI such as Questions and submissionLocation can be determined using information provided to GD 11502 (by using various provisioning schemes that can include configuration described in XML, or the like). In some embodiments, a consumerId and an orderId can be provided to GD 11502. The consumerId and orderId fields can be provided by GD 11502 to a service which can provide submissionLocation and Questions associated with FI. An example of such a service is a database system that allows looking up a database using information that can include an orderId, a consumerId and any other information. The consumerId and orderId provided to GD 11502 can be used to determine consumerId and orderId fields of FI, respectively. In other embodiments, GD 11502 can be provided with an orderId and other fields of FI can be determined by GD 11502 using the provided orderId and a service that can be implemented using a combination of hardware and/or instructions and/or firmware. An example of such a service is a database system that allows looking up the database using an orderId. In some embodiments, an instance of FI can be associated with the additionalInfo field of a tag of type Feedback. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 118, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 118. The set of fields associated with FI as described in FIG. 118 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 119 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The set of information described in FIG. 119 is referred to as OrderInfo (ORI). The instance of GD described in FIG. 115 can be used to determine information described in FIG. 119. GD 11502 can determine some/all information related to ORI using a service that can be implemented using a combination of hardware and/or instructions and/or firmware. Some fields associated with ORI such as numItems and itemInfo can be determined using information provided to GD 11502. In the embodiment described here, a consumerId and an orderId are provided to GD 11502. GD 11502 can then provide the consumerId and orderId fields to a service which can provide numItems and itemInfo associated with ORI to the GD. An example of such a service is a database system that allows looking up a database using information that can include an orderId, a consumerId and any other information. The consumerId and orderId provided to GD 11502 can be used to determine consumerId and orderId fields of ORI, respectively. In other embodiments, GD 11502 can be provided with an orderId and other fields of ORI can be determined by GD 11502 using the provided orderId and a service that can be implemented using a combination of hardware and/or instructions and/or firmware. An example of such a service is a database system that allows looking up the database using an orderId. In some embodiments, an instance of ORI can be associated with the additionalInfo field of a tag of type UserOrderinStore. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 119, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 119. The set of fields associated with ORI as described in FIG. 119 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. FIG. 120 illustrates fields associated with information determined by a GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. The set of information described in FIG. 120 is referred to as DerivedRatingInfo (DRI). The instance of GD described in FIG. 115 can be used to determine information described in FIG. 120. GD 11502 can determine some of the information related to DRI using one or more services that can be implemented using a combination of hardware and/or instructions and/or firmware. Some fields associated with DRI such as itemId can be determined by the GD. Some fields associated with DRI such as consumerId can be provided to the GD. Some other fields associated with DRI such as groupId, consIdInGroup and groupAvgRating can be determined using a service that can be implemented using a combination of hardware and/or instructions and/or firmware. The service can also be provided using a network of computer systems, PCs, servers, etc. An example of such an embodiment is where consumerId represents a user-identifier of a user of CD. consumerId can be provided by the CD to the GD. The itemId is a list of items available at a restaurant. groupId can be associated with an identifier that can be used to identify a list of friends associated with the user of CD on a social networking website such as facebook. consIdInGroup can represent the user-id of the user on social networking website (SNW) and which can be provided to GD 11502 by the CD. groupAvgRating associated with DRI can be determined by GD using rating of each item provided by friends of the user. GD 11502 can be associated with a system of software and/or hardware and/or firmware that can help access services provided by SNW, in retrieving the list of friends associated with a user. Information regarding rating of items as provided by the friends can be determined using a service associated with the GD. An example of such a service is a database system that can be looked up using an identifier that can identify a user on SNW. The result of the database lookup can be the ratings provided by the user (friends in the example embodiment) for the items available at the restaurant. Some embodiments can choose to include fields not described in FIG. 120, while some other embodiments can choose to exclude some or all of the fields described in FIG. 120. The set of fields associated with DRI as described in FIG. 120 is illustrative—for use in the embodiment described here, and is not meant to limit the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The set of services used to determine the fields, the order and/or method of using the services, the information used to lookup the services, and the services themselves are all illustrative. Other embodiments can use other services and can use other information to determine the information associated with DRI. In some embodiments, an instance of DRI can be associated with the additionalInfo field of a tag of type DerivedRating. Methods of Fourth Embodiment FIG. 121 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in initializing part of state (gState) associated with the GD according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, the process illustrated in FIG. 121 can be used by an instance of GD 11502 (illustrated in FIG. 115) in initializing some or all of gState associated with the GD. The embodiment of GD 11502 as described here can be used in various environments. Embodiments of GD 11502 can determine tag related information that can be associated with tags of type OrderInfo or Feedback, or other embodiments which can include generating information that can be associated with transactions. gState.core associated with an instance of GD 11502 can be used to maintain information specific to each embodiment. The structure of information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo in some of the embodiments is illustrated in FIG. 118-119 Information related to tags generated by GD 11502 can be determined using data generated by TGEN 11512. The method illustrated in FIG. 121 can be used by GD 11502 before GD 11502 can start associating with instances of PD 240, in some embodiments of the invention. The structure of information maintained in gState, the initialization of values associated with gState, the values associated with information maintained in gState, and the methods used in initialization as illustrated in FIG. 121 is specific to the embodiment described here, and is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 12102 and moves to step 12104. At step 12104, an instance of GeneratorInfo is created. The created instance is referred to as gInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 12106. At step 12106, an instance of CoreInfo is created. The created instance is referred to as cInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of GeneratorInfo in step 12104 and/or an instance of CoreInfo in step 12106, can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of these instances can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instances can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 12108. At step 12108, fields associated with gInfo can be initialized. gInfo.type is set to type associated with tags, that the information generated by GD 11502 can be used for. In one embodiment, the type can be set to FeedbackInfo. In other embodiment the type can be set to OrderInfo. gInfo.assocType can be set to Unicast, which can indicate that the tags related to information generated by this GD, and provided by an instance of PD can be used by an instance of CD 102. gInfo.idProvider can be set to Consumer and gInfo.mcastConsumerId can be set to Null. A value of Consumer for gInfo.idProvider can indicate that a CD 102 associating with a PD 240 is the provider of identifier associated with CD 102, the identifier that can be used in relation to association with the PD. A value of Null for gInfo.mcastConsumerId can indicate that it does not hold a valid value. At step 12108, gInfo.genId is set to ipAddrPortGenId. gInfo.genId is an identifier that can be used to identify an instance of GD 11502 among all GDs. In the embodiment of the present invention described here, the communication between the PD and GD happens using messages sent using UDP. In such embodiment, gInfo.genId can be set to a combination of the IP address and port number associated with the UDP port. The IP address and port number can be the IP address and port number of UDP port associated with GD 11502. An ipAddrPortGenId can be determined by multiplying the IP address with 65536 and adding portId to the resulting value. The method of determining ipAddrPortGenId described here is illustrative only. Other methods can be used to determine gInfo.genId. Methods specific to the embodiments can also be used. gInfo.contact can be set to information that can be used to send messages to the GD that is associated with the gInfo. In the embodiment described here, gInfo.contact can be set to a combination of IP address and port number that the GD can use to communicate messages with instances of PD 240. The process can then move to step 12110. At this step, cInfo.version is set to 1, cInfo.appLocation can be set to a location that can be a URL, cInfo.additionalInfoUrl can be set to Null. Null value for additonalInfoUrl of cInfo can be used to indicate that the field does not hold valid value. The URL associated with cInfo.appLocation can be related to a URL where application that can process tags of type gInfo.type, can be downloaded from. The process can then move to step 12112. At step 12112, gState.gInfo is set to gInfo, gState.core is set to cInfo and gState.numInfo is set to 0. A value of 0 for gState.numInfo can indicate that the GD is not associated (yet) with any instances of PD 240, and that gState.providerInfo list is empty. The process can then move to step 12114. Step 12114 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 121 is complete. FIG. 122 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining information that can be included in tags, and communicating the tag related information according to an embodiment of the present invention. In one embodiment of the invention, an instance of GD 11502 as illustrated in FIG. 115 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 122 in determining tag related information, using mechanisms that can include communicating with transaction related systems. In the embodiment of the invention described here, GD 11502 can communicate with transaction related systems and/or services to determine gState.core.additionalInfo. The structure and content of gState.core.additionalInfo can be embodiment specific. Examples of embodiment specific information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo are illustrated in FIG. 118-119. Information associated with gState can be used by the GD to send messages including tag related information to PDs associated with the GD. In one embodiment of the invention GD 11502 can be associated with, a transaction system which can be used to collect feedback from users of CD 102, in relation to orders placed by users associated with instances of CD 102. Orders can be placed by users for purchases and/or services. The transaction system can help collect feedback from users placing orders. In some embodiments, GD 11502 can facilitate collection of feedback by generating tag related information that can help in providing tags to instances of CD, the tag related information including order identifier, consumer identifier, a list of questions associated with feedback, and the like. In one embodiment, the tag related information generated by GD 11502 is illustrated in FIG. 118. In other embodiment of the invention GD 11502 can be associated with a transaction system that can be used by the GD to determine some/all orders associated with the transaction system. Orders can be placed by users for purchases and/or services. The transaction system can help communicate order placement information to GD 11502. Order placement information communicated by transaction system can include an order identifier and a consumer identifier. In one embodiment of the invention described here, transaction related information can be used by GD 11502 to determine tag related information that can provide information related to an order. Information related to an order can include items purchased, services delivered, the price associated with the products/services, the date and time of the order, or the like. In one embodiment, the tag related information generated by GD 11502 is illustrated in FIG. 119. Transaction interface (TINT) 11508 associated with GD 11502 of FIG. 115 can provide an order identifier and a consumer identifier related to each of the placed order, to TGEN 11512 of GD 11502. Aspects of TINT can be implemented in software. In embodiments wherein aspects of TINT can be associated with software, TINT can be associated with software interfaces that can be used by the purchase order system to communicate order identifier and consumer identifier for each order associated with the transaction system. Consumer and order identifiers associated with orders can be provided by the purchase order system to GD 11502 using TINT 11508, for all orders placed with the purchase order system, in one embodiment. In other embodiments, purchase order systems can provider order identifier and consumer identifier for a selected set of orders associated with the system. When a consumer identifier is provided to TGEN 11512 by TINT 11508, the identifier can be associated with the consumer-id of CD 102 associated with the user placing the order. In some embodiments, wherein smart phones can include functionality associated with CD 102, consumer identifier can be the phone number associated with voice service of smart phone. In some embodiments, purchase order systems can use DATABASE 11506 to store order related information before communicating order identifier and consumer identifier to TINT 11508. In such embodiments, the order identifier associated with information provided to TGEN 11512 by TINT 11508, can be associated with an order maintained/stored in DATABASE 11506. The methods used in communicating with transaction systems, the information provided by transaction systems, the method of determining information related to gState.core.additionalInfo, the methods of communicating the determined information to PDs and other functionality as illustrated in FIG. 122 is meant for use by the embodiment(s) described here. Other embodiments can communicate with other types of transaction systems, can determine information different from what is described here, and communicate the tag related information to PDs in ways not described here. The methods and processes illustrated in FIG. 122 are not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 12202 and moves to step 12204. At step 12204, a check is done to determine if GD 11502 is currently active. GD 11502 can be determining tag related information and communicating the information to PDs while it is active, in some embodiments. In some embodiments, some/all of methods illustrated in FIG. 122 can be implemented using software. In such embodiments, GD 11502 can be determining and communicating tag related information while the software is active or running. If GD 11502 and/or related processes are not active, the process can move to step 12208. Step 12208 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 122 is complete. If at step 12204, it is determined that the GD (and/or any processes related to FIG. 122) is active, the process can move to step 12228. At step 12228, TGEN 11512 gets consumer identifier related to an order from TINT 11508. The identifier is referred to as consumerId for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 12230. At step 12230, TGEN 11512 gets order identifier related to the order from TINT 11508. The identifier is referred to as orderId for use in subsequent steps of the process. The process can then move to step 12212. At step 12212, TGEN 11512 of GD 11502 can determine the information that can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. The method of determining information can be specific to each embodiment. FIG. 123-124 illustrate methods of determining information in different embodiments. Information determined at this step is referred to as newAdditionalInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. Embodiments of the invention can use consumerId and orderId determined in earlier steps to determine newAdditionalInfo. The process can then move to step 12214. At step 12214, TGEN 11512 can set gState.core.additionalInfo to newAdditionalInfo determined at step 12212. gState.core.version can be incremented in this step. The process can then move to step 12216. At step 12216, messages including information determined in earlier steps can be sent to PDs associated with the GD. Tag related information generated by the GD can be communicated to PDs differently in different embodiments. In the embodiment illustrated here, tag related information can be communicated to PDs every time information is generated by the GD. The method illustrated in FIG. 89 can be used by the GD in communicating the tag related information. The process can then move to step 12218. Step 12218 indicates that the process can move to step 12206. Step 12206 indicates that the process can move to step 12204. FIG. 123 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining part of information that can be included in tags associated with Feedback type, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, GD 11502 can be associated with a transaction system. Transactions can include events such as purchase of products/services such as at stores, malls, restaurants, etc.; acceptance/provisioning of services such as borrowing books at a library; making payments as in case of rents, bills, etc.; or the like. Transactions can be associated with any event that can be distinguished from other events, the distinguishing factors can include information that can be associated with each event. Information related to the events described here that can be used for differentiating one event from others, can include one or more of transaction or order identifier, club card number, user identifier, payment number, account number, credit card number, or the like. In the embodiment described here, transactions can be associated with a purchase and each transaction can be differentiated from other using an order identifier. GD 11502 in this embodiment can use the information presented by the transaction system to determine tag related information, an example structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 118. The information illustrated in FIG. 118 can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. In one embodiment, GD 11502 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 122 to determine tag related information associated with tags of type Feedback. In such embodiment, the process illustrated in FIG. 123 can be used as part of determining information in step 12212 of FIG. 122. The process illustrated in FIG. 123 can be used to determine information associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. The methods of communicating information from transaction systems to TGEN 11512, and the method of determining information associated with gState.core.additionalInfo, and other methods/processes illustrated in FIG. 123 are meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can use other methods, can choose to include/determine information not described here, can choose to exclude some/all of the information described here, and the process of FIG. 123 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 12302 and move to step 12304. At step 12304, information associated with instance x is extracted. x.consumerId provided to this process is extracted and a local copy made for use in subsequent steps of the process. The local copy is referred to as rxConsId. x.orderId provided to this process is extracted and a local copy made for use in subsequent steps of the process. The local copy is referred to as rxOrderId. The process can then move to step 12306. At step 12306, an instance of FeedbackInfo (FI) illustrated in FIG. 118 is created. The created instance is referred to as fInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of FI in step 12306, can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of instance can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instance can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 12308. At step 12308, fInfo.consumerId is set to rxConsId, and fInfo.orderId set to rxOrderId. The process can then move to step 12310. At step 12310, an i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 12312. At step 12312, a check is made to determine if i is less than the number of questions that can be associated with fInfo. If the check passes, the process can move to step 12318. If not, the process can move to step 12314. At step 12314, fInfo.submissionLocation can be set to submission URL. Submission URL can indicate a URL where the results of the feedback can be submitted. fInfo is the result of process illustrated in FIG. 123. The process can then move to step 12316. Step 12316 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 123 is complete. Returning to step 12318, i-th element of fInfo.quesiton can be set to a feedback question. The feedback question for each of the elements of fInfo.question can be different. The set of feedback questions associated with fInfo.question list can be same for all instances of FI created by this process. In other embodiments, the set of questions can be determined based on information that can be related to one or more of order identifier, consumer identifier, or any other information related to the order. In an example embodiment wherein the phone number associated with a voice service is used as consumer identifier, the set of questions associated with fInfo.question can be determined based on the area code associated with the phone number. Other methods of determining questions are possible. The process can move to step 12320. At step 12320, is incremented and the process can move to step 12312. FIG. 124 illustrates the flow diagram of a process followed by a GD in determining part of information that can be included in tags associated with OrderInfo type, according to an embodiment of the present invention. In the embodiment of the invention described here, GD 11502 can be associated with a transaction system. Transactions can include events such as purchase of products/services such as at stores, malls, restaurants, etc.; acceptance/provisioning of services such as borrowing books at a library; making payments as in case of rents, bills, etc., or the like. Transactions can be associated with any event that can be distinguished from other events, the distinguishing factors can include information that can be associated with each event. Information related to the events described here that can be used for differentiating one event from others, can include one or more of transaction or order identifier, club card number, user identifier, payment number, account number, credit card number, or the like. In the embodiment described here, transactions can be associated with a purchase and each transaction can be differentiated from other using an order identifier. GD 11502 in this embodiment can use the information presented by the transaction system to determine tag related information, an example structure of which is illustrated in FIG. 119. The information illustrated in FIG. 119 can be associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. In one embodiment, GD 11502 can use the process illustrated in FIG. 122 to determine tag related information associated with tags of type OrderInfo. In such embodiment, the process illustrated in FIG. 124 can be used as part of determining information in step 12212 of FIG. 122. The process illustrated in FIG. 124 can be used to determine information associated with gState.core.additionalInfo. The methods of communicating information from transaction systems to TGEN 11512, and the method of determining information associated with gState.core.additionalInfo, and other methods/processes illustrated in FIG. 124 are meant for use by the embodiment described here. Other embodiments can use other methods, can choose to include/determine information not described here, can choose to exclude some/all of the information described here, and the process of FIG. 124 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. The process starts at step 12402 and move to step 12404. At step 12404, information associated with instance x is extracted. x.consumerId provided to this process is extracted and a local copy made for use in subsequent steps of the process. The local copy is referred to as rxConsId. x.orderId provided to this process is extracted and a local copy made for use in subsequent steps of the process. The local copy is referred to as rxOrderId. The process can then move to step 12406. At step 12406, an instance of OrderInfo (OI) illustrated in FIG. 118 is created. The created instance is referred to as oInfo for use in subsequent steps of the process. The creation of an instance of OI in step 12406, can involve allocation of memory, control data structures, state handles, or the like. In some embodiments, the creation of instance can involve just allocation of memory. In yet other embodiments, the creation of instance can involve allocating state handles in addition to allocating sufficient memory for the instances. The process can then move to step 12408. At step 12408, oInfo.consumerId is set to rxConsId, and oInfo.orderId set to rxOrderId. The process can then move to step 12422. At this step, TGEN 11512 can access information related to the order from DATABASE 11506 using DBI 11504. Information related to the order can be associated with the database by purchase order system using TINT 11508 and DBI 11504, before the process associated with FIG. 122 and FIG. 124 are used for the order. At step 12422, information related to the order can be accessed by providing information to the database that can include rxOrderId. Other information specific to the embodiment can be provided. Information related to the order retrieved from DATABASE 11506 can include number of items associated with the order, information related to each item in the order, among others. Information related to each item associated with an order can include the item name, the price of the item, the category of the item, or the like. Other information related to the order can be retrieved from the database in other embodiments. At step 12422, oInfo.numItems can be set to the number of items associated with the order related to rxOrderId as determined using information retrieved from database. The process can then move to step 12410. At step 12410, an i is set to 0. The process can then move to step 12412. At step 12412, a check is made to determine if i is less than oInfo.numItems. If the check passes, the process can move to step 12418. If not, the process can move to step 12416. oInfo is the result of process illustrated in FIG. 124. In embodiments where process associated with FIG. 124 is used in determining newAdditionalInfo at step 12212 of FIG. 122, oInfo can be used as newAdditionalInfo at step 12212 of FIG. 122. Step 12416 indicates that the process associated with FIG. 124 is complete. Returning to step 12418, i-th element of oInfo.itemInfo can be set to information retrieved from database in relation to the i-th item associated with the order. The process can move to step 12420. At step 12420, i is incremented and the process can move to step 12412. System of Fourth Embodiment FIG. 125 illustrates an embodiment of a system wherein GD 12502 embodies aspects of GD 11602 in generating tag related information associated with transactions. PD 12508 of FIG. 125 embodies aspects related to PD 240, and PMD 12506 embodies aspects related to CD 140. In one embodiment, system illustrated in FIG. 125 can be used to provide tags to instances of PMD 12506 wherein the tags can provide information related to transactions—such as in a grocery store, restaurant, coffee shops, libraries or the like. Aspect 12516 of the embodiment relates to performing transactions in the embodiment. In one embodiment, aspect 12516 can be associated with a computer system. In other embodiment, aspect 12516 can be associated with a system of one or more computers. In yet other embodiments, computer systems associated with aspect 12516 can be connected to each other using networks, connected to database systems, or the like. Aspect 12516 can also be associated with accessories that can include a card reader (such as a credit card reader), bar code scanner, keyboards or the like. In some embodiments, aspect 12516 can relate to purchases made at a store, booked checked out at a library, order placed at a restaurant, or the like. In the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 125, aspect 12516 relates to performing transactions that relate to ‘orders associated with purchases’ placed with 12516. For a user associated with a consumerId, an order can be placed with aspect 12516. Aspect 12516 can then provide an orderId associated with the order, consumerId associated with the consumer placing the order, and other information related to the order, including others, to GD 102. consumerId in one embodiment can be a code associated with a club card of the user placing the order. In other embodiment, consumerId can represent the telephone number associated with the telephone service of PMD 12506. In yet other embodiment, consumerId can represent a random number generated by PMD 12506. consumerId can be provided to aspect 12516 using a variety of mechanisms. In one embodiment consumerId representing a code associated with a club card can be provided to aspect 12516 by swiping the club card in a card reader (such as those associated with credit card swipe-readers) associated with aspect 12516. In other embodiment, a telephone number associated with telephone service of PMD 12506 can be provided to aspect 12516 using the user interface (such as a keyboard, touch screen, or the like) of aspect 12516. In yet other embodiment, a random number generated by PMD 12506 can be provided to aspect 12516, wherein the PMD 12506 can display a bar code associated with the random number on the display of PMD 12506, and a bar code scanner associated with aspect 12516 can scan the bar code displayed by PMD to determine the consumerId. Other consumerIds and methods of providing consumerId to aspect 12516 are possible. In one embodiment, aspect 12516 can provide consumerId, orderId and order related information to GD 12502 using cable 12518. In some embodiments, aspect 12516 and GD 12502 can include wireless interfaces that can allow aspect 12516 and GD 12502 to communicate with each other without using a physical connection. In yet other embodiments, aspect 12516 and GD 12502 can communicate with each other using a network of entities such as a network (e.g., Internet). GD 12502, upon receiving information related to a transaction, can generate information related to the transaction. Tag related information generated by GD can include consumerId, orderId and information related to the order. Tag related information can include other information not described here. The information generated by GD 12502 can be provided by the GD to PD 12508 using cable 12520. In other embodiments GD 12502 and PD 12508 can include wireless interfaces (e.g., Wifi, etc.) that can allow GD 12502 and PD 12508 in communicating tag related information. PD 12508 can provide tags using information communicated by GD 12502, to PMD 12506. In the embodiment described here, PD provides tags to PMDs using wireless communication. Wireless communication can include mechanism such as Bluetooth, wifi, or the like. The tags provided to PD can include consumerId, orderId and order related information. A tag is provided by PD to a PMD wherein the consumerId included in the tag can be same as the consumerId of PMD 12506, or user associated with PMD 12506. In some embodiments, more than one instance of PMD 12506 can receive the tag provided by PD 12508. PMD 12506 upon receiving a tag, can check the consumerId included in the tag against the consumerId associated with user of PMD 12506 before accepting the tag for further processing. In embodiments where consumerId represents a telephone number associated with telephone service of PMD 12506, the PMD can accept the tag when the consumerId included in the tag matches the telephone number associated with PMD 12506. In embodiments where consumerId represents a club card number associated with user of PMD 12506, PMD 12506 can compare the consumerId included in the tag against a list of club card numbers that can be stored in the storage included in PMD 12506. Other methods of comparing/verifying consumerIds are possible. In other embodiments, PD 12508 can provide tag to only one PMD 12506. This can be possible in embodiments wherein the wireless communication can allow for only one transmitter and one receiver at a given time. A form of Bluetooth communication can be used to implement such communication scheme. With passage of time, the PMD 12506 that can be receiving the tag provided by PD 12508 can change. For example, a user associated with PMD 12506, placing an order can associate PMD 12506 using Bluetooth technology to a PD 12508 to receive the tag. In such embodiment, PMD 12506 can be disassociated from PD 12508 once the PMD receives the tag. In yet other embodiments, PD 12508 can be associated with PMD 12506 using a cable such as USB, Ethernet, firewire, or the like. In other embodiments, PD 12508 can communicate tags to PMD 12506 over a network of entities that can include switches, routers, bridges, hubs, computer systems, or the like. An example of such embodiment can include the internet. Instances of PMD 12506 can include a connector 12504 adapted to connect to one end 12510 of cable 12512. Cable 12512 can allow for PMD 12506 to communicate with entities (e.g, computers, servers, media players, portable media devices, routers, switches, firewalls, or the like) in network 12514. Network 12514 can include a network of entities such as the internet. In some embodiments, cable 12512 can be an Ethernet cable. In other embodiments, PMD 12506 can include a wireless interface (eg., 802.11b, Wifi, Bluetooth, etc.) that can allow PMD 12506 to communicate with entities in a network without a physical connection. It is to be noted that while the embodiment illustrated in FIG. 125, illustrates the use of one GD 12502, one PD 12508 and one PMD 12506, other embodiments can include more than one GD and/or more than one PD and/or more than one CD. The number of devices of each type, the aspects (such as 12516) as illustrated in FIG. 125 is not meant to be limiting the scope of the invention or any of its embodiments. Other embodiments can choose to use methods of communication not described here. Further Embodiments While the invention has been described with respect to specific embodiments, one skilled in the art will recognize that numerous modifications are possible. For instance, the information exchanged in messages and/or the set of messages and/or state maintained by different aspects can be different from what is described in the embodiments. One or more of the methods of association among GDs and PDs, methods of association among PDs and CDs, methods of communicating or determining TRI, methods of communicating or determining tags, methods of application selection, methods of executing/managing/retrieving/accessing applications, the user interfaces associated with GDs and/or PDs and/or CDs can be different in various embodiments. In some embodiments, a PD can be adapted to be capable of associating with more than one GD either at the same time or different times. Each instance of GD can be adapted to provide TRI associated with tags of different types in some embodiments. In some embodiments, PD can be adapted to provide tags of different types. In some embodiments, a CD can be associated with user interface that can allow the CD to indicate the association of CDs to PDs, receipt of tags from PDs, or the like. User interfaces can include one or more of notification bar such as one associated with Android Operating System, an application such as one associated with Android Operating System, or the like. In some embodiments, some or all of functionality associated with CD such as determination of application, retrieving of application, and others, as described in various embodiments can be embedded in one or more applications or aspects associated with the CD. For example, the aspect of determining and retrieving an application can be included in an application that allows for making phone calls. In some embodiments, GDs can associate with PDs, PDs can associate with CDs, etc. using methods and/or technologies different from what is described in the embodiments illustrated with the invention. In some embodiments, the tag can be communicated to a user of CD, which the user can manually provide to the CD via the user interface of the CD. An example of such embodiment is where a telephone number is used as a tag. A telephone number can be conveyed to a user of CD, and the user can provide the telephone number to the CD using the user interface of CD. Other embodiments can choose to provide tags using mechanisms different from what are described in various embodiments of the invention. CDs, PDs, GDs and other devices described in various embodiments can have additional functionality. For example, a portable media device that is an instance of CD, can include functionality to make telephone calls, voice recorder capability, personal information management capability (e.g., calendar, contacts list, e-mail, etc.). Further, in some embodiments, some or all of the functionality described in connection with an PD and/or GD could be included in a CD. For example, the CD might be configured to receive tags from PDs in a manner consistent with the methods described in various embodiments, while at the same time providing tags to other CDs. PD and/or GD could be packaged with a CD and sold as a unit. Various other combinations of CD, PD and GD are possible. Embodiments of the present invention can be applied to a wide variety of services that can include services related to provisioning/consumption of media such as audio, video, etc. as in case of watching video, listening to audio, etc.; browsing of web; services at grocery stores, restaurants, malls, theatres, other stores, etc.; services at places such as parking lots, ticket counters, etc.; transaction services such as borrowing of books in a library, purchase of products, etc.; or the like. Embodiments of the invention can be used in association with systems and/or services different from the above listed set of systems and/or services. Embodiments of the present invention can be realized using any combination of dedicated components and/or programmable processors and/or other programmable devices. While the embodiments described above may make reference to specific hardware and components, those skilled in the art will appreciate that different combinations of hardware and/or firmware and/or instructions components may also be used and that particular operations described as being implemented in hardware might also be implemented in software and/or firmware and vice versa. Functions described as being implemented in firmware can be implemented in hardware and/or instructions and vice versa. Similarly functions described as being implemented in software can be implemented in hardware and/or firmware and vice versa. Computer program products incorporating various features of the present invention may be encoded on various computer readable storage media, suitable media include magnetic disk or tape, optical storage media such as compact disk or DVD (digital versatile disk), flash memory, and the like. Computer readable media encoded with the program code may be packaged with a compatible device or provided separately from other devices Program code may also be encoded and transmitted using carrier signals (e.g, via Internet download) adapted for transmission via wired, optical, and/or wireless networks conforming to a variety of protocols, including the Internet. While the invention has been disclosed in connection with the embodiments shown and described in detail, various modifications and improvements thereon will become readily apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the spirit and scope of the present invention is not to be limited by the foregoing examples, but is to be understood in the broadest sense allowable by law. All documents referenced herein are hereby incorporated by reference. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>With advent of portable computing such as smart phones, tablet computers, wearable PCs, e-book readers, personal digital assistants (PDAs), etc. users of these devices have access to a large number of applications, with each application used for one or more tasks. The Android™ platform of Google, Inc., and supported by Open Handset Alliance (OHA), for example supports tens of thousands of applications in different areas that include health, lifestyle, entertainment, games, shopping, social, tools, productivity, etc. among others. The applications for Android platform are generally made available to consumer devices on Android Market of Google, Inc. Similarly, the App Store™ of Apple, Inc., provides tens of thousands of applications in various areas of interest, which can be run on devices such as iPhone™, iPad™, iPod Touch™, etc. of Apple, Inc. To help users choose applications for installation and use on their devices, Android Market, App Store, other distribution platforms and websites classify applications into various categories such as social, productivity, tools, finance, etc. In some cases, the applications are sorted based on factors such as popularity, user reviews, staff reviews, featured applications or the like. Determining an application to be installed and/or used for a given task can be tedious in such distribution platforms. Examples of specific tasks include providing feedback on a service provided at a given store, recording the schedule (such as date and time) of a sale described in a media advertisement, etc. The classification of applications on distribution platforms and/or websites is based on general factors/categories and choosing an application for a given task can be tedious and/or difficult and/or time consuming. In some cases, users of consumer devices are made aware of applications using a bar-code, and/or uniform resource locator (URL) which can be used to download/install the application. The bar code and/or URL can be made available on websites, or on paper prints that are posted on areas such as walls, posted on billboards, etc. These methods of communicating applications have some disadvantages. These methods for example require that users scan a bar code using a camera or bar code scanner on the consumer device, or have users type in the URL manually to an application manager on the consumer device. The process needs to be repeated once for each application (made available using this scheme) installed by the user, which can be tedious or not very user-friendly. The user needs to first locate the bar code and/or URL. Once the user has located the bar-code and/or URL, the user needs to make a decision of installing the application, and then launch the application manager or bar-code scanner to help with installation. This process is therefore not very practical and/or user-friendly. If the tasks managed by the user is changing wherein each task is managed by different application, having the user determine the applications for each task, and installing them for each use is not practical. An example of such scenario is the case of applications in context of media consumption. Having a user install applications for each ask he/she needs to accomplish can be tedious and/or impractical because locating application for each task can involve one or more of looking up distribution platforms, web sites, identifying bar-codes and/or urls of applications, etc. This process can discourage a user from installing or using applications. Consider scenario wherein a user can interact with a media that's being telecast, using an application on a consumer device. A TV show can, for example, accept ratings from users based on performance by a set of candidates using an application on consumer devices. A TV advertisement for a food product can, for example, provide nutritional information about the product using a “nutrition application”—while the advertisement is telecast. Each track/segment of media can be associated with different applications. Another situation where the application changes, is when user goes from one store to other. In situations where each store can provide services using consumer devices with applications specific to each store, a user is required to install applications for different stores in order to access their services. Having a user install applications for each store he/she visits can be tedious and/or impractical because locating each application can involve one or more of looking up distribution platforms, web sites, identifying bar-codes and/or urls of applications, etc. This process can discourage a user from installing applications. The applications provided by a store may not be popular on distribution platforms such as Android Market, Apple, Inc.'s App Store, etc., but can help achieve a specific task for a user while he/she is at the store. An example of such case is an application provided by a restaurant that recommends items from the restaurants menu, based on user preferences. The application can be supported only by a specific restaurant in which case, a user can be discouraged from locating the application and installing it just to address a one-time need of determining suggested menu items. Applications that have a short use-time such as these can therefore not be used very much. This can result in users not leveraging advantages associated with these applications. A simplification in the management of applications on consumer devices can help various entities (such as stores, web sites, libraries, offices, restaurants, media services, or the like) in providing services to users, using applications on consumer devices. Changing services and/or conditions can help in providing different services to users using applications that can be specific to the new service and/or condition. For example, the services (using applications on CDs) provided by a store can change on a holiday or when the store is running a sale event. A different set of services can be provided by a store for example, by new applications. Improved techniques in regard to application management on consumer devices can help in providing new services to users by deploying the new applications for use on CDs. In some scenarios, users have a number of applications installed on their consumer devices. Users select an application for a task by browsing through the list of installed applications. An increase in the number of applications installed on the consumer device can make it difficult for the user to search and/or determine the application to use for a task at hand. It would therefore be desirable to provide improved techniques, methods, systems and apparatus to facilitate provisioning and/or managing of applications associated with consumer devices. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, a system is provided for facilitating access to a set of applications by a computing device. The system includes a context module configured to determine contexts associated with either or both of the computing device and a user of the computing device. The context describes an environment and/or an activity of the user and/or the computing device and helps generate at least a first portion of one or more contextual tags. In other words the context module can act as a generating device that generates contextual tags or a portion of the contextual tags in addition to determining contexts. Accordingly, for the purpose of easy understanding by persons skilled in the art, some embodiments explained hereinafter, refer to the context module as generating device. Also, the terms “computing device” and “consumer device” may be interchangeably used during description of the invention for ease of understanding of exemplary embodiments. The system also includes at least one processor communicatively associated with the context module, and configured to at least one of: generate a second portion of the contextual tags, and provide the contextual tags to the computing device, thereby enabling the computing device to identify one or more applications associated with the one or more contextual tags. The one or more applications are identified according to context based information contained in the one or more contextual tags, and thereafter the one or more applications are received by the computing device. In such embodiments the processor acts as the providing device, and is accordingly referred to in some exemplary embodiments in the subsequent description for easy understanding. Also, the applications, as described according to the various embodiments of the invention are content that can be accessed or viewed or processed using a computing device like a mobile phone, tablet computer, portable compute devices such as book readers, portable audio/video devices, laptop computers, desktop computers, and the like. Examples of applications, include but are not limited to, mobile applications, plugins, applets, scripts, URLs providing a link to different applications, web pages, web content, audio, video, images, applications based on various platforms such as Android and iOS, and other similar services. In some embodiments, after identifying the one or more applications according to the context based information the computing device can access the one or more applications. In an embodiment, the one or more applications can be accessed from a service such as a website. In some embodiments, the applications can also be retrieved from other systems, databases, devices, etc. In yet other embodiments, the applications present on the compute device can be enabled and/or activated and/or provided to the user. The contextual tag, in accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, can include at least one of a manual tag, a dial-an-app tag, a static tag, a dynamic tag, an extracted tag, a derived info tag, a web based tag, a transaction driven tag, and a social aspect tag. These types of tags are explained in detail in the detailed description section of the application. In an embodiment, once the one or more applications have been identified, the processor enables the computing device to access the one or more applications. For example, the processor may enable the computing device to initiate a download of the one or more applications on the computing device. In some embodiments, the one or more applications are activated on the computing device as soon as they are downloaded. Further, in some embodiments only some of the one or more applications are automatically activated. In a further embodiment, at least a portion of a contextual tag may be stored in one or more intermediate devices before the one or more applications are associated with the contextual tag. For example, in an embodiment, the contextual tag after being generated may be stored in a providing device or a generating device or other devices on a network like a set-top box or a router, before being transferred to the computing device. In some embodiments, the one or more applications identified corresponding to the one or more contextual tags may be already present on the computing device. In further embodiments, determination of context is triggered manually or scheduled to be repeated regularly after a predefined time interval. In some embodiments, the one or more applications are identified based on only a portion of the contextual tag and not the complete contextual tag. In some embodiments, a URL can be determined using at least a portion of the one or more contextual tags. The computing device is, thereafter, enabled to access and activate an application configured to utilize the URL. In further embodiment of the present invention, the user can select one or more applications. The selected applications can then be accessed and/or activated by the computing device. In another embodiment, the computing device is allowed to access the one or more applications associated with a phone number being dialed by the user of the computing device. In yet another embodiment, cleaning up of the one or more applications can be performed, i.e. the one or more applications on the computing device in case a change in the one or more contexts is determined, or the user is found to be not interacting with an earlier executed application for a predefined time, or the one or more applications is inactive, or there has been a lapse of a predefined time spent during or after accessing the one or more applications. We describe various elements separately for ease of understanding and to describe logical differences in the functions performed by each element. However, that the elements may be physically separate. Rather, a skilled person will appreciate, in light of this disclosure, that two elements described herein can be combined into a single element that performs functions of both the elements described herein. Conversely, the functionality of a single element described herein can be divided and performed by multiple elements. For example, in some embodiments a processor and a context module may perform the functions of the generating device and the provider device, while being two separate devices. While in some embodiments the system may have a single system including both the context module and the processor, thereby allowing a single system to perform both the functions of the generating device and the functions of the providing device. In yet other embodiments, the generating device and the provider device can be a embedded in the computing device and can be implemented as a part of the computing device, such that the computing device is enabled to perform the functions of both the provider device and the generating device. Further, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the term “one or more context” is also referred to as “context information” or “information” during the subsequent description for easy understanding. Similarly, the term “computing device” is also referred as “consumer device”, the term “contextual tag” is referred to as “tag” and the term “memory module” is referred to as “store”. To better summarize the system for facilitating access of a set of applications by the computing device in accordance with the present invention, some exemplary embodiments are described in the subsequent paragraphs. In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, a consumer device (CD) communicatively coupled to one or more provider device (PD) can be used to provision and/or manage applications using contextual information provided by one or more PDs. The contextual information referred to herein as a “tag” can encompass any type of data that facilitates determination of an application (app). One or more instances of Tag related information (TRI) are generated by Generator Device (GD). GD communicatively coupled to (or associated with) one or more PD can communicate TRIs to the PD. PDs can communicate tags that can include some/all of TRI received from GD, to CD. In one embodiment of the invention, each instance of TRI generated by a GD is used by a PD to generate/provide an instance of a tag. The content of TRIs can be determined by GD using methods that are specific to each embodiment. Various methods of determining the content are possible. In one embodiment, a tag can include a URL. In some embodiments, the URL included in a tag can be used identify a location on internet where the application can be downloaded from. In other embodiments, the tag can include a tag-type. Tag type can be a value from a set that can include values such as GroceryInfo, ClothesInfo, WebForm, ParkingLot, Video, Audio, DerivedMediaInfo, SampledMedia, TvLiveVoting, SaleSchedule, Feedback, UserOrderinStore, or the like. In some embodiments, the tag type can be used to determine an application and/or a URL. The URL in such embodiments can identify an application or a location on internet where the application can be downloaded from. In some embodiments, a tag can include information that can be used by the application determined using or associated with the tag. A TvLiveVoting tag, for example, can be associated with a Voting application. The Voting application in one embodiment can interact with a user to determine the user's vote. The TvLiveVoting tag in such embodiments can include a URL where the results determined by Voting application can be submitted. In accordance with some embodiments of the present invention, a method is disclosed for facilitating access to a set of applications by a computing device. The method includes a step of determining contexts associated with either or both the computing device and a user of the computing device. The context describes an environment and/or an activity of the user and/or the computing device and helps generate one or more contextual tags. The method also includes identifying one or more applications associated with the one or more contextual tags. The one or more applications are identified according to context based information contained in the one or more contextual tags and the one or more applications are thereafter received by the computing device. To better summarize the method for facilitating access to a set of applications by the computing device in accordance with the present invention, some exemplary embodiments are described in the subsequent paragraphs. One aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a method performed by a CD in determining an application associated with a tag. In embodiments where a tag can include an app URL, a CD can determine the application based on the app URL in the tag. The app URL in some embodiments can represent the URL where the application can be downloaded from. In embodiments where a tag can include a tagType, a CD can determine an application, or a URL where the application can be downloaded from, based on the tagType. In other embodiments, the tag can itself include the application associated with the tag. When a URL specifying the location of application is determined, a CD can download the application from the URL and install it on the CD, for use by the user. Other methods of determining applications associated with the tag are possible in various embodiments. In some embodiments, a CD can also maintain a set of applications along with their associated app URLs or tagTypes, in a store on the CD. The set of applications downloaded by the CD 102 as a result of processing the tags received by the CD can also be stored in the store. When such a set is maintained, a CD can use an application from that store, instead of downloading the application from a network. The set of applications maintained in the store can be made available for use by the user of CD when a tag for the application is not available. The applications can also be made available for use by the user, when the CD is not associated with a PD. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to the association of a CD with one or more PDs. In some embodiments a CD can be communicatively coupled or associated with one PD. At other times, the CD can be communicatively associated to more than one PD. When a CD is coupled to more than one PD, the CD can receive tags from some or all of the PDs. The association of a CD with a PD can be established by a user connecting an interface on a CD to an interface on a PD using a wire, for example. In some embodiments, a wireless communication channel can be used to associate a CD with some PDs. Example of wireless communication channels can include technologies such as Bluetooth, wifi, 802.11b, 802.11a, RF, other custom communication technologies or the like The association can be established using other means such as configuration on CD and/or PDs. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a CD determining PDs that it can associate with, using a service. A CD can connect to a service say over the internet, to determine a list of PDs. The CD in such embodiments can provide some information to the service to help determine the list of PDs. In some embodiments, this can include the physical location co-ordinates (such as latitude, longitude, elevation). In other embodiments, the information can include information such as a telephone number associated with the PDs. The information provided to the service can include other information. Other types of services are possible in other embodiments. Such services can also use methods not described here. In some embodiments, a CD can exchange messages with PDs identified using different schemes such as wires, wireless, configuration, services, etc. described earlier, before the association can be considered successful. In such embodiments, an unsuccessful message exchange between a CD and a given PD can result in a CD not using and/or receiving the tags from the PD. In some embodiments, a CD can interact with the user once the CD has determined a set of PDs. The interaction with the user can determine the set of PDs that the CD can associate with. The set of PDs to associate with can also be determined by the CD, without interacting with the user. In some non-interactive embodiments, a set of rules associated with/configured on the CD can be used to determine the set of PDs that the CD can associate with. In some embodiments, the rules can specify that a CD can associate with PDs when the PD provides tags whose tagType matches one of a set of tagTypes. In some embodiments, the set of tagTypes used for selection of providers can be configured by a user. Other methods of associating CDs with PDs can be used in various embodiments. Another aspect of embodiments of present invention relates to the disassociation of a CD with one or more PDs. A CD, after associating with some PDs can disassociate with some/all of the PDs. The disassociation results in CD not processing and/or receiving tags from the disassociated PDs. The disassociation can be due to user interaction. The disassociation can also be due to other events such as loss of communication (e.g., wireless communication) due to a user walking away with the CD, from the proximity of a PD. Other methods of disassociation can be used. Another aspect of embodiments of the present invention relates to the assocType of a tag. A tag in some embodiments can include information related to assocType. The assocType can be one of Unicast, Multicast or Broadcast. An assocType of value Unicast can imply that the tag is meant to be received and/or processed only by one CD. An assocType of value Multicast can imply that the tag can be processed by some set of CDs. An assocType of value Broadcast can imply that the tag can be processed by any CD receiving the tag. For tags of assocType Unicast, the tag can include a consumerId that can identify the CD which can receive and/or process the tag. A consumerId can include one of many types of identifiers such as MAC address, IP address, a telephone number or the like. Other aspects of embodiments of present invention relates to processing of tags by a CD. A CD can receive tags from one or more PDs, and can run the applications associated with the received tags. In some embodiments, the applications associated with received tags can be presented to the user of CD. In such embodiments, an application can be run based on a decision made by the user's interaction with the CD (such as selection of an application using the user interface of CD). In other embodiments, a CD can receive tags from PDs as a result of user interaction with the CD. In one embodiment, user interaction can involve user selecting a PD (using the user interface of CD) to receive the tags from. In yet other embodiments, a CD can receive tags from a PD as a result of a user interaction with the PD. User interactions with CD and/or PD can be implemented using one or more of touch screens, mouse, keyboard, etc. or the like. Tags received by CD as a result of user interaction with CD and/or PD can be processed in the same way as the tags received by CD without user interaction. Other aspects of embodiments of the present invention relates to processing of tags received by a CD. A CD in some embodiments can store the tag and/or the associated application in a set of tags and/or applications maintained in a store on the CD. When the set of tags and/or applications are maintained in a store, a user interface can be used to present the stored tags and/or applications to the user using the user interface of CD. The application associated with stored set can be run based on a decision made by user interaction. In some embodiments, the tag (and/or associated application) stored by a CD in its store can be received by the CD as a result of user interaction with the CD. In yet other embodiments, the tag (and/or associated application) stored by a CD in its store can be received by the CD as a result of user interaction with a PD. User interactions with CD and/or PD can be implemented using one or more of touch screens, mouse, keyboard, etc. or the like. Other methods of processing the tags are possible in various embodiments. In yet other embodiments of the present invention, tags provided by a PD can be stored in a store associated with the PD. The set of tags stored in the PD's store can be determined either based on user interaction with PD or CD or automatically. When the tags are stored in a PD, the tags can be transferred to a CD, when the CD is associated with PD. In other embodiments, the PD can also download applications associated with tags, and store them along with tags, in its store. In such embodiments, the tags and associated applications can later be transferred from PD to CD. Other methods of storing the tags in PD and/or communicating the stored tags to PD are possible in various embodiments. Other aspects of embodiments of the present invention relates to a method of receiving contexts and/or downloading applications. In some embodiments, contexts and/or applications are received using traditional client server models with CD acting as a client. The PD can act as a server of tag, while a computer system in a network can act as a server of the application. Other embodiments of application providing servers such as Desktops, Laptops, a network of computers, etc. can be used. In yet other embodiments, systems such as peer to peer networks, distributed hash tables, tracker-less peer to peer systems, BitTorrent, GnuTella, Tapestry, Pastry or the like can be used by CD and/or PD to download/retrieve applications. Such systems can also be used by PD to provide tags and/or CD to receive tags. Peer to peer networks, distributed hash tables, tracker-less peer to peer systems, BitTorrent, GnuTella, Tapestry, Pastry or the like, can help with supporting application downloads for a large number of CDs. Other methods of providing applications and/or tags to CDs can be used. In other embodiments, a CD and/or PD can use more than one networks to download parts of application. Different networks can include technologies such as WiFi, Cellular, Bluetooth, Ethernet, other custom communication technologies or the like. Among other advantages, the method of downloading over multiple networks can provide with faster download of an application. When using multiple networks to download application, CD and/or PD can use more than one networks of the same type. In some embodiments, one or more networks can be virtual—such as virtual private networks. CD and PD can use similar methods (associated with multiple networks) for receiving and providing tags respectively. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a CD. The CD can include a storage medium (STORE), a storage interface (SI), among others. The SI along with STORE can be used by CD to store and/or manage tags and/or applications, along with storing other aspects associated with the CD. A CD can also include a tag processor (TP), a provider manager (PM), an application (app) manager (AM), a state store (STATE), an application processor (APPP), a user interface engine (UIE), a set of audio/video/user interfaces among others. The PM can help in managing associations with PDs, while the TP can help manage the receipt and/or processing of tags from PDs, sending requests for tags to PDs, etc. The AM can help with managing the applications according to various methods described earlier. STATE can be used by the CD to maintain some state associated with managing tags, applications or the like. STATE can be associated with storage that can store information while the STATE can be provided with electrical power. An example of STATE can include RAM. A CD can also include one or more network interface (NI)s. A CD can receive messages/tags from PDs, send messages to PDs, download applications from networks using NIs. In some embodiments the NI meant for associating with or receiving tags from PDs can be different from NI associated with downloading applications. In other embodiments the association with PDs, receipt of tags from PDs, sending/receiving messages to/from PDs, downloading applications can all use the same NI. Some NIs on associated with a CD can use wired technologies such as Ethernet, cable modem, firewire, USB, other custom technologies or the like. Some other NIs associated with a CD can use wireless technologies like Bluetooth, wifi, 802.11b, 802.11a, RF, or the like. Another aspect of embodiments of the present invention relates to the methods performed by a PD. Among various methods performed by PD, the PD can associate/disassociate with CDs and communicate tags to CDs. The PD can be communicatively coupled or associated with one or more Generator Device (GD)s. A TRI generated by a GD can be communicated to one or more PDs by the GD. The PD can then communicate the tag including TRI to CDs. A PD can be associated with one or more GDs using various forms of communication that can be setup using physical wires, or wireless connectivity. A PD can be associated with GDs over a network—such an intranet, internet, or the like. A PD can be configured with information that can help associate the PD with the GDs. Information related to the configuration can include IP addresses of GD, DNS addresses of GDs, or the like. The association can also be established using services wherein the information related to identification of GDs can be retrieved from a service. When a service is used to retrieve the identification of GDs, the PD can provide an identification of the PD to the service. The identification of PD can include MAC address, IP address, DNS address, or the like. In some embodiments, PDs can exchange messages with GDs, after the GDs have been identified. A successful exchange of messages between a PD and GD can imply that the PD and GD are associated with each other for exchanging TRI. Other methods of association can be used in various embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to the method followed by a PD in sending tags to CDs. In some embodiments, a PD can send tags to CDs as soon as the PD receives TRI from GD. In one embodiment, a tag sent by a PD to CDs can include the TRI provided by a GD to the PD. In other embodiments, a PD can store the TRIs that it receives from GD in its STORE and communicate tags including the TRIs to CDs when the CDs request tags using a message. In other embodiments, a PD can store only one TRI it last received from GD. In such embodiments, the PD can provide only a tag associated with latest TRI upon receiving a request from CD(s). In other embodiments, a PD can store many TRIs it receives from GDs in its local STORE and communicate tags associated with the stored TRIs to CDs once every time interval. In such embodiments, the PD can remove the TRIs from its STORE once it sends the tags associated with TRIs to the CDs. In yet other embodiments, a request for a tag from a CD can be handled by a PD, by retrieving a latest TRI from GD and communicating tag associated with latest TRI to CD. In some embodiments, a PD can retrieve a latest TRI from GD by sending a RequestLatestTag message to GD. Other methods of communicating tags to CDs, receiving TRIs from GDs are possible in various embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a PD. The PD can include a storage (STORE), a storage interface (SI), among others. The SI along with STORE can be used by PD to store and/or manage tags/TRIs and/or applications, along with storing other aspects associated with the PD. A PD can also include a tag processor (TP), a generator manager (GM), a consumer manager (CM), a user interface engine (UIE), a set of audio/video/user interfaces among others. The GM can help in managing associations with GDs, while the TP can help manage the receipt/processing of TRIs from GDs, and transmission of tags to CDs. The CM can help with managing the associations with CDs. A PD can also include one or more network interface (NI)s. A PD can receive messages/TRIs from GDs, send tags to CDs, receive messages from CDs, send messages to CDs and GDs, and download applications from networks using NIs. In some embodiments the NI meant for associating with or receiving TRIs from GDs can be different from NI associated sending tags to or associating with CDs, or NI associated with downloading applications. In other embodiments the association with GDs, association with CDs, receipt of TRIs from GDs, sending tags to CDs, sending/receiving messages to/from CDs and GDs, downloading applications can all use the same NI. Some NIs on PD associated with a CD can use wired technologies such as Ethernet, cable modem, firewire, USB, other custom technologies or the like. Some other NIs associated with a PD can use wireless technologies like Bluetooth, wifi, 802.11b, 802.11a, RF, or the like. In yet other embodiments, an instance of PD can include an instance of GD in the PD such that the combination of PD and GD is used as a single device. Other aspects an embodiment of the present invention relates to the methods/apparatus of a GD. Various forms of GDs can be used. In some embodiments, GDs communicate pre-provisioned information in TRIs. In other embodiments, GDs extract information from systems such as media and communicate that information in the TRIs. In yet other embodiments, GDs can generate the TRI using sensors such as acceleration sensor, orientation sensor, etc. In yet other embodiments, GDs can generate TRI as a result of processing performed using a combination of software, firmware and hardware. Examples of such generators include a system that can take pictures of a parking lot regularly to determine the spaces that are available for parking. The parking lot generator can use various image processing techniques to compare different images to determine the free/available parking spaces. In yet other embodiments, GDs can generate information for TRI based on the information that is provided to GD. For example, a GD can generate a feedbackId for a purchase made by a customer at a store. The purchase in such embodiments can be associated with a purchaseId. The feedbackId can be used by a CD to provide feedback associated with a purchase (that is associated with purchaseId). In this example, the GD can lookup a database with the purchaseId along with any other information to determine the feedbackId. Other embodiments of GDs and interactions with GDs are possible in various embodiments. An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to a GD sending a TRI to one or more PDs. In some embodiments, a TRI can be sent by a GD to all the PDs associated with the GD. The GD can send the TRI whenever a new TRI is generated by the GD, or upon expiry of certain time interval. The GD can also send the TRI to a PD that requests the latest TRI. The events that cause the GD to send the TRIs and/or PDs to which the TRIs are sent, can be specific to each embodiment. An aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by a GD can include pre-provisioned content. GDs can be associated with user interface that can allow setting and/or changing of some or all of the content included in TRIs. An embodiment which uses such GD includes a store's aisle where a GD can send TRIs which can include information related to the products in the aisle. The GD can include in the TRIs, the category of products such as BeautyProducts, Groceries, Clothes, or the like. The GD can also include sub categories in each tag, such as Men, Women, Teens, Toddlers, Girls, Boys, etc. for the Clothes tag. The GD can also include in TRIs, a URL wherein detailed information associated with products in the aisle can be accessed. A GD such as the one described in this embodiment can send the same information in TRIs over a period of time. The GD can send the information regularly, once every time interval. Some or all of information included in TRIs by the GD can be changed using the user interface of GD. Other methods of changing the information included in TRIs are possible. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information retrieved from sensors associated with the GD. Examples of sensors include a temperature sensor, an acceleration sensor, an orientation sensor or the like. The TRI sent by a GD can include information retrieved from one or more sensors associated with the GD. The GD can send the TRI regularly, once every time interval. The GD can send TRIs with information from some sensors (say acceleration or orientation) with low time intervals. The GD can send TRIs with information for some sensors (such as temperature) with high time intervals. The GD can send TRIs that can include information from more than one sensor. When a TRI is sent by GD, the GD can include the latest information retrieved from the sensors. The GD can also send TRIs at different rates based on some configuration, or request by a PD. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information that is a result of some transaction performed external to the system described in this embodiment. An example of such embodiment is a GD that can include a feedbackId in a TRI, which can be used by an application in submitting feedback. The feedbackId included in a TRI can be associated with an orderId which can identify the services received or products purchased by a customer. In this embodiment, the GD can determine the feedbackId for a given orderId by looking up a database system that can provide a feedbackId for a given orderId. The GD can lookup the database by providing the orderId (along with any other information) to determine the feedbackId. The GD can then generate a TRI that can include the feedbackId and orderId. The GD can generate a TRI when it is provided with a message that includes a request for generating the TRI. A message with a request for generating the TRI can include an orderId that can be used to determine the feedbackId in the TRI. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information extracted from a media stream. In some embodiments, media can be tagged with a variety of information. An example of such media stream is video stream in MPEG-47 format. In this embodiment, the TRI generated by a GD can include information extracted from MPEG-47 media stream. MPEG-47 media stream can be tagged with information that can include information such as app URL, tag type, appData, or the like. In some embodiments, MPEG-47 media stream can be classified into tracks. Each track can include a media stream that is produced separately or considered logically separate from other tracks. Examples of tracks include an advertisement, a song, an episode of a TV program, or the like. In some embodiments, each track can be tagged with information that can help determine the content included in a single TRI. A track can also be tagged with information that can help determine information included in multiple TRIs. The information extracted from media stream can be included in the TRI generated by GD. The GD can also include other information derived by GD, in a TRI. Example of such information includes the channel number, channel frequency, the time TRI is generated, channel name, or the like. The derived information can help a CD in determining information associated with the media that is not encoded in the media stream. The GD can also include a sample of the media in the TRI generated by the GD. TRIs can be generated by a GD, once for each track. TRIs can also be generated by a GD regularly once every time interval. When a TRI is generated by GD, the TRI can include one or more of last retrieved, last derived or last sampled-media information. Other methods of determining the information related-to or extracted-from media streams are possible in different embodiments. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information extracted or derived from web content. An example of such embodiment includes a GD that is associated with a web browser on a personal computer or a computer system. GD in some embodiments can be implemented entirely in software. The GD in this example can help generate TRIs that can include information about the fields that need to be filled on a form in the web page currently displayed by the browser. Information about the fields can include First Name, Last Name, Address, User ID, etc. among others. The TRI in this example embodiment can also include information about the method of communicating the values associated with fields back to the browser—such as an IP address and port number. When a tag including the information about the fields in a form is received by a CD, an application associated with this tag on the CD can retrieve the information from CD's STORE and convey the information back to the browser. In this example, a CD maintains the information that can be filled in web forms in the STORE. The TRIs generated by GD for each web page/web site can be different and/or handled by different applications on CDs. The notion of web page or web content can be extended to pages/content handled in localized networks such as intranets. The form filler GD for example can be used along with a CD of a patient, to fill forms on a computer associated with a hospital. Different types of tags can be used for different web pages and/or content. The trigger for sending the TRIs by GD can also be different for different web pages and/or content. For some web pages, the trigger can be the completion of display by a web browser, while for some other web pages the trigger can be a selection associated a user interface element such as a click of a button. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information derived due to processing by a combination of software, firmware and hardware. An example of such an embodiment includes a ParkingLot GD. The GD in this example can be associated with one or more cameras that take pictures of a parking lot at regular time intervals—such as 5 seconds. A set of processes that can include a combination of software, firmware and hardware, on GD can compare pictures from one or more cameras to determine the spaces that are available for parking in the parking lot. The GD can generate a TRI that includes information about the spaces that are free in the parking lot, along with the location (such as latitude, longitude, elevation, building, floor, parking lot area number, etc.) of those free spaces. The tag when received by a CD can be associated with an application that provides directions to free parking spaces. The method of using a combination of software, firmware and hardware to determine some or all of the content of tags can be used in other embodiments too. The tag associated with ParkingLot example embodiment can be generated once every time interval. Other events that trigger sending of tags/TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to method followed by a GD in determining some or all of the information included in a TRI. In some embodiments, the TRI sent by GDs can include information determined using a combination of information from CD, information from some service, and information specific to the embodiment in which the GD is used. An example of such embodiment is a GD at a restaurant that provides TRIs which can include ratings of items at the restaurant as provided by the friends of a user associated with a CD. In this embodiment, a GD can generate a TRI in response to a request message from a CD. The request message can include a userId of the user of CD. The GD can associate with social networking services such as facebook, twitter, etc. to determine the list of friends associated with the userId. The GD can then determine the ratings of products served at the restaurant, as provided by friends of users retrieved from external service (facebook, twitter, etc.) The TRI generated by GD can include these ratings. Different methods of using information from a combination of devices and/or services to determine information that can be included in a TRI can be used in other embodiments. Other events that trigger sending of TRIs are possible in different embodiments. Another aspect of an embodiment of the present invention relates to the GD. The GD can be implemented using a hardware device as in pre-provisioning embodiments. In these embodiments, a GD can be implemented using RF devices, plug computers such as Sheeva Plug, or the like. In other embodiments such as ParkingLot described earlier, the GD can be implemented using a computer system such as a personal computer (PC), Desktop, Laptop, or the like. The GD in the sensor embodiments can be associated with sensors internal or external to the GD. When external to the GD, the sensors can be communicatively coupled with GD using a combination of wired/wireless connectivity. In embodiments such as where information is extracted from media, the GD can be a separate hardware device that can include a combination of hardware, firmware and software to extract data from media stream. Some embodiments of GD, as in case of those driven by transactions, can be interfaced with other elements of the system—such as transaction system using a combination of software and/or hardware interfaces. Software interfaces such as CORBA, RPC, message passing, etc. can be used. Hardware interfaces such as Ethernet, firewire, USB, custom hardware, etc. can be used as well. In some embodiments, the GD can be associated with external services using a combination of software, firmware and hardware. Example of such embodiment is the SocialRating restaurant rating embodiment described earlier. Some embodiments of GD can include a STORE coupled to a storage interface (SI). The SI can be used to store information in or retrieve information from the STORE. In some embodiments GD can be associated with a provider manager (PM) that can be used to associate the GD with one or more PDs. Some instances of GD can also be associated with user interfaces that can allow configuration of GD based on the embodiment. In some embodiments, GD can be integrated into a device along with a PD, such that the combination of PD and GD is available as a single hardware device. For example, the extractor GD and PD for media can be integrated into devices such as set top box, televisions, or the like. Aspects of GD, or the entire GD, can be implemented completely in software. An example of a software version of GD is the web page extractor described earlier. Parts of GD can be implemented in software, parts in firmware and parts in hardware. The GD can also have a variety of wired interfaces such as USB, firewire, Ethernet, other custom wired technologies etc. and/or wireless interfaces such as USB, firewire, wifi, 802.11b, other custom wireless technologies or the like. Other embodiments of GD are also possible in various embodiments. In yet another embodiment of present invention a computer program product is provided for facilitating access of a computing device to a set of applications. The computer program product includes instructions for determining contexts associated either or both the computing device and a user of the computing device. The context describes an environment and/or an activity of the user and/or the computing device and helps generate one or more contextual tags. The computer program product also includes instructions for identifying one or more applications associated with the one or more contextual tags. The one or more applications are identified according to context based information contained in the one or more contextual tags and the one or more applications are thereafter received by the computing device. It will be appreciated that embodiments of the invention described herein may include one or more conventional processors and unique stored program instructions that control the system of the invention to implement, in conjunction with certain non-processor circuits, some, most, or all of the functions of application identification described herein. The non-processor circuits may include, but are not limited to, a radio receiver, a radio transmitter, signal drivers, clock circuits, power source circuits, and user input devices. As such, these functions may be interpreted as steps of a method to enable a computing device to access to a set of applications. Methods and means for these functions have been described herein. Further, it is expected that one of ordinary skill, notwithstanding possibly significant effort and many design choices motivated by, for example, available time, current technology, and economic considerations, when guided by the concepts and principles disclosed herein will be readily capable of generating such software instructions and programs and ICs with minimal experimentation. The following detailed description together with accompanying drawings will provide a better understanding of the nature and advantages of aspects of various embodiments associated with the present invention. | G06F865 | 20170716 | 20171130 | 75342.0 | G06F9445 | 2 | RIVERA, ANIBAL | METHOD APPARATUS AND SYSTEMS FOR ENABLING DELIVERY AND ACCESS OF APPLICATIONS AND SERVICES | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,017 |
|
15,650,993 | PENDING | SYSTEM AND PROCESS FOR AUTOMATICALLY FINDING OBJECTS OF A SPECIFIC COLOR | A computer implemented method, system and computer program product for identifying the Main Colors and the matching colors of a visual object, and then viewing on a mobile device select items comprising the matching colors, such as from a merchant's catalogue. A visual object is analyzed for color content, and the results are stored on a system database located on the device or on a remote server. The color analysis of the objects comprise advanced image processing techniques, such as Main Color extraction using color space transformation comprising HSV, RGB and CYMK to map between pixels in the image. The user can subsequently view a display on their mobile identifying the visual object's Main Colors and at least one Harmonic Color; and then select and view all items (i.e. products in a database) comprising one Harmonic Color, and/or all items of a specific type and Harmonic Color. | 1. A computer implemented method for overlaying visual items, comprising, identifying at least one visual object image captured using a client terminal; conducting a color analysis to identify at least one main color in said at least one visual object; querying an image database against said at least one main color to select at least one stored image; as a real time feedback to said querying adding said at least one stored image as an overlay on top of at least part of said at least one visual object. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein said color analysis is conducted to identify color harmonics data, said querying is done against said color harmonics data and said at least one main color. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising displaying said overlay on top of said at least one visual object on a display of said client terminal. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein said conducting a color analysis comprises determining said main Colors by identifying Base, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colors of said visual object. 5. The method of claim 2, further comprising determining said color harmonics data based on a color wheel. 6. The method of claim 2, wherein said color harmonics data comprises a member of a group consisting of: said visual object's Complementary Color, Analogous Colors, Triadic Colors, Split-Complementary Colors, Tetradic Colors, and Square Colors. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said color analysis comprises separating a visual object from a background in said at least one visual object image for compensating for distortions. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein said color analysis comprises imaging processing techniques selected from the group consisting of: HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) color histograms, RGB color histograms, CYMK color histograms, and multi-space color clustering. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein said terminal device is a mobile device and said at least one visual object image are part of a plurality of visual object images continuously captured while said conducting, said querying, and said adding are executed by said device terminal. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein said at least one visual object image images a visual object selected from a group consisting of: a home furnishing, a clothing item, internal and an external wall covering, and a hair color. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein conducting a color analysis comprises conducting a location analysis of said client terminal to acquire location data generated by a module of said client terminal; said querying is done against said location data and said at least one main color. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein said querying comprises conducting an analysis of said at least one object to identify a fit between color distributions of said at least one stored image and said at least one visual object. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein said querying comprises conducting an analysis of said at least one object to identify a fit between at least one of texture, shape, and edge histogram of said at least one stored image and said at least one visual object. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein said querying comprises conducting an analysis of said at least one object to identify a face similarity between faces in said at least one stored image and said at least one visual object. 15. A non-transitory computer readable medium having embodied thereon a program, the program being executable by a processor for performing a method for overlaying visual items, the method comprising: identifying at least one visual object image captured using a client terminal; conducting a color analysis to identify at least one main color in said at least one visual object; querying an image database against said at least one main color to select at least one stored image; as a real time feedback to said querying adding said at least one stored image as an overlay on top of at least part of said at least one visual object. 16. An internet connected system for overlaying visual items, comprising: an interface adapted for receiving from one or more capturing devices at least one visual object image; an image database storing a plurality of images; a program store storing code; a processor coupled to the interface, the image database, and the program store for implementing the stored code, the code comprising: code instructions for conducting a color analysis to identify at least one main color in said at least one visual object; code instructions for querying said image database against said at least one main color to select at least one stored image; as a real time feedback to said querying adding said at least one stored image as an overlay on top of at least part of said at least one visual object. 17. The system of claim 16, wherein said processor is adapted for implementing code instructions to determine color harmonics data of said at least one visual object image, wherein said color analysis is based on said color harmonics data. 18. The system of claim 17, wherein said color harmonics data is determined using a color wheel and said color harmonics data comprises a member of a group consisting: said object's Complementary Color, Analogous Colors, Triadic Colors, Split-Complementary Colors, Tetradic Colors, and Square Colors. 19. The system of claim 16, wherein said color analysis comprises, separating in said at least one visual object image at least one visual object from a background for compensating for light distortions. 20. The system of claim 16, wherein said color analysis comprises imaging processing techniques selected from the group consisting of: HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) color histograms, RGB color histograms, CYMK color histograms, and multi-space color clustering. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/230,433 filed on Aug. 7, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/833,099 filed on Aug. 23, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,412,182, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/292,914 filed on Jun. 1, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,117,143, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/356,815 filed on Jan. 24, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,744,180, which claims the benefit of priority under 35 USC §119(e) of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 61/438,993 filed on Feb. 3, 2011 and 61/435,358 filed on Jan. 24, 2011. The contents of the above applications are all incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein in their entirety. FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Technical Field The present invention relates to systems and processes for automatically analyzing and matching object's colors using a digital image captured on an electronic communications device. 2. Discussion of the Related Art The prior art discloses a number of color matching applications for use on mobile devices, such as to match colors of wall paints, furniture, clothing, etc. In most cases the user captures and stores an image of the item with their mobile device camera or laptop webcam. They then capture another image at a store, and run a mobile application to compare the two images to determine if their colors match. The mobile application may run the comparison in a variety of manners. For example, the device may show the two images side-by-side so that the user can subjectively make the decision. Or the mobile device can conduct an image analysis to determine to what degrees they match. For example, U.S. Patent Application 20090252371 entitled “Mobile device with color detection capabilities” will breakdown the component colors into percentages (i.e. “Red: 10%, Blue 47%, Green 43% and Purchase Item Image: Red: 12%, Blue 47%, Green 41%”). It will then display a closeness of color match based upon a preset overall percentage margins such as “Overall Result: Compares within 10%, Close Enough” or “Overall Result: Compares within 10%, Almost the Same” or “Overall Result: Compares within 40%, Does not Match”. The prior art also discloses the use of a remote server to analyze a color match. For example, in 2008 Hewlett-Packard Laboratories launched a service using a mobile device photograph to enable a woman to select her hue of foundation makeup (See U.S. Pat. No. 7,522,768). The consumer takes a photograph of herself using a phone camera while holding a specially designed color chart. The image is then sent by the consumer via multimedia messaging service (MMS) to an advisory service host at a backend server. The system uses color science to correct the image color, image processing algorithms to locate and extract the face from the image, and statistical classifiers to determine the user's foundation makeup color with accuracy close to that of a makeup expert. The consumer then receives a SMS (Short Message Service) text message containing the foundation shade recommendation that best matches her complexion. The prior art does not, though, disclose color analysis of images captured on a mobile device using various image processing algorithms wherein the user can select what type of colors hues they will receive from the system, such as analogous, triadic, tetradic, square, complementary, and split-complementary colors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present invention comprises a computer implemented method, system and computer program product for identifying matching colors of a visual object captured in a digital image on a mobile device, such as with a mobile phone camera or a laptop webcam. The visual object is compared to a reference object that the mobile device user or another entity has previously captured, analyzed for color content, and stored on a system database. The user can then be provided a display on their mobile identifying the primary colors in the visual object, and other colors that would coordinate with the object for a “color match”, such as analogous, triadic, tetradic, square, complementary, and split-complementary colors. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the user captures an image on their mobile device of a reference object (i.e. furniture, clothing, wall paint, etc. . . . ) that they wish to color coordinate with a similar object (i.e. pillows for furniture, shoes for clothing, wall paper for wall paint, etc. . . . ). The system and software will conduct a color analysis, which will identify its Main Colors (i.e., Base, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colors), of the reference object and optionally create a color harmonics of it. The system will query image database, then return and display matching color combinations and/or harmonics (such as analogous, triadic, tetradic, square, complementary, and split-complementary colors) based on the query, on the user's mobile device. The computer implemented method as conducted by the software of the present invention comprise the steps of: 1) capturing an image on a terminal device, wherein the image are associated with a visual object; 2) conducting a color analysis, i.e. determining the Main Colors, on the reference image and optionally constructing a color wheel based on the analysis; 3) Querying an Image Database against the color analysis using one or more harmonics, wherein the user may manually select a particular type of harmonic; and, 4) electronically transmitting and displaying results to the terminal based on the image color analysis, e.g. Main Colors; wherein the results comprise all harmonics if the user did not select the particular type of harmonic in step (3). The present invention uses various image enhancing and processing algorithms and techniques to detect and analyze the different color hues in a digital image, such as, HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) color histograms, RGB color histograms, CYMK color histograms, and multi-space color clustering. The color analysis may also comprise, separating the object from its background, compensating for distortions such as shading and/or flash light, classifying each pixel to a predefined color set and finding the elements of the color set with the highest number of pixels. Other aspects of the invention may include a system arranged to execute the aforementioned methods and a computer readable program to include a mobile application configured to execute the aforementioned methods. These, additional, and/or other aspects and/or advantages of the embodiments of the present invention are set forth in the detailed description which follows; possibly inferable from the detailed description; and/or learnable by practice of the embodiments of the present invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE SEVERAL VIEWS OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will now be described in the following detailed description of exemplary embodiments of the invention and with reference to the attached drawings, in which dimensions of components and features shown are chosen for convenience and clarity of presentation and are not necessarily shown to scale. Generally, only structures, elements or parts that are germane to the discussion are shown in the figure. FIG. 1 is a scheme describing the system and process in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a flowchart of acts performed in capturing and matching a visual object, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 is a scheme describing a color wheel in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 is a scheme describing a selecting a complementary color in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 is a scheme describing the selection of analogous colors in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 is a scheme describing the selection of triadic colors in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 is a scheme describing the selection of split complementary colors in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 is a scheme describing the selection of tetriadic colors in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. FIG. 9 is a scheme describing the selection of square colors in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. DESCRIPTION OF SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION Provided herein is a detailed description of this invention. It is to be understood, however, that this invention may be embodied in various forms, and that the suggested (or proposed) embodiments are only possible implementations (or examples for a feasible embodiments, or materializations) of this invention. Therefore, specific details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but rather as a basis and/or principle for the claims, and/or as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to employ this invention in virtually any appropriately detailed system, structure or manner. Glossary of Terms To facilitate understanding the present invention, the following glossary of terms is provided. It is to be noted that terms used in the specification but not included in this glossary are considered as defined according the normal usage of the computer science art, or alternatively according to normal dictionary usage. The term “image” as used herein in this application is defined as visual representation that can be presented on two dimensional or three dimensional surfaces. Images can be taken in any part of the electromagnetic spectrum such as visible light, infrared, ultraviolet, X-rays, Terahertz, Microwaves, and Radio frequency waves. The reference images (i.e. color wheel) are stored in an “image database (DB)” on the system server or on the mobile device. The term “photo” as used herein in this application is defined as image in the visible light. The term “GPS” as used herein in this application, is defined as a system based on satellites that allows a user with a receiver to determine precise coordinates for their location on the earth's surface. The term “GPU” as used herein in this application, is defined as an apparatus adapted to reduce the time it takes to produce images on the computer screen by incorporating its own processor and memory, having more than 16 CPU cores, such as GeForce 8800. The term “Keypoint” as used herein in this application, is defined as interest points in an object. For example, in the SIFT framework, the image is convolved with Gaussian filters at different scales, and then the difference of successive Gaussian-blurred images are taken. Keypoints are then taken as maxima/minima of the Difference of Gaussians. Such keypoints can be calculated for the original image or for a transformation of the original image, such as an affine transform of the original images. The term “Keypoint descriptor” as used herein in this application, is defined as a descriptor of a keypoint. For example, in the SIFT framework the feature descriptor is computed as a set of orientation histograms on neighborhoods. The orientation histograms are relative to the keypoint orientation and the orientation data comes from the Gaussian image closest in scale to the keypoint's scale. Just like before, the contribution of each pixel is weighted by the gradient magnitude, and by a Gaussian with a 1.5 times the scale of the keypoint. Histograms contain 8 bins each, and each descriptor contains an array of 4 histograms around the keypoint. This leads to a SIFT feature vector with (4×4×8=128 elements). The term “Visual content item” as used herein in this application, is defined as an object with visual characteristics such as an image file like BMP, JPG, JPEG, GIF, TIFF, PNG files; a screenshot; A video file like AVI, MPG, MPEG, MOV, WMV, FLV files or a one or more frame of a video. The term “visual object” as used herein in this application, is defined as a content that includes visual information such as visual content item, images, photos, videos, IR image, magnified image, an image sequence or TV broadcast. The term “camera” as used herein in this application is defined as means of capturing a visual object. The term “terminal” as used herein in this application is defined as an apparatus adapted to show visual content such as a computer, a laptop computer, mobile phone or a TV. The term “visual similarity” as used herein in this application, is defined as the measure of resemblances between two visual objects that can be comprised of: The fit between their color distributions such as the correlation between their HSV color histograms The fit between their texture The fit between their shapes The correlation between their edge histograms Face similarity Methods that include local descriptors such as Scale-invariant feature transform (SIFT), Affine-SIFT (ASIFT), Speeded Up Robust Feature (SURF), and Multi-Scale Retinex (MSR) The term “Visual analysis” as used herein in this application, is defined as the analysis of the characteristics of visual objects such, as visual similarity, coherence, hierarchical organization, concept load or density, feature extraction and noise removal. The term “Capturing data analysis” as used herein in this application, is defined as the analysis of capturing data such as: X-Y-Z coordinates 3 angles Manufacturer Model Orientation (rotation) top—left Software Date and Time YCbCr Positioning centered Compression x-Resolution y-Resolution Resolution Unit Exposure Time FNumber ExposureProgram Exif Version Date and Time (original) Date and Time (digitized) ComponentsConfiguration Y Cb Cr Compressed Bits per Pixel Exposure Bias MaxApertureValue Metering Mode Pattern Flash fired or not Focal Length MakerNote FlashPixVersion Color Space PixelXDimension PixelYDimension File Source Interoperability Index InteroperabilityVersion Derivates of the above such as acceleration in the X-axis The term “Service location” as used herein in this application, is defined as a physical place where objects can be serviced and/or fixed such as a mobile carrier service center. The term “Location based analysis” as used herein in this application, is defined as analysis of local data such as GPS location, triangulation data, RFID data, and street address. Location data can for example identify the service location or even the specific part of the service location in which the visual object was captured. The term “Color analysis” as used herein in this application, is defined as the combination of visual analysis, capturing data analysis, location based analysis and/or analysis of other data and analysis history to extract a color from a visual object. Color analysis can include the steps of separating the main object from its background, compensating for distortions such as shading and/or flash light, classifying each pixel to a predefined color set and finding the elements of the color set with the highest number of pixels. The term “marketplace” as used herein in this application, is defined as a physical place where objects can be bought such as a bank, a change point, a supermarket, a convenience store and a grocery store. The term “color wheel” as used herein in this application, and is further described in FIG. 3, is defined as an abstract illustrative organization of color hues around a circle that shows relationships between primary colors, secondary colors, complementary colors. In the RYB (or subtractive) color model, the primary colors are red, yellow and blue. The three secondary colors (green, orange and purple) are created by mixing two primary colors. Another six tertiary colors are created by mixing primary and secondary colors. The term “color harmonies” as used herein in this application, is defined as color combinations that are considered especially pleasing. They consist of two or more colors with a fixed relation in the color wheel. The term “color impact” as used herein in this application, is defined as the dynamic creation of a color wheel to match a visual object's Base, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colors. The term “warm colors” as used herein in this application, is defined as vivid and energetic colors. The term “cool colors” as used herein in this application, is defined as colors that give an impression of calm, and create a soothing impression. White, black and gray are considered to be neutral. The term “complementary colors” as used herein in this application, and is further shown on FIG. 4, is defined as colors that are opposite each other on the color wheel. The term “analogous colors” as used herein in this application, and is further shown on FIG. 5, is defined as colors that are next to each other on the color wheel. The term “triadic colors” as used herein in this application, and is further shown on FIG. 6, is defined as colors that are colors that are evenly spaced around the color wheel. The term “split-complementary colors” as used herein in this application, and is further shown on FIG. 7, is defined as set of base color on the color wheel and two colors adjacent to its complementary color. The term “tetradic colors” as used herein in this application, and is further shown on FIG. 8, is defined as four colors arranged into two complementary pairs on the color wheel. The term “square colors” as used herein in this application, and is further shown on FIG. 9, is defined as four colors arranged into two complementary pairs on the color wheel, with all four colors spaced evenly around the color wheel. System for Analyzing Color Images FIG. 1 is a scheme describing the system and process in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. System 100 performs the process described hereinafter: Terminal 101, such as a mobile phone with camera 102 or a computer webcam, captures a visual object 120 representing physical objects such as man with a shirt 124 or an apartment wall 122. The Capturing can be performed in several ways: Taking a photograph Recording a video Continuously capturing an image while local or remote processing provides real time feedback such “color not decided” or “a problem was found”. The continuous capturing can be done while moving the camera such as moving in the directions shown in 103. Said visual object can be captured from a static camera placed in the marketplace or from a camera held by person 112. Person 112 can be a crowd of people that were incentivized to capture the object. Said visual object can be processed locally using terminal 101 or it can be sent to a remote server 108, as further described in step 206 in FIG. 2, over a network 106, such as the internet. Server 108 or device 101 calculates a color feedback 140 that is sent over the internet or created locally. Feedback 140 shows: Main colors found 141 on the visual object using steps 204 to 207 as further described in FIG. 2. An option to select further images of the image DB, as further described in step 201 in FIG. 2, according to different color harmonies using one or more of the main colors found: Complementary colors 142 for color harmony further described in FIG. 4; Analogous colors 144 for color harmony further described in FIG. 5; Triadic colors 146 for color harmony further described in FIG. 6; Split-complementary colors 148 for color harmony further described in FIG. 7; Tetradic colors 150 for color harmony further described in FIG. 8; and, Square colors 152 for color harmony further described in FIG. 9. An example would be that a person takes a photo of green wall using a mobile device camera 102 or computer webcam, in which green is found as the main color. The user selects complementary colors 142 and wall art having red as its main color is presented for the user to choose. One or more of the matching wall art can later be presented on the terminal display 101 to demonstrate the results to the user comprising red art on the green wall. Method of Capturing and Matching a Visual Object's Colors FIG. 2 is a flowchart of acts performed in capturing and matching a visual object, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. The flowchart describes a process and system 200 to capture and match visual objects. An image database (DB) is loaded 201, including photos of a plurality of visual objects from one or more sides. For example, a database of shirts and their main colors are extracted using color analysis techniques of the present invention. Visual object representative 120 is then captured 202 using a mobile device camera 102 or computer webcam. The captured object is optionally analyzed 204 locally, as further described in step 207, to get a match using color or color harmonics analysis or to reduce the size of the data to be sent to remote or local servers in step 206. Optionally the image itself or a processed part of it is sent 206 to a remote server 108 or locally processed on a server at device 101. The server performs color analysis 207 to generate color feedback 140. Such analysis uses the visual object and optionally other data, such as GPS data, the history of the sender, history of similar types of visual objects, and predefined categories. Main colors found in the visual object are displayed on color feedback 140. In case the user manually selects harmonics 208, then the main colors found in steps 204-207 are used to find images in the Image DB 210 that fit the relevant harmonics (i.e. complementary, analogous, triadic, split-complementary, tetradic, or square color matches). In case user does not manually select harmonics, a sample from each harmonic is displayed to the user, and then he/she chooses the harmonic he/she prefers. Feedback disclosing results of the harmonic colors that match the visual object of interest is then displayed in step 212 using device such as 101. The feedback report 140 may comprise various forms. For example, the harmonic color(s) may be displayed on top of the original image captured in step 202. Optionally, further commercial ads are displayed in step 212 on device 101 in addition to the color match. Optionally a straight forward search of an object of the same color and/or tone is performed and displayed as well. FIG. 3 is a scheme describing a color wheel in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Color wheel 300 is comprised of 12 colors 302-324. The color wheel can further include more colors to create a continuum of hues between every pair of hues. The wheel is further divided by imaginary line 330 into warm colors 340 and cool colors 350. FIG. 4 is a scheme describing selecting a complementary color 142 in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. Using color wheel 300, which is comprised of 12 colors 302-324, as described in FIG. 3. The color red 302 is the base color; hence the color green 314, that is the opposite color on the color wheel, is selected as the complementary color. FIG. 5 is a scheme describing the selection of analogous colors 144 in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Using color wheel 300, which is comprised of 12 colors 302-324, as described in FIG. 3. The color red 302 is the base color; hence colors red-orange 304 and red-violet 324, which are next to it on the color wheel, are selected as analogous colors. FIG. 6 is a scheme describing the selection of triadic colors 146 in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Using color wheel 300, which is comprised of 12 colors 302-324, as described in FIG. 3. The color green 314 is the base color; hence colors orange 306 and violet 322, which evenly spaced from it on the color wheel, are selected as the triadic colors. FIG. 7 is a scheme describing the selection of split complementary colors 148 in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Using color wheel 300, which is comprised of 12 colors 302-324, as described in FIG. 3. The color green 314 is the base color; the color red 302 is its complementary color; hence colors red-orange 304 and red-violet 324, which are adjacent to 302 on the color wheel, are selected as the complementary colors. FIG. 8 is a scheme describing the selection of tetradic colors 150 in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Using color wheel 300, which is comprised of 12 colors 302-324, as described in FIG. 3. The color red 302 is the base color; the color orange 306 is 90 degrees right to it on the color wheel and is selected as the second color of the tetradic; the color green 314 is 90 degrees to 306 and is selected as the third color, and finally the color blue 318 is 90 degrees to 314 and is selected as the fourth color of the tetradic. FIG. 9 is a scheme describing the selection of square colors 152 in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the invention. Using color wheel 300, which is comprised of 12 colors 302-324, as described in FIG. 3. The color red 302 is the base color; the colors yellow-orange 308, green 314, and blue-violet 320 are selected such as to create a perfect square on the color wheel with its colors spaced evenly on the color wheel. Mobile Application The present invention further comprises a software application loaded onto the User's terminal 101 (e.g. a mobile communications device, such as a smartphone) configured to communicate with the system server 108, such as over a wireless communications network. The application may be native or web based. The User's device enables the User to instantly transmit an image or a visual descriptor of the visual object 120 to the system server 108, and to receive notifications from the system server 108 with the identified colors of the image analysis. The terminal 101 of the present invention may further comprise image capture and processing modules that enable the User to locally analyze the image and view the identified colors without having to electronically communicate with the system server 108. Computer Program As will be appreciated by one skilled in the art, aspects of the present invention may be embodied as a system, method or computer program product. Accordingly, aspects of the present invention may take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment (including firmware, resident software, micro-code, etc.) or an embodiment combining software and hardware aspects that may all generally be referred to herein as a “circuit,” “module” or “system”. Furthermore, aspects of the present invention may take the form of a computer program product embodied in one or more computer readable medium(s) having computer readable program code embodied thereon. Any combination of one or more computer readable medium(s) may be utilized. The computer readable medium may be a computer readable signal medium or a computer readable storage medium. A computer readable storage medium may be, for example, but not limited to, an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, or semiconductor system, apparatus, or device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. More specific examples (a non-exhaustive list) of the computer readable storage medium would include the following: an electrical connection having one or more wires, a portable computer diskette, a hard disk, a random access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM or Flash memory), an optical fiber, a portable compact disc read-only memory (CD-ROM), an optical storage device, a magnetic storage device, or any suitable combination of the foregoing. In the context of this document, a computer readable storage medium may be any tangible medium that can contain, or store a program for use by or in connection with an instruction execution system, apparatus, or device. Program code embodied on a computer readable medium may be transmitted using any appropriate medium, including but not limited to wireless, wire line, optical fiber cable, RF, etc., or any suitable combination of the foregoing. Computer program code for carrying out operations for aspects of the present invention may be written in any combination of one or more programming languages, including an object oriented programming language such as Java, Smalltalk, C++ or the like and conventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language or similar programming languages. The program code may execute entirely on the user's computer, partly on the user's computer, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may be connected to the user's computer through any type of network, including a local area network (LAN) or a wide area network (WAN), or the connection may be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). Aspects of the present invention are described above with reference to flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams of methods, apparatus (systems) and computer program products according to embodiments of the invention. It will be understood that each block of the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations and/or block diagrams, can be implemented by computer program instructions. These computer program instructions may be provided to a processor of a general purpose computer, special purpose computer, or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the computer or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. These computer program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable medium that can direct a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to function in a particular manner, such that the instructions stored in the computer readable medium produce an article of manufacture including instructions which implement the function/act specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. The computer program instructions may also be loaded onto a computer, other programmable data processing apparatus, or other devices to cause a series of operational steps to be performed on the computer, other programmable apparatus or other devices to produce a computer implemented process such that the instructions which execute on the computer or other programmable apparatus provide processes for implementing the functions/acts specified in the flowchart and/or block diagram block or blocks. The aforementioned flowchart and diagrams illustrate the architecture, functionality, and operation of possible implementations of systems, methods and computer program products according to various embodiments of the present invention. In this regard, each block in the flowchart or block diagrams may represent a module, segment, or portion of code, which comprises one or more executable instructions for implementing the specified logical function(s). It should also be noted that, in some alternative implementations, the functions noted in the block may occur out of the order noted in the figures. For example, two blocks shown in succession may, in fact, be executed substantially concurrently, or the blocks may sometimes be executed in the reverse order, depending upon the functionality involved. It will also be noted that each block of the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, and combinations of blocks in the block diagrams and/or flowchart illustration, can be implemented by special purpose hardware-based systems that perform the specified functions or acts, or combinations of special purpose hardware and computer instructions. In the above description, an embodiment is an example or implementation of the inventions. The various appearances of “one embodiment,” “an embodiment” or “some embodiments” do not necessarily all refer to the same embodiments. Although various features of the invention may be described in the context of a single embodiment, the features may also be provided separately or in any suitable combination. Conversely, although the invention may be described herein in the context of separate embodiments for clarity, the invention may also be implemented in a single embodiment. Reference in the specification to “some embodiments”, “an embodiment”, “one embodiment” or “other embodiments” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiments is included in at least some embodiments, but not necessarily all embodiments, of the inventions. It is to be understood that the phraseology and terminology employed herein is not to be construed as limiting and are for descriptive purpose only. It is to be understood that the details set forth herein do not construe a limitation to an application of the invention. Furthermore, it is to be understood that the invention can be carried out or practiced in various ways and that the invention can be implemented in embodiments other than the ones outlined in the description above. It is to be understood that the terms “including”, “comprising”, “consisting” and grammatical variants thereof do not preclude the addition of one or more components, features, steps, or integers or groups thereof and that the terms are to be construed as specifying components, features, steps or integers. If the specification or claims refer to “an additional” element, that does not preclude there being more than one of the additional element. It is to be understood that where the claims or specification refer to “a” or “an” element, such reference is not be construed that there is only one of that element. It is to be understood that where the specification states that a component, feature, structure, or characteristic “may”, “might”, “can” or “could” be included, that particular component, feature, structure, or characteristic is not required to be included. Where applicable, although state diagrams, flow diagrams or both may be used to describe embodiments, the invention is not limited to those diagrams or to the corresponding descriptions. For example, flow need not move through each illustrated box or state, or in exactly the same order as illustrated and described. Methods of the present invention may be implemented by performing or completing manually, automatically, or a combination thereof, selected steps or tasks. The descriptions, examples, methods and materials presented in the claims and the specification are not to be construed as limiting but rather as illustrative only. Meanings of technical and scientific terms used herein are to be commonly understood as by one of ordinary skill in the art to which the invention belongs, unless otherwise defined. The present invention may be implemented in the testing or practice with methods and materials equivalent or similar to those described herein. Any publications, including patents, patent applications and articles, referenced or mentioned in this specification are herein incorporated in their entirety into the specification, to the same extent as if each individual publication was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated herein. In addition, citation or identification of any reference in the description of some embodiments of the invention shall not be construed as an admission that such reference is available as prior art to the present invention. While the invention has been described with respect to a limited number of embodiments, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention, but rather as exemplifications of some of the preferred embodiments. Other possible variations, modifications, and applications are also within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the scope of the invention should not be limited by what has thus far been described, but by the appended claims and their legal equivalents. | <SOH> FIELD AND BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention comprises a computer implemented method, system and computer program product for identifying matching colors of a visual object captured in a digital image on a mobile device, such as with a mobile phone camera or a laptop webcam. The visual object is compared to a reference object that the mobile device user or another entity has previously captured, analyzed for color content, and stored on a system database. The user can then be provided a display on their mobile identifying the primary colors in the visual object, and other colors that would coordinate with the object for a “color match”, such as analogous, triadic, tetradic, square, complementary, and split-complementary colors. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the user captures an image on their mobile device of a reference object (i.e. furniture, clothing, wall paint, etc. . . . ) that they wish to color coordinate with a similar object (i.e. pillows for furniture, shoes for clothing, wall paper for wall paint, etc. . . . ). The system and software will conduct a color analysis, which will identify its Main Colors (i.e., Base, Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Colors), of the reference object and optionally create a color harmonics of it. The system will query image database, then return and display matching color combinations and/or harmonics (such as analogous, triadic, tetradic, square, complementary, and split-complementary colors) based on the query, on the user's mobile device. The computer implemented method as conducted by the software of the present invention comprise the steps of: 1) capturing an image on a terminal device, wherein the image are associated with a visual object; 2) conducting a color analysis, i.e. determining the Main Colors, on the reference image and optionally constructing a color wheel based on the analysis; 3) Querying an Image Database against the color analysis using one or more harmonics, wherein the user may manually select a particular type of harmonic; and, 4) electronically transmitting and displaying results to the terminal based on the image color analysis, e.g. Main Colors; wherein the results comprise all harmonics if the user did not select the particular type of harmonic in step (3). The present invention uses various image enhancing and processing algorithms and techniques to detect and analyze the different color hues in a digital image, such as, HSV (Hue, Saturation, Value) color histograms, RGB color histograms, CYMK color histograms, and multi-space color clustering. The color analysis may also comprise, separating the object from its background, compensating for distortions such as shading and/or flash light, classifying each pixel to a predefined color set and finding the elements of the color set with the highest number of pixels. Other aspects of the invention may include a system arranged to execute the aforementioned methods and a computer readable program to include a mobile application configured to execute the aforementioned methods. These, additional, and/or other aspects and/or advantages of the embodiments of the present invention are set forth in the detailed description which follows; possibly inferable from the detailed description; and/or learnable by practice of the embodiments of the present invention. | G06T790 | 20170717 | 20171102 | 95814.0 | G06T790 | 1 | BAYAT, ALI | SYSTEM AND PROCESS FOR AUTOMATICALLY FINDING OBJECTS OF A SPECIFIC COLOR | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06T | 2,017 |
|
15,651,650 | PENDING | Stanchion or Post with a Spring-Loaded Assembly | A socket mounted post system including a post with a hollow base portion attached to a spring mechanism. The spring mechanism includes a pillar, the pillar having a finger extending from the hollow base portion. The finger is engageable with a socket that is mountable in a floor. The spring mechanism allows the post to flex angularly relative to a vertical orientation of the post. | 1. A floor mountable flexible stanchion post assembly comprising: a post having a top, a base, and a hollow post portion; a spring mechanism positioned within the hollow post portion of the post, said spring mechanism comprising: a rigid securing element; a cap element affixed to the rigid securing element; a flange element coupled with a wall of the post, wherein the rigid securing element engages the flange element; a spring element engaging the rigid securing element wherein the spring element interacts with the rigid securing element, the cap, and the flange element providing for the hollow post to angularly flex relative to a vertical orientation of a post; and a finger portion contiguous with the rigid securing element extending beyond the base of the post, the finger is engaged with a socket mountable in a floor. 2. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 1, wherein the spring element comprising a plurality of springs. 3. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 1, wherein the spring mechanism includes a helical spring. 4. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 3, wherein the helical spring encompasses the rigid securing element and counteracts a force placed upon the post. 5. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 1, wherein the spring selected from the group consisting of a tension spring, a rubber spring or a torsional spring. 6. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 1, wherein the spring mechanism permits no more than 10 degrees of angular movement of the post from the vertical position. 7. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 1, wherein the finger contains a thread that is engageable with a thread in the socket. 8. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 7, further comprising a restriction device that permits 350 degrees negative rotation of the post when the finger is fully threaded into the socket without any effect on the threads in the socket. 9. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 8, wherein the restriction device comprises a first lock member positioned on the flange element and a second lock member secured to the rigid securing element, and one of said lock members impedes rotational movement of the rigid pillar. 10. A floor mountable flexible stanchion assembly comprising: a post member having a top and base portion, the post including a hollow portion; a spring mechanism positioned within the hollow portion of the post, said spring member comprising: a cup assembly meshing with the hollow portion of the post and positioned within the hollow portion of the post; a flange coupled to the cup assembly within the cup assembly; a pillar wherein the pillar is positioned within the cup assembly, and the pillar includes a finger element; a cap element continuous with the pillar; a spring engaged with the pillar between the disc and cap element, wherein the spring mechanism operates with the pillar and the flange to limit movement of the post from the vertical position; and the finger element removeably engageable with a socket member such that the post may be positioned in a vertical position relative to the floor. 11. The stanchion assembly of claim 10, further comprising a restriction device permitting up to 360° degrees independent negative rotation of the post when the finger is engaged in the socket. 12. The stanchion assembly of claim 10 wherein the spring is a helical spring surrounding the pillar wherein the pillar is a rigid structure. 13. The stanchion assembly of claim 12, wherein the helical spring counteracts movement of the post by applying a force upon the cap or disc. 14. The stanchion assembly of claim 13, wherein the spring mechanism permits no more than 10 degrees of angular movement of the post from the vertical position. 15. The stanchion assembly of claim 10, wherein the post includes a latch mechanism which supports a sign. 16. A floor mountable post assembly comprising: a post having a top and a hollow base portion; a spring mechanism engaged with the hollow base portion of the post, the spring mechanism having a rigid securing element and a spring wherein the rigid securing element and spring interact with the post such that the spring mechanism provides for the hollow post to angularly flex relative to a vertical orientation of the post; and a support element extending through the base to engage a socket mounted in the floor. 17. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 16, wherein the securing element is a hex bolt. 18. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 16, wherein the spring mechanism permits no more than 10 degrees of angular movement of the post from the vertical position. 19. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 16, wherein the post includes a mounting element supporting one of the groups comprising of a sign, a television, a video display or computer monitor. 20. The floor mountable post assembly of claim 16, wherein the post includes a cap comprising a retractable belt wherein a coupling is mounted on the cap. | This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/749,906, filed on Jun. 25, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,719,272, issued on Aug. 1, 2017, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/706,621, filed on May 7, 2015, now abandoned and claims priority to such applications. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a socket mounted post system. More specifically, the present invention is a crowd control stanchion including a spring mechanism and a miniature socket mounted post that provides for easy installation in a floor with minimal impact to the surface of the floors. The post could alternatively be used in connection with panels, railings, signage, bollards or other types of posts. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION A stanchion is a sturdy upright post that provides support for belt, rope, chain or cord that is often used for crowd control or engineering the flow of people. A stanchion system utilizes the upright post which may include a rope support at the top of the post; or, alternatively, it may include a retractable belt. The ropes, chains or retractable belts may be linked together at the stanchions to form a crowd control or crowd flow system. These crowd flow systems are called a queue or a maze. The stanchions are often not intended to be a permanent fixture, so that the post may be expediently implemented or removed, as desired. The stanchion and rope system are typically implemented to form a queue or maze for people to move through. Typically, the post of a stanchion is typically mounted on a weighted base. There are several problems with a post that is mounted on a weighted base. First, the base causing people to trip on the base. Second, the weighted base is movable. If bumped, the base along with the ropes or belts will move causing the queue to become misaligned. Movement of the post interferes with the movement of traffic through the queue. Third, the base takes up valuable floor space and often interferes with movement of carts or language through the queue. The standard base for a stanchion post has a footprint of almost one square foot which is not desirable in space—constrained areas. When several stanchions are employed, the amount of floor space dedicated to the numerous bases becomes quite significant. Fourth, the base is not aesthetically pleasing and may be considered unacceptable given the aesthetic desire of customers. The design of the weighed bases may not be preferred by the owner of the venue implementing the queue. Fifth, the post, along with the base, may be knocked over because the base is not securely mounted to the floor. Finally, since the base and post are not secured to the floor, the base and post may be picked up by a patron and used as a weapon. This is undesirable in any public forum. A typical prior art weighted base stanchion is shown in FIGS. 1(a) and 1(b). Alternatively, the post of the stanchion may be easily removably mounted into the floor of the facility implementing the queue or maze. The floor mounted posts are commonly implemented in applications where the flow of traffic is steady or constant or where portability of the stanchions becomes impractical. The floor mounted solution is not without its own set of problems. For example, the stanchion posts must be mounted into holes in the floor of the venue which are either pre-formed or drilled into the floor after construction. The floor mounted system is not flexible or moveable. The posts can only be positioned within the pre-formed holes within a venue. Worse, the hole depth must be 6 inches or more in order to accommodate the post; and the diameter of the hole is typically 2 to 3 inches or more. The posts are also easily removable and can be used as a weapon by a customer standing in the queue. Finally, in the floor mounted system, the posts are not flexible. The post does not absorb any impact should a person run into a post, or if a piece of luggage or cart is run into a post. Another problem with the easily removeable stanchion post is that when the post is removed, there is a 3 inch diameter by 6 inch deep hole left in the floor. What is desired, therefore, is a post which may be semi-permanently mounted within the floor of a venue without having to install the standard 3 inch by 6 inch hole deep into the floor. There is also a need for a flexible mounting system between the post and the floor which permits the post to absorb impact to the post. It is, thus, desirable to have a semi-permanent post that has minimal impact on the existing flooring of a venue. Providing a post that is easy to install and that has the ability to flex once installed into the floor is highly desirable. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, one of the objects of the invention is to provide a post that does not have a weighted base which provides a cleaner aesthetic and further provides maximum floor space. A further object of the invention is to eliminate a weighted base from the post to prevent luggage from rolling over the base and moving the post from its desired position. Another object of the present invention is to provide a semi-permanent securing mechanism to affix the post to the ground which prevents the post from shifting or moving from its desired position in securing the queue or maze and thus causing disorder in the queue lines. An alternative embodiment of the present invention is to implement a threaded member in the post such that the threaded member engages with threads with the floor to prevent unwanted removal of the post, yet are easily removable for cleaning, re-routing or other reasons for moving the post. An object of the present invention provides for a spring mechanism that is attached to or included as part of the post to permit the post to move from its vertical position when the post is secured to the mount in the floor. The movement may be any amount, but in situations where there may be an abundance of people, the post may move from the vertical position. The flexibility of the spring mechanism absorbs any impact forces impaired upon the post which can cause an anchor or threaded member to fail. A further object of the present invention is the use of two interfering tabs which allow for approximately 350 degree adjustment, yet ensure the tension in the spring and securement into the socket to remain intact. This is important for queue posts because the belts must align in some undetermined direction for each layout. The belts may be aligned upon installation of the post, and may be easily rotated to change the configuration of the queue. Since there is expected movement in the post from the flex and rotational adjustment the edge of the metal posts can cause damage to floors over time. With the addition of a thick nylon wear disc or other protective cap, the floor is protected and all friction from the movement is removed allowing for a softer and smoother functioning unit. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIGS. 1(a) and 1(b) are perspective views of the prior art stanchions; FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the stanchion system of the present invention implemented to form a queue; FIG. 3(a) is a side view of the spring loaded post mounted in the socket in the flooring; FIG. 3(b) is a side view of the spring loaded post mounted in the socket in the floor at a 10° tilt; FIG. 4(a) is a perspective view of the floor socket; FIG. 4(b) is a cross-section of the floor socket; FIG. 5 is a perspective view of the spring loaded base assembly of an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6(a) is a cross section view of a spring loaded base assembly of an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 6(b) is a bottom view of a spring loaded base assembly; FIG. 7(a) is a perspective view of an alternative mini socket with a flange and cap; and FIG. 7(b) is a cross-section of an alternative floor socket with a flange and cap having a threaded groove. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION FIGS. 1(a) and 1(b) depict the prior art stanchion post designs. In FIG. 1(a), a prior art stanchion post 10 has a top portion 12 that may include a retractable belt 34 or alternatively a standard velvet rope with hook (not shown) or a sign (not shown). The post 14 is typically of cylindrical shape, but could be any shape. The bottom portion of the post 14 includes an insert portion 50 that is approximately 3 inches in diameter and 6 inches in depth. The insert portion 50 is placed into a hole 60 in the floor 20 that is approximately 3 inches in diameter and 6 inches deep. The removable base requires a workable area of 3 inch diameter by 6 inch deep floor. The large hole poses a problem in airports or other large venues since those venues typically have thin decking that contains reinforcing members, electrical conduit, and plumbing on other items running below the surface of the floor. If the removeably mounted post option is even feasible after initial construction, contractors must carefully x-ray the floor to determine what structural supports or utilities may be located in the floor. Often the posts must be re-adjusted accordingly to the location of the utilities. If the sockets are set in the floor during initial construction, the configuration of the queue must be known at the time of construction. It is very difficult to change the configuration of the queue, once the socket is permanently mounted in the flooring. The larger sockets have at least a 3 inch diameter raised flange which is unsightly and becomes a potential tripping hazard. Often times building owners will want the holes for the stanchions to be removed and the floors repaired, thus, adding more cost to the system. The prior art stanchion 10 has no method of securing the insert portion 50 of the post 14 to the hole 60. There is a simple slip-fit of the insert portion 50 into the top 62 of the floor hole 60. The posts can easily be removed by unauthorized individuals. There have been times where posts have been used as weapons. The prior art systems are more prone to that risk. A cap 64 may be placed in the top 62 of the hole 60. A second prior art embodiment is shown in FIG. 1(b). The prior art stanchion 10 is shown with a removable, weighted base 22 that was positioned on the floor 20. The top 12 of the post 14 may have a retractable belt member 30 that houses a retractable belt 34. The retractable belt member 30 is typically mounted at the top portion 12 of the stanchion 10 or may be inserted within the top portion 12 of the post 14. The retractable belt member 30 has a retractable belt 34 which includes a coupling 33. The retractable belt member 30 also has a receiving coupling 32 that mates with a coupling 33 of the retractable belt 34. A problem with the prior art stanchion 10 of FIG. 1(b) is that the weighted base 22 may move on the floor 20. Additionally, customers may trip on the weighted based 22 of the stanchion 10. FIG. 2 depicts the flexible stanchion 110 of the present invention forming a queue or a maze. The flexible stanchions 110 are mounted in the floor 120 at a predetermined distance from one another. The top 112 of the stanchion includes a retractable belt member 130. The retractable belt member 130 may have a retractable belt 134 that is 10 feet, 15 feet or 30 feet in length depending on the application. The coupling 33 of the retractable belt 134 may be coupled to the coupling 32 located on the retractable belt member 130. The retractable belts 134 are connected in such a fashion to form a queue. FIGS. 3(a) and 3(b) depict the flexible stanchion 110 of the present invention. The flexible stanchion 110 includes a post 114 with a top portion 112 and bottom portion 116. On the top portion 112 of the post 114 may include a retractable belt cap 130. The retractable belt cap 130 includes at least one belt 134 which is used to form a queue line. The belt 134 may be retractable into the belt cap 130. The belt 134 further has a coupling 133 at one end. The coupling of the belt 133 may be affixed to a receptacle portion 132 (or coupling) of the top portion 130 of a flexible stanchion 110. The retractable belt cap 130 is sold under the Retracta Belt® trade name. While the preferred embodiment may include a retractable belt, other types of features may be mounted to the post 114. For example, the post 114 could accommodate a standard velvet rope and classic latch mechanism. The post 114 could also accommodate either sign frame or engraved color sign, alone or in combination with the retractable belt cap 130. The system of the invention may be used for any post system such as sign posts, TV stands, airports mount TV's to show flight information, railing systems, panel systems, banner systems, any type of barrier. The description in the preferred embodiment focuses on stanchion posts. However, it is important to recognize that, while the detailed description focuses on stanchion posts, the invention may apply to any type of post. The lower portion of the post 114 includes a spring assembly 300 and base cap 140. The spring assembly is described in more detail below with respect to FIGS. 5 and 6. The base cap 140 can be made of any rigid or semi-rigid material, but preferably is manufactured from a nylon disk. The nylon disk prevents the post from scratching the floor 120 upon installation. The base cap 140 could also include some type of non-scratch surface coating to prevent the disc from marking the floor 120. The flexible stanchion 110 may be mounted in a wide range of floor 120 materials. As shown in FIG. 3(b), the flexible stanchion 110 includes a pillar 150 that protrudes from the base cap 140. The pillar 150 is inserted into a socket 160 installed in the floor 120. The pillar 150 will be described in more detail later. Referring now to FIG. 3(b), the pillar 150 is part of a spring mechanism 300 that permits the post 110 to move a predetermined amount from its vertical position 180 in order to absorb accidental impact caused by pedestrians or luggage. The preferred angular travel 190 of the post 114 from its vertical position is no more than 10 degrees from the vertical position 180. It must be noted that the degree of travel 170 of the post 114 is not necessarily limited to 10 degrees from the vertical position. The degree of travel could, for example, be up to 90 degrees from the vertical position 180 such that the post 114 is essentially parallel with the floor 120. The reason it may be advantageous for the post 114 to travel only 10 degrees from is to prevent accidental rebound of the post 114 to the vertical position 180. The flexibility in the post 114 prevents the accidental fracture of the pillar 150 from spring mechanism of the post 114. The post 114 is typically between 40 inches to 72 inches in height. Because of the height of the post 114, accidental contact with the flexible stanchion 110, may cause exceedingly high force to be placed on the pillar 150. The pillar 150 has a smaller diameter than the post 114. As such, the force placed upon the pillar 150 can overcome the shear strength of the pillar 150 material causing the pillar 150 to structurally fail. In some instances, any more than 10 degrees of travel may cause the post 114 to snap back to the vertical position 170 and injure a person. FIGS. 4(a) and 4(b) depict an embodiment of the floor socket 200 of the present invention. In FIG. 4(a), the floor socket 200 generally is a cylindrical shaped insert having an outer wall 202 and an inner wall 204. The floor socket 200 is typically made of a stainless steel but could be made of any suitable material including brass, steel and possibly rubber, PVC or HDPE. The preferred size of the floor socket is ⅞ inch in diameter by 1⅞ inch depth. The outer wall 202 of the floor socket 200 may have a diamond knurl 205 design. Alternatively, the floor socket 200 may have a beveled design in the outer wall 202. The purpose of having a design in the outer wall 202 of the floor socket 200 is to permit a frictional fit between the socket 200 and the cavity drilled into floor 120 to receive the socket 200. Alternatively, the diamond kurl 205 and beveled design permit a better bond between the socket 200 and the cavity 170 if an adhesive is used. The socket 200 may be up to 4 inches in depth. The benefit of having a socket approximately 2 inches to 4 inches in depth is that there is less chance of contacting decking rebars, electrical supply lines, plumbing or other utilities running below the surface of the floor. The floor socket 200 is typically installed into a preexisting floor 120. A hole is drilled into the pre-existing floor that is slightly larger size of the floor socket 200. In an alternative embodiment, the floor socket 200 may be coated with an adhesive and inserted into the hole in the floor such that the top surface of the socket 200 is flush with the surface of the floor 120. The installation may take as little as 10 minutes per hole, whereas the installation of the standard removable base designs of the prior art would take more than 60 minutes per hole to install. Installation of the socket includes the following steps: Lay out socket locations, spacing the centerlines at least 6″ less than belt length (ex: 9′6″ or less with 10′belt); Drill ¾″ hole approximately 2″ deep. A core drill mounted in a stand gives the straightest hole and the cleanest edges for a flush mount socket; Clean out and dry hole 170; Inject epoxy into bottom and sides of hole 170; Insert socket 200 flush with floor (tap with hammer if required); and Wait for epoxy to cure before installing posts 110. Alternatively, socket 200 designs may include: 1) Tapered drive pin which would flare out the bottom of the socket 200 when hammered into a hole in the floor; 2) Threaded screw that drives into a tapered hole, thus spreading the bottom of the socket; and 3) Outside slip collar. Often queue layouts may change over time. Additionally, a vendor may prefer to have more than one queue design installed in an existing space. The smaller diameter hole is less intrusive in those scenarios where the queue layouts may change. Even after the installation of the floor socket is complete, it is still easy to modify a layout. The ⅞ inch socket 200 mounts nearly flush to the ground. The socket 200 may include threads 208 to receive either a pillar 150 that has corresponding threads or a socket cap (FIG. 7(a)). The socket 200 does not have to incorporate threads 208 on the interior wall. The floor socket 200 may have a threaded 208 inside wall to receive a thread bolt on the interior wall of the floor socket 200. The floor socket 200 is unobtrusive and can be left in the ground without further floor repairs. The larger sockets have a 3 inch diameter raised flange which is unsightly and becomes a potential tripping hazard. Often times, building owners will want these to be removed and the floors repaired, adding more cost to the system. FIGS. 5 and 6 shows the spring-loaded assembly 300 of the preferred embodiment of invention. The spring-loaded assembly 300 may be positioned within the hollow post 114 of the stanchion 110 described in FIGS. 2 and 3. Alternatively, it may be attached to the bottom of the post 114 as an attachment to preexisting post. The preferred embodiment of spring-loaded assembly 300 comprises a hex bolt 302 having threads 303 that supports one or more washers 304. The fully hex bolt 302 has a hexagonal head 301. The fully hex bolt 302 is preferably a ⅝-11×3½ inch threaded bolt. The spring-loaded assembly 300 may include a hollow tube 306 positioned below the 2 inch steel washers 304 on the threads 303 of the hex bolt 302, but it is not necessary. The tubing 306 made of polyethylene but could be made out of any suitable material, such as metal, rubber or the like. Situated outside the tubing 306 is a spring 308. The spring 308 is preferably a compression spring (0.195 wire, 1.5 freeL, 0.945 solid L). The compression may be preloaded 5.5 turns to a set height of 1.0 inches 309. The compression spring 308 is a helical spring member in the preferred embodiment. While a helical spring is described here, there are other types of springs that may be used with this invention. For example, the spring 308 could alternatively be a tension spring, a leaf spring, or torsional spring that creates a tension on the hex bolt 302 to provide angular movement of the post 314 from the vertical position 180. The important feature of the spring 308 is that it places sufficient tension on the post to permit the post 314 to move from the vertical position 180 but limits the range of movement of the post 314. In the current invention, when a force is placed against the post 314, the hex bolt 302 does not move. Instead, one side of the spring 308 is compressed while the opposing side of the spring 308 is expanded. Thus, the post 314 may move from its vertical position until either the spring 308 reaches the maximum compression force rated for a particular spring 308, or the washers 304 contact the inside portion of the cup member 310 or the post 314. In either event, the distance the post may move from its vertical position is limited by the spring assembly 300. There are embodiments of the current invention that do not require a spring 308. For example, a rubber block may be used in place of a compression spring to add flexibility to the post 114. Also, a series of belleville washers may be utilized in place of a spring 308. The spring may be tensioned to constrain movement of the post 114 to no more than 10 degrees from the vertical position 180. However, the reason for a limitation of movement to no more than 10 degrees from vertical is to prevent accidental snap-back of the post. That is not a requirement of all applications. In fact, in some instances, it may be desirable that the post 114 extend to a substantially parallel position with respect to the floor. The preferred method of assembly of the spring loaded assembly 300 comprises the steps of selecting the hex bolt 302 and one or more washers onto the hex bolt 302. Next, a washer is made of a thermoplastic material, such as delrin, is placed on the hex bolt 302. A tube 306 surrounded by the helical spring 308 are positioned on the hex bolt 302. A second thermoplastic washer 390 is placed on the hex bolt 302 as the hex bolt 302 is inserted through a hole 341 in the disc member 340. A nylon lock nut 320 has a pin, tab or set screw 322. The nylon lock nut 320 is tightened until the spring 308 becomes loaded. In the preferred embodiment, a force is applied to the spring 308 by the nylon lock nut 320 at which time the lock nut 320 is turned 5½ turns. At this point, the disc 340 is installed on the shaft such that approximately two to four inches of the hex bolt 302 extends beyond the disc 340. The cup member 310 is mounted to the bottom portion of the post 314. Alternatively, the cup member 310 could be inserted inside a hollow end of the bottom portion of the post 314 and secured to the post 314. Finally, the cup member 310 could be eliminated completely, and the spring would be affixed to the inside wall of the post 314. The spring-loaded assembly 300 includes a cup member 310. The cup member 310 is a cylindrical hollow H-cup having a flange 312 including a centered hole 311 to receive the threaded hex bolt 302. The flange 312 receives at least a portion of the threaded hex bolt 302, the washers 304 and the compression spring 308. The flange 312 of the cup member 310 has a hole to receive a space screw 324. Alternatively, the flange 312 could be fixed directly to the inside wall of the post 314. Positioned below the flange portion 312 of the cup member 310 and adjustably affixed to the hex bolt 302 is a nylon lock nut 320. The nylon lock nut 320 includes a hole for receiving a space screw 322 with lock washers. The set screw 322 may be tightened to secure the nylon lock nut 320 to the threaded hex bolt 302. The set screw 322 in the locknut 320 and the set screw 324 in the flange 312 provide for a 350 degree rotation of the post 314 upon installation of the post into the floor 340. The set screws 322 and 324 are positioned such that the two set screws 322 and 324 interfere with the rotational movement of the post 314 and hex bolt 302 upon installation of the post 314. As the finger portion 350 is threaded into the threads 208 of the socket 200, the friction between the threads on the finger portion 350 and the threads 208 of the socket 200 cause the hex bolt 302 to rotate with the set screw 322 until the set screw 322 contacts the second set screw 324. The contact between the set screws 324 and 322 causes the hex bolt 302 to rotate with the post 314, such that the finger 350 is threaded into the socket 200. Once the disc 340 contacts the floor 340, the post 314 will cease rotation due to contact between the set screws 322 and 324. Rotation of the post 314 can then be reversed to back out from the pillar socket 200 up to a 350 degree rotation at which point the set screws 322 and 324 again contact each other. The 350 degree of rotation is important because it permits the cap 130 of the post 110 to be aligned with the cap 130 of another post. The coupling 132 of one post 110 may be aligned with coupling 133 and retractable belt 134 of a second post 110 to form a queue as shown in FIG. 2. While the preferred embodiment uses set screws 324 and 322; tab, pins, notches or the like could be used in place of the set screws 322 and 324. There is a base disc 340 that has a hole with threads 341. The disc 340 is threaded onto the threads 303 of the hex bolt. The base cap 340 serves two purposes: (1) it prevents the cup member 310 and post 314 from scratching the floor 120 and (2) it protects the inner elements of the spring-loaded assembly 300. There is a portion of the bottom of the threaded hex bolt 302 that extends beyond the disc 340. The finger 350 may be threaded 330 as shown in FIGS. 5 and 6. Alternatively, the finger 350 may not have threads. The threaded portion of the finger 350 mate with the threaded inside portion 208 of the socket 200 such that the finger 350 may be securely fastened 350 to the socket 200 by rotating the post 114 such that the bottom disc 341 meets the floor 120. The spring-loaded assembly 300 permits the post 314 to lean approximately 10° from the vertical position 180. The spring-loaded assembly 300 permits movement of the post 314 in order to absorb impact from contact with the post 314 from carts, or the like, which would impact the force onto the finger 350 engaged with the socket 160. The post 110 may be positioned on the floor 120 by aligning the pillar 316 with the opening 220 of the socket 200. The pillar 316 is inserted into the opening 220 of the socket 200 and adjusted to a vertical position 180. If the pillar 316 is threaded, the pillar 316 is aligned with the threads 208 of the socket 200. The post 314 is rotated such that the threads of the pillar 316 engage the threads 208 of the socket 200. The post 314 is rotated until the disc 340 contacts the floor 120 and the post 314 is in a vertical position 180 at 90 degrees in relation to the plane of the floor 120. The post 314 can be rotated an additional plus or minus 350 degrees from the point the disc 340 contacts the floor 120 to align the belts on the retactable member 130 or to change the queue configuration. To remove the stanchion from the socket 200, the post 314 is rotated until the threads of the finger 350 are disengaged from the threads of the socket 200. If desired, a cap 490, may be secured to the socket 400 by engaging the threads 491 of the cap 490 with the threads 408 of the socket 400 as shown in FIGS. 7(a) and 7(b). One benefit of the design of the preferred embodiment is that the cap 490 may be threaded into socket 200. Other larger sockets just have slip fit caps which can easily be removed with no tools. The preferred embodiment requires a maintenance person to use a key (in our case an Allen key) to lock the cap 490 into place. Although the invention has been described with reference to a particular arrangement of parts, features and the like, these are not intended to exhaust all possible arrangements or features, and indeed many other modifications and variations will be ascertainable to those of skill in the art. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A stanchion is a sturdy upright post that provides support for belt, rope, chain or cord that is often used for crowd control or engineering the flow of people. A stanchion system utilizes the upright post which may include a rope support at the top of the post; or, alternatively, it may include a retractable belt. The ropes, chains or retractable belts may be linked together at the stanchions to form a crowd control or crowd flow system. These crowd flow systems are called a queue or a maze. The stanchions are often not intended to be a permanent fixture, so that the post may be expediently implemented or removed, as desired. The stanchion and rope system are typically implemented to form a queue or maze for people to move through. Typically, the post of a stanchion is typically mounted on a weighted base. There are several problems with a post that is mounted on a weighted base. First, the base causing people to trip on the base. Second, the weighted base is movable. If bumped, the base along with the ropes or belts will move causing the queue to become misaligned. Movement of the post interferes with the movement of traffic through the queue. Third, the base takes up valuable floor space and often interferes with movement of carts or language through the queue. The standard base for a stanchion post has a footprint of almost one square foot which is not desirable in space—constrained areas. When several stanchions are employed, the amount of floor space dedicated to the numerous bases becomes quite significant. Fourth, the base is not aesthetically pleasing and may be considered unacceptable given the aesthetic desire of customers. The design of the weighed bases may not be preferred by the owner of the venue implementing the queue. Fifth, the post, along with the base, may be knocked over because the base is not securely mounted to the floor. Finally, since the base and post are not secured to the floor, the base and post may be picked up by a patron and used as a weapon. This is undesirable in any public forum. A typical prior art weighted base stanchion is shown in FIGS. 1( a ) and 1( b ) . Alternatively, the post of the stanchion may be easily removably mounted into the floor of the facility implementing the queue or maze. The floor mounted posts are commonly implemented in applications where the flow of traffic is steady or constant or where portability of the stanchions becomes impractical. The floor mounted solution is not without its own set of problems. For example, the stanchion posts must be mounted into holes in the floor of the venue which are either pre-formed or drilled into the floor after construction. The floor mounted system is not flexible or moveable. The posts can only be positioned within the pre-formed holes within a venue. Worse, the hole depth must be 6 inches or more in order to accommodate the post; and the diameter of the hole is typically 2 to 3 inches or more. The posts are also easily removable and can be used as a weapon by a customer standing in the queue. Finally, in the floor mounted system, the posts are not flexible. The post does not absorb any impact should a person run into a post, or if a piece of luggage or cart is run into a post. Another problem with the easily removeable stanchion post is that when the post is removed, there is a 3 inch diameter by 6 inch deep hole left in the floor. What is desired, therefore, is a post which may be semi-permanently mounted within the floor of a venue without having to install the standard 3 inch by 6 inch hole deep into the floor. There is also a need for a flexible mounting system between the post and the floor which permits the post to absorb impact to the post. It is, thus, desirable to have a semi-permanent post that has minimal impact on the existing flooring of a venue. Providing a post that is easy to install and that has the ability to flex once installed into the floor is highly desirable. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, one of the objects of the invention is to provide a post that does not have a weighted base which provides a cleaner aesthetic and further provides maximum floor space. A further object of the invention is to eliminate a weighted base from the post to prevent luggage from rolling over the base and moving the post from its desired position. Another object of the present invention is to provide a semi-permanent securing mechanism to affix the post to the ground which prevents the post from shifting or moving from its desired position in securing the queue or maze and thus causing disorder in the queue lines. An alternative embodiment of the present invention is to implement a threaded member in the post such that the threaded member engages with threads with the floor to prevent unwanted removal of the post, yet are easily removable for cleaning, re-routing or other reasons for moving the post. An object of the present invention provides for a spring mechanism that is attached to or included as part of the post to permit the post to move from its vertical position when the post is secured to the mount in the floor. The movement may be any amount, but in situations where there may be an abundance of people, the post may move from the vertical position. The flexibility of the spring mechanism absorbs any impact forces impaired upon the post which can cause an anchor or threaded member to fail. A further object of the present invention is the use of two interfering tabs which allow for approximately 350 degree adjustment, yet ensure the tension in the spring and securement into the socket to remain intact. This is important for queue posts because the belts must align in some undetermined direction for each layout. The belts may be aligned upon installation of the post, and may be easily rotated to change the configuration of the queue. Since there is expected movement in the post from the flex and rotational adjustment the edge of the metal posts can cause damage to floors over time. With the addition of a thick nylon wear disc or other protective cap, the floor is protected and all friction from the movement is removed allowing for a softer and smoother functioning unit. | E04H122269 | 20170717 | 20180104 | 87065.0 | E04H1222 | 0 | DUCKWORTH, BRADLEY | Stanchion or Post with a Spring-Loaded Assembly | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | E04H | 2,017 |
|
15,651,949 | ACCEPTED | COMMUNICATION SYSTEM AND ITS METHOD AND COMMUNICATION APPARATUS AND ITS METHOD | A communication apparatus configured to transmit data to an apparatus, the communication apparatus including: a storage medium configured to store management information of data to be transferred to the apparatus; a communicator configured to communicate data with the apparatus; a detector configured to detect whether the communication apparatus and the apparatus are connected; an editor configured to select certain data to be transferred and to edit the management information based on the selection without regard to the connection of the communication apparatus and the apparatus; and a controller configured to control transfer of the selected data stored in the communication apparatus to the apparatus via the communicator based on the management information edited by the editor when the detector detects that the communication apparatus and the apparatus are connected, wherein the controller is configured to compare the management information edited by the editor with management information of data stored in the apparatus, determine the size of the selected data in the communication apparatus, and transmit data in the communication apparatus based on result of the comparison and the determination. | 1. A communication apparatus configured to transmit data to an apparatus, the communication apparatus comprising: a storage medium configured to store management information of data to be transferred to the apparatus; a communicator configured to communicate data with the apparatus; a detector configured to detect whether the communication apparatus and the apparatus are connected; an editor configured to select certain data to be transferred and to edit the management information based on the selection without regard to the connection of the communication apparatus and the apparatus; and a controller configured to control transfer of the selected data stored in the communication apparatus to the apparatus via the communicator based on the management information edited by the editor when the detector detects that the communication apparatus and the apparatus are connected, wherein the controller is configured to compare the management information edited by the editor with management information of data stored in the apparatus, determine the size of the selected data in the communication apparatus, and transmit data in the communication apparatus based on result of the comparison and the determination. 2. The communication apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the apparatus is portable, and wherein the storage medium has a data storage capacity larger than that of the apparatus. 3. The communication apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to control receiving of identification information of the apparatus via the communicator and to judge whether the identification information of the apparatus is predetermined identification information and to allow the transfer of data when the identification information of the apparatus is the predetermined identification information. 4. The communication apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the controller is configured to control a display unit to display a first window in which identification information of data stored in the communication apparatus is displayed and a second window in which identification information of the data to be transferred to the apparatus based on the management data edited by the editor is displayed. 5. The communication apparatus according to claim 4, wherein the editor is configured to edit the management information of data to be transferred to the apparatus based on an input to the identification information of data displayed in at least one of the first window and the second window. 6. The communication apparatus according claim 1, wherein the apparatus is portable and the apparatus having a flash memory which stores the transferred data. 7. The communication apparatus according claim 1, wherein the apparatus is portable and the storage medium is a hard disk. 8. The communication apparatus according to claim 1, wherein the controller is further configured to: determine that the determined size of the selected data is greater than an available storage space on the apparatus; and request the apparatus to delete data stored on the apparatus based upon the determined size of the selected data and the available storage space on the apparatus. 9. The communication apparatus according to claim 8, wherein determining that the determined size of the selected data is greater than an available storage space on the apparatus is based upon the management data. 10. A communication method, comprising: editing management information of data to be transferred from an apparatus to an external apparatus by selecting certain data to be transferred, the management information stored in a storage medium of the apparatus, without regard to the connection of the apparatus and the external apparatus; detecting, at the apparatus, whether the apparatus and the external apparatus are connected; comparing, at the apparatus, the edited management information with management information of data stored in the external apparatus; determining the size of the selected data in the communication apparatus; and transmitting the selected data from the apparatus to the external apparatus based on the management information, a result of the comparison, and a result of the determination when the detection indicates that the apparatus and the external apparatus are connected. 11. The method according claim 10, wherein the apparatus is portable, and wherein the storage medium has a data storage capacity larger than that of the apparatus. 12. The method according claim 10, further comprising: receiving identification information of the apparatus; judging whether the identification information of the external apparatus is predetermined identification information; and starting the transmission of data when the identification information of the external apparatus is determined to be predetermined identification information. 13. The method according claim 10, further comprising: displaying a first window in which identification information of data stored in the apparatus is displayed; and displaying a second window in which identification information of the data to be transmitted to the external apparatus, based on the management data edited by the editor, is displayed. 14. The method according claim 13, further comprising editing the management information of data to be transmitted to the first apparatus based on an input to the identification information of data displayed in at least one of the external window and the second window. 15. The method according claim 10, wherein the apparatus is portable and the apparatus having a flash memory which stores the transferred data. 16. The method according claim 10, wherein the apparatus is portable and the storage medium is a hard disk. 17. The method according claim 10, further comprising: determining that the determined size of the selected data is greater than an available storage space on the apparatus; and requesting the apparatus to delete data stored on the apparatus based upon the determined size of the selected data and the available storage space on the apparatus. 18. The method according claim 17, wherein determining that the determined size of the selected data is greater than an available storage space on the apparatus is based upon the management data. 19. A non-transitory machine-readable storage medium encoded with instructions for execution by a processor in a communication device, the non-transitory machine-readable storage medium, comprising: instructions for editing management information of data to be transferred from an apparatus to an external apparatus by selecting certain data to be transferred, the management information stored in a storage medium of the apparatus, without regard to the connection of the apparatus and the external apparatus; instructions for detecting whether the apparatus and the external apparatus are connected; instructions for comparing the edited management information with management information of data stored in the external apparatus; instructions for determining the size of the selected data in the communication apparatus; and instructions for transmitting the selected data from the apparatus to the external apparatus based on the management information, a result of the comparison, and a result of the determination when the detection indicates that the apparatus and the external apparatus are connected. 20. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 19, wherein the apparatus is portable, and wherein the storage medium has a data storage capacity larger than that of the apparatus. 21. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 19, further comprising: instructions for receiving identification information of the apparatus; instructions for judging whether the identification information of the external apparatus is predetermined identification information; and instructions for starting the transmission of data when the identification information of the external apparatus is determined to be predetermined identification information. 22. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 19, further comprising: instructions for displaying a first window in which identification information of data stored in the apparatus is displayed; and instructions for displaying a second window in which identification information of the data to be transmitted to the external apparatus, based on the management data edited by the editor, is displayed. 23. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 22, further comprising instructions for editing the management information of data to be transmitted to the first apparatus based on an input to the identification information of data displayed in at least one of the external window and the second window. 24. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 19, wherein the apparatus is portable and the apparatus having a flash memory which stores the transferred data. 25. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 19, wherein the apparatus is portable and the storage medium is a hard disk. 26. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 19, further comprising: instructions for determining that the determined size of the selected data is greater than an available storage space on the apparatus; and instructions for requesting the apparatus to delete data stored on the apparatus based upon the determined size of the selected data and the available storage space on the apparatus. 27. The non-transitory machine-readable storage medium of claim 26, wherein determining that the determined size of the selected data is greater than an available storage space on the apparatus is based upon the management data. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/229,153, filed Mar. 28, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/064,962, filed Oct. 28, 2013, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,160,818, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/835,450, filed Jul. 13, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,601,243, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/034,379, filed Feb. 20, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,122,163, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/864,132, filed Jun. 9, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,720,929, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 09/665,786, filed Sep. 20, 2000, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,130,251, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. This application is based upon and claims the benefit of priority from prior Japanese Patent Application No. 11-267135, filed Sep. 21, 1999, which is hereby incorporated by reference for all purposes as if fully set forth herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an information communication system and its method as well as an information communication apparatus and its method, which are used for transmitting a plurality of pieces of data from equipment for storing data to other equipment. As a conventional apparatus, there has been developed the so-called CD changer for accommodating a number of CDs (Compact Discs) and automatically playing back the CDs. In such a CD changer, several tens to several hundreds of CDs are accommodated in a single case, and a CD selected by a predetermined operation is automatically played back. The operation to play back CDs may be carried out for each selected CD. As an alternative, a plurality of CDs are selected and the operation to play back the CDs can be carried out for each of the CDs or carried out randomly for pieces of music recorded in the CDs. In general, the CD changer is installed permanently in a room. As a portable audio-data playback apparatus, on the other hand, an apparatus using an optical disc or a magneto-optical disc with a diameter of about 64 mm has been becoming popular in recent years. The portable audio-data playback apparatus converts an analog audio signal into a digital signal, compresses the digital signal by adoption of a compression technology known as ATRAC (Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding: Trademark) and stores the compressed signal into a magneto-optical disc. The portable audio-data playback apparatus offers a merit of no deterioration of the sound quality caused by the operations to convert the analog audio signal into the digital signal, compress the digital signal and store the compressed signal. There is also another merit of a random playback operation due to the fact that a disc is used as a recording medium. In the CD changer described above, however, it takes time to replace a CD with another even during an automatic playback operation. It is thus difficult to implement a continuous playback operation. In addition, a CD changer for accommodating 100 to 200 CDs has a large and heavy cabinet, which is very inconvenient when the CD changer is carried or installed. Also in the portable audio-data playback apparatus described above, once audio data has been recorded onto a magneto-optical disc, the playback operation is limited to the range of the disc. That is to say, a random or general playback operation can not be carried out over a plurality of magneto-optical discs. It is thus necessary to replace a magneto-optical disc with another severally in order to carry out a random playback operation from a plurality of magneto-optical discs or an operation to play back specified pieces of music. As a result, the user must always take a plurality of magneto-optical discs or optical discs with the portable audio-data playback apparatus. In order to solve these problems, for example, there has been proposed a music server equipped with a recording medium such as a hard-disc drive having a relatively small size but a large recording capacity to serve as a CD changer described above. In a music server, audio data is read out from a CD, compressed and coded by adopting a predetermined technique and then recorded and stored in a hard-disc drive. By using a hard-disc drive with a recording capacity of about 6 Gbyte, musical data of about 1,000 pieces of music can be recorded. In addition, unlike the CD changer, time and labor to replace a CD with another are not required in a music server. As a result, the music server offers a merit of an easy continuous playback operation. Other merits include the fact that data of numerous pieces of music can be recorded into a unit of hard-disc drive and the fact that the cabinet can be made small in size. It has been further proposed the use of a hard-disc drive or a semiconductor memory as a recording or storage medium in the portable audio-data playback apparatus described above. The music server described above may be connected to the portable audio-data playback apparatus so that audio data stored in the music server can be transferred to the portable audio-data playback apparatus to be recorded or stored into the recording medium of the apparatus. Assume that the recording or storage capacity of the recording medium is 200 MB. In this case, it is no longer necessary for the user to carry a plurality of magneto-optical discs or optical discs. Of course, it is also unnecessary to replace a magneto-optical disc or an optical disc with another. By the way, a music server is capable of storing a large amount of musical data as described above. Thus, if musical data is transferred from the music server to the portable audio-data playback apparatus by selecting pieces of music thereof to be transferred piece by piece, there will be raised a problem of cumbersome work to repeat the same operation several times. In order to solve this problem, there has been conceived a data transfer method whereby a list of selected pieces of music from the musical data stored in the music server is created and the selected musical data on the list is transferred in a batch operation. With this method, however, there is raised another problem that it is quite within the bounds of possibility that a confusion occurs due to an unclear purpose as to whether a list created by the user is used to organize numerous pieces of musical data stored in the music server or used to transfer pieces of musical data in a batch operation. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is thus an object of the present invention to provide an information communication system and its method as well as an information communication apparatus and its method that are capable of transferring musical data from an audio server to a portable audio-data playback apparatus with ease. In order to solve the problems described above, according to the first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a communication system including a first apparatus having a first storage medium, and a second apparatus for transmitting data to the first apparatus, the second apparatus comprising: a second storage medium for storing management information of data to be transferred to the first storage medium; communication means for communicating data with the first apparatus; edit means capable of editing the management information; and control means for making a control to transfer data stored in the second storage medium to the first storage medium by way of the communication means on the basis of the management information edited by the edit means. In addition, according to the second aspect of the present invention, there is provided a communication apparatus for transmitting data to another apparatus having a first storage medium, comprising: a second storage medium for storing management information of data stored in the first storage medium; communication means for communicating data with the another apparatus; edit means capable of editing the management information; and control means for making a control to transfer data stored in the second storage medium to the first storage medium by way of the communication means on the basis of the management information edited by the edit means. Furthermore, according to the third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a communication method for communicating a first apparatus having a first storage medium to a second apparatus for transmitting data to the first apparatus, the method comprising the steps of: editing management information of data to be transferred to the first apparatus, on the second storage medium of the second apparatus, irrespective of the fact whether or not communication is established between the first apparatus and the second apparatus; and transmitting, when communication is established between the first apparatus and the second apparatus, data stored in the second storage medium to the first storage medium on the basis of the edited management information. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram showing a music server provided by the present invention and a system employing the music server in a simple and plain manner; FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing a typical configuration of the music sever; FIG. 3 is a diagram showing a flow of a signal through a series of processes from an operation to read out musical data from a CD-ROM drive to an operation to record the data into a hard-disc drive in a simple and plain manner; FIG. 4 is a diagram showing a flow of a signal through a series of processes from an operation to read out compressed musical data from the hard-disc drive to an operation to output data completing playback processing to a terminal in a simple and plain manner; FIG. 5 is a block diagram showing a typical configuration of a portable recording and playback apparatus; FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing another typical configuration of a portable recording and playback apparatus; FIG. 7 shows a flowchart representing typical processing carried out by a music server to record musical data read out from a CD into a hard-disc drive; FIG. 8A shows a flowchart representing typical processes of music server for processing to record musical data read out from a CD into a hard-disc drive at a high speed; FIG. 8B shows a flowchart representing typical processes of Internet server for processing to record musical data read out from a CD into a hard-disc drive at a high speed; FIG. 9 shows a flowchart representing typical processing to move musical data in accordance with the present invention; FIG. 10 is a diagram showing a typical edit screen for editing a transfer list in a simple and plain manner; FIG. 11 is a diagram showing a typical external view of the music server in a simple and plain manner; FIG. 12A is a diagram conceptually showing a typical management method for controlling a list of programs on the program file; FIG. 12B is a diagram conceptually showing a typical management method for controlling a list of programs on the memory; and FIG. 13 shows a flowchart representing typical processing to edit a transfer list and to transfer musical data cataloged on the edited transfer list. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Next, preferred embodiments of the present invention are explained by referring to diagrams. FIG. 1 is a diagram showing a music server provided by the present invention and a system employing the music server in a simple and plain manner. As shown in the figure, the music server 50 comprises a server main body 51 and speaker units 52L and 52R. The server main body 51 is provided with a display unit 53 implemented typically by an LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) panel and a CD insertion unit 54 for inserting a CD 55 into the server main body 51. The server main body 51 has an operation unit comprising a plurality of operation switches to be operated by the user for executing functions of the server main body 51. It should be noted that the operation unit itself is not shown in FIG. 1. The server main body 51 may also be provided with a signal reception unit for receiving typically an infrared signal from a remote commander, which is operated to remotely execute the functions of the server main body 51. As will be described later, the server main body 51 also includes a controller for controlling a variety of operations by execution of a predetermined program, which is stored in advance typically in a ROM. The user mounts a CD 55 on the server main body 51 through the CD insertion unit 54 and operates a predetermined switch on the operation unit not shown in the figure to play back musical data from the CD 55. A playback signal reproduced from the CD 55 is output to the speaker units 52L and 52R to allow the user to enjoy the musical data stored in the CD 55. If the CD 55 includes text data such as the name of a piece of music, the text data can be displayed on the display unit 53 as names of pieces of music or the like. The music server 50 includes an internal large-capacity recording medium such as a hard disc. By operating a predetermined switch on the operation unit not shown in the figure, it is possible to record playback data reproduced from the CD 55 mounted on the server main body 51 through the CD insertion unit 54 into the recording medium such as a hard disc. At that time, it is possible to select a standard-speed recording technique or a high-speed recording technique. With the standard-speed recording technique, the playback data is recorded from the CD 55 into the recording medium at a transfer speed equal to a standard playback speed of the CD 55. With the high-speed recording technique, on the other hand, the playback data is recorded from the CD 55 into the recording medium at a transfer speed higher than the standard playback speed of the CD 55. With the high-speed recording technique, playback data reproduced from a selected CD 55 or playback data of a selected piece of music reproduced from the CD 55 is recorded from the CD 55 into the recording medium at a transfer speed higher than the standard playback speed of the CD 55 at a fee determined by a charging process according to a predetermined procedure. In the music server 50, musical data played back from the CD 55 is subjected to a compression-encoding process according to a predetermined technique such as the ATRAC method described earlier to produce compressed musical data, which is then recorded into the recording medium such as a hard disc. In the case of a hard disc with a storage capacity of 6 Gbyte, for example, about 1,000 pieces of music can be stored or recorded. A list of names of recorded or stored pieces of music is displayed typically on the display unit 53. The user is then capable of playing back any arbitrary piece of music selected from the list displayed on the display unit 53 to show the names of pieces of music recorded or stored in the hard disc. As hard disc can be accessed at random, large amount of musical data stored and recorded can be read out in arbitrary order and continuously played back by the music server 50. There are a variety of usable compression-encoding techniques. This embodiment adopts a technique referred to as an ATRAC2 (Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding 2) method disclosed in documents such as U.S. Pat. No. 5,717,821. This method is a compression-encoding technique resulting from extension of the ATRAC method adopted in the portable audio-data playback apparatus described above. This technique of compressing and encoding data makes use of frequency dependence of a minimum audible limit as well as a masking effect based on the sense of hearing, and utilizes a conversion-coding process in conjunction with an entropy-coding process. With this ATRAC2 method, encoding and decoding processes can be carried out at a high speed while a high sound quality is being maintained by using hardware with a relatively small size. It should be noted that, however, compression-encoding techniques other than ATRAC2, may be adopted such as ATRAC3, MPEG2ACC (Advanced Audio Code), MP3 (MPEG1 Audio Layer 3), TwinVQ (Transform-Domain weighted Interleave Vector Quantization) or MSAudio (WMA: Windows Media Audio). The music server 50 can be connected to an external system by typically a public telephone line serving as a communication line 61 shown in FIG. 1. An example of the external system is an Internet server 60, which is a server connected to the Internet. By connecting the music server 50 to the Internet server 60 using the communication line 61, various kinds of information can be acquired from the Internet. The Internet server 60 has a data base for storing data such as information on titles of musical CDs available in the market. A unique key for making an access to the data base is assigned to the user. In order to make an access to the data base, the user utilizes the unique key. In this way, the user is capable of acquiring data related to a musical CD such as information on the title of the CD. The Internet server 60 also carries out charging process to compute a fee for a service rendered to the user of the music server 50. When musical data played back from the CD 55 is recorded into recording medium at a high transfer speed as described above, the music server 50 informs the Internet server 60 that such a recording operation is carried out at a high transfer speed. The Internet server 60 then carries out processing to compute a recording fee to be charged to the user, allowing a CD to be selected or a piece of music to be selected from a CD and musical data to be recorded from the selected CD or the selected piece of music to be recorded from the CD at a high transfer speed. As described above, the processing to compute a recording fee is carried out by the Internet server 60, which has a lot of information related to CDs. It should be noted, however, that the scope of the present invention is not limited to this scheme. For example, the processing to compute a recording fee can also be carried out by another server, which is also connected to the Internet. As another alternative, the processing to compute a recording fee can also be carried out through a special-purpose network other than the Internet. A portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has a recording medium, which is implemented by a hard disc or a flash memory such as a semiconductor memory, a magnetic memory and an optical memory. The portable recording and playback apparatus 70 may also be provided with another kind of storage medium or another kind of recording medium provided that the medium is capable of keeping up with a speed to play back music. By connecting the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to the music server 50 using a connection line 71, musical data recorded in the music server 50 can be transmitted to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to be recorded in a storage medium employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. In this case, while the musical data transmitted to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 remains in the storage medium such as a hard disc or a flash memory in the music server 50, the musical data is put in a state of being irreproducible. The storage medium employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has a typical capacity of about 200 Mbyte, which allows data of tens of pieces of music to be stored or recorded. It should be noted that a storage device or a recording medium implemented by a semiconductor memory such as a flash memory and a recording medium implemented by a disc-shaped recording medium such as a hard disc are referred to as a storage medium, which is a generic name for these storage and recording media. In accordance with the aforementioned transmission method adopted by the present invention, transmitted musical data is recorded into a storage medium employed in a destination of transmission and remains in a storage medium of a source of transmission but is put in an state of being irreproducible. This transmission operation is referred to as a move. By moving musical data in this way, a copy operation of musical data can be prevented from being carried out without limitation. In the embodiment described above, the music server 50 is connected to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 by the connection line 71. It should be noted, however, that this configuration is typical. As an alternative, the music server 50 is provided with a mounting unit matching another mounting unit employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. In accordance with this alternative, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can be mounted on the music server 50 so that data can be exchanged between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. In addition to the electrical connections, the music server 50 can be provided with an interface unit matching another interface unit employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. The interface units conform to typically an IrDA (Infrared Data Association) standard, which allows data to be exchanged between the interface units as an infrared ray signal. As a result, musical data can be exchanged between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 as an infrared ray signal. The music server 50 may further be provided with a predetermined interface for exchanging information with a variety of media. Assume that the music server 50 is provided with an interface for a PC card 80. In this case, musical data distributed by means of the PC card 80 can be transferred to the music server 50, or data can be exchanged between a personal computer and the music server 50. The music server 50 may be provided with a serial digital interface implemented by an optical cable, which allows musical data to be exchanged with another digital musical-data recording and playback apparatus such as a disc recorder 81 for handling typically a small-size magneto-optical disc having a diameter of 64 mm In this embodiment, a disc cartridge 82 for accommodating the small-size magneto-optical disc is mounted on the disc recorder 81. Musical data played back from the magneto-optical disc accommodated in the disc cartridge 82 is supplied to the music server 50. By the same token, the music server 50 may be provided with an interface such as an IEEE1394 interface for connection to a setup box 83 for CATV (cable television) or satellite broadcasting. A PC card conforms to standardization of card-type peripherals for personal computers. The standardization is set jointly by the PCMCIA (Personal Memory Card International Association) of the U.S. and the JEIDA (Japanese Electronic Industry Development Association) of Japan. The IEEE1394 standard is an interface standard adopted by the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers of the U.S. The music server 50 may be provided with a WWW (World Wide Web) browser as an embedded application. By connecting the music server 50 provided with a WWW to the Internet server 60 using the communication line 61, the Internet can be searched for a variety of contents described typically in an HTML (Hypertext Markup Language) and any of the contents can then be displayed on the display unit 53. With the configuration described above, the user is capable of playing back musical data stored or recorded in the music server 50 or musical data from the CD 55 mounted on the music server 50 via the CD insertion unit 54 and listening to the reproduced musical data through the speaker units 52L and 52R. By a communication between the music server 50 and the Internet server 60, the music server 50 can automatically acquire information such as the title of a CD 55 mounted on the music server 50 via the CD insertion unit 54 from the Internet server 60 through the communication line 61. Information such a CD title acquired from the Internet server 60 is saved in the music server 50 and the saved information is displayed on the display unit 53 employed in the music server 50 when necessary. To put it concretely, the music server 50 first transmits information unique to the user such as user ID data of the music server 50 to the Internet server 60. The information unique to the user is referred to hereafter as user information. The Internet server 60 carries out authentication and charging based on the user information received from the music server 50. The Internet server 60 also receives media information of a CD desired by the user or a CD being played back from the music server 50. The Internet server 60 then searches a data base for additional information associated with musical data indicated by the media information. The additional information includes the title of a song, the name of a performer, a song composer, a libretto writer, a libretto and a jacket image. Then, the Internet server 60 transmits predetermined information on the CD requested by the user. An example of the media information transmitted to the Internet server 60 is of a TOC (Table of Contents) of the CD 55. The Internet server 60 includes the data base, which can be searched for additional information associated with musical data indicated by the TOC. As an alternative, the Internet can also be searched for a WWW server to get additional information by the Internet server 60. The Internet server 60 searches the data base for additional information associated with musical data indicated by the TOC received from the music server 50 and used as the media information. For example, the Internet server 60 searches the data base for a playback time duration of each piece of music, which is included in the TOC and recorded on the CD 55. The Internet server 60 then transmits the additional information obtained as a result of the search operation to the music server 50. The music server 50 displays the additional information received from the Internet server 60 on the display unit 53. The additional information is also stored by a CPU 8 to be described later into typically the hard-disc drive along with the TOC information of the CD 55. It should be noted that the additional information can also be transmitted by the Internet server 60 as data embedded in an HTML file and displayed by WWW browser software embedded in the music server 50. If the additional information includes another described URL (Uniform Resource Locator) on the Internet, the music server 50 is capable of making an access to a home page on the Internet indicated by the other URL. In addition, by having data communicated between the Internet server 60 and the music server 50, musical data recorded on the CD 55 mounted on the music server 50 through the CD insertion unit 54 can be recorded into the recording medium employed in the music server 50 at a speed higher than a standard playback speed prescribed for the CD 55 so that typically musical data of a piece of CD 55 can be recorded in about 2 minutes by the music server 50. If no communication is established between the Internet server 60 and the music server 50, on the other hand, the musical data is recorded into the recording medium employed in the music server 50 at a one-time speed, that is, a speed equal to the standard playback speed prescribed for the CD 55 by the music server 50. By connecting the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 using a connection line 71, musical data stored or recorded in the music server 50 can be transmitted or, strictly speaking, moved to the portable recording and playback apparatus 71. The moved data can then be played back by the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 even if the music server 50 is disconnected from the portable recording and playback apparatus 71 via the connection line 71. Typically, the user is capable of listening to the musical data played back by the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 by using a headphone 72. As described earlier, the musical data transmitted or, strictly speaking, moved to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can no longer be played back in the music server 50. FIG. 2 is a block diagram showing a typical configuration of the music server 50. In the first place, the music server 50 comprises a RAM 5, a ROM 6, a flash memory 7 and a CPU 8, which are connected to each other by a local bus as is the case with an ordinary personal computer. The CPU 8 is also connected to a bus 40. The CPU 8 functions as a controller controlling all operations of the music server 50. The ROM 6 is used for storing in advance a program for controlling the operation of the music server 50. The program is executed by the CPU 8 to perform processing corresponding to an operation carried out on an input operation unit 1 to be described later. A task area and a data area, which are required in the execution of the program, are secured temporarily in the RAM 5 and the flash memory 7. The ROM 6 is also used for storing a program loader for loading the program from the ROM 6 into the flash memory 7. The input operation unit 1 comprises typically a plurality of push-type and rotary-type key operation keys and switches each actuated by an operation of any of these key operation keys. As an alternative, the input operation unit 1 may also be implemented by a rotary-push-type key known as a jog dial or a touch panel on the LCD. Of course, the input operation unit 1 may adopt a switch mechanism, which reacts to a press operation. A signal representing an operation carried out on the input operation unit 1 is supplied to the CPU 8 by way of the bus 40. The CPU 8 generates a control signal for controlling the operation of the music server 50 on the basis of the signal received from the input operation unit 1. The music server 50 operates in accordance with the control signal generated by the CPU 8. An infrared ray interface (IrDa I/F) driver 3 and/or a USB (Universal Serial Bus) drive 4 are connected to the bus 40. A keyboard 2 is constructed to be capable of communicating with the IrDa I/F driver 3 and the USB driver 4 or can be connected to the IrDa I/F driver 3 and the USB driver 4. By using the keyboard 2, the user can enter information such as the title of recorded musical data and the name of an artist with ease. It is also possible to adopt a configuration wherein data is transferred by way of the IrDa I/F driver 3 or the USB driver 4. It should be noted that the IrDa I/F driver 3 and the USB driver 4 could be eliminated. A CD-ROM drive 9 is connected to the bus 40. A CD 55 inserted into the CD insertion unit 54 as described earlier is mounted on the CD-ROM drive 9. The CD-ROM drive 9 reads out musical data from the set CD 55 at a prescribed standard playback speed. The CD-ROM drive 9 is also capable of reading musical data from the CD 55 at a speed higher than the prescribed standard playback speed such as a speed 16 times or 32 times the prescribed standard playback speed. It should be noted that the CD-ROM drive 9 is not limited to the example described above. For example, the CD-ROM drive 9 can be adapted to another disc-shaped recording medium for recording musical data. Examples of the other disc-shaped recording medium are a magneto-optical disc and a DVD (Digital Versatile Disc). A drive for a memory card can also be employed. In addition, data read out by the CD-ROM drive 9 is not limited to musical data. It is also possible for the CD-ROM drive 9 to read out information such as picture data, text data and program data. A hard-disc drive 10, which is abbreviated hereafter to an HDD, is also connected to the bus 40. Musical data read out by the CD-ROM drive 9 is recorded into the HDD 10. Before being recorded into the HDD 10, the musical data is subjected to pre-processing. To put it in detail, the musical data read out by the CD-ROM drive 9 is supplied to a compression encoder 12 by way of the bus 40 and an audio DRAM 11. The compression encoder 12 carries out processing to compress and encode musical data typically by adoption of the compression method disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,717,821 described earlier. It should be noted that musical data could be compressed by the compression encoder 12 at either one of 2 speeds, namely, a low speed and a high speed, either of which is selected in accordance with control executed by the CPU 8. The low compression speed corresponds to the standard playback speed prescribed for the CD 55 in the CD-ROM drive 9. Typically, the compression speed is switched from the low speed to the high one and vice versa in accordance with the playback speed of the CD 55 in the CD-ROM drive 9. The compression encoder 12 implements an encoding algorithm according to the compression speed. It should be noted that the technique adopted by the compression encoder 12 to change the compression speed is not limited to the method described above. For example, the compression speed can also be changed by switching the clock frequency of the compression encoder 12. As an alternative, the 2 compression speeds are implemented by 2 different pieces of hardware. As another alternative, musical data is compressed by the compression encoder 12 at the low processing speed by thinning the high-speed compression. The musical data completing the compression-encoding process in the compression encoder 12 is supplied to the HDD 10 by way of the DRAM 11 to be stored or recorded in the HDD 10. As described above, the musical data completing the compression-encoding process in the compression encoder 12 is supplied to the HDD 10 to be stored or recorded therein. It should be noted, however, that musical data read out by the CD-ROM drive 9 can also be supplied directly to the HDD 10 to be stored or recorded onto a hard disc of the HDD 10. In this embodiment, an audio signal supplied by a microphone connected to a terminal 13 by way of an amplifier 14 or an audio signal input from a line input terminal 15 is supplied to the compression encoder 12 by way of an A/D converter 16. The audio signal compressed and encoded by the compression encoder 12 can be recorded in the HDD 10. In addition, an optical digital signal from an optical digital input terminal 17 is also supplied to the compression encoder 12 by way of an IEC-958 (International Electrotechnical Commission 958) encoder 18. The optical digital signal, which is also an audio signal, is compressed and encoded by the compression encoder 12. The compressed and encoded audio signal can be recorded onto the hard disc of the HDD 10. In the embodiment described above, the compression encoder 12 adopts an encoding algorithm like the one disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,717,821. It should be noted, however, that the scope of the present invention is not limited to this embodiment. That is to say, the compression encoder 12 may adopt another algorithm as long as the algorithm is an encoding algorithm for compressing information. The compression encoder 12 may adopt, other than the algorithm mentioned above, PASC (Precision Adaptive Sub-band Coding), RealAudio (a trademark) or LiquidAudio (a trademark) algorithm. A modem 20 is also connected to the bus 40. The modem 20 is connected to an external network 19 such as a public telephone line, a CATV, a satellite communication network or wireless communication. The music server 50 is capable of establishing communication through the external network 19 by way of the modem 20. Connected typically to the Internet by the external network 19, the music server 50 is capable of communicating with the Internet server 60 at a remote location. The music server 50 transmits various kinds of information to the Internet server 60. The information includes a request signal, media information, user ID data, user information and charging information for the user. The media information is data related to the CD 55 mounted on the CD-ROM drive 9. The user ID data and the user information are assigned in advance to the music server 50. As described above, various kinds of data including the media information and the user information are transmitted to the Internet server 60. On the basis of the user information such as the user ID data received from the music server 50, the Internet server 60 carries out authentication of the user and a charging process for the user. The Internet server 60 also searches a data base for additional information for musical data indicated by the media information received from the music server 50. The additional information is then transmitted to the music server 50. As described above, additional information associated with musical data is transmitted to the music server 50. It should be noted, however, that musical data itself could also be supplied directly to the music server 50 from the external network 19. In other words, the user is capable of downloading musical data from the Internet server 60 to the music server 50. That is to say, musical data is transmitted to the music server 50 in response to media information. For example, a bonus track of a predetermined CD 55 can be distributed to users. In a playback operation, musical data compressed and encoded by the compression encoder 12 and then recorded and stored in the HDD 10 is read out from the HDD 10 and supplied to a compression decoder 21 by way of the bus 40. The compression decoder 21 decodes and decompresses the compressed musical data read out from the HDD 10. The decoded and decompressed musical data is then supplied to a D/A converter 22 before being supplied to a terminal 24 by way of an amplifier 23. The data is then supplied to the speaker units 52L and 52R from the terminal 24 as music obtained as a result of the playback operation. It should be noted that, in the case of a stereo system which is not shown in FIG. 2, there are 2 routes from the D/A converter 22 to the terminal 24 by way of the amplifier 23. Of course, 2 terminals 24 are provided in the stereo system. The compression decoder 21 adopts a decoding algorithm serving as a counterpart of the encoding algorithm adopted in the compression encoder 12. The compression encoder 12 and the compression decoder 21 can also be implemented by software executed by the CPU 8 instead of hardware. A liquid crystal display panel 26, which is abbreviated to an LCD panel serving as the display unit 53, is connected to the bus 40 by an LCD driving circuit 25. The CPU 8 supplies a rendering control signal to the LCD driving circuit 25 by way of the bus 40. The LCD driving circuit 25 drives the LCD panel 26 in accordance with the rendering control signal received from the CPU 8 to make a predetermined display appear on the display unit 53. For example, an operation menu of the music server 50 is displayed on the LCD panel 26. As another example, a list of titles of compressed musical data recorded and stored in the HDD 10 may also be displayed on the LCD panel 26. The list of titles displayed on the LCD panel 26 is based on data stored in the HDD 10. This stored data is based on data obtained as a result of decoding additional information received from the Internet server 60. In addition, a folder and a jacket image associated with selected playback compressed musical data may also be displayed on the LCD panel 26. The displayed folder and the jacket image are based on additional information received from the Internet server 60. The user operates the keyboard 2 or a pointing device of the input operation unit 1 on the basis of a screen displayed on the LCD panel 26. The CPU 8 controls processing to play back musical data requested by an operation carried out by the user on the keyboard 2 or the pointing device of the input operation unit 1. Control of an operation to delete selected musical data and an operation to copy or move selected musical data to an external apparatus can also be based on a screen displayed on the LCD panel 26. For example, the input operation unit 1 may be implemented by a touch panel provided on the LCD panel 26. In this case, by touching the touch panel in accordance with a screen displayed on the LCD panel 26, the user is capable of operating the music server 50. In this way, the user is capable of administering and controlling musical data stored or recorded in the HDD 10 by using the LCD panel 26 as an interface. In the first embodiment, a PC-card slot 31 and an IEEE1394 interface 28 are each used as an interface between the music server 50 and an external general information apparatus. The IEEE1394 interface 28 is connected to the bus 40 by an IEEE1394 driver 29. On the other hand, the PC-card slot 31 is connected to the bus 40 by a PC-card driver 30. The IEEE1394 interface 28 allows data to be exchanged between the music server 50 and typically a personal computer. In addition, the IEEE1394 interface 28 allows musical data to be input from a source such as a satellite-broadcasting IRD (Integrated Receiver/Decoder), a small-size optical disc and a small-size magneto-optical disc with a diameter of about 64 mm, a DVD (Digital Versatile Disc: a trademark) or a digital video tape. A PC card mounted on the PC-card slot 31 serves as one of a variety of peripheral extensions such as an external memory device, another media drive, a modem, a terminal adaptor and a capture board. An interface 34 allows musical data to be exchanged between the music server 50 and another compatible recording and playback apparatus. The other recording and playback apparatus can be the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 shown in FIG. 1 or another music server 50. The interface 34 is connected to the bus 40 by an interface driver 33. The other compatible recording and playback apparatus includes an interface 35 as the counterpart of the interface 34. By electrically connecting the interface 34 to the interface 35 by using a predetermined connection line 71, for example, the music server 50 is capable of transmitting musical data stored in the HDD 10 to the other recording and playback apparatus. FIG. 3 is a diagram showing a flow of a signal through a series of processes from an operation to read out musical data from the CD-ROM drive 9 to an operation to record the data into the HDD 10 in a simple and plain manner The musical data read out from the CD-ROM drive 9 is once stored into the DRAM 11, which is used as a buffer memory. The musical data is then read out back from the DRAM 11 with a predetermined timing and supplied to the compression encoder 12 by way of the bus 40. As described above, the compression encoder 12 compresses the musical data at a predetermined compression speed corresponding to the playback speed of the CD-ROM drive 9. The musical data compressed and encoded by the compression encoder 12 is again stored temporarily into the DRAM 11, which is used as a buffer memory. The musical data is then read out back from the DRAM 11 with a predetermined timing and supplied by way of the bus 40 to the HDD 10 to be stored into the hard disc of the HDD 10. At that time, information on the CD 55 undergoing a playback operation in the CD-ROM drive 9 is transmitted to the Internet server 60. In response to the information, the Internet server 60 transmits additional information for the CD 55, which is also recorded into the hard disc of the HDD 10. The CPU 8 and other components control the additional information and the compressed musical data obtained as a result of compression of the musical data read out from the CD 55 as described above. FIG. 4 is a diagram showing a flow of a signal through a series of processes from an operation to read out compressed musical data from the HDD 10 to an operation to output data completing playback processing to a terminal 24 in a simple and plain manner The compressed musical data read out from the HDD 10 is once stored into the DRAM 11, which is used as a buffer memory. The compressed musical data is then read out back from the DRAM 11 with a predetermined timing and supplied to the compression decoder 21 by way of the bus 40. As described above, the compression decoder 21 decodes and decompresses the compressed musical data to reproduce the musical data, supplying the musical data to a D/A converter 22. The D/A converter 22 converts the musical data into an analog audio signal, which is amplified by an amplifier 23 and output to the terminal 24 as a playback output. If a speaker is connected to the terminal 24, the user is capable of enjoying music played back by the speaker. At that time, additional information read out along with the compressed musical data from the HDD 10 is decoded by the CPU 8 and other components to be displayed on the display unit 53 as a musical name and the like. FIG. 5 is a block diagram showing a typical configuration of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. As shown in the figure, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 generally has a configuration similar to that of the music server 50 shown in FIG. 2. Normally, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is carried by the user and used as standalone equipment by disconnecting the interface 35 of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 from the interface 34 employed in the music server 50. In the first place, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 comprises a RAM 103, a ROM 104, and a CPU 105, which are connected to each other by a local bus as is the case with an ordinary personal computer of course, a flash memory can also be provided like the configuration of the music server 50 described above. The CPU 105 is also connected to a bus 130. The CPU 105 functions as a controller controlling all operations of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. The ROM 104 is used for storing in advance a program for controlling the operation of the music apparatus 70. The program is executed to perform processing corresponding to an operation carried out on an input operation unit 102 to be described later. A task area and a data area, which are required in the execution of the program, are secured temporarily in the RAM 103. The input operation unit 102 comprises typically a plurality of push-type and rotary-type key operation keys and switches each actuated by an operation of any of these key operation keys. As an alternative, the input operation unit 102 may also be implemented by a rotary-push-type key known as a jog dial or a touch panel on the LCD. Of course, the input operation unit 102 may adopt a mechanical switch mechanism, which reacts to a press operation. A signal representing an operation carried out on the input operation unit 102 is supplied to the CPU 105 by way of the bus 130. The CPU 105 generates a control signal for controlling the operation of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 on the basis of the signal received from the input operation unit 102. The signal is generated by the input operation unit 102 to represent an operation carried out on an operation key of the input operation unit 102. The operation of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is switched and controlled in accordance with the control signal generated by the CPU 105. Musical data read out from the HDD 10 of the music server 50 to be transferred to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 in response to a request is transmitted or supplied to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 by way of the interface 35, the connection line connecting the interface 35 to the interface 34 and the interface 34. At the same time, additional information associated with the musical data requested to be transferred is transmitted to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 along with the musical data. If the music server 50 is provided with a mounting unit matching another mounting unit employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, the interface 35 can be directly connected to the interface 34 so that data can be exchanged between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. As an alternative, the music server 50 may be provided with an interface unit matching another interface unit employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. If the interface units conform to typically an IrDA (Infrared Data Association) system, which allows data to be exchanged between the interface units as an infrared ray signal, musical data can be exchanged between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 as an infrared ray signal. The musical data supplied by the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is transferred from an interface driver 101 by way of the bus 130 to an HDD 106, which serves as a musical-data recording medium in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to be recorded into a hard disc in the HDD 106. It should be noted that the musical-data recording medium in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is not limited to the HDD 106. For example, a flash memory can also be used. As a matter of fact, for example, another recording medium such as a magneto-optical disc can be employed as the musical-data recording medium in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 provided that the recording medium is capable of keeping up with the speed to play back the musical data. If a recoding medium with a storage capacity of, say, 200 Mbyte is employed as the musical-data recording medium in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, the recording medium will be capable of recording tens of pieces of music. The hard disc of the HDD 106 employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is used for storing musical data and additional information associated with the musical data, which are received from the music server 50. In this example, musical data received from the music server 50 and recorded into the HDD 106 is compressed musical data already completing a compression/encoding process in the music server 50. It should be noted, however, that the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is not limited to this embodiment. That is to say, musical data not completing a compression/encoding process can also be recorded into the hard disc of the HDD 106. For example, musical data read out from the CD 55 mounted on the CD-ROM drive 9 employed in the music server 50 can be supplied to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 by way of an interface driver 101. It is worth noting, however, that when musical data is supplied to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 directly, the number of pieces of musical data that can be recorded is limited considerably. As pre-processing prior to an operation to record musical data into the hard disc of the HDD 106, the musical data supplied thereto is temporarily stored into an audio DRAM 107 connected to the bus 130. The musical data is then read back from the DRAM 107 and supplied to a compression encoder 108 through the bus 130. The compression encoder 108 carries out a compression-encoding process on the musical data by adoption of an encoding algorithm equivalent to the encoding algorithm adopted by the compression encoder 12 employed in the music server 50. The compressed musical data completing the compression-encoding process in the compression encoder 108 is again supplied to the DRAM 107 to be stored temporarily therein once more. Finally, the compressed musical data is read out from the DRAM 107 and recorded into the hard disc of the HDD 106. As described above, a request can be made to move compressed musical data stored in the HDD 10 employed in the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. After the compressed musical data is transmitted or transferred to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 at such a request, the compressed musical data in the HDD 10 remains as data that can not be read out and played back from the HDD 10. However, the compressed musical data moved to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can be returned back to the recording medium serving as a move source, that is, the HDD 10 employed in the music server 50. The compressed musical data returned back to the move source can be played back by the music server 50. When the compressed musical data is returned back to the music server 50, the compressed musical data is deleted from the hard disc of the HDD 106 employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, which serves as a move destination. That is to say, the compressed musical data returned back to the music server 50 is erased from a recording medium of the move destination. In this embodiment, an audio signal supplied by a microphone connected to a terminal 109 by way of an amplifier 110 or an audio signal input from a line input terminal 111 is supplied to the compression encoder 108 by way of an A/D converter 112. The audio signal output by the A/D converter 112, and compressed and encoded by the compression encoder 108 can be recorded in the HDD 106. In addition, an optical digital signal from an optical digital input terminal 113 is also supplied to the compression encoder 108 by way of an IEC-958 (International Electrotechnical Commission 958) encoder 114. The optical digital signal, which is also an audio signal, is compressed and encoded by the compression encoder 108. The compressed and encoded audio signal can be recorded onto the hard disc of the HDD 106. If the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is a portable playback-only apparatus only for playing back musical data, recording components such as the A/D converter 112 and the compression encoder 108 can all be eliminated. In a playback operation, the compressed musical is read out from the HDD 106 and supplied to a compression decoder 115 by way of the bus 130. The compression decoder 115 decodes and decompresses the compressed musical data read out from the HDD 106. The decoded and decompressed musical data is then supplied to a D/A converter 116 before being supplied to a terminal 118 by way of an amplifier 117. By mounting a headphone 72 on the terminal 118, the user is capable of enjoying the reproduced music. It should be noted that, in the case of a stereo system which is not shown in FIG. 5, there are provided 2 routes from the D/A converter 116 to the terminal 118 by way of the amplifier 117 for L and R channels respectively. Of course, 2 terminals 118 are provided in the stereo system for the L and R channels respectively. An LCD panel 120 is connected to the bus 130 by an LCD driving circuit 119. The CPU 105 supplies a rendering control signal to the LCD driving circuit 119 by way of the bus 130. The LCD driving circuit 119 drives the LCD panel 120 in accordance with the rendering control signal received from the CPU 105 to make a predetermined display appear on the LCD panel 120. For example, an operation menu of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is displayed on the LCD panel 120. As another example, a list of titles of compressed musical data recorded and stored in the HDD 106 may also be displayed on the LCD panel 120. In addition, a folder and a jacket image associated with selected playback compressed musical data may also be displayed on the LCD panel 120. The displayed folder and the jacket image are based on additional information stored in the HDD 106. The user operates a pointing device of the input operation unit 102 on the basis of a screen displayed on the LCD panel 120. Control of an operation to select a piece of compressed musical data among those stored in the HDD 106 and an operation to delete selected musical data, or copy or move selected musical data to another apparatus can also be based on a screen displayed on the LCD panel 120. For example, the input operation unit 102 may include a touch panel. In this case, by touching the touch panel in accordance with a screen displayed on the LCD panel 120, the user is capable of entering an operation input to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. In this way, the user is capable of administering compressed musical data stored in the HDD 106 as well as controlling processing such as operations to play back compressed musical data stored in the HDD 106 and recording compressed musical data into the HDD 106 by using the LCD panel 120 as an interface. It should be noted that the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is driven by a battery, which is not shown in FIG. 5. That is why the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is provided with a power supply unit employing an ordinary secondary battery or a dry battery as a power supplying source, and is provided with an electrical charging unit. With the mounting unit of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 connected directly to the mounting unit of the music server 50 or with the connection lines, the electrical charging unit electrically charges the secondary battery employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 with electrical power received from the music server 50 during a transfer of musical data from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. It is needless to say that the secondary battery employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can also be electrically charged by an external electrical charging unit. It should be noted that, as the power supply to serve as a power supplying source of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, only one of the dry cell and the rechargeable secondary battery can also be used or provided. FIG. 6 is a diagram showing another typical configuration of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. It should be noted that, in the configuration shown in FIG. 6, members identical with those employed in the configuration shown in FIG. 5 are denoted by the same reference numerals as the latter and detailed explanation of such members is not repeated. The portable recording and playback apparatus 70 shown in FIG. 6 is different from the configuration shown in FIG. 5 in that, in the case of the former, a switch circuit 200 is provided between the HDD (or the flash memory) 106a and the bus 130. One of select terminals 200a of the switch circuit 200 is connected to the bus 130 while another select terminal 200b is connected to the interface 35. The switch circuit 200 isolates the HDD 106a from the bus 130. When compressed musical data is received from the music server 50, the switch circuit 200 is set at the select terminal 200b, that is, the select terminal 200b is selected. With the select terminal 200b selected, the HDD 106a is directly connected to the bus 40 employed in the music server 50 by the interface 35 and the interface 34. In this connection, the HDD 106a appears to the CPU 8 employed in the music server 50 as if the HDD 106a were a local recording medium in the music server 50. Thus, the CPU 8 employed in the music server 50 is capable of controlling the HDD 106a directly. As a result, compressed musical data can be moved and transferred between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 with ease under the control of the CPU 8. Next, the operation of the information communication having the configuration described above is explained. First of all, functions executed by the music server 50 as a standalone apparatus are described. FIG. 7 shows a flowchart representing typical processing carried out by the music server 50 to record musical data read out from the CD 55 mounted on the CD-ROM drive 9 onto a hard disc of the HDD 10. As shown in the figure, the flowchart begins with a step S10 at which the music server 50 enters a state of waiting for a request to be made to record musical data read out from the CD 55 mounted on the CD-ROM drive 9 onto a hard disc of the HDD 10. As the user makes such a request by, for example, operating the input operation unit 1, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S11 to form a judgment as to whether the user made a request for high-speed recording or one-time-speed recording. Typically, when the user makes such a request at the step S10, the user also specifies a recording technique. To be more specific, the user also specifies whether the request is a request for high-speed recording or one-time-speed recording. The one-time-speed recording is an operation to read out musical data from the CD 55 and to record the data into the hard disc of the HDD 10 at a standard speed prescribed for the CD 55. On the other hand, the high-speed recording is an operation to read out musical data from the CD 55 and to record the data into the hard disc of the HDD 10 at a speed at least twice the standard speed prescribed for the CD 55. If the outcome of the judgment formed at the step S11 indicates that the high-speed recording was specified, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S12 at which a charging system of the Internet server 60 or the music server 50 is activated. The processing carried out by the charging system of the Internet server 60 or the music server 50 will be described in detail later. At any rate, a charging process for the music server 50 is carried out and, if the requested high-speed recording of musical data from the Internet server 60 or other sources is permitted, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S13 at which a high-speed compression process is activated in the compression encoder 12. The flow of the processing then goes on to a step S15. If the outcome of the judgment formed at the step S11 indicates that the one-time-speed recording was specified, on the other hand, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S14 at which a low-speed compression process is activated in the compression encoder 12. The flow of the processing then goes on to the step S15. At the step S15, the CD-ROM drive 9 is driven at a predetermined speed and musical data is read out from the CD 55 mounted on the CD-ROM drive 9 in accordance with control executed by the CPU 8. The musical data read out from the CD 55 is subjected to a compression-encoding process in the compression encoder 12 before being transferred to the HDD 10 to be recorded on a hard disc thereof. If the transfer of the musical data read out from the CD 55 to the HDD 10 is found completed at a step S16, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S17 at which a transfer of data from the CD-ROM drive 9 to the HDD 10 is inhibited. At the next step S18, the compression processing at the compression encoder 12 is halted. FIGS. 8A and 8B show a flowchart representing typical charging processes of the charging system carried out at the step S12 of the flowchart shown in FIG. 7. The charging process is carried out when data is communicated between the music server 50 and the Internet server 60. FIG. 8A shows a flowchart representing a partial charging process of the charging system for the music server 50 and FIG. 8B shows a flowchart representing a partial charging process of the charging system for the Internet server 60. As shown in FIG. 8A, the flowchart begins with a step S20 when the charging process is started. At this step, communication is established by adopting a predetermined protocol between the music server 50 and the Internet server 60. The flow of the process then goes on to a step S21 to form a judgment as to whether a connection has been established between the music server 50 and the Internet server 60 and communications are possible between the music server 50 and the Internet server 60. If a connection has been established to allow communications, the flow of the process goes on to a step S22. At the step S22, the TOC information of the CD 55 mounted on the CD-ROM drive 9 of the music server 50 with the user ID corresponding to the music server 50 is output to the Internet server 60. The CD 55 is a CD, from which data is to be transferred from the HDD 10 of the music server 50 and to be recorded onto the hard disc of the HDD 10. The music server 50 also transmits high-speed-recording information indicating that high-speed recording is to be carried out to the Internet server 60 along with the TOC information. On the other hand, the flowchart shown in FIG. 8B begins with a step S30 at which the Internet server 60 enters a state of waiting for the user ID, the high-speed-recording information and the TOC information to arrive from the music server 50. As the Internet server 60 receives the user ID, the high-speed-recording information and the TOC information, the flow of the process goes on to a step S31 at which the Internet server 60 searches the data base thereof for information indicated by the TOC information. The information indicated by the TOC information may also be acquired from an external data base. The information indicated by the TOC information is used for identifying the CD 55. At the next step S32, a charging process is carried out. To put it in detail, a recording fee is computed from information such as the number of pieces of music to undergo the high-speed recording. The fee can then be drawn from a bank account specified by the user using the user's credit-card number corresponding to the user ID cataloged in advance. The fee charging method is not limited to such a technique. Another technique to charge a recording fee to the user, the charging process is performed on the music server 50 side, is conceivable. For example, the music server 50 may be provided with a function to read a prepaid card. In this case, the computed recording fee is transmitted to the music server 50, which draws the fee from the prepaid card. The recording fee may also be changed in dependent on contents of the CD 55 under the control of the Internet server 60, which can be identified from the TOC information. It is also possible to prohibit an operation to record musical data read out from the CD 55 onto the hard disc of the HDD 10. At the next step S33, the charging information is transmitted to the music server 50. Then, the charging process continues to a step S23 of the flowchart shown in FIG. 8A at which the music server 50 checks the substance of the charging information received from the Internet server 60. In the mean time, at a step S34 of the flowchart shown in FIG. 8B, the Internet server 60 verifies whether or not the charging information was received by the music server 50 as follows. Typically, after the music server 50 confirms that the charging information received from the Internet server 60 was correctly received with no errors, the music server 50 transmits data indicating the confirmation to the Internet server 60. If the music server 50 confirms reception of the charging information at the step S3 of the flowchart shown in FIG. 8A, the flow of the process goes on to a step S24 at which the charging information and other data are displayed on the display unit 53. At the next step S25, musical data is read out by the CD-ROM driver 9 from the CD 55 at a high speed and then subjected to a compression process in the compression encoder 12 also at a high compression speed. The compressed musical data output by the compression encoder 12 is then supplied to the HDD 10 to be stored onto the hard disc of the HDD 10. The step S25 corresponds to the step S15 of the flowchart shown in FIG. 7. By the way, in this embodiment, a coordinated operation between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is possible. When musical data is moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, for example, a coordinated operation is carried out between two devices. FIG. 9 shows a flowchart representing this move operation. As shown in the figure, the flowchart begins with a step S40 to form a judgment with the CPU 8 as to whether or not the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 are connected to each other by the interfaces 34 and 35. The connection between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can be detected by, for example, CPU8 exchanging a predetermined signal between the interfaces 34 and 35. In addition to an exchange of a signal between the interfaces 34 and 35 by the CPU 8, a switch mechanism is provided on the junction between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to serve as a mechanical detection mechanism for CPU 8 detecting connection between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. If the connection between the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is verified at the step S40, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S41 to form a judgment with the CPU 8 as to whether or not there is a request for an operation to move musical data stored or recorded in the HDD 10 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. Typically, a list of pieces of information such as mainly titles of pieces of musical data stored in the HDD 10 is displayed on the display unit 53. The user is allowed to make a request for an operation to move musical data stored or recorded in the HDD 10 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 by specifying the title of a specific piece of musical data among those on the list appearing on the display unit 53. A title can be specified by the user by, for example, operating a pointing device on the input operation unit 1. The request for an operation to move the specific musical data stored or recorded in the HDD 10 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is then entered by the user via the input operation unit 1. There are conceivable techniques of entering a request for an operation to move compressed musical data stored or recorded in the HDD 10 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 via the input operation unit 1. In accordance with one of the techniques, a button for making a request for an operation to move compressed musical data stored or recorded in the HDD 10 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is displayed on the display unit 53, and the user specifies this button by using the pointing device of the input operation unit 1. In accordance with another technique, an icon is displayed on the display unit 53 for each piece of compressed musical data and the user moves the icon of a piece of compressed musical data to be transferred to an icon of the move destination, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, also displayed on the display unit 53 in the so-called drag and drop operation. In this case, the destination of the move operation is the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. Of course, a request for an operation to move compressed musical data stored or recorded in the HDD 10 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can also be made by operating an operation switch provided on the input operation unit 1. CPU 8 makes the judgment by detecting the input operation mentioned above whether or not the request for movement is made. If the outcome of the judgment formed at the step S41 indicates that a request for an operation to move compressed musical data stored or recorded in the HDD 10 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 was made, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S42 at which typically the CPU 8 employed in the music server 50 examines the file size of the compressed musical data to be moved, that is, the amount of data. At the next step S43, the CPU 105 employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 which can communicate with the CPU 8 examines the size of a free area in the HDD 106 and, typically, the CPU 8 employed in the music server 50 compares the size of the free size with the file size of the compressed musical data to be moved examined at the step S42. The CPU 8 forms a judgment as to whether or not the compressed musical data to be moved can be recorded into the free area in the HDD 106 at the step 43. The formation of the judgment is based on the result of the comparison carried out at the step S43. If the outcome of the judgment indicates that the compressed musical data to be moved can be recorded into the free area in the HDD 106, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S45 at which the operation to move the compressed musical from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is started. If the outcome of the judgment formed with the CPU 8 at the step S43 indicates that the size of the free area in the HDD 106 employed by the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is not sufficient, on the other hand, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S44. At the step S44, the CPU 105 employed in the apparatus 70 deletes some compressed musical data already recorded in the HDD 106 automatically or in accordance with a procedure or a technique described later so that the compressed musical data to be moved can be recorded into the HDD 106. The flow of the processing then goes on to the step S45. At the step S44, compressed musical data is deleted from the HDD 106 automatically under control executed by the CPU 105 on the basis of a predetermined parameter of compressed musical data already recorded in the HDD 106. For example, in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, the number of playback-operation executions is counted for each piece of compressed musical data recorded in the HDD 106. Pieces of compressed musical data may then be deleted from the HDD 106 starting with one having a smallest number of playback-operation executions. Pieces of compressed musical data may also be deleted from the HDD 106 starting with that having a least recent recording date where a recording date is a date on which a piece of compressed musical data is recorded into the HDD 106. When pieces of compressed musical data are deleted from the HDD 106 automatically at the step S44, it is quite within the bounds of possibility that a piece of compressed musical data of importance to the user is erased from the HDD 106. In order to prevent a piece of compressed musical data of importance to the user from being erased, a warning message is displayed on the display unit 53 employed in the music server 50 or the LCD panel 120 of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. The warning message may notify the user that an operation to delete a piece of compressed musical data automatically from the HDD 106 will be carried out or may be a list of pieces of compressed musical data to be deleted. In this case, a piece of compressed musical data will be deleted only if the deletion is approved by the user. As another alternative, the user itself selects a piece of compressed musical data from those on a list displayed on the display unit 53 employed in the music server 50 or the LCD panel 120 of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. When the flow of the processing departs from the step S43 or S44, a piece of compressed musical data to be moved from the HDD 10 employed in the music server 50 to the HDD 106 can be recorded into the HDD 106. At the next step S45, the transmission or the transfer of the compressed musical data from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is started. That is to say, the compressed musical data read out from the HDD 10 is supplied to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 by way of the bus 40 and the interface 34. In the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, the compressed musical data received from the music server 50 through the interface 34 is recorded into the HDD 106 by way of the interface 35. The compressed musical data transferred to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 remains also in the HDD 10 employed in the music server 50 as it was before the transfer. In this embodiment, however, an operation to play back compressed musical data remaining in the HDD 10 but already transferred or moved to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is prohibited at the step S46. Typically, a playback inhibit flag is set upon completion of the transfer of the compressed musical data to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to indicate that an operation to play back the compressed musical data from the HDD 10 is prohibited. That is to say, the playback inhibit flag prevents the CPU 8 employed in the music server 50 from playing back the compressed musical data remaining in the HDD 10 but already transferred or moved to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. The playback inhibit flag also indicates that the compressed musical data recorded in the HDD 10 has virtually migrated from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. Thus, even if a plurality of same pieces of compressed musical data exist in both the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, only one of them can be played back. As a result, an operation to illegally copy musical data is prohibited. The flow of the processing then goes on to a step S47 to form a judgment as to whether or not a request to move a next piece of musical data to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is made. If a request to move a next piece of musical data to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is made, the flow of the processing goes back to the step S42. If no request to move a next piece of musical data to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is made, on the other hand, the processing to move a series of pieces of musical data is completed. As described above, at the steps S42 to S46 of the flowchart shown in FIG. 9, only one of a plurality of pieces of compressed musical data stored in the HDD 10 is moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. It should be noted, however, that the way to move compressed musical data is not limited to what is described above. For example, a plurality of pieces of compressed musical data stored in the HDD 10 can also be moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 simultaneously at the same time in a batch operation. In the embodiment described above, the compressed musical data physically left in the HDD 10 of the music server 50 serving as the move source but virtually moved to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is merely put in a playback inhibit status at the step S46. It should be noted, however, that, the way to handle compressed musical data moved to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is not limited to what is described above. For example, the compressed musical data moved to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can be deleted from the HDD 10. That is to say, the compressed musical data itself can be physically erased from the HDD 10. In the embodiment described above, compressed musical data is moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. It is worth noting, however, that compressed musical data can also be moved in the opposite direction by carrying out processing similar to the processing represented by the flowchart shown in FIG. 9. That is to say, compressed musical data recorded in the HDD 106 of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can be moved to the HDD 10 employed in the music server 50. When a piece of compressed musical data moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is moved back from the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to the music server 50, the playback inhibit flag of the piece of compressed musical data in the HDD 10 employed in the music server 50 is reset. By resetting the playback inhibit flag, the piece of compressed musical data, which was the source of the original move, can again be played back in the music server 50. The compressed musical data, which was present in the HDD 106 employed in the apparatus 70 but moved back to the music server 50, is deleted from the HDD 106. As an alternative, instead of deleting the compressed musical data itself, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 may also delete management information of the compressed musical data from a management table. With this embodiment, the user is capable of creating a list of programs. A list of programs is a list of pieces of music properly selected from those recorded in the HDD 10 employed in the music server 50. The music server 50 displays an edit screen on the display unit 53. The edit screen is used for creating and editing a list of programs. That is to say, the user is capable of editing an existing list of programs and creating a new list of programs by using the edit screen. The user is capable of controlling pieces of musical data recorded in the HDD 10 of the music server 50 by using a list of programs. A list of programs created in this way is stored in predetermined memory means such as the HDD 10. The music server 50 may have a plurality of program lists. The user is capable of selecting a plurality of favorite pieces of musical data recorded in the HDD 10 of the music server 50 as a collection on a list of programs and playing back the favorite pieces of musical data for enjoyment like a CD album. In addition, a plurality of pieces of musical data put on a list of programs can be moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 in a batch operation. The present invention also provides dedicated edit means for editing a list of programs used when moving a plurality of pieces of musical data in a batch operation. The following description explains a list of programs for use in a batch operation to move musical data and processing to create and edit such a list of programs. It should be noted that, in the following description, a list of pieces of musical data stored in the HDD 10 of the music server 50 is referred to as a stock list, and a list of pieces of musical data to be transferred from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is known as a transfer list. The stock list and the transfer list are each a kind of program list described above. FIG. 10 is a diagram showing a typical edit screen for editing a transfer list. On the edit screen, a transfer list and a stock list are displayed as examples. To be more specific, a transfer-list edit screen 310 appears on the display unit 53 as shown in FIG. 10. The edit screen 310 includes list areas 300 and 301, which are each displayed as a window. In the list area 300, a stock list is displayed. The stock list is a list of pieces of musical data stored in the music server 50. In the list area 301, on the other hand, a transfer list to be edited is displayed. The transfer list is a list of pieces of musical data to be moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. What are actually put on the transfer and stock lists are titles of musical data. Tri-angular buttons 302 and 303 oriented in directions opposite to each other are buttons for editing the transfer list displayed in the list area 301. To be more specific, the button 302 is used for adding a piece of musical data selected among those on the stock list displayed in the list area 300 to the transfer list appearing in the list area 301. On the other hand, the button 303 is used for deleting a piece of musical data selected among those on the transfer list displayed in the list area 301 from the transfer list. As described above, the music server 50 may have a plurality of program lists corresponding to the each part of the apparatus 70. Thus, a plurality of transfer lists may exist. The edit screen 310 shown in FIG. 10 displays 3 transfer lists as an example. In this case, tabs 304A, 304B and 304C are displayed on the top of the list area 301 for the 3 transfer lists respectively. In the list area 301, a transfer list of a selected tab 304A, 304B or 304C is displayed. It is nice to display an ID of the apparatus 70 to be described later at a predetermined position in the list area 301. It should be noted that such an ID is not shown in the figure. A variety of operations can be carried out on the input operation unit 1 shown in FIG. 2 for the edit screen 310. The display unit 53 will display information corresponding to an operation carried out on the input operation unit 1 on the edit screen 310. While looking at the edit screen 310 on the display unit 53, the user typically operates a variety of switches such as dial-type and push-type operation keys provided in the input operation unit 1 to specify a location on the edit screen 310 and to enter a command Signals representing a variety of operations carried out on the input operation unit 1 are supplied to the CPU 8 by way of the bus 40. As described above, the input operation unit 1 is directly provided on the server main body 51 shown in FIG. 2. It should be noted, however, that the information communication system is not limited to such a configuration. For example, an external operation unit 1′ can be provided by connecting it to the server main body 51 by a wire as is the case with an embodiment shown in FIG. 11. To put it in detail, the input operation unit 1′ is connected to the bus 40 of the server main body 51 either directly or indirectly through a predetermined interface. The input operation unit 1′ includes a variety of operators for editing a transfer list displayed on the edit screen 310 and a transfer button for making a request for a transfer of pieces of musical data put on a transfer list from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. In addition, in the case of the embodiment shown in FIG. 11, the sever main body 51 has a mounting unit 311 for mounting the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. On the mounting unit 311, an interface 34 is provided. By mounting the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 on the mounting unit 311, the interface 35 employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is electrically connected to the interface 34 so that communication can be established between the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 and the music server 50. Thereby, musical data can be transferred from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. FIGS. 12A and 12B are diagrams conceptually showing a typical management method for controlling a list of programs. Program lists are stored in a program file. A program file is typically stored in a predetermined area of the HDD 10 employed in the music server 50. The area is used for storing all program lists of the music server 50. A program file conceptually has a structure shown in FIG. 12A. As shown in the figure, program lists in a program file are distinguished from each other by assigning an ID to each of the program lists. On the other hand, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 also has a unique ID for distinguishing the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 individually from others. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 5, for example, this ID is stored in the ROM 104 in advance. Each program-list ID in the program file stored in the music server 50 is typically associated with the ID of a portable recording and playback apparatus 70 so that it is possible to create a list of programs applicable only to a specific portable recording and playback apparatus 70. In this case, the ID of a program list is the same as the ID assigned to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 associated with the program list. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 12, a program-list ID of 300 is assigned to a list of programs associated with a certain portable recording and playback apparatus 70. With such ID assignment, pieces of musical data on the list of programs having the list ID of 300 can be moved only to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 with the same apparatus ID as the list ID. By the same token, by using another program-list ID such as an ID of 301, it is possible to define a list of programs associated with a portable recording and playback apparatus 70 having the same apparatus ID as the program-list ID. In this way, the music server 50 can be provided with a plurality of program lists, which are each associated with a portable recording and playback apparatus 70 and can be distinguished from each other by assigning an ID to each of the program lists. In addition, an ID assigned to a list of programs can be used for identifying the type of the program list. In processing to edit a list of programs by using the screen edit 310, the list of programs to be edited is indicated by specifying an ID assigned to the list and the specified list is read out from the program file. The list of programs read out from the program file is stored in a predetermined area of typically the RAM 5 along with the program-list ID as shown in FIG. 12B. The CPU 8 controls an operation to display pieces of musical data on the list of programs stored in the RAM 5 in the list area 301 of the edit screen 310 as a transfer list. The user then edits the transfer list displayed on the screen edit 310. To be more specific, for example, the user adds a piece of musical data to the transfer list or deletes one from the list. The list of programs stored in the RAM 5 is updated in accordance with results of the editing operation. Then, musical data is transferred from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 in accordance with the edited list of programs. Thus, the work to edit the list of programs to be referred to in transferring musical data can be done without regard to whether or not the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has been mounted on or connected to the music server 50. FIG. 13 shows a flowchart representing typical processing to edit a transfer list and to transfer musical data cataloged on the edited transfer list. As shown in the figure, the flowchart begins with a step S50 at which the work to edit the transfer list is started. Typically, the input operation unit 1′ has a list edit button to be operated to request the music server 50 to carry out work to edit a transfer list. When this list edit button is pressed by the user, the HDD 10 is searched for a list management module. Provided in a predetermined area at the beginning of the program file, the list management module is used for recording information on program lists. The CPU 8 reads out the information from the list management module to acquire a predetermined address of transfer list data in the HDD 10. The transfer list stored at the acquired address is then obtained by the CPU 8. Subsequently, display data based on the transfer list obtained by the CPU 8 is generated. The CPU 8 then supplies the display data to the LCD panel 26 employed in the display unit 53 by way of the LCD driver 25 to be displayed on the LCD panel 26. In this way, the edit screen shown in FIG. 10 described above is displayed on the display unit 53 with the transfer list put in a state of being editable. The ID of a portable recording and playback apparatus 70 serving as a recipient of musical data to be transferred is entered. Such an ID is entered by specifying a desired one of the tabs 304A to 304C of the edit screen 310 shown in FIG. 10. In an example described below, a list of programs with an ID of 300 is selected. At the next step S51, the program file stored in the HDD 10 is searched for a list of programs with an ID of 300 by the CPU 8. The flow of the processing then goes on to a step S52 to form a judgment as to whether or not the program file includes such a list of programs. If the program file does not include such a list of programs, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S53 at which a new list of programs with an ID of 300 is created in the program file stored in the HDD 10. After the new list of programs is created, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S54. If the program list includes such a list of programs, on the other hand, the flow of the processing goes on directly to the step S54. In this embodiment, when program file does not include such a list of programs, a new list of programs is created in the program file stored in the HDD 10. However, it is also possible to adopt following construction such that if program list corresponding to the input ID of the apparatus 70 which can be transferred is created in advance in the HDD 10 of the music server 50, when the program list is not included in the program file as described above, transfer of the data may be prohibited as the CPU 8 makes a judgment that the transfer of the data to the apparatus 70 corresponding to the input ID is not permitted. At the step S54, the list of programs with an ID of 300 is opened. To put it in more detail, the list of programs with an ID of 300 is read out with CPU 8 from the program file stored in the HDD 10 as shown in FIG. 12. The list of programs read out from the program file is stored into the RAM 5 to be read out later by the CPU 8. After reading out the list of programs, the CPU 8 controls an operation to display the edit screen 310 shown in FIG. 10 on the display unit 53, allowing the user to edit the transfer list. Thus, in the list area 301 of the edit screen 310, the list of programs opened at the step S54 is displayed in the list area 301. If the list of programs was newly created, that is, if the list of programs contains no data, the transfer list displayed in the list area 301 is empty. In the list area 300, on the other hand, a table of pieces of musical data stored in the HDD 10 is displayed. As described earlier, this table is referred to as a stock list. It should be noted that, instead of displaying such a stock list, it is also possible to display a list of only pieces of musical data, which are obtained as a result of an operation to search all pieces of musical data stored in the HDD 10 for ones satisfying a predetermined condition. As described above, the user appropriately operates the buttons 302 and 303 to transfer musical data from the list area 300 to the list area 301 and vice versa. In this way, pieces of musical data can be added to or deleted from the transfer list displayed in the list area 301. Or the user may select the musical data by using the mouse pointer and the like and may make a request for the addition or deletion of the pieces of musical data by so-called drag and drop operation using the mouse pointer between the list area 300 and the list area 301. When the user finishes the work to edit the transfer list, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S56 to make a request for a transfer of musical data cataloged on the transfer list from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. The input operation unit 1′ includes typically a transfer button for requesting the music server 50 to transfer pieces of musical data put on a transfer list. The user presses the transfer button to make a request for the transfer of the pieces of musical data put on the transfer list. The flow of the processing then goes on to a step S57 to form a judgment as to whether or not the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has been really mounted on the music server 50. If the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has not been mounted on the music server 50, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S58 at which a warning is output to indicate that the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has not been mounted on the music server 50. The flow of the processing then goes back to the step S57 to repeat the pieces of processing at the steps S57 and S58 till the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is mounted. As the outcome of the judgment formed at the step S57 confirms that the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has been mounted on the music server 50, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S59. It should be noted that there are a variety of conceivable methods to form a judgment as to whether or not the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has been really mounted on the music server 50. A typical method is explained below. For example, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is provided with a micro switch serving as hardware detection means for detecting the fact that the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is mounted on the music server 50. When the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is mounted on the music server 50, the detection means detects the fact that the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is mounted on the music server 50, causing a predetermined pin of the interface 35 employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 such as the 3rd pin, for example, to be set in an ‘H’ (high) state. A pin of the interface 34 employed in the music server 50 serving as the counterpart of the predetermined pin of the interface 35 is connected to an interrupt pin of the CPU 8. When the predetermined pin of the interface 35 is set in an ‘H’ state, the CPU 8 is interrupted. The interrupt sets a predetermined bit of a register employed in the CPU 8 in an ‘H’ state, too. At the step S57, the CPU 8 detects the bit value of the register to form a judgment as to whether or not the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has been really mounted on the music server 50. An ‘H’ state of the register bit indicates that the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has been really mounted on the music server 50. Refer back to the flowchart shown in FIG. 13. If the outcome of the judgment formed at the step S57 indicates the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has been really mounted on the music server 50, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S59. At the step S59, the ID of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 mounted on the music server 50 is checked to form a judgment as to whether or not the ID matches the ID of 300 input at the step S50 or the ID corresponds to the list area 301. The ID checked at this step is typically read out by the CPU 8 employed in the music server 50 from the ROM 104 of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 through the interfaces 34 and 35. If the ID of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 does not match the ID input at the step S50, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S58 to output a warning indicating that the ID of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 does not match the ID input at the step S50. If the ID of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 matches the ID input at the step S50, on the other hand, the flow of the processing goes on to a step S60. At the step S60, musical data put on the transfer list edited at the step S55 is moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. At that time, the transfer list showing the moved musical data can also be transferred from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 along with the musical data. As described above, a transfer list unique to each portable recording and playback apparatus 70 can be created. A transfer of musical data to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is based on the transfer list unique to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. A transfer list is kept in the music server 50. It is not until detection of the mounting of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 on the music server 50 that musical data put on the transfer list is transferred to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. Thus, a transfer list can be edited even if the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is not mounted on the music server 50. Let us consider a case in which musical data moved previously from the music server 50 is still stored in the HDD 106 of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. As described above, in this embodiment, musical data moved from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is put in status of being irreproducible in the music server 50 till the musical data is returned from the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 back to the music server 50. Assume that musical data stored in the HDD 106 of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is overwritten by musical data newly received from the music server 50, or musical data previously stored in the HDD 106 of the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is inadvertently erased in an operation to store musical data newly received from the music server 50 into the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. In this case, the overwritten or erased musical data transferred originally from the music server 50 can no longer be played back in the music server 50 and the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. In a transfer of musical data put on a transfer list from the music server 50 to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, the music server 50 acquires a list of musical data stored in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 and for example the CPU 8 compares this list with the transfer list. If the result of the comparison indicates that a piece of musical data stored in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is different from pieces of musical data on the transfer list, the piece of musical data stored in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 is examined by the CPU 8 to find out whether or not this piece of musical data stored in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has been returned to the music server 50 by checking the playback inhibit flag of the data in the program file. If the piece of musical data stored in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 has not been returned to the music server 50, the CPU 8 issues a command to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to return the piece of data from the HDD 106 employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to the HDD 10 of the music server 50. CPU 5 is controlled to transfer the data from the HDD 106 to the HDD 10 in accordance with the request from the CPU 8. For example, under the control of the CPU 5, the management data of the data in question of the HDD 106 is deleted and at the same time, the data itself is stored by releasing, with CPU 8, the playback inhibit flag of the data. It should be noted that, if there is a piece of musical data common to both the list in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 and the transfer list in the music server 50, the transfer of the common piece of musical data can be omitted so that the time it takes to carry out the processing becomes shorter. The CPU 8 of the music server 50 is capable of obtaining the list in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 by issuing an instruction to the CPU 105 employed in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 by way of the interfaces 34 and 35 to request the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 to transmit the list. In accordance with this instruction, the CPU 105 creates a list of musical data stored in the HDD 106 and supplies the created list to the CPU 8 of the music server 50 by way of the interfaces 34 and 35. Instead of comparison of the transfer list with the list in the portable recording and playback apparatus 70, a created transfer list is saved by the music server 50 and, when a new transfer list is created, the newly created transfer list is compared with the saved transfer list. As described above, the portable recording and playback apparatus 70 serves as a destination of a transfer of musical data from the music server 50. It should be noted that the transfer destination is not limited to the portable recording and playback apparatus 70. For example, an optical disc or a magneto-optical disc having a diameter of about 64 mm can also be used as a transfer destination. Typically, the music server 50 is provided with a drive unit capable of recording and/or playing back data into and/or from an optical disc or a magneto-optical disc with a diameter of about 64 mm, which serves as a transfer destination. Pieces of musical data to be transferred to the optical disc or the magneto-optical disc with a diameter of about 64 mm can be selected in advance even if the optical disc or the magneto-optical disc with a diameter of about 64 mm has not been mounted on the drive unit yet. If an optical disc or a magneto-optical disc with a diameter of about 64 mm is used as a transfer destination, the ID checking described above can be omitted. In the above description, the ATRAC method is adopted as a compression-encoding technique for carrying out a compression-encoding process on musical data recorded onto the HDD 10, the HDD 106 or the HDD 106a. It should be noted, however, that the compression-encoding technique is not limited to the ATRAC method. For example, a compression-encoding technique known as MPEG Audio Layer III (Moving Picture Experts Group Audio Layer III) or simply as MP3 can also be applied to the present invention. As described above, in accordance with the present invention, there is exhibited an effect of an ability to transfer musical data cataloged on a transfer list from a music server to a portable recording and playback apparatus in a batch operation. Moreover, the transfer list is kept in the music server and, it is not until detection of mounting of the portable recording and playback apparatus on the music server that the musical data cataloged on a transfer list is transferred from the music server to the portable recording and playback apparatus. For this reason, there is also exhibited an effect of an ability to edit the transfer list even if the portable recording and playback apparatus is not mounted on the musical server. In addition, since the transfer list is edited by using an edit screen, there is also exhibited an effect of elimination of confusion due to the fact that the present list editing purpose is no longer known. Furthermore, since a program list used in moving musical data from the music server to the portable recording and playback apparatus must be a transfer list, there is also exhibited an effect of, for example, prevention of a program list created for organizing pieces of music data stored in the music server from being used inadvertently in transferring pieces of musical data in a batch operation due to carelessness. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention relates to an information communication system and its method as well as an information communication apparatus and its method, which are used for transmitting a plurality of pieces of data from equipment for storing data to other equipment. As a conventional apparatus, there has been developed the so-called CD changer for accommodating a number of CDs (Compact Discs) and automatically playing back the CDs. In such a CD changer, several tens to several hundreds of CDs are accommodated in a single case, and a CD selected by a predetermined operation is automatically played back. The operation to play back CDs may be carried out for each selected CD. As an alternative, a plurality of CDs are selected and the operation to play back the CDs can be carried out for each of the CDs or carried out randomly for pieces of music recorded in the CDs. In general, the CD changer is installed permanently in a room. As a portable audio-data playback apparatus, on the other hand, an apparatus using an optical disc or a magneto-optical disc with a diameter of about 64 mm has been becoming popular in recent years. The portable audio-data playback apparatus converts an analog audio signal into a digital signal, compresses the digital signal by adoption of a compression technology known as ATRAC (Adaptive Transform Acoustic Coding: Trademark) and stores the compressed signal into a magneto-optical disc. The portable audio-data playback apparatus offers a merit of no deterioration of the sound quality caused by the operations to convert the analog audio signal into the digital signal, compress the digital signal and store the compressed signal. There is also another merit of a random playback operation due to the fact that a disc is used as a recording medium. In the CD changer described above, however, it takes time to replace a CD with another even during an automatic playback operation. It is thus difficult to implement a continuous playback operation. In addition, a CD changer for accommodating 100 to 200 CDs has a large and heavy cabinet, which is very inconvenient when the CD changer is carried or installed. Also in the portable audio-data playback apparatus described above, once audio data has been recorded onto a magneto-optical disc, the playback operation is limited to the range of the disc. That is to say, a random or general playback operation can not be carried out over a plurality of magneto-optical discs. It is thus necessary to replace a magneto-optical disc with another severally in order to carry out a random playback operation from a plurality of magneto-optical discs or an operation to play back specified pieces of music. As a result, the user must always take a plurality of magneto-optical discs or optical discs with the portable audio-data playback apparatus. In order to solve these problems, for example, there has been proposed a music server equipped with a recording medium such as a hard-disc drive having a relatively small size but a large recording capacity to serve as a CD changer described above. In a music server, audio data is read out from a CD, compressed and coded by adopting a predetermined technique and then recorded and stored in a hard-disc drive. By using a hard-disc drive with a recording capacity of about 6 Gbyte, musical data of about 1,000 pieces of music can be recorded. In addition, unlike the CD changer, time and labor to replace a CD with another are not required in a music server. As a result, the music server offers a merit of an easy continuous playback operation. Other merits include the fact that data of numerous pieces of music can be recorded into a unit of hard-disc drive and the fact that the cabinet can be made small in size. It has been further proposed the use of a hard-disc drive or a semiconductor memory as a recording or storage medium in the portable audio-data playback apparatus described above. The music server described above may be connected to the portable audio-data playback apparatus so that audio data stored in the music server can be transferred to the portable audio-data playback apparatus to be recorded or stored into the recording medium of the apparatus. Assume that the recording or storage capacity of the recording medium is 200 MB. In this case, it is no longer necessary for the user to carry a plurality of magneto-optical discs or optical discs. Of course, it is also unnecessary to replace a magneto-optical disc or an optical disc with another. By the way, a music server is capable of storing a large amount of musical data as described above. Thus, if musical data is transferred from the music server to the portable audio-data playback apparatus by selecting pieces of music thereof to be transferred piece by piece, there will be raised a problem of cumbersome work to repeat the same operation several times. In order to solve this problem, there has been conceived a data transfer method whereby a list of selected pieces of music from the musical data stored in the music server is created and the selected musical data on the list is transferred in a batch operation. With this method, however, there is raised another problem that it is quite within the bounds of possibility that a confusion occurs due to an unclear purpose as to whether a list created by the user is used to organize numerous pieces of musical data stored in the music server or used to transfer pieces of musical data in a batch operation. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is thus an object of the present invention to provide an information communication system and its method as well as an information communication apparatus and its method that are capable of transferring musical data from an audio server to a portable audio-data playback apparatus with ease. In order to solve the problems described above, according to the first aspect of the present invention, there is provided a communication system including a first apparatus having a first storage medium, and a second apparatus for transmitting data to the first apparatus, the second apparatus comprising: a second storage medium for storing management information of data to be transferred to the first storage medium; communication means for communicating data with the first apparatus; edit means capable of editing the management information; and control means for making a control to transfer data stored in the second storage medium to the first storage medium by way of the communication means on the basis of the management information edited by the edit means. In addition, according to the second aspect of the present invention, there is provided a communication apparatus for transmitting data to another apparatus having a first storage medium, comprising: a second storage medium for storing management information of data stored in the first storage medium; communication means for communicating data with the another apparatus; edit means capable of editing the management information; and control means for making a control to transfer data stored in the second storage medium to the first storage medium by way of the communication means on the basis of the management information edited by the edit means. Furthermore, according to the third aspect of the present invention, there is provided a communication method for communicating a first apparatus having a first storage medium to a second apparatus for transmitting data to the first apparatus, the method comprising the steps of: editing management information of data to be transferred to the first apparatus, on the second storage medium of the second apparatus, irrespective of the fact whether or not communication is established between the first apparatus and the second apparatus; and transmitting, when communication is established between the first apparatus and the second apparatus, data stored in the second storage medium to the first storage medium on the basis of the edited management information. | H04L671095 | 20170717 | 20180717 | 20171102 | 95080.0 | H04L2908 | 19 | NGUYEN, THU HA T | COMMUNICATION SYSTEM AND ITS METHOD AND COMMUNICATION APPARATUS AND ITS METHOD | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04L | 2,017 |
15,652,230 | PENDING | PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE | Disclosed are a method, a device and/or a system of proliferating a thread count of a woven textile by simultaneous insertion within a single pick insertion event of a loom apparatus multiple adjacent parallel yarns drawn from a multi-pick yarn package. In one or more embodiments, multiple texturized polyester weft yarns of denier between 15 and 65 are wound on a single bobbin in a parallel adjacent fashion such that they may be fed into an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus of an air jet loom to weave a textile that has between 90 to 235 ends per inch cotton warp yarns and between 100 and 965 polyester weft yarns. | 1. A woven textile fabric comprising: from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns; and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns; wherein the picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another, wherein the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus, wherein the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two, wherein the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between two and eight, wherein the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is at least one of an air jet pick insertion apparatus and a rapier pick insertion apparatus, and wherein the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 5 and 25 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. 2. The woven textile fabric of claim 1: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 65. 3. The woven textile fabric of claim 1: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 15 to 35. 4. The woven textile fabric of claim 1: wherein the warp yarns are made of a cotton material. 5. The woven textile fabric of claim 4: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 25. 6. The woven textile fabric of claim 5: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns contain 10 to 30 filaments each. 7. The woven textile fabric of claim 4: wherein a total thread count is from 190 to 1200. 8. The woven textile fabric of claim 6: wherein a minimum tensile strength of the fabric in a warp direction is between 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms, wherein a minimum tensile strength of the fabric in a weft direction is between 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms, and wherein a warp-to-fill ratio of the fabric is between 1:2 to 1:4. 9. The woven textile fabric of claim 1: wherein weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns, and wherein each of the groups is made up of at least four multi-filament polyester weft yarns. 10. A woven textile fabric comprising: from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns; and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns; wherein the warp yarns are made of a cotton material, wherein the picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another, wherein weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns, wherein the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus, wherein the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two, wherein the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between two and eight, and wherein the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. 11. The woven textile fabric of claim 10: wherein a total thread count is from 190 to 1200. 12. The woven textile fabric of claim 10: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 65. 13. The woven textile fabric of claim 10: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 15 to 35. 14. The woven textile fabric of claim 10: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 25. 15. The woven textile fabric of claim 14: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns contain 10 to 30 filaments each. 16. The woven textile fabric of claim 15: wherein the fabric has a warp-to-fill ratio between 1:2 to 1:4, wherein the fabric has a minimum tensile strength in a warp direction of 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms, and wherein the fabric has a minimum tensile strength in a weft direction of 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms. 17. The woven textile fabric of claim 10: wherein weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. 18. A method of woven textile fabric comprising: forming of 190 to 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric; forming from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns; and forming from 100 to 965 picks per inch single multi-filament polyester weft yarn; wherein the picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn, wherein the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus, wherein the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is at least one, wherein the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is at least one of an air jet pick insertion apparatus and a rapier pick insertion apparatus. 19. The method of claim 18: wherein the warp yarns are made of a cotton material. 20. The method of claim 18: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 65. 21. The method of claim 18: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 15 to 35. 22. The method of claim 19: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 25. 23. The method of claim 22: wherein the multi-filament polyester yarns contain 10 to 30 filaments each. 24. A textile fabric weaving apparatus comprising: a multi-pick yarn package; and a loom apparatus, wherein the loom apparatus to include a pick insertion apparatus and a warp shed, wherein the a loom apparatus to: form 190 to 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric; form from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns; and form from 100 to 965 picks per inch single multi-filament polyester weft yarn; wherein the picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn, wherein the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus to wind a multi-filament polyester weft yarn on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, wherein the pick insertion apparatus to convey at least one multi-filament polyester weft yarn across the warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, wherein the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is at least one of an air jet pick insertion apparatus and a rapier pick insertion apparatus. 25. A textile fabric weaving apparatus comprising: a multi-pick yarn package; and a loom apparatus, wherein the loom apparatus to include a pick insertion apparatus and a warp shed, wherein the a loom apparatus to: form 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns; and form 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns; wherein the warp yarns are made of a cotton material, wherein the picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another wherein weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns, wherein the pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus to wind multi-filament polyester weft yarns in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on the multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, wherein the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus to wind at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns on the weft yarn package in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another, wherein the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus to convey between two and eight of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns across the warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and wherein the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus to wind multi-filament polyester weft yarns on the multi-pick yarn package at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. | CLAIMS OF PRIORITY This patent application is a Continuation application and claims priority from, and hereby incorporates by reference and claims priority from the entirety of the disclosures of the following cases and each of the cases on which they depend and further claim priority or incorporate by reference: 1. co-pending U.S. Continuation-In-Part patent application Ser. No. 15/059,299, titled ‘PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE’ filed on Mar. 2, 2016, which further depends on a. co-pending U.S. Continuation patent application Ser. No. 14/801,859, titled ‘PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE’ filed on Jul. 17, 2015, which further depends on b. U.S. utility patent application Ser. No. 14/185,942 filed on Feb. 21, 2014, and now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,131,790, titled ‘PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE’ granted on Sep. 15, 2015, and which further depends on c. U.S. Provisional patent application No. 61/866,047, titled ‘IMPROVED PROCESS FOR MAKING TEXTURIZED YARN AND FABRIC FROM POLYESTER AND COMPOSITION THEREOF’ filed on Aug. 15, 2013. 2. co-pending U.S. Continuation patent application Ser. No. 15/279,482, titled ‘PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE’ filed on Sep. 29, 2016, which further depends on a. co-pending U.S. Continuation patent application Ser. No. 15/096,291, filed on Apr. 12, 2016 and now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,481,950, titled ‘PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE’ granted on Nov. 1, 2016, which further depends on b. co-pending U.S. Continuation patent application Ser. No. 14/801,859, titled ‘PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE’ filed on Jul. 17, 2015, which further depends on c. U.S. utility patent application Ser. No. 14/185,942 filed on Feb. 21, 2014, and now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,131,790, titled ‘PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE’ granted on Sep. 15, 2015, and which further depends on d. U.S. Provisional patent application No. 61/866,047, titled ‘IMPROVED PROCESS FOR MAKING TEXTURIZED YARN AND FABRIC FROM POLYESTER AND COMPOSITION THEREOF’ filed on Aug. 15, 2013. FIELD OF TECHNOLOGY This disclosure relates generally to textiles and, more particularly, to a method, a device and/or a system of a proliferated thread count of a woven textile by simultaneous insertion within a single pick insertion event of a loom apparatus multiple adjacent parallel yarns drawn from a multi-pick yarn package. BACKGROUND A consumer textile, for example apparel or bed sheets, may possess several characteristics that make it desirable. One desirable characteristic may be comfort for fabrics that come in contact with human skin. Another desirable characteristic may be durability, as consumer textiles may be laundered in machine washers and dryers that may tend to shorten the useful lifespan of the textile. In commercial operations, machine laundering may occur more than in residential or small-scale settings, which may further shorten the lifespan of the textile. For textiles that contact human skin (for example T-shirts, underwear, bed sheets, towels, pillowcases), one method to increase comfort may be to use cotton yarns. Cotton may have high absorbency and breathability. Cotton may also generally be known to have a good “feel” to consumers. But cotton may not be robust when placed in an environment with heavy machine laundering. To increase durability while retaining the feel and absorbency of cotton, the cotton yarns may be woven in combination with synthetic fibers such as polyester. Cotton may be used as warp yarns, while synthetic yarns may be used as weft yarns. Constructing the textile using yarns with a smaller denier may also increase comfort. Using these relatively fine yarns may yield a higher “thread count.” A thread count of a textile may be calculated by counting the total weft yarns and warp yarns in along two adjacent edges of a square of fabric that is one-inch by one-inch. The thread count may be a commonly recognized indication of the quality of the textile, and the thread count may also be a measure that consumers associate with tactile satisfaction and opulence. However, fine synthetic weft yarns, such as polyester, may break when fed into a loom apparatus. Cotton-polyester hybrid weaves may therefore be limited to larger denier synthetic yarns that the loom may effectively use. Thus, the thread count, and its associated comfort and luxury, may be limited. In an attempt to claim high thread counts, some textile manufacturers may twist two yarns together, such that they may be substantially associated, before using them as a single yarn in a weaving process. A twisted yarn may yield properties in the textile similar to the use of a large denier yarn. Manufactures of textiles with twisted yarns may include within the advertised “thread count” each strand within each twisted yarn, even though the textile may not feel of satisfactory quality once it has been removed from its packaging and handled by the consumer. The Federal Trade Commission has taken the position in an opinion letter that it considers the practice of including each yarn within a twisted yarn in the thread count as deceptive to consumers. Because fine denier yarns may break in a loom apparatus, cotton-synthetic blends may be limited to low thread counts and thus relatively low quality and comfort. SUMMARY Disclosed are a method, a device and/or a system of proliferated thread count of a woven textile by simultaneous insertion within a single pick insertion event of a loom apparatus multiple adjacent parallel yarns drawn from a multi-pick yarn package. In one aspect, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between two and eight. Furthermore, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 5 and 25 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The woven textile fabric may be made of multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 20 to 65. The woven textile fabric may have multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 15 to 35. The warp yarns may be made of a cotton material. The woven textile fabric may also have multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 25. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester yarns may contain 10 to 30 filaments each. The woven textile fabric may have a total thread count from 190 to 1200. The woven textile fabric may have a minimum tensile strength in a warp direction between 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms and a minimum tensile strength in a weft direction between 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms. The woven textile fabric may have a warp-to-fill ratio that is between 1:2 to 1:4. The weft yarns within each group run may parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. Each of the groups may be made up of at least four multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In another aspect, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The warp yarns are made of a cotton material and the picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between two and eight. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. In another aspect, a method of a woven textile fabric includes forming 190 to 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is at least one. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. In another aspect, a method of weaving a fabric includes drawing multiple polyester weft yarns from a weft source to a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. The method also includes conveying by the pick insertion apparatus the multiple polyester weft yarns across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in a single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus and beating the multiple polyester weft yarns into a fell of the fabric with a reed apparatus of the loom apparatus such that the set of warp yarns and/or the multiple polyester weft yarns become interlaced into a woven textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In addition, the warp yarns are made of a cotton material. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Furthermore, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is two. In addition, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between two and eight. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be wound on the yarn package at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The denier of the polyester weft yarns may be between 15 and 50. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be an air jet pick insertion apparatus. Further, the multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a conning oil comprising a petroleum hydrocarbon, an emulsifier and/or a surfactant to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be a rapier insertion apparatus and/or a bullet insertion apparatus. An airflow of a primary nozzle and/or a fixed nozzle of an air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 12 Nm3/hr to 14 Nm3/hr to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The airflow of each relay nozzle in the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 100 and/or 140 millibars to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. A drive time of a drive time of a relay valve of the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 90 degrees and/or 135 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarns may have a denier of 22.5 with 14 filaments. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a primary heater heated to approximately 180 degrees Celsius to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarn may be treated with a cooling plate at a temperature of between 0 and 25 degrees Celsius subsequent to the treating with the primary heater. In yet another aspect, a bedding material having the combination of the “feel” and absorption characteristics of cotton and the durability characteristics of polyester with multi-filament polyester weft yarns having a denier of between 15 and 50 and cotton warp yarns woven in a loom apparatus that simultaneously inserts multiple of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of the loom apparatus in a parallel fashion such that each of the multiple polyester weft yarns maintain a physical adjacency between each other during the single pick insertion event, increasing the thread count of a woven fabric of the bedding material based on the usage of multi-filament polyester weft yarns with a denier between 15 and 50. The bedding is a woven textile fabric that includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In a further aspect, a method of woven textile fabric includes forming of 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric. The woven textile fabric is made from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is one. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on the single-pick yarn package at an angle of between 15 and 20 degrees to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. In one more aspect, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between one and eight. Furthermore, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 5 and 25 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The woven textile fabric may be made of multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 20 to 65. The woven textile fabric may have multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 15 to 35. The warp yarns may be made of a cotton material. The woven textile fabric may also have multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 25. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester yarns may contain 10 to 30 filaments each. The woven textile fabric may have a total thread count from 190 to 1200. The woven textile fabric may have a minimum tensile strength in a warp direction between 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms and a minimum tensile strength in a weft direction between 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms. The woven textile fabric may have a warp-to-fill ratio that is between 1:2 to 1:4. The weft yarns within each group run may parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. Each of the groups may be made up of at least four multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In one more additional aspect, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The warp yarns are made of a cotton material and the picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between one and eight. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. In yet another aspect, a method of a woven textile fabric includes forming 190 to 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is at least one. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. In another additional aspect, a method of weaving a fabric includes drawing multiple polyester weft yarns from a weft source to a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. The method also includes conveying by the pick insertion apparatus the multiple polyester weft yarns across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in a single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus and beating the multiple polyester weft yarns into a fell of the fabric with a reed apparatus of the loom apparatus such that the set of warp yarns and/or the multiple polyester weft yarns become interlaced into a woven textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In addition, the warp yarns are made of a cotton material. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Furthermore, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is two. In addition, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between one and eight. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be wound on the yarn package at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The denier of the polyester weft yarns may be between 15 and 50. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be an air jet pick insertion apparatus. Further, the multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a conning oil comprising a petroleum hydrocarbon, an emulsifier and/or a surfactant to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be a rapier insertion apparatus and/or a bullet insertion apparatus. An airflow of a primary nozzle and/or a fixed nozzle of an air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 12 Nm3/hr to 14 Nm3/hr to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The airflow of each relay nozzle in the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 100 and/or 140 millibars to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. A drive time of a drive time of a relay valve of the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 90 degrees and/or 135 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarns may have a denier of 22.5 with 14 filaments. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a primary heater heated to approximately 180 degrees Celsius to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarn may be treated with a cooling plate at a temperature of between 0 and 25 degrees Celsius subsequent to the treating with the primary heater. In yet further aspect, a bedding material having the combination of the “feel” and absorption characteristics of cotton and the durability characteristics of polyester with multi-filament polyester weft yarns having a denier of between 15 and 50 and cotton warp yarns woven in a loom apparatus that simultaneously inserts multiple of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of the loom apparatus in a parallel fashion such that each of the multiple polyester weft yarns maintain a physical adjacency between each other during the single pick insertion event, increasing the thread count of a woven fabric of the bedding material based on the usage of multi-filament polyester weft yarns with a denier between 15 and 50. The bedding is a woven textile fabric that includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In an additional further aspect, a method of woven textile fabric includes forming of 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric. The woven textile fabric is made from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is one. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on the single-pick yarn package at an angle of between 15 and 20 degrees to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The methods and systems disclosed herein may be implemented in any means for achieving various aspects, and may be executed in a form of a non-transitory machine-readable medium embodying a set of instructions that, when executed by a machine, cause the machine to perform any of the operations disclosed herein. Other features will be apparent from the accompanying drawings and from the detailed description that follows. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The embodiments of this invention are illustrated by way of example and not limitation in the figures of the accompanying drawings, in which like references indicate similar elements and in which: FIG. 1 is a multi-pick yarn package construction view in which two discrete partially-oriented polyester yarns are oriented, texturized, convened to parallel adjacency by a wiper guide, and then wound onto a single multi-pick yarn package, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 2 is a process diagram showing the procedure by which the partially-oriented polyester yarn may be oriented, texturized and wound on a spindle to form the multi-pick yarn package of FIG. 1, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 3 is a multi-pick yarn package view showing the parallel configuration of the adjacent texturized yarns and their crossing wind angle within the multi-pick yarn package, imposed by the wiper guide and traverse guide of FIG. 1, respectively, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 4 is a binary simultaneous weft insertion view of an exemplarily use of the multi-pick yarn package of FIG. 3 in which two adjacent parallel yarns forming a binary pick yarn package are fed into an air jet loom apparatus such that a primary nozzle simultaneously propels two picks across a warp shed of the loom apparatus in a single pick insertion event, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 5 is a quaternary simultaneous weft insertion view of an exemplarily use of more than one of the multi-pick yarn package of FIG. 3 in which two of the binary pick yarn packages of FIG. 4 are fed into an air jet loom apparatus such that a primary nozzle simultaneously propels four picks across a warp shed of the loom apparatus in a single pick insertion event, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 6 is a pseudo-plain weave diagram view and textile edge view that demonstrates the resulting 1×2 weave when the adjacent parallel yarn pair from the binary pick yarn package of FIG. 4 is conveyed across the warp shed of a loom apparatus configured to interlace warp and weft yarns after a single pick insertion event, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 7 is a single-pick yarn package construction view in which single discrete partially-oriented polyester yarn is oriented, texturized, convened by a wiper guide, and then wound onto a single multi-pick yarn package, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 8 is a single-pick yarn package view showing the configuration of the texturized single yarn and the crossing wind angle within the single-pick yarn package, imposed by the wiper guide and traverse guide of FIG. 7, respectively, according to one or more embodiments. FIG. 9 is a single weft yarn insertion view of an exemplarily use of the single-pick yarn package of FIG. 7 in which single yarn forming a pick yarn package is fed into an air jet loom apparatus such that a primary nozzle propels one pick across a warp shed of the loom apparatus in a single pick insertion event, according to one or more embodiments. Other features of the present embodiments will be apparent from the accompanying drawings and from the detailed description that follows. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Disclosed are a method, a device and a system of a proliferated thread count of a woven textile by simultaneous insertion within a single pick insertion event of a loom apparatus multiple adjacent parallel yarns drawn from a multi-pick yarn package. Although the present embodiments have been described with reference to specific example embodiments, it will be evident that various modifications and changes may be made to these embodiments without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the various embodiments. In one embodiment, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) running in a parallel form to one another. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another, according to one embodiment. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package 100 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) wound on the weft yarn package (e.g., multi-pick yarn package 100, binary pick-yarn package 400) using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is between two and eight, according to one embodiment. The pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound on the multi-pick yarn package 100 at an angle of between 5 and 25 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401, single yarn 701) during the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. In addition, the woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may be made of multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 20 to 65. The woven textile fabric may have multi-filament polyester yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) having a denier of 15 to 35. The warp yarns 426 may be made of a cotton material. The woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may also have multi-filament polyester yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) having a denier of 20 to 25, according to one embodiment. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401, single yarn 701) may contain 10 to 30 filaments each. The woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may have a total thread count from 190 to 1200. The woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may have a minimum tensile strength in a warp direction of 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms and a minimum tensile strength in a weft direction of 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms. The woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may have a warp-to-fill ratio that is between 1:2 to 1:4, according to one embodiment. The weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) within each group run may parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns 426. Each of the groups may be made up of at least four multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401), according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, a woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns 426 and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401). The warp yarns 426 are made of a cotton material and the picks are woven into the textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns 426. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package 100 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) wound on the weft yarn package (e.g., multi-pick yarn package 100, binary pick-yarn package 400) in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is between two and eight. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound on the multi-pick yarn package 100 at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) during the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, a method of a woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) includes forming 190 to 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric (e.g., textile 420). The method forms the woven textile (e.g., textile 420) having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns 426 and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401). The picks are woven into the textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401). Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) is wound on a single-pick yarn package 700 to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is at least one. The pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus, according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, a method of weaving a fabric (e.g., textile 420) includes drawing multiple polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) from a weft source 403 to a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. Additionally, the method also includes conveying by the pick insertion apparatus 404 the multiple polyester weft yarns across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in a single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 and beating the multiple polyester weft yarns into a fell of the fabric (e.g., textile 420) with a reed apparatus 414 of the loom apparatus 405 such that the set of warp yarns 426 and/or the multiple polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) become interlaced into a woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420), according to one embodiment. The method forms the woven textile (e.g., textile 420) having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns 426 and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401). In addition, the warp yarns 426 are made of a cotton material. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of two multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) running in a parallel form to one another, according to one embodiment. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns 426. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another, according to one embodiment. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package 100 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405. Furthermore, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package (e.g., binary pick yarn package 400) in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two, according to one embodiment. In addition, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is between two and eight. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound on the multi-pick yarn package 100 at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. In yet another embodiment, a method of woven textile fabric includes forming of 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric (e.g. textile 420). The woven textile fabric is made from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch single multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., single yarn 701). The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., single yarn 701). The multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package 700 to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., single yarn 701) during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., single yarn 701) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is at least one, according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is an air jet pick insertion apparatus. The multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on the single-pick yarn package 700 at an angle of between 15 and 20 degrees to enable inserting of the single multi-filament polyester weft yarn 701 during the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. In one embodiment, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) running in a parallel form to one another. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another, according to one embodiment. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package 100 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) wound on the weft yarn package (e.g., multi-pick yarn package 100, binary pick-yarn package 400) using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is between one and eight, according to one embodiment. The pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound on the multi-pick yarn package 100 at an angle of between 5 and 25 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401, single yarn 701) during the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. In addition, the woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may be made of multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 20 to 65. The woven textile fabric may have multi-filament polyester yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) having a denier of 15 to 35. The warp yarns 426 may be made of a cotton material. The woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may also have multi-filament polyester yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) having a denier of 20 to 25, according to one embodiment. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401, single yarn 701) may contain 10 to 30 filaments each. The woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may have a total thread count from 190 to 1200. The woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may have a minimum tensile strength in a warp direction of 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms and a minimum tensile strength in a weft direction of 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms. The woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) may have a warp-to-fill ratio that is between 1:2 to 1:4, according to one embodiment. The weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) within each group run may parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns 426. Each of the groups may be made up of at least four multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401), according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, a woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns 426 and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401). The warp yarns 426 are made of a cotton material and the picks are woven into the textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns 426. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package 100 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) wound on the weft yarn package (e.g., multi-pick yarn package 100, binary pick-yarn package 400) in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is between one and eight. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound on the multi-pick yarn package 100 at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) during the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, a method of a woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) includes forming 190 to 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric (e.g., textile 420). The method forms the woven textile (e.g., textile 420) having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns 426 and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401). The picks are woven into the textile fabric (e.g., textile 420) using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401). Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) is wound on a single-pick yarn package 700 to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is at least one. The pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus, according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, a method of weaving a fabric (e.g., textile 420) includes drawing multiple polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) from a weft source 403 to a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. Additionally, the method also includes conveying by the pick insertion apparatus 404 the multiple polyester weft yarns across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in a single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 and beating the multiple polyester weft yarns into a fell of the fabric (e.g., textile 420) with a reed apparatus 414 of the loom apparatus 405 such that the set of warp yarns 426 and/or the multiple polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) become interlaced into a woven textile fabric (e.g., textile 420), according to one embodiment. The method forms the woven textile (e.g., textile 420) having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns 426 and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401). In addition, the warp yarns 426 are made of a cotton material. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of two multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) running in a parallel form to one another, according to one embodiment. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns 426. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another, according to one embodiment. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package 100 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405. Furthermore, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package (e.g., binary pick yarn package 400) in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two, according to one embodiment. In addition, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is between one and eight. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns (e.g., adjacent parallel yarns 101, parallel binary yarns 401) are wound on the multi-pick yarn package 100 at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. In yet another embodiment, a method of woven textile fabric includes forming of 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric (e.g. textile 420). The woven textile fabric is made from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch single multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., single yarn 701). The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., single yarn 701). The multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package 700 to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., single yarn 701) during a single pick insertion event 416 of a pick insertion apparatus 404 of a loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn (e.g., single yarn 701) conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus 404 across a warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 through a set of warp yarns 426 in the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is at least one, according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 is an air jet pick insertion apparatus. The multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on the single-pick yarn package 700 at an angle of between 15 and 20 degrees to enable inserting of the single multi-filament polyester weft yarn 701 during the single pick insertion event 416 of the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. FIG. 1 is a multi-pick yarn package construction view in which two discrete partially-oriented polyester yarns are oriented, texturized, convened to parallel adjacency by a wiper guide, and then wound onto a single multi-pick yarn package, according to one or more embodiments. Particularly, FIG. 1 illustrates a multi-pick yarn package 100, an adjacent parallel yarns 101, a supply package 102, a partially oriented polyester yarn (POY) 103, an oriented polyester yarn 104, an primary input roller 106, a secondary input roller 107, a primary heater 108, a cooling plate 110, a friction twisting unit 112, an intermediate roller 114, an intermingling jet 115, a secondary heater 116, an output roller 118, an oil applicator 120, a texturized yarn 122, a wiper guide 124, and a traverse guide 126, according to one embodiment. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the multi-pick yarn package 100 may be formed from two of the partially oriented polyester yarns 103 (POY) that may be oriented and texturized by a number of elements set forth in FIG. 1. The multi-pick yarn package 100 may be used to supply weft yarns (weft yarns may also be known as “fill,” “picks,” “woof” and/or “filling yarns”) in any type of loom apparatus, including those with pick insertion mechanisms such as rapier, bullet, magnetic levitation bullet, water jet and/or air jet. In one preferred embodiment, and as described in conjunction with the description of FIG. 4 and FIG. 5, the loom may use an air jet pick insertion mechanism. The partially oriented polyester yarn 103 may be comprised of one or more extruded filaments of polyester. The primary input roller 106 may draw the partially oriented polyester yarn 103 from the supply package 102. The secondary input roller 107, which may operate at a higher speed than the primary input roller 106, may then draw the partially oriented polyester yarn 103 from the primary input roller 106, forming the oriented polyester yarn 104. In a preferred embodiment, the secondary input roller 107 rotates at 1.7 times the speed of the primary input roller 106, according to one embodiment. The oriented polyester yarn 104 may then be drawn through the primary heater 108. The primary heaters may be heated to a temperature between 50° C. and 200° C. In one preferred embodiment, the primary heater may be set to 190° C. After leaving the heater, the oriented polyester yarn 104 may then be exposed to the cooling plate 110 that may be set at a temperature between 0° C. and room temperature (e.g., about 20-25° C.). The cooling plate may also be set at temperatures between 25° C. and 40° C., and in one preferred embodiment 38° C. The intermediate roller 114 may draw the oriented polyester yarn 104 from the cooling plate 110 to the friction twisting unit 112. The friction twisting unit 112 (e.g., an FTU) may twist/detwist the filaments within the oriented polyester yarn 104 such that it gains a texture (e.g., such that the resulting textile the oriented polyester yarn 104 may be woven into gains in “body” or heft) and may also provide a low stability interlacing in the weaving process, according to one embodiment. The friction twisting unit 112 may also help to intermingle the polyester filaments that may comprise the oriented polyester yarn 104. The twist imparted by the friction twisting unit 112 may be translated through the oriented polyester yarn 104 back to the primary heater 108, which, in conjunction with the cooling plate 110, may “fix” the molecular structure of the twisted filaments of the oriented polyester yarn 104, imbuing it with a “memory” of torsion, according to one embodiment. The intermediate roller 114 may convey the oriented polyester yarn 104 to the intermingling jet 115 that may apply a uniform air pressure to the oriented polyester yarn 104 to provide counter-twist to the friction twisting unit 112. The oriented polyester yarn 104 may then be heated by the secondary heater 116. The secondary heater 116 may be set to between 50° C. and 200° C. In one preferred embodiment, the intermingling jet 115 may be set to a pressure of 2 bars and the secondary heater 116 may be set to a temperature of 170° C., according to one embodiment. The output roller 118 may convey the oriented polyester yarn 104 to the oil applicator 120. The oil applicator 120 may apply conning oil. The conning oil applied by the oil applicator 120 may act as a lubricant, reducing a friction between two or more yarns (e.g., several of the oriented polyester yarns 104) and between one or more yarns and a loom apparatus (e.g., metallic components the oriented polyester yarn 104 may contact). The conning oil may also minimize a static charge formation of synthetic yarns. The conning oil may be comprised of a mineral oil (e.g., a petroleum hydrocarbon), a moisture, an emulsifier (e.g., a non ionic surfactant, a fatty alcohol an ethoxylatlate, and/or a fatty acid), and/or a surfactant, according to one embodiment. In addition, as will be shown and described in conjunction with the description of FIG. 4, the conning oil may help prevent a dissociation of the adjacent parallel yarns 101 when the adjacent parallel yarns 101 are propelled across a warp shed 408 during a single pick insertion event 416 of a loom apparatus 405, according to one embodiment. The rate at which the oil applicator 120 applies the conning oil may be adjusted to a minimum amount required to prevent dissociation of the adjacent parallel yarns 101 during a pick insertion event (e.g., the single pick insertion event 416 of FIG. 4), depending on the type of loom apparatus employed, according to one embodiment. After conning oil may be applied by the oil applicator 120, the oriented polyester yarn 104 may be the texturized yarn 122 ready to be wound on a yarn supply package spindle (e.g., to become the multi-pick yarn package 100), according to one embodiment. The wiper guide 124 may collect and convene multiple of the texturized yarns 122 such that the texturized yarns 122 become the adjacent parallel yarns 101. The adjacent parallel yarns 101 may then enter the traverse guide 126, which may wind the adjacent parallel yarns 101 onto a spool to form the multi-pick yarn package 100. The traverse guide 126 may wind the multi-pick yarn package 100 at a crossing wind angle of between 5-25° (e.g., the crossing wind angle 300 of FIG. 3, denoted θ), and at a type A shore hardness of between 45 and 85, according to one embodiment. In one preferred embodiment, the number of texturized yarns 122 that may be convened by the wiper guide 124 to be wound onto the multi-pick yarn package 100 may be two (e.g., the binary pick yarn package 400 of FIG. 4). The partially oriented polyester yarn 103 may have a denier of 22.5 with 14 polyester filaments. In another preferred embodiment, the partially oriented polyester yarn 103 may have a denier of between 15 and 25. One skilled in the art will know that denier may be a unit of measure for a linear mass density of a fiber, such measure defined as the mass in grams per 9000 meters of the fiber. The wiper guide 124 may substantially unite the texturized yarn 122 into the adjacent parallel yarns 101 such that, if considered a unitary yarn, the adjacent parallel yarns 101 may have 28 filaments and a denier of about 45, according to one embodiment. In contrast, if two of the partially oriented polyester yarns 103 with 14 filaments and a denier of 22.5 are twisted around one another, the twisted yarns, if considered a unitary yarn, may have a denier higher than 45 due to increased linear mass density of twisted fibers within a given distance. Yarns twisted in this fashion may also not qualify as independent yarns for calculating thread count according to industry standards of regulatory bodies, according to one embodiment. FIG. 2 is a process diagram showing the procedure by which the partially-oriented polyester yarn may be oriented, texturized and wound on a spindle to form the multi-pick yarn package of FIG. 1, according to one or more embodiments. In operation 200, multiple partially oriented polyester yarns (e.g., the partially oriented polyester yarns 103) may be supplied to input rollers to yield oriented yarn (e.g., the oriented polyester yarn 104). In operation 202, multiple oriented yarns are heated by two primary heaters, according to one embodiment. In operation 204, the multiple oriented polyester yarns may be cooled by cooling plates. In operation 206, the multiple oriented polyester yarns may be twisted, individually, by friction twisting units. In operation 208, the oriented polyester yarns may be collected by intermediate rollers. In operation 210, the filaments of the oriented polyester yarns may be intermingled, individually, by a uniform pressure of air by intermingling jets to provide lower stability interlacing and help bind the filaments within each individual partially oriented polyester yarn 104, according to one embodiment. In operation 212, the multiple of the oriented polyester yarns may be heated by secondary heaters, and in operation 214, the oriented polyester yarns may have conning oil applied to each yarn by oil applicators. In operation 216, the oriented polyester yarns (which may now be the texturized yarns 122), may be wound onto a single spindle at 45-85 type A shore hardness through the use of a wiper guide and traverse guide to form the multi-pick yarn package 100, according to one embodiment. One skilled in the art will know that type A shore hardness may be measured using the ASTM D2240 type A durometer scale. FIG. 3 is a multi-pick yarn package view 350 showing the parallel configuration of the adjacent texturized yarns and their crossing wind angle within the multi-pick yarn package, imposed by the wiper guide and traverse guide of FIG. 1, respectively, according to one or more embodiments. Particularly, FIG. 3 further illustrates a crossing wind angle 300 (denoted θ), and a bobbin 302. In the embodiment of FIG. 3, the multi-pick yarn package 100 is shown wound with the adjacent parallel yarns 101 comprising two of the texturized yarns 122. The adjacent parallel yarns 101 may be wound on a bobbin 302. The bobbin may also be a strait or a tapered bobbin. The crossing wind angle 300 may be the acute angle formed at the intersection between the adjacent parallel yarns 101 deposited in a first pass of the traverse guide 126 and the adjacent parallel yarns 101 in a subsequent pass of the traverse guide 126, as shown in FIG. 3, according to one embodiment. FIG. 4 is a binary simultaneous weft insertion view 450 of an exemplarily use of the multi-pick yarn package of FIG. 3 in which two adjacent parallel yarns forming a binary pick yarn package are fed into an air jet loom apparatus such that a primary nozzle simultaneously propels two picks across a warp shed of the loom apparatus in a single pick insertion event, according to one or more embodiments. Particularly, FIG. 4 further illustrates a binary pick yarn package 400 (e.g., the multi-pick yarn package 100 wound with two of the texturized yarns 122), a parallel binary yarns 401, an accumulator 402, a weft source 403 a cross section of a pick insertion apparatus 404 (e.g., an air jet pick insertion apparatus), a primary nozzle 406 comprised of a fixed main nozzle 407 and a moveable main nozzle 409, a nozzle injector 408, a yarn guide 410, a warp shed 412, a reed apparatus 414 (e.g., a profiled reed of the air jet loom), a single pick insertion event 416, a relay nozzle 418, a textile 420, a fabric fell 422, and a warp/weft interlacing 424, according to one embodiment. The loom apparatus 405 (e.g., a rapier loom, a bullet loom, an air jet loom) may accept a weft source 403 supplying the adjacent parallel yarns 101. In the embodiment of FIG. 4, the loom apparatus 405 may be an air jet loom apparatus (e.g., a Picanol Omni Plus®, a Picanol Omni Plus® 800) and the weft source 403 may be the binary pick yarn package 400, which is the multi-pick yarn package 100 wound with two of the adjacent parallel yarns 101 in accordance with the process of FIG. 1 and FIG. 2. The two of the adjacent parallel yarns 101 drawn from the binary pick yarn package 400 and fed into the loom apparatus 405 may be referred to as the parallel binary yarns 401, according to one embodiment. The parallel binary yarns 401 may be fed into the air jet loom apparatus and the elements thereof in accordance with ordinary practice to one skilled in the art. FIG. 4 illustrates some of the elements of an air jet loom apparatus that may interact with the parallel binary yarns 401 such as the accumulator 402, the primary nozzle 406, the fixed main nozzle 407, the moveable main nozzle 409, the profiled reed (e.g., the reed apparatus 414 of the air jet loom) and the relay nozzles 418, according to one embodiment. For example, the parallel binary yarns 401 from the binary pick yarn package 400 may be fed into an accumulator 402 of the air jet pick insertion apparatus. The accumulator 402 may be designed to collect and hold in reserve between each of the single pick insertion events 416 a length of the parallel binary yarns 401 needed to cross the warp shed 412 with a minimal unwinding resistance. Next, the parallel binary yarns 401 may pass into the pick insertion apparatus 404 (in the embodiment of FIG. 4, a cross section of an air jet pick insertion apparatus is shown), according to one embodiment. The primary nozzle 406 may be comprised of one or more individual nozzles. In the embodiment of FIG. 4, the primary nozzle 406 is comprised of the fixed main nozzle 407 and the moveable main nozzle 409. The primary nozzle 406 may accept the adjacent parallel yarns 101 through a yarn guide 410 of a nozzle injector 408 that may be present in both the fixed main nozzle 407 and the moveable main nozzle 409. In an alternate embodiment, the primary nozzle 406 may be comprised of a single nozzle, according to one embodiment. Air entering the fixed main nozzle 407 and/or the moveable main nozzle 409 may drive back the nozzle injector 408 and propel the parallel binary yarns 401 across the warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405. The airflow of the primary nozzle may be adjusted to between 12 Nm3/hour to 14 Nm3/hour. The airflow of the fixed main nozzle 407 may be adjusted to between 12 Nm3/hour to 14 Nm3/hour and a drive time of the relay valves (not shown in the embodiment of FIG. 4) may be adjusted to between 90° and 135°, according to one embodiment. The parallel binary yarns 401 may enter the warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405. With the air jet pick insertion apparatus of FIG. 4, the parallel binary yarns 401 may be aided in crossing the warp shed 412 by a plurality of relay nozzles 418 associated with a reed apparatus 414 that, to aid in gaseous conveyance of the picks, may be a profiled reed. Each of the relay nozzles 418 may be adjusted to between 100 mbar to 14 mbar, according to one embodiment. The parallel binary yarns 401 drawn from the multi-pick yarn package may cross the warp shed 412 in the single pick insertion event 416. The single pick insertion event 416 is the operation and/or process of the pick insertion apparatus 404 that is known in the art to be ordinarily associated with the projection of yarns (or yarns comprised of multiple yarns twisted together) across the warp shed 412, according to one embodiment. For example, the yarn threaded through the yarn guide 410 of the primary nozzle 406 may be a single yarn that yarn may be projected across the warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 in a single burst (or rapid timed succession of bursts) of pressurized air from a single of the primary nozzles 406. In another example, the single pick insertion event 416 may be one cycle of a rapier arm (e.g., a rapier pick insertion apparatus) through the warp shed 412, according to one embodiment. Upon crossing the warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405, the reed apparatus 414 may “beat up” (e.g., perform a beat up motion) the parallel binary yarns 401, forcing them into the fabric fell 422 (also known as “the fell of the cloth”) of the textile 420 that the loom apparatus 405 may be producing. The beat up motion of the reed apparatus 414 may form the warp/weft interlacing 424 of the warp yarns 426 and the parallel binary yarns 401 (e.g., the weft yarns), producing an incremental length of the textile 420, according to one embodiment. FIG. 5 is a quaternary simultaneous weft insertion view 550 of an exemplarily use of more than one of the multi-pick yarn package of FIG. 3 in which two of the binary pick yarn packages of FIG. 4 are fed into an air jet loom apparatus such that a primary nozzle simultaneously propels four picks across a warp shed of the loom apparatus in a single pick insertion event, according to one or more embodiments. Particularly, FIG. 5 further illustrates the use of a parallel quaternary yarns 501, according to one embodiment. In FIG. 5, the weft source 403 may be two of the binary pick yarn packages 400 of FIG. 4, each supplying two of the parallel binary yarns 401 (e.g., four of the texturized yarns 122), that may be fed into the pick insertion apparatus 404 of the loom apparatus 405 (in the embodiment of FIG. 5, the air jet loom) such that the two parallel binary yarns 401 may become the parallel quaternary yarn 501. Therefore, four of the texturized yarns 122 may be threaded through the yarn guide 410 of the primary nozzle 406, and all four of the texturized yarns 122 may be projected across the warp shed 412 in a single burst of pressurized air from the primary nozzle 406. To further illustrate, the four of the texturized yarns 122 (e.g., the parallel quaternary yarns 501) shown in FIG. 5 may be substantially adjacent and parallel as opposed to twisted around one another, according to one embodiment. In an alternate embodiment not shown in FIG. 4 or FIG. 5, the weft source 403 of the loom apparatus 405 may be three or more of the multi-pick yarn packages 100. For example, the weft source 403 may be four binary pick yarn packages 400. In such a case, eight of the texturized yarns 122 may be projected across the warp shed 412 during the single pick insertion event 416. In one embodiment, the highest thread counts (e.g., 800, 1200) may be yielded by using four of the binary pick yarn packages 400 as the weft source 403, according to one embodiment. In a further example embodiment as shown in FIG. 9, the weft source 403 of the loom apparatus 405 may be one of the single-pick yarn package(s) 700. In such a case, single yarn 701 of the texturized yarns 122 may be projected across the warp shed 412 during the single pick insertion event 416. In one embodiment, the highest thread counts (e.g., 800, 1200) may be yielded by using one of the single-pick yarn packages 700 as the weft source 403, according to one embodiment. In yet another embodiment not shown in FIG. 4 or FIG. 5, there may also be an odd number of the texturized yarns 122 (e.g., a tertiary parallel yarns) propelled across the warp shed 412 in the single pick insertion event 416, for example of the weft source 403 was composed of a the single-pick yarn package (e.g., single-pick yarn package 700) along with one of the binary pick yarn packages 400 of FIG. 4. The tertiary parallel yarns may also result where the multi-pick yarn package 100 is wound with three of the texturized yarns 122 by the process of FIG. 1 and FIG. 2. In addition, the deniers of the texturized yarns 122 wound on the multi-pick yarn package 100 may be heterogeneous, according to one embodiment. It will be recognized to one skilled in the art that the loom apparatus 405 may have tandem, multiple, or redundancies of the pick insertion apparatuses 404 which may insert yarns in an equal number of the single pick insertion events 416. For example, an air jet loom apparatus may have multiple of the primary nozzles 406 (e.g., four, eight). A number of the primary nozzles 406 may each insert the adjacent parallel yarns 101 in a corresponding number of the single pick insertion event(s) 416 before the reed apparatus 414 beats the adjacent parallel yarns 101 into the fabric fell 422, according to one embodiment. For example, an air jet loom utilizing six of the primary nozzles 406, with each of the primary nozzles 406 supplied by one of the binary pick yarn packages 400, may project six of the parallel binary yarns 401 across the warp shed 412 in six of the single pick insertion events 416 that are distinct. In such an example, twelve of the texturized yarns 122 would be beat into the fabric fell 422 during the beat up motion of the reed apparatus 414. In one embodiment, the highest thread counts (e.g., 800, 1200) may be yielded by using multiple of the pick insertion apparatuses 404 (e.g., four, each projecting two of the adjacent parallel yarns 101 across the warp shed 412 before the reed apparatus 414 carries out the beat-up motion), according to one embodiment. FIG. 6 is a pseudo-plain weave diagram view 650 and textile edge view 651 that demonstrates the resulting 1×2 weave when the adjacent parallel yarn pair from the binary pick yarn package of FIG. 4 is conveyed across the warp shed of a loom apparatus configured to interlace warp and weft yarns after a single pick insertion event, according to one or more embodiments. Particularly, FIG. 6 further illustrates a woven fabric interlacing diagram 600 having sections with a weft under warp 602, a weft over warp 604, a weft direction 606, and a warp direction 608. FIG. 6 shows the woven fabric interlacing diagram 600 that may result when a loom apparatus (e.g., the loom apparatus 405) is configured to interlace the warp yarns 426 and the adjacent parallel yarns 101 drawn from the binary pick yarn package 400 of FIG. 4 after a single pick insertion event 416. Because two of the texturized yarns 122 may be wound on the binary pick yarn package 400, the resulting woven fabric interlacing may be a “1 by 2” weave with the weft under warp 602 and weft over warp 604 alternating after each of the warp yarns 426 in the weft direction 606 and alternating after each two of the texturized yarns 122 in the warp direction 608. For example, while the loom apparatus may be traditionally configured to produce a textile with a plain wave (e.g., having a woven fabric interlacing diagram 600 of alternating weft under warp 602 and weft over warp 604 in both the weft direction 606 and the warp direction 608, similar to chess board), the result will be a the 1 by 2 “pseudo-plain weave” woven fabric interlacing diagram 600 of FIG. 6, according to one embodiment. The warp yarns 426 of a textile produced (e.g., the textile 420) using the multi-pick yarn package 100 may be comprised of natural or synthetic fibers, and the weft yarns may be polyester weft yarns (e.g., the adjacent parallel yarns 101 comprised of multiple of the texturized yarns 122). In one preferred embodiment, the warp yarns may be made of cotton, according to one embodiment. The textile produced from the multi-pick yarn package 100 may have between 90 and 235 warp yarn ends per inch, between 100 and 965 picks per inch, and may have a warp-to-fill ratio between 1:2 and 1:4 (in other words, 1 warp yarn per every 4 weft yarns). The textile produced using the multi-pick yarn package 100 may have a thread count of between 190 to 1200, a minimum tensile strength of 17.0 kg to 65.0 kg (about 37.5 lbs to 143.5 lbs) in the warp direction 608, and a minimum tensile strength of 11.5 kg to 100.0 kg (about 25.4 lbs to 220.7 lbs) in the weft direction 606. In one or more embodiments the textile manufactured using the multi-pick yarn package 100 may have a composition of 45-49% texturized polyester yarn (e.g., the texturized yarn 122) and 51-65% cotton yarn, according to one embodiment. The partially oriented polyester yarn 103 (that becomes the texturized yarn 122 after undergoing operations 200 through 216 of FIG. 2) may have multiple filaments and may have a denier of between 15 and 50. In one preferred embodiment, the partially oriented polyester yarn 103 may have about a denier of about 20 and have about 14 filaments, according to one embodiment. The resulting fabric produced may be of exceptionally high quality compared to prior-art cotton-synthetic hybrid weaves due to its high thread count. To further increase quality and comfort of the textile, the fabric may be finished by brushing the surface to increase softness (a process known as “peaching” or “peach finishing”). In addition, various other finishing methods may be used in association with the textile produced from the multi-pick yarn package 100 to increase the resulting textile's quality, according to one embodiment. FIG. 7 is a single-pick yarn package construction view 750 in which one discrete partially-oriented polyester yarn is oriented, texturized, convened by a wiper guide, and then wound onto a single-pick yarn package, according to one or more embodiments. Particularly, FIG. 7 builds on FIGS. 1 through 6 and further adds a single-pick yarn package 700 and a single yarn 701, according to one embodiment. In the embodiment of FIG. 7, the single-pick yarn package 700 may be formed from single partially oriented polyester yarn 103 (POY) that may be oriented and texturized by a number of elements set forth in FIG. 1. The single-pick yarn package 700 may be used to supply weft yarn (weft yarns may also be known as “fill,” “picks,” “woof” and/or “filling yarns”) in any type of loom apparatus, including those with pick insertion mechanisms such as rapier, bullet, magnetic levitation bullet, water jet and/or air jet. In one preferred embodiment, and as described in conjunction with the description of FIG. 8 and FIG. 9, the loom may use an air jet pick insertion mechanism. The partially oriented polyester yarn 103 may be comprised of one or more extruded filaments of polyester, according to one embodiment. In one more embodiment of FIG. 7, the single-pick yarn package 700 may be formed from single partially oriented polyester yarn 103 (POY) that may be oriented and texturized by a number of elements set forth and as described in FIG. 1. In addition, as will be shown and described in conjunction with the description of FIG. 9, the conning oil may help prevent a dissociation of the single yarn 701. The rate at which the oil applicator 120 applies the conning oil may be adjusted to a minimum amount required to prevent dissociation of the single yarn 701 during a pick insertion event (e.g., the single pick insertion event 416 of FIG. 9), depending on the type of loom apparatus employed, according to one embodiment. After conning oil may be applied by the oil applicator 120, the oriented polyester yarn 104 may be the texturized yarn 122 ready to be wound on a yarn supply package spindle (e.g., to become the single-pick yarn package 700). The wiper guide 124 may collect and convene multiple of the texturized yarns 122 such that the texturized yarns 122 become the single yarn 701. The single yarn 701 may then enter the traverse guide 126, which may wind the single yarn 701 onto a spool to form the single-pick yarn package 700. The traverse guide 126 may wind the single-pick yarn package 700 at a crossing wind angle of between 5-25° (e.g., the crossing wind angle 300 of FIG. 8, denoted θ). In one preferred embodiment, the number of texturized yarns 122 that may be convened by the wiper guide 124 to be would onto the single-pick yarn package 700 may be two (e.g., the binary pick yarn package 400 of FIG. 4), according to one embodiment. In one preferred embodiment, the partially oriented polyester yarn 103 may have a denier of 22.5 with 14 polyester filaments. In another preferred embodiment, the partially oriented polyester yarn 103 may have a denier of between 15 and 25. One skilled in the art will know that denier may be a unit of measure for a linear mass density of a fiber, such measure defined as the mass in grams per 9000 meters of the fiber, according to one embodiment. The wiper guide 124 may substantially unite the texturized yarn 122 into the single yarn 701 such that, if considered a unitary yarn, the single yarn 701 may have 28 filaments and a denier of about 45. In contrast, if two of the partially oriented polyester yarns 103 with 14 filaments and a denier of 22.5 are twisted around one another, the twisted yarns, if considered a unitary yarn, may have a denier higher than 45 due to increased linear mass density of twisted fibers within a given distance, according to one embodiment. FIG. 8 is a single-pick yarn package view 850 showing the configuration of the single texturized yarn and the crossing wind angle within the single-pick yarn package, imposed by the wiper guide and traverse guide of FIG. 7, respectively, according to one or more embodiments. Particularly, FIG. 8 further illustrates a crossing wind angle 300 (denoted θ), and a bobbin 302, according to one embodiment. In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the single-pick yarn package 700 is shown wound with the single yarn 701 comprising one of the texturized yarns 122. The single yarn 701 may be wound on a bobbin 302. The bobbin may also be a straight or a tapered bobbin. The crossing wind angle 300 may be the acute angle formed at the intersection between the single yarn 701 deposited in a first pass of the traverse guide 126 and the single yarn 701 in a subsequent pass of the traverse guide 126, as shown in FIG. 8, according to one embodiment. FIG. 9 is a single weft insertion view of an exemplarily use of the single-pick yarn package 700 of FIG. 8 in which single yarn 701 forming a pick yarn package is fed into an air jet loom apparatus such that a primary nozzle propels one pick across a warp shed of the loom apparatus in a single pick insertion event 416, according to one or more embodiments. Particularly, FIG. 9 builds on FIGS. 1 through 8 and further adds a single pick yarn package 700 (e.g., the multi-pick yarn package 100 wound with one of the texturized yarn 122) and a single yarn 701. The loom apparatus 405 (e.g., a rapier loom, a bullet loom, an air jet loom) may accept a weft source 403 supplying the single yarn 701. In the embodiment of FIG. 9, the loom apparatus 405 may be an air jet loom apparatus (e.g., a Picanol Omni Plus®, a Picanol Omni Plus® 800) and the weft source 403 may be the single-pick yarn package 700, which is the single-pick yarn package 700 wound with single yarn 701 in accordance with the process of FIG. 7 and FIG. 8. The yarn drawn from the single-pick yarn package 700 and fed into the loom apparatus 405 may be referred to as the single yarn 701, according to one embodiment. The single yarn 701 may be fed into the air jet loom apparatus and the elements thereof in accordance with ordinary practice to one skilled in the art. FIG. 7 illustrates some of the elements of an air jet loom apparatus that may interact with the single yarn 701 such as the accumulator 402, the primary nozzle 406, the fixed main nozzle 408, the moveable main nozzle 409, the profiled reed (e.g., the reed apparatus 414 of the air jet loom) and the relay nozzles 418, according to one embodiment. For example, the single yarn 701 from the single pick yarn package 700 may be fed into an accumulator 402 of the air jet pick insertion apparatus. The accumulator 402 may be designed to collect and hold in reserve between each of the single pick insertion events 416 a length of the parallel binary yarns 401 needed to cross the warp shed 412 with a minimal unwinding resistance. Next, the single yarn 701 may pass into the pick insertion apparatus 404 (in the embodiment of FIG. 9, a cross-section of an air jet pick insertion apparatus is shown), according to one embodiment. The primary nozzle 406 may be comprised of one or more individual nozzles. In the embodiment of FIG. 9, the primary nozzle 406 is comprised of the fixed main nozzle 408 and the moveable main nozzle 409. The primary nozzle 406 may accept the adjacent parallel yarns 101 through a yarn guide 410 of a nozzle injector 408 that may be present in both the fixed main nozzle 408 and the moveable main nozzle 409. In an alternate embodiment, the primary nozzle 406 may be comprised of a single nozzle, according to one embodiment. Air entering the fixed main nozzle 408 and/or the moveable main nozzle 409 may drive back the nozzle injector 408 and propel the parallel binary yarns 401 across the warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405. The airflow of the primary nozzle may be adjusted to between 12 Nm3/hour to 14 Nm3/hour. The airflow of the fixed main nozzle 408 may be adjusted to between 12 Nm3/hour to 14 Nm3/hour and a drive time of the relay valves (not shown in the embodiment of FIG. 4) may be adjusted to between 90° and 135°, according to one embodiment. The single yarn 701 may enter the warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405. With the air jet pick insertion apparatus of FIG. 9, the single yarn 701 may be aided in crossing the warp shed 412 by a plurality of relay nozzles 418 associated with a reed apparatus 414 that, to aid in gaseous conveyance of the picks, may be a profiled reed. Each of the relay nozzles 418 may be adjusted to between 100 mbar to 14 mbar, according to one embodiment. The single yarn 701 drawn from the single-pick yarn package may cross the warp shed 412 in the single pick insertion event 416. The single pick insertion event 416 is the operation and/or process of the pick insertion apparatus 404 that is known in the art to be ordinarily associated with the projection of yarns (or yarns comprised of multiple yarns twisted together) across the warp shed 412. For example, the yarn threaded through the yarn guide 410 of the primary nozzle 406 may be a single yarn (e.g., single yarn 701) that yarn may be projected across the warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405 in a single burst (or rapid timed succession of bursts) of pressurized air from a single of the primary nozzles 406. In another example, the single pick insertion event 416 may be one cycle of a rapier arm (e.g., a rapier pick insertion apparatus) through the warp shed 412, according to one embodiment. Upon crossing the warp shed 412 of the loom apparatus 405, the reed apparatus 414 may “beat up” (e.g., perform a beat up motion) the parallel binary yarns 401, forcing them into the fabric fell 422 (also known as “the fell of the cloth”) of the textile 420 that the loom apparatus 405 may be producing. The beat up motion of the reed apparatus 414 may form the warp/weft interlacing 424 of the warp yarns 426 and the single yarn 701 (e.g., the weft yarn), producing an incremental length of the textile 420, according to one embodiment. In one embodiment, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The warp yarns may be made of a cotton material, and may have a total thread count is from 190 to 1000. The woven textile fabric may be made of multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 20 to 65. The woven textile fabric may have multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 15 to 35. The woven textile fabric may also have multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 25. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester yarns may contain 10 to 30 filaments each. The woven textile fabric may have a minimum tensile strength in a warp direction of 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms and a minimum tensile strength in a weft direction of 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms. The woven textile fabric may have a warp-to-fill ratio that is between 1:2 to 1:4, according to one embodiment. In another embodiment, a method of weaving a fabric includes drawing multiple polyester weft yarns from a weft source to a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. The method also includes conveying by the pick insertion apparatus the multiple polyester weft yarns across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in a single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus and beating the multiple polyester weft yarns into a fell of the fabric with a reed apparatus of the loom apparatus such that the set of warp yarns and/or the multiple polyester weft yarns become interlaced into a woven textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns, according to one embodiment. The denier of the polyester weft yarns may be between 15 and 50. The weft source may be a weft yarn package in which the multiple polyester weft yarns are wound using a single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, according to one embodiment. Further, the number of the multiple polyester weft yarns wound substantially parallel to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on the weft yarn package may be at least two. The number of the multiple polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across the warp shed of the loom apparatus through the set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be between two and eight, according to one embodiment. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be an air jet pick insertion apparatus. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be wound on the yarn package at an angle of between 5 and/or 25 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. Additionally, the multiple polyester weft yarns may be wound on the yarn package at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, according to one embodiment. Further, the multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a conning oil comprising a petroleum hydrocarbon, an emulsifier and/or a surfactant to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be a rapier insertion apparatus and/or a bullet insertion apparatus, according to one embodiment. An airflow of a primary nozzle and/or a fixed nozzle of the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 12 Nm3/hr to 14 Nm3/hr to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, according to one embodiment. The airflow of each relay nozzle in the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 100 and/or 140 millibars to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. A drive time of a drive time of a relay valve of the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 90 degrees and/or 135 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarns may have a denier of 22.5 with 14 filaments, according to one embodiment. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a primary heater heated to approximately 180 degrees Celsius to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarn may be treated with a cooling plate at a temperature of between 0 and 25 degrees Celsius subsequent to the treating with the primary heater, according to one embodiment. In yet another embodiment, a bedding material having the combination of the “feel” and absorption characteristics of cotton and the durability characteristics of polyester with multi-filament polyester weft yarns having a denier of between 15 and 50 and cotton warp yarns woven in a loom apparatus that simultaneously inserts multiple of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of the loom apparatus in a parallel fashion such that each of the multiple polyester weft yarns maintain a physical adjacency between each other during the single pick insertion event, increasing the thread count of a woven fabric of the bedding material based on the usage of multi-filament polyester weft yarns with a denier between 15 and 50, according to one embodiment. The bedding is a woven textile fabric that includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The total thread count of the bedding material may be from 190 to 1200 and each multi-filament polyester yarn count of the bedding material may have from 10 to 30 filaments each, according to one embodiment. An example embodiment will now be described. The ACME Textile Corp. may be engaged in production of consumer textiles. For some time, the ACME Textile Corp. may have been facing dipping stock prices caused by significantly lowered sales of its product resulting in fall in profits. The reasons identified for low sales may be attributed to lowered demand due to lack of desirable qualities in its product, e.g., comfort for fabrics that come in contact with human skin, durability, and short useful lifespan of its textile. To counter the downward trend, the ACME Textile Corp. may have decided to invest in using the textile manufacturing technology described herein (e.g., use of various embodiments of the FIGS. 1-9) for enhancing its textile fabric qualities. The use of various embodiments of the FIGS. 1-9 may have enabled the ACME Textile Corp. to enhance the desirable characteristics of its product. The use of cotton in forming its textile fabric enabled the ACME Textile Corp. to manufacture its product with high absorbency and breathability, thereby increasing comfort to its consumers while wearing. Further, the use of various embodiments of the FIGS. 1-9 may have allowed the ACME Textile Corp. to produce textile fabric with cotton yarns woven in combination with synthetic fibers such as polyester, thereby increasing lifespan of the textile even when laundered in machine washers and dryers. In addition, the various embodiments of technologies of FIGS. 1-9 may have aided the ACME Textile Corp. to produce textile using relatively fine yarns thereby finer fabric with increased thread count per inch of fabric with a smaller denier increasing its quality of the textile, tactile satisfaction, and opulence of its consumers. As a result, the ACME Textile Corp. may now have increased profits due to rise in sales of its fabric. Although the present embodiments have been described with reference to specific example embodiments, it will be evident that various modifications and changes may be made to these embodiments without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the various embodiments. In addition, the process flows depicted in the figures do not require the particular order shown, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. In addition, other operations may be provided, or operations may be eliminated, from the described flows, and other components may be added to, or removed from, the described systems. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>A consumer textile, for example apparel or bed sheets, may possess several characteristics that make it desirable. One desirable characteristic may be comfort for fabrics that come in contact with human skin. Another desirable characteristic may be durability, as consumer textiles may be laundered in machine washers and dryers that may tend to shorten the useful lifespan of the textile. In commercial operations, machine laundering may occur more than in residential or small-scale settings, which may further shorten the lifespan of the textile. For textiles that contact human skin (for example T-shirts, underwear, bed sheets, towels, pillowcases), one method to increase comfort may be to use cotton yarns. Cotton may have high absorbency and breathability. Cotton may also generally be known to have a good “feel” to consumers. But cotton may not be robust when placed in an environment with heavy machine laundering. To increase durability while retaining the feel and absorbency of cotton, the cotton yarns may be woven in combination with synthetic fibers such as polyester. Cotton may be used as warp yarns, while synthetic yarns may be used as weft yarns. Constructing the textile using yarns with a smaller denier may also increase comfort. Using these relatively fine yarns may yield a higher “thread count.” A thread count of a textile may be calculated by counting the total weft yarns and warp yarns in along two adjacent edges of a square of fabric that is one-inch by one-inch. The thread count may be a commonly recognized indication of the quality of the textile, and the thread count may also be a measure that consumers associate with tactile satisfaction and opulence. However, fine synthetic weft yarns, such as polyester, may break when fed into a loom apparatus. Cotton-polyester hybrid weaves may therefore be limited to larger denier synthetic yarns that the loom may effectively use. Thus, the thread count, and its associated comfort and luxury, may be limited. In an attempt to claim high thread counts, some textile manufacturers may twist two yarns together, such that they may be substantially associated, before using them as a single yarn in a weaving process. A twisted yarn may yield properties in the textile similar to the use of a large denier yarn. Manufactures of textiles with twisted yarns may include within the advertised “thread count” each strand within each twisted yarn, even though the textile may not feel of satisfactory quality once it has been removed from its packaging and handled by the consumer. The Federal Trade Commission has taken the position in an opinion letter that it considers the practice of including each yarn within a twisted yarn in the thread count as deceptive to consumers. Because fine denier yarns may break in a loom apparatus, cotton-synthetic blends may be limited to low thread counts and thus relatively low quality and comfort. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Disclosed are a method, a device and/or a system of proliferated thread count of a woven textile by simultaneous insertion within a single pick insertion event of a loom apparatus multiple adjacent parallel yarns drawn from a multi-pick yarn package. In one aspect, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between two and eight. Furthermore, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 5 and 25 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The woven textile fabric may be made of multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 20 to 65. The woven textile fabric may have multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 15 to 35. The warp yarns may be made of a cotton material. The woven textile fabric may also have multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 25. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester yarns may contain 10 to 30 filaments each. The woven textile fabric may have a total thread count from 190 to 1200. The woven textile fabric may have a minimum tensile strength in a warp direction between 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms and a minimum tensile strength in a weft direction between 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms. The woven textile fabric may have a warp-to-fill ratio that is between 1:2 to 1:4. The weft yarns within each group run may parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. Each of the groups may be made up of at least four multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In another aspect, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The warp yarns are made of a cotton material and the picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between two and eight. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. In another aspect, a method of a woven textile fabric includes forming 190 to 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is at least one. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. In another aspect, a method of weaving a fabric includes drawing multiple polyester weft yarns from a weft source to a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. The method also includes conveying by the pick insertion apparatus the multiple polyester weft yarns across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in a single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus and beating the multiple polyester weft yarns into a fell of the fabric with a reed apparatus of the loom apparatus such that the set of warp yarns and/or the multiple polyester weft yarns become interlaced into a woven textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In addition, the warp yarns are made of a cotton material. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Furthermore, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is two. In addition, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between two and eight. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be wound on the yarn package at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The denier of the polyester weft yarns may be between 15 and 50. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be an air jet pick insertion apparatus. Further, the multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a conning oil comprising a petroleum hydrocarbon, an emulsifier and/or a surfactant to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be a rapier insertion apparatus and/or a bullet insertion apparatus. An airflow of a primary nozzle and/or a fixed nozzle of an air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 12 Nm 3 /hr to 14 Nm 3 /hr to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The airflow of each relay nozzle in the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 100 and/or 140 millibars to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. A drive time of a drive time of a relay valve of the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 90 degrees and/or 135 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarns may have a denier of 22.5 with 14 filaments. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a primary heater heated to approximately 180 degrees Celsius to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarn may be treated with a cooling plate at a temperature of between 0 and 25 degrees Celsius subsequent to the treating with the primary heater. In yet another aspect, a bedding material having the combination of the “feel” and absorption characteristics of cotton and the durability characteristics of polyester with multi-filament polyester weft yarns having a denier of between 15 and 50 and cotton warp yarns woven in a loom apparatus that simultaneously inserts multiple of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of the loom apparatus in a parallel fashion such that each of the multiple polyester weft yarns maintain a physical adjacency between each other during the single pick insertion event, increasing the thread count of a woven fabric of the bedding material based on the usage of multi-filament polyester weft yarns with a denier between 15 and 50. The bedding is a woven textile fabric that includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In a further aspect, a method of woven textile fabric includes forming of 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric. The woven textile fabric is made from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 965 picks per inch single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is one. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on the single-pick yarn package at an angle of between 15 and 20 degrees to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. In one more aspect, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between one and eight. Furthermore, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 5 and 25 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The woven textile fabric may be made of multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 20 to 65. The woven textile fabric may have multi-filament polyester yarns having a denier of 15 to 35. The warp yarns may be made of a cotton material. The woven textile fabric may also have multi-filament polyester yarns have a denier of 20 to 25. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester yarns may contain 10 to 30 filaments each. The woven textile fabric may have a total thread count from 190 to 1200. The woven textile fabric may have a minimum tensile strength in a warp direction between 17 kilograms to 65 kilograms and a minimum tensile strength in a weft direction between 11.5 kilograms to 100 kilograms. The woven textile fabric may have a warp-to-fill ratio that is between 1:2 to 1:4. The weft yarns within each group run may parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. Each of the groups may be made up of at least four multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In one more additional aspect, a woven textile fabric includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The warp yarns are made of a cotton material and the picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of at least two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is at least two. The number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between one and eight. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at a type A shore hardness of between 45 to 85 to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. In yet another aspect, a method of a woven textile fabric includes forming 190 to 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is at least one. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus and/or a rapier pick insertion apparatus. In another additional aspect, a method of weaving a fabric includes drawing multiple polyester weft yarns from a weft source to a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. The method also includes conveying by the pick insertion apparatus the multiple polyester weft yarns across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in a single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus and beating the multiple polyester weft yarns into a fell of the fabric with a reed apparatus of the loom apparatus such that the set of warp yarns and/or the multiple polyester weft yarns become interlaced into a woven textile fabric. The method forms the woven textile having from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In addition, the warp yarns are made of a cotton material. The picks are woven into the textile fabric in groups of two multi-filament polyester weft yarns running in a parallel form to one another. The weft yarns within each group run parallel to each other in a plane which substantially includes the warp yarns. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound in a substantially parallel form to one another. Additionally, the multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound substantially adjacent to one another on a multi-pick yarn package to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Furthermore, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns wound on the weft yarn package using the single pick insertion and in a substantially parallel form to one another and substantially adjacent to one another is two. In addition, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is between one and eight. The multi-filament polyester weft yarns are wound on the multi-pick yarn package at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be wound on the yarn package at an angle of between 15 and/or 20 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The denier of the polyester weft yarns may be between 15 and 50. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be an air jet pick insertion apparatus. Further, the multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a conning oil comprising a petroleum hydrocarbon, an emulsifier and/or a surfactant to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus may be a rapier insertion apparatus and/or a bullet insertion apparatus. An airflow of a primary nozzle and/or a fixed nozzle of an air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 12 Nm3/hr to 14 Nm3/hr to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The airflow of each relay nozzle in the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 100 and/or 140 millibars to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. A drive time of a drive time of a relay valve of the air jet pick insertion apparatus pick insertion apparatus may be adjusted to between 90 degrees and/or 135 degrees to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarns may have a denier of 22.5 with 14 filaments. The multiple polyester weft yarns may be treated with a primary heater heated to approximately 180 degrees Celsius to enable the simultaneous inserting of the multiple polyester weft yarns during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus, and the multiple polyester weft yarn may be treated with a cooling plate at a temperature of between 0 and 25 degrees Celsius subsequent to the treating with the primary heater. In yet further aspect, a bedding material having the combination of the “feel” and absorption characteristics of cotton and the durability characteristics of polyester with multi-filament polyester weft yarns having a denier of between 15 and 50 and cotton warp yarns woven in a loom apparatus that simultaneously inserts multiple of the multi-filament polyester weft yarns during a single pick insertion event of the loom apparatus in a parallel fashion such that each of the multiple polyester weft yarns maintain a physical adjacency between each other during the single pick insertion event, increasing the thread count of a woven fabric of the bedding material based on the usage of multi-filament polyester weft yarns with a denier between 15 and 50. The bedding is a woven textile fabric that includes from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch multi-filament polyester weft yarns. In an additional further aspect, a method of woven textile fabric includes forming of 1200 threads per inch fine textile fabric. The woven textile fabric is made from 90 to 235 ends per inch warp yarns and from 100 to 1016 picks per inch single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. The picks are woven into the textile fabric using single multi-filament polyester weft yarn. In addition, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on a single-pick yarn package to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during a single pick insertion event of a pick insertion apparatus of a loom apparatus. Further, the number of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn conveyed by the pick insertion apparatus across a warp shed of the loom apparatus through a set of warp yarns in the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is one. Additionally, the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus is an air jet pick insertion apparatus. Further, the multi-filament polyester weft yarn is wound on the single-pick yarn package at an angle of between 15 and 20 degrees to enable inserting of the multi-filament polyester weft yarn during the single pick insertion event of the pick insertion apparatus of the loom apparatus. The methods and systems disclosed herein may be implemented in any means for achieving various aspects, and may be executed in a form of a non-transitory machine-readable medium embodying a set of instructions that, when executed by a machine, cause the machine to perform any of the operations disclosed herein. Other features will be apparent from the accompanying drawings and from the detailed description that follows. | D03D10017 | 20170717 | 20171102 | 99269.0 | D03D100 | 1 | MUROMOTO JR, ROBERT H | PROLIFERATED THREAD COUNT OF A WOVEN TEXTILE BY SIMULTANEOUS INSERTION WITHIN A SINGLE PICK INSERTION EVENT OF A LOOM APPARATUS MULTIPLE ADJACENT PARALLEL YARNS DRAWN FROM A MULTI-PICK YARN PACKAGE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | D03D | 2,017 |
|
15,652,268 | PENDING | METHOD, MEDIUM FOR OBTAINING CALL RECORDS OF MOBILE TERMINAL, AND MOBILE TERMINAL | A method, device and medium for obtaining a call record of a mobile terminal are provided. The method includes: obtaining a missed incoming call record; and inserting the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal. | 1. A method for obtaining call records of a mobile terminal, the method comprising: obtaining a missed incoming call record of the mobile terminal; and inserting the missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein the obtaining the missed incoming call record comprises obtaining the missed incoming call record from a server, contents of a received short message, or a carrier. 3. The method according to claim 2, wherein the obtaining the missed incoming call record from the server comprises: obtaining outgoing call records of a calling party from the server; obtaining, from the outgoing call records of the calling party, an outgoing call record from the calling party to the mobile terminal; and using the outgoing call record as the missed incoming call record. 4. The method according to claim 2, wherein obtaining the missed incoming call record from the contents of the received short message comprises: obtaining contents of the received short message in a predefined format; and obtaining the missed incoming call record from the contents of the short message in the predefined format. 5. The method according to claim 2, wherein obtaining the missed call record from the contents of the received short message, comprises: obtaining the missed incoming call record from a short message notification received from a carrier. 6. The method according to claim 1, wherein inserting the missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal comprises: inserting the obtained missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal according to incoming-call time; and deleting duplicates in the call records of the mobile terminal. 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein after the missed incoming call record is inserted into call records of the mobile terminal, the method further comprises: notifying a user of the missed incoming call record. 8. A mobile terminal, comprising: a processor; and a memory for storing instructions executable by the processor; wherein the processor is configured to: obtain a missed incoming call record of the mobile terminal; and insert the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal. 9. The mobile terminal according to claim 8, wherein the processor configured to obtain the missed incoming call record is further configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from a server, contents of a received short message, or a carrier. 10. The mobile terminal according to claim 9, wherein the processor configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from the server is further configured to: obtain outgoing call records of a calling party from the server; obtain, from the outgoing call records of the calling party, an outgoing call record from the calling party to the mobile terminal; and use the outgoing call record as the missed incoming call record. 11. The mobile terminal according to claim 9, wherein the processor configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from the contents of the received short message is further configured to: obtain contents of the received short message in a predefined format; and obtain the missed incoming call record from the contents of the short message in the predefined format. 12. The mobile terminal according to claim 9, wherein the processor configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from the carrier is configured to: obtain the missed incoming call record from a short message notification received from the carrier. 13. The mobile terminal according to claim 8, wherein the processor configured to insert the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal is further configured to: insert the obtained missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal according to incoming-call time; and delete duplicates in the call records of the mobile terminal. 14. The mobile terminal according to claim 8, wherein after the missed incoming call record is inserted into the call records of the mobile terminal, the processor is configured to: notify a user of the missed incoming call record. 15. A non-transitory computer-readable storage medium having stored therein instructions that, when executed by a processor of a mobile terminal, causes the mobile terminal to perform a method for obtaining call records of the mobile terminal, the method comprising: obtaining a missed incoming call record of the mobile terminal; and inserting the missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal. 16. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 15, wherein the obtaining the missed incoming call record comprises obtaining the missed incoming call record from a server, contents of a received short message, or a carrier. 17. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 16, wherein the obtaining the missed incoming call record from the server comprises: obtaining outgoing call records of a calling party from the server; obtaining, from the outgoing call records of the calling party, an outgoing call record from the calling party to the mobile terminal; and using the outgoing call record as the missed incoming call record. 18. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 16, wherein obtaining the missed incoming call record from the contents of the received short message comprises: obtaining contents of the received short message in a predefined format; and obtaining the missed incoming call record from the contents of the short message in the predefined format. 19. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 16, wherein obtaining the missed call record from the contents of the received short message, comprises: obtaining the missed incoming call record from a short message notification received from a carrier. 20. The non-transitory computer-readable storage medium according to claim 15, wherein inserting the missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal comprises: inserting the obtained missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal according to incoming-call time; and deleting duplicates in the call records of the mobile terminal. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present application is based upon and claims priority to Chinese Patent Application No. 201610608625.5, filed Jul. 28, 2016, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The present disclosure generally relates to the technical field of smart terminals, and more particularly, to a method and medium for obtaining call records of a mobile terminal, and the mobile terminal. BACKGROUND Currently, with the development of smart phones, mobile phones have become an important part in people's life. Phone calls also have become one of the important communication manners for people. Smart phones often run out of power, due to its limited battery capacity. If a mobile phone is running out of power or shut down, the mobile phone cannot receive calls, and thus some important calls may be missed. As a result, a user cannot be inform of in time whether someone has called the user during the shutdown or under other conditions that the phone is not available. SUMMARY Embodiments of the present disclosure provide a method, device and medium for obtaining call records of a mobile terminal. According to a first aspect of embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a method for obtaining call records of a mobile terminal. The method includes: obtaining a missed incoming call record of the mobile terminal; and inserting the missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal. According to a second aspect of embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a mobile terminal, and the mobile terminal includes: a processor; and a memory for storing instructions executable by the processor; wherein the processor is configured to: obtain a missed incoming call record of a mobile terminal; and insert the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal. According to a third aspect of the embodiment of the present disclosure, there is provided a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium storing instructions, executable by a processor in a mobile terminal, for performing a method for obtaining call records of a mobile terminal, and the method includes: obtaining a missed incoming call record of the mobile terminal; and inserting the missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary only and are not restrictive of the present disclosure. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments consistent with the present disclosure and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the present disclosure. FIG. 1 is a flowchart showing a method for obtaining a call record according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 2 is a flowchart showing a method for obtaining a call record according to another exemplary embodiment. FIG. 3 is a flowchart showing a method for obtaining a call record according to another exemplary embodiment. FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing a device for obtaining a call record according to an exemplary embodiment. FIG. 5 is a block diagram for a device for obtaining a call record according to an exemplary embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Description will now be made in detail for exemplary embodiments, examples of which are illustrated in the accompanying drawings. The following description refers to the accompanying drawings in which the same numbers in different drawings represent the same or similar elements unless otherwise represented. The implementations set forth in the following description of exemplary embodiments do not represent all implementations consistent with the present disclosure. Instead, they are merely examples of devices and methods consistent with aspects related to the present disclosure as recited in the appended claims. FIG. 1 is a flowchart illustrating a method for obtaining a call record according to an exemplary embodiment. As shown in FIG. 1, the method for obtaining a call record is applied in a mobile terminal, and may include the following steps 101 to 102. In step 101, a missed incoming call record of the mobile terminal is obtained. In step 102, the missed incoming call record is inserted into call records of the mobile terminal. Typically, if a user's mobile phone is in a shutdown state, the user cannot be informed of whether there is an incoming call during the shutdown or other conditions that the phone is not available, unless the user uses information of telecom carriers. Also, it's also not feasible to automatically insert incoming-call information into call records of the user's mobile phone. This brings many inconveniences to the user. However, by using the technical solutions of the present disclosure, after the user restarts his/her mobile phone, the mobile phone automatically obtains one or more records about incoming calls during the shutdown or other conditions that the phone is not available, and automatically inserts the obtained records about incoming calls into the existing call records of the mobile phone, thereby bringing conveniences to the user. In an embodiment, a mobile terminal may automatically obtains one or more missed incoming call records after being connected to a carrier's network. The missed incoming call records can be obtained in many ways. For example, the missed incoming call records can be intelligently obtained according to network connection information of mobile terminals which initiate calls or by parsing contents of short messages. For example, there might be a situation that a calling party may send a short message if a mobile terminal cannot be dialed in: “I have called you just now but you are not available, please call me back after seeing the short message”. After receiving such kind of short messages, the called mobile terminal can intelligently identify the semantic contents in the short message by matching the short message with a pre-stored template, and then determine that the called terminal has a missed incoming call record. In an embodiment, a missed incoming call record refers to a call record which indicates a call initiated by a calling party but is not saved in the mobile terminal of a called party. For example, if a mobile terminal is shut down and a calling party calls the mobile terminal at this time, then the mobile terminal is not available. As another example, if a mobile terminal is at a location where there is no telephone signal, no call can be received by the mobile terminal. Or, because of defects of the Android system, if a mobile terminal receives a call and then it is shut down immediately, the call record cannot be saved. In an embodiment, one or more missed incoming call records can be obtained from a server. If a calling party calls a mobile terminal of a called party when the mobile terminal is shut down or is not available, the call cannot be received by the mobile terminal, and the call record can be synchronized to call records associated with the mobile terminal on a cloud server. After the mobile terminal is restarted or re-obtains carrier's network signals, the mobile terminal can directly obtain the call record from the cloud server and insert the obtained call record into the call records of the mobile terminal. In an embodiment, the obtaining of the missed incoming call record from the server may include: obtaining outgoing call records of a calling party from the server; obtaining, from the outgoing call records of the calling party, an outgoing call record which indicates an outgoing call from the calling party to the mobile terminal; and using the outgoing call record which indicates the outgoing call from the calling party to the mobile terminal as the missed incoming call record. For example, a database associated with each network user can be established in the server to synchronously store call records associated with each user. For users each of whom is a contact of another one, they can obtain call records associated with themselves from the call records of their contacts by the authorization of their contacts. For example, when users A and B are contacts of each other, and user B initiates a call to user A while the mobile terminal of user A is shut down. User B fails to reach user A because the mobile terminal of user A is in a shutdown state. At this time, if user B is in a network-connected state, user B can directly synchronize the call record to the server. After the mobile terminal of user A is restarted, the mobile terminal can directly obtain from the server this call record which indicates the call from user B, and insert the obtained call record, as the incoming call record of the mobile terminal itself, into the call records of the mobile terminal. In an embodiment, one or more missed call records can be obtained from contents of a received short message. In some situations, some carriers may notify users of missed incoming calls using short messages. In some other situations, settings can be performed so that if a calling party calls a mobile terminal but the called terminal is not available, a short message can be sent to the mobile terminal to notify the user of the mobile terminal about the incoming call record. In an embodiment, the obtaining of the missed incoming call record from the contents of the received short message may include: obtaining contents of the received short message in a predefined format; and obtaining the missed incoming call record from the contents of the short message in the predefined format. In the embodiment, for example, when user B is calling user A, if the terminal of user A is not available because it is in an offline state or in a shutdown state, the terminal of user B can automatically generate and send a short message with contents in a predefined format to user A to notify of the time when user B calls user A. After the mobile terminal of user A is restarted or is on line again, the mobile terminal of user A receives a short message notification in a predefined format which is sent by user B, and obtain the missed incoming call record therefrom. Because the format of the short message is fixed, after the mobile terminal of user A receives the short message in the predefined format, user A can know that the short message is used for notifying the missed incoming call record, and the mobile terminal of user A can obtain the information about the incoming call record from the short message contents by matching the received short message with a predetermined template. In an embodiment, the obtaining of the missed incoming call record from the contents of the received short message may include: obtaining the missed incoming call record from a short message notification received from a carrier. Some carriers may provide services for notifying users of missed incoming call records using short messages. The format and sender of such kind of short messages are usually fixed, and thus if a mobile terminal receives such kind of short message from the carriers, the mobile terminal can obtain the missed incoming call record by matching the received short messages with a pre-stored template. In some other embodiments, some carriers may provide API, and the records of calls which are missed by users can be obtained using the API. In an embodiment, one or more missed call records can be obtained directly from a carrier. A mobile terminal can directly obtain and synchronize all call records from the carrier, if there is a cooperation relationship with the carrier, or if the carrier provides such a service. For example, the carrier can record all call records associated with users, including incoming call records missed when mobile terminals of users are in a shutdown state or in an offline state. If the mobile terminals of users are restarted or are on line again, the call records associated with the users can be synchronized to the mobile terminals of the users. In an embodiment, the obtaining of the missed incoming call record may include one or more of: obtaining the missed incoming call record from a server; obtaining the missed incoming call record from contents of a received short message; and obtaining the missed incoming call record from a carrier. The three manners for obtaining missed incoming call record can be applied in different situations. Obtaining the missed incoming call record from a server is suitable for a situation where both calling and called mobile terminals are being connected to networks. If one of the calling and called mobile terminals is not connected to networks, the second manner can be used, i.e., the missed incoming call record can be obtained from contents of a received short message. For users who can directly obtain call records from a carrier, the third manner can be used, i.e., the missed incoming call record can be obtained from the carrier. In some embodiments, any two or more of the above three manners can be used at the same time, in order to accommodate different situations of the called and calling parties. If any two or more of the three manners are used, the manner having a highest priority can be used according to priority settings. Optionally, three or two manners can be used at the same time and duplicates can be deleted after the call records are obtained. In an embodiment, the step of inserting the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal may include: inserting the obtained missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal according to incoming-call time; and deleting duplicates in the call records of the mobile terminal. After obtaining the missed incoming call record, the mobile terminal of a called party can automatically insert the obtained call record into the call records of the mobile terminal according to the incoming-call time. If the call records are obtained using a plurality of manners, there might be duplicates in the call records, and the duplicates can be deleted after the missed incoming call records are inserted into the call records of the mobile terminal. In an embodiment, after the missed incoming call record is inserted into call records of the mobile terminal, the method further includes: notifying a user of the missed incoming call record. After automatically inserting the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal, the mobile terminal can notify the user of the missed incoming call record. For example, a missed call can be shown on a screen of the mobile terminal, and the incoming-call time and the calling party of the missed call can be shown. The user can select to call the calling party or ignore the call record after seeing the notification. In an embodiment, the above methods can be performed after the mobile terminal of the user is restarted or the state of the mobile terminal is changed from an offline state to an online state. Optionally, the above methods can be performed at a time designated by the user. The technical solutions of the present disclosure will be described below with reference to specific embodiments. In an embodiment, descriptions will be made in detail for an example that the missed incoming call record is obtained from a server. For example, user A calls user B, but user B does not receive the call because his/her mobile terminal is shut down or because of some other reasons. The cloud service used by user A and user B can save call records, and thus the record of the call from user A to user B is saved in the cloud data associated with the user A. The call record which indicates the call from user A to user B but is not successfully saved by the mobile terminal of user B can be obtained from the cloud data and sent to user B, so as to complement the call records of user B. As shown in FIG. 2, the specific flow may be as follows. In step 201, after the mobile terminal of the user is restarted, a record obtaining message is sent to the server to obtain outgoing call records of contacts associated with the user of the mobile terminal. The record obtaining message includes the starting and ending times of the shutdown of the mobile terminal of the user and the telephone number of the mobile terminal. In step 202, the outgoing call records of the contacts sent by the server are received. The outgoing call records of the contacts include outgoing call records which are between the starting and ending times of the shutdown of the mobile terminal of the user and indicate a called number which is the telephone number of the mobile terminal. In step 203, the outgoing call records of the contacts are used as the missed incoming call records. In step 204, the missed incoming call records are inserted into the call records of the mobile terminal. In step 205, the mobile terminal may notify the user of new call records. In the embodiment, after the mobile terminal of the user is restarted, the mobile terminal of the user obtains, from the server, the outgoing call records of contacts associated with the user of the mobile terminal. The outgoing call records include all outgoing call records which indicate a called number which is the telephone number of the mobile terminal during the shutdown of the mobile terminal. After obtaining the outgoing call records, the records are converted as the incoming call records of the mobile terminal, and then the records are inserted into the call records of the mobile terminal. At the same time, the mobile terminal notifies the user of missed calls. The method automatically inserts the missed call records which indicate calls missed during the shutdown into the call records of the mobile terminal and notify the user of the missed calls. Thus, important calls will not be missed, and thereby user experience can be improved. In another embodiment, description will be made for an example that a contact automatically sends a short message which indicates a missed call to the mobile terminal of a user. For example, China Mobile provides a call reminder service, the cost of which is 3 RMB per month. Using such service, short messages are sent to notify users of missed calls. The “call reminder” service refers to a service provided for a called user to notify the missed calls. If a called user is busy, or the mobile terminal of the called user is shut down or not available, the call from a calling party will be connected to a missed call service system, and according to the identity of the calling party and the selection of the calling party, the call information can be sent to the called party when the terminal of the called party is available. This can ensure that the information of the calls between the calling and called parties will not missed, and thus provide improved user experience. Three major carriers, including China Mobile, China Telecom, and China Unicom, each provides the call reminder service. The service of China Mobile is known as a call reminder service. The service of China Telecom is known as a missed call reminder service. The service of China Unicom is known as a communication assistance service. The specific flow is shown in FIG. 3. In step 301, after the mobile terminal of a user is connected to a carrier's network, the mobile terminal can receive a short message notification. For example, after the user orders the call reminder service of China Mobile, if there is a missed call, the mobile terminal of the user may receive a call reminder short message from China Mobile, the sender number of the short message is “106581210”, and the contents of the short message may be: “Shanghai Mobile provides call reminder service for you: telephone number 058107363 called your mobile phone at 13:35, Jul. 22, 2016, please call back in time”. For every district of China, the sender number of the call reminder short messages sent by the China Mobile is fixed, and the format of the contents of the short messages is fixed. Therefore, a short message template may be preset based on the fixed format. After a short message is received, the short message is matched with the preset short message template to identify the number of the incoming call. In step 302, whether there are short message contents in a predefined format in the newly received short message notification is determined. If there are short message contents in the predefined format, step 303 is performed; otherwise, the flow process ends. In step 303, the short message contents in a predefined format are matched with a pre-stored template to obtain a missed incoming call record. In step 304, the missed incoming call record is inserted into call records of the mobile terminal. In step 305, the mobile terminal notifies the user of the new call record. In the embodiment, after the mobile terminal of the user is connected to the carrier's network again, the mobile terminal of the user can receive new short message notifications. The mobile terminal can identify, from the short messages notifications, a short message for notifying the missed incoming call record, and obtain the missed incoming call record by matching the short message notifications with the pre-stored template. After the missed incoming call record is obtained, the missed incoming call record is inserted into the call records of the mobile terminal, and meanwhile the mobile terminal notifies the user of the missed call. The method automatically inserts the missed incoming call records which indicate calls missed during the shutdown into the call records of the mobile terminal, and then notify the user of the missed calls. Thus, important calls will not be missed, and thereby user experience can be improved. Embodiments of devices, which are used for performing the methods according to embodiments of the present disclosure, will be described below. FIG. 4 is a block diagram illustrating a device for obtaining a call record according to an exemplary embodiment. The device can be realized as whole or a part of an electronic device by software, hardware or a combination thereof. As shown in FIG. 4, the device for obtaining a call record may include an obtaining module 401 and an insertion module 402. The obtaining module 401 is configured to obtain a missed incoming call record. The insertion module 402 is configured to insert the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal. The obtaining module 401 may include any one of a first obtaining sub-module 4011, a second obtaining sub-module 4012, and a third obtaining sub-module 4013. The first obtaining sub-module 4011 is configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from a server. The second obtaining sub-module 4012 is configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from contents of a received short message. The third obtaining sub-module 4013 configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from a carrier. The first obtaining sub-module 4011 may include an outgoing record obtaining sub-module 40111, an incoming record obtaining sub-module 40112 and a conversion sub-module 40113. The outgoing record obtaining sub-module 40111 is configured to obtain outgoing call records of a calling party from the server. The incoming record obtaining sub-module 40112 is configured to obtain, from the outgoing call records of the calling party, an outgoing call record which indicates an outgoing call from the calling party to the mobile terminal. The conversion sub-module 40113 is configured to use the outgoing call record which indicates the outgoing call from the calling party to the mobile terminal as the missed incoming call record. The second obtaining sub-module 4012 may include a short message obtaining sub-module 40121 and an incoming record matching sub-module 40122. The short message obtaining sub-module 40121 is configured to obtain contents of the received short message in a predefined format. The incoming record matching sub-module 40122 is configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from the contents of the short message in the predefined format. The second obtaining sub-module 4012 may include a carrier record obtaining sub-module 40123. The carrier record obtaining sub-module 40123 is configured to obtain the missed incoming call record from a short message notification received from a carrier. The insertion module 402 may include a record insertion sub-module 4021 and a merging sub-module 4022. The record insertion sub-module 4021 is configured to insert the obtained missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal according to incoming-call time. The merging sub-module 4022 is configured to delete duplicates in the call records of the mobile terminal. The insertion module 402 may further include a notification sub-module 4023. The notification sub-module 40s3 is configured to notify a user of the missed incoming call. In the embodiment, when a mobile terminal is restarted or the state of the mobile terminal is changed from an offline state to an online state, the obtaining module obtains the missed incoming call record, and the obtained missed incoming call record is automatically inserted into call records of the mobile terminal. This is convenient for users to view records, and can avoid missing of important calls, and thereby improve user experience. Embodiments of the present disclosure further provide a mobile terminal, including: a processor; and a memory for storing instructions executable by the processor; wherein the processor is configured to: obtain a missed incoming call record; and insert the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal. According to an embodiment, the processor is configured to perform any one of: obtaining the missed incoming call record from a server; obtaining the missed incoming call record from contents of a received short message; and obtaining the missed incoming call record from a carrier. According to an embodiment, the processor is configured to: obtain outgoing call records of a calling party from the server; obtain, from the outgoing call records of the calling party, an outgoing call record which indicates an outgoing call from the calling party to the mobile terminal; and use the outgoing call record which indicates the outgoing call from the calling party to the mobile terminal as the missed incoming call record. According to an embodiment, the processor is configured to: obtain contents of the received short message in a predefined format; and obtain the missed incoming call record from the contents of the short message in the predefined format. According to an embodiment, the processor is configured to: obtain the missed incoming call record from a short message notification received from a carrier. According to an embodiment, the processor is configured to: insert the obtained missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal according to incoming-call time; and delete duplicates in the call records of the mobile terminal. According to an embodiment, the processor is configured to: after the missed incoming call record is inserted into the call records of the mobile terminal, notify a user of the missed incoming call record. With respect to the devices in the above embodiments, the specific manners for performing operations for individual modules therein have been described in detail in the embodiments regarding the methods, which will not be elaborated herein. FIG. 5 is a block diagram illustrating a device 1200 for obtaining a call record according to an exemplary embodiment. The device 1200 may be applied in a terminal device. For example, the device 1200 may be a mobile phone, a computer, a digital broadcast terminal, a messaging transceiver, a gaming console, a tablet device, a medical device, exercise equipment, a personal digital assistant, and the like. The device 1200 may include one or more of the following components: a processing component 1202, a memory 1204, a power component 1206, a multimedia component 1208, an audio component 1210, an input/output (I/O) interface 1212, a sensor component 1214, and a communication component 1216. The processing component 1202 typically controls overall operations of the device 1200, such as the operations associated with display, telephone calls, data communications, camera operations, and recording operations. The processing component 1202 may include one or more processors 1220 to execute instructions to perform all or part of the steps in the above described methods. Moreover, the processing component 1202 may include one or more modules which facilitate the interaction between the processing component 1202 and other components. For instance, the processing component 1202 may include a multimedia module to facilitate the interaction between the multimedia component 1208 and the processing component 1202. The memory 1204 is configured to store various types of data to support the operation of the device 1200. Examples of such data include instructions for any applications or methods operated on the device 1200, contact data, phonebook data, messages, pictures, video, etc. The memory 1204 may be implemented using any type of volatile or non-volatile memory devices, or a combination thereof, such as a static random access memory (SRAM), an electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM), an erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM), a programmable read-only memory (PROM), a read-only memory (ROM), a magnetic memory, a flash memory, a magnetic or optical disk. The power component 1206 provides power to various components of the device 1200. The power component 1206 may include a power management system, one or more power sources, and any other components associated with the generation, management, and distribution of power in the device 1200. The multimedia component 1208 includes a screen providing an output interface between the device 1200 and the user. In some embodiments, the screen may include a liquid crystal display (LCD) and a touch panel (TP). If the screen includes the touch panel, the screen may be implemented as a touch screen to receive input signals from the user. The touch panel includes one or more touch sensors to sense touches, swipes, and gestures on the touch panel. The touch sensors may not only sense a boundary of a touch or swipe action, but also sense a period of time and a pressure associated with the touch or swipe action. In some embodiments, the multimedia component 1208 includes a front camera and/or a rear camera. The front camera and the rear camera may receive an external multimedia datum while the device 1200 is in an operation mode, such as a photographing mode or a video mode. Each of the front camera and the rear camera may be a fixed optical lens system or have focus and optical zoom capability. The audio component 1210 is configured to output and/or input audio signals. For example, the audio component 1210 includes a microphone (“MIC”) configured to receive an external audio signal when the device 1200 is in an operation mode, such as a call mode, a recording mode, and a voice recognition mode. The received audio signal may be further stored in the memory 1204 or transmitted via the communication component 1216. In some embodiments, the audio component 1210 further includes a speaker to output audio signals. The I/O interface 1212 provides an interface between the processing component 1202 and peripheral interface modules, such as a keyboard, a click wheel, buttons, and the like. The buttons may include, but are not limited to, a home button, a volume button, a starting button, and a locking button. The sensor component 1214 includes one or more sensors to provide status assessments of various aspects of the device 1200. For instance, the sensor component 1214 may detect an open/closed status of the device 1200, relative positioning of components, e.g., the display and the keypad, of the device 1200, a change in position of the device 1200 or a component of the device 1200, a presence or absence of user contact with the device 1200, an orientation or an acceleration/deceleration of the device 1200, and a change in temperature of the device 1200. The sensor component 1214 may include a proximity sensor configured to detect the presence of nearby objects without any physical contact. The sensor component 1214 may also include a light sensor, such as a CMOS or CCD image sensor, for use in imaging applications. In some embodiments, the sensor component 1214 may also include an accelerometer sensor, a gyroscope sensor, a magnetic sensor, a pressure sensor, or a temperature sensor. The communication component 1216 is configured to facilitate communication, whether wired or wireless, between the device 1200 and other devices. The device 1200 can access a wireless network based on a communication standard, such as WiFi, 2G, or 3G, or a combination thereof. In one exemplary embodiment, the communication component 1216 receives a broadcast signal or broadcast associated information from an external broadcast management system via a broadcast channel. In one exemplary embodiment, the communication component 1216 further includes a near field communication (NFC) module to facilitate short-range communications. For example, the NFC module may be implemented based on a radio frequency identification (RFID) technology, an infrared data association (IrDA) technology, an ultra-wideband (UWB) technology, a Bluetooth (BT) technology, and other technologies. In exemplary embodiments, the device 1200 may be implemented with one or more application specific integrated circuits (ASICs), digital signal processors (DSPs), digital signal processing devices (DSPDs), programmable logic devices (PLDs), field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs), controllers, micro-controllers, microprocessors, or other electronic components, for performing the above described methods. In exemplary embodiments, there is also provided a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium including instructions, such as included in the memory 1204, executable by the processor 1220 in the device 1200, for performing the above-described methods. For example, the non-transitory computer-readable storage medium may be a ROM, a RAM, a CD-ROM, a magnetic tape, a floppy disc, an optical data storage device, and the like. There is provided a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium, when instructions in the storage medium are executed by the processor in the above device 1200, the device 1200 is caused to perform a method for obtaining a call record, applied in a mobile terminal, including: obtaining a missed incoming call record; and inserting the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal. According to an embodiment, the step of obtaining the missed incoming call record includes any one of: obtaining the missed incoming call record from a server; obtaining the missed incoming call record from contents of a received short message; and obtaining the missed incoming call record from a carrier. According to an embodiment, the step of obtaining the missed incoming call record from the server includes: obtaining outgoing call records of a calling party from the server; obtaining, from the outgoing call records of the calling party, an outgoing call record which indicates an outgoing call from the calling party to the mobile terminal; and using the outgoing call record which indicates the outgoing call from the calling party to the mobile terminal as the missed call record. According to an embodiment, the step of obtaining the missed incoming call record from the contents of the received short message, includes: obtaining contents of the received short message in a predefined format; and obtaining the missed call record from the contents of the short message in the predefined format. According to an embodiment, the step of obtaining the missed incoming call record from the contents of the received short message, includes: obtaining the missed incoming call record from a short message notification received from a carrier. According to an embodiment, the step of inserting the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal, includes: inserting the obtained missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal according to incoming-call time; and deleting duplicates in the call records of the mobile terminal. According to an embodiment, after the missed incoming call record is inserted into call records of the mobile terminal, the method further includes: notifying a user of the missed incoming call record. Other embodiments of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from consideration of the specification and practice of the invention disclosed here. This application is intended to cover any variations, uses, or adaptations of the invention following the general principles thereof and including such departures from the present disclosure as come within known or customary practice in the art. It is intended that the specification and examples be considered as exemplary only, with a true scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the following claims. It will be appreciated that the present invention is not limited to the exact construction that has been described above and illustrated in the accompanying drawings, and that various modifications and changes can be made without departing from the scope thereof. It is intended that the scope of the invention only be limited by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Currently, with the development of smart phones, mobile phones have become an important part in people's life. Phone calls also have become one of the important communication manners for people. Smart phones often run out of power, due to its limited battery capacity. If a mobile phone is running out of power or shut down, the mobile phone cannot receive calls, and thus some important calls may be missed. As a result, a user cannot be inform of in time whether someone has called the user during the shutdown or under other conditions that the phone is not available. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the present disclosure provide a method, device and medium for obtaining call records of a mobile terminal. According to a first aspect of embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a method for obtaining call records of a mobile terminal. The method includes: obtaining a missed incoming call record of the mobile terminal; and inserting the missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal. According to a second aspect of embodiments of the present disclosure, there is provided a mobile terminal, and the mobile terminal includes: a processor; and a memory for storing instructions executable by the processor; wherein the processor is configured to: obtain a missed incoming call record of a mobile terminal; and insert the missed incoming call record into call records of the mobile terminal. According to a third aspect of the embodiment of the present disclosure, there is provided a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium storing instructions, executable by a processor in a mobile terminal, for performing a method for obtaining call records of a mobile terminal, and the method includes: obtaining a missed incoming call record of the mobile terminal; and inserting the missed incoming call record into the call records of the mobile terminal. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary only and are not restrictive of the present disclosure. | H04M32218 | 20170718 | 20180201 | 86172.0 | H04M322 | 0 | MEHRA, INDER P | METHOD, MEDIUM FOR OBTAINING CALL RECORDS OF MOBILE TERMINAL, AND MOBILE TERMINAL | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | H04M | 2,017 |
|
15,653,028 | PENDING | ELECTRIC POWERED PUMP DOWN | A method of operations in a subterranean formation, including driving a pump with an electrically powered motor to pressurize fluid, inserting a tool into a wellbore that intersects the formation, and directing the pressurized fluid into the wellbore above the tool to push the tool into the wellbore. | 1. A method of operations in a subterranean formation, the method comprising: driving a pump with an electrically powered motor to pressurize fluid; inserting a tool into a wellbore that intersects the formation; pressurizing fluid upstream of the pump to form a boost fluid; directing the boost fluid to the pump; and directing the pressurized fluid downstream of the pump and into the wellbore upstream of the tool to push the tool into the wellbore. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising urging the tool into the wellbore with the pressurized fluid until the tool reaches a predetermined location in the formation. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the tool comprises a perforating gun. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the wellbore comprises a first wellbore, and wherein the pressurized fluid is simultaneously directed to a second wellbore that also intersects the subterranean formation. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein hydraulic fracturing is performed in the second wellbore. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the pump comprises a first pump and a second pump, and wherein fluid pressurized by the first pump is directed into the first wellbore to push the tool into the first wellbore, and fluid pressurized by the second pump is directed into the second wellbore to use in hydraulic fracturing. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the boost fluid is pressurized via an electric blender. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein electricity that powers the motor is generated with a generator that is proximate the electric motor. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein a wireline system is powered by the electricity. 10. A method of inserting a tool in a subterranean formation, the method comprising: positioning a trailer having a pump driven by an electric motor at a well site; positioning a second trailer having a boost pump at the well site; pressurizing fluid with the boost pump to form a boost fluid; directing the boost fluid to the pump; and driving the tool into the subterranean formation via the pump. 11. The method of claim 10, further comprising generating electricity by a turbine generator to power the electric motor. 12. The method of claim 10, further comprising positioning a sand conveyer and hydration unit at the well site. 13. The method of claim 10, further comprising using a first fluid pressurized by the pump to fracture the formation, and using a second fluid that is pressurized by the pump in a pump down operation. 14. The method of claim 13, wherein the first fluid is directed to a first wellbore that intersects the formation, and the second fluid is directed to a second wellbore that intersects the formation. 15. A system for use in a subterranean formation operation comprising: a first wellbore extending into the subterranean formation; a second wellbore extending into the subterranean formation, the second wellbore being proximate the first wellbore; an electrically driven pump down pump is communication with the first wellbore, the pump down pump pressurizing fluid in the first wellbore to drive a tool positioned in the first wellbore downstream to a predetermined location in the first wellbore; and a hydraulic fracturing pump in communication with the second wellbore, the hydraulic fracturing pump pressurizing fluid in the second wellbore to conduct fracturing operations. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the hydraulic fracturing pump is driven by an electric motor. 17. The system of claim 15, wherein one or more of the pump down pump and the hydraulic fracturing pump are positioned on trailers. 18. The system of claim 15, further comprising gas powered turbine generators. 19. The system of claim 18, further comprising a wireline system that is in electrical communication with the turbine generators. 20. The system of claim 15, wherein the tool comprises a perforating gun. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/291,842, filed on Oct. 12, 2016, which issued as U.S. patent Ser. No. ______ on ______, and claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/242,173, filed Oct. 15, 2015, and is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority to and the benefit of co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/202,085, filed Jul. 5, 2016, and which claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/679,689, filed Nov. 16, 2012, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,410,410 on Aug. 9, 2016; the full disclosures of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Invention The present disclosure relates to operations in a subterranean formations. In particular, the present disclosure relates to a system that uses fluid pressurized by electrically powered pumps for fracturing and for pump down operations. 2. Description of Prior Art Hydraulic fracturing is a technique used to stimulate production from some hydrocarbon producing wells. The technique usually involves injecting fluid into a wellbore at a pressure sufficient to generate fissures in the formation surrounding the wellbore. Typically the pressurized fluid is injected into a portion of the wellbore that is pressure isolated from the remaining length of the wellbore so that fracturing is limited to a designated portion of the formation. The fracturing fluid slurry, whose primary component is usually water, includes proppant (such as sand or ceramic) that migrate into the fractures with the fracturing fluid slurry and remain to prop open the fractures after pressure is no longer applied to the wellbore. A primary fluid for the slurry other than water, such as nitrogen, carbon dioxide, foam (nitrogen and water), diesel, or other fluids is sometimes used as the primary component instead of water. Typically hydraulic fracturing fleets include a data van unit, blender unit, hydration unit, chemical additive unit, hydraulic fracturing pump unit, sand equipment, and other equipment. Traditionally, the fracturing fluid slurry has been pressurized on surface by high pressure pumps powered by diesel engines. To produce the pressures required for hydraulic fracturing, the pumps and associated engines have substantial volume and mass. Heavy duty trailers, skids, or trucks are required for transporting the large and heavy pumps and engines to sites where wellbores are being fractured. Each hydraulic fracturing pump is usually composed of a power end and a fluid end. The hydraulic fracturing pump also generally contains seats, valves, a spring, and keepers internally. These parts allow the hydraulic fracturing pump to draw in low pressure fluid slurry (approximately 100 psi) and discharge the same fluid slurry at high pressures (over 10,000 psi). Recently electrical motors controlled by variable frequency drives have been introduced to replace the diesel engines and transmission, which greatly reduces the noise, emissions, and vibrations generated by the equipment during operation, as well as its size footprint. On each separate unit, a closed circuit hydraulic fluid system is often used for operating auxiliary portions of each type of equipment. These auxiliary components may include dry or liquid chemical pumps, augers, cooling fans, fluid pumps, valves, actuators, greasers, mechanical lubrication, mechanical cooling, mixing paddles, landing gear, and other needed or desired components. This hydraulic fluid system is typically separate and independent of the main hydraulic fracturing fluid slurry that is being pumped into the wellbore. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Certain embodiments of the present technology provide a method of operations in a subterranean formation. The method includes driving a pump with an electrically powered motor to pressurize fluid, inserting a tool into a wellbore that intersects the formation, and directing the pressurized fluid into the wellbore above the tool to push the tool into the wellbore. In some embodiments, the method can further include urging the tool into the wellbore with the pressurized fluid until the tool reaches a predetermined location in the formation. In addition, the tool can be a perforating gun. According to some embodiments, the wellbore can include a first wellbore, wherein the pressurized fluid is simultaneously directed to a second wellbore that also intersects the subterranean formation. Hydraulic fracturing can be performed in the second wellbore. Furthermore, the pump can include a first pump and a second pump, wherein fluid pressurized by the first pump is directed into the first wellbore to push the tool into the first wellbore, and fluid pressurized by the second pump is directed into the second wellbore to use in hydraulic fracturing. Additional embodiments can include pressurizing fluid with an electric blender to form a boost fluid, directing the boost fluid to the pump. In addition, the electricity that powers the motor can be generated with a generator that is proximate the electric motor, and a wireline system can be powered by the electricity. Alternate embodiments of the present technology can include a method of operations in a subterranean formation, including generating electricity, energizing electric motors with the electricity, driving a fracturing pump with at least one of the electric motors, and driving a pump down pump with at least one of the electric motors. In certain embodiments, the electricity can be generated by a turbine generator, and the method can include powering a sand conveyer and hydration unit with the electricity. In some embodiments, the method can further include using a first fluid pressurized by the fracturing pump to fracture the formation, and using a second fluid that is pressurized by the pump down pump in a pump down operation. In addition, the first fluid can be directed to a first wellbore that intersects the formation, and the second fluid can be directed to a second wellbore that intersects the formation. Yet another embodiment of the present technology includes system for use in a subterranean formation operation. The system includes a pump down pump in communication with a first wellbore that intersects the formation, and that pressurizes fluid in the first wellbore, an electric motor that drives the pump down pump, and a tool positioned in the wellbore below at least a portion of the fluid pressurized by the pump down pump, and that is pushed toward the bottom of the wellbore by the fluid. Certain embodiments of the system can also include a hydraulic fracturing pump in communication with a second wellbore that intersects the formation, and that pressurizes fluid in the second wellbore, and the electric motor that drives the hydraulic fracturing pump. According to some embodiments, the electric motor can be a first electric motor and a second electric motor, the first electric motor driving the pump down pump, and the second electric motor driving the hydraulic fracturing pump. In addition, the system can further include gas powered turbine generators, and a wireline system that is in electrical communication with the turbine generators. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS Some of the features and benefits of the present invention having been stated, others will become apparent as the description proceeds when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIGS. 1A and 1B are schematic examples of a system for use in fracturing and pump down operations. FIG. 2 is a plan schematic view of an alternate example of the system of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is a plan schematic view of an example of an electrically powered pump down system. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of an example of a pump system for use with the hydraulic fracturing system of FIGS. 1A and 1B. FIG. 5 is a perspective view of an example of a blender unit for use with the system of FIGS. 1A and 1B. FIGS. 6 and 7 are plan schematic views of alternate examples of an electrically powered pump down system. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of an example of an auxiliary unit for use with the system of FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 5. While the invention will be described in connection with the preferred embodiments, it will be understood that it is not intended to limit the invention to that embodiment. On the contrary, it is intended to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents, as may be included within the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF INVENTION The method and system of the present disclosure will now be described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings in which embodiments are shown. The method and system of the present disclosure may be in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the illustrated embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey its scope to those skilled in the art. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. In an embodiment, usage of the term “about” includes +/−5% of the cited magnitude. In an embodiment, usage of the term “substantially” includes +/−5% of the cited magnitude. It is to be further understood that the scope of the present disclosure is not limited to the exact details of construction, operation, exact materials, or embodiments shown and described, as modifications and equivalents will be apparent to one skilled in the art. In the drawings and specification, there have been disclosed illustrative embodiments and, although specific terms are employed, they are used in a generic and descriptive sense only and not for the purpose of limitation. FIG. 1A is a schematic example of a system 10 that is used for providing pressurized fluid to wellbores 121, 122 shown intersecting a subterranean formation 16. As will be described in more detail below, the pressurized fluid can be used in fracturing and/or pump down operations in the wellbores 121, 122. Included with the system 10 is a hydration unit 18 that receives fluid from a fluid source 20 via line 22, and also selectively receives additives from an additive source 24 via line 26. Additive source 24 can be separate from the hydration unit 18 as a stand-alone unit, or can be included as part of the same unit as the hydration unit 18. The fluid, which in one example is water, is mixed inside of the hydration unit 18 with the additives. In an embodiment, the fluid and additives are mixed over a period of time to allow for uniform distribution of the additives within the fluid. In the example of FIG. 1A, the fluid and additive mixture is transferred to a blender unit 28 via line 30. A proppant source 32 contains proppant, which is delivered to the blender unit 28 as represented by line 34, where line 34 can be a conveyer. Inside the blender unit 28, the proppant and fluid/additive mixture are combined to form a slurry, which is then transferred to a pump assembly 36 via line 38; thus fluid in line 38 includes the discharge of blender unit 28, which is the suction (or boost) for the pump assembly 36. Blender unit 28 can have an onboard chemical additive system, such as with chemical pumps and augers. Optionally, additive source 24 can provide chemicals to blender unit 28; or a separate and standalone chemical additive system (not shown) can be provided for delivering chemicals to the blender unit 28. In an example, the pressure of the slurry in line 38 ranges from around 80 psi to around 100 psi. The pressure of the slurry can be increased up to around 15,000 psi by pump assembly 36. A motor 39, which connects to pump assembly 36 via connection 40, drives pump assembly 36 so that it can pressurize the slurry. After being discharged from pump assembly 36, slurry is injected into a wellhead assembly 411, 412; discharge piping 421, 422 connects discharge of pump assembly 36 with wellhead assembly 411, 412 and provides a conduit for the slurry between the pump assembly 36 and the wellhead assembly 41k, 412. In an alternative, hoses or other connections can be used to provide a conduit for the slurry between the pump assembly 36 and the wellhead assembly 411, 412. Optionally, any type of fluid can be pressurized by the pump assembly 36 to form injection fluid that is then pumped into the wellbores 121, 122, and is not limited to fluids having chemicals or proppant. As detailed below, fluid from pump assembly 36 can be used for fracturing the formation 16, for pump down operations in wellbores 121, 122. Examples exist wherein the system 10 includes multiple pump assemblies 36, and multiple motors 39 for driving the multiple fracturing pump assemblies 36. Valves 431, 432, are shown provided respectively on lines 421, 422 for selectively allowing flow into the wellhead assemblies 411, 412. An example of a turbine 44 is provided in the example of FIG. 1A and which receives a combustible fuel from a fuel source 46 via a feed line 48. In one example, the combustible fuel is natural gas, and the fuel source 46 can be a container of natural gas, a pipeline, or a well (not shown) proximate the turbine 44. Combustion of the fuel in the turbine 44 in turn powers a generator 50 that produces electricity. Shaft 52 connects generator 50 to turbine 44. The combination of the turbine 44, generator 50, and shaft 52 define a turbine generator 53. In another example, gearing can also be used to connect the turbine 44 and generator 50. An example of a micro-grid 54 is further illustrated in FIG. 1A, which distributes electricity generated by the turbine generator 53. Included with the micro-grid 54 is a transformer 56 for stepping down voltage of the electricity generated by the generator 50 to a voltage more compatible for use by electrical powered devices in the system 10. In another example, the power generated by the turbine generator and the power utilized by the electrical powered devices in the system 10 are of the same voltage, such as 4160 V so that main power transformers are not needed. In one embodiment, multiple 3500 kVA dry cast coil transformers are utilized. Electricity generated in generator 50 is conveyed to transformer 56 via line 58. In one example, transformer 56 steps the voltage down from 13.8 kV to around 600 V. Other stepped down voltages can include 4,160 V, 480 V, or other voltages. The output or low voltage side of the transformer 56 connects to a power bus 60, lines 62, 64, 66, 68, 70, and 71 connect to power bus 60 and deliver electricity to electrically powered end users in the system 10. More specifically, line 62 connects fluid source 20 to bus 60, line 64 connects additive source 24 to bus 60, line 66 connects hydration unit 18 to bus 60, line 68 connects proppant source 32 to bus 60, line 70 connects blender unit 28 to bus 60, and line 71 connects bus 60 to a variable frequency drive (“VFD”) 72. Line 73 connects VFD 72 to motor 39. In one example, VFD 72 selectively provides electrical power to motor 39 via line 73, and can be used to control operation of motor 39, and thus also operation of pump 36. In an example, additive source 24 contains ten or more chemical pumps for supplementing the existing chemical pumps on the hydration unit 18 and blender unit 28. Chemicals from the additive source 24 can be delivered via lines 26 to either the hydration unit 18 and/or the blender unit 28. In one embodiment, the elements of the system 10 are mobile and can be readily transported to a wellsite adjacent the wellbore 12, such as on trailers or other platforms equipped with wheels or tracks. Still referring to FIG. 1A, a pump down operation is shown being performed in wellbore 121 and wherein a perforating string 801 is being pumped down within wellbore 121 by pressurized fluid from the pump system 36. Thus in this example, fluid being discharged from pump system 36 is handled within discharge piping 421 and into wellhead assembly 411 where it is used to urge the perforating string 801 deeper into wellbore 121. The example of the perforating string 801 includes perforating guns 821 stacked in series and coaxial with one another. Each of the perforating guns 821 include a number of shaped charges 841 that when detonated create perforations (not shown) within formation 16. In addition, the perforating guns typically may include plugs, to isolate the guns from certain portions of the well, such as portions down hole from the guns. As will be described below, the perforations provide a starting point for fractures to be formed within formation 16 by introduction of high pressure fluid within wellbore 121. Each of wellbores 121, 122 are shown having vertical, deviated and horizontal sections; however, wellbores 121, 122 can each be substantially vertical, or one can be vertical and the other have deviated and horizontal portions. Further illustrated in FIG. 1A is a wireline 861 which depends downward from the wellhead assembly 411 and to perforating string 801. Wireline 861 can be used to deploy and retrieve perforating string 801 from within wellbore 121. Moreover, signals for initiating detonation of the shaped charges 841 can come via wireline 861 and from surface. FIG. 1B illustrates an example where pressurized fluid from pump system 36 has been introduced into wellbore 121 and so that perforations 90 are formed in formation 16 and that project radially outward from wellbore 121. As indicated above, the perforations 90 created by shaped charges 841 (FIG. 1A) provide initiation points within formation 16 from which fluid can propagate into formation 16 to form fractures. An advantage of the system 10 is that in situations when wellbores 121, 122 are proximate one another, the pump system 36 can provide pressurized fluid to each of these wellbores 121, 122, and for different purposes. As illustrated in FIG. 1B, the step of hydraulic fracturing is taking place in wellbore 121, while substantially simultaneously a pump down operation is occurring in wellbore 122. More specifically, a perforating string 802, similar in construction to the perforating string 801 of FIG. 1A, is being deployed within wellbore 122. Also, perforating string 802 includes coaxially coupled perforating guns 822 and which each include a number of shaped charges 842 for creating perforations (not shown) within formation 16. Deployment, retrieval, and signal communication between surface and perforating string 802 can be accomplished via wireline 862 shown inserted within wellbore 122. In one example of operation, the system 10 can be used to selectively provide the pressurized fluid to the adjacent wellbores 121, 122 so that what is referred to in the industry as a zipper operation can take place. A zipper operation is where adjacent wellbores are perforated and fractured along an alternating sequence. Moreover, the zipper operation is done sequentially so that the different operations can be performed on different wells on the same well site, which speeds up completion activities. As illustrated in the figures described below, separate pumping systems can provide the fluid for the fracturing and the pump down operations. Shown in FIG. 2 is a schematic plan view of one example of system 10A where turbine generators 53A1,2 and 53A3,4 respectively generate electricity that is delivered to switch gear 92A1 and 92A2, that in turn deliver the output electricity to transformers 56A1-n and auxiliary units 94A1,2. Auxiliary unit 94A1 transmits electricity to sand equipment 32A, hydration unit 18A, frac blender 28A, and a frac data van 95A. In one example, frac data van 95A is an enclosed vehicle that provides controls and monitoring equipment for use in controlling and monitoring the fracturing system. Electricity from transformers 56A1-n, which is received from switch gear 92A1,2 is delivered at a designated voltage to fracturing pumps 36A1-n, wherein fracturing pumps 36A1-n are dedicated to pressurizing fluid for use in fracturing operations. Also from transformers 56A1-n electricity is transmitted to pump down units 96A1-n that are used for pressurizing fluid used in pump down operations as described above. It should be pointed out, that the pump down operations are not limited to disposing perforating strings within wellbores, but can include any other type of equipment that is to be positioned at a designated depth within a wellbore. Further illustrated in FIG. 2 is that auxiliary 94A2 has an output that delivers electricity to a blender 98A for use in pump down and a data van 100A that is also used for pump down. The separate data van 100A and blender 98A can be used, for example, during zipper fracturing operations, but are not required for stack fracturing operations. This is because during stack fracturing operations, only one operation is occurring at a time, so the frac datavan 95A and frac blender 28A can be used for all operations. Further illustrated in FIG. 2 is that the power from auxiliary 94A2 transmits to an optional transformer 102A, which can be used to step down electricity for use by a crane 104A and wireline system 106A if the crane 104A and wireline system 106A require a lower voltage than the fracturing equipment. Examples exist where crane 104A and wireline system 106A provide the hoisting and signal capabilities for the wireline 861,2 of FIGS. 1A and 1B. Moreover, wireline system 106A can include a wireline truck having a spool of wireline as well as controllers and initiation hardware for sending communication and initiation signals down the wireline 861,2. FIG. 3 shows, in a schematic plan view, one example of a pump down system 108B that pressurizes fluid for use in a pump down operation. In this example, a turbine set 53B is used for generating electricity, and that like the other turbine sets described herein is powered by combustion of natural gas that then drives a generator to produce electricity. The electricity is delivered to switch gear 92B and which has an output shown in communication with transformers 56B1-N and auxiliary 94B. One of transformers 56B1-N delivers electricity to other equipment 110B which can include, for example, glycol heaters, light plants, a company man trailer, water transfer pumps, a crane, wellsite tools, etc. Others of the transformers 56B1-n have outputs at designated voltages (e.g., 600V, 480V, or step up transformers) that communicate with pump down pumps 96B1-n that are schematically illustrated provided on trailers and within the pump down system 108B. Further included with the pump down system 108B is a blender 98B for blending the fluid that is then to be pressurized by the pump down pumps, and a data van 100B which provides a location for personnel to control and monitor equipment within the pump down system 108B. In this example, electricity is generated specifically for the pump down pumps and is not diverted from that being used to drive pumps used for fracturing. Additionally, the fluid being pressurized is from the pump down pumps and not from a fracturing pump. Provided in a perspective view in FIG. 4 is one example of a pump system 36C, which can be used either for pump down operations or for fracturing operations. In the illustrated example, pumps 112C1,2 are shown mounted on a trailer 114C so that the pumps 112C1,2 can be readily transported to different locations for onsite operation. Additionally, a VFD housing 116C is also mounted on trailer 114C and in which equipment such as VFDs for pumps, isolation breakers, and a motor control center can be situated during operation of pumps 112C1,2. The motor control cabinet can be a breaker cabinet that contains breakers for smaller motors such as blower motors, lube motors, and fan motors. Shown in FIG. 5 is an example of a blender unit 28D shown in a perspective view. Here, blender unit 28D is shown including a hopper 118D and auger assembly 119D, and wherein the hopper 118D receives sand or other proppant from a sand source, such as a conveyor (shown in FIG. 1). Auger assembly 119D, which is an elongated section having barrel and auger screws rotatably disposed within, urge the sand upward. Hopper 118D and auger assembly 119D are mounted on a trailer 120D and adjacent a mixing tub 122D, which is typically an open top tub where sand, water, and chemicals are mixed together to form a slurry that is then provided to pumps where the fluid is pressurized. The slurry that flows to pumps is directed through a manifold 124D that mounts on a lower end of trailer 120D. Also included with the blender unit 28D is a control room 126D which communicates with the datavan, houses operations personnel, and provides monitoring and controls devices for operating and monitoring of the blender unit 28D. An alternate embodiment of a pump down system 108E is shown in a plan schematic view in FIG. 6, where turbine set 53E with a gas powered turbine generator generates electricity that is then delivered to a switch gear 92E. Output from switch gear 92E is delivered to transformers 56E1,2 that in turn provide electrical power to pump down pumps 96E1-2 shown mounted on trailers. Electricity from switch gear 92E is also directed to an auxiliary unit 94E that supplies electricity to both a blender 98E and data van 100E. Included within blender 98E is a pump (not shown) that in some embodiments pressurizes fluid to a boost pressure that is then delivered to the pump down pumps 96E1-2. In an example, the blender 98E pressurizes the fluid in a range from about 70 psi to about 120 psi. Further, within electric blender 98E chemical additives can be added to the fluid that is then delivered to the pump down pumps. Other examples exist, wherein blender for use with a pump down system is a blender that is part of the fracturing system. Another alternate example of the pump down system 108F is illustrated in plan schematic view in FIG. 7 and where turbine set 53F, which uses gas-powered turbines to generate electricity, delivers electricity to switch gear 92F. In this example, a transformer 56F receives electricity from switch gear 92F and delivers it to other equipment 110F. Also fed by switch gear 92F is auxiliary 94F, which in turn provides electrical power to pump down unit 96F that is independent of electrical power for the hydraulic fracturing pumps. In the embodiment of FIG. 7, the pump down unit 96F can include a small boost pump (capable of, for example, up to about 20 barrels per minute (bpm) at 100 psi instead of about 130 bpm for a blender), and a water pump (capable of about 20 bpm at 10,000 psi) to replace the hydraulic fracturing pumps. Thus, the pump down system 108F of FIG. 7 is capable of operating separately from the rest of the fracking system, or from the hydraulic fracturing pumps. This flexibility allows use of the electric powered pump down system with any type of hydraulic fracturing system, whether such system is powered by electricity, diesel, or otherwise. This is also true of the embodiments shown in FIGS. 3 and 6. FIG. 8 shows in a side perspective view an example of an auxiliary unit 94G and which includes a trailer 128G and on which a transformer 130G and a VFD house 132G are mounted. The VFD house 132G and transformer 130G can be used to power and control the desired equipment, such as, for example, the blender, the hydration unit, the conveyor, and/or the datavan. The VFD house 132G can also contain soft starters for, large non speed controlled motors, smaller blower motors and radiator fans for cooling. Power can be provided from turbines, to a switchgear, then to the auxiliary unit 94G. The transformer 130G can be used, for example, to convert power from 13.8 kV to 600V to provide power to the VFD house. The blender did not have room to contain its own VFD therefore the Auxiliary Trailer was created to serve this purpose. Each hydraulic fracturing site can benefit from the use of a single auxiliary unit 94G or multiple auxiliary units 94G depending on the individual needs and circumstances at the site. Use of auxiliary units 94G is advantageous because each separate auxiliary unit 94G provides a separate power grid, thereby creating multiple power centers, which in turn allows for greater flexibility in the positioning of equipment at a site, and creates redundancy in the operations. The use of auxiliary units 94G also helps with power cable management, providing multiple different cable routing for the equipment. The present invention described herein, therefore, is well adapted to carry out the objects and attain the ends and advantages mentioned, as well as others inherent therein. While a presently preferred embodiment of the invention has been given for purposes of disclosure, numerous changes exist in the details of procedures for accomplishing the desired results. These and other similar modifications will readily suggest themselves to those skilled in the art, and are intended to be encompassed within the spirit of the present invention disclosed herein and the scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Certain embodiments of the present technology provide a method of operations in a subterranean formation. The method includes driving a pump with an electrically powered motor to pressurize fluid, inserting a tool into a wellbore that intersects the formation, and directing the pressurized fluid into the wellbore above the tool to push the tool into the wellbore. In some embodiments, the method can further include urging the tool into the wellbore with the pressurized fluid until the tool reaches a predetermined location in the formation. In addition, the tool can be a perforating gun. According to some embodiments, the wellbore can include a first wellbore, wherein the pressurized fluid is simultaneously directed to a second wellbore that also intersects the subterranean formation. Hydraulic fracturing can be performed in the second wellbore. Furthermore, the pump can include a first pump and a second pump, wherein fluid pressurized by the first pump is directed into the first wellbore to push the tool into the first wellbore, and fluid pressurized by the second pump is directed into the second wellbore to use in hydraulic fracturing. Additional embodiments can include pressurizing fluid with an electric blender to form a boost fluid, directing the boost fluid to the pump. In addition, the electricity that powers the motor can be generated with a generator that is proximate the electric motor, and a wireline system can be powered by the electricity. Alternate embodiments of the present technology can include a method of operations in a subterranean formation, including generating electricity, energizing electric motors with the electricity, driving a fracturing pump with at least one of the electric motors, and driving a pump down pump with at least one of the electric motors. In certain embodiments, the electricity can be generated by a turbine generator, and the method can include powering a sand conveyer and hydration unit with the electricity. In some embodiments, the method can further include using a first fluid pressurized by the fracturing pump to fracture the formation, and using a second fluid that is pressurized by the pump down pump in a pump down operation. In addition, the first fluid can be directed to a first wellbore that intersects the formation, and the second fluid can be directed to a second wellbore that intersects the formation. Yet another embodiment of the present technology includes system for use in a subterranean formation operation. The system includes a pump down pump in communication with a first wellbore that intersects the formation, and that pressurizes fluid in the first wellbore, an electric motor that drives the pump down pump, and a tool positioned in the wellbore below at least a portion of the fluid pressurized by the pump down pump, and that is pushed toward the bottom of the wellbore by the fluid. Certain embodiments of the system can also include a hydraulic fracturing pump in communication with a second wellbore that intersects the formation, and that pressurizes fluid in the second wellbore, and the electric motor that drives the hydraulic fracturing pump. According to some embodiments, the electric motor can be a first electric motor and a second electric motor, the first electric motor driving the pump down pump, and the second electric motor driving the hydraulic fracturing pump. In addition, the system can further include gas powered turbine generators, and a wireline system that is in electrical communication with the turbine generators. | E21B4326 | 20170718 | 20171102 | 63165.0 | E21B4326 | 1 | THOMPSON, KENNETH L | ELECTRIC POWERED PUMP DOWN | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | E21B | 2,017 |
|
15,653,897 | ACCEPTED | ADJUSTABLE PORTABLE DEVICE HOLDER | An apparatus for mounting a portable electronic device to a pair of spaced apart posts (e.g., of a vehicle headrest or a suitcase), is also useful as a stand to support a portable electronic device at an angle relative to a horizontal support surface on which the apparatus rests. The apparatus includes a first element configured to be selectively attached to a pair of spaced apart posts by application of an external compressive or expansive force to thereby decrease or increase a distance between portions of the first element until grips of the first element can be aligned with and attached to the spaced apart posts, and then removing the external compressive or expansive force. The apparatus also includes a second element that is attached to the first element and is configured to selectively hold a portable electronic device. The apparatus, when used as a stand, functions like a tripod. | 1. A portable device holder comprising: an adjustable clamping element comprising first and second opposing side grips and a main body; a mounting element comprising a rotatable base plate rotatably attached to a back portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element; the adjustable clamping element being adjustable by linearly translating, relative to the main body, at least a portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends; the adjustable clamping element also comprising a compression or torsion spring that facilitates expansion and retraction of the adjustable clamping element; the rotatable base plate providing a rotating platform that enables the mounting element to be rotated at least one of clockwise or counter-clockwise relative to the adjustable clamping element; the mounting element also comprising first and second mounting arms extending from the base plate in a direction away from the main body of the adjustable clamping element to define a mounting slot therebetween that is configured to accommodate engagement with a mounting surface; the mounting slot rotatable relative to the adjustable clamping element by rotating the base plate relative to the main body of the adjustable clamping element thereby enabling the mounting slot to be selectively rotated between vertical and horizontal arrangements relative to the adjustable clamping element; wherein when the adjustable clamping element is completely retracted the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends is flush with a side portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element; and wherein when the adjustable clamping element is at least partially expanded, by application of an expansive force to cause the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends to be linearly translated relative to the main body of the adjustable clamping element, there is a gap between the side portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element and the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends. 2. The portable device holder of claim 1, wherein the mounting element comprises a metal or alloy sheet stamped to form the base plate with the first and second mounting arms extending from the base plate and bent relative to the base plate so that the first and second mounting arms extend from the base plate in the direction away from the main body of the adjustable clamping element and converge towards one another to define the mounting slot therebetween. 3. The portable device holder of claim 2, wherein the mounting arms also comprise a gripping surface constructed from rubber, polymeric material or plastic. 4. The portable device holder of claim 2, further comprising molded socks, which are molded from at least one of rubber, polymeric material or plastic, and which are inserted over the mounting arms. 5. The portable device holder of claim 1, wherein the portable device holder has a front and a back, and wherein when the portable device holder is viewed from the front, the mounting arms of the mounting element and the mounting slot defined by the mounting arms are hidden behind the main body of the adjustable clamping element and are thus not viewable. 6. The portable device holder includes 1, wherein: the adjustable clamping element has a length that increases when the adjustable clamping element is expanded; the adjustable clamping element has a height that is perpendicular to the length; and the mounting element is rotatably attached to the adjustable clamping element such that mounting element is centered relative to the height of the adjustable clamping element. 7. The portable device holder of claim 6, wherein the mounting element is attached with a fastener to the adjustable clamping element. 8. The portable device holder of claim 7, wherein the fastener includes a ratchet device, a screw, or a pin. 9. The portable device holder of claim 6, wherein the mounting element is friction fit to the adjustable clamping element. 10. The portable device holder of claim 1, wherein: the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends comprises an L-shaped portion of the adjustable camping element; when the adjustable clamping element is completely retracted the L-shaped portion of the adjustable clamping element is flush with the side portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element; and when the adjustable clamping element is at least partially expanded, by application of an expansive force to cause the L-shaped portion of the adjustable clamping element to be linearly translated relative to the main body of the adjustable clamping element, there is a gap between the side portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element and the L-shaped portion of the adjustable clamping element. 11. The portable device holder of claim 1, wherein: the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends comprises a first L-shaped portion of the adjustable camping element; the second side grip and the main body of the adjustable clamping element collectively provide a second L-shaped portion of the adjustable clamping element. 12. The portable device holder includes 11, at least one rod connects the first and second L-shaped portions of the adjustable clamping elements to one another. 13. A portable device holder comprising: an adjustable clamping element comprising first and second opposing side grips and a main body, the adjustable clamping element being adjustable by linearly translating, relative to the main body of the adjustable clamping element, at least a portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends; the adjustable clamping element also comprising a compression or torsion spring that facilitates expansion and retraction of the adjustable clamping element; a mounting element rotatably attached to the main body of the adjustable clamping element; the mounting element comprising first and second mounting arms extending in a direction away from the main body of the adjustable clamping element and defining a mounting slot behind the main body of the adjustable clamping element; the mounting slot configured to accommodate engagement with a mounting surface; the mounting slot rotatable relative to the adjustable clamping element by rotating the mounting element relative to the main body of the adjustable clamping element thereby enabling the mounting slot behind the main body of the adjustable clamping element to be selectively rotated between vertical and horizontal arrangements relative to the adjustable clamping element; wherein the portable device holder has a front and a back; wherein when the portable device holder is viewed from the front, the mounting arms of the mounting element and the mounting slot defined by the mounting arms are hidden behind the main body of the adjustable clamping element and are thus not viewable; wherein when the adjustable clamping element is completely retracted the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends is flush with a side portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element; and wherein when the adjustable clamping element is at least partially expanded, by application of an expansive force to cause the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends to be linearly translated relative to the main body of the adjustable clamping element, there is a gap between the side portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element and the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends. 14. The portable device holder of claim 13, wherein: the adjustable clamping element has a length a height that is perpendicular to the length; the length of the adjustable clamping element increases when the adjustable clamping element is expanded; and the mounting element is rotatably attached to the adjustable clamping element such that rotatable mounting element is centered relative to the height of the adjustable clamping element. 15. The portable device holder of claim 13, wherein: the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends comprises an L-shaped portion of the adjustable camping element; when the adjustable clamping element is completely retracted the L-shaped portion of the adjustable clamping element is flush with the side portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element; and when the adjustable clamping element is at least partially expanded, to cause the L-shaped portion of the adjustable clamping element to be linearly translated relative to the main body of the adjustable clamping element, there is a gap between the side portion of the main body of the adjustable clamping element and the L-shaped portion of the adjustable clamping element. 16. The portable device holder includes 13, wherein the plurality of mounting arms comprise at least four mounting arms that define at least two different sized mounting slots. 17. The portable device holder of claim 13, wherein: the portion of the adjustable clamping element from which the first side grip extends comprises a first L-shaped portion of the adjustable camping element; and the second side grip and the main body of the adjustable clamping element collectively provide a second L-shaped portion of the adjustable clamping element. 18. A portable device holder comprising: an adjustable clamping element configured to be expanded and retracted to removably attach one of a plurality of different sized portable devices to the portable device holder; the adjustable clamping element comprising an elastic retracting or biasing element that facilitates expansion and retraction of the adjustable clamping element; a mounting element comprises a metal or alloy sheet stamped to form a base plate with mounting arms extending from the base plate and bent relative to the base plate so that mounting arms extend from the base plate and define at least one mounting slot therebetween; the mounting arms of the mounting element also comprising a gripping surface constructed from rubber, polymeric material or plastic; a fastener comprising a ratchet device, a screw, or a pin that rotatably attaches the base plate of the mounting element to the adjustable clamping element and thereby causes the mounting element to be rotatably attached to the adjustable clamping element such that the mounting arms extend in a direction away from a body of the adjustable clamping element; the at least one mounting slot rotatable relative to the adjustable clamping element by rotating the base plate relative to the body of the adjustable clamping element thereby enabling the at least one mounting slot to be selectively rotated between vertical and horizontal arrangements relative to the adjustable clamping element; wherein the portable device holder has a front and a back; wherein the adjustable clamping element has a length that increases when the adjustable clamping element is expanded; wherein the adjustable clamping element has a height that is perpendicular to the length; and wherein the mounting element is rotatably attached to the adjustable clamping element such that rotatable mounting element is centered relative to the height of the adjustable clamping element. 19. The portable device holder includes 18, wherein when the portable device holder is viewed from the front, the mounting arms of the mounting element and the at least one mounting slot defined by the mounting arms are hidden behind the body of the adjustable clamping element and are thus not viewable; 20. The portable device holder includes 18, wherein: each of the mounting arms tapers in a direction away from the base plate of the mounting element; and each of the at least one mounting slot tapers in a direction away from the base plate of the mounting element. | PRIORITY CLAIM This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/736,090, filed Jun. 10, 2015 and titled ADJUSTABLE PORTABLE DEVICE HOLDER, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/897,062, filed May 17, 2013 and titled ADJUSTABLE PORTABLE DEVICE HOLDER (issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,080,714), which is a continuation-in-part (CIP) of U.S. Design patent application No. 29/437,793, filed Nov. 20, 2012 and titled DASHBOARD VENT MOUNT FOR AN ELECTRONIC DEVICE (issued as U.S. Patent No. Des. 690,707). Priority is claimed to each of the above listed applications, each of which is incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF TECHNOLOGY The present application is directed to adjustable portable device holder systems and methods. BACKGROUND Various electronic and other device mounts are known in the art. Available device mounts have many drawbacks. For instance, suction cup mounts are typically large, bulky and require a large mounting surface such as a windshield. Device mounts often fail to properly and consistently attach to the mounting surface. Some device mounting solutions require adhesive to secure the mount to a vehicle dash, wearing off over time and leaving an undesirable residue on the mounting surface. Current device mounts also fail to effectively accommodate a broad range of devices or mounting surfaces. Due to the deficiencies in the currently available device mounts, people choose not use electronic device mounts and often violate state and provincial hands-free driving laws. Other state and provincial laws prohibit objects mounted to the windshield to prevent obstruction of the driver's view. This specification is directed to improved portable device holder systems and methods for manufacturing the same. SUMMARY Adjustable portable device holder systems and methods for manufacturing the same are herein disclosed. According to one embodiment, an adjustable portable device holder includes an adjustable clamping element and a rotatable mounting element attached to the adjustable clamping element for removably securing a portable device to the adjustable portable device holder. The adjustable clamping element is capable of being biased into an activated state and unbiased into a deactivated state to secure one of a plurality of different size portable devices to the adjustable portable device holder. The rotatable mounting element, attached to the adjustable clamping element, includes a plurality of mounting arms each spaced a specified distance apart from one another and extending at a specified angle from a bottom surface of the rotatable mounting element. Each pair of the plurality of mounting arms forms a mounting slot therein between. The rotatable mounting element is capable of being rotated to position a first mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation and a second mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation to engage a first mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation or a second mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation. In another embodiment, a process for manufacturing an exemplary adjustable portable device holder is disclosed. The process includes providing an adjustable clamping element capable of being biased into an activated state and unbiased into a deactivated state to secure one of a plurality of portable device sizes to the adjustable portable device holder. The process also includes providing a rotatable mounting element comprising a plurality of mounting arms each spaced a specified distance apart from one another and extending at a specified angle from a bottom surface of the rotatable mounting element. Each pair of the plurality of mounting arms form a mounting slot therein between. The rotatable mounting element is capable of being rotated to position a first mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation and a second mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation to engage a first mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation or a second mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation. The process also includes attaching the rotatable mounting element to the adjustable clamping element. The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the present disclosure will become more readily apparent from the following detailed description of exemplary embodiments as disclosed herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the present application are described, by way of example only, with reference to the attached Figures, wherein: FIG. 1 illustrates an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting, also referred to as the deactivated state, according to one embodiment; FIG. 2 illustrates an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting, also referred to as the activated state, according to one embodiment; FIG. 3 illustrates an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting according to one embodiment; FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate an adjustable portable device holder attached to a device and a mounting surface according to one embodiment; FIG. 5 illustrates a flow chart of a process for manufacturing an exemplary adjustable portable device holder according to one embodiment; FIG. 6 is an elevation view of the back of an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting; FIG. 7 is a plan view of the top of an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting; FIG. 8 is an elevation view of left side of an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting; FIG. 9 is an elevation view of the front of an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting; FIG. 10 is an elevation view of the right side of an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting; FIG. 11 is a plan view of the bottom of an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting; FIG. 12 is an isometric view, from the front right, of an adjustable portable device holder in a retracted setting; FIG. 13 is an isometric view, from the back left, of an adjustable portable device holder FIG. 14 is an elevation view of the back of an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting; FIG. 15 is a plan view of the top of an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting; FIG. 16 is an elevation view of left side of an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting; FIG. 17 is an elevation view of the front of an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting; FIG. 18 is an elevation view of the right side of an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting; FIG. 19 is a plan view of the bottom of an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting; FIG. 20 is an isometric view, from the front right, of an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting; and FIG. 21 is an isometric view, from the back left, of an adjustable portable device holder in an expanded setting. DETAILED DESCRIPTION It will be appreciated that for simplicity and clarity of illustration, where considered appropriate, reference numerals may be repeated among the figures to indicate corresponding or analogous elements. In addition, numerous specific details are set forth in order to provide a thorough understanding of the example embodiments described herein. However, it will be understood by those of ordinary skill in the art that the example embodiments described herein may be practiced without these specific details. In other instances, methods, procedures and components have not been described in detail so as not to obscure the embodiments described herein. The adjustable portable device holders described in this specification can include an adjustable clamping element attached to a rotatable mounting element. The adjustable portable device holder can be used to attach and mount a portable device to a mounting surface. The portable device can be any device that fits into the adjustable clamping element including, but not limited to a smartphone or other phone, a tablet, an e-reader, a powerbank, a speaker, a multimedia player, a flashlight or other light, a television or other display, a laser or radar detector, an air freshener, a fan, a beverage or other device that can fit into the adjustable clamping element. The adjustable portable device holder can be mounted to various mounting surfaces including, but not limited to an automobile air conditioner vent blade, an automobile dashboard, an automobile sun visor, a credit card, the brim of a hat, a counter, a tripod, a bicycle, a backpack, a utensil, a ledge or other surface. FIG. 1 illustrates an adjustable portable device holder 100 in a retracted setting according to one embodiment. The adjustable portable device holder 100 includes an adjustable clamping element 102 attached to a rotatable mounting element 104. FIG. 2 illustrates an adjustable portable device holder 100 in an expanded setting according to one embodiment. The adjustable portable device holder 100 includes an adjustable clamping element 102 attached to a rotatable mounting element 104. FIG. 3 illustrates an adjustable portable device holder 100 in a retracted setting according to one embodiment. The adjustable portable device holder 100 includes an adjustable clamping element 102 attached to a rotatable mounting element 104. The adjustable clamping element 102 illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 can be expanded and retracted to attach devices of different sizes to the adjustable portable device holder 100. A force can be applied to expand or bias the adjustable clamping element 102 into an activated state (shown in FIG. 2) and the force can be released to retract the adjustable clamping element 102 into a deactivated state (shown in FIGS. 1 and 3). An elastic retracting or biasing element (not shown), such as a compression or torsion spring can be incorporated into the adjustable clamping element 102. The compression or torsion spring facilitates the expansion and retraction of the adjustable clamping element 102 upon applying or releasing an expansive force on a surface of the adjustable clamping element 102. The adjustable clamping element 102 can also include a gripping material on a surface of the adjustable clamping element 102 to provide a better grip, a better viewing angle or better attachment to a device secured within the adjustable clamping element 102. The gripping material can be applied to a portion of the adjustable clamping element 102 or the entire adjustable clamping element 102 can be made of the gripping material. The gripping material can be any material that increases the adhesion, grip or coefficient of friction between the gripping surface of the adjustable clamping element 102 and a surface of a device secured within the adjustable clamping element 102. The gripping material can include, but is not limited to rubber, polymeric material or other plastic, metal, alloy, fabric, composite material or other material capable of increasing the adhesion, grip or coefficient of friction between the gripping surface of the adjustable clamping element 102 and a surface of a device secured within the adjustable clamping element 102. The gripping material and gripping surface can be textured and composed of the same or different material. The rotatable mounting element 104 illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 can be directly or indirectly attached to the adjustable clamping element 102. The adjustable clamping element 102 and the rotatable mounting element 104 can be one integral part or component parts that are attached together by any attaching means that allows the rotatable mounting element 104 to rotate. The rotatable mounting element 104 includes a base plate 106 and a plurality of mounting arms 108 extending from the base plate 106. The base plate 106 and the plurality of mounting arms 108 can be one integral part or component parts that are attached together by any attaching means. Referring to FIG. 3, the base plate 106 can be a cylindrically shaped disc or other element that is capable of being rotated 360 degrees clockwise or counter-clockwise. The base plate 106 provides a rotating platform from which mounting arms 108 extend. The mounting arms 108 are spaced a specified distance apart relative to one another on the base plate 106. The mounting arms 108 also extend from the base plate 106 at a specified angle relative to the base plate 106. The size of the mounting arms 108, the distance between the mounting arms 108 and the angle at which the mounting arms 108 extend from the base plate 106 establish and define mounting slots 110, 112 between pairs of mounting arms 108. The rotatable mounting element 104 can include any number of mounting arms 108 and any number of mounting slots 110, 112. The mounting arms 108 can also include a gripping material on a surface of the mounting arms 108 to provide a better grip, a better viewing angle or better attachment to a mounting surface secured between the mounting arms 108. The gripping material can be applied to a portion of mounting arms 108 or the entirety of the mounting arms 108 can be made of the gripping material. The gripping material can be any material that increases the adhesion, grip or coefficient of friction between the gripping surface of mounting arms 108 and a mounting surface secured between the mounting arms 108. The gripping material can include, but is not limited to rubber, polymeric material or other plastic, metal, alloy, fabric, composite material or other material capable of increasing the adhesion, grip or coefficient of friction between the gripping surface of mounting arms 108 and a mounting surface secured between the mounting arms 108. The gripping material and gripping surface can be textured and composed of the same or different material. In one exemplary embodiment, the rotatable mounting element 104 includes four mounting arms and four mounting slots. In another exemplary embodiment, the rotating mounting element 104 includes 6 mounting arms and six mounting slots. The mounting arms 108 and mounting slots 110, 112, can engage a mounting surface (not shown) to mount the adjustable portable device holder 100. The adjustable portable device holder 100 is mounted to a mounting surface by positioning, press fitting or wedging a mounting surface within one or more mounting slots 110, 112 to engage two or more mounting arms 108. The adjustable portable device holder 100 can be mounted to various mounting surfaces including, but not limited to an automobile air conditioner vent blade, an automobile dashboard, an automobile sun visor, a credit card, the brim of a hat, a counter, a tripod, a bicycle, a backpack, a utensil, a ledge or other surface that can be positioned, press fit or wedged within one or more mounting slots 110, 112 between two or more mounting arms 108. The rotatable mounting element 104 can include any number of mounting arms 108 forming and defining any number of mounting slots 110, 112. As may be appreciated in at least FIGS. 1-3, 7, 8, 10, 11. 15, 16, 18 and 19, the size and shape of the mounting slots 110, 112 formed between pairs of mounting arms 108 can be controlled by adjusting the size and shape of the paired mounting arms 108, the distance between the mounting arms 108 and the angle at which the two mounting arms 108 extend from the base plate 106 and converge toward one another. As depicted, each mounting arm 108 and mounting slot 110, 112 tapers in a direction away from a bottom surface of the rotatable mounting element 104. The rotatable mounting element 104 can include one or more different size mounting slots 110, 112 to accommodate different size mounting surfaces. For instance in FIG. 3, one mounting slot 110 having clearance A can be larger than another mounting slot 112 having clearance B. One or more of the mounting slots 110 formed on the rotatable mounting element 104 can accommodate a larger mounting surface than other mounting slots 112 formed on the rotatable mounting element 104. The rotatable mounting element 104 can be rotated to position the mounting arms 108 and mounting slots 110, 112 in a horizontal plane, vertical plane, diagonal plane, circular plane, concave plane, convex plane or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes relative to the force of gravity. The mounting arms 108 and mounting slots 110, 112 can be positioned to engage a mounting surface in any engagement plane within the 360 degree rotation of the mounting element 104. The rotatable mounting element 104 can be rotated to position a relatively larger mounting slot 110 with clearance A in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave or convex plane to engage a relatively larger mounting surface in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave or convex engagement plane. The rotatable mounting element 104 can also be rotated to position a relatively smaller mounting slot 112 with clearance B in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave or convex plane to engage a relatively smaller mounting surface in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave or convex engagement plane. The rotatable mounting element is capable of being rotated 360 degrees clockwise or counter-clockwise to engage different size mounting surfaces in a horizontal plane, vertical plane, diagonal plane, circular plane, concave plane, convex plane or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes. A device attached to the adjustable portable device holder 100 via the adjustable clamping element 102 can also be rotated 360 degrees clockwise or counter-clockwise while it is attached to the adjustable portable device holder 100 by rotating the rotatable mounting element 104. FIGS. 4A and 4B illustrate an adjustable portable device holder 200 attached to a device 214 and a mounting surface 216 according to one embodiment. The device 214 is a smart phone and the mounting surface 216 is an automobile air conditioner vent blade. Other portable devices can also fit into the adjustable clamping element including, but not limited to a tablet, an e-reader, a powerbank, a speaker, a multimedia player, a flashlight or other light, a television or other display, a laser or radar detector, an air freshener, a fan, a beverage or other device. The adjustable portable device holder 200 can also be mounted to other mounting surfaces including, but not limited to an automobile dashboard, an automobile sun visor, a credit card, the brim of a hat, a counter, a tripod, a bicycle, a backpack, a utensil, a ledge or other surface. The adjustable portable device holder 200 includes an adjustable clamping element 202 attached to a rotatable mounting element 204. The adjustable clamping element 202 can be expanded and retracted to attach different size smartphones to the adjustable portable device holder 200. A force can be applied to expand or bias the adjustable clamping element 202 into an activated state and the force can be released to retract the adjustable clamping element 202 into a deactivated state to clamp around the smartphone 214. An elastic retracting or biasing element (not shown), such as a compression or torsion spring can be incorporated into the adjustable clamping element 202 to facilitate the expansion and retraction of the adjustable clamping element 202 and to accommodate different size smartphones. The adjustable clamping element 202 can also include a gripping material on a surface of the adjustable clamping element 202 to provide a better grip, a better viewing angle or better attachment to the smart phone 214 or other device secured within the adjustable clamping element 202. The gripping material can be applied to a portion of the adjustable clamping element 202 or the entire adjustable clamping element 202 can be made of the gripping material. The gripping material can be any material that increases the adhesion, grip or coefficient of friction between the gripping surface of the adjustable clamping element 202 and a surface of a device secured within the adjustable clamping element 202. The gripping material can include, but is not limited to rubber, polymeric material or other plastic, metal, alloy, fabric, composite material or other material capable of increasing the adhesion, grip or coefficient of friction between the gripping surface of the adjustable clamping element 202 and a surface of a device secured within the adjustable clamping element 202. The gripping material and gripping surface can be textured and composed of the same or different material. The rotatable mounting element 204 can be directly or indirectly attached to the adjustable clamping element 202. The adjustable clamping element 202 and the rotatable mounting element 204 can be one integral part or component parts that are attached together by any attaching means, such as a screw, ratchet, pin, rod or friction or other device that allows the rotatable mounting element 204 to rotate. The rotatable mounting element 204 includes a base plate 206 and a plurality of mounting arms 208 extending from the base plate 206. The base plate 206 and the plurality of mounting arms 208 can be one integral part or component parts that are attached together by any attaching means. The base plate 206 can be a cylindrically shaped disc or other element that is capable of being rotated 360 degrees clockwise or counter-clockwise. The base plate 206 provides a rotating platform from which the mounting arms 208 extend. The mounting arms 208 are spaced a specified distance apart relative to one another on the base plate 206. The mounting arms 208 also extend from the base plate 206 at a specified angle relative to the base plate 206. The size of the mounting arms 208, the distance between the mounting arms 208 and the angle at which the mounting arms 208 extend from the base plate 206 establish and define mounting slots 210, 212 between pairs of mounting arms 208. The rotatable mounting element 204 includes four mounting arms 208 and four mounting slots 210, 212. The mounting arms 208 and mounting slots 210, 212, can engage and attach to an air conditioner vent blade 216 to mount the adjustable portable device holder 200. The adjustable portable device holder 200 is mounted to the air conditioner vent blade 216 by positioning, press fitting or wedging a surface of the air conditioner vent blade 216 within one or more mounting slots 210, 212 to engage two or more mounting arms 208. The mounting arms 208 can also include a gripping material on a surface of the mounting arms 208 to provide a better grip, a better viewing angle or better attachment to the air conditioner vent blade 216 secured between mounting arms 208. The gripping material can be applied to a portion of mounting arms 208 or the entirety of the mounting arms 208 can be made of the gripping material. The gripping material can be any material that increases the adhesion, grip or coefficient of friction between the gripping surface of mounting arms 208 and an air conditioner vent blade 216 secured between the mounting arms 208. The gripping material can include, but is not limited to rubber, polymeric material or other plastic, metal, alloy, fabric, composite material or other material capable of increasing the adhesion, grip or coefficient of friction between the gripping surface of mounting arms 208 and the air conditioner vent blade 216 secured between the mounting arms 208. The gripping material can be and gripping surface and composed of the same or different material. The rotatable mounting element 204 includes two different sizes of mounting slots 210, 212 to accommodate different size air conditioner vent blades 216 or other mounting surfaces. Two mounting slots 210 having clearance A are larger than the other two mounting slots 212 having clearance B. The rotatable mounting element 204 can be rotated to position the mounting arms 208 and mounting slots 210, 212 in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave, convex or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes to engage air conditioner vent blades 216 oriented in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave, convex or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes. The mounting arms 208 and mounting slots 210, 212 can be positioned to attach to an air conditioner vent blade in any engagement plane within the 360 degree rotation of the mounting element 204. The rotatable mounting element 204 can be rotated to position the larger mounting slots 210 with clearance A in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave, convex or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes to engage or attach to larger air conditioner vent blades 216 oriented in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave, convex or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes. The rotatable mounting element 204 can also be rotated to position the smaller mounting slots 212 with clearance B in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave, convex or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes to engage or attach to smaller air conditioner vent blades 216 oriented in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave, convex or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes. The rotatable mounting element 204 is capable of being rotated 360 degrees clockwise or counter-clockwise to engage different size mounting surfaces in a horizontal, vertical, diagonal, circular, concave, convex or any plane between vertical and horizontal planes relative to the force of gravity. The smart phone 214 attached to the adjustable portable device holder 200 can be rotated into a portrait orientation (shown in FIG. 4A) and a landscape orientation (shown in FIG. 4B) by rotating the rotatable mounting element 204. The smart phone 214 attached to the adjustable portable device holder 200 can be rotated 360 degrees clockwise or counter-clockwise while it is attached to the adjustable portable device holder 200 by rotating the smart phone 214 and adjustable clamping element 202, while the rotatable mounting element 204 is secured to a mounting surface. FIG. 5 illustrates a flow chart of a process for manufacturing an exemplary adjustable portable device holder according to one embodiment. At step 301, the process includes providing an adjustable clamping element for removably securing a portable device to the adjustable portable device holder. The adjustable clamping element is capable of being biased into an activated state and unbiased into a deactivated state to secure one of a plurality of different size portable device to the adjustable portable device holder. As an example and as depicted in FIGS. 2, 14, 15, 16 and 19-21, to manufacture the adjustable portable device holder, two stainless steel rods can be inserted into an expandable arm cavity of a double injection mold. PC/ABS is injected into the cavities of the mold to hold the rods in place and to produce an expandable arm, main body and cover of an adjustable clamping element. The mold is then rotated and injected with TPE to form side grips of the expandable arm and body of the adjustable clamping element. A stainless steel spring is inserted over each rod and held in place by a stainless steel screw affixed to the end of the rods. Grease is added to the lower portion of the spring and rods (near the screw head). The expandable arm is inserted into the body and the springs are lowered and held in place within the body of the adjustable clamping element. The cover is then slid on to the body to hold the adjustable arm in place. The adjustable clamping element or a surface thereof can also be formed from rubber, polymeric material or other plastic, metal, alloy, or composite material that is rigid, semi-rigid or textured. At step 302, a rotatable mounting element is provided, which can be attached to the adjustable clamping element via screw, ratchet, pin, rod or friction or other attachment means. The rotatable mounting element includes a plurality of mounting arms each spaced a specified distance apart from one another and extending at a specified angle from a bottom surface of the rotatable mounting element. Each pair of the plurality of mounting arms form a mounting slot therein between. The rotatable mounting element is capable of being rotated to position a first mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation and a second mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation to engage a first mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation or a second mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation. For example, a rotatable mounting element can be formed in whole or part from stainless metal or other metal, alloy or plastic sheet stamped to form a clip or base plate with four arms extending from the base plate, spaced a specified distance apart and bent to a desired angle. If metal or other heat treatable material, the rotatable mounting element can be heat treated to form a rigid structure. The rotatable mounting element or a surface thereof can also be formed from rubber, polymeric material or other plastic, metal, alloy, or composite material that is rigid, semi-rigid or textured. A zinc-alloy nut or other alloy or material can be formed using a die-cast mold to attach the rotatable mounting element to the adjustable clamping element. Glue is added to the cavity of the nut. The rotatable mounting element is affixed to the main body of the adjustable clamping element via the nut and a second stainless screw. A force gage is used to monitor the rotational force of the rotatable mounting element and the rotatable mounting element is adjusted if screw is too tight or loose. TPE is injected into a mold to create a skirt and four socks. The skirt and four socks can also be formed from rubber, polymeric material or other plastic, metal, alloy, or composite material that is rigid, semi-rigid or textured. The skirt is assembled over the mounting arms of the rotatable mounting element. Glue is added to each mounting arm of the rotatable mounting element. A sock is inserted over each mounting arm, which holds the skirt in place. Example embodiments have been described hereinabove regarding adjustable portable device holder systems and methods. Various modifications to and departures from the disclosed example embodiments will occur to those having ordinary skill in the art. The subject matter that is intended to be within the spirit of this disclosure is set forth in the following claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Various electronic and other device mounts are known in the art. Available device mounts have many drawbacks. For instance, suction cup mounts are typically large, bulky and require a large mounting surface such as a windshield. Device mounts often fail to properly and consistently attach to the mounting surface. Some device mounting solutions require adhesive to secure the mount to a vehicle dash, wearing off over time and leaving an undesirable residue on the mounting surface. Current device mounts also fail to effectively accommodate a broad range of devices or mounting surfaces. Due to the deficiencies in the currently available device mounts, people choose not use electronic device mounts and often violate state and provincial hands-free driving laws. Other state and provincial laws prohibit objects mounted to the windshield to prevent obstruction of the driver's view. This specification is directed to improved portable device holder systems and methods for manufacturing the same. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Adjustable portable device holder systems and methods for manufacturing the same are herein disclosed. According to one embodiment, an adjustable portable device holder includes an adjustable clamping element and a rotatable mounting element attached to the adjustable clamping element for removably securing a portable device to the adjustable portable device holder. The adjustable clamping element is capable of being biased into an activated state and unbiased into a deactivated state to secure one of a plurality of different size portable devices to the adjustable portable device holder. The rotatable mounting element, attached to the adjustable clamping element, includes a plurality of mounting arms each spaced a specified distance apart from one another and extending at a specified angle from a bottom surface of the rotatable mounting element. Each pair of the plurality of mounting arms forms a mounting slot therein between. The rotatable mounting element is capable of being rotated to position a first mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation and a second mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation to engage a first mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation or a second mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation. In another embodiment, a process for manufacturing an exemplary adjustable portable device holder is disclosed. The process includes providing an adjustable clamping element capable of being biased into an activated state and unbiased into a deactivated state to secure one of a plurality of portable device sizes to the adjustable portable device holder. The process also includes providing a rotatable mounting element comprising a plurality of mounting arms each spaced a specified distance apart from one another and extending at a specified angle from a bottom surface of the rotatable mounting element. Each pair of the plurality of mounting arms form a mounting slot therein between. The rotatable mounting element is capable of being rotated to position a first mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation and a second mounting slot in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation to engage a first mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation or a second mounting surface in a vertical, horizontal or diagonal orientation. The process also includes attaching the rotatable mounting element to the adjustable clamping element. The foregoing and other objects, features and advantages of the present disclosure will become more readily apparent from the following detailed description of exemplary embodiments as disclosed herein. | B60R1102 | 20170719 | 20180501 | 20171102 | 91673.0 | B60R1102 | 1 | MCNURLEN, SCOTT THOMAS | ADJUSTABLE PORTABLE DEVICE HOLDER | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B60R | 2,017 |
15,654,939 | ACCEPTED | CRAFTWORK TOOLS AND KITS | A craftwork accessory may provide a portable and/or easy-to-use tool to help users' accurately and repeatedly apply stamp impressions and the like to items such as cardstock. The accessory may include a base portion, one or more elevated side portions and cover portion. The side portions may define a workspace for arranging the item. The cover portion may be movably attached to the base portion or a side portion, for example, by one or more hinges. In operation, the item and stamp may be aligned in the workspace and the cover portion may be pressed onto the stamp to stick the stamp to the cover portion. The cover may then be opened, the stamp may be inked, and the cover portion may be closed and pressed onto the item to stamp the item. The accessory may include alignment indicia on the base portion, side portions and/or cover portion to facilitate placement of the item and/or stamp. The accessory may also include fastening mechanisms, such as magnetic elements, to facilitate placement of the item and/or stamp. | 1. An apparatus for craftwork comprising: a base portion characterized by a substantially flat workspace that supports a piece of cardstock; a raised side portion attached to the base portion, the raised side portion providing a structure against which an edge of the piece of cardstock on the workspace is positioned; and a cover portion hingedly attached to either the base portion, the raised side portion, or both. 2. The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising a sheet of non-slip material attached to at least a portion of a bottom of the base portion. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, where the raised side portion includes indicia for facilitating alignment of the piece of cardstock on the workspace. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, where the cover portion is characterized by a smooth and flat surface such that a back of a stamp, of a type that is inked with an ink, clings to the cover portion when the cover portion is pressed down on the stamp. 5. The apparatus of claim 2, further comprising a sheet of ferromagnetic material disposed substantially between the base portion and the sheet of non-slip material. 6. The apparatus of claim 5, where the sheet of ferromagnetic material is positioned substantially under the workspace of the base portion, but the sheet of ferromagnetic material is not positioned directly under the raised side portion. 7. The apparatus of claim 5, further comprising a disc magnet for placing on top of the piece of cardstock on the workspace to secure the cardstock in a desired position. 8. The apparatus of claim 1, where a footprint of the apparatus is 8″ by 10″. 9. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a second raised side portion that meets the raised side portion at an angle such that there is a second structure against which another edge of the piece of cardstock on the workspace is positioned. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, where the raised side portion has a thickness of at least one-eighth inch. 11. The apparatus of claim 10, further comprising a foam pad for placing on the workspace to reduce a depth of the workspace relative to the raised side portion. 12. The apparatus of claim 1, where the cover is attached by a hinge assembly to the base portion, the hinge assembly spacing the cover above the base portion, when the cover is closed, by a distance equal to a thickness of the raised side portion. 13. The apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a piece of grid paper substantially disposed below the workspace, and wherein the base portion is made from a clear material such that the grid paper is visible through the workspace. 14. The apparatus of claim 1, where the raised side portion has a length substantially equal to a corresponding length of the base portion. 15. An apparatus for craftwork comprising: a base portion; a plurality of raised side portions attached to the base portion, the plurality of raised side portions substantially defining a workspace on the base portion, the raised side portions also defining a first depth of the workspace for use with a first inked stamp; a foam pad placed in the workspace, defining a second depth of the workspace for use with a second inked stamp; a cover portion hingedly attached to either the base portion, at least one of the raised side portions, or both; indicia provided on at least one of the plurality of raised side portions, the indicia for facilitating alignment of a piece of paper. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, further comprising a sheet of ferromagnetic material disposed below the workspace. 17. The apparatus of claim 16, further comprising a disc magnet for placing on top of the workspace to secure a piece of paper in a desired position. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, further comprising an element characterized by a grid, the element being positioned at least partially between the workspace and the sheet of ferromagnetic material. 19. The apparatus of claim 18, where a footprint of the apparatus is 8″ by 10″. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/584,761, filed May 2, 2017 and entitled “CRAFTWORK TOOLS AND KITS”, which is continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/424,600, filed Feb. 3, 2017 and entitled “CRAFTWORK TOOLS AND KITS”, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/595,480 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,597,909), filed Jan. 13, 2015 and entitled “CRAFTWORK TOOLS AND KITS”, the entire contents of each of the aforementioned patent and applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND Technical Field The present application relates to tools for generating craft items, such as cards, and kits for generating craft items. Background of the Invention It is increasingly popular to make craft or handmade items such as cards, announcements and the like. Not only are the custom cards fun to make for crafters, the cards are appreciated more by the recipient. To help those that want to make a single birthday card or hundreds of wedding invitations, a wide variety of card blanks, toppers and embellishments are available. Stamps and stamp kits provide a great way for the average crafter to add professional quality graphics to their items. However, it can be difficult to properly align the stamp and/or get a clean impression on the item. If a clean impression is not made on the first attempt, the stamp must be realigned in exactly the same position or the item will be unusable. To address these problems, a variety of tools have been developed to help apply stamps to items. However, these tools present their own problems. For example, printing press apparatuses may allow for repeated stamping in the same position, but they are costly and bulky. Often, these devices also make it difficult to see how the stamp will look on the item before making an impression. Smaller, portable items, such as that described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,453,573, generally allow a user to see how the stamp will look on the item before leaving an impression, but it is difficult to realign the stamp in the same position if a more than one impression is required. Accordingly, a need has long existed for an improved craftwork accessory item. BRIEF SUMMARY In one embodiment, a craftwork accessory may provide a portable and/or easy-to-use tool to help users' accurately and repeatedly apply stamp impressions and the like to items such as cardstock. The accessory may include a base portion, one or more elevated side portions and cover portion. The side portions may define a workspace for arranging the item. The cover portion may be movably attached to the base portion or a side portion, for example, by one or more hinges. In operation, the item and stamp may be aligned in the workspace and the cover portion may be pressed onto the stamp to stick the stamp to the cover portion. The cover may then be opened, the stamp may be inked, and the cover portion may be closed and pressed onto the item to stamp the item. The accessory may include alignment indicia on the base portion, side portions and/or cover portion to facilitate placement of the item and/or stamp. The accessory may also include fastening mechanisms, such as magnetic elements, to facilitate placement of the item and/or stamp. Other systems, methods, features and advantages of the invention will be, or will become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features and technical advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the invention, and be protected by the following claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention can be better understood with reference to the following drawings and description. The components in the figures are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 shows a perspective view of an exemplary craftwork tool; FIG. 2 shows a base portion of an exemplary craftwork tool; FIGS. 3a-b show side portions of an exemplary craftwork tool; FIG. 4 shows a cover portion of an exemplary craftwork tool; FIG. 5 shows a cross-sectional view of an exemplary craftwork tool; FIG. 6 shows a cross-sectional view of another exemplary craftwork tool; FIG. 7 shows a flow chart of an exemplary method of operation of an exemplary craftwork tool; and FIGS. 8a-g shows a series of depictions of an exemplary craftwork tool while performing the steps shown in FIG. 7. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The elements illustrated in the Figures interoperate as explained in more detail below. Before setting forth the detailed explanation, however, it is noted that all of the discussion below, regardless of the particular implementation being described, is exemplary in nature, rather than limiting. Referring to FIG. 1, an exemplary craftwork accessory 100 is shown. The accessory 100 may include a base portion 110, one or more elevated side portions 120 a, 120 b, and 120 c, and cover portion 130. The side portions 120a-c may define a workspace 112 on the base portion 110 that may be used to place the item to be stamped or otherwise adorned. In some embodiments, such as the embodiment shown in FIG. 1, the accessory 100 may include three elevated side portions 120 a-c. In other embodiments, more or less elevated side portions may be provided. The cover portion 130 may be moveably attached to the base portion 110. Alternatively, or additionally, the cover portion 130 may be attached to one or more side portions 120 a-c and/or the base portion 110. In the illustrated embodiment, the cover portion 130 is attached to the base portion 110 by a hinge assembly 140. Other mechanisms for moveably attaching the cover portion 130 to other components of the accessory 100 may also be used. These may include, for example, brass hinges, piano hinges, non-hinge assemblies, and the like. In one embodiment, the overall footprint of the accessory 100 is about 8″ by about 10″. In other embodiments, the width of the footprint of the accessory 100 may be between about 5″ and about 15″ and the length of the footprint of the accessory 100 may be between about 6″ and about 16″. These sizes typically allow the accessory 100 to be compatible with most common cardstock and the like while maintaining portability of the accessory 100. Other sizes may also be used. Alternatively, or additionally, the accessory 100 may be sold in various sizes, such as extra small, small, medium, large, and extra-large and/or in various colors. In some embodiments, different colors may be used for different components of the accessory. The components of assembly 100 may be made of any suitable material. For example, rigid or semi-rigid materials such as acrylic, metal, tempered glass, cardboard and the like may be used. The components may be made of the same material, or different components may be made using different materials or combinations of materials. The assembly 100 as a whole may be made of a unified construction, subsets of components made of a unified construction, or each component may be separately constructed. An exemplary base portion 110 of an exemplary craftwork accessory 100 is shown in FIG. 2. The base portion 110 may be made of any suitable rigid or semi-rigid material, such as acrylic or the like. The base portion 110 may be translucent or opaque, clear or colored. The base portion 110 may define some or all of the footprint of the accessory item 100. For example, the base portion 110 may have a width of about 8″, a length of about 10″, and a thickness of about 3/32″. Other sizes may also be used. The base portion 110 may include indicia 114 (FIG. 8a) to facilitate of an item on the workspace 112 of the base portion 110. The indicia 114 may include, for example, grid lines, ruler markings, and the like. The indicia 114 may be printed or laser etched onto either an upper or lower surface of the base portion 110 itself. Alternatively, or additionally, additional components including indicia 114 may be placed under or atop the base portions 110, such as a piece of grid paper, to facilitate alignment of the item on the workspace. Optionally, the bottom of the base portion 110 may be made of a material having a suitable coefficient of friction to impede movement or slippage of the accessory 100 during normal use (also referred to herein as a “non-slip” surface). Alternatively or additionally, such a material may be attached to or applied to the bottom or the top of the base portion 110. Optionally, the accessory may include a fastening mechanism for securing the item to the work space. In one embodiment, the base portion 110 may include metal or other ferromagnetic material 118 (FIG. 5) for cooperating with a magnet 119 (FIG. 8b) placed on top of the item to secure the item on the workspace 112. Alternatively, or additionally, the ferromagnetic material 118 may be disposed above or below some or all of the workspace 112. Other mechanism may also be used to fasten the item to the workspace 112. For example, a top surface of the workspace 112 may have a coefficient of friction that impedes movement of an item placed thereon. FIGS. 3a-b show exemplary side portions 120 a-c of an exemplary craftwork tool. In FIG. 3a, a top view of an exemplary side portions 120 a-care shown. The side portions 120 a-c may be made up of a single piece or multiple pieces. The side portions 120 a-c may be disposed to the top of the base portion 110. Alternatively, or additionally, one or more of the side pieces may be attached to another part of the base portion 110, such as a side of the base portion 110. In one embodiment, the side portions may be attached to the top of the base portion 110 and have a thickness of at least about one-eighth inch so as to define a workspace 112 that is about one-eight inch deep. Other thicknesses may be used, such as one-quarter inch, one-third inch, one-half inch and the like. In some embodiments, one or more spacers 113 (FIG. 6) may be provided with the accessory to reduce the depth of the workspace 112 relative to the elevated side portions 120 a-c. Spacer 113 may be, for example, a foam pad. The spacer 113 may have a thickness proportional to the depth of the workspace 112, such as a thickness corresponding to one-half or one-quarter the depth of the workspace 112. Any other ratio may also be used. Each side portion 120 a-c may be the same thickness and/or width, or each side portion 120 a-c may vary in thickness and/or width. For example, each side portion 120 a-c may be about three-quarters inches wide. The width of the side portions 120 a-c may vary with the overall footprint of the accessory 100. In some embodiments, the width of a side portion 120 a-c may be between about five percent and about twelve percent of the length or width of the overall footprint of the accessory 100. The side portions 120 a-c may span some or all of the length of a side of the accessory 100, and each side piece 120 a-c may span a different length of its corresponding side. In some embodiments, the side portions 120 a-c may span at least one-fifth of the length of the side of the accessory 100. In other embodiments, the side portions 120a-c may span at least one fourth, one-third, or one-half of the length of a corresponding side of the accessory 100. Other lengths may also be used. The inner part of the side portions 120 a-c may abut the upper surface of base portion 110, or one or more of the side portions 120 a-c may include a recessed portion 124 that provides a gap between the upper surface of the base portion and a surface of side portion 120 a-c. An example of this is shown in FIG. 3b. The recessed portion 124 may allow a user of the accessory 100 additional alignment options, such as when creating a border on the item. Optionally, the side portions 120 a-care dimension to allow for the inclusion of indicia 122 for facilitating alignment of the item and/or stamp or other embellishment items. In some embodiments, indicia 122 may be disposed in one-eighth inch increments along one or all of the side portions 120 a-c. Other increments, such as numbers, gridlines and the like, also may be provided and different indicia may be placed on different side portions or within the same side portion. The indicia may be laser etched or printed to the side portion, or may be on a sticker, decal or the like affixed to one or more of the side portions 120 a-c. Combinations of techniques and/or indicia may also be used. In addition, any of the techniques for providing any indicia on any of the components of the accessory 100 may be used to provide indicia on any of the other components. FIG. 4 shows a cover portion 130 of an exemplary craftwork tool. The cover portion 130 may be dimensioned similarly to the base portion 110, or may be dimensioned differently. In one embodiment, the cover may be about 8″ wide by about 10″ long. Other sizes, such as sizes appropriate for an accessory 100 having an overall footprint in the ranges discussed above, may also be used. The cover may be made of any suitable rigid or semi-rigid material, such as acrylic or the like. Preferably, the cover is translucent so as to allow a user of the accessory 100 to see the workspace even if the cover is closed. In other embodiments, the cover may be opaque. Preferably, the cover includes indicia 132 for facilitating alignment of the item and/or stamp. For example, indicia 132 may include one-quarter inch gridlines, one-eighth inch, and the like. The indicia 132 may be, for example, printed or etched onto the cover 132. Other methods of placing indicia 132 on the cover 130 may also be used. In some embodiments, the cover portion 130 does not include any indicia 132. FIG. 5 shows a cross-sectional view of an exemplary craftwork tool. As illustrated, the accessory 100 includes a base portion 110, side portions 120 a-b, and a cover portion 130 attached to the base portion 110 by a hinge assembly 140. In addition, a piece of ferromagnetic material 118 is provided under the base portion 110. The ferromagnetic material 118 may be secured in position by a non-slip surface 116, which may be attached to the base. Alternatively, both the ferromagnetic material 118 and the non-slip surface 116 may be attached to the base portion 110 independently. FIG. 6 shows a cross sectional view of another exemplary craftwork tool. Similar to the embodiment shown in FIG. 5, the accessory 100 includes a base portion 110, side portions 120 a-b, and a cover portion 130 attached to the base portion 110 by a hinge assembly 140. In the embodiment shown in FIG. 6, a piece of ferromagnetic material 118 is provided in a recessed portion of the base portion 110. Additionally, an element 115 having indicia for alignment is also provided in the recessed portion of the base portion 110 so as to be visible by a user looking down on the workspace 112. Element 115 may be, for example, a piece of grid paper or the like. A removable spacer 113 is also provided in the workspace 112 to reduce the depth of the workspace 112. FIG. 7 shows a flow chart of an exemplary method of operation of an exemplary craftwork tool and FIGS. 8a-g shows a series of depictions of an exemplary craftwork tool while performing the steps shown in FIG. 7. Initially, a user opens the cover portion 130 of the accessory 100 at step 710 (as shown in FIG. 8a). The user then aligns the item in the workspace 112 and optionally secures the item in place at step 720 (as shown in FIG. 8b). In the illustrated embodiment, the item is secured in place by placing a magnet 119 on top of the item. Next, the user aligns the stamp on top of the item in a desired position at step 730 (as shown in FIG. 8c). In the illustrated embodiment, the user places a “Happy Birthday” stamp on the item. At step 740, the user closes the cover portion 130 and presses down to secure the stamp to the cover portion 130 (as shown in FIG. 8d). The user then opens the cover portion 130 and inks the stamp at step 750 (as shown in FIG. 8e). Once the stamp is inked, the user may close the cover portion 130 and press down to impress the image on the item at step 760 (as shown in FIG. 8A). As a result, the item is left with an impression of the stamped image as shown in FIG. 8g. As should be apparent to one in the art, if a clean impression is not made on the first attempt, the user may reapply ink and/or repress the stamp as necessary. Additionally, because both the item and the stamp are secured in their portions, the user may re-ink the stamp with various colors and apply the new impression to the enhance or otherwise alter the image on the item, or create multiple copies of the same item be aligning a new item in the same position and restamping. Additionally, the top of the cover may be used in a similar manner to stamp items that are not placed in workspace 112, such as oversized items. Referring to the embodiment shown in FIGS. 8a-g, a user can (1) place an item to the right of the accessory 100, (2) align a stamp on the item, (3) open the cover 130 and secure the stamp to the cover 130, (4) close the cover 130 and ink the stamp and (5) open the cover 130 to stamp the item. Other methods of operation may also be apparent to one of ordinary skill. Thus, the accessories 100 described herein provide solutions that offer a portable and easy-to-use tool for creating high-quality stamp impressions for a wide variety of uses. While various embodiments of the invention have been described, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that many more embodiments and implementations are possible within the scope of the invention. Accordingly, the invention is not to be restricted except in light of the attached claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>In one embodiment, a craftwork accessory may provide a portable and/or easy-to-use tool to help users' accurately and repeatedly apply stamp impressions and the like to items such as cardstock. The accessory may include a base portion, one or more elevated side portions and cover portion. The side portions may define a workspace for arranging the item. The cover portion may be movably attached to the base portion or a side portion, for example, by one or more hinges. In operation, the item and stamp may be aligned in the workspace and the cover portion may be pressed onto the stamp to stick the stamp to the cover portion. The cover may then be opened, the stamp may be inked, and the cover portion may be closed and pressed onto the item to stamp the item. The accessory may include alignment indicia on the base portion, side portions and/or cover portion to facilitate placement of the item and/or stamp. The accessory may also include fastening mechanisms, such as magnetic elements, to facilitate placement of the item and/or stamp. Other systems, methods, features and advantages of the invention will be, or will become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following figures and detailed description. It is intended that all such additional systems, methods, features and technical advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the invention, and be protected by the following claims. | B41K302 | 20170720 | 20180403 | 20171102 | 67633.0 | B41K302 | 1 | ROYSTON, JOHN M | CRAFTWORK TOOLS AND KITS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | B41K | 2,017 |
15,655,722 | PENDING | DOOR LOCKS AND ASSEMBLIES FOR USE IN WIRELESS GUEST ENGAGEMENT SYSTEMS | A guest engagement system and associated methods provide seamless engagement with guests of facilities through the use of wireless sensing technologies. The system makes use of individual guest devices which are carried by guests and used to automatically identify and authenticate the guests throughout the facility. Services can thereby be seamlessly provided to the guests throughout the facility. The services include automatic unlocking of doors, including hotel or state room doors, based on the guests' immediate proximity to their assigned room's door. The services also include automated payment services provided at checkout or vending terminals, and automated log-on to interactive displays and portals, among others, based on secure wireless authentication of the guest devices. | 1-88. (canceled) 89. An access panel for controlling an electronically controlled door lock, comprising: a radio configured for wireless communication with a door lock communication module electrically connected to an electronically controlled locking mechanism; a first transceiver configured for wireless communication with a user device to identify a user seeking to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism; and a second transceiver configured for communication with a reservation server storing identifiers of users authorized to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism, wherein each of the radio, first transceiver, and second transceiver operate according to a different communication standard, and wherein the first transceiver is operative to monitor for periodic beacon signals broadcast wirelessly by the user device and, in response to wirelessly receiving a beacon signal, establish a wireless communication connection with the user device. 90. The access panel of claim 89, wherein the access panel communicates via the first transceiver using a Bluetooth low energy (BLE) communication standard with the user device, and communicates via the second transceiver and a wired network connection with the reservation server. 91. The access panel of claim 89, wherein the access panel communicates with the door lock communication module via short-range radio operating on the ISM band. 92. The access panel claim 89, wherein the access panel is configured to engage in encrypted wireless communications with the door lock communication module via the radio, and the access panel is configured to engage in encrypted wireless communications with the user device via the first transceiver. 93. The access panel of claim 89, wherein the access panel is configured to receive a unique identifier from the user device through wireless communication with the user device via the first transceiver, determine whether the received unique identifier corresponds to an authorized user based on information on authorized users received from the reservation server via the second transceiver, and selectively transmit a door unlocking signal via the door lock communication module based on the result of the determination. 94. The access panel of claim 93, further comprising: a display configured to display information received from the reservation server and selected based on the unique identifier received from the user device; and a camera configured to selectively capture an image of a user based on the result of the determination. 95. The access panel of claim 94, further comprising: a communication antenna communicatively coupled to the first transceiver and disposed along an outer periphery of the display of the access panel. 96. The access panel of claim 89, wherein the access panel is configured to, in response to the first transceiver wirelessly receiving a public identifier for the user device included in the beacon signal, transmit using the first transceiver a request to the user device for a private identifier for the user device. 97. The access panel of claim 96, wherein the access panel is configured to selectively transmit an unlock authorization signal via the radio to the door lock communication module in response to determining that a received private identifier for the user device matches an identifier of a user authorized to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism. 98. The access panel of claim 89, wherein the access panel is configured to, in response to the first transceiver wirelessly receiving the beacon signal, determine a next time period during which the user device will listen for communications and transmit to the user device during the determined time period a request to establish the wireless communication connection. 99. The access panel of claim 98, wherein the access panel is further configured to transmit to the user device during the determined time period a request to change an operating mode of the user device to a bi-directional mode of operation. 100. The access panel of claim 89, further comprising: a local memory storing a list of identifiers of users authorized to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism, wherein the access panel is configured to determine whether an identifier received from the user device using the first transceiver is included in the list stored in local memory and transmit an unlock authorization signal via the radio to the door lock communication module in response to the determination. 101. The access panel of claim 100, wherein in response to determining that the identifier received from the user device using the first transceiver is not included in the list stored in local memory, the access panel is configured to request updated information of users authorized to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism from the reservation server using the second transceiver. 102. The access panel of claim 89, further comprising: a display configured to display information selected based on the unique identifier received from the user device, wherein the access panel is configured to detect a plurality of user devices concurrently located within a communication range thereof using the first transceiver, to identify a plurality of users authorized to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism from among identifiers of users received from the plurality of user devices, and display information for each of the identified plurality of users authorized to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Applications No. 62/420,998, filed on Nov. 11, 2016, and No. 62/440,938, filed on Dec. 30, 2016 in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein in their entireties. TECHNICAL FIELD The present subject matter relates to techniques and equipment for providing automated engagement with guests of a facility using wireless sensing technologies. BACKGROUND Guests of hotels and resorts, cruise ships, as well as other retail and commercial establishments, have come to expect a high level of service and engagement from their hosts. The service can include being provided with ready access to private and/or restricted areas without having to present a badge or other form of identification, to swipe or tap an access card, or to otherwise proactively authenticate themselves. The engagement can include being personally recognized by the hosts and provided with services and recommendations on that basis, without requiring the guests to identify themselves and remind the host of their preferences or pre-existing bookings. In the present context, service and engagement is provided only on the basis of users providing a name or identification, tapping or swiping an access card, and having information on bookings retrieved manually by a host through a computer terminal. For example, guests must present photo identification and a credit card at the time of check-in, guest must tap or swipe an access card to activate elevators or unlock doors of health facilities and guest rooms during their stay, and guests must identify themselves each time they interact with a concierge, restaurant host, or front desk staff. As a result, interactions between hosts and guests are impersonal and disjoined. This disclosure provides a novel guest engagement system that relies on recent improvements in low power wireless communication technologies and distributed sensor networks to provide novel services to those guests without requiring guests to proactively identify and/or authenticate themselves. The guest engagement system thereby enables hosts to seamlessly engage with the guests throughout their facilities and provide recommendations to the guests based on the guests previous experiences. SUMMARY The teachings herein provide system and methods for providing seamless engagement with guests of facilities including (and not limited to) resorts, cruise ships, hotels, convention centers, retail and other commercial establishments, amusement parks, casinos, or other large-scale facility (or group of facilities), through the use of wireless sensing technologies. The functionalities rely on guests having individual guest devices which are used to automatically identify and authenticate the guests throughout the facility, so as to seamlessly provide services to the guests. The guest engagement system relies on the guest devices (also referenced as medallions) periodically broadcasting beacon signals that uniquely identify the devices and their associated guests. The periodic beacon signals are detected by sensors provided throughout the facility, and used by the guest engagement system to provide personalized services. The services include automatic unlocking of doors, including hotel or state room doors, based on the guests' immediate proximity to their assigned room's door. The services also include automated payment services provided at checkout or vending terminals, and automated log-on to interactive displays and portals, among others, based on secure wireless authentication of the guest devices. In accordance with one aspect of the present disclosure, a guest engagement system includes a plurality of guest devices provided to users of the guest engagement system, each guest device including a wireless communication antenna and operative to emit a periodic beacon signal broadcasting a unique identifier of the guest device using Bluetooth low energy (BLE) communications. The guest engagement system further includes a sensor network comprising a plurality of sensors each mounted at a different known location and operative to detect the periodic beacon signals including the unique identifiers emitted using BLE communications by guest devices of the plurality of guest devices that are proximate to the sensor. The guest engagement system additionally includes a communication network connecting each of the plurality of sensors of the sensor network, and a central server. The central server is communicatively connected to each of the plurality of sensors of the sensor network via the communication network, and stores a log associating each unique identifier of a guest device detected using BLE communications by a sensor of the sensor network with the known location of the sensor and a timestamp. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a guest engagement system includes a plurality of guest devices provided to users of the guest engagement system, each guest device having a unique identifier and including first and second wireless communication antennas respectively configured for Bluetooth low energy (BLE) and near field communication (NFC) communications. The guest engagement system further includes a sensor network comprising a plurality of sensors each mounted at a different location. At least one sensor of the plurality of sensors is operative to detect guest devices that are proximate thereto and receive unique identifiers therefrom based on BLE communication with the guest devices, and at least another sensor of the plurality of sensors is operative to detect guest devices that are proximate thereto and receive unique identifiers therefrom based on NFC communication with the guest devices. The guest engagement system also includes a communication network connecting each of the plurality of sensors of the sensor network, and a central server. The central server is communicatively connected to each of the plurality of sensors of the sensor network via the communication network, and stores a log associating each unique identifier of a guest device received using BLE or NFC communications by a sensor of the sensor network. In accordance with one aspect of the present disclosure, an assembly includes a wireless device and an accessory. The wireless device has a device body with a tapered shape including a front surface, a rear surface having a same shape as the front surface and a greater dimension than the front surface, and a cavity in which a processor and at least one wireless communication antenna are disposed. The accessory is configured to be worn by a user and has an accessory body having a tapered cavity configured to releas ably receive the wireless device. The tapered cavity includes a rear opening having the same shape as the front and rear surfaces of the device body. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a wireless device includes a body having a tapered shape including a front surface and a rear surface having a same shape as the front surface and a dimension greater than the front surface. The body includes a cavity in which a processor and at least one wireless communication antenna are disposed. In accordance with a further aspect of the present disclosure, an accessory configured to be worn by a user includes a body having inner and outer surfaces respectively configured to face towards and away from the user when the accessory is worn. The body has a tapered cavity extending between a front opening in the outer surface of the body and a rear opening in the inner surface of the body, the rear opening has a same shape as the front opening, and the rear opening has a dimension that is greater than that of the front opening. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a portable wireless device includes a body having a fully enclosed cavity, the body having all dimensions equal to or smaller than 2.5 inches, and the body having a thickness equal to or smaller than ⅝ inch. The portable wireless device further includes a processor, a memory, a battery, and first and second wireless communication antennas disposed in the cavity. The first and second wireless communication antennas are respectively configured for Bluetooth low energy (BLE) and near field communication (NFC) communications. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a portable wireless device includes a body having a fully enclosed cavity, and a processor, a memory, a battery, and first and second wireless communication antennas disposed in the cavity. The first and second wireless communication antennas are respectively configured for Bluetooth low energy (BLE) and near field communication (NFC) communications. The body comprises an open metallic ring disposed to substantially surround the cavity of the body, and the open metallic ring includes at least one opening having a non-conducting material disposed therein. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a portable wireless device includes a body having a fully enclosed cavity, and a processor, a memory, a battery, and first and second wireless communication antennas disposed in the cavity. The body has a frustum shape, a front surface that is circular, and a rear surface that is circular and has a diameter greater than that of the front surface. The front and rear surfaces have diameters of 0.75 to 2.5 inches, the body has a thickness of ⅛ to ⅝ inch, and an angle between the front surface and a side surface of the frustum-shaped body is in the range of 86 to 88 degrees. The first and second wireless communication antennas are respectively configured for Bluetooth low energy (BLE) and near field communication (NFC) communications. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, an electronic door lock assembly includes a latch assembly, a door lock communication module, and an access panel. The latch assembly includes a latch and an electronically controlled locking mechanism operative to selectively unlock a door. The door lock communication module is electrically connected to the electronically controlled locking mechanism of the latch assembly, and includes a radio configured for wireless communication. The access panel includes a radio configured for wireless communication with the door lock communication module, a first transceiver configured for wireless communication with a user device, and a second transceiver for communication with a reservation server. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a door latch assembly includes a door knob, a latch selectively operated by operation of the door knob, an electronically controlled locking mechanism operative to selectively unlock the latch, and a proximity sensor operative to sense contact or proximity of a user with the door knob. The electronically controlled locking mechanism is operative to selectively unlock the latch based on the contact or proximity of the user with the door knob sensed by the proximity sensor. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, an access panel for controlling an electronically controlled door lock includes a radio and first and second transceivers. The radio is configured for wireless communication with a door lock communication module electrically connected to an electronically controlled locking mechanism. The first transceiver is configured for wireless communication with a user device to identify a user seeking to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism. The second transceiver is configured for communication with a reservation server storing identifiers of users authorized to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism. Each of the radio, first transceiver, and second transceiver operate according to a different communication standard. Additional advantages and novel features will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following and the accompanying drawings or may be learned by production or operation of the examples. The advantages of the present teachings may be realized and attained by practice or use of various aspects of the methodologies, instrumentalities and combinations set forth in the detailed examples discussed below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The drawing figures depict one or more implementations in accord with the present teachings, by way of example only, not by way of limitation. In the figures, like reference numerals refer to the same or similar elements. FIGS. 1A and 1B are high-level functional block diagrams showing components of a guest engagement system. FIGS. 2A-2E and 3A-3E show medallions or guest devices used in the guest engagement system and accessories within which the medallions can be releasably inserted. FIGS. 4A-4F show exploded perspective views of further accessories within which the medallions can be releasably inserted. FIGS. 5A-5L are diagrams showing component parts of the medallions or guest devices. FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing functional components of a medallion. FIGS. 7A-7I show an automated door lock assembly and components thereof that provides for automatically unlocking a door based on an interaction with a medallion. FIGS. 8A-8N are diagrams showing sensors of the guest engagement system and component parts thereof. FIG. 9 is a high-level functional block diagram showing additional components, including end devices, of a guest engagement system. FIG. 10 is a perspective view of a gaming station that can be used as part of the guest engagement system. FIGS. 11 and 12 are simplified functional block diagrams of computer hardware platforms that may be used to implement functionalities of the guest engagement system. DETAILED DESCRIPTION In the following detailed description, numerous specific details are set forth by way of examples in order to provide a thorough understanding of the relevant teachings. However, it should be apparent to those skilled in the art that the present teachings may be practiced without such details. In other instances, well known methods, procedures, components, and/or circuitry have been described at a relatively high-level, without detail, in order to avoid unnecessarily obscuring aspects of the present teachings. The various techniques and equipment systems disclosed herein enable automated engagement with users or guests of a facility using wireless sensing technologies. The guest engagement system relies on wireless sensing technologies to securely identify guests based on medallions worn or carried by the guests, and to automatically provide services to the guests based on the secure identification. The system additionally provides enhanced engagement with guests by maintaining a database of guest locations and experiences, and enabling services to be provided to the guest seamlessly regardless of the guests' locations. FIG. 1A provides a general block diagram showing components of a guest engagement system 10. The guest engagement system 10 of FIG. 1A may be provided in a facility such as a ship (e.g., cruise ship), hotel, restaurant, resort, convention center, medical center or other treatment facility, retail or other commercial establishment, entertainment venue (e.g., concert hall, movie theater, arena, or stadium, amusement park or casino), transportation center (e.g., airport, marine port or terminal, train or bus station, multi-modal transport center), or other facility or combination of such facilities. In one example, the facility may be a cruise ship hosting large numbers of guests, or a cruise ship line including multiple cruise ships, associated shore facilities (e.g., port facilities), and partnering facilities (e.g., facilities of partners providing shore activities for cruise guests). In another example, the facility may be a resort including one or more hotels, restaurants, theaters, amusement parks, and other associated facilities distributed across one or more geographic locations. In a further example, the facility may be a set of facilities associated with a particular event, such as a convention or tradeshow, that includes locations of multiple partnering establishments (e.g., hotels, restaurants, museums, arenas, malls or other retail locations). Users of the guest engagement system are referenced generally herein as guests 12. In the example of a cruise ship, the guests 12 include cruise passengers and can more generally include stewards, staff, and other users of guest devices 11. In other examples, guests 12 can include any person interacting with the guest engagement system 10 including users of guest devices 11. Guests 12 may thus reference patients, nurses, doctors, and visitors, among other users, in the illustrative context of a medical or treatment facility; convention goers and/or exhibitors in the illustrative context of a convention facility; shoppers, staff members, travelers, sales personnel, and others in illustrative contexts of various types of commercial establishments. The guest engagement system 10 is configured to communicate wirelessly with guest devices 11, such as medallions worn or carried by guests 12, which each uniquely identify an associated guest and are configured for secure communication with the guest engagement system 10. In the examples detailed herein, the guest devices 11 take the form of medallions and will generically be referenced as medallions in this disclosure. However, the devices/medallions 11 can take other formats, and the term medallion thus is not intended to limit the scope of guest devices 11 that may be used as part of the system 10. The guest devices/medallions 11 are preferably light and compact so as to be readily worn or carried by users. The guest devices/medallions 11 are configured to communicate using at least one wireless communication technology/protocol and, preferably, are configured to communicate using two or more distinct wireless communication technologies/protocols. For example, a medallion 11 can be configured to communicate according to both near field communication (NFC) standards and Bluetooth low energy (BLE) standards, though the medallion 11 may generally operate using only one of the standards at any given time in order to reduce energy expenditure. The guest engagement system 10 includes a sensor network 13 of sensors 15 mounted throughout the facility and configured to communicate wirelessly with guests' medallions 11. A sensor 15 of the network 13 may be used for sensing a guest's location (or proximity to the sensor 15), for example by detecting beacon signals or other signals emitted by the medallion 11. The sensor 15 can also engage in two-way communication with the medallion 11 to transmit information to and receive information from the medallion 11. A sensor 15 may also be located in or otherwise associated with a particular interface device 17 or interface function of the system, such as a sensor that is associated with a door lock 17a, an automatic door or turnstile, a vending terminal 17b, a cash register, a slot machine, an interactive display 17c or portal 17d, or the like. In some situations, the sensor 15 is mounted within the interface device 17, while in other situations, a sensor 15 associated with an interface device 17 is mounted in the vicinity of the interface device. For example, a spotlight sensor can be placed above a location at which a user interacting with the interface device 17 would be located (e.g., above a location directly in front of, and around 1 foot away from, the interface device 17), so as to only sense beacon signals emitted by medallions of users located directly in front of and close to the interface device 17. When associated with a particular interface device 17 or interface function, the sensor 15 may engage in two-way communication with the medallion 11 and provide a secure communication channel between the device and medallion, for example to provide automatic unlocking of the door lock based on secure authentication of a particular guest's medallion. The guest engagement system 10 can further make use of end devices such as BLE-enabled mobile devices, tablet computers, or interactive displays to provide services to guests through sensing of (and communication with) medallions 11. The services provided using end devices can be provided in addition to the aforementioned services provided using the sensors 15 of the sensor network 13 and of interface devices 17 to provide services. As described in further detail below (see, e.g., the discussion of FIG. 9), the services provided through the end devices can include location services (including location-sensing of medallions based on the end devices sensing medallions' beacon signals, and reporting of sensed medallions and locations to a system server 21), and causing medallions to switch into or out of a various operating modes (e.g., sleep, beacon, and bi-directional modes), among other services. The guest engagement system 10 also includes one or more servers 21 communicatively connected to the network 13 of sensors, to the interface devices 17, and wirelessly to the medallions 11 via the various sensors 15 provided throughout the guest engagement system 10 and the associated facility. One or more communications network(s) 19 provide communication capabilities between the various elements of the system 10. In one example, the guest engagement system 10 includes at least one authentication server used to authenticate guests' medallions and provide encryption and decryption services. The system can further include one or more servers storing databases of guest information (e.g., guest reservations), payment transaction servers (e.g., including guest billing information), location information (e.g., locations of sensors 15 within the facility, and locations of medallions 11 throughout the facility and elsewhere) and the like. Detailed descriptions of various components of the guest engagement system 10 will now be provided with reference to the accompanying figures. The descriptions are focused on illustrative embodiments of components of the system, and do not limit the scope of attributes and functions of the components and system. Two different structures of sensors 15 can be used in the system. In one example, each individual sensor 15 in the guest engagement system 10 includes a processor and memory that control, at least in part, operation of the sensor 15. In such an example, each sensor may additionally include a network transceiver including a communication port for communicatively connecting the sensor 15 to the communication network 19. The network transceiver may be an Ethernet, Wifi, or other appropriate transceiver. Alternatively or additionally, the guest engagement system 10 may include sensor network peripherals 14 distributed throughout the facility and operative to have sensors 15 directly connected thereto. In such an example, FIG. 1B provides a general block diagram showing a more detailed view of the sensor network 13 of the guest engagement system 10 showing sensor network peripherals 14 that are used to connect sensors 15 to the communication network 19. In particular, as shown in the figure, sensors 15 of the sensor network 13 are each directly connected to respective sensor network peripherals 14, and each receive power from and operate under the control of the corresponding sensor network peripheral 14. In turn, the sensor network peripherals 14 are connected to the communication network 19 and communicate with the servers 21 through the network 19. Each sensor network peripheral generally includes a network transceiver for communication with the communication network 19, such as an Ethernet, Wifi, or other appropriate network transceiver. Each sensor network peripheral 14 further includes at least one port for connecting at least one associated sensor 15. For example, the sensor network peripheral 14 typically includes one or more communication buses through which multiple sensors 15 or other devices can be connected. For instance, a sensor network peripheral 14 may include two buses each operative to connect up to sixteen sensors 15 in one example. Through these connections, the sensor network peripherals 14 serve to relay sensing information captured by the sensors 15 to the communication network 19 and servers 21, and to relay control or communications from the communication network 19 and servers 21 back to the sensors 15. The sensor network peripherals 14 may further relay data or other communications received from medallions 11 by the sensors 15 to the communication network 19 and servers 21, and to relay control or communications from the communication network 19 and servers 21 back to the medallions 11 via the sensors 15. Each sensor network peripherals 14 includes a processor and memory, and is operative to control operation of the sensor(s) 15 connected thereto. In particular, the use of the sensor network peripheral 14 can enable the guest engagement system 10 to function with sensors 15 having minimal (or no) on-board processing power and memory, and sensors 15 requiring minimal configuration during initial system installation. In particular, through the use of the sensor network peripherals 14, the individual sensors 15 do not need to store individual network identifiers (e.g., unique network addresses) for use by the sensors 15 to identify themselves on the communication network 19 and to identify data transmitted by each respective sensor 15 on the network 19 as having originated in the respective sensor 15. Instead, the sensor network peripherals 14 are configured to package data received from sensors 15 connected thereto for communication across the network 19, and in particular are configured to associate with data received from each respective sensor 15 an identifier for the respective sensor 15. The sensor network peripherals 14 are further configured to packetize the data from the sensors 15 for communication across the network 19. Additionally, the individual sensors 15 do not need to be operative to communicate on the network 19, and each respective sensor 15 does not need to have processing power sufficient to identify and process packets destined for the respective sensor from among packets communicated across the network 19. Instead, the sensor network peripherals 14 are configured to process data communicated across the network 19 to identify packets destined for the respective sensor network peripheral 14 and/or for sensors 15 connected thereto, to process instructions included in the packets, and to control the appropriate sensor(s) 15 connected thereto according to the processed instructions. As described above, the use of sensor network peripherals 14 thereby enables the wireless guest engagement system 10 to operate using low cost sensors 15 that do not include network communication circuitry and include no or minimal processing power and memory. Additionally, the use of sensor network peripherals 14 enables the wireless guest engagement system 10 to be configured for and begin operation without having to assign individual network identifiers to each sensor 15, and/or without having to configure the servers 21 with information on each individual sensor 15 in the system. Instead, the wireless guest engagement system 10 can be configured for operation by connecting multitudes of sensors 15 directly to nearby sensor network peripherals 14 located throughout the facility, and configuring the sensor network peripherals 14 for communication through the communication network 19 with the servers 21. While the foregoing description has focused on sensor network peripherals 14 being directly connected to sensors 15 configured to sense the presence of and/or communicate with medallions 11, the sensor network 13 and the sensor network peripherals 14 can more generally support other types of sensors or devices (reference generally by numeral 16 in FIG. 1B). Specifically, the sensor network 13 and the sensor network peripherals 14 can be used to control operation of and relay sensing data from the other sensors or devices 16 through the communication network 19. The sensors or devices 16 may include sensors such as smoke or CO (carbon monoxide) sensors, infrared or occupancy sensors, photodiodes or light sensors, temperature and/or humidity sensors, and the like. The other sensors or devices 16 can also include devices such as speakers and/or microphones (e.g., parts of a public address (PA) system), actuators or controllers (e.g., for opening or closing vents or window shades), switches or relays (e.g., for turning on/off lights, heating and ventilation, power), cameras (e.g., as part of a security system), and the like. The sensor network peripherals 14 can further be configured to support sensors mounted in (or associated with) vending terminals 17b, interactive displays 17c, and other interface devices 17 described throughout this document. The functionality provided by the sensor network peripherals 14 can also be incorporated into other components of the wireless guest engagement system 10. Notably, the functionality of the sensor network peripherals 14 can be incorporated into components that include a processor, memory, and a network transceiver for communication across the communication network 19. For example, as shown in FIG. 1B, an access panel 705 provided in association with a door lock 17a may be configured for use as a sensor network peripheral 14. Note that the access panel 705 is described in further detail below in relation to FIGS. 7A-7I. In the example of FIG. 1B, the access panel 705 can include at least one port and/or bus for connecting one or multiple sensors 15 thereto, and the access panel 705 may be configured to support operation of the sensors 15 as described above in relation to the sensor network peripherals 14. As detailed above, a guest device 11 can take the form of a medallion 11, such as the illustrative medallion 11 shown in FIG. 2A. As shown, the medallion 11 takes the form of a token having an outer diameter of approximately 1.25 inches (range of 0.75 to 2.5 inches), a thickness of approximately ⅜ inch (range of ⅛ to ⅝ inch), and a weight of approximately 1.8 ounces (range of 1.2-2.4 ounces). The medallion 11 is configured to be insertable into different accessories worn by guests 12. The accessories enable the medallions 11 to be securely attached to the guests 12 so as to ensure that guests do not inadvertently lose or misplace their medallions. FIG. 2B shows an illustrative accessory 201 that takes the form of a wrist-band or bracelet. Other types of accessories, including lanyards, pendants, keychains, necklaces, belt buckles, bathing suites (e.g., bikini rings), body piercings, and the like, some of which are shown in FIGS. 4A-4F, can also be used. The medallion 11 is configured to be inserted into a cavity of the wrist-band accessory 201 that is shaped and sized to receive the medallion 11. As shown, the medallion 11 is inserted via a rear of the wrist-band accessory 201, i.e., via a side of the accessory 201 that is designed to face the user, such as the inside surface of the wrist-band that is designed to contact a wrist of a user when the wrist-band is worn. The medallion 11 is inserted via a rear of the wrist-band accessory 201 so as to ensure that the medallion 11 cannot inadvertently slip out of the accessory 201 when the accessory 201 is worn by the user. In particular, as shown in FIG. 2C, the cavity of the accessory 201 configured to receive the medallion can be tapered and thus have an angled or chamfered edge ensuring that the medallion 11 can be inserted into cavity of the accessory 201 but cannot pass through the cavity and exit the accessory 201 through a front surface thereof. In the example of FIG. 2C, the edge is angled at approximately 3 degrees relative to a right-angled edge (corresponding to an angle of 87 degrees relative to the front or back surface). In detail, the cavity in the example of FIG. 2C may not have a cylindrical shape but may instead have a tapered shape, e.g. a frustum shape of a slice of a cone having a circular base and edges angled relative to the circular base at a predetermined angle (e.g., 3 degrees (+/−1 degree) relative to a right-angled edge, corresponding to an angle of 87 degrees (range of 86-88 degrees) relative to the front or back surface). The angle is such that the rear/lower opening of the cavity is larger than the front/upper opening, to thereby prevent the medallion 11 from passing through the cavity. Similarly, the medallion 11 can tapered shape having an angled edge along is outer peripheral surface, and the edge may be angled with a predetermined angle equal to that of the cavity (e.g., 3 degrees (+/−1 degree) relative to a right-angled edge, corresponding to an angle of 87 degrees (range of 86-88 degrees) relative to the front or back surface), as also shown in FIG. 2C. The angled edge of the medallion is such that the medallion has a smaller dimension (e.g., smaller diameter) on the front/upper surface 11a of the medallion 11 relative to the back/lower surface 11b of the medallion 11. As such, the combination of angled edges of the medallion 11 and cavity in the accessory 201 ensure that the medallion can only be placed in the accessory 201 in such a way that the front surface 11a of the medallion 11 faces outwards while a back surface 11b faces rearwards. Additionally, the medallion 11 may be sized to be slightly smaller than the cavity so as to ease the fit of the medallion 11 within the cavity. For example, the medallion 11 may have an outer dimension, such as an outer diameter, that is 0.75 mm (e.g., range of 0.5-1 mm) smaller than the inner dimension/diameter of the cavity to enable the medallion 11 to be inserted into the cavity even in the medallion is not perfectly aligned with the cavity and/or is tilted with respect to the cavity. In summary, the medallion can thereby easily and securely couple to the accessory 201 by virtue of the following features. The medallion 11 has an angled edge, sloping at a predetermined angle (e.g., 3 degrees) from the “front” surface of the medallion to the “rear” surface so as to align with the oppositely formed angled edge of the accessory 201. The angled edge design allows for alignment of the medallion 11 to the accessory by inserting the medallion in the “rear” side of the accessory. Since the medallion 11 can only be inserted into or removed from the rear of the accessory 201, the forces needed to dislodge the medallion 11 from the accessory 201 are rearward and thus opposed to a body of a guest wearing the accessory 201 (and/or opposed to another surface preventing the easy dislodging of the medallion) when the medallion is in the accessory 201. As such, the medallion 11 cannot readily be dislodged or removed from the accessory 201 when the accessory is worn 201. The foregoing description has focused on medallions 11 having circular shapes, and corresponding cavities having circular shapes. However, this disclosure is not limited to such medallions and cavities. More generally, medallions 11 and corresponding cavities in accessories may have oval or other rounded shapes or square, rectangular, or other angular shapes (e.g., triangular, pentagonal, hexagonal, etc.). In each case, the medallions 11 and corresponding cavities may have tapered shapes including angled edges sloping at a predetermined angle (e.g., 3 degrees) from the “front” surface of the medallion to the “rear” surface so as to ensure that the medallion 11 can only be inserted into or removed from the rear of the accessory 201. In such cases, the medallions 11 may have front and rear surfaces having substantially similar (or identical) shapes and different dimensions so as to confer the tapered shape to the medallions 11, and the cavities in the accessories may similarly have front and rear openings having substantially similar (or identical) shapes and different dimensions so as to confer the tapered shape to the cavities. Additionally, the medallion 11 and accessory 201 can include magnets used to ensure that the medallion 11 is automatically positioned in a predetermined rotational orientation with the cavity of the accessory 201 (e.g., self-alignment of the medallion 11 in the accessory 201). The magnets additionally provide magnetic adhesion between the medallion 11 and accessory 201 to reduce the chances of the medallion 11 coming loose from (and/or falling out of) the accessory 201. Different numbers of magnets can be used for this purpose. For example, two, three, four, or five or more magnets can be used. The magnets may be evenly spaced around peripheries of the medallion 11 and of the cavity or, more generally, can be spaced at predetermined locations around the peripheries selected such each magnet mounted in the medallion 11 aligns with a corresponding magnet mounted in the periphery of the cavity when the medallion 11 is inserted in a desired orientation in the cavity of the accessory. As shown in FIG. 2D, four magnets can be provided in the accessory 201 at positions aligned with four magnets provided in the medallion 11 to ensure that the medallion 11 is always orientated in the correct position in the X and Y axis. In particular, opposite polarity magnets can be provided at each location in the medallion 11 and accessory 201, as shown in FIG. 2E, so as to automatically align the medallion 11 in a particular rotational orientation relative to the accessory 201. For example, in the magnet coupling mechanism of FIG. 2E, the magnets on the top of the medallion 11 and accessory 201 (e.g., the “top” in the orientation shown in FIG. 2D) have polarities that are inverted relative to the magnets at the bottom of the medallion 11 and accessory 201 (e.g., the “bottom” in the orientation shown in FIG. 2D), so as to prevent the medallion 11 from being inserted rotationally upside down relative to the orientation shown in FIGS. 2D and 2E. This feature, along with the angled edges detailed in relation to FIGS. 2B and 2C, ensure that the medallion 11 can only be (or is preferentially) inserted into the accessory 201 in one orientation. As shown in FIG. 3A, the medallion 11 can have a metal outer rim and a plastic body disposed within the interior of the metal outer rim. Electronics included in the medallion 11 are mounted within the plastic body. The metal outer rim is interrupted in at least one location to form an open ring, and includes a plastic or other non-conducting spacer within the resulting gap. For example, in the embodiment of FIG. 3A, the metal outer rim is formed of two separate semi-circular metal housings that, when disposed along the outer rim of the medallion 11, are spaced part from each other by two diametrically opposed gaps. The gaps in the metal outer rim (or between metal outer rim parts) ensure that eddy currents cannot flow around the metal outer rim, and thereby ensure that eddy current flow does not significantly dampen the wireless communication capabilities of the medallions 11. Alternatively, as shown in FIG. 3E, the circular metal housing can include one or more gaps that are filled by injection molded plastic. As also shown in FIG. 3E, the circular metal housing can include indentations for placing magnets such as those described above in relation to FIGS. 2D-2E. In general, the metal outer ring is formed of a non-magnetic metal material and can be formed, for example, of burnished aluminum. A similar gap in a metal outer rim can be included in accessories 201, as shown in FIG. 3B. In detail, in embodiments in which an accessory 201 is metallic or includes metallic components around the periphery of the cavity configured to house the medallion 11, the accessory 201 includes a gap in the metal outer rim of the cavity. The gap in the metal outer rim (or between metal outer rim parts) ensures that eddy currents cannot flow around the metal outer rim, and thereby ensures that eddy current flow does not significantly dampen the wireless communication capability of a medallion 11 housed in the accessory 201. To ensure proper function of the gaps in the metal outer rims of the medallion 11 and accessory 201, the gaps of the medallion 11 and accessory 201 should be aligned when the medallion 11 is mounted in the accessory 201. Specifically, the alignment of the gaps ensures that even if the outer metal rims of the medallion 11 and accessory 201 contact each other, the metal rims do not jointly form a closed metal loop around the electronics of the medallion 11. In order to ensure alignment of the gaps, magnets such as those described above in relation to FIGS. 2D and 2E can be used to provide a desired rotational alignment of the medallion 11 within the accessory 201. The geometry and polarity of the magnets are arranged so as to have the medallion self-orient in the accessory with the gaps in the metal outer rings aligned with each other (e.g., adjacent to each other or in contact with each other). The gaps in the medallion 11 and in the accessory 201 have widths selected to ensure that a closed metal loop is not formed even if the medallion 11 and the accessory 201 are not in perfect alignment. Alternatively or additionally, an insulating liner 41 such as a plastic or other insulating liner shown in FIGS. 3C and 3D can be provided along an inner surface of the cavity in the accessory 201 housing the medallion 11. The insulating liner 41 can extend along an entire circumference of the cavity, or the insulating liner 41 can be located so as to contact the gap in the metal outer rim of a medallion 11 when the medallion 11 is mounted in the desired orientation in the accessory 201. The insulating liner 41 ensures that a metal rim of the accessory 201 does not form a short circuit across the gap in the metal outer rim of the medallion 11 by providing insulation between the gap in the metal outer rims of the medallion 11 and the accessory 201. As shown in FIG. 2B, the accessory 201 can take the form of a wrist-band. However, other accessory formats can also be used. For example, FIGS. 4A-4E show various other types of accessories configured to have medallions 11 inserted therein. In this regard, FIG. 4A shows a sport band accessory including a sports band (made, e.g., of silicone), a retaining ring (made, e.g., of stainless steel and including a gap filled with a non-conducting material 31) that fits into the sports band and includes indentations for holding magnets, and a two-part clasp designed to close the band around a user's wrist. The retaining ring includes, in its center, the cavity configured to releasably house a medallion 11. FIG. 4B shows a clip (made, e.g., of aluminum) that includes a cavity configured to releasably house a medallion 11, and further includes a gap filled with a non-conducting material 31 around the periphery of the cavity. The clip may be attached to a keychain in some examples. FIG. 4C shows a cuff (made, e.g., of nylon) that includes a retaining ring (made, e.g., of stainless steel and including a gap filled with a non-conducting material such as plastic) that fits into the cuff and includes indentations for holding magnets. The retaining ring includes, in its center, the cavity configured to releasably house a medallion 11. FIG. 4D shows a bracelet (made, e.g., of stainless steel including a gap 32 filled with a non-conducting material 31), and a retaining ring 33 (made, e.g., of stainless steel and including a gap filled with a non-conducting material 31) that fits into the bracelet and includes indentations 34 for holding magnets. The retaining ring includes, in its center, the cavity configured to releasably house a medallion 11. FIG. 4E shows a pendant (made, e.g., of stainless steel including a gap 32 filled with a non-conducting material 31), and a retaining ring 33 (made, e.g., of stainless steel and including a gap filled with a non-conducting material 31) that fits into the pendant and includes indentations for holding magnets. The retaining ring includes, in its center, the cavity configured to releasably house a medallion 11. In some examples, the pendant is configured to attach to a decorative chain for wearing by a guest. In other examples, the pendant is configured to attach to a keychain or other item. Finally, FIG. 4F shows a mount configured to be worn using a watch-type band. The mount (made, e.g., of stainless steel including a gap filled with a non-conducting material) has a retaining ring (made, e.g., of stainless steel and including a gap filled with a non-conducting material 31) that fits into the mount and includes indentations for holding magnets. The accessories shown in FIGS. 4A-4E are non-limiting examples of accessories in which medallions 11 can be mounted. However, other types of accessories, including lanyards, pendants, keychains, necklaces, belt buckles, bathing suites (e.g., bikini rings), body piercings, and the like, may also be used. The foregoing description of the medallions 11 has focused on external attributes of the medallions 11, such as the medallions shown in FIG. 5A. Specifically, FIG. 5A shows top, bottom, and side views of an illustrative medallion 11. The following description of FIGS. 5B-5E details internal structures of various embodiments of the medallions. As shown in FIGS. 5B, 5C, 5D, and 5E, different embodiments of medallions 11 include magnets 501, a bottom cap 503, a foam filler 505, a battery assembly 507 (e.g., a CR2025 battery), an insulation film spacer 509, a printed circuit board assembly (PCBA) 511, a BLE antenna 513 (e.g., a J-shaped BLE antenna), an NFC antenna 515 (e.g., a wound wire coil antenna), a metal housing 517 (e.g., of aluminum), and a top cap 519. The BLE antenna 513 can be soldered to an upper surface of the PCB 511, while the NFC antenna 515 may be connected to the PCB 511 by pogo pins. In the embodiment of FIG. 5E, the NFC antenna 515 is coated in silicone for durability. As shown in FIG. 5B, the magnets 501 may fit within indentations provided in the top cap 519 (or, alternatively, in the bottom cap 503) and be held in place by the indentations. Alternatively, as shown in FIG. 5E, the magnets 501 may fit within indentations provided in the silicone coating the NFC antenna 515 and may be held in place by the indentations. In the embodiment of FIGS. 5B, 5D, and 5E, the metal housing 517 is manufactured separately from the bottom and top caps 503 and 519. The metal housing 517 may be made of aluminum or other metal, while the bottom and top caps 503 and 519 may be made of plastic. In contrast, in the embodiment of FIG. 5C, the top cap 519 is integrally formed with the metal housing 517. For example, in the embodiment of FIG. 5C, the top cap 519 and metal housing 517 may be machined out of a block of material including metal and plastic materials disposed within the block such that, following machining, the top cap 519 has an open metal ring (e.g., at 517) disposed around its outer peripheral surface that is interrupted by one or more gaps that are filled with plastic or other insulating material. Additionally, following machining, the top cap 519 has a plastic (or insulating) center. For this purpose, the block of material used for machining may be a plastic-impregnated metal. FIGS. 5F and 5G show detailed views of PCB assemblies 511 used in medallions 11, which show in detail the J-shaped BLE antenna mounted on an upper surface of the PCB. As shown in FIG. 5F, the J-shaped BLE antenna can be formed of stamp-cut steel, include machine-bent tabs, and include alignment pins for placement on the PCB. The pins may also provide connection to ground and feed pads. As shown in FIG. 5G, the J-shaped BLE antenna can be formed using a laser direct structuring (LDS) process as an injection-molded plastic part plated with metal, and may include snap features on a bottom of the molded part for use in placement and alignment on the PCB. Detailed schematics of the J-shaped BLE antenna are provided in FIGS. 5H-5L. FIGS. 5H-5K show detailed schematic views of the BLE antenna provided from front, side, rear, and bottom views, respectively, while FIG. 5L provides a perspective view of the BLE antenna. Dimensions of the antenna and design tolerances on the dimensions are provided in the figures in millimeters (mm). The dimensions provided are illustrative, and the BLE antenna can be scaled up or scaled down relative to the dimensions shown depending on the particular application in which the BLE antenna element is to be used. In the embodiment shown in the figures, the dimensions of the antenna are set such that an overall length of the antenna enables the antenna to resonate at a desired frequency in the 2.4 GHz range, for example by setting an overall length of the radiation element to approximately ¼ wavelength at 2.4 GHz. Moreover, the radius of curvature of the J-shaped antenna may be set to maximize the radius of curvature of the antenna within the space constraints imposed by the cavity of the medallion within which the antenna is located while ensuring that the antenna does not contact a metallic outer ring of the medallion. In embodiments in which the J-shaped BLE antenna is formed using a laser direct structuring (LDS) process as an injection-molded plastic part plated with metal, the rear surface (shown in FIG. 5J) may be formed of the injection-molded plastic part while the front surface (shown in FIG. 5H) may be substantially fully plated with metal. The metal plating formed on the front surface may extend to the rear surface, and may notably extend to those portions of the rear surface shown in gray shading in FIG. 5J. In particular, the metal plating may extend along a top edge 521 of the J-shaped antenna to the rear surface of the antenna and thereby provide an antenna ground terminal that is electrically connected to a ground terminal of the PCBA 511. The metal plating may further extend onto a side protrusion 523 of the J-shaped antenna to the rear surface of the antenna and thereby provide an RF signal terminal that is electrically connected to the PCBA 511. In operation, the PCBA 511 may thus apply signals between the ground terminal (at 521) and the RF signal terminal (at 523) in order to emit BLE signals using the antenna, and may sense signals at those terminals in order to receive BLE signals using the antenna. Additionally, as shown in the cross-sectional view shown in FIG. 5I, the J-shaped antenna has a non-planar profile including two bend points used to elevate the antenna element above the ground plane of the PCBA 511. By spacing the antenna element high above the ground plane, the antenna element is capable of radiating more RF energy. Finally, corners of the J-shaped antenna can be formed by laser trimming so as not to be right angled (90 degree) in order to enable fine frequency tuning. FIG. 6 is a block diagram showing functional components of a medallion 11. The components shown in FIG. 6, including the microprocessor 603, memory 601, transceivers 607 and 609, and sensor 605, form part of the PCBA 511 shown in FIGS. 5B-5E. As shown in FIG. 6, the medallion 11 includes a memory 601, microprocessor 603, optional sensor(s) 605 such as an accelerometer, one or more transceivers 607, 609 and associated antennas 513, 515, and the battery 507. The components may be communicatively and/or electrically connected to each other by circuits integrated in the PCB of the PCBA 511. In particular, the memory 601 is communicatively connected to the microprocessor 603, such that machine-executable programming instructions stored in the memory 601 can be executed by the microprocessor 603 to cause the medallion 11 to perform functions such as those described throughout this disclosure. In addition to programming instructions, the memory 601 stores a unique identifier used by the guest engagement system 10 to uniquely identify each medallion. The memory 610 can also store encryption and decryption keys, and encrypted data. For example, in one example, the memory stores both a public identifier for the medallion 11 that uniquely identifies the medallion and is broadcast in the beacon signal emitted by the medallion, and a private identifier that also uniquely identifies the medallion, is stored in an encrypted format in the memory, and is used to securely authenticate the medallion (e.g., for use in payments and for unlocking doors). Additionally, the microprocessor 603 is communicatively connected to one or more optional sensors 605, such as an accelerometer sensor, and to one or more transceivers 607, 609. As noted above, the medallion includes at least one transceiver and associated antenna configured for wireless communication with the guest engagement system 10. As shown, the medallion 11 includes two transceivers each operating according to a different communication standard. In the example, a first transceiver 607 operates according to the BLE standard, and is connected to an associated antenna 513 used for BLE communications, while a second transceiver 609 operates according to the NFC standard (e.g., a radio-frequency identification (RFID) standard), and is connected to an associated antenna 515 used for NFC communications. While each transceiver is shown as having a dedicated antenna in FIG. 6, in some embodiments two or more transceivers may share a same antenna. As described above, the BLE transceiver and antenna is used by the medallion 11 to emit periodic beacon signals that enable the guest engagement system 10 to determine the location and identity of a guest and provide services to the guest. The BLE transceiver and antenna can also be used for secure communications. The operation of the BLE transceiver and antenna, however, generally requires that the battery 507 provides sufficient power to the medallion 11 for operation. When the charge level of the battery 507 falls below a threshold, and/or the battery or BLE transceiver fails, the medallion 11 may be unable to communicate using BLE signals. In such situations, the medallion can nonetheless operate as a passive NFC/RFID device. In particular, to function as a passive NFC/RFID device, the medallion does not require any power from the battery for operation. Instead, the medallion operates based on power harvested through the NFC antenna from radio frequency signals inducing current flow in the antenna. When operating as a passive NFC/RFID device, the medallion may be configured to transmit signals including the medallion's unique identifier in response to receiving RFID interrogation signals or other signals inducing sufficient current flow in the antenna. The guest engagement system 10 may thus be able to provide limited services to guests even if the guests' medallions do not receive sufficient operating power from their batteries. When the battery 507 provides sufficient power for operation of the BLE transceiver, the medallion 11 is configured to operate using three distinct modes of operation. Specifically, the memory 601 stores programming instructions which, when executed by the microprocessor 603, cause the medallion 11 to operate according to a selected one of the three modes of operation. Initially, when a medallion 11 is first activated by being provided with a battery 507, the medallion 11 operates in the sleep mode of operation. The sleep mode of operation is a very low power mode of operation which conserves battery power. In the sleep mode of operation, the medallion 11 listens periodically for network advertisements from a recognized guest engagement system 10 and remains in the sleep mode of operation as long as an advertisement is not received from a recognized guest engagement system 10. In the sleep mode of operation, the medallion 11 listens for network advertisements on a periodic schedule—such as once every 30 seconds, once every minute, once every 5 minutes, or the like. If a network advertisement is received during a periodic listen period, the medallion 11 determines whether the advertisement is for a recognized guest engagement system 10 and, upon determining that the advertisement is from a recognized guest engagement system 10, the medallion 11 switches to the bi-directional mode of operation. In the bi-directional mode of operation, the medallion 11 is configured to both emit a beacon signal via the BLE transceiver 607 and antenna 513, and to listen for communications from the recognized guest engagement system 10 via the BLE transceiver 607 and antenna 513. The medallion 11 may additionally listen for communications via the NFC transceiver 609 and antenna 515 in the bi-directional mode of operation. The medallion 11 listens for communications from the recognized guest engagement system 10 on a periodic basis in the bi-directional mode of operation, for example every 10 ms, every 100 ms, or the like. Further detailed information on the bi-directional mode of operation is provided below in relation to the description of the door lock. The medallion 11 may continue to operate in the bi-directional mode of operation until the medallion 11 receives a communication from the recognized guest engagement system 10 causing the operating mode to switch to the beacon mode of operation. The bi-directional mode of operation may consume higher power than the sleep mode of operation. In the beacon mode of operation, the medallion 11 is configured to emit the beacon signal via the BLE transceiver 607 and antenna 513. Optionally, the medallion may periodically listen for communications from the recognized guest engagement system 10 via the BLE transceiver 607 and antenna 513, but the listen time periods occur less frequently (e.g., every second, every 5 s, or the like) in the beacon mode of operation than in the bi-directional mode of operation. As a result, the beacon mode of operation is associated with a lower power consumption than the bi-directional mode of operation, but a higher power consumption than the sleep mode of operation. The periodic listen periods in the beacon mode of operation are used to listen for communications from the recognized guest engagement system 10 causing operation mode to switch to the bi-directional mode of operation. In both the bi-directional and beacon modes of operations, periodic beacon signals are transmitted from the medallion 11. In general, the beacon signals include a unique identifier of the medallion, and are transmitted on a periodic basis (e.g., every 10 ms, every 100 ms, every second, or the like). The beacon signals can be sensed by sensors 15 of the recognized guest engagement system 10, and used by the guest engagement system 10 to determine the approximate position of the medallion 11 within the facility. The beacon signals are also used by the recognized guest engagement system 10 to provide services to the guest, as described in more detail below. The medallions 11 communicate wirelessly with the sensors 15 of the recognized guest engagement system 10 to enable the guest engagement system to provide automated engagement with users or guests of the facility in which the sensors 15 are mounted. While the sensors 15 can be mounted throughout the facility, some sensors 15 are mounted in or otherwise associated with a particular interface device 17 or interface function of the system. As shown in FIG. 1A, interface devices 17 include door locks 17a, automatic doors or turnstiles, vending terminals 17b, cash registers, slot machines, interactive displays 17c or portals 17d, and the like. A particular interface device 17, which provides functionality of a door lock 17a, is described in detail below with respect to FIGS. 7A-7I. The door lock 17a provides guests the ability to gain access to their cruise ship stateroom, resort room, or other limited access facility (e.g., a VIP lounge, spa, fitness facility, elevator bank, or the like) simply by walking up to the door, reaching out to grasp the handle, and opening the door that is automatically unlocked based on wireless communications with the guests' medallions 11. Specifically, the door lock 17a detects the presence of a medallion 11 in front of (or in close proximity to) the door and unlocks the door for permitted guest(s) or service personnel (e.g., stateroom stewards, maids, or facilities engineers). Additionally, the door lock 17a can include a display panel that provides a visual and audio greeting to the guest and can provide real-time information about the guest's up-coming activities, and/or messages from the crew, staff, or other members of the guest's party. The door lock display panel can include a panel-mounted camera used to record images and video of unauthorized persons attempting to access the room as well as images of crew, staff members, and others who access the room. FIGS. 7A-7I illustratively show an automated door lock assembly 700 that provides the functionality of the door lock 17a to automatically unlock a door based on an interaction with a guest's medallion 11. As shown in FIG. 7A, the automated door lock assembly 700 can be used on a ship (e.g., a cruise ship) or a hotel to selectively unlock the door of a guest's room (e.g., a state room or hotel room). Specifically, the automated door lock assembly 700 can be used to selectively unlock the door of a guest's room to allow entry into the room. In general, the door remains unlocked at all times from the inside of the room, to allow guests to exit the room unimpeded. The automated door lock assembly 700 includes a latch assembly 701 shown in more detail in FIGS. 7E, 7G, and 7I, a door lock module 703 that selectively unlocks the latch assembly 701, and an access panel 705 mounted proximate to the door. The latch assembly 701 includes a latch and a door handle, knob, or other mechanical component(s) that provide door handle/knob functionality, and is generally mounted within the door that it controls. The latch assembly 701 also includes an electronically controlled locking and unlocking mechanism, such as a locking mechanism controlled by a solenoid. The locking and unlocking mechanism of the latch assembly 701 is controlled by the door lock module 703, which is an electronic module operative to send locking and unlocking signals to the electronically controlled locking mechanism. The latch assembly 701 will generally also include a mechanical locking and unlocking mechanism, such as a key-based mechanism that enables the door to be unlocked using a physical key. The door lock module 703 is electrically connected to the latch assembly 701, and more specifically to the locking mechanism of the latch assembly 701, by a wire or other conductor. The door lock module 703 generally is battery powered and is mounted within the door, although the door lock module 703 can be placed in different locations depending on implementation. A same battery may be used to power both the door lock module 703 and the electronically controlled locking and unlocking mechanism of the latch assembly 701. In addition to controlling the electronically controlled locking mechanism, the door lock module 703 communicates wirelessly with the access panel 705 from which it receives instructions to unlock the door. The access panel 705 communicates wirelessly with the door lock module 703, and provides instructions to unlock the door to the door lock module 703. The access panel 705 also communicates wirelessly with guests' medallions 11 and determines, based on a secure read of information stored in a guest's medallion 11, whether or not to instruct the door lock module 703 to unlock the door. The access panel 705 additionally communicates with a central reservation server 21 of the guest engagement system 10 to securely retrieve information on guests permitted access to the door, and determines whether or not to instruct the door lock module 703 to unlock the door based on whether the information obtained from the guest's medallion 11 (e.g., a unique encrypted identifier) matches that of a guest permitted access to the door. While the access panel 705 can be battery powered, the access panel 705 generally receives power from an external source (e.g., via power over Ethernet (POE)). In some examples, the access panel 705 communicates wirelessly with the central reservation server 21, for example via a Wi-Fi network. Generally, however, the access panel 705 is connected to a wired network (e.g., an Ethernet network) through which it communicates wirelessly with the central reservation server 21 and through which it receives electrical power for operation. Note that the access panel 705 may be connected to an uninterruptible power supply (UPS) so as to be able to continue to function even if power received from a power grid or generator is interrupted. FIGS. 7C and 7D provide detailed views of an illustrative access panel 705. As shown in the figures, the access panel includes a flat-panel display (e.g., a 7″ touch sensitive display), an integrated camera, and wireless transceivers and associated antenna(s) for communicating with medallions 11 via BLE and/or NFC. The flat-panel display can be used to provide greetings to guests for whom the door in unlocked, to provide information to guests for whom the door in not unlocked, as well as to provide other information. Further functions of the access panel 705 are described in more detail below. FIGS. 7E, 7G, and 7I provide exploded views of the latch assembly 701, including the door handle/knob and door latch mechanism. Additionally, FIG. 7E shows the door lock module 703 that can be located within the casing of the latch assembly 701 and that controls operation of the electronically controlled unlocking mechanism of the latch assembly 701. Additionally, as shown in FIGS. 7E, 7G, and 7I, the latch assembly 701 includes electrical isolation sleeves mounted on the spindle of the door handle and configured to electrically isolate the door handle from other portions of the latch assembly 701. For example, the electrical isolation sleeves may isolate the door handle from the latch mechanism. The electrical isolation of the door handle can enable the door handle to be used by the door lock module 703 as a communication antenna for its ISM radio. The electrical isolation of the door handle can further enable the door lock module 703 to monitor a capacitance of the door handle and identify changes in the capacitance of the door handle. In one example, the door lock module 703 measures changes in an electrical potential of the door handle by charging the door handle to a nominal voltage (e.g., 0.05 V) and determining when the electrical potential of the door handle has returned to zero. The monitoring of capacitance performed by the door lock module 703 enables the door lock module 703 to determine when a person touches, contacts, or is in close proximity (e.g., less than a few centimeters) to the door handle so as to activate the unlocking mechanism of the latch assembly 701 only when a person contacts or is in close proximity to the door handle. FIG. 7F shows a semi-transparent view of an alternative latch assembly 701. As shown, the latch assembly includes an LED status indicator, shown as a translucent ring-shaped indicator disposed around a base of the door handle, that is used to provide status information of the door latch assembly. In one example, the LED status indicator may provide green illumination when a guest is authorized to open the door and provide red illumination when a guest is denied authorization to open the door. FIG. 7H is a block diagram illustratively showing components of the door lock module 703 and of the access panel 705. As shown in FIG. 7H, the door lock module 703 includes a microprocessor controlling operation of the door lock module 703, and a memory storing instructions for execution on the microprocessor. The door lock module 703 additionally includes a sensor, such as a radio frequency (RF), infrared (IR), or capacitive proximity sensor, used to determine when a guest's hand contacts or comes into close proximity to the door handle. The door lock module 703 additionally includes a short-range radio, such as a radio operating on the ISM band, for encrypted wireless communication with the access panel 705. The door lock module 703 is powered by a battery and a voltage boosting converter such as a 4.5 V boost converter. The access panel 705 includes a microprocessor controlling operation of the access panel 705, and memory storing instructions for execution on the microprocessor. The access panel 705 additionally includes a short-range radio, such as a radio operating on the ISM band, for encrypted wireless communication with the door lock module 703. The access panel 705 can include a back-up battery for providing back-up power, and generally includes a power supply receiving electrical power from an external source such as power received over an Ethernet cable. The access panel 705 additionally includes one or more transceivers and associated antennas for communicating with medallions 11, such as a BLE transceiver and antenna and an NFC transceiver and antenna. In some examples, the antenna(s) of the access panel 705 are specifically designed to wrap around an outer edge of the display of the access panel 705. Additionally or alternatively, the access panel 705 may be associated with (and connected to) a spotlight sensor 15 that is disposed on a ceiling directly in front of the door, and operation of the access panel 705 may be based on beacon signals detected by the spotlight sensor 15 and emitted from medallions 11 of guests located directly in front of the door. Additionally, a network transceiver enables the access panel 705 to communicate across a wired or wireless network, such as across the communication network 19 of the guest engagement system 10 with a central reservation server 21. In general, each access panel 705 is associated with one particular door that it is located adjacent to, and the access panel 705 is associated one-to-one with the door lock module 703 of that one door such that the access panel 705 can only control unlocking of the one door and the door lock module 703 operates in response from commands from only that access panel 705. In operation, the latch assembly 701 generally maintains the door in a locked state as a default. The access panel 705 maintains its BLE transceiver (or the BLE transceiver of the associated sensor 15) activated so as to detect any beacon signals transmitted by medallions 11 operating in proximity to the access panel 705. For this purpose, the access panel 705 and/or its associated sensor 15 may be configured to detect beacon signals transmitted by recognized medallions that are within a range of 2-4 feet from the access panel. Thus, when a recognized medallion 11 enters the read range of the access panel 705 and/or its associated sensor 15, the access panel 705 begins to receive the periodic beacon signals transmitted by the medallion 11 and initiates a door unlocking sequence. First, based on the timing of receipt of a recognized beacon signal, the access panel 705 determines when the next time period during which the medallion will listen for communications from the guest engagement system 10 will occur. In turn, during the determined time period, the access panel 705 initiates a secure connection to the medallion 11 across which the access panel 705 can request the medallion's unique private identifier (e.g., using encryption such as elliptic curve cryptography (ECC) encryption). The unique private identifier can take the form of an encrypted code, such as a 48 byte encrypted code, that uniquely identifies the medallion 11. In response to the request, the access panel 705 and medallion 11 establish a secure and/or encrypted communication channel over which the medallion provides its unique private identifier to the access panel 705. In general, the unique private identifier is communicated over an encrypted BLE connection. Once the unique private identifier is received, the access panel 705 activates a lock control unit (LCU) that is operative to consult a local memory to determine whether the guest associated with the unique private identifier and medallion 11 are allowed access to the door at the current time. For this purpose, the access panel 705 maintains in local memory a white list including records of medallions' unique private identifiers that are allowed access to the door at the current and future times. If the unique private identifier received from the medallion 11 is encrypted, the LCU decrypts the identifier and determines whether the decrypted identifier is on the white list. If the access panel 705 determines that the guest associated with the unique private identifier and medallion 11 is allowed access to the door at the current time (e.g., the unique private identifier is included in the white list), the access panel 705 displays a welcome message on its display screen and initiates door unlocking. In the alternative, if the access panel 705 determines that the received identifier is not listed in the record of identifiers that are allowed access to the door, the access panel 705 consults a reservation server 21 across the network 19 to retrieve updated information (if any) on medallion identifiers that are allowed access to the door. In turn, if the received identifier is not listed among the updated information, the access panel 705 determines that the guest is not allowed access to the door at the current time and optionally activates its camera to capture a picture of the guest and transmits the picture to a central server 21. Note that in cases in which the access panel 705 detects multiple medallions 11 within its vicinity, the access panel 705 performs the above steps for each detected medallion, displays a welcome message in the guest's language of choice on its display screen identifying each guest associated with a medallion 11 that is allowed access to the door, and initiates door unlocking if at least one of the detected medallions is on the white list. As part of unlocking the door, the access panel 705 activates its ISM radio and establishes a secure communication channel with the ISM radio of the associated door lock module 703. Once the secure communication channel is established and the guest or crew member is determined to be allowed access to the door, the access panel 705 transmits an arming code (e.g., a door unlock authorization signal) to the door lock module 703 across the secure ISM channel. The arming code may be sent as a message that is encrypted, for example using a 128-bit advanced encryption standard (AES). In response to receiving the arming code, the door lock module 703 activates the proximity sensor (e.g., a capacitive proximity sensor) so as to monitor when the guest's (or crew member's) hand contacts or comes into close proximity to the door handle. Upon determining that the guest's (or crew member's) hand contacts or comes into close proximity to the door handle, the door lock module 703 activates the unlocking mechanism (e.g., a solenoid) of the latch assembly 701. If the door is unlocked and opened, the door lock module 703 can communicate that the door has been opened to the access panel 705 and the access panel 705 can, in turn, instruct the medallion 11 to return to the beacon mode of operation. Optionally, the door lock module 703 can monitor when a person's hand contacts or comes into close proximity to the door handle at all times. In turn, if a door unlock authorization signal has not been received from the access panel 705 and the door lock module 703 determines that a person's hand has contacted or come into close proximity to the door handle, the door lock module 703 may send an unauthorized access attempt signal to the access panel 705. In response to receiving the unauthorized access attempt signal, the access panel 705 activates its camera to capture a picture of the person having attempted to access the door and transmits the picture to a central server 21. In embodiments in which the medallion 11 is configured to operate in both the bi-directional and the beacon mode of operation, the door unlocking sequence described above can include additional steps. If the medallion 11 is operating in the bi-directional mode of operation, the door unlocking sequence can proceed as described above. Optionally, once the door is determined to be unlocked, the door lock module 703 can communicate that the door has been opened to the access panel 705 and the access panel 705 can, in turn, communicate to the medallion 11 that the medallion can return to the beacon mode of operation. If the medallion 11 is operating in the beacon mode of operation, the guest engagement system 10 may need to instruct the medallion 11 to switch to the bi-directional mode of operation in order to enable the medallion 11 to establish the secure communication channel with the access panel 705 and provide the access panel 705 with the medallion's unique private identifier. For this purpose, the access panel 705 can, in one example, determine based on the timing of receipt of a beacon signal from the medallion when the next time period during which the medallion will listen for communications from the guest engagement system 10 will occur. In turn, during the determined time period, the access panel 705 transmits to the medallion 11 a communication to cause the medallion to switch to the bi-directional mode of operation. For example, the access panel 705 may transmit a request for the medallion's unique private identifier and, in response to receiving the request, the medallion may switch to the bi-directional mode while continuing to transmit periodic beacon signals. In another example, the guest engagement system 10 may cause the medallion 11 to switch to the bi-directional mode of operation prior to the medallion 11 reaching the close proximity of the access panel 705 (e.g., prior to being within 2-4 feet of the access panel 705). In the example, location services provided by the guest engagement system 10 monitor the location of each guest within the facility via the guest's medallion 11. Specifically, the network 13 of sensors 15 of the guest engagement system 10 continuously monitors beacon signals received from medallions 11 in each sensor 15 of the network and identifies medallions 11 that are in proximity to each sensor 15 based on the received beacon signals and the public identifiers contained therein. Based on the monitoring of the locations of medallions 11, the guest engagement system 10 can determine whether a recognized medallion is nearing a locked door that is associated with the medallion 11. For example, the system 10 may determine that the medallion 11 has entered a hallway that includes a door to which the guest associated with the medallion has access to, or that the medallion 11 has reached a pre-determined vicinity (e.g., 100 feet or less) from such a door. In response to the determination, the guest engagement system 10 causes one or more sensors 15 that are within communication range of the medallion 11 to transmit a wake command to the medallion 11 to cause the medallion 11 to switch to the bi-directional mode of operation. In the foregoing example, the guest engagement system 10 may additionally send a wake command to the access panel 705 of the door to which the medallion has access as the medallion 11 nears proximity of the door. In response to the wake command, the access panel can begin monitoring its BLE transceiver for any medallions 11 that are within its read range and are on the authorized user list (e.g., white list) stored by the access panel 705. The description of the functioning of the automated door lock assembly 700 provided above has focused on BLE-based detection and communications between the access panel 705 and medallion 11. However, both the access panel 705 and medallion 11 are also configured for NFC-based detection and communications, and the access panel 705 also provides functionality for unlocking an associated door based on NFC-based communications. The NFC-based communications can be used, among other use cases, in situations in which a medallion's battery has run out and the medallion is thus unable to emit BLE-based beacon signals or engage in BLE-based communications. To support NFC-based communication, the access panel 705 periodically emits an NFC read signal or NFC interrogation signal that is used to energize any passive NFC-based devices in its vicinity. If a medallion 11 is located in the vicinity of the access panel 705, the NFC read signal will activate the medallion's NFC antenna and transceiver and cause the medallion 11 to provide the access panel 705 with an NFC-based response beacon signal including the public identifier for the medallion 11. Based on the received response signal, the access panel 705 can then establish a secure NFC-based communication channel with the medallion 11 and proceed with door unlocking based on an NFC-based unlocking process analogous to the BLE-based unlocking process described above (with the exception that all communications will be performed using the NFC transceiver rather than the BLE transceiver). The NFC-based unlocking process can also be used using NFC-enabled devices other than medallions, including NFC-enabled access cards for example. In addition to sensors 15 mounted in interface devices 17, the guest engagement system 10 includes a sensor network 13 of stand-alone sensors 15 disposed throughout the facility (or facilities). Each sensor 15 has a known location, and the sensors 15 in the network 13 are used to track the locations of medallions 11 in the facility by creating a log of each medallion 11 detected by each sensor 15 with an associated timestamp. Further, each sensor 15 can engage in bi-directional communication with medallions 11 within its communication range, including the sensing of medallions 11 through the sensing of beacon and other signals transmitted by the medallions 11 and the transmitting and receiving of signals to and from the medallions 11. Examples of stand-alone sensors 15 are shown and described in FIGS. 8A-8D. Specifically, FIGS. 8A and 8B show views of a directional or omni directional sensor, while FIGS. 8C and 8D show views of a spotlight sensor. The omni directional sensor has a long communication range (e.g., of 30-50 feet, and up to 100 feet or more) extending in all directions around the sensor; the directional sensor has a similarly long communication range (e.g., of 30-50 feet, and up to 100 feet or more) extending in some (but not all) directions around the sensor. The spotlight sensor has a shorter beam-shaped communication range having a diameter that is adjustable and can reach up to 7-10 feet or more, and the beam-shaped typically has a communication range extending in a selected direction from the sensor for a shorter distance than the omni directional sensor (e.g., 15 feet or less). Note that each sensor's communication range can be adjusted downwards from the maximum range values detailed above. FIG. 8A shows an exploded view of the directional or omni directional sensor that includes an electronics PCB 807 and an antenna PCB 803 mounted between a base plate 811 and a radome 801. The antenna PCB 803 has an antenna element 802 mounted thereon that is communicatively connected to circuitry of the antenna PCB 803. The antenna element 802 has a proprietary shape such as those shown in detail in FIGS. 8E-8H and 8K-8N that confer the directional or omni directional sensitivity to the sensor. The antenna PCB 803 communicates with the electronics PCB 807 through a cable 805, and a connector 809 provides a connection between the electronics PCB 807 and the wired network 19. The sensor 15 can be mounted to or in a ceiling or wall of a facility (e.g., using a connector nut 813), and can be used to monitor and communicate with medallions disposed within the vicinity (e.g., within the communication range) of the sensor. FIG. 8B shows the directional or omni directional sensor when all components are mounted together. FIG. 8C shows an exploded view of the spotlight sensor that includes an electronics PCB 807 and an antenna mounted between a base plate 811 and a radome 801. A cosmetic base 814 can further be provided. The antenna PCB 803 has an antenna element 802 mounted thereon that is communicatively connected to circuitry of the antenna PCB 803. The antenna element 802 has a proprietary shape shown in detail in FIGS. 8I-8J that confers the spotlight or spotbeam directional sensitivity to the sensor. The antenna includes an antenna PCB 803 having a foam spacer 804 mounted on a surface thereof, and an antenna element 802 mounted on the foam spacer 804. The antenna PCB 803 communicates with the electronics PCB 807 through a cable 805, and a connector 809 provides a connection between the electronics PCB 807 and the wired network 19. The sensor 15 can be mounted to or in a ceiling or wall of a facility (e.g., using a connector nut 813), and can be used to monitor and communicate with medallions disposed within the vicinity (e.g., within the communication range and beam) of the sensor. FIG. 8D shows the spotlight sensor when all components are mounted together. Detailed views of the antenna elements 802 that can be mounted to the antenna PCBs 803 provided in the sensors 15 such as those shown in FIGS. 8A-8D are provided in relation to FIGS. 8E-8M. FIGS. 8E-8H show detailed views of the antenna element 802 provided in a directional sensor such as that shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. The antenna element 802 may be designed for wall or ceiling mounting locations within a facility and may provide a directional sensing capability having a broad beam width for procuring linear polarized radiation direction to the front face of the antenna. As shown in the top and side views shown in FIGS. 8E-8G, the antenna element 802 has an inverted-V shape that is generally symmetric about a center line, and includes two tabs extending downwardly from a main surface of the antenna that are used for mounting to the antenna PCB 803. The main surface of the antenna, shown in FIG. 8E, including a rectangular central portion having symmetrical parallelogram-shaped extensions extending from opposing sides of the rectangular central portion. Illustrative dimensions of the antenna element 802, measured in inches, are provided in the figures. The dimensions provided are illustrative, and the antenna element 802 can be scaled up or scaled down relative to the dimensions shown depending on the particular application the antenna element 802 (and associated sensor 15) is designed for. In particular, the dimensions can be selected and adjusted in order to vary the center frequency and impedance matching of the antenna. For example, the dimensions provided may be selected to provide the antenna element 802 with a resonating operating frequency of 2.4 GHz (within the BLE operation range in the ISM band) when corresponding PCB ground spacing and housing dielectric proximity are accounted for. The lower tabs extended downwardly from the main surface of the antenna serve as a feed tap and a ground tap electrically connected to the PCB 803, and also serve to maintain the antenna element 802 at an appropriate height spacing from the PCB ground plane. FIGS. 8I-8J show detailed views of the antenna element 802 provided in a spotlight (or spotbeam) sensor such as that shown in FIGS. 8C and 8D. The antenna element 802 may be designed for ceiling mounting locations (or wall mount locations at high elevation with down tilt) within a facility and may provide high gain and a directional narrow-beam (i.e., spotlight) sensing capability procuring circularly polarized (CP) radiation. As shown in the top and side views shown in FIGS. 8I-8J, the antenna element 802 has a generally planar shape, and has a shape of a square having diagonally opposite corners removed at angles of 45 degrees relative to sides of the square. The antenna element 802 of FIGS. 8I and 8J may be mounted to the antenna PCB 803 via a foam spacer 804, as shown in FIG. 8C. Illustrative dimensions of the antenna element 802, measured in millimeters (mm), are provided in the figures. The dimensions provided are illustrative, and the antenna element 802 can be scaled up or scaled down relative to the dimensions shown depending on the particular application the antenna element 802 (and associated sensor 15) is designed for. In particular, the dimensions can be selected and adjusted in order to vary the center frequency, axial ratio, and impedance matching of the antenna. For example, the dimensions provided may be selected to provide the antenna element 802 with a resonating operating frequency of 2.4 GHz (within the BLE operation range in the ISM band) when corresponding PCB ground spacing and housing dielectric proximity are accounted for. FIGS. 8K-8N show detailed views of the antenna element 802 provided in a circular sensor. For example, the antenna element shown in FIGS. 8K-8N may provide omni-directional sensing, and may be used within a sensor 15 such as that shown in FIGS. 8A and 8B. The antenna element 802 may be designed for ceiling mounting locations within a facility and provide a linear polarized broad beam width for procuring an azimuth omni-directional sensing pattern. As shown in the top and side views shown in FIGS. 8K-8M, the antenna element 802 has a generally symmetric shape about a center line, and includes two tabs extending downwardly from a main surface of the antenna that are used for mounting to the antenna PCB 803 (as shown, e.g., in FIG. 8A). The main surface of the antenna shown in FIG. 8K has a generally circular shape. Illustrative dimensions of the antenna element 802, measured in inches, are provided in the figures. The dimensions provided are illustrative, and the antenna element 802 can be scaled up or scaled down relative to the dimensions shown depending on the particular application the antenna element 802 (and associated sensor 15) is designed for. In particular, the dimensions can be selected and adjusted in order to vary the center frequency and impedance matching of the antenna. For example, the dimensions provided may be selected to provide the antenna element 802 with a resonating operating frequency of 2.4 GHz (within the BLE operation range in the ISM band) when corresponding PCB ground spacing and housing dielectric proximity are accounted for. The lower tabs extended downwardly from the main surface of the antenna serve as a feed tap and a ground tap electrically connected to the PCB 803, and also serve to maintain the antenna element 802 at an appropriate height spacing from the PCB ground plane. The feed and ground taps can provide for different current flow directions on the surface of the antenna radiation element 802. In general, the sensors 15 mounted in interface devices 17 of the guest engagement system 10, such as the antennas of access panels 705 used to unlock doors, are adjusted to have limited range (e.g., 2-4 feet) so as to only sense medallions 11 of guests that are in close proximity to the interface devices 17. Additionally, the sensors 15 of interface devices 17 can be directional or spotlight type sensors operative to detect medallions 11 in only selected directions. In this way, a sensor associated with an access panel 705 may be operative to only detect medallions 11 that are disposed within a limited distance in any direction from the sensor, while a sensor of a payment terminal or vending machine may only detect medallions 11 that are disposed within a limited angular range (e.g., directly in front of the payment terminal or vending machine) and within a limited distance (e.g., less than 2 feet) from the sensor. As noted above, the sensors 15 are disposed throughout the facility, and are used to monitor the locations of medallions 11 throughout the facility and provide services to guests based on the sensed signals. Specifically, the sensors 15 are used by the guest engagement system 10 to provide location information to the guest engagement system 10 at selectable levels of precision. At a low level of precision, the location of a medallion 11 is identified based on the identity(ies) of the one or more sensors 15 or other devices that detect beacon signals from the medallion 11 at any given time. In this way, the position of the medallion at any time can be approximated based on the known positions of the sensor(s) (and/or positions of other devices, if known) having detected the medallion's most recently detected beacon signal(s). In order to determine the position of a medallion 11 at a higher level of granularity, the position of the medallion is determined based on the relative received signal strength of the beacon signal measured at each of the sensor(s) having received the beacon signal, and/or based on characteristics of the sensing range and sensing beam (e.g., sensing range and sensing direction) of the sensor(s). In particular, when beacon signals from a medallion 11 are received by three or more sensors 15, the relative received signal strength of the beacon signal at each of the sensors 15 (and/or the delay between reception times of the beacon signal at each of the sensors 15) can be used to triangulate the position of the medallion 11 relative to the known locations of each of the sensors 15. The monitoring of the locations of medallions 11 within the facility can be performed not only by sensors 15 of the sensor network 13 but also by sensors 15 mounted in interface devices 17 of the guest engagement system 10. For example, the access panels 705 of automated door lock assemblies 700 located throughout the facility can be used to detect all medallions 11 passing by the access panels 705. The access panels 705 can relay the identity of all detected medallions 11 to a central location server which maintains a log of all medallions' locations with associated timestamps. Additionally, the monitoring of locations can be performed through sensing of medallions 11 by BLE- or NFC-enabled devices, such as BLE- or NFC-enabled mobile devices, tablet computers, or interactive displays that are in communication with servers 21 of the guest engagement system 10. The BLE- or NFC-enabled mobile devices, such as guests' mobile devices or staff members' tablets, may detect medallions 11 located within the devices' communication ranges and report to the central location server the identities of detected medallions 11 along with timestamps of detection and location information for the device (if available). In order to provide continuous real-time monitoring of the locations of medallions 11, each of the sensors and devices that detect medallions 11 relay the identity of all detected medallions 11 along the time-of-detection timestamps to a same central location server. The central location server thus maintains a log of all medallions' locations with the associated timestamps. The central location server can thus be used to identify each medallion's most recent detected location based on the most recent log entry for the medallion 11 or, if appropriate, based on two or more of the most recent entries in the log for the medallion 11 (e.g., to provide increased location accuracy by combining two different location sensing methodologies). In this way, the guest engagement system 10 provides real-time (or near real-time) evaluations of each medallion's location. The location information can further be used by the guest engagement system 10 to provide additional services to guests or others, for example to provide notification events to systems that are used to activate personalized interactions when a medallion 11 is determined to arrive in an area, move around an area, linger in an area for a determined amount of time, or exiting an area or space equipped with sensors 15. The location-based services can further be enhanced through the use of sensors 15 located near points of entry and/or exit from a facility. Specifically, if the last entry relating to a particular medallion 11 in the log maintained by the central location server is for an entry/exit location—and the log does not include any further detections of the medallion 11 at later times in the facility—the system may determine that the medallion 11 (and its associated guest) have exited the facility. In turn, when the medallion 11 is once again detected at the same (or a different) entry/exit location, the medallion may be determined to have re-entered the facility. The guest engagement system 10 may thereby maintain a log of medallions 11 that are in the facility and a log of medallions 11 that have exited the facility. Notification can be provided to users based on these logs, for example to inform another guest that their family member has exited the facility and/or returned to the facility. In addition to the functions described above, the guest engagement system 10 can additionally be used for maritime mustering, emergency evacuations, or the like. Specifically, since the guest engagement system 10 includes sensors 15 throughout the facility (or ship) that are configured to monitor the positions of medallions 11, the guest engagement system 10 maintains current up-to-date information on guests' locations within the facility at all times based on the monitored locations of all guests' medallions 11. Based on the current information on guests' locations, the guest engagement system 10 can dynamically assign guests to mustering stations or evacuations routes when a mustering or evacuation operation is undertaken. Specifically, the guest engagement system 10 can dynamically assign guests to mustering stations or evacuations routes in such a way as to assign guests to the mustering station or evacuation route that is closest to their current position when the mustering or evacuation operation is triggered. The guest engagement system 10 can additionally or alternatively dynamically assign guests to mustering stations or evacuation routes so as to avoid overloading a particular mustering station or evacuation route when the mustering or evacuation operation is triggered. For example, in situations in which a large number of guests are concentrated within a certain portion of the facility (e.g., a large number of guests are in or near the stern of the ship), the dynamic assignment may be used to assign certain guests to mustering stations or evacuation routes in or near the bow of the ship to ensure that no mustering station or evacuation route is overloaded with guests. Additionally, the guest engagement system 10 can monitor the position of medallions and guests during the mustering or evacuation operation, and dynamically change a particular guest's assigned mustering station or evacuation route based on updated real-time information obtained based on the real-time monitoring of guests' changes in location (i.e., movement) through the facility. In this manner, a guest's assigned mustering station or evacuation route can be updated if the guest follows an unexpected route during the mustering or evacuation operation, for example if the guest follows an unexpected route to retrieve a child during the mustering or evacuation operation or if the guest must divert around a smoke-filled corridor during the evacuation. The guest engagement system 10 can further be used to automatically identify rooms that are cleared of all guests during the mustering or evacuation operation, for example by determining that no medallions are present in the room and/or determining that all guests associated with the room are located elsewhere in the facility (based on the monitored locations of the guests' medallions). Conversely, the guest engagement system 10 can be used to automatically identify rooms that have guests present therein during the mustering or evacuation operation (based on the monitored locations of the guests' medallions), and to direct crew and/or emergency responders to the identified rooms to assist guests in the evacuation. The above-identified features of the guest engagement system 10 used in mustering and/or evacuations are enabled, in part, by the guest engagement system's ability to communicate information to guests during the mustering or evacuation operation. For this purpose, the guest engagement system 10 relies on the access panels 705, interactive displays 17c, portals 17d, and the like that are located throughout the facility. Specifically, the guest engagement system 10 provides mustering and/or evacuation instructions on the displays of interface devices 17, such as arrows (or more detailed instructions) pointing towards mustering stations and evacuation routes. The instructions can additionally be customized to the individual guests whose medallions are detected in the vicinity of each interface device 17, for example to instruct one guest to evacuate in a particular direction while instructing a different guest to evacuate in another direction (e.g., to enable the other guest to regroup with other guests in his/her party). The instructions can also provide information to guests regarding other guests in a same party, for example to provide a guest with information on the current location, assigned mustering location, and/or assigned evacuation route of the guest's child, spouse, or friend. The instructions can also be customized for each guest to display in the guest's language of choice. The guest engagement system 10 provides services and engagement with guests through a variety of different modalities and terminals. For example, as shown in FIG. 9, the guest engagement system 10 can provide services and engagement through end devices 18 such as mobile devices 18a (e.g., smartphones), tablet computers 18b, interactive displays 18c (e.g., touch-enabled display screens), web-enabled televisions (e.g., stateroom televisions), desktop computers 18d and/or web interfaces, kiosks, among others. In general, an end device 18 includes a processor, memory storing program instructions, a display, and a user input interface such as a touch-screen, although additional components (or fewer components) may be used. Some end devices 18, including interactive displays 18c, web-enabled televisions, kiosks, and the like, may also function as interface devices 17, and vice versa. In particular, end devices 18 that are BLE-enabled (e.g., include a BLE transceiver) can generally function as interface devices 17. Conversely, interface devices 17 that include a user input interface and provide access to the guest engagement application described in more detail below can function as end devices 18. The services and engagement provided by the guest engagement system 10 may be provided through an application or other executable program stored on and executed by the end devices 18 such as a dedicated guest engagement application. The services and engagement may alternatively or additionally be provided through web-based interfaces, such as a guest engagement interface executed on a server 21 accessed through a web browser executed by an end device 18 and having a communication connection to the server 21. The services and engagement generally rely at least in part on data and information retrieved from the servers 21 of the guest engagement system 10 via network connections (e.g., Internet connections) of the end devices 18, although certain services and engagement can be provided without network connections or without retrieving data and information from the servers 21. For purposes of communicating with the servers 21, the end devices 18 are shown in FIG. 9 as having wireless (e.g., in the case of end devices 18a and 18b) or wired (e.g., in the case of end devices 18c and 18d) connections to the servers 21 through the communication network 19. Note that communication network 19 can include one or more of a local area network (LAN), a wide area network (WAN), the Internet, and the like. As shown in FIG. 9, some of the end devices 18 through which services and engagement are provided may be BLE-enabled devices, such as BLE-enabled mobile devices 18a, tablet computers 18b, or interactive displays 18c. When such an end device 18 executes the guest engagement application, the guest engagement application may optionally activate the BLE transceiver of the end device 18 to provide additional services to a user. For example, the guest engagement application may activate the BLE transceiver of the end device 18 and use the activated BLE transceiver to listen for beacon signals emitted by medallions 11 located within a BLE communication range of the end device 18. The guest engagement application may optionally report to the servers 21 the identifiers of medallions 11 from which beacon signals were received along with a timestamp of receipt and location information for the end device 18 (when available). The guest engagement application may further use the activated BLE transceiver to engage in two-way communication with medallions 11 from which beacon signals were received. In one example, the guest engagement application may cause the mode of operation of a medallion 11 to change. In one use case, the guest engagement application may cause the BLE transceiver of the end device 18 to emit an advertisement from the guest engagement system, so as to cause any medallion 11 in its communication range to exit the sleep mode when the medallion 11 detects the advertisement. In another use case, the guest engagement application may cause a medallion 11 operating in the beacon mode to enter the bi-directional mode or the sleep mode of operation, or cause a medallion 11 operating in the bi-directional mode to enter the beacon mode or the sleep mode of operation. In some instances, the guest engagement application may additionally or alternatively activate the NFC transceiver of an end device 18 when the application is executed on an NFC-enabled end device 18. In such situations, the application can be used to detect medallions 11 and engage in communication with medallions 11 via NFC. In particular, while the description herein is focused on BLE-based communications between end devices 18 and medallions 11, the features described in the BLE-based context can similarly be enabled through NFC-based communication between the end device 18 and medallions 11 when using an NFC-enabled end device 18. References to the guest engagement application throughout this document refer not only to instances in which the guest engagement application takes the form of an application or other executable program stored on and executed by an end device 18 but also refer to instances in which the guest engagement application takes the form of a web-based interface or other terminal-based interface. In general, user interfaces provided through application-based and web-based interfaces will be similar, although certain functionalities of the guest engagement application may only be offered on application-based or on web-based interfaces. Additionally, references to the guest engagement application may refer to different versions of the application, including guest-focused versions that include only functionalities offered to guests, staff-focused versions that include additional functionalities offered to hosts or staff, supervisor-focused versions that include functionalities offered to supervisors overseeing staff members, and administrator versions that include functionalities offered to system administrators only. In order to use the guest engagement application through an end device 18, a guest generally needs to identify and authenticate themselves. If not identified and authenticated, the guest may only have access to limited features of the application and the guest may notably not have access to user profile-based information. In instances in which the guest engagement application runs on a BLE-enabled end device 18, the guest engagement application can listen for BLE beacon signals from guests' medallions 11 and, in response to detecting one or more beacon signals, can provide a log-on page personalized for the guest(s) that are automatically identified based on the detected beacon signals. Guests can then authenticate themselves to log into the application by entering a password or personal identification number (PIN) into the application. If the application runs on an end device 18 that is not BLE-enabled, and/or if a guest's medallion beacon signal is not detected by the application, a guest can identify and authenticate themself to log into the application by entering both a username and a password or personal identification number (PIN) into the application. Note that when the application runs on a guest's own mobile device 18a, the guest can select to remain logged into the application in order not to have to enter a password or PIN each time the guest accesses the application. Otherwise, the guest may be automatically logged out of the application if no user interaction occurs for a pre-determined length of time. Additionally, in cases in which log-on was based on detecting a medallion beacon signal, the guest may be automatically logged out if the medallion beacon signal is no longer detected by the application or end device 18 for a pre-determined length of time or if the medallion 11 is determined to have stepped away from the end device 18. Once logged in, the application may automatically access and securely retrieve profile information associated with the identified and authenticated guest from the servers 21. The application can also be used to prompt a guest to provide, complete, or review missing profile information that is then uploaded from the application to the servers 21. Profile information may include a name, identity photograph, booking and other reservation information, payment information (e.g., information on stored payment modalities for the guest), and the like. The profile information can also include additional data associated with the guest, including information on the guest's past, present, and future activities (determined based on bookings and reservations and on location data), past, present, and future locations (determined based on bookings and reservations and on location data), past, present, and scheduled future orders and preferences, and the like. The profile information can also include pictures, music, video, and other types of data associated with the guest. Through guest-focused versions of the application, the guest engagement system 10 provides a variety of services to guests. For example, a guest using of the application can use the application to review the guest's bookings, registration, and reservations, including past, present, and future registrations for lodging, restaurants, shows, activities, and the like. The guest can also use the application to receive information on and make reservations for available lodging, restaurants, shows, activities, and the like. The information may be based on recommendations for future bookings, registrations, and reservations personalized for the guest based on the guest's profile information. The guest can also use the application to review photographs, videos, and other media items make available by the guest engagement system 10, including photographs, videos, and other media items that are associated with the guest. The association of media items with the guest can be based on matching guest profile information with tagged information for the media items, such as profile and tag information indicating that a video was taken at a location visited by the guest's medallion, profile and tag information indicating that a photograph includes a person associated with the guest based on the person's medallion having been detected in proximity to the photographer at the time the photograph was taken, or the like. The application may also provide access to games (optionally including wager-based games), shopping, and other functionalities. The guest engagement system 10 may also allow guests to view live shows using the guest-focused version of the application. The show can be viewed, for example, through the guest's stateroom television on which the guest engagement application can be accessed. In detail, the guest using the guest engagement application may select to view a live show through the application, such as a show occurring in a theater or other venue within the facility in which the guest engagement system 10 is installed or outside of the facility. In response to the selection, the guest is presented with a live audio and/or video stream of the event. Additionally, the application allows the guest to interface with a performer participating in the live show. In detail, the application can allow the guest to send instant messages or other feedback to the performer for example by typing a message for the performer on an user input interface of the application (e.g., an on-screen keyboard or a remote control for a stateroom television) or selecting a feedback button (e.g., a “clap” button, a “laugh” button, a “thumbs-up” button, a “heart” button, or the like). The instant messages and feedback are then displayed on a screen provided in front of the performer and/or provided as auditory feedback to the performer (e.g., by activating pre-recorded clapping or laughing sounds) so as to notify the performer of feedback received from the guest and enable the performer to engage with the guest during the show. In some examples, the guest engagement application provides communication functionalities to enable users of the application (including both guests and staff) to communicate with each other using the application. The communication functionalities can include text, audio, and/or video-based communications between users such as chat-based communications, instant messaging (IM), voice-mail or video voice-mail, and the like. In addition, the communications functionalities can allow users to obtain information on other linked users including position information. Linked users can include, in the case of a guest, other guests in his/her party (e.g., other guests that are part of a same reservation, such as children, parents, or the like) or guests who have accepted link request to the guest, or in the case of a staff member, one or more persons for whom the staff member is to provide a service (e.g., a guest having ordered food or drink to be delivered by the staff member). For example, once users are linked, the communication functionality of the guest engagement application may provide general location information to a guest (e.g., to indicate that another guest is in the facility or has exited the facility) and/or precise location information (e.g., to indicate that the other guest is in their stateroom). The communication functionality may also indicate whether another linked guest is available for instant communication and, in some examples, may identify guests having left the facility as being unavailable for communication. The guest engagement system 10 provides additional functionality through staff-focused versions of the guest engagement application. The staff-focused versions of the guest engagement application can be executed on end devices 18 used by hosts and staff to provide services and engagement to guests of the facility. Commonly, hosts and staff will access the staff-focused version of the guest engagement application on a tablet computer 18b end device that is BLE-enabled (e.g., the end device includes a BLE transceiver and BLE antenna), although in some situations hosts and staff will access the application through other end devices (e.g., interactive displays 18c, portals, access panels 705 of door locks, and the like). In one example, the staff-focused version of the guest engagement application can be used by a staff member to engage with guests. For this purpose, the guest engagement application uses the BLE transceiver of the end device 18 to detect any medallions 11 within the vicinity (e.g., BLE communication range) of the end device 18. Specifically, the BLE transceiver is used to detect beacon signals emitted by medallions 11 within the vicinity of the end device 18. When one or more beacon signals is/are detected, the staff-focused version of the guest engagement application is configured to retrieve the public identifier of each medallion that is included in the emitted beacon signals, and to retrieve from the servers 21 profile information associated with the retrieved identifier(s) and associated guest(s). The retrieved profile information generally includes a photograph and name (or nick-name) associated with the guest. The retrieved profile information is then provided on a display of the end device 18 to enable the staff member or host to engage with the guest(s) based on the retrieved profile information. For example, based on the retrieved profile information, the staff member can visually identify the guest, greet the guest by name or nick-name, and discuss the guest's upcoming bookings with the guest. In situations in which profile information for multiple guests is received by the end device 18, the guest engagement application may display profile information for the multiple guests. In some examples, the profiles may be displayed in an order of estimated distance of each guest from the end device 18, where the estimated distance can be determined based on a signal strength or transmission delay associated with the respective BLE beacon signal associated with each guest's medallion 11 and detected by the end device 18. Based on the retrieved profile information, the staff member or host can assist the guest. For example, the staff member or host can review the guest's bookings, registration, and reservations; provide information and/or make recommendations or reservations for future bookings, registration, and reservations personalized for the guest based on the guest's profile information; place orders for drinks and food for delivery to the guest; assist the guest in finding their way through the facility; or the like. The application may also enable the staff member or host to engage in games (optionally including wager-based games) with the guest, and provide further functionalities. The guest engagement system 10 can further provide payment functionality through the staff-focused version of the application. As described above, medallions 11 can be used for payments by establishing a secure communication channel between the medallion 11 and a payment terminal (e.g., 17b), authenticating the identity of the medallion 11 across the secure communication channel using the medallion's unique private identifier or other encrypted information stored in the medallion 11 and, based on the authenticated identity, processing a payment transaction using payment information associated with the authenticated medallion 11. Such payment transactions can be performed over BLE or NFC communications between the medallion 11 and payment terminal (e.g., 17b), and can be performed by vending machines, cash registers, and other payment terminals in which a staff member or cashier need not be present. In addition, a streamlined payment process can be used through the staff-focused version of the application. Specifically, through the staff-focused version of the application, a staff member can perform authentication of the guest through visual recognition of the guest based on comparing the guest's appearance with the photograph stored in the guest's profile. In particular, the guest engagement system 10 may prompt a staff member using the staff-focused version of the application to authorize a payment to a guest account. The prompt may be presented in response to the staff member selecting through the application to place an order on behalf of the guest (e.g., an order for food or drink, a registration for an excursion, a booking for seats at a show, a room upgrade, a payment to participate in a game, or the like), for example. The prompt may generally rely on two complementary identification modalities in order to allow the staff to authorize the payment, although different numbers of identification modalities (including a single identification modality) may be used. For example, the prompt may rely on the end device 18 that executes the staff-focused version of the application detecting the medallion 11 of the guest to whom payment is to be charged (e.g., using BLE and NFC communication modalities to detect the medallion 11), retrieving profile information (including a photograph) for the detected medallion 11 from the server 21, displaying the photograph of the guest associated with the medallion 11, prompting the staff member to visually confirm that the guest with whom the staff member is interacting matches the displayed photograph and, upon receiving confirmation from the staff member that the guest matches the photograph, processing the payment. In the example, the two complementary identification modalities used are detection of a medallion 11 and visual confirmation of a guest's identity, although other modalities (and different numbers and combinations thereof) can be used in other examples. The guest engagement system 10 also provides wayfinding functionality, and provides an interface for wayfinding through the guest engagement application. The wayfinding functionality provided by the guest engagement system 10 can be used for wayfinding within a moving reference frame as well as within a fixed reference frame. For example, in the case of wayfinding on a cruise ship, traditional location determination systems such as GPS cannot readily be used for multiple reasons. First, the cruise ship can move, and wayfinding within the ship must therefore be based on the moving reference frame of the ship rather than a fixed (e.g., land-based) reference frame. As a result, GPS-based location determination and other fixed-reference frame location determinations are of limited use since a user's GPS-based location cannot be used to determine where the user is located relative to the moving ship. Second, the cruise ship includes substantial masses of metal and other surfaces which interfere with the propagation of GPS-based signals (such that GPS signals cannot be received inside the ship) and/or cause substantial signal noise as a result of electromagnetic signals bouncing off of metallic surfaces. As a result, traditional location determination systems are generally not effective for wayfinding on a ship. In order to address the shortcomings noted above, the guest engagement system 10 provides its own wayfinding functionality based on the network of sensors 13 of the guest engagement system 10. In detail, the guest engagement system 10 maintains a database of locations at which medallions 11 have been detected. Each record in the database includes an identifier for the medallion (e.g., the public identifier for a medallion 11 that is broadcast as part of the device's beacon signal), an identifier for a location (e.g., identifier(s) of the location(s) of the sensor(s) 15 or other antenna or device having detected the beacon signal, and/or a more precise location determination based on triangulation, multilateration, or other location-determining method), and a timestamp. The location determination performed by the guest engagement system 10 can thus be performed based on sensors of the sensor network 13 as well as based on beacon signals detected by end devices 18, by interface devices 17, and the like. As noted previously, the location determination may be performed at different levels of precision depending on the types of sensors 15 through which beacon signals have been detected (e.g., spotlight sensors provide more detailed location information than omni-directional sensors), depending on the number of sensors 15 having detected the beacon signals, depending on whether triangulation, multilateration, transmission delay, or signal strength information from multiple sensors is used, and the like. The wayfinding functionality provided by the guest engagement system 10, including the wayfinding provided through the guest engagement application, is thus provided based on location determination performed by the guest engagement system 10. Specifically, a guests' location is determined by a server 21 of the guest engagement system 10 by determining a location of the user's medallion 11 and reporting the determined location to the guest through the guest engagement application. For example, the guest location may be displayed superimposed on a map or on a three-dimensional model of the ship shown on a user interface of the application provided on the end device 18 currently in use by the guest. In this way, the guest's position is not generally determined by the end device 18 in use by the guest, but the guest's position is instead generally determined by the guest engagement system 10 (e.g., by a server 21 of the guest engagement system 10) based on a location of the guest's medallion 11 as detected by the sensor network 13 of the guest engagement system 10. Note that as described above, the sensor network 13 of the guest engagement system 10 can extend to multiple different facilities including facilities located on and facilities located off of a ship. The guest engagement system 10 can thus be used to provide accurate location determination and wayfinding in any of the facilities, including fixed facilities (e.g., land-based), moving facilities (e.g., ship-based), and facilities including both fixed and moving components (e.g., facilities accessed by cruise passengers during a cruise, which may include both ship-based and land-based facilities). In such cases, the guest engagement system 10 can automatically determine a guest's position accordingly to the appropriate fixed or moving reference frame depending on whether the guest is currently positioned on a fixed (e.g., land-based) or moving (e.g., ship-based) reference frame, and provide location information through the guest engagement application in the reference frame determined to correspond to the guest's current position. As detailed above, the guest engagement system 10 can determine the position/location of a guest based on the medallion 11, and more particularly based on the locations at which beacon signals emitted by the medallion 11 are detected. The detection relies on operation of the sensors 15 of the system 10, and more specifically on the known location at which each sensor 15 is installed and the sensing range of each sensor (e.g., shape and orientation of a directional sensing range). The detection can also rely on detection of beacon signals by end devices 18 including end devices 18 that have variable locations such as mobile devices 18a and tablet computers 18b. In detail, in the case of end devices 18, the locations of end devices 18 having fixed locations can be stored by servers 21 of the guest engagement system 10 and the stored location information can be used to determine the locations of detected medallions 11. In the case of movable end devices 18, the guest engagement system 10 can rely on two sources of information to determine a current location of an end device 18 and thereby infer locations of medallions 11 detected by the end device 18. First, the guest engagement system 10 can receive periodic reports from end devices 18 including identifiers of medallions 11 from which beacon signals were detected, and can infer the location of a medallion 11 by determining the location of the end device 18 from which the report was received. The guest engagement system 10 can then determine the location of the end device 18 based on the identity of a Wi-Fi or other wireless access point through which the end device 18 is connected to the communication network 19 of the system 10. For this purpose, the guest engagement system 10 maintains a database identifying the mounting location of each wireless access point in the facility, and uses the database to identify the location of end devices 18 and medallions 11 detected by the end devices 18. The identity of the wireless access point can be reported to the guest engagement system 10 by the end device 18, or determined by the guest engagement system 10 based on header information included in packets received from the end device 18. Second, as part of the periodic reports received from end devices 18 and identifying medallions 11 detected by the end devices, the guest engagement system 10 may receive location information of the end devices 18 when such information is available. The location information reported by the end device 18 may be a location determined by the end device 18 based on the end device's own position determination function such as a GPS-based position determination. In such situations, the guest engagement system 10 can use the reported location information provided by the end device 18 to determine the location of medallions 11 detected by the end device 18. The guest engagement system 10 can further use information on location of the moving reference frame (e.g., a GPS location of the ship on which the end device 18 is travelling) to determine the position of the end device 18 relative to the moving reference frame. The wayfinding functionality can be used by the guest engagement system 10 in order to enable a user of the guest engagement application to locate another guest or staff member by tracking the other guest or staff member in real time. This guest tracking functionality can be used by a guest to locate another guest (e.g., a friend, spouse, child, . . . ) as well as by a staff member or host to locate a guest (e.g., to deliver a food, beverage, or other order, or to assist the guest in another manner), among other circumstances. The guest tracking functionality enables one user of the application to be provided through the guest engagement application with information on the other guest's current location as determined by the guest engagement system 10, including a display of the other guest's current location displayed superimposed on a map or on a three-dimensional model of the ship (or other facility) shown on a user interface of the application. The guest tracking functionality also enables the one user to be provided with wayfinding directions to the other guest's current location based on a combination of the user's location (determined by the guest engagement system 10 based on the detected location of the user's medallion 11) and the other guest's location (determined by the guest engagement system 10 based on the detected location of the other guest's medallion 11). The locations may be updated in real-time as the user and guest move about the facility, and the wayfinding directions may correspondingly be updated in real-time. The functionalities of the guest engagement system 10 described above can enable the following services to be provided (described in the illustrative context of a cruise ship example). The guest engagement system 10, through the guest engagement application, enables guests to engage with the system from outside of the facility in which the system is installed. For example, guests can engage from home by accessing their profile through a web-based version of the application or through an end device 18 (e.g., mobile phone 18a, tablet computer 18b, desktop computer 18d, or the like) running the application. Guests can then, at their leisure, populate their guest profile by inputting any required documentation such as passport information, completing health forms and travel details, and inputting a preferred form of payment. The guests can also upload a photo, create a digital avatar to further personalize their profile, and arrange or book services for example to have luggage picked up for expedited delivery direct to their stateroom. Guests can further engage when in an airport—notably in cases in which guests have obtained their medallions 11 in advance of travel. For example, in the case of guests travelling to a facility in which a guest engagement system 10 is operative, the guests may be met at the destination airport by staff members. In the example, staff members stationed at the airport may be equipped with end devices 18 running the guest engagement application. The staff members may use the end devices 18 and the application to detect medallions 11 of arriving guests, retrieve profile information for the guests including photographs, and recognize the guests based on the proximity of the medallions 11 and visual recognition of the guests based on the photographs. The staff members can thus personally welcome the guests, confirm their documentation status, and direct them through the airport (e.g., to direct the guests to a fleet of motor coach vehicles destined for a port terminal). In transit in the motor coach vehicles, guests can again access the guest-focused application through their end devices 18 (e.g., mobile phones 18a or tablet computers 18b) to explore options provided at the destination facility (e.g., the cruise ship, in one example), book activities and learn more about the people, places and cultures they will come to experience. Additionally, once at the cruise terminal (e.g., in the cruise ship example), guests may be able to board the ship with minimal further interaction with staff members since the guests are already equipped with their medallions 11 which function as the key to their stateroom. Additionally, staff members in the terminal may use end devices 18 running the staff-focused application to identify arriving guests, identify guests who haven't yet completed the registration process, and approach those guests in order to assist them with finalizing the process. Further examples of interface devices 17 that can be used as part of the guest engagement system 10 are gaming stations 100 such as that shown in FIG. 10. The gaming stations 100 provide environments in which guests can engage in gaming, including wager-based gaming, cooperative gaming with other guests, and head-to-head gaming against other guests. Each gaming station 100 generally includes ergonomic seating 101 for multiple guests (e.g., four guests in the examples shown in FIG. 10), although a gaming station 100 for a single guest or modular gaming stations 100 for variable numbers of guests can also be used. The seating 101 can position guests across from each other with a central frame positioned between the guests and supporting components of the gaming station. Some guests can also be seated next to each other, as shown in FIG. 10. The gaming station 100 also includes one or more display screens 102 mounted to the central frame and used to display game play screens and images to users, and input devices 103 such as keyboards, touch pads, touch-sensitive displays, or the like, that are mounted to the central frame and used to receive input from users. The input devices 103 can also include microphones (e.g., a microphone array including multiple microphones disposed at different locations in the gaming station 100), optical sensors, and/or ultrasonic proximity sensors used to provide enhanced user input, user position data, and/or user movement data of users within the gaming station. The gaming station 100 also includes one or more sensors 15 (not shown) that are mounted within the station 100 (e.g., at hidden or discrete locations) and are used to identify guests currently seated in the station 100 or otherwise using the station 100. The sensors 15 are used to detect medallions 11 of users of the station 100 in order to allow the users to log into the gaming station 100 and engage in gaming. The sensors 15 can also be used to establish secure communication connections to medallions 11 of users of the station 100 to authenticate the medallions 11 and engage in payment transactions. In general, the sensors 15 have sensing beams directed to the seating 101 of the gaming station 100 so as to detect the medallions 11 of guests that are seated in the gaming station 100. In some examples, the sensing beams of the sensors 15 are adjusted such that only medallions 11 that are within the gaming station 100 can be detected by the sensors 15. In an example, the sensors 15 are positioned and adjusted to detect medallions 11 in each seating location separately such that the gaming station can distinguish between guests located in each different seating location. A seating location may be defined as an area two feet wide, zero to 5 feet from the floor, and from one foot behind the edge of the table (to cover a purse/bag at the users feet) to three feet from the edge of the table. The medallions 11 may be detected when in an accessory, pocket (front or back), or bag located within a seating location. In some embodiments, the gaming station 100 also includes a canopy 105 extending above the seating 101 of the gaming station 100. In the examples of FIG. 10, the canopy 105 is supported by two braces 107 and is formed of a semi-transparent material or a mesh material. The braces 107 support the canopy 105 and have integrated therein lighting (e.g., LED lighting) used to provide multi-colored lighting. The lighting may be controlled by a processor of the gaming station 100 to output lighting having an activation pattern and/or color pattern that is synchronized to a game being played on the gaming station 100. The braces 107 can further have integrated therein water misting spouts and/or scent/fragrance misting spouts. The misting spouts may be connected to a water supply valve or a reservoir (e.g., a scent reservoir) by piping extending through the braces 107 and into the seating 101 of the gaming station 100. The misting spouts connected to the water supply valve may be selectively controlled by a processor of the gaming station 100 to output water mist having an activation pattern that is synchronized to a game being played on the gaming station 100. The misting spouts connected to one or more scent reservoirs may be selectively controlled by the processor of the gaming station 100 to output scents (or mixtures of scents) having activation patterns and/or odors that are synchronized to the game being played on the gaming station 100. Separate misting spouts and piping may be provided in the braces 107 to separately and independently provide misting and scents. Additionally, different misting spouts and piping may be provided to emit different scents in the gaming station 100. The gaming station 100 typically includes additional sensory feedback modalities for users in addition to visual feedback provided through the display screens and lighting. For example, the gaming station 100 typically includes speakers for auditory feedback (e.g., speakers mounted to the central frame, to the seating 101, and to the braces 107), as well as haptic or touch feedback provided by actuators mounted to the user input devices 103 and the seating 101 among other locations. The gaming station 100 can also include one or more external facing display screens 109 on which game play screens and images can be displayed in real time to allow other guests to watch a game in progress. In some examples, the external facing display screen 109 is touch-enabled and allows spectating guests to participate in game play and/or place wagers on game play and player outcomes. In such examples, the gaming station 100 can include one or more external-facing sensors 15 disposed so as to sense medallions 11 of guests located in front of the external facing display screen 109. The external-facing sensors 15 can be used to detect medallions 11 of the guests and allow those guests to log into the gaming station 100 via the external facing display screen 109 to allow the guests to participate in or place wagers on gameplay. The external facing display screens 109 can also be used by guests to register for or join a queue for game play, such that the guests can be invited to join game play in registration or queue order as seating locations open up in the gaming station 100. Operation of the gaming station 100 may be controlled by a computing platform provided within the seating 101. The computing platform will typically include one or more processors (e.g., three or more processors in some embodiments), memory storing program instructions for game play, a power source (e.g., including an uninterruptible power source (UPS)), and connections to each of the displays and input devices 102, 103, and 109. The computing platform will also be connected via the communication network 19 to the servers 21 of the guest engagement system 10. The computing platform is further connected to actuators controlling the misting spouts, as well as to controllers controlling the lighting, sound, and haptic or touch feedback. The various feedback modalities may be individually controlled for each player seating position, such that different players can be provided with different sensory feedback (including misting, scent, sound, haptic, touch, light, and display) at any time under control of the computing platform. FIGS. 11 and 12 provide functional block diagram illustrations of general purpose computer hardware platforms. FIG. 11 illustrates a network or host computer platform, as may typically be used to implement a server such as any of the servers 21 described herein. FIG. 12 depicts a computer with user interface elements, as may be used to implement a portal (e.g., 17d) or other type of work station or terminal device of the guest engagement system 10, although the computer of FIG. 12 may also act as a server if appropriately programmed. It is believed that those skilled in the art are familiar with the structure, programming and general operation of such computer equipment and as a result the drawings should be self-explanatory. A server, for example, includes a data communication interface for packet data communication. The server also includes a central processing unit (CPU), in the form of one or more processors, for executing program instructions. The server platform typically includes an internal communication bus, program storage and data storage for various data files to be processed and/or communicated by the server, although the server often receives programming and data via network communications. The hardware elements, operating systems and programming languages of such servers are conventional in nature, and it is presumed that those skilled in the art are adequately familiar therewith. Of course, the server functions may be implemented in a distributed fashion on a number of similar platforms, to distribute the processing load. Unless otherwise stated, all measurements, values, ratings, positions, magnitudes, sizes, and other specifications that are set forth in this specification, including in the claims that follow, are approximate, not exact. They are intended to have a reasonable range that is consistent with the functions to which they relate and with what is customary in the art to which they pertain. The scope of protection is limited solely by the claims that now follow. That scope is intended and should be interpreted to be as broad as is consistent with the ordinary meaning of the language that is used in the claims when interpreted in light of this specification and the prosecution history that follows and to encompass all structural and functional equivalents. Notwithstanding, none of the claims are intended to embrace subject matter that fails to satisfy the requirement of Sections 101, 102, or 103 of the Patent Act, nor should they be interpreted in such a way. Any unintended embracement of such subject matter is hereby disclaimed. Except as stated immediately above, nothing that has been stated or illustrated is intended or should be interpreted to cause a dedication of any component, step, feature, object, benefit, advantage, or equivalent to the public. It will be understood that the terms and expressions used herein have the ordinary meaning as is accorded to such terms and expressions with respect to their corresponding respective areas of inquiry and study except where specific meanings have otherwise been set forth herein. Relational terms such as first and second and the like may be used solely to distinguish one entity or action from another without necessarily requiring or implying any actual such relationship or order between such entities or actions. The terms “comprises,” “comprising,” or any other variation thereof, are intended to cover a non-exclusive inclusion, such that a process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises a list of elements does not include only those elements but may include other elements not expressly listed or inherent to such process, method, article, or apparatus. An element proceeded by “a” or “an” does not, without further constraints, preclude the existence of additional identical elements in the process, method, article, or apparatus that comprises the element. The Abstract of the Disclosure is provided to allow the reader to quickly ascertain the nature of the technical disclosure. It is submitted with the understanding that it will not be used to interpret or limit the scope or meaning of the claims. In addition, in the foregoing Detailed Description, it can be seen that various features are grouped together in various embodiments for the purpose of streamlining the disclosure. This method of disclosure is not to be interpreted as reflecting an intention that the claimed embodiments require more features than are expressly recited in each claim. Rather, as the following claims reflect, inventive subject matter lies in less than all features of a single disclosed embodiment. Thus the following claims are hereby incorporated into the Detailed Description, with each claim standing on its own as a separately claimed subject matter. While the foregoing has described what are considered to be the best mode and/or other examples, it is understood that various modifications may be made therein and that the subject matter disclosed herein may be implemented in various forms and examples, and that the teachings may be applied in numerous applications, only some of which have been described herein. It is intended by the following claims to claim any and all applications, modifications and variations that fall within the true scope of the present teachings. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Guests of hotels and resorts, cruise ships, as well as other retail and commercial establishments, have come to expect a high level of service and engagement from their hosts. The service can include being provided with ready access to private and/or restricted areas without having to present a badge or other form of identification, to swipe or tap an access card, or to otherwise proactively authenticate themselves. The engagement can include being personally recognized by the hosts and provided with services and recommendations on that basis, without requiring the guests to identify themselves and remind the host of their preferences or pre-existing bookings. In the present context, service and engagement is provided only on the basis of users providing a name or identification, tapping or swiping an access card, and having information on bookings retrieved manually by a host through a computer terminal. For example, guests must present photo identification and a credit card at the time of check-in, guest must tap or swipe an access card to activate elevators or unlock doors of health facilities and guest rooms during their stay, and guests must identify themselves each time they interact with a concierge, restaurant host, or front desk staff. As a result, interactions between hosts and guests are impersonal and disjoined. This disclosure provides a novel guest engagement system that relies on recent improvements in low power wireless communication technologies and distributed sensor networks to provide novel services to those guests without requiring guests to proactively identify and/or authenticate themselves. The guest engagement system thereby enables hosts to seamlessly engage with the guests throughout their facilities and provide recommendations to the guests based on the guests previous experiences. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The teachings herein provide system and methods for providing seamless engagement with guests of facilities including (and not limited to) resorts, cruise ships, hotels, convention centers, retail and other commercial establishments, amusement parks, casinos, or other large-scale facility (or group of facilities), through the use of wireless sensing technologies. The functionalities rely on guests having individual guest devices which are used to automatically identify and authenticate the guests throughout the facility, so as to seamlessly provide services to the guests. The guest engagement system relies on the guest devices (also referenced as medallions) periodically broadcasting beacon signals that uniquely identify the devices and their associated guests. The periodic beacon signals are detected by sensors provided throughout the facility, and used by the guest engagement system to provide personalized services. The services include automatic unlocking of doors, including hotel or state room doors, based on the guests' immediate proximity to their assigned room's door. The services also include automated payment services provided at checkout or vending terminals, and automated log-on to interactive displays and portals, among others, based on secure wireless authentication of the guest devices. In accordance with one aspect of the present disclosure, a guest engagement system includes a plurality of guest devices provided to users of the guest engagement system, each guest device including a wireless communication antenna and operative to emit a periodic beacon signal broadcasting a unique identifier of the guest device using Bluetooth low energy (BLE) communications. The guest engagement system further includes a sensor network comprising a plurality of sensors each mounted at a different known location and operative to detect the periodic beacon signals including the unique identifiers emitted using BLE communications by guest devices of the plurality of guest devices that are proximate to the sensor. The guest engagement system additionally includes a communication network connecting each of the plurality of sensors of the sensor network, and a central server. The central server is communicatively connected to each of the plurality of sensors of the sensor network via the communication network, and stores a log associating each unique identifier of a guest device detected using BLE communications by a sensor of the sensor network with the known location of the sensor and a timestamp. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a guest engagement system includes a plurality of guest devices provided to users of the guest engagement system, each guest device having a unique identifier and including first and second wireless communication antennas respectively configured for Bluetooth low energy (BLE) and near field communication (NFC) communications. The guest engagement system further includes a sensor network comprising a plurality of sensors each mounted at a different location. At least one sensor of the plurality of sensors is operative to detect guest devices that are proximate thereto and receive unique identifiers therefrom based on BLE communication with the guest devices, and at least another sensor of the plurality of sensors is operative to detect guest devices that are proximate thereto and receive unique identifiers therefrom based on NFC communication with the guest devices. The guest engagement system also includes a communication network connecting each of the plurality of sensors of the sensor network, and a central server. The central server is communicatively connected to each of the plurality of sensors of the sensor network via the communication network, and stores a log associating each unique identifier of a guest device received using BLE or NFC communications by a sensor of the sensor network. In accordance with one aspect of the present disclosure, an assembly includes a wireless device and an accessory. The wireless device has a device body with a tapered shape including a front surface, a rear surface having a same shape as the front surface and a greater dimension than the front surface, and a cavity in which a processor and at least one wireless communication antenna are disposed. The accessory is configured to be worn by a user and has an accessory body having a tapered cavity configured to releas ably receive the wireless device. The tapered cavity includes a rear opening having the same shape as the front and rear surfaces of the device body. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a wireless device includes a body having a tapered shape including a front surface and a rear surface having a same shape as the front surface and a dimension greater than the front surface. The body includes a cavity in which a processor and at least one wireless communication antenna are disposed. In accordance with a further aspect of the present disclosure, an accessory configured to be worn by a user includes a body having inner and outer surfaces respectively configured to face towards and away from the user when the accessory is worn. The body has a tapered cavity extending between a front opening in the outer surface of the body and a rear opening in the inner surface of the body, the rear opening has a same shape as the front opening, and the rear opening has a dimension that is greater than that of the front opening. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a portable wireless device includes a body having a fully enclosed cavity, the body having all dimensions equal to or smaller than 2.5 inches, and the body having a thickness equal to or smaller than ⅝ inch. The portable wireless device further includes a processor, a memory, a battery, and first and second wireless communication antennas disposed in the cavity. The first and second wireless communication antennas are respectively configured for Bluetooth low energy (BLE) and near field communication (NFC) communications. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a portable wireless device includes a body having a fully enclosed cavity, and a processor, a memory, a battery, and first and second wireless communication antennas disposed in the cavity. The first and second wireless communication antennas are respectively configured for Bluetooth low energy (BLE) and near field communication (NFC) communications. The body comprises an open metallic ring disposed to substantially surround the cavity of the body, and the open metallic ring includes at least one opening having a non-conducting material disposed therein. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a portable wireless device includes a body having a fully enclosed cavity, and a processor, a memory, a battery, and first and second wireless communication antennas disposed in the cavity. The body has a frustum shape, a front surface that is circular, and a rear surface that is circular and has a diameter greater than that of the front surface. The front and rear surfaces have diameters of 0.75 to 2.5 inches, the body has a thickness of ⅛ to ⅝ inch, and an angle between the front surface and a side surface of the frustum-shaped body is in the range of 86 to 88 degrees. The first and second wireless communication antennas are respectively configured for Bluetooth low energy (BLE) and near field communication (NFC) communications. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, an electronic door lock assembly includes a latch assembly, a door lock communication module, and an access panel. The latch assembly includes a latch and an electronically controlled locking mechanism operative to selectively unlock a door. The door lock communication module is electrically connected to the electronically controlled locking mechanism of the latch assembly, and includes a radio configured for wireless communication. The access panel includes a radio configured for wireless communication with the door lock communication module, a first transceiver configured for wireless communication with a user device, and a second transceiver for communication with a reservation server. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, a door latch assembly includes a door knob, a latch selectively operated by operation of the door knob, an electronically controlled locking mechanism operative to selectively unlock the latch, and a proximity sensor operative to sense contact or proximity of a user with the door knob. The electronically controlled locking mechanism is operative to selectively unlock the latch based on the contact or proximity of the user with the door knob sensed by the proximity sensor. In accordance with another aspect of the present disclosure, an access panel for controlling an electronically controlled door lock includes a radio and first and second transceivers. The radio is configured for wireless communication with a door lock communication module electrically connected to an electronically controlled locking mechanism. The first transceiver is configured for wireless communication with a user device to identify a user seeking to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism. The second transceiver is configured for communication with a reservation server storing identifiers of users authorized to activate the electronically controlled locking mechanism. Each of the radio, first transceiver, and second transceiver operate according to a different communication standard. Additional advantages and novel features will be set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon examination of the following and the accompanying drawings or may be learned by production or operation of the examples. The advantages of the present teachings may be realized and attained by practice or use of various aspects of the methodologies, instrumentalities and combinations set forth in the detailed examples discussed below. | G07C900309 | 20170720 | 20180517 | 65497.0 | G07C900 | 1 | HOLLOWAY III, EDWIN C | DOOR LOCKS AND ASSEMBLIES FOR USE IN WIRELESS GUEST ENGAGEMENT SYSTEMS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G07C | 2,017 |
|
15,656,042 | PENDING | Use of Long-Acting GLP-1 Peptides | The invention relates to use of long-acting GLP-1 peptides in certain dosage regimes for the treatment of type 2 diabetes, obesity, etc. | 1. A method for a) reduction of HbA1c; b) treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes; or c) treatment of obesity, reducing body weight and/or food intake, or inducing satiety; wherein said method comprises administration of a GLP-1 agonist to a subject in need thereof, wherein said GLP-1 agonist i) has a half-life of at least 72 hours; ii) is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week; and iii) is administered once weekly or less often. 2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said GLP-1 agonist has a half-life of at least 96 hours. 3. The method according to claim 1, wherein the GLP-1 agonist has an EC50 at or below 3000 pM. 4. The method according to claim 1, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount of i) at least 0.8 mg per week; or ii) in an amount equivalent to at least 0.8 mg semaglutide per week. 5. The method according to claim 1, wherein the GLP-1 agonist is a GLP-1 peptide. 6. The method according to claim 5, wherein said GLP-1 peptide comprises no more than 6 amino acid residues which have been substituted, inserted or deleted as compared to GLP-1 (7-37). 7. The method according to claim 1, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is selected from the group consisting of semaglutide, exenatide, albiglutide, and dulaglutide. 8. The method according to claim 1, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered by parenteral administration. 9. The method according to claim 1, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered simultaneously or sequentially with another therapeutic agent. 10. The method according to claim 1, wherein the method comprises treatment, reduction or induction in one or more diseases or conditions selected from a) and b), a) and c), b) and c), or a), b) and c) as defined in claim 1. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/409,493, filed Dec. 19, 2014, which is a 35 U.S.C. § 371 National Stage application of International Application PCT/EP2013/063004 (WO 2014/005858), filed Jun. 21, 2013, which claimed priority of European Patent Application 12174535.0, filed Jul. 1, 2012 and European Patent Application 12186781.6, filed Oct. 1, 2012; this application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119 of U.S. Provisional Application 61/694,837; filed Aug. 30, 2012 and U.S. Provisional Application 61/708,162; filed Oct. 1, 2012. The present invention relates to improved uses of GLP-1 peptides in therapy. SEQUENCE LISTING The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Jun. 17, 2013 and amended on Jul. 12, 2017, is named 8545US02_SeqList.txt and is 7,975 bytes in size. SUMMARY In one embodiment the invention relates to a method for a) reduction of HbA1c; b) prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes; or c) prevention or treatment of obesity, reducing body weight and/or food intake, or inducing satiety; wherein said method comprises administration of a GLP-1 agonist to a subject in need thereof, wherein said GLP-1 agonist i) has a half-life of at least 72 hours, wherein said half-life optionally is determined by Assay (II); ii) is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week; and iii) is administered once weekly or less often. In one embodiment the invention relates to a GLP-1 agonist for use in a) the reduction of HbA1c; b) the prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes; or c) the prevention or treatment of obesity, for reducing body weight and/or food intake, or for inducing satiety; wherein said use comprises administration of said GLP-1 agonist in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week, and wherein said GLP-1 agonist and/or administration optionally is as defined herein. In one embodiment the invention relates to a composition comprising a GLP-1 agonist for use in a) the reduction of HbA1c; b) the prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes; or c) the prevention or treatment of obesity, for reducing body weight and/or food intake, or for inducing satiety; wherein said GLP-1 agonist i) has a half-life of at least 72 hours, wherein said half-life optionally is determined by Assay (II); and ii) is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week; and wherein said composition is administered once weekly or less often, and wherein said GLP-1 agonist and/or administration optionally is as defined herein. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows change in HbA1c following subcutaneous administration of placebo, semaglutide, or liraglutide to human subjects. *p<0.05 vs. placebo; **p<0.001 vs. placebo (based on adjusted means). Baseline values are for information only: data are model-adjusted for baseline HbA1c. Data are model-adjusted LS means, FAS LOCF. The estimates are from an ANOVA model with treatment, country and previous treatment as fixed effects and baseline HbA1c as covariate. FIG. 2 shows mean change in HbA1c from baseline versus time; data are mean (1.96SE), FAS LOCF. The treatments are placebo (A); semaglutide 0.1 mg (B, dashed line), 0.2 mg (C), 0.4 mg (D), 0.8 mg (E), 0.8 mg T (F, dashed line), 1.6 mg T (G); liraglutide 1.2 mg (H), 1.8 mg (I). FIG. 3A and FIG. 3B show subjects reaching the AACE (FIG. 3A) or ADA (FIG. 3B) criteria for glycaemic control. The number of patients reaching the criteria per treatment is indicated in each bar. The treatments are placebo (A); semaglutide 0.1 mg (B), 0.2 mg (C), 0.4 mg (D), 0.8 mg (E), 0.8 mg T (F), 1.6 mg T (G); liraglutide 1.2 mg (H), 1.8 mg (I). *p<0.05 vs. placebo; **p<0.001 vs. placebo; ***p<0.0001 vs. placebo (based on adjusted means). Data are FAS LOCF. The estimates are from a logistic regression model treatment, country and previous treatment as fixed effects and baseline HbA1c as covariate. ADA, American Diabetes Association; AACE, American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists. FIG. 4 shows mean body weight change versus time; data are mean (1.96SE), FAS LOCF. The treatments are placebo (A); semaglutide 0.1 mg (B, dashed line), 0.2 mg (C), 0.4 mg (D), 0.8 mg (E), 0.8 mg T (F, dashed line), 1.6 mg T (G); liraglutide 1.2 mg (H), 1.8 mg (I). FIG. 5 shows body weight change from baseline at week 12. **p<0.001 vs. placebo; ***p<0.0001 vs. placebo (based on adjusted means. †: Baseline values for information only: data are model-adjusted for baseline weight. Data are model-adjusted LS means, FAS LOCF. The estimates are from an ANOVA model with treatment, country and previous treatment as fixed effects and baseline weight as covariate. SE: Standard error. FAS: Full analysis set. LOCF: Last observation carried forward. DESCRIPTION The present invention relates to an improved use of GLP-1 agonists in therapy. In one embodiment the invention relates to certain dosage regimes of GLP-1 agonists which provide improved effect in diseases or conditions, such as prevention and/or treatment of type 2 diabetes and obesity. In one embodiment the methods of the present invention provides surprisingly showed improved reduction of HbA1c and reduction of body weight. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount which provides an improved a) reduction in HbA1c or b) reduction in body weight compared to administration of 1.8 mg liraglutide or less, such as 0.8 mg liraglutide or less, per day. In one embodiment the invention relates to a method for reduction of HbA1c or for prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes, said method comprising administration of a GLP-1 agonist to a subject in need thereof in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. In one embodiment the method is for reduction of HbA1c. In one embodiment the method is for prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes. In one embodiment the method is for prevention or treatment of hyperglycemia. In one embodiment the method is for prevention or treatment of impaired glucose tolerance. In one embodiment the method is for prevention or treatment of non-insulin dependent diabetes. In one embodiment the method of the invention comprises delaying or preventing diabetic disease progression. In one embodiment a HbA1c level below 7% is achieved. In one embodiment the level of HbA1c is determined according to the method defined by the Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT). In one embodiment the level of HbA1c is determined according to the method defined by the International Federation of Clinical Chemistry (IFCC). In one embodiment the invention relates to a method for treating or preventing obesity, for reducing body weight and/or food intake, or for inducing satiety, said method comprising administration of a GLP-1 agonist to a subject in need thereof in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. In one embodiment the method is for prevention or treatment of obesity. In one embodiment the method is for reducing body weight and/or food intake. In one embodiment the method is for inducing satiety. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist has a half-life of at least 24 hours, such as at least 48 hours, at least 60 hours, or at least 72 hours, or such as at least 84 hours, at least 96 hours, or at least 108 hours, or optionally at least 120 hours, at least 132 hours, or at least 144 hours, wherein said half-life optionally is determined by Assay (II). In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered twice weekly or less often, once weekly or less often, or once weekly or less often. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered once every secondly week or less often, once every third week or less often, or once a month or less often. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount per week of at least 0.8 mg, at least 0.9 mg, or at least 1.0 mg. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount per week of at least 1.1 mg, at least 1.2 mg, or at least 1.3 mg. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount per week of at least 1.4 mg, at least 1.5 mg, or at least 1.6 mg. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount per week equivalent to at least 0.8 mg, at least 0.9 mg, or at least 1.0 mg semaglutide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount per week equivalent to at least 1.1 mg, at least 1.2 mg, or at least 1.3 mg semaglutide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount per week equivalent to at least 1.4 mg, at least 1.5 mg, or at least 1.6 mg semaglutide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is selected from the group consisting of semaglutide, exenatide, albiglutide, and dulaglutide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered by parenteral administration, such as subcutaneous injection. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is a GLP-1 peptide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises no more than 5, such as no more than 4 or no more than 3, amino acid residues which have been substituted, inserted or deleted as compared to GLP-1 (7-37). In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises no more than 4 amino acid residues which are not encoded by the genetic code. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is a DPPIV protected GLP-1 peptide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is DPPIV stabilised. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist has an EC50 at or below 3000 pM, such as at or below 500 pM or at or below 100 pM, optionally determined by Assay (I). In one embodiment the invention relates to a GLP-1 agonist for use in the reduction of HbA1c or for use in the prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes comprising administering a GLP-1 agonist in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist and/or administration is as defined herein. In one embodiment the invention relates to a GLP-1 agonist for use in the prevention or treatment of obesity, in the reduction of body weight and/or food intake, or in the induction satiety comprising administering a GLP-1 agonist in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist and/or administration is as defined herein. In one embodiment the invention relates to a composition comprising a GLP-1 agonist and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients for use in reduction of HbA1c or for prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist and/or administration is as defined herein. In one embodiment the invention relates to a composition comprising a GLP-1 agonist and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients for use in the prevention or treatment of obesity, in the reduction of body weight and/or food intake, or in the induction satiety, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist and/or administration is as defined herein. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is administered with another therapeutic agent. Administration with another therapeutic agent may be carried out as administration of the GLP-1 agonist and the other therapeutic agent within the same therapeutic window (e.g. within a period of two weeks, a period of one week, or in a 96, 72, or 48 hour period, etc.). The treatment with a GLP-1 agonist according to the present invention may be combined with one or more additional therapeutic agents, e.g. selected from antidiabetic agents, antiobesity agents, appetite regulating agents, antihypertensive agents, agents for the treatment and/or prevention of complications resulting from or associated with diabetes and agents for the treatment and/or prevention of complications and disorders resulting from or associated with obesity; examples of these therapeutic agents are: sulphonylureas, thiazolidinediones, biguanides, meglitinides, glucosidase inhibitors, glucagon antagonists, and DPP-IV (dipeptidyl peptidase-IV) inhibitors. In one embodiment, as used herein, an “amount equivalent to” when used in relation to GLP-1 agonists refers to amounts of a first GLP-1 agonist and a second GLP-1 agonist having GLP-1 receptor potency (i.e. EC50) within ±30%, such as within ±20% or within ±10%, of each other optionally determined by Assay (I) described herein and having a half-life within ±30%, such as within ±20% or within ±10%, of each other optionally determined by Assay (II) described herein. In one embodiment an “effective amount” of a GLP-1 agonist as used herein means an amount sufficient to cure, alleviate, or partially arrest the clinical manifestations of a given disease or state and its complications. An amount adequate to accomplish this is defined as “effective amount”. Effective amounts for each purpose will depend on the severity of the disease or injury as well as the weight and general state of the subject. It will be understood that determining an appropriate dosage may be achieved using routine experimentation, by constructing a matrix of values and testing different points in the matrix, which is all within the ordinary skills of a trained physician or veterinary. In one embodiment the term “treatment” or “treating” as used herein means the management and care of a patient for the purpose of combating a condition, such as a disease or a disorder. In one embodiment the term “treatment” or “treating” is intended to include the full spectrum of treatments for a given condition from which the patient is suffering, such as administration of the active compound to alleviate the symptoms or complications; to delay the progression of the disease, disorder, or condition; to alleviate or relieve the symptoms and complications; and/or, to cure or eliminate the disease, disorder, or condition as well as to prevent the condition. In one embodiment prevention is to be understood as the management and care of a patient for the purpose of combating the disease, condition, or disorder and includes the administration of the active compounds to prevent the onset of the symptoms or complications. In one embodiment the term “hydrophilic spacer” as used herein means a spacer that separates a peptide and an albumin binding residue with a chemical moiety which comprises at least 5 non-hydrogen atoms where 30-50% of these are either N or O. In one embodiment the term “analogue” as used herein referring to a polypeptide means a modified peptide wherein one or more amino acid residues of the peptide have been substituted by other amino acid residues and/or wherein one or more amino acid residues have been deleted from the peptide and or wherein one or more amino acid residues have been added to the peptide. Such addition or deletion of amino acid residues can take place at the N-terminal of the peptide and/or at the C-terminal of the peptide. A simple system is used to describe analogues: For example Arg34GLP-1 (7-37) Lys designates a GLP-1 analogue wherein the naturally occurring lysine at position 34 has been substituted with arginine and a lysine residue has been added to the C-terminal (position 38). In one embodiment the term “GLP-1 peptide” as used herein means GLP-1 (7-37), a GLP-1 analogue, a GLP-1 derivative or a derivative of a GLP-1 analogue. In one embodiment the term “exendin-4 peptide” as used herein means exendin-4 (1-39), an exendin-4 analogue, an exendin-4 derivative or a derivative of an exendin-4 analogue. In one embodiment the term “DPP-IV protected” as used herein referring to a polypeptide means a polypeptide which has been chemically modified in order to render said compound resistant to the plasma peptidase dipeptidyl aminopeptidase-4 (DPP-IV). The DPP-IV enzyme in plasma is known to be involved in the degradation of several peptide hormones, e.g. GLP-1, Exendin-4 etc. Thus a considerable effort is being made to develop GLP-1 agonists less susceptible to DPP-IV mediated hydrolysis in order to reduce the rate of degradation by DPP-IV. The present invention also relates to a GLP-1 agonist of the invention, for use as a medicament. In particular embodiments, the GLP-1 agonist of the invention may be used for the following medical treatments: (i) prevention and/or treatment of all forms of diabetes, such as hyperglycemia, type 2 diabetes, impaired glucose tolerance, type 1 diabetes, non-insulin dependent diabetes, MODY (maturity onset diabetes of the young), gestational diabetes, and/or for reduction of HbA1c; (ii) delaying or preventing diabetic disease progression, such as progression in type 2 diabetes, delaying the progression of impaired glucose tolerance (IGT) to insulin requiring type 2 diabetes, and/or delaying the progression of non-insulin requiring type 2 diabetes to insulin requiring type 2 diabetes; (iii) prevention and/or treatment of eating disorders, such as obesity, e.g. by decreasing food intake, reducing body weight, suppressing appetite, inducing satiety; treating or preventing binge eating disorder, bulimia nervosa, and/or obesity induced by administration of an antipsychotic or a steroid; reduction of gastric motility; and/or delaying gastric emptying. In another particular embodiment, the indication is (i). In a further particular embodiment the indication is (ii). In a still further particular embodiment the indication is (iii). In one embodiment the indication is type 2 diabetes and/or obesity. In one embodiment the method comprises prevention, treatment, reduction and/or induction in one or more diseases or conditions defined herein. In one embodiment the indication is (i) and (iii). In one embodiment the indication is (ii) and (iii). In one embodiment the method comprises prevention, treatment, reduction and/or induction in one or more diseases or conditions selected from a) and b), a) and c), b) and c), or a), b) and c) as defined in claim 1. In one embodiment the invention relates to administration of an effective amount of a GLP-1 agonist. In one embodiment as used herein, specific values given in relation to numbers or intervals may be understood as the specific value or as about the specific value. Functional Properties In a first functional aspect, the GLP-1 agonists of the invention have a good potency. Also, or alternatively, in a second functional aspect, the GLP-1 agonists of the invention have a protracted pharmacokinetic profile. Also, or alternatively, in a third functional aspect, the GLP-1 agonists of the invention are stable against degradation by gastro intestinal enzymes. Biological Activity (Potency) According to the first functional aspect, the GLP-1 agonists of the invention are biologically active, or potent. In a particular embodiment, “potency” and/or “activity” refers to in vitro potency, i.e. performance in a functional GLP-1 receptor assay, more in particular to the capability of stimulating cAMP formation in a cell line expressing the cloned human GLP-1 receptor. The stimulation of the formation of cAMP in a medium containing the human GLP-1 receptor may preferably be determined using a stable transfected cell-line such as BHK467-12A (tk-ts13), and/or using for the determination of cAMP a functional receptor assay, e.g. based on competition between endogenously formed cAMP and exogenously added biotin-labelled cAMP, in which assay cAMP is more preferably captured using a specific antibody, and/or wherein an even more preferred assay is the AlphaScreen cAMP Assay, such as the one described in Assay (I). In one embodiment the term half maximal effective concentration (EC50) generally refers to the concentration which induces a response halfway between the baseline and maximum, by reference to the dose response curve. EC50 is used as a measure of the potency of a compound and represents the concentration where 50% of its maximal effect is observed. The in vitro potency of the GLP-1 agonists of the invention may be determined as described above, and the EC50 of the GLP-1 agonist in question determined. The lower the EC50, the better the potency. In a particular embodiment, the medium has the following composition (final in-assay concentrations): 50 mM TRIS-HCl; 5 mM HEPES; 10 mM MgCl2, 6H2O; 150 mM NaCl; 0.01% Tween; 0.1% BSA; 0.5 mM IBMX; 1 mM ATP; 1 μM GTP; pH 7.4. In a further particular embodiment, the GLP-1 agonist of the invention has an in vitro potency corresponding to an EC50 at or below 3000 pM, such as below 2000 pM, below 1000 pM, or below 500 pM, or such as below 200 pM or below 100 pM. In another particular embodiment the GLP-1 agonist of the invention are potent in vivo, which may be determined as is known in the art in any suitable animal model, as well as in clinical trials. The diabetic db/db mouse is one example of a suitable animal model, and the blood glucose lowering effect may be determined in such mice in vivo, e.g. as described in Assay (III), or as described in Example 43 of WO09/030738. Also, or alternatively, the effect on food intake in vivo may be determined in pharmacodynamic studies in pigs, e.g. as described in Assay (IV). Protraction—Half Life In Vivo in Minipigs According to the second functional aspect, the GLP-1 agonists of the invention are protracted. In a particular embodiment protraction may be determined as half-life (T1/2) in vivo in minipigs after i.v. administration. In additional embodiments, the half-life is at least 24 hours, such as at least 48 hours, at least 60 hours, at least 72 hours, or such as at least 84 hours, at least 96 hours, or at least 108 hours. A suitable assay for determining half-life in vivo in minipigs after i.v. administration is disclosed in Assay (II). Degradation by Gastro Intestinal Enzymes According to the third functional aspect, the GLP-1 agonists of the invention are stable, or stabilised, against degradation by one or more gastro intestinal enzymes. Gastro intestinal enzymes include, without limitation, exo and endo peptidases, such as pepsin, trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastases, and carboxypeptidases. The stability may be tested against these gastro intestinal enzymes in the form of purified enzymes, or in the form of extracts from the gastrointestinal system. In a particular embodiment, the GLP-1 agonist of the invention has an in vitro half-life (T1/2), in an extract of rat small intestines, divided by the corresponding half-life (T1/2) of GLP-1(7-37), of at least 1, such as above 1.0, at least 1.2, at least 2.0, or such as at least 3.0, or at least 4.0. In other words, a ratio (SI) may be defined for each GLP-1 agonist, viz. as the in vitro half-life (T1/2) of the GLP-1 agonist in question, in an extract of rat small intestines, divided by the corresponding half-life (T1/2) of GLP-1(7-37). A suitable assay for determining in vitro half-life in an extract of rat small intestines is disclosed in Assay (V). GLP-1 Agonists In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises an Aib residue in position 8. In one embodiment the amino acid residue in position 7 of said GLP-1 peptide is selected from the group consisting of D-histidine, desamino-histidine, 2-amino-histidine, β-hydroxy-histidine, homohistidine, Nα-acetyl-histidine, α-fluoromethyl-histidine, α-methyl-histidine, 3-pyridylalanine, 2-pyridylalanine and 4-pyridylalanine. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is attached to a hydrophilic spacer via the amino acid residue in position 23, 26, 34, 36 or 38 relative to the amino acid sequence of GLP-1 (7-37). In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is exendin-4, an exendin-4-analogue, or a derivative of exendin-4. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist peptide comprises the amino acid sequence of the following formula: H-His-Gly-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Leu-Ser-Lys-Gln-Met-Glu-Glu-Glu-Ala-Val-Arg-Leu Phe-Ile-Glu-Trp-Leu-Lys-Asn-Gly-Gly-Pro-Ser-Ser-Gly-Ala-Pro-Pro-Pro-Ser-NH2 (SEQ ID NO: 2). In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist comprises an albumin binding residue attached via a hydrophilic spacer to the C-terminal amino acid residue of said GLP-1 peptide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist comprises a second albumin binding residue is attached to an amino acid residue which is not the C-terminal amino acid residue. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is selected from the group consisting of semaglutide, albiglutide and dulaglitide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide has the following structure: His-Aib-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Val-Ser-Ser-Tyr-Leu-Glu-Gly-Gln-Ala-Ala-Lys-Glu-Phe-Ile-Ala-Trp-Leu-Val-Lys-Aib-Arg (SEQ ID NO: 3). In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide has the following structure: (His-Gly-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Val-Ser-Ser-Tyr-Leu-Glu-Gly-Gln-Ala-Ala-Lys-Glu-Phe-Ile-Ala-Trp-Leu-Val-Lys-Gly-Arg)2 (SEQ ID NO: 4) genetically fused to human albumin. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is dulaglitide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonists of the invention have GLP-1 activity. In one embodiment “a GLP-1 agonist” is understood to refer to any compound, including peptides and non-peptide compounds, which fully or partially activate the human GLP-1 receptor. In one embodiment the “GLP-1 agonist” is any peptide or non-peptide small molecule that binds to a GLP-1 receptor, preferably with an affinity constant (KD) or a potency (EC50) of below 1 μM, e. g. below 100 nM as measured by methods known in the art (see e. g., WO 98/08871). In one embodiment methods for identifying GLP-1 agonists are described in WO 93/19175 (Novo Nordisk A/S) and examples of suitable GLP-1 agonists which can be used according to the present invention includes those referred to in WO 2005/027978 (Novo Nordisk A/S), the teachings of which are both incorporated by reference herein. “GLP-1 activity” refers to the ability to bind to the GLP-1 receptor and initiate a signal transduction pathway resulting in insulinotropic action or other physiological effects as is known in the art. For example, the GLP-1 agonists of the invention can be tested for GLP-1 activity using the assay described in Assay (I) herein. In yet another embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is a stable GLP-1 agonist. As used herein a “stable GLP-1 agonist” means a GLP-1agonist which exhibits an in vivo plasma elimination half-life of at least 24 hours in man, optionally determined by the method described below. Examples of stable GLP-1 agonists can be found in WO02006/097537. In one embodiment the method for determination of plasma elimination half-life of a compound in man may be carried out as follows: The compound is dissolved in an isotonic buffer, pH 7.4, PBS or any other suitable buffer. The dose is injected peripherally, preferably in the abdominal or upper thigh. Blood samples for determination of active compound are taken at frequent intervals, and for a sufficient duration to cover the terminal elimination part (e. g., Pre-dose, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 12, 24 (day 2), 36 (day 2), 48 (day 3), 60 (day 3), 72 (day 4) and 84 (day 4) hours post dose). Determination of the concentration of active compound is performed as described in Wilken et al., Diabetologia 43 (51), 2000. Derived pharmacokinetic parameters are calculated from the concentration-time data for each individual subject by use of non-compartmental methods, using the commercially available software WinNonlin Version 2.1 (Pharsight, Cary, N.C., USA). The terminal elimination rate constant is estimated by log-linear regression on the terminal log-linear part of the concentration-time curve, and used for calculating the elimination half-life. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is formulated so as to have a half-life in man of at least 48 hours. This may be obtained by sustained release formulations known in the art. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is a GLP-1 peptide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is selected from GLP-1 (7-35), GLP-1 (7-36), GLP-1 (7-36)-amide, GLP-1 (7-37), GLP-1 (7-38), GLP-1 (7-39), GLP-1 (7-40), GLP-1 (7-41) or an analogue or derivative thereof. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises no more than 15, such as no more than 10 or no more than 6, amino acid residues which have been substituted, inserted or deleted as compared to GLP-1 (7-37). In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises no more than 4 amino acid residues which are not encoded by the genetic code. In yet another embodiment, the GLP-1 agonist is exendin-4 or exendin-3, an exendin-4 or exendin-3 analogue, or a derivative of any of these. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is selected from the group consisting of semaglutide, exenatide, albiglutide, and dulaglitide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is semaglutide. WO 06/097537 discloses semaglutide (Example 4), a mono-acylated GLP-1 agonist for once weekly administration. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is exenatide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises the amino acid sequence of the formula: H-His-Gly-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Leu-Ser-Lys-Gln-Met-Glu-Glu-Glu-Ala-Val-Arg-Leu-Phe-Ile-Glu-Trp-Leu-Lys-Asn-Gly-Gly-Pro-Ser-Ser-Gly-Ala-Pro-Pro-Pro-Ser-NH2 (SEQ ID NO: 2). Exenatide is a synthetic version of exendin-4, a hormone found in the saliva of the Gila monster. Exenatide displays biological properties similar to GLP-1. In some embodiments the composition is BYDUREON® (a long acting release formula of exenatide in PLGA particles). In one embodiment the “Bydureon® composition” refer to a powder comprising exenatide, poly (D,L-lactide-co-glycolide), and sucrose which immediately prior to injection is reconstituted in a solvent comprising carmellose sodium, sodium chloride, polysorbate 20, monobasic sodium phosphate (e.g. its monohydrate), dibasic sodium phosphate (e.g. its heptahydrate), and water for injections. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide has the structure (His-Gly-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Val-Ser-Ser-Tyr-Leu-Glu-Gly-Gln-Ala-Ala-Lys-Glu-Phe-Ile-Ala-Trp-Leu-Val-Lys-Gly-Arg)2 (SEQ ID NO: 4)-genetically fused to human albumin. Albiglutide is a recombinant human serum albumin (HSA)-GLP-1 hybrid protein, likely a GLP-1 dimer fused to HSA. The constituent GLP-1 peptide is analogue, in which Ala at position 8 has been substituted by Glu. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is dulaglitide. Dulaglutide is a GLP-1-Fc construct (GLP-1—linker—Fc from IgG4). In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide has the structure His-Aib-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Val-Ser-Ser-Tyr-Leu-Glu-Gly-Gln-Ala-Ala-Lys-Glu-Phelle-Ala-Trp-Leu-Val-Lys-Aib-Arg (SEQ ID NO: 3). Liraglutide is a mono-acylated GLP-1 agonist for once daily administration which is marketed as of 2009 by Novo Nordisk A/S, is disclosed in WO 98/08871 Example 37. In one embodiment the present invention encompasses pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the GLP-1 agonists. Such salts include pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts, pharmaceutically acceptable metal salts, ammonium, and alkylated ammonium salts. Also intended as pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salts are the hydrates which the present GLP-1 agonists are able to form. In one embodiment the route of administration of GLP-1 agonists may be any route which effectively transports the active compound to the appropriate or desired site of action, such as parenteral. In one embodiment medicaments or pharmaceutical compositions comprising a GLP-1 agonist, such as semaglutide, may be administered parenterally to a patient in need thereof. In one embodiment parenteral administration may be performed by subcutaneous, intramuscular or intravenous injection by means of a syringe, optionally a pen-like syringe. Alternatively, parenteral administration can be performed by means of an infusion pump. A further option is a composition which may be a powder or a liquid for the administration of a GLP-1 agonist in the form of a nasal or pulmonal spray. As a still further option, the GLP-1 agonist can also be administered transdermally, e.g., from a patch, optionally an iontophoretic patch, or transmucosally, e.g., bucally. The above-mentioned possible ways to administer GLP-1 agonists are not considered as limiting the scope of the invention. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is co-administered together with a further therapeutically active agent used in the treatments defined herein. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises the amino acid sequence of the formula (I) (SEQ ID NO: 5): Formula (I) Xaa7-Xaa8-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Xaa16-Ser- Xaa15-Xaa19Xaa20GluXaa22-Xaa23-Ala-Xaa25-Xaa26-Xaa27- Phe-Ile-Xaa30-Trp-Leu-Xaa33-Xaa34-Xaa35-Xaa36-Xaa37- Xaa38-Xaa39-Xaa40-Xaa41-Xaa42-Xaa43-Xaa44-Xaa45-Xaa46 wherein Xaa7 is L-histidine, D-histidine, desamino-histidine, 2-amino-histidine, β-hydroxy-histidine, homohistidine, Nα-acetyl-histidine, α-fluoromethyl-histidine, α-methyl-histidine, 3-pyridylalanine, 2-pyridylalanine or 4-pyridylalanine; Xaa8 is Ala, Gly, Val, Leu, Ile, Lys, Aib, (1-aminocyclopropyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclobutyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclopentyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclohexyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocycloheptyl) carboxylic acid, or (1-aminocyclooctyl) carboxylic acid; Xaa16 is Val or Leu; Xaa18 is Ser, Lys or Arg; Xaa19 is Tyr or Gln; Xaa20 is Leu or Met; Xaa22 is Gly, Glu or Aib; Xaa23 is Gln, Glu, Lys or Arg; Xaa25 is Ala or Val; Xaa26 is Lys, Glu or Arg; Xaa27 is Glu or Leu; Xaa30 is Ala, Glu or Arg; Xaa33 is Val or Lys; Xaa34 is Lys, Glu, Asn or Arg; Xaa35 is Gly or Aib; Xaa36 is Arg, Gly or Lys; Xaa37 is Gly, Ala, Glu, Pro, Lys, amide or is absent; Xaa38 is Lys, Ser, amide or is absent; Xaa39 is Ser, Lys, amide or is absent; Xaa40 is Gly, amide or is absent; Xaa41 is Ala, amide or is absent; Xaa42 is Pro, amide or is absent; Xaa43 is Pro, amide or is absent; Xaa44 is Pro, amide or is absent; Xaa45 is Ser, amide or is absent; Xaa46 is amide or is absent; provided that if Xaa38, Xaa39, Xaa40, Xaa41, Xaa42, Xaa43, Xaa44, Xaa45 or Xaa46 is absent then each amino acid residue downstream is also absent. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises the amino acid sequence of formula (II) (SEQ ID NO: 6): Formula (II) Xaa7-Xaa8-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Val-Ser- Xaa18-Tyr-Leu-Glu-Xaa22-Xaa23-Ala-Ala-Xaa26-Glu- Phe-Ile-Xaa30-Trp-Leu-Val-Xaa34-Xaa35-Xaa36- Xaa37Xaa38 wherein Xaa7 is L-histidine, D-histidine, desamino-histidine, 2-amino-histidine, -hydroxy-histidine, homohistidine, Nα-acetyl-histidine, α-fluoromethyl-histidine, α-methyl-histidine, 3-pyridylalanine, 2-pyridylalanine or 4-pyridylalanine; Xaa8 is Ala, Gly, Val, Leu, Ile, Lys, Aib, (1-aminocyclopropyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclobutyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclopentyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclohexyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocycloheptyl) carboxylic acid, or (1-aminocyclooctyl) carboxylic acid; Xaa18 is Ser, Lys or Arg; Xaa22 is Gly, Glu or Aib; Xaa23 is Gln, Glu, Lys or Arg; Xaa26 is Lys, Glu or Arg; Xaa30 is Ala, Glu or Arg; Xaa34 is Lys, Glu or Arg; Xaa35 is Gly or Aib; Xaa36 is Arg or Lys; Xaa37 is Gly, Ala, Glu or Lys; Xaa38 is Lys, amide or is absent. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is a DPPIV protected GLP-1 peptide. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is DPPIV stabilised. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises an Aib residue in position 8. In one embodiment the amino acid residue in position 7 of said GLP-1 peptide is selected from the group consisting of D-histidine, desamino-histidine, 2-amino-histidine, β-hydroxy-histidine, homohistidine, Nα-acetyl-histidine, α-fluoromethyl-histidine, α-methyl-histidine, 3-pyridylalanine, 2-pyridylalanine and 4-pyridylalanine. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide comprises Arg34GLP-1 (7-37) or [Aib8, Arg34]G LP-1-(7-37). In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist comprises an albumin binding residue which is covalently attached, optionally via a hydrophilic spacer. In one embodiment said albumin binding residue is covalently attached, optionally via a hydrophilic spacer, to the C-terminal amino acid residue of said GLP-1 peptide or an amino acid residue which is not the C-terminal amino acid residue. In one embodiment the GLP-1 peptide is attached to a hydrophilic spacer via the amino acid residue in position 23, 26, 34, 36 or 38 relative to the amino acid sequence of GLP-1 (7-37). Human Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 is GLP-1 (7-37) and has the sequence HAEGTFTSDVSSYLEGQAAKEFI AWLVKGRG (SEQ ID NO: 1). GLP-1(7-37) may also be designated “native” GLP-1. In the sequence listing, the first amino acid residue of SEQ ID NO: 1 (histidine) is assigned no. 1. However, in what follows—according to established practice in the art—this histidine residue is referred to as no. 7, and subsequent amino acid residues are numbered accordingly, ending with glycine no. 37. Therefore, generally, any reference herein to an amino acid residue number or a position number of the GLP-1(7-37) sequence is to the sequence starting with His at position 7 and ending with Gly at position 37. A non-limiting example of a suitable analogue nomenclature is [Aib8, Arg34, Lys37]GLP-1(7-37), which designates a GLP-1(7-37) analogue, in which the alanine at position 8 has been substituted with α-aminoisobutyric acid (Aib), the lysine at position 34 has been substituted with arginine, and the glycine at position 37 has been substituted with lysine. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist exhibits at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 80% or 90% sequence identity to GLP-1(7-37) over the entire length of GLP-1(7-37). As an example of a method for determination of sequence identity between two analogues the two peptides [Aib8]GLP-1(7-37) and GLP-1(7-37) are aligned. The sequence identity of [Aib8]GLP-1(7-37) relative to GLP-1(7-37) is given by the number of aligned identical residues minus the number of different residues divided by the total number of residues in GLP-1(7-37). Accordingly, in said example the sequence identity is (31-1)/31. In one embodiment non-peptide moieties of the GLP-1 agonist are not included when determining sequence identity. In one embodiment the GLP-1 agonist is a derivative. In one embodiment the term “derivative” as used herein in the context of a GLP-1 agonist, peptide or analogue means a chemically modified GLP-1 agonist, peptide or analogue, in which one or more substituents have been covalently attached to the agonist, peptide or analogue. The substituent may also be referred to as a side chain. Typical modifications are amides, carbohydrates, alkyl groups, acyl groups, esters and the like. An example of a derivative of GLP-1(7-37) is Nε26-(γ-Glu(Nα-hexadecanoyl))-[Arg34, Lys25]) GLP-1 (7-37). In a particular embodiment, the side chain is capable of forming non-covalent aggregates with albumin, thereby promoting the circulation of the GLP-1 agonist with the blood stream, and also having the effect of protracting the time of action of the GLP-1 agonist, due to the fact that the aggregate of the GLP-1 agonist and albumin is only slowly disintegrated to release the active pharmaceutical ingredient. Thus, the substituent, or side chain, as a whole may be referred to as an albumin binding moiety. In particular embodiments, the side chain has at least 10 carbon atoms, or at least 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, or at least 40 carbon atoms. In further particular embodiments, the side chain may further include at least 5 hetero atoms, in particular 0 and N, for example at least 7, 9, 10, 12, 15, 17, or at least 20 hetero atoms, such as at least 1, 2, or 3 N-atoms, and/or at least 3, 6, 9, 12, or O-atoms. In another particular embodiment the albumin binding moiety comprises a portion which is particularly relevant for the albumin binding and thereby the protraction, which portion may accordingly be referred to as a protracting moiety. The protracting moiety may be at, or near, the opposite end of the albumin binding moiety, relative to its point of attachment to the peptide. In a still further particular embodiment the albumin binding moiety comprises a portion in between the protracting moiety and the point of attachment to the peptide, which portion may be referred to as a linker, linker moiety, spacer, or the like. The linker may be optional, and hence in that case the albumin binding moiety may be identical to the protracting moiety. In particular embodiments, the albumin binding moiety and/or the protracting moiety is lipophilic, and/or negatively charged at physiological pH (7.4). The albumin binding moiety, the protracting moiety, or the linker may be covalently attached to a lysine residue of the GLP-1 peptide by acylation. Additional or alternative conjugation chemistry includes alkylation, ester formation, or amide formation, or coupling to a cysteine residue, such as by maleimide or haloacetamide (such as bromo-/fluoro-/iodo-) coupling. In one embodiment an active ester of the albumin binding moiety, e.g. comprising a protracting moiety and a linker, is covalently linked to an amino group of a lysine residue, e.g. the epsilon amino group thereof, under formation of an amide bond (this process being referred to as acylation). Unless otherwise stated, when reference is made to an acylation of a lysine residue, it is understood to be to the epsilon-amino group thereof. For the present purposes, the terms “albumin binding moiety”, “protracting moiety”, and “linker” may include the unreacted as well as the reacted forms of these molecules. Whether or not one or the other form is meant is clear from the context in which the term is used. For the attachment to the GLP-1 agonist, the acid group of the fatty acid, or one of the acid groups of the fatty diacid, forms an amide bond with the epsilon amino group of a lysine residue in the GLP-1 peptide, e.g. via a linker. In one embodiment the term “fatty acid” refers to aliphatic monocarboxylic acids having from 4 to 28 carbon atoms, it is optionally unbranched, and/or even numbered, and it may be saturated or unsaturated. In one embodiment the term “fatty diacid” refers to fatty acids as defined above but with an additional carboxylic acid group in the omega position. Thus, fatty diacids are dicarboxylic acids. Each of the two linkers of the GLP-1 agonist of the invention may comprise the following first linker element: wherein k is an integer in the range of 1-5, and n is an integer in the range of 1-5. In a particular embodiment, when k=1 and n=1, this linker element may be designated OEG, or a di-radical of 8-amino-3,6-dioxaoctanic acid, and/or it may be represented by the following formula: *—NH—(CH2)2—O—(CH2)2—CO—*. Chem. 5a: In another particular embodiment, each linker of the GLP-1 agonist of the invention may further comprise, independently, a second linker element, e.g. a Glu di-radical, such as Chem. 6 and/or Chem. 7: wherein the Glu di-radical may be included p times, where p is an integer in the range of 1-3. Chem. 6 may also be referred to as gamma-Glu, or briefly gGlu, due to the fact that it is the gamma carboxy group of the amino acid glutamic acid which is here used for connection to another linker element, or to the epsilon-amino group of lysine. As explained above, the other linker element may, for example, be another Glu residue, or an OEG molecule. The amino group of Glu in turn forms an amide bond with the carboxy group of the protracting moiety, or with the carboxy group of, e.g., an OEG molecule, if present, or with the gamma-carboxy group of, e.g., another Glu, if present. Chem. 7 may also be referred to as alpha-Glu, or briefly aGlu, or simply Glu, due to the fact that it is the alpha carboxy group of the amino acid glutamic acid which is here used for connection to another linker element, or to the epsilon-amino group of lysine. The above structures of Chem. 6 and Chem. 7 cover the L-form, as well as the D-form of Glu. In particular embodiments, Chem. 6 and/or Chem. 7 is/are, independently, a) in the L-form, or b) in the D-form. In still further particular embodiments the linker has a) from 5 to 41 C-atoms; and/or b) from 4 to 28 hetero atoms. The concentration in plasma of the GLP-1 agonists of the invention may be determined using any suitable method. For example, LC-MS (Liquid Chromatography Mass Spectroscopy) may be used, or immunoassays such as RIA (Radio Immuno Assay), ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immuno Sorbent Assay), and LOCI (Luminescence Oxygen Channeling lmmunoasssay). General protocols for suitable RIA and ELISA assays are found in, e.g., WO09/030738 on p. 116-118. A preferred assay is the LOCI (Luminescent Oxygen Channeling Immunoassay), generally as described for the determination of insulin by Poulsen and Jensen in Journal of Biomolecular Screening 2007, vol. 12, p. 240-247 - briefly blood samples may be collected at desired intervals, plasma separated, immediately frozen, and kept at −20° C. until analyzed for plasma concentration of the respective GLP-1 agonist; the donor beads are coated with streptavidin, while acceptor beads are conjugated with a monoclonal antibody recognising a mid-/C-terminal epitope of the peptide; another monoclonal antibody, specific for the N-terminus, is biotinylated; the three reactants are combined with the analyte and formed a two-sited immuno-complex; illumination of the complex releases singlet oxygen atoms from the donor beads, which are channeled into the acceptor beads and triggered chemiluminescence which may be measured in an Envision plate reader; the amount of light is proportional to the concentration of the compound. In one embodiment the term “Aib” as used herein refers to α-aminoisobutyric acid. Pharmaceutical Compositions An administered dose may contain from 5 mg-100 mg of the GLP-1 agonist, or from 5-50 mg, or from 5-20 mg, or from 5-10 mg of the GLP-1 agonist. In one embodiment the composition is BYDUREON® (a long acting release formula of exenatide in PLGA particles). Pharmaceutical compositions comprising a GLP-1 agonist of the invention or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, amide, or ester thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient may be prepared as is known in the art. In one embodiment the term “excipient” broadly refers to any component other than the active therapeutic ingredient(s). The excipient may be an inert substance, an inactive substance, and/or a not medicinally active substance. The formulation of pharmaceutically active ingredients with various excipients is known in the art, see e.g. Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy (e.g. 19th edition (1995), and any later editions). Non-limiting examples of excipients are: solvents, diluents, buffers, preservatives, tonicity regulating agents (e.g isotonic agents), chelating agents, stabilisers (e.g. oxidation inhibitors, aggregation inhibitors, surfactants, and/or protease inhibitors). Examples of formulations include liquid formulations, i.e. aqueous formulations comprising water. A liquid formulation may be a solution, or a suspension. An aqueous formulation typically comprises at least 50% w/w water, or at least 60%, 70%, 80%, or even at least 90% w/w of water. Alternatively, a pharmaceutical composition may be a solid formulation, e.g. a freeze-dried or spray-dried composition, which may be used as is, or whereto the physician or the patient adds solvents, and/or diluents prior to use. The pH in an aqueous formulation may be anything between pH 3 and pH 10, for example from about 7.0 to about 9.5; or from about 3.0 to about 7.0. Still further, a pharmaceutical composition may be formulated as is known in the art of oral formulations of insulinotropic compounds, e.g. using any one or more of the formulations described in WO 2008/145728. A composition may be administered in several dosage forms, for example as a solution; a suspension; an emulsion; a microemulsion; multiple emulsions; a foam; a salve; a paste; a plaster; an ointment; a tablet; a coated tablet; a chewing gum; a rinse; a capsule such as hard or soft gelatine capsules; a suppositorium; a rectal capsule; drops; a gel; a spray; a powder; an aerosol; an inhalant; eye drops; an ophthalmic ointment; an ophthalmic rinse; a vaginal pessary; a vaginal ring; a vaginal ointment; an injection solution; an in situ transforming solution such as in situ gelling, setting, precipitating, and in situ crystallisation; an infusion solution; or as an implant. A composition may further be compounded in a drug carrier or drug delivery system, e.g. in order to improve stability, bioavailability, and/or solubility. In a particular embodiment a composition may be attached to such system through covalent, hydrophobic, and/or electrostatic interactions. The purpose of such compounding may be, e.g., to decrease adverse effects, achieve chronotherapy, and/or increase patient compliance. A composition may also be used in the formulation of controlled, sustained, protracting, retarded, and/or slow release drug delivery systems. The composition may be administered by parenteral administration. Parenteral administration may be performed by subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal, or intravenous injection by means of a syringe, optionally a pen-like syringe, or by means of an infusion pump. Production Processes In one embodiment GLP-1 peptides can be produced by appropriate derivatisation of an appropriate peptide backbone which has been produced by recombinant DNA technology or by peptide synthesis (e.g., Merrifield-type solid phase synthesis) as known in the art of peptide synthesis and peptide chemistry. In one embodiment the production of peptides like GLP-1(7-37) and GLP-1 analogues is well known in the art. The GLP-1 moiety of the GLP-1 peptide of the invention (or fragments thereof) may for instance be produced by classical peptide synthesis, e.g., solid phase peptide synthesis using t-Boc or Fmoc chemistry or other well established techniques, see, e.g., Greene and Wuts, “Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis”, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, Florencio Zaragoza Dörwald, “Organic Synthesis on solid Phase”, Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, 2000, and “Fmoc Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis”, Edited by W. C. Chan and P. D. White, Oxford University Press, 2000. In one embodiment GLP-1 agonists may be produced by recombinant methods, viz. by culturing a host cell containing a DNA sequence encoding the GLP-1 agonist and capable of expressing the peptide in a suitable nutrient medium under conditions permitting the expression of the peptide. Non-limiting examples of host cells suitable for expression of these peptides are: Escherichia coli, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, as well as mammalian BHK or CHO cell lines. In one embodiment GLP-1 agonists of the invention which include non-natural amino acids and/or a covalently attached N-terminal mono- or dipeptide mimetic may e.g. be produced as described in the experimental part. Or see e.g., Hodgson et al: “The synthesis of peptides and proteins containing non-natural amino acids”, Chemical Society Reviews, vol. 33, no. 7 (2004), p. 422-430; and WO 2009/083549 Al entitled “Semi-recombinant preparation of GLP-1 analogues”. EMBODIMENTS The following are non-limiting embodiments of the invention: 1. A method for reduction of HbA1c or for prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes, said method comprising administration of a GLP-1 agonist to a subject in need thereof in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. 2. A method for treating or preventing obesity, for reducing body weight and/or food intake, or for inducing satiety, said method comprising administration of a GLP-1 agonist to a subject in need thereof in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. 3. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said method comprises delaying or preventing diabetic disease progression. 4. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist has a half-life of at least 24 hours, such as at least 48 hours, at least 60 hours, or at least 72 hours, or such as at least 84 hours, at least 96 hours, or at least 108 hours, or optionally at least 120 hours, at least 132 hours, or at least 144 hours, wherein said half-life optionally is determined by Assay (II). 5. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered twice weekly or less often, once weekly or less often, such as less often than once weekly or once every secondly week or less often, or such as once every third week or less often or once a month or less often. 6. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount of at least 0.8 mg, at least 1.0 mg, or at least 1.2 mg, such as at least 1.4 mg or at least 1.6 mg, per week. 7. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount equivalent to at least 0.8 mg, at least 1.0 mg, or at least 1.2 mg, such as at least 1.4 mg or at least 1.6 mg, semaglutide per week. 8. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount which provides an improved a) reduction in HbA1c or b) reduction in body weight compared to administration of 1.8 mg liraglutide or less, such as 0.8 mg liraglutide or less, per day. 9. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is selected from the group consisting of semaglutide, exenatide, albiglutide, and dulaglutide. 10. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered by parenteral administration, such as subcutaneous injection. 11. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered simultaneously or sequentially with another therapeutic agent. 12. The method according to any one of any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the GLP-1 agonist is a GLP-1 peptide. 13. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the GLP-1 peptide comprises the amino acid sequence of the formula (I) (SEQ ID NO: 5): Formula (I) Xaa7-Xaa8-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Xaa16-Ser- Xaa15-Xaa19Xaa20GluXaa22-Xaa23-Ala-Xaa25-Xaa26-Xaa27- Phe-Ile-Xaa30-Trp-Leu-Xaa33-Xaa34-Xaa35-Xaa36-Xaa37- Xaa38-Xaa39-Xaa40-Xaa41-Xaa42-Xaa43-Xaa44-Xaa45-Xaa46 wherein Xaa7 is L-histidine, D-histidine, desamino-histidine, 2-amino-histidine, β-hydroxy-histidine, homohistidine, Nα-acetyl-histidine, α-fluoromethyl-histidine, α-methyl-histidine, 3-pyridylalanine, 2-pyridylalanine or 4-pyridylalanine; Xaa8 is Ala, Gly, Val, Leu, Ile, Lys, Aib, (1-aminocyclopropyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclobutyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclopentyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclohexyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocycloheptyl) carboxylic acid, or (1-aminocyclooctyl) carboxylic acid; Xaa16 is Val or Leu; Xaa18 is Ser, Lys or Arg; Xaa19 is Tyr or Gln; Xaa20 is Leu or Met; Xaa22 is Gly, Glu or Aib; Xaa23 is Gln, Glu, Lys or Arg; Xaa25 is Ala or Val; Xaa26 is Lys, Glu or Arg; Xaa27 is Glu or Leu; Xaa30 is Ala, Glu or Arg; Xaa33 is Val or Lys; Xaa34 is Lys, Glu, Asn or Arg; Xaa35 is Gly or Aib; Xaa36 is Arg, Gly or Lys; Xaa37 is Gly, Ala, Glu, Pro, Lys, amide or is absent; Xaa38 is Lys, Ser, amide or is absent; Xaa39 is Ser, Lys, amide or is absent; Xaa40 is Gly, amide or is absent; Xaa41 is Ala, amide or is absent; Xaa42 is Pro, amide or is absent; Xaa43 is Pro, amide or is absent; Xaa44 is Pro, amide or is absent; Xaa45 is Ser, amide or is absent; Xaa46 is amide or is absent; provided that if Xaa38, Xaa39, Xaa40, Xaa41, Xaa42, Xaa43, Xaa44, Xaa45 or Xaa46 is absent then each amino acid residue downstream is also absent. 14. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said polypeptide is a GLP-1 peptide comprising the amino acid sequence of formula (II) (SEQ ID NO: 6): Formula (II) Xaa7-Xaa8-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Val-Ser- Xaa18-Tyr-Leu-Glu-Xaa22-Xaa23-Ala-Ala-Xaa26-Glu- Phe-Ile-Xaa30-Trp-Leu-Val-Xaa34-Xaa35-Xaa36- Xaa37Xaa38 wherein Xaa7 is L-histidine, D-histidine, desamino-histidine, 2-amino-histidine, -hydroxy-histidine, homohistidine, Nα-acetyl-histidine, α-fluoromethyl-histidine, α-methyl-histidine, 3-pyridylalanine, 2-pyridylalanine or 4-pyridylalanine; Xaa8 is Ala, Gly, Val, Leu, Ile, Lys, Aib, (1-aminocyclopropyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclobutyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclopentyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocyclohexyl) carboxylic acid, (1-aminocycloheptyl) carboxylic acid, or (1-aminocyclooctyl) carboxylic acid; Xaa18 is Ser, Lys or Arg; Xaa22 is Gly, Glu or Aib; Xaa23 is Gln, Glu, Lys or Arg; Xaa26 is Lys, Glu or Arg; Xaa30 is Ala, Glu or Arg; Xaa34 is Lys, Glu or Arg; Xaa35 is Gly or Aib; Xaa36 is Arg or Lys; Xaa37 is Gly, Ala, Glu or Lys; Xaa38 is Lys, amide or is absent. 15. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 peptide is selected from GLP-1 (7-35), GLP-1 (7-36), GLP-1 (7-36)-amide, GLP-1 (7-37), GLP-1 (7-38), GLP-1 (7-39), GLP-1 (7-40), GLP-1 (7-41) or an analogue or derivative thereof. 16. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 peptide comprises no more than 15, such as no more than 10 or no more than 6, amino acid residues which have been substituted, inserted or deleted as compared to GLP-1 (7-37). 17. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 peptide comprises no more than 5 amino acid residues which have been substituted, inserted or deleted as compared to GLP-1 (7-37). 18. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 peptide comprises no more than 4 amino acid residues which are not encoded by the genetic code. 19. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 peptide is a DPPIV protected GLP-1 peptide. 20. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein GLP-1 peptide is DPPIV stabilised. 21. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 peptide comprises an Aib residue in position 8. 22. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the amino acid residue in position 7 of said GLP-1 peptide is selected from the group consisting of D-histidine, desamino-histidine, 2-amino-histidine, β-hydroxy-histidine, homohistidine, Nα-acetyl-histidine, α-fluoromethyl-histidine, α-methyl-histidine, 3-pyridylalanine, 2-pyridylalanine and 4-pyridylalanine. 23. The method according to any one of embodiments 7 to 16, wherein said GLP-1 peptide is attached to said hydrophilic spacer via the amino acid residue in position 23, 26, 34, 36 or 38 relative to the amino acid sequence of GLP-1 (7-37). 24. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the GLP-1 peptide is exendin-4, an exendin-4-analogue, or a derivative of exendin-4. 25. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the GLP-1 peptide comprises the amino acid sequence of the following formula: H-His-Gly-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Leu-Ser-Lys-Gln-Met-Glu-Glu-Glu-Ala-Val-Arg-Leu Phe-Ile-Glu-Trp-Leu-Lys-Asn-Gly-Gly-Pro-Ser-Ser-Gly-Ala-Pro-Pro-Pro-Ser-NH2 (SEQ ID NO: 2). 26. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments wherein one albumin binding residue via said hydrophilic spacer is attached to the C-terminal amino acid residue of said GLP-1 peptide. 27. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein a second albumin binding residue is attached to an amino acid residue which is not the C-terminal amino acid residue. 28. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the GLP-1 peptide is selected from the group consisting of semaglutide, albiglutide and dulaglitide. 29. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the GLP-1 peptide has the following structure: (SEQ ID NO: 3) His-Aib-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Val-Ser-Ser-Tyr- Leu-Glu-Gly-Gln-Ala-Ala-Lys-Glu-Phe-Ile-Ala-Trp-Leu- Val-Lys-Aib-Arg. 30. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein the GLP-1 peptide has the following structure: (SEQ ID NO: 4) (His-Gly-Glu-Gly-Thr-Phe-Thr-Ser-Asp-Val-Ser-Ser-Tyr- Leu-Glu-Gly-Gln-Ala-Ala-Lys-Glu-Phe-Ile-Ala-Trp-Leu- Val-Lys-Gly-Arg)2 genetically fused to human albumin. 31. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments wherein the GLP-1 peptide is dulaglitide. 32. The method according to any one of the preceding embodiments wherein the GLP-1 agonist has an EC50 at or below 3000 pM, such as at or below 500 pM or at or below 100 pM, optionally determined by Assay (I). 33. A GLP-1 agonist for use in the reduction of HbA1c or for use in the prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes comprising administering a GLP-1 agonist in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. 34. A GLP-1 agonist for use in the prevention or treatment of obesity, in the reduction of body weight and/or food intake, or in the induction satiety comprising administering a GLP-1 agonist in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. 35. A GLP-1 agonist for use according to embodiment 33 or 34, wherein the GLP-1 agonist and/or administration is as defined in any of embodiments 1-32 or 40. 36. A composition comprising a GLP-1 agonist and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients for use in reduction of HbA1c or for prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. 37. A composition comprising a GLP-1 agonist and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable excipients for use in the prevention or treatment of obesity, in the reduction of body weight and/or food intake, or in the induction satiety, wherein said GLP-1 agonist is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week. 38. A composition for use according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said GLP-1 agonist and/or administration is as defined in any one of embodiments 1-32 or 40. 39. A composition for use according to any one of the preceding embodiments, wherein said composition comprises the Bydureon® composition. 40. The method according to any one of the preceding claims, wherein the method comprises prevention, treatment, reduction or induction in one or more diseases or conditions defined in any one of the previous embodiments. EXAMPLES Abbreviations The following abbreviations are used in the following, in alphabetical order: ADA: American Diabetes Association Example 1 The Glp-1 Peptide Semaglutide Provides Reduced HbA1c and Body Weight Semaglutide is a unique acylated GLP-1 peptide with a half-life of 160 hours. The aim was to investigate HbA1c dose-response of once-weekly doses of semaglutide (five dose-levels) in subjects with type 2 diabetes. Safety, tolerability and pharmacodynamics of semaglutide versus placebo and open-label once-daily liraglutide were also investigated. Materials and Methods Liraglutide may be prepared as described in Example 37 of WO98/08871. Semaglutide may be prepared as described in Example 4 of WO2006/097537. The composition of the GLP-1 agonists administered may be formulated as isotonic aqueous solutions with a phosphate buffer, such as a sodium dihydrogen phosphate buffer, having a pH in the range 7.0-9.0, such as pH 7.4 or pH 8.15, for example further comprising the excipients propylene glycol and phenol. The composition of the GLP-1 agonists administered may be as described in WO2003/002136 or WO2005/049061. The placebo composition may be identical to the composition of the GLP-1 agonists, but not containing a GLP-1 agonist. In a 12-week, randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial, 411 human subjects (n=43-50 per group) with type 2 diabetes were exposed. Participants (male/female 65/35%; baseline HbA1c (mean±SD) 8.1±0.8%; baseline body weight 87.5±13.8 kg; duration of diabetes 2.6±3.1 years; metformin only/diet and exercise alone 80/20%) received subcutaneous injection of one of five semaglutide doses (0.1-1.6 mg) once weekly, open-label liraglutide (1.2 mg, 1.8 mg) once daily, or placebo once weekly. Two of the semaglutide doses were titrated (T) in weekly increments of 0.4 mg. The primary endpoint was change in HbA1c from baseline. Secondary efficacy endpoints included proportion of subjects reaching ADA HbA1c target (<7%) and change in body weight. Change and percentage to target were analysed by ANOVA and logistic regression, respectively. Comparisons between semaglutide and liraglutide were not corrected for multiplicity. Baseline characteristics of the subjects are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1 Baseline characteristics of subjects Semaglutide Liraglutide 0.1 0.2 0.4 0.8 0.8 1.6 1.2 1.8 Placebo mg mg mg mg mg T mg T mg mg Exposed* 46 47 43 48 42 43 47 45 50 subjects D&E: 22:78 23:77 14:86 23:77 19:81 16:84 19:81 18:82 24:76 metformin (%) Female: 39:61 34:66 30:70 23:77 48:52 37:63 45:55 31:69 30:70 male (%) Age 55.3 55.2 54.7 53.8 55.0 55.9 56.4 54.8 54.3 (years) (10.6) (10.1) (10.0) (10.2) (9.7) (7.9) (10.5) (9.2) (10.1) Duration of 2.4 3.6 2.3 2.0 3.0 2.6 1.8 3.3 2.5 diabetes (3.3) (5.0) (2.7) (2.3) (3.0) (2.1) (2.0) (3.4) (2.6) (years) HbA1c 8.1 8.2 8.2 8.1 8.2 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.1 (%) (0.8) (0.9) (0.9) (0.9) (0.9) (0.8) (0.7) (0.8) (0.7) FPG 8.9 9.8 9.5 9.3 9.5 9.6 9.0 9.0 9.3 (mmol/L) (1.5) (2.7) (2.5) (2.1) (2.4) (2.1) (1.9) (2.3) (2.0) Weight 90.5 89.5 86.3 87.0 85.9 85.7 84.5 90.5 87.2 (kg) (13.0) (14.2) (15.1) (14.0) (15.1) (12.6) (14.0) (13.5) (13.1) BMI 31.7 31.5 30.4 29.7 30.7 31.2 30.9 31.0 30.9 (kg/m2) (3.8) (4.6) (3.9) (4.5) (4.5) (4.2) (4.7) (4.6) (4.6) Data are mean (SD) unless otherwise stated. *Number of subjects exposed to actual treatment. D&E: Diet and exercise. FPG: Fasting plasma glucose. BMI: Body mass index. Results In the full analysis set, semaglutide (≧0.2 mg) dose-dependently reduced HbA1c from baseline (FIG. 1), and increased the likelihood of achieving HbA1c<7% (p<0.05 vs. placebo for doses ≧0.2 mg). The results with respect to change in HbA1c are shown in FIG. 1. The change in HbA1c in FIG. 1 is from baseline at week 12. FIG. 2 shows the change in HbA1c over time with the different treatments. Treatment with semaglutide 13.8 mg numerically brought more patients to target than liraglutide 1.8 mg (0.8 mg T 69%, 0.8 mg 73%, 1.6 mg T 81% vs. liraglutide 1.8 mg 57%).The results (see e.g. FIG. 1) shows that treatment with semaglutide 0.8 mg, 0.8 mg T, or 1.6 mg T improved reduction of HbA1c compared to treatment with liraglutide 1.2 mg or 1.8 mg; furthermore, treatment with semaglutide 1.6 mg T was statistically superior to treatment with liraglutide 1.2 mg or 1.8 mg with respect to reduction of HbA1c (based on unadjusted means). FIG. 3 shows the percentage and the number of subjects reaching the AACE or ADA criteria for glycaemic control with the different treatments. The results (see FIG. 3) shows that treatment with semaglutide 0.8 mg, 0.8 mg T, or 1.6 mg T improved the percentage and the number of subjects reaching the AACE or ADA criteria for glycaemic control compared to treatment with liraglutide 1.2 mg or 1.8 mg. Body weight was dose-dependently reduced from baseline by up to 4.8 kg vs. placebo 1.2 kg (p<0.01 for doses 13.8 mg). FIGS. 4 and 5 shows mean body weight change versus time and body weight change from baseline at week 12, respectively, with the different treatments. The results (see e.g. FIG. 5) shows that treatment with semaglutide 0.8 mg, 0.8 mg T, or 1.6 mg T increased reduction of body weight compared to treatment with liraglutide 1.2 mg or 1.8 mg. Furthermore, the results (see e.g. FIG. 5) shows that treatment with semaglutide 0.8 mg T or 1.6 mg T was statistically superior to treatment with liraglutide 1.8 mg with respect to reduction of body weight; and that treatment with semaglutide 0.8 mg, 0.8 mg T, or 1.6 mg T was statistically superior to liraglutide 1.2 mg with respect to reduction of body weight (based on unadjusted means). There were no reports of pancreatitis or treatment-related changes in blood calcitonin. Proportion of subjects with nausea and vomiting increased with dose, but were generally mild or moderate and ameliorated by titration. Withdrawals due to gastrointestinal adverse events were 4.7%-27.7% for semaglutide and 2.2%-10% for liraglutide. Few subjects reported minor hypoglycaemia (semaglutide n=5, liraglutide n=3); no major hypoglycaemia. Injection site reactions were reported by 7 subjects: semaglutide n=2; liraglutide n=5. One subject (semaglutide 1.6 mg T) developed low titre non-neutralising anti-semaglutide antibodies (no cross-reaction to native GLP-1). CONCLUSION Over 12 weeks, semaglutide dose-dependently reduced HbA1c and body weight. The effect of semaglutide 0.4 mg on glycaemic control and body weight was comparable to that of liraglutide 1.2 mg, while semaglutide ≧0.8 mg appeared to bring more subjects to target and provided better weight loss than liraglutide 1.8 mg. No semaglutide safety concerns were identified. Dose escalation was not a major focus of this trial and it will be optimised in future clinical trials. Pharmacological Methods Assay (I): In Vitro Potency The purpose of this example is to test the activity, or potency, of GLP-1 agonists in vitro. The potencies of GLP-1 agonists may be determined as described below, i.e. as the stimulation of the formation of cyclic AMP (cAMP) in a medium containing membranes expressing the human GLP-1 receptor. Principle Purified plasma membranes from a stable transfected cell line, BHK467-12A (tk-ts13), expressing the human GLP-1 receptor are stimulated with the GLP-1 agonist in question, and the potency of cAMP production is measured using the AlphaScreen™ cAMP Assay Kit from Perkin Elmer Life Sciences. The basic principle of The AlphaScreen Assay is a competition between endogenous cAMP and exogenously added biotin-cAMP. The capture of cAMP is achieved by using a specific antibody conjugated to acceptor beads. Cell Culture and Preparation of Membranes A stable transfected cell line and a high expressing clone are selected for screening. The cells are grown at 5% CO2 in DMEM, 5% FCS, 1% Pen/Strep (Penicillin/Streptomycin) and 0.5 mg/ml of the selection marker G418. Cells at approximate 80% confluence are washed 2× with PBS and harvested with Versene (aqueous solution of the tetrasodium salt of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid), centrifuged 5 min at 1000 rpm and the supernatant removed. The additional steps are all made on ice. The cell pellet is homogenised by the Ultrathurax for 20-30 sec. in 10 ml of Buffer 1 (20 mM Na-HEPES, 10 mM EDTA, pH=7.4), centrifuged 15 min at 20,000 rpm and the pellet resuspended in 10 ml of Buffer 2 (20 mM Na-HEPES, 0.1 mM EDTA, pH=7.4). The suspension is homogenised for 20-30 sec and centrifuged 15 min at 20,000 rpm. Suspension in Buffer 2, homogenisation and centrifugation is repeated once and the membranes are resuspended in Buffer 2. The protein concentration is determined and the membranes stored at −80° C. until use. The assay is performed in ½-area 96-well plates, flat bottom (e.g. Costar cat. no: 3693). The final volume per well is 50 μl. Solutions and Reagents Exemplary solutions and reagents are given below. AlphaScreen cAMP Assay Kit from Perkin Elmer Life Sciences (cat. No: 6760625M); containing Anti-cAMP Acceptor beads (10 U/μl), Streptavidin Donor beads (10 U/μl) and Biotinylated-cAMP (133 U/μl). AlphaScreen Buffer, pH=7.4: 50 mM TRIS-HCl (Sigma, cat. no: T3253); 5 mM HEPES (Sigma, cat. no: H3375); 10 mM MgCl2, 6H2O (Merck, cat. no: 5833); 150 mM NaCl (Sigma, cat. no: S9625); 0.01% Tween (Merck, cat. no: 822184). The following was added to the AlphaScreen Buffer prior to use (final concentrations indicated): BSA (Sigma, cat. no. A7906): 0.1%; IBMX (Sigma, cat. no. 15879): 0.5 mM; ATP (Sigma, cat. no. A7699): 1 mM; GTP (Sigma, cat. no. G8877): 1 μM. cAMP standard (dilution factor in assay=5): cAMP Solution: 5 μL of a 5 mM cAMP-stock+495 μL AlphaScreen Buffer. Suitable dilution series in AlphaScreen Buffer are prepared of the cAMP standard as well as the GLP-1 agonist to be tested, e.g. the following eight concentrations of the GLP-1 agonist: 10−7, 10−8, 10−9, 10−10, 10−11, 10−12, 10−13 and 10−14M, and a series from, e.g., 10−6 to 3×10−11 of cAMP. Membrane/Acceptor Beads Use hGLP-1/BHK 467-12A membranes; 6 μg/well corresponding to 0.6 mg/ml (the amount of membranes used pr. well may vary) “No membranes”: Acceptor Beads (15 μg/ml final) in AlphaScreen buffer “6 μg/well membranes”: membranes+Acceptor Beads (15 μg/ml final) in AlphaScreen buffer Add 10 μl “No membranes” to the cAMP standard (per well in duplicates) and the positive and negative controls Add 10 μl “6 μg/well membranes” to GLP-1 and GLP-1 agonists (per well in duplicates/triplicates) Pos. Control: 10 μl “no membranes”+10 μl AlphaScreen Buffer Neg. Control: 10 μl “no membranes”+10 μl cAMP Stock Solution (50 μM) As the beads are sensitive to direct light, any handling is in the dark (as dark as possible), or in green light. All dilutions are made on ice. Procedure 1. Make the AlphaScreen Buffer. 2. Dissolve and dilute the GLP-1 agonists/cAMP standard in AlphaScreen Buffer. 3. Make the Donor Beads solution and incubate 30 min. at RT. 4. Add the cAMP/GLP-1 agonists to the plate: 10 μl per well. 5. Prepare membrane/Acceptor Beads solution and add this to the plates: 10 μl per well. 6. Add the Donor Beads: 30 μl per well. 7. Wrap the plate in aluminum foil and incubate on the shaker for 3 hours (very slowly) at RT. 8. Count on AlphaScreen—each plate pre incubates in the AlphaScreen for 3 minutes before counting. The EC50 [pM] values may be calculated using the Graph-Pad Prism software (version 5). If desired, the fold variation in relation to GLP-1 may be calculated as EC50 (GLP-1)/ EC50 (analogue)—3693.2. Assay (II): Half-Life in Minipigs The purpose of this study is to determine the protraction in vivo of GLP-1 agonists after i.v. administration to minipigs, i.e. the prolongation of their time of action. This is done in a pharmacokinetic (PK) study, where the terminal half-life of the GLP-1 agonist in question is determined. By terminal half-life is generally meant the period of time it takes to halve a certain plasma concentration, measured after the initial distribution phase. Male Göttingen minipigs are obtained from Ellegaard Göttingen Minipigs (Dalmose, Denmark) approximately 7-14 months of age and weighing from approximately 16-35 kg are used in the studies. The minipigs are housed individually and fed restrictedly once or twice daily with SDS minipig diet (Special Diets Services, Essex, UK). After at least 2 weeks of acclimatisation two permanent central venous catheters are implanted in vena cava caudalis or cranialis in each animal. The animals are allowed 1 week recovery after the surgery, and are then used for repeated pharmacokinetic studies with a suitable wash-out period between dosings. The animals are fasted for approximately 18 h before dosing and for at least 4 h after dosing, but have ad libitum access to water during the whole period. The GLP-1 agonist is dissolved in 50 mM sodium phosphate, 145 mM sodium chloride, 0.05% tween 80, pH 7.4 to a concentration of usually from 20-60 nmol/ml. Intravenous injections (the volume corresponding to usually 1-2 nmol/kg, for example 0.033 ml/kg) of the compounds are given through one catheter, and blood is sampled at predefined time points for up till 13 days post dosing (preferably through the other catheter). Blood samples (for example 0.8 ml) are collected in EDTA buffer (8 mM) and then centrifuged at 4° C. and 1942 G for 10 minutes. Plasma is pippetted into Micronic tubes on dry ice, and kept at −20° C. until analyzed for plasma concentration of the respective GLP-1 compound using ELISA or a similar antibody based assay or LC-MS. Individual plasma concentration-time profiles are analyzed by a non-compartmental model in WinNonlin v. 5.0 (Pharsight Inc., Mountain View, Calif., USA), and the resulting terminal half-lives (harmonic mean) determined. Assay (III): Effect on Blood Glucose and Body Weight The purpose of the study is to verify the effect of GLP-1 agonists on blood glucose (BG) and body weight (BW) in a diabetic setting. GLP-1 agonists may be tested in a dose-response study in an obese, diabetic mouse model (db/db mice) as described in the following. Fifty db/db mice (Taconic, Denmark), fed from birth with the diet NIH31 (NIH 31M Rodent Diet, commercially available from Taconic Farms, Inc., US, see www.taconic.com), are enrolled for the study at the age of 7-9 weeks The mice are given free access to standard chow (e.g. Altromin 1324, Brogaarden, Gentofte, Denmark) and tap water and kept at 24° C. After 1-2 weeks of acclimatisation, the basal blood glucose is assessed twice on two consecutive days (i.e. at 9 am). The 8 mice with the lowest blood glucose values may be excluded from the experiments. Based on the mean blood glucose values, the remaining 42 mice may be selected for further experimentation and allocated to 7 groups (n=6) with matching blood glucose levels. The mice may be used in experiments with duration of 5 days for up to 4 times. After the last experiment the mice are euthanised. The seven groups may receive treatment as follows: 1: Vehicle, subcutaneous 2: GLP-1 agonist, 0.3 nmol/kg, subcutaneous 3: GLP-1 agonist, 1.0 nmol/kg, subcutaneous 4: GLP-1 agonist, 3.0 nmol/kg, subcutaneous 5: GLP-1 agonist, 10 nmol/kg, subcutaneous 6: GLP-1 agonist, 30 nmol/kg, subcutaneous 7: GLP-1 agonist, 100 nmol/kg, subcutaneous Vehicle: 50 mM sodium phosphate, 145 mM sodium chloride, 0.05% tween 80, pH 7.4. The GLP-1 agonist is dissolved in the vehicle, e.g. to concentrations of 0.05, 0.17, 0.5, 1.7, 5.0 and 17.0 nmol/ml. Animals are dosed subcutaneous with a dose-volume of 6 ml/kg (i.e. 300 μl per 50 g mouse). On the day of dosing, blood glucose is assessed at time −½ h (8.30 am), where after the mice are weighed. The GLP-1 agonist is dosed at approximately 9 am (time 0). On the day of dosing, blood glucose is assessed e.g. at times 1, 2, 4 and 8 h (10 am, 11 am, 1 pm and 5 pm). On the following days, the blood glucose is assessed e.g. at time 24, 48, 72, and 96 h after dosing (i.e. at 9 am on day 2, 3, 4, 5). On each day, the mice are weighed following blood glucose sampling. The mice are weighed individually on a digital weight. Samples for the measurement of blood glucose are obtained from the tail tip capillary of conscious mice. Blood, 10 μl, is collected into heparinised capillaries and transferred to 500 μl glucose buffer (EKF system solution, Eppendorf, Germany). The glucose concentration is measured using the glucose oxidase method (glucose analyser Biosen 5040, EKF Diagnostic, GmbH, Barleben, Germany). The samples are kept at room temperature for up to 1 h until analysis. If analysis has to be postponed, samples are kept at 4° C. for a maximum of 24 h. ED50 is the dose giving rise to half-maximal effect in nmol/kg. This value is calculated on the basis of the ability of the GLP-1 agonists to lower body weight as well as the ability to lower blood glucose, as explained below. ED50 for body weight is calculated as the dose giving rise to half-maximum effect on delta BW 24 hours following the subcutaneous administration of the GLP-1 agonist. For example, if the maximum decrease in body weight after 24 hours is 4.0 g, then ED50 bodyweight would be that dose in nmol/kg which gives rise to a decrease in body weight after 24 hours of 2.0 g. This dose (ED50 body weight) may be read from the dose-response curve. ED50 for blood glucose is calculated as the dose giving rise to half-maximum effect on AUC delta BG 8 hours following the subcutaneous administration of the GLP-1 agonist. The ED50 value may only be calculated if a proper sigmoidal dose-response relationship exists with a clear definition of the maximum response. Thus, if this would not be the case the GLP-1 agonist in question is re-tested in a different range of doses until the sigmoidal dose-response relationship is obtained. Assay (IV): Effect on Food Intake The purpose of this experiment is to investigate the effect of GLP-1 agonists on food intake in pigs. This is done in a pharmacodynamic (PD) study as described below, in which food intake is measured 1, 2, 3, and 4 days after administration of a single dose of the GLP-1 agonist, as compared to a vehicle-treated control group. Female Landrace Yorkshire Duroc (LYD) pigs, approximately 3 months of age, weighing approximately 30-35 kg are used (n=3-4 per group). The animals are housed in a group for 1-2 weeks during acclimatisation to the animal facilities. During the experimental period the animals are placed in individual pens from Monday morning to Friday afternoon for measurement of individual food intake. The animals are fed ad libitum with pig fodder (Svinefoder, Antonio) at all times both during the acclimatisation and the experimental period. Food intake is monitored on line by logging the weight of fodder every 15 minutes. The system used is Mpigwin (Ellegaard Systems, Faaborg, Denmark). The GLP-1 agonists are dissolved in a phosphate buffer (50 mM phosphate, 0.05% tween 80, pH 8) e.g. at concentrations of 12, 40, 120, 400 or 1200 nmol/ml corresponding to doses of 0.3, 1, 3, 10, or 30 nmol/kg. The phosphate buffer served as vehicle. Animals are dosed with a single subcutaneous dose of the GLP-1 agonist or vehicle (dose volume 0.025 ml/kg) on the morning of day 1, and food intake is measured for 4 days after dosing. On the last day of each study, 4 days after dosing, a blood sample for measurement of plasma exposure of the GLP-1 agonist is taken from the heart in anaesthetised animals. The animals are thereafter euthanised with an intra-cardial overdose of pentobarbitone. Plasma content of the GLP-1 agonist is analysed using ELISA or a similar antibody based assay. Food intake is calculated as mean ±SEM 24 h food intake on the 4 days. Statistical comparisons of the 24 hour food intake in the vehicle vs. GLP-1 agonist group on the 4 days are done using one-way or two-way-ANOVA repeated measures, followed by Bonferroni post-test. Assay (V): Stability against Degradation by Intestinal Enzymes The purpose of this example is to test the stability against degradation by intestinal enzymes. GLP-1(7-37) may be used in the assay as a comparative compound. The strongest proteolytic activities in the intestine are of pancreatic origin and include the serine endopeptidases trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase as well as several types of carboxypeptidases. An assay with small intestine extract from rats was developed and used as described in the following. Extracts from Rat Small Intestine Small intestines are prepared from rats and flushed with 8 ml of 150 mM NaCl, 20 mM Hepes pH 7.4. The solutions are centrifuged for 15 min at 4,600 rpm in a Heraeus Multifuge 3 S-R centrifuge with a 75006445 rotor. The supernatants are removed and filtered through a 0.22 μm Millipore Millex GV PVDF membrane. Filtrates of several animals are pooled to average out individual differences. The protein content of the obtained extracts is determined by Bradford Assay (see e.g. Analytical Biochemistry (1976), vol. 72, p. 248-254, and Analytical Biochemistry (1996), vol. 236 p. 302-308). Degradation Assay 2.5 nmol of the GLP-1 agonists to be tested are incubated with the intestinal extract in a volume of 250 μl at 37° C. over a period of one hour. Intestinal samples are assayed in presence of 20 mM Hepes at pH 7.4. The concentration of the intestinal extract is titrated in pilot experiments so that the half-life (t½) of GLP-1(7-37) is in the range of 10-20 minutes. The small intestine extract is used at a concentration of 1.4 μg/ml. All components except for the intestinal extract are mixed and pre-warmed for ten minutes at 37° C. Immediately after addition of the intestinal extract a sample of 50 μl is taken and mixed with the same volume of 1% trifluoroacetic acid (TFA). Further samples are taken accordingly after 15, 30, and 60 minutes. Sample Analysis UPLC analysis: 10 μl of the samples are analysed by UPLC using a Waters Acquity system with a BEH C18 1.7 μm 2.1×50 mm column and a 30 to 65% gradient of 0.1% TFA and 0.07% TFA in acetonitrile over 5 minutes at a flow rate of 0.6 ml/min. After baseline subtraction the peak integrals of the intact compounds in the HPLC chromatogram recorded at a wavelength of 214 nm are determined. MALDI-TOF analysis: 1 μl of each sample is transferred to a Bruker/Eppendorf PAC HCCA 384 MALDI target. Analysis is performed with a Bruker Autoflex matrix-assisted laser desorption and ionisation—time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometer using the pre-defined method “PAC measure” with an extended detection range of 500 to 5000 Da and the pre-defined calibration method “PAC calibrate”. Data analysis: The peak integrals of the HPLC chromatograms are plotted against time. The half-life of the respective compound is calculated by fitting the data using SigmaPlot 9.0 software and an equation for a 2-parameter exponential decay. For each GLP-1 agonist tested, the relative half-life (relative T1/2) is calculated as the half-life (T1/2) of the compound in question, divided by the half-life (T1/2) of GLP-1(7-37), determined in the same way. While certain features of the invention have been illustrated and described herein, many modifications, substitutions, changes, and equivalents will now occur to those of ordinary skill in the art. It is, therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended to cover all such modifications and changes as fall within the true spirit of the invention. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In one embodiment the invention relates to a method for a) reduction of HbA1c; b) prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes; or c) prevention or treatment of obesity, reducing body weight and/or food intake, or inducing satiety; wherein said method comprises administration of a GLP-1 agonist to a subject in need thereof, wherein said GLP-1 agonist i) has a half-life of at least 72 hours, wherein said half-life optionally is determined by Assay (II); ii) is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week; and iii) is administered once weekly or less often. In one embodiment the invention relates to a GLP-1 agonist for use in a) the reduction of HbA1c; b) the prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes; or c) the prevention or treatment of obesity, for reducing body weight and/or food intake, or for inducing satiety; wherein said use comprises administration of said GLP-1 agonist in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week, and wherein said GLP-1 agonist and/or administration optionally is as defined herein. In one embodiment the invention relates to a composition comprising a GLP-1 agonist for use in a) the reduction of HbA1c; b) the prevention or treatment of type 2 diabetes, hyperglycemia, impaired glucose tolerance, or non-insulin dependent diabetes; or c) the prevention or treatment of obesity, for reducing body weight and/or food intake, or for inducing satiety; wherein said GLP-1 agonist i) has a half-life of at least 72 hours, wherein said half-life optionally is determined by Assay (II); and ii) is administered in an amount of at least 0.7 mg per week, such an amount equivalent to at least 0.7 mg semaglutide per week; and wherein said composition is administered once weekly or less often, and wherein said GLP-1 agonist and/or administration optionally is as defined herein. | A61K3826 | 20170721 | 20180329 | 95650.0 | A61K3826 | 9 | HELLMAN, KRISTINA M | Use of Long-Acting GLP-1 Peptides | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
||
15,656,155 | PENDING | INFORMATION PROCESSING METHOD, TERMINAL, AND COMPUTER-READABLE STORAGE MEDIUM | An association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information is established. The association logic includes at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification. A first message is monitored. A first identification corresponding to the first message is obtained by analysing the first message. It is detected, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. It is determined that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. | 1. An information processing method, comprising: establishing, by a terminal, an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information, the association logic comprising at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; monitoring, by the terminal, a first message; obtaining, by the terminal, a first identification corresponding to the first message by analysing the first message; detecting, by the terminal according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic; and determining, by the terminal, that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. 2. The method according to claim 1, further comprising: monitoring, by the terminal, a first operation directed to the first message, and triggering, by the terminal, the display of the specified information in response to detecting the first operation matching a pre-set operation. 3. The method according to claim 2, further comprising: before the monitoring the first operation directed to the first message, obtaining, by the terminal, a first parameter by detecting a system operating environment of the terminal; and selecting, by the terminal, an operating mode according to the first parameter, and performing processing by calling a processing logic corresponding to the operating mode, the processing comprising at least one of the monitoring, the detecting, and the display. 4. The method according to claim 2, wherein the pre-set operation comprises a screen touching operation on an interactive object in a prompt page where the first message is displayed. 5. The method according to claim 4, further comprising: recording, by the terminal, one touch operation each time a match between the first operation and the pre-set operation is detected; in response to monitoring a pre-set number of consecutive touch operations, changing, by the terminal, a form in which the specified information is displayed, the form comprising at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed. 6. The method according to claim 4, further comprising: in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation, determining, by the terminal, whether a touch strength of the first operation reaches a pre-set pressure value; and in response to determining that the touch strength of the first operation reaches the pre-set pressure value, changing, by the terminal, a form in which the specified information is displayed, the form comprising at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed. 7. The method according to claim 2, wherein the display of the specified information is triggered according to the pre-set operation directed to the first message displayed on a user interface. 8. A terminal, comprising: a processor; and a memory for storing instructions, wherein the instructions are executable by the processor for: establishing an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information, the association logic comprising at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; monitoring a first message; obtaining a first identification corresponding to the first message by analysing the first message; detecting, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic; and determining that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. 9. The terminal according to claim 8, wherein the processor is further configured for: monitoring a first operation directed to the first message, and triggering the display of the specified information in response to detecting the first operation matching a pre-set operation. 10. The terminal according to claim 9, wherein the processor is further configured for: before monitoring the first operation directed to the first message, obtaining a first parameter by detecting a system operating environment of the terminal; and selecting an operating mode according to the first parameter, and performing processing by calling a processing logic corresponding to the operating mode, the processing comprising at least one of the monitoring, the detecting, and the display. 11. The terminal according to claim 9, wherein the pre-set operation comprises a screen touching operation on an interactive object in a prompt page where the first message is displayed. 12. The terminal according to claim 11, wherein the processor is further configured for: recording one touch operation each time a match between the first operation and the pre-set operation is detected; in response to monitoring a pre-set number of consecutive touch operations, changing a form in which the specified information is displayed, the form comprising at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed. 13. The terminal according to claim 11, wherein the processor is further configured for: in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation, determining whether a touch strength of the first operation reaches a pre-set pressure value; and in response to determining that the touch strength of the first operation reaches the pre-set pressure value, changing a form in which the specified information is displayed, the form comprising at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed. 14. The terminal according to claim 9, wherein the display of the specified information is triggered according to the pre-set operation directed to the first message displayed on a user interface. 15. A non-transitory computer-readable storage medium having stored therein computer-executable instructions that, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to execute an information processing method comprising: establishing an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information, the association logic comprising at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; monitoring a first message; obtaining a first identification corresponding to the first message by analysing the first message; detecting, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic; determining that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. 16. The storage medium according to claim 15, wherein the method further comprises: monitoring a first operation directed to the first message, and triggering the display of the specified information in response to detecting the first operation matching a pre-set operation. 17. The storage medium according to claim 16, wherein the method further comprises: before the monitoring the first operation directed to the first message, obtaining a first parameter by detecting a system operating environment of the terminal; and selecting an operating mode according to the first parameter, and performing processing by calling a processing logic corresponding to the operating mode, the processing comprising at least one of the monitoring, the detecting, and the display. 18. The storage medium according to claim 16, wherein the pre-set operation comprises a screen touching operation on an interactive object in a prompt page where the first message is displayed. 19. The storage medium according to claim 18, wherein the method further comprises: recording one touch operation each time a match between the first operation and the pre-set operation is detected; in response to monitoring a pre-set number of consecutive touch operations, changing a form in which the specified information is displayed, the form comprising at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed. 20. The storage medium according to claim 16, wherein the display of the specified information is triggered according to the pre-set operation directed to the first message displayed on a user interface. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This is a continuation application of International Patent Application No. PCT/CN2016/072412, filed on Jan. 27, 2016, which claims priority to Chinese Application No. 201510069810.7 filed on Feb. 10, 2015, both disclosures being incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. BACKGROUND The following technical problems emerge in related art. With development of internet technology, there comes an era of big data when massive amounts of information constantly spring up. To match a demand for information sharing by public, information is processed with existing technology based on a social networking tool such as WeChat, Microblogging, etc. A great amount of information will be shared in a social network, with the shared information being displayed in increasingly diversified forms. In one scene, display of specified information is triggered by searching for a key word input by a user. Such a mode of display based on key word search is supported only when a user inputs a plain text message, and is not supported for a great number of non-text message types. However, various message types are available on a terminal. Accordingly, key word search based information display has a limited scope of application, failing to meet increasingly diversified user demands for displaying shared information. No effective solution to such problems exists in related art. SUMMARY The disclosure relates to communication technology, and in particular to an information processing method, a terminal, and a computer-readable storage medium. In view of this, embodiments herein provide an information processing method, a terminal, and a computer-readable storage medium capable of solving at least a problem in existing art. A technical solution according to an embodiment herein may be implemented as follows. According to an embodiment herein, an information processing method includes: establishing, by a terminal, an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information, the association logic including at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; monitoring, by the terminal, a first message; obtaining, by the terminal, a first identification corresponding to the first message by analysing the first message; detecting, by the terminal according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic; determining, by the terminal, that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. A terminal according to an embodiment herein includes: a processor; and a memory for storing instructions. The instructions are executable by the processor for: establishing an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information, the association logic including at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; monitoring a first message; obtaining a first identification corresponding to the first message by analysing the first message; detecting, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic; and determining that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. According to an embodiment herein, a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium has stored therein computer-executable instructions that, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to execute the information processing method. An information processing method according to an embodiment herein applies to a terminal. The method includes steps as follows. An association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information is established. The association logic includes at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification. A first message is monitored. A first identification corresponding to the first message is obtained by analysing the first message. It is detected, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. It is determined that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. With embodiments herein, it may be identified, according to a monitored first message and detection of an association logic, whether the first message supports display of specified information, such that display of specific information may be supported by various message types, expanding the scope of applying information display, meeting increasingly diversified user demands for displaying shared information. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate embodiments consistent with the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention. FIG. 1 is a flowchart of a Method Embodiment 1 herein. FIG. 2 is a flowchart of a Method Embodiment 2 herein. FIG. 3 is a diagram of a structure of Terminal Embodiment 1 herein. FIG. 4 is a diagram of hardware architecture of a terminal according to an embodiment herein. FIG. 5 is a diagram of a scene of applying an embodiment herein. FIG. 6 is a diagram of a scene of applying an embodiment herein. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Implementation of a technical solution herein will be further elaborated below with reference to the drawings. An information processing method according to an embodiment herein applies to a terminal. As shown in FIG. 1, the method includes steps as follows. In step 101, an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information is established. In step 102, at least identification of the non-text message type is included in the association logic, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification. Here, the association logic may include further logic content as mentioned below. In step 103, a first message is monitored; a first identification corresponding to the first message is obtained by analysing the first message; it is detected, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. In step 104, it is determined that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. With an embodiment herein, after the identification and the association logic in steps 101-102 are configured, in steps 103-104, it may be determined whether the first message supports the display of the specified information, allowing trigger of displaying specific information with a non-text message type, such that display of specific information may be supported by various message types, expanding the scope of applying information display, meeting increasingly diversified user demands for displaying shared information. Here, the display of the specified information may be dropping moneybags ‘emoji’ (or eggs, as shown in FIG. 6) as described in an application scene below, where the first message may be an open-red-envelope message. Special effects of egg dropping may not be triggered merely by the presence of the open-red-envelope message. An operation to open a red envelope may be further triggered (such as by a screen touching move) in a page displaying the open-red-envelope message, such that display of specific information may be triggered with a non-text message type, and dropping of the moneybags ‘emoji’, that is, the eggs, may actually be triggered by the operation to open a red envelope. An information processing method according to an embodiment herein applies to a terminal. As shown in FIG. 2, the method may include steps as follows. In step 201, an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information is established. In step 202, the association logic may be arranged to include at least: identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; and trigger of the display of the specified information supported by the first message after monitoring that a pre-set operation is met. In step 203, a first message is monitored; a first identification corresponding to the first message is obtained by analyzing the first message; it is detected, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. In step 204, it is determined that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. In step 205, a first operation directed to the first message may be monitored, and the display of the specified information may be triggered in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation. With an embodiment herein, after the identification and the association logic in steps 201-202 are configured, in steps 203-204, it may be determined whether the first message supports the display of the specified information, allowing trigger of displaying specific information with a non-text message type, such that display of specific information may be supported by various message types, expanding the scope of applying information display, meeting increasingly diversified user demands for displaying shared information. Moreover, with step 205, the display of the specified information may be triggered only when the first operation matches the pre-set operation. Here, the display of the specified information may be dropping moneybags ‘emoji’ (or eggs, as shown in FIG. 6) as described in an application scene below, where the first message may be an open-red-envelope message. Special effects of egg dropping may not be triggered merely by the presence of the open-red-envelope message. An operation to open a red envelope may be further triggered (such as by a screen touching move) in a page displaying the open-red-envelope message, such that display of specific information may be triggered with a non-text message type, and dropping of the moneybags ‘emoji’, that is, the eggs, may actually be triggered by the operation to open a red envelope. That is to say, with the embodiment, timing of dropping emoji eggs associated with a New Year greeting red envelope in a scene of WeChat may be controlled. In an embodiment herein, the method may further include steps as follows. before the first operation directed to the first message is monitored and the display of the specified information is triggered in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation, a first parameter may be obtained by detecting a system operating environment of the terminal; an operating mode may be selected according to the first parameter, and processing may be performed by calling a processing logic corresponding to the operating mode. The processing may include at least one of the monitoring, the detecting, and the display. Here, since terminals such as those of an Android system and an Apple system support different systems and adopt different specific processing logics, such as different monitoring processes and monitoring controls, for monitoring the first operation directed to the first message and triggering the display of the specified information in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation. For example, the Apple system iOS may call a system UITouch control, create an object having a tapCount attribute, monitor a number of screen touches, i.e., how many times a user touches a screen, capture a clicking operation, and then trigger egg dropping accordingly. For example, the Android system may call a system “OneClickListener” to monitor a number of screen touches, capture a clicking operation, and then trigger egg dropping accordingly, which will be elaborated in an example of an application scene below. In an embodiment herein, the pre-set operation may include a screen touching operation on an interactive object in a prompt page where the first message is displayed. Here, the interactive object may be an object for triggering interaction such as open-red-envelope or bubble to trigger egg dropping, such as the interactive object S21 or S22 shown in FIG. 5. Eggs may drop in a form as shown by S31 in FIG. 6, which is merely an example. FIG. 6 includes a plurality of eggs. In an embodiment herein, a specific form in which the specified information is displayed may be controllably adjusted at a terminal. An amount and a speed of dropping emoji eggs associated with a New Year greeting red envelope in a scene of WeChat may be controlled. Specifically, there may be two implementation modes as follows. In the first mode, one touch operation may be recorded each time a match between the first operation and the pre-set operation is detected; in response to monitoring a pre-set number of consecutive touch operations, a form in which the specified information is displayed may be changed. The form may include at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed. The mode is based on multiple touching or pressing operation. For example, provided with a larger number of touches, eggs may drop at a greater speed and/or more eggs may drop. Controllable adjustment may stop when a pre-set upper limit of the number of touches is reached. In the second mode, in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation, it may be determined whether a touch strength of the first operation reaches a pre-set pressure value; and in response to determining that the touch strength of the first operation reaches the pre-set pressure value, a form in which the specified information is displayed may be changed. The form may include at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed. The mode is based on a long hard press. Upon reaching the pre-set pressure value, it may be triggered to drop eggs at a greater speed and/or to drop more eggs. The higher the pressure is, the faster eggs may drop and/or the more eggs may drop. Controllable adjustment may stop upon reaching a pre-set upper limit of pressure. In an embodiment herein, the first message may be displayed on a user interface of a sender or a receiver; the display of the specified information may be triggered according to the pre-set operation directed to the first message displayed on the user interface of the receiver. The first message may be displayed on a user interface of the sender or the receiver. However, display of egg dropping may be triggered only when a user receiving a red envelope confirms an operation to open the red envelope. That is, dynamic egg dropping may be displayed only when it is confirmed that the receiver has opened a red envelope. The embodiment is different from a special situation. With the conventional art, indicated information may be displayed when a text message such as a key word is input at a first user interface of a sender; however, no indicated information will be displayed to a receiver if the text message is not received at a second user interface of the receiver. There is a problem with the conventional art that, after the sender has sent the text message, the text message may be missing or intercepted by a server, the receiver may receive no text message, no information will be shared and displayed to the receiver. The embodiment eliminates such a problem. As shown in FIG. 3, a terminal according to an embodiment herein includes: an establishing unit 11 configured for: establishing an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information, the association logic comprising at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; and a monitoring and detecting unit 12 configured for: monitoring a first message; obtaining a first identification corresponding to the first message by analysing the first message; detecting, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic; and determining that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. In an embodiment herein, the association logic may further include trigger of the display of the specified information supported by the first message in response to monitoring a pre-set operation; the monitoring and detecting unit may be further configured for: monitoring a first operation directed to the first message, and triggering the display of the specified information in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation. In an embodiment herein, the terminal may further include: a system parameter detecting unit configured for: before monitoring the first operation directed to the first message and triggering the display of the specified information in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation, obtaining a first parameter by detecting a system operating environment of the terminal; and a processing logic calling unit configured for: selecting an operating mode according to the first parameter, and performing processing by calling a processing logic corresponding to the operating mode; the processing may include at least one of the monitoring, the detecting, and the display. In an embodiment herein, the monitoring and detecting unit may be further configured for executing a first mode or a second mode; the first mode may include: recording one touch operation each time a match between the first operation and the pre-set operation is detected; in response to monitoring a pre-set number of consecutive touch operations, changing a form in which the specified information is displayed, the form comprising at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed; the second mode may include: in response to detecting the first operation matching the pre-set operation, determining whether a touch strength of the first operation reaches a pre-set pressure value; and in response to determining that the touch strength of the first operation reaches the pre-set pressure value, changing a form in which the specified information is displayed, the form comprising at least one of a displayed amount and a display speed. In an embodiment herein, the monitoring and detecting unit may be further configured for: when the first message is displayed on a user interface of a sender or a receiver, triggering the display of the specified information according to the pre-set operation directed to the first message displayed on the user interface of the receiver. Note that the terminal may be, but not limited to: electronic equipment such as a Personal Computer (PC); portable electronic equipment such as a PAD, a tablet computer, a laptop, etc.; or a smart mobile terminal such as a mobile phone. The terminal may include at least a database for data storage and a processor for data processing, or include a storage medium arranged separately or in a server. The processor may be implemented with a microprocessor, a Central Processing Unit (CPU), a Digital Signal Processor (DSP), or a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA). The storage medium may include computer-executable operation instructions that, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to execute the information processing method according to an aforementioned embodiment herein. An example of the terminal as a hardware entity S11, as shown in FIG. 4, may include a processor 31, a storage medium 32, and at least one external communication interface 33. The processor 31, the storage medium 32 and the external communication interfaces 33 are connected to each other by a bus 34. Note that the above description relating to the terminal is similar to that relating to the method, with the same beneficial effect as the method, which is not repeated. One may refer to description in the method embodiments herein for technical details not disclosed for the terminal herein. Description is made below with reference to a real application scene as an example. The above embodiments herein may apply to a solution for triggering dropping of emoji chat eggs in a New Year greeting red envelope in a WeChat chat. The emoji chat eggs may drop as emoji (facial) expressions in a chat interface. The timing, amount, and speed of the dropping emoji expressions in the scene may be adjusted controllably. With the conventional art, chat egg dropping may be triggered only with a text message in a WeChat window. When a user sends a message, the terminal searches each text message for a key word, triggering an egg logic with a search hit. Upon entering the chat window, the user will see egg dropping. A problem with the conventional art may be as follows. 1) A trigger condition is limited by a single text message type, that is, key word search triggering chat egg dropping is limited to a common text message. Actually, WeChat as a most common communication tool, has highly diversified message types, with users tending to express themselves using various message types. 2) Timing of egg dropping is limited to when a user enters a chat window, and both the number and the speed of dropping eggs are limited, with no interaction between the user and the information. With the embodiments herein, the application scene may mainly include specific implementations as follows. First, chat egg dropping may be triggered with a non-text message type as follows. A terminal may mark and name a message type in a chat, add an association logic that associates a non-text message type with chat egg dropping, and further with a specific emoji expression. When a user sends a message, the terminal may trigger egg dropping when a message type associated with chat egg dropping is monitored or detected. Here, an actual application scene, such as a red envelope scene, may include a ‘New Year greeting red envelope’. The terminal may mark a red envelope message type, and associate a ‘New Year greeting red envelope’ message with moneybag emoji, namely egg, dropping, thereby enabling trigger of chat egg dropping by the ‘New Year greeting red envelope’. Second, personalized adjustment of the number and speed of dropping chat eggs may be supported. When associating a specific message type with the emoji egg, a personalized configuration for display of egg dropping, such as personalized display of egg dropping, a speed and a number of dropping eggs, may be provided. The monitoring operation may be implemented as follows. For an Apple iOS, a system UITouch control may be called to create an object having a tapCount attribute, monitor a number of screen touches, capture a clicking operation, and then trigger emoji egg dropping accordingly. For an Android system, a system “OneClickListener” may be called to monitor a number of screen touches, capture a clicking operation, and then trigger egg dropping accordingly. Third, timing of chat egg dropping may be controlled. Instead of using the default logic of triggering egg dropping upon entering a chat window, the terminal may monitor a specific operation on the chat window and set a timing of chat egg dropping after the specific operation. An actual application scene may include that the terminal monitors a click on ‘open red envelope’ on the screen, which move serves as a trigger for egg dropping. To sum up, the embodiments herein may apply to the scene of display of egg dropping, where eggs in a New Year greeting red envelope in a WeChat terminal are implemented as emoji expressions. A click on a red envelope bubble message in a chat window of WeChat may be monitored, after which chat egg dropping may be triggered. In addition, a timing, a pattern, a speed, etc., of dropping chat eggs may be adjusted, increasing the scope of applicable scenes, supporting trigger of chat egg dropping with different message types in a WeChat scene, increasing fun in WeChat communication, providing more flexible application scenes for emoji expressions. An integrated module or unit according to embodiments herein, when implemented in form of a software functional module or unit and sold or used as a separate product, may be stored in a computer readable storage medium. Based on such understanding, those skilled in the art shall understand that embodiments herein may be provided as a method, a system or a computer program product. Thus, the present disclosure may take on a form of complete hardware, complete software or a combination thereof. The present disclosure may take on a form of a computer program product implemented on one or more computer available storage media containing computer available program codes. The storage media may include, but are not limited to, a U disk, a mobile hard disk, a Read-Only Memory (ROM), a disk memory, a Compact Disc (CD)-ROM, an optical memory and the like. The present disclosure has been described with reference to a flowchart and/or a block diagram of the method, device (system) and computer program product according to embodiments herein. It will be appreciated that each flow and/or block in the flowchart and/or the block diagram and a combination of the flows and/or the blocks in the flowchart and/or the block diagram may be implemented by computer program instructions. Such computer program instructions may be provided in a general-purpose computer, a dedicated computer, an embedded processor or a processor of another programmable data processing device to generate a machine, such that an apparatus for implementing functions designated in one or more flows in the flowchart and/or one or more blocks in the block diagram may be generated via instructions executed by the computer or the processor of the another programmable data processing device. Such computer program instructions may also be stored in a computer readable memory capable of guiding a computer or another programmable data processing device to work in a specific mode, such that a manufactured product including an instruction apparatus is generated via the instructions stored in the computer readable memory, for implementing the functions designated in one or more flows of the flowchart and/or one or more blocks of the block diagram. Such computer program instructions may also be loaded to a computer or another programmable data processing device, such that a series of operating steps are executed on the computer or the another programmable data processing device to generate computer implemented processing, such that the instructions executed on the computer or the another programmable device provide steps for implementing functions designated in one or more flows of the flowchart and/or one or more blocks of the block diagram. Although embodiments herein have been described, once learning the basic creative concept herein, those skilled in the art may change and modify such embodiments. Thus, the appended claims are intended to be interpreted as covering the embodiments and all changes and modifications falling within the scope of the present disclosure. An embodiment herein may also provide a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium having stored therein computer-executable instructions that, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to execute the information processing method according to an embodiment herein. With embodiments herein, it may be identified, according to a monitored first message and detection of an association logic, whether the first message supports display of specified information, such that display of specific information may be supported by various message types, expanding the scope of applying information display, meeting increasingly diversified user demands for displaying shared information. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The following technical problems emerge in related art. With development of internet technology, there comes an era of big data when massive amounts of information constantly spring up. To match a demand for information sharing by public, information is processed with existing technology based on a social networking tool such as WeChat, Microblogging, etc. A great amount of information will be shared in a social network, with the shared information being displayed in increasingly diversified forms. In one scene, display of specified information is triggered by searching for a key word input by a user. Such a mode of display based on key word search is supported only when a user inputs a plain text message, and is not supported for a great number of non-text message types. However, various message types are available on a terminal. Accordingly, key word search based information display has a limited scope of application, failing to meet increasingly diversified user demands for displaying shared information. No effective solution to such problems exists in related art. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The disclosure relates to communication technology, and in particular to an information processing method, a terminal, and a computer-readable storage medium. In view of this, embodiments herein provide an information processing method, a terminal, and a computer-readable storage medium capable of solving at least a problem in existing art. A technical solution according to an embodiment herein may be implemented as follows. According to an embodiment herein, an information processing method includes: establishing, by a terminal, an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information, the association logic including at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; monitoring, by the terminal, a first message; obtaining, by the terminal, a first identification corresponding to the first message by analysing the first message; detecting, by the terminal according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic; determining, by the terminal, that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. A terminal according to an embodiment herein includes: a processor; and a memory for storing instructions. The instructions are executable by the processor for: establishing an association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information, the association logic including at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification; monitoring a first message; obtaining a first identification corresponding to the first message by analysing the first message; detecting, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic; and determining that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. According to an embodiment herein, a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium has stored therein computer-executable instructions that, when executed by a processor, cause the processor to execute the information processing method. An information processing method according to an embodiment herein applies to a terminal. The method includes steps as follows. An association logic that associates a non-text message type with specified information is established. The association logic includes at least identification of the non-text message type, allowing a message type in line with the association logic to be identified by the identification. A first message is monitored. A first identification corresponding to the first message is obtained by analysing the first message. It is detected, according to the first identification, whether the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. It is determined that the first message supports display of the specified information when it is detected that the first message is of the message type in line with the association logic. With embodiments herein, it may be identified, according to a monitored first message and detection of an association logic, whether the first message supports display of specified information, such that display of specific information may be supported by various message types, expanding the scope of applying information display, meeting increasingly diversified user demands for displaying shared information. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed. | H04M172555 | 20170721 | 20171109 | 65546.0 | H04M1725 | 0 | HANNAN, B M M | INFORMATION PROCESSING METHOD, TERMINAL, AND COMPUTER-READABLE STORAGE MEDIUM | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04M | 2,017 |
|
15,656,863 | ACCEPTED | ENTERICALLY COATED CYSTEAMINE, CYSTAMINE AND DERIVATIVES THEREOF | The disclosure provides oral cysteamine and cystamine formulations useful for treating cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. The formulations provide controlled release compositions that improve quality of life and reduced side-effects. | 1. An enterically-coated composition comprising a core of cysteamine bitartrate and cystamine or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof mixed with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable binders, wherein the enteric coating begins to dissolve in an aqueous solution at a pH between about 4.5 to about 5.5. 2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition is in the form of a tablet or granules. 3. The composition of claim 2, wherein the granules are loaded into a capsule. 4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the enteric coating comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of polymerized gelatin, shellac, methacrylic acid copolymer type CNF, cellulose butyrate phthalate, cellulose hydrogen phthalate, cellulose proprionate phthalate, polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP), cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), cellulose acetate trimellitate (CAT), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate, dioxypropyl methylcellulose succinate, carboxymethyl ethylcellulose (CMEC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), and acrylic acid polymers and copolymers formed from methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate and/or ethyl methacrylate with copolymers of acrylic and methacrylic acid esters. 5. The composition of claim 4, wherein the enteric coating comprises a methacrylic acid ester. 6. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composition is formulated for oral administration. 7. A method of treating a subject with nephropathic cystinosis comprising administering a composition of claim 1 twice per day. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein each administration comprises an amount of cysteamine bitartrate that would yield a dose of 100 to 1000 mg cysteamine free base. 9. The method of claim 7, wherein administration maintains white blood-cell cysteine concentration at less than 1 nmol ½ cystine/mg protein. 10. The method of claim 8, wherein the total daily dose of cysteamine free base is about 1.35 g/m2 body surface area. 11. A method of lowering the cystine content of cells in patients having nephropathic cystinosis comprising administering a composition of claim 1. 12. The method of claim 11, wherein each administration comprises an amount of cysteamine bitartrate that would yield a dose of 100 to 1000 mg cysteamine free base. 13. The method of claim 11, wherein administration maintains white blood-cell cysteine concentration at less than 1 nmol ½ cystine/mg protein. 14. The method of claim 12, wherein the total daily dose of cysteamine free base is about 1.35 g/m2 body surface area. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/336,405, filed Oct. 27, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/950,234, filed Nov. 24, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/752,383, filed Jun. 26, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,198,882), which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/555,993, filed Nov. 28, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/399,900, filed Feb. 17, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/190,396, filed Jul. 25, 2011 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,129,433), which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/990,869, filed Nov. 13, 2008 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,026,284), which is a U.S. National Stage Application filed under 35 U.S.C. §371 and claims priority to International Application No. PCT/US07/02325, filed Jan. 26, 2007, which application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/762,715, filed Jan. 27, 2006, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to methods, compositions and treatments for metabolic conditions and free radical damage. More specifically, the invention relates to methods and composition useful for treating Cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, as free radical and radioprotectants, and as hepto-protectant agents. BACKGROUND Cystinosis is a rare, autosomal recessive disease caused by intra-lysosomal accumulation of the amino acid cystine within various tissues, including the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, kidney, bone marrow, and eyes. Nephropathic cystinosis is associated with kidney failure that necessitates kidney transplantation. To date, the only specific treatment for nephropathic cystinosis is the sulfhydryl agent, cysteamine. Cysteamine has been shown to lower intracellular cystine levels, thereby reducing the rate of progression of kidney failure in children. Cysteamine, through a mechanism of increased gastrin and gastric acid production, is ulcerogenic. When administered orally to children with cystinosis, cysteamine has also been shown to cause a 3-fold increase in gastric acid production and a 50% rise of serum gastrin levels. As a consequence, subjects that use cysteamine suffer gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and are often unable to take cysteamine regularly or at full dose. To achieve sustained reduction of leukocyte cystine levels, patients are normally required to take oral cysteamine every 6 hours, which invariably means having to awaken from sleep. However, when a single dose of cysteamine was administered intravenously the leukocyte cystine level remained suppressed for more than 24 hours, possibly because plasma cysteamine concentrations were higher and achieved more rapidly than when the drug is administered orally. Regular intravenous administration of cysteamine would not be practical. Accordingly, there is a need for formulations and delivery methods that would result in higher plasma, and thus intracellular, concentration as well as decrease the number of daily doses and therefore improve the quality of life for patients. SUMMARY The invention provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention also provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention further provides a composition comprising a coated cystinosis therapeutic agent that has increased uptake in the small intestine compared to a non-coated cystinosis therapeutic agent when administered orally. In one aspect, the coated cystinosis therapeutic agent comprises a cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention also provides a method of treating a subject with cystinosis, comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention. The invention also contemplates a method of treating a subject with a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a composition of the invention further including various pharmaceutically acceptable agents (e.g., flavorants, binders and the like) in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention provides a method of treating cystinosis or a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering a composition of the invention and a second therapeutic agent. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1A-B shows enterocolonic tube. (A) Is an abdominal X-ray film showing the radiopaque weighted tip of the tube entering the ascending colon. (B) Is a contrast infused picture. The tube has passed through the small intestine and the tip is confirmed. FIG. 2 shows mean plasma cysteamine levels taken from patients with cystinosis and control subjects after delivery of drug into various intestinal sites. Error bars are standard error of the mean. In 2 control subjects, most distal point of drug delivery was the mid-ileal region. FIG. 3 shows the mean change in leukocyte cystine levels, compared with baseline levels, over a 12-hour period following delivery of cysteamine into varying intestinal sites. Negative levels signify increased leukocyte cystine depletion compared with baseline. FIG. 4 shows a scatterplot of plasma cysteamine Cmax vs. AOC of WBC Cystine changes from Baseline. Positive value means decrease from baseline. Negative value means increase from baseline. AOC change from baseline was affected by Cmax for cysteamine (P<0.001). FIG. 5 shows serial leukocyte cystine levels after drug was given as normal Cystagon® and enteric-coated (EC) cysteamine on alternate days. These serial levels were taken during the inpatient phase of the study. Desired cystine levels are below 1 mmol ½ cystine/mg protein. Higher dose enteric-coated (yellow)) drug resulted in prolonged cystine suppression with 12 hour levels still within desired range. FIG. 6 shows the blood cysteamine levels following a single 450 mg dose of Cystagon® (series 1), 450 mg EC-cysteamine (series 2) and 900 mg EC-cysteamine (series 3). The Cmax is higher following EC drug. In addition, the time to Cmax is longer following EC-drug, suggesting that the drug is released from the capsule within the small intestine rather than the stomach. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “and,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a derivative” includes a plurality of such derivatives and reference to “a subject” includes reference to one or more subjects known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the disclosed methods and compositions, the exemplary methods, devices and materials are described herein. The publications discussed above and throughout the text are provided solely for their disclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the inventors are not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior disclosure. Cystinosis is a metabolic disease characterized by an abnormal accumulation of the amino acid cystine in various organs of the body such as the kidney, eye, muscle, pancreas, and brain. Different organs are affected at different ages. There are three clinical forms of cystinosis. Infantile (or nephropathic) cystinosis; late-onset cystinosis; and benign cystinosis. The latter form does not produce kidney damage. Infantile cystinosis is usually diagnosed between 6 and 18 months of age with symptoms of excessive thirst and urination, failure to thrive, rickets, and episodes of dehydration. These findings are caused by a disorder called renal tubulopathy or Fanconi syndrome. As a consequence important nutrients and minerals are lost in the urine. Children with cystinosis also have crystals in their eyes (after one year of age) which may lead to photosensitivity. They also have an increased level of cystine in their white blood cells without adverse effect but allowing the diagnosis to be ascertained. Without specific treatment, children with cystinosis develop end-stage renal failure, i.e., lose their kidney function, usually between 6 and 12 years of age. Without cysteamine treatment subjects can develop complications in other organs due to the continued accumulation of cystine throughout the body. These complications can include muscle wasting, difficulty swallowing, diabetes, and hypothyroidism. Some symptoms include the inability of the kidneys to concentrate urine and allow important quantities of sodium, potassium, phosphorus, bicarbonate and substances like carnitine to be excreted in the urine. Treatment of symptoms compensates for these urinary losses. Subjects need to drink large quantities of water, because up to 2 to 3 liters of water are lost in the urine every day driving the feeling of being thirsty. In addition, the loss of urinary electrolytes (sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, phosphorus) must be compensated in the subject. It is often necessary to add a salt supplement in the form of sodium chloride. Children also lose bicarbonate and potassium in the urine, which can be compensated for by giving sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. Specific treatments of cystinosis aim to reduce cystine accumulation within the cells. Cystinosis is currently treated with cysteamine (Cystagon®). Cysteamine also improves growth of cystinosis children. Cysteamine is only active in a very short period of time not exceeding 5-6 hours, thus requiring administration of Cystagon® capsules 4 times a day, that is to say about every 6 hours. This treatment is also only effective if continued day after day, indefinitely in order to control the disease. About 1000 children require lifelong treatment to prolong their lives and prevent deterioration of kidney function. However, as mentioned above, cysteamine administration results in increased gastric secretions and is ulcerogenic. In addition, routes and timing of administration provide difficulty for subjects in need of such therapy. Recently, a similar drug called cystamine (the disulfide form of cysteamine) has been studied for neurodegenerative disorders including Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases. Cystamine has similar side-effects and dosing difficulties to that of cysteamine. Cysteamine is a potent gastric acid-secretagogue that has been used in laboratory animals to induce duodenal ulceration; studies in humans and animals have shown that cysteamine-induced gastric acid hypersecretion is most likely mediated through hypergastrinemia. In previous studies performed in children with cystinosis who suffered regular upper gastrointestinal symptoms, a single oral dose of cysteamine (11-23 mg/kg) was shown to cause hypergastrinemia and a 2-to 3-fold rise in gastric acid-hypersecretion. Symptoms suffered by these individuals included abdominal pain, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, and anorexia. The disclosure demonstrates that cysteamine-induced hypergastrinemia arises, in part, as a local effect on the gastric antral-predominant G-cells in susceptible individuals. The data also suggest that this is also a systemic effect of gastrin release by cysteamine. Depending upon the route of administration, plasma gastrin levels usually peak after intragastric delivery within 30 minutes, whereas the plasma cysteamine levels peak later. Subjects with cystinosis are required to ingest oral cysteamine (Cystagon®) every 6 hours, day and night. When taken regularly, cysteamine can deplete intracellular cystine by up to 90% (as measured in circulating white blood cells), and this has been shown to reduce the rate of progression to kidney failure/transplantation and also to obviate the need for thyroid replacement therapy. Unfortunately, because of the strict treatment regimen and the associated symptoms, non-adherence with cysteamine therapy remains a problem, particularly among adolescent and young adult patients. By reducing the frequency of required cysteamine dosing, adherence to a therapeutic regimen can be improved. The disclosure demonstrates that delivery of cysteamine to the small intestine reduces gastric distress and ulceration and improves bioavailability of cysteamine in the circulation. Delivery of cysteamine into the small intestine is useful due to improved absorption rate from the SI, greater surface area of the SI, and/or less cysteamine undergoing hepatic first pass elimination when absorbed through the small intestine. This disclosure shows a dramatic decrease in leukocyte cystine within an hour of cysteamine delivery. In addition, sulfhydryl (SH) compounds such as cysteamine, cystamine, and glutathione are among the most important and active intracellular antioxidants. Cysteamine protects animals against bone marrow and gastrointestinal radiation syndromes. The rationale for the importance of SH compounds is further supported by observations in mitotic cells. These are the most sensitive to radiation injury in terms of cell reproductive death and are noted to have the lowest level of SH compounds. Conversely, S-phase cells, which are the most resistant to radiation injury using the same criteria, have demonstrated the highest levels of inherent SH compounds. In addition, when mitotic cells were treated with cysteamine, they became very resistant to radiation. It has also been noted that cysteamine may directly protect cells against induced mutations. The protection is thought to result from scavenging of free radicals, either directly or via release of protein-bound GSH. An enzyme that liberates cysteamine from coenzyme A has been reported in avian liver and hog kidney. Recently, studies have appeared demonstrating a protective effect of cysteamine against the hepatotoxic agents acetaminophen, bromobenzene, and phalloidine. Cystamine, in addition, to its role as a radioprotectant, has been found to alleviate tremors and prolong life in mice with the gene mutation for Huntington's disease (HD). The drug may work by increasing the activity of proteins that protect nerve cells, or neurons, from degeneration. Cystamine appears to inactivate an enzyme called transglutaminase and thus results in a reduction of huntingtin protein (Nature Medicine 8, 143-149, 2002). In addition, cystamine was found to increase the levels of certain neuroprotective proteins. However, due to the current methods and formulation of delivery of cystamine, degradation and poor uptake require excessive dosing. The disclosure is not limited with respect to a specific cysteamine or cystamine salt or ester or derivative; the compositions of the disclosure can contain any cysteamine or cystamine, cysteamine or cystamine derivative, or combination of cysteamine or cystamines. The active agents in the composition, i.e., cysteamine or cystamine, may be administered in the form of a pharmacologically acceptable salt, ester, amide, prodrug or analog or as a combination thereof. Salts, esters, amides, prodrugs and analogs of the active agents may be prepared using standard procedures known to those skilled in the art of synthetic organic chemistry and described, for example, by J. March, “Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms and Structure,” 4th Ed. (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1992). For example, basic addition salts are prepared from the neutral drug using conventional means, involving reaction of one or more of the active agent's free hydroxyl groups with a suitable base. Generally, the neutral form of the drug is dissolved in a polar organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol and the base is added thereto. The resulting salt either precipitates or may be brought out of solution by addition of a less polar solvent. Suitable bases for forming basic addition salts include, but are not limited to, inorganic bases such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, trimethylamine, or the like. Preparation of esters involves functionalization of hydroxyl groups which may be present within the molecular structure of the drug. The esters are typically acyl-substituted derivatives of free alcohol groups, i.e., moieties which are derived from carboxylic acids of the formula R—COOH where R is alkyl, and typically is lower alkyl. Esters can be reconverted to the free acids, if desired, by using conventional hydrogenolysis or hydrolysis procedures. Preparation of amides and prodrugs can be carried out in an analogous manner. Other derivatives and analogs of the active agents may be prepared using standard techniques known to those skilled in the art of synthetic organic chemistry, or may be deduced by reference to the pertinent literature. The disclosure provides delivery methods and compositions that overcome the problems associated with cysteamine and cystamine delivery. The methods of compositions of the disclosure provide enteric-coated compositions that result in less frequent dosing (2X/day vs. 4X/day), increased patient compliance and fewer gastrointestinal side effects (e.g., pain, heartburn, acid production, vomiting) and other side effects (e.g., patients smell like rotten eggs—a particular compliance problem as subjects reach puberty). The disclosure provides enteric-coated cysteamine compositions (sulfhydryl/Cystagon®) and cystamine compositions. The disclosure provides methods for the treatment of cystinosis, the treatment of neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer Disease, Huntington's and Parkinson's disease and free radical damage using enterically coated cysteamine and cystamine, respectively. The disclosure provides composition comprising enterically formulated cysteamine and cystamine derivatives. Examples of cysteamine derivatives include hydrochloride, bitartrate and phosphocysteamine derivatives. Cystamine and cystamine derivatives include sulfated cystamine. Enteric coatings prolong release until the cystamine, cystamine derivative, or cysteamine derivative/Cystagon® reaches the intestinal tract, typically the small intestine. Because of the enteric coatings, delivery to the small intestine is improved thereby improving uptake of active ingredient while reducing gastric side effects. This will result in a reduction in the need for frequent administration that currently is associated with Cystagon® therapy, cystamine and cysteamine therapy. An “enterically coated” drug or tablet refers to a drug or tablet that is coated with a substance—i.e., with an “enteric coating”—that remains intact in the stomach but dissolves and releases the drug once the small intestine is reached. As used herein “enteric coating”, is a material, a polymer material or materials which encase the medicament core (e.g., cystamine, cysteamine, Cystagon®). Typically, a substantial amount or all of the enteric coating material is dissolved before the medicament or therapeutically active agent is released from the dosage form, so as to achieve delayed dissolution of the medicament core. A suitable pH-sensitive polymer is one which will dissolve in intestinal juices at a higher pH level (pH greater than 4.5), such as within the small intestine and therefore permit release of the pharmacologically active substance in the regions of the small intestine and not in the upper portion of the GI tract, such as the stomach. The coating material is selected such that the therapeutically active agent will be released when the dosage form reaches the small intestine or a region in which the pH is greater than pH 4.5. The coating may be a pH-sensitive materials, which remain intact in the lower pH environs of the stomach, but which disintegrate or dissolve at the pH commonly found in the small intestine of the patient. For example, the enteric coating material begins to dissolve in an aqueous solution at pH between about 4.5 to about 5.5. For example, pH-sensitive materials will not undergo significant dissolution until the dosage form has emptied from the stomach. The pH of the small intestine gradually increases from about 4.5 to about 6.5 in the duodenal bulb to about 7.2 in the distal portions of the small intestine (ileum). In order to provide predictable dissolution corresponding to the small intestine transit time of about 3 hours (e.g., 2-3 hours) and permit reproducible release therein, the coating should begin to dissolve within the pH range of the duodenum, and continue to dissolve at the pH range within the small intestine. Therefore, the amount of enteric polymer coating should be sufficient to substantially dissolve during the approximate three hour transit time within the small intestine (e.g., the proximal and mid-small intestine). Enteric coatings have been used for many years to arrest the release of the drug from orally ingestible dosage forms. Depending upon the composition and/or thickness, the enteric coatings are resistant to stomach acid for required periods of time before they begin to disintegrate and permit release of the drug in the lower stomach or upper part of the small intestines. Examples of some enteric coatings are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,202 which is incorporated by reference fully herein. As set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,202, some examples of coating previously employed are beeswax and glyceryl monostearate; beeswax, shellac and cellulose; and cetyl alcohol, mastic and shellac, as well as shellac and stearic acid (U.S. Pat. No. 2,809,918); polyvinyl acetate and ethyl cellulose (U.S. Pat. No. 3,835,221); and neutral copolymer of polymethacrylic acid esters (Eudragit L30D) (F. W. Goodhart et al., Pharm. Tech., pp. 64-71, April 1984); copolymers of methacrylic acid and methacrylic acid methylester (Eudragits), or a neutral copolymer of polymethacrylic acid esters containing metallic stearates (Mehta et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,728,512 and 4,794,001). Such coatings comprise mixtures of fats and fatty acids, shellac and shellac derivatives and the cellulose acid phthlates, e.g., those having a free carboxyl content. See, Remington's at page 1590, and Zeitova et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,432,966), for descriptions of suitable enteric coating compositions. Accordingly, increased adsorption in the small intestine due to enteric coatings of cystamine, cysteamine derivatives (including Cystagon®) can result in improvements in cystinosis as well as neurodegenerative diseases including, for example, Huntington's disease. Generally, the enteric coating comprises a polymeric material that prevents cysteamine or cystamine release in the low pH environment of the stomach but that ionizes at a slightly higher pH, typically a pH of 4 or 5, and thus dissolves sufficiently in the small intestines to gradually release the active agent therein. Accordingly, among the most effective enteric coating materials are polyacids having a pKa in the range of about 3 to 5. Suitable enteric coating materials include, but are not limited to, polymerized gelatin, shellac, methacrylic acid copolymer type C NF, cellulose butyrate phthalate, cellulose hydrogen phthalate, cellulose proprionate phthalate, polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP), cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), cellulose acetate trimellitate (CAT), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate, dioxypropyl methylcellulose succinate, carboxymethyl ethylcellulose (CMEC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), and acrylic acid polymers and copolymers, typically formed from methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate and/or ethyl methacrylate with copolymers of acrylic and methacrylic acid esters (Eudragit NE, Eudragit RL, Eudragit RS). For example, the enterically coating can comprise Eudragit L30D, triethylcitrate, and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), Cystagon® (or other cysteamine derivative), wherein the coating comprises 10 to 13% of the final product. By “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” or “pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle” are meant materials that are suitable for oral administration and not biologically, or otherwise, undesirable, i.e., that may be administered to a subject along with an active ingredient without causing any undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components of a pharmaceutical composition in which it is contained. Similarly, a “pharmaceutically acceptable” salt, ester or other derivative of an active agent comprise, for example, salts, esters or other derivatives which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. “Stabilizing agents” refer to compounds that lower the rate at which pharmaceutical degrades, particularly an oral pharmaceutical formulation under environmental conditions of storage. By the terms “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” of a enteric formulation of cysteamine or cystamine refers to a nontoxic but sufficient amount of the agent to provide the desired therapeutic effect. As will be pointed out below, the exact amount required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the age, weight, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the condition being treated, and the like. An appropriate “effective” amount in any individual case may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation. In one aspect of the disclosure there is provided a stabilized pharmaceutical composition for administration of an cysteamine or cystamine, wherein the cysteamine or cystamine is enterically coated. The cysteamine or cystamine is present in the composition in a therapeutically effective amount; typically, the composition is in unit dosage form. The amount of cysteamine or cystamine administered will, of course, be dependent on the age, weight, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the condition being treated, and the judgment of the prescribing physician. Suitable therapeutic amounts will be known to those skilled in the art and/or are described in the pertinent reference texts and literature. In one aspect, the dose is administered twice per day at about 0.5-1.0 g/m2 (e.g., 0.7-0.8 g/m2) body surface area. Current non-enterically coated doses are about 1.35 g/m2 body surface area and are administered 4-5 times per day. The entericaly coated cysteamine or cystamine can comprise various excipients, as is well known in the pharmaceutical art, provided such excipients do not exhibit a destabilizing effect on any components in the composition. Thus, excipients such as binders, bulking agents, diluents, disintegrants, lubricants, fillers, carriers, and the like can be combined with the cysteamine or cystamine. For solid compositions, diluents are typically necessary to increase the bulk of a tablet so that a practical size is provided for compression. Suitable diluents include dicalcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, lactose, cellulose, kaolin, mannitol, sodium chloride, dry starch and powdered sugar. Binders are used to impart cohesive qualities to a tablet formulation, and thus ensure that a tablet remains intact after compression. Suitable binder materials include, but are not limited to, starch (including corn starch and pregelatinized starch), gelatin, sugars (including sucrose, glucose, dextrose and lactose), polyethylene glycol, waxes, and natural and synthetic gums, e.g., acacia sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, cellulosic polymers (including hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, methyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, and the like), and Veegum. Lubricants are used to facilitate tablet manufacture; examples of suitable lubricants include, for example, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, and stearic acid, and are typically present at no more than approximately 1 weight percent relative to tablet weight. Disintegrants are used to facilitate tablet disintegration or “breakup” after administration, and are generally starches, clays, celluloses, algins, gums or crosslinked polymers. If desired, the pharmaceutical composition to be administered may also contain minor amounts of nontoxic auxiliary substances such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering agents and the like, for example, sodium acetate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine sodium acetate, triethanolamine oleate, and the like. If desired, flavoring, coloring and/or sweetening agents may be added as well. Other optional components for incorporation into an oral formulation herein include, but are not limited to, preservatives, suspending agents, thickening agents, and the like. Fillers include, for example, insoluble materials such as silicon dioxide, titanium oxide, alumina, talc, kaolin, powdered cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, and the like, as well as soluble materials such as mannitol, urea, sucrose, lactose, dextrose, sodium chloride, sorbitol, and the like. A pharmaceutical composition may also comprise a stabilizing agent such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose or polyvinylpyrrolidone, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,301,146. Other stabilizing agents include, but are not limited to, cellulosic polymers such as hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate phthalate, cellulose acetate trimellitate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, microcrystalline cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose sodium; and vinyl polymers and copolymers such as polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylacetate phthalate, vinylacetate crotonic acid copolymer, and ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers. The stabilizing agent is present in an amount effective to provide the desired stabilizing effect; generally, this means that the ratio of cysteamine or cystamine to the stabilizing agent is at least about 1:500 w/w, more commonly about 1:99 w/w. The tablets are manufactured by first enterically coating the cysteamine or cystamine. A method for forming tablets herein is by direct compression of the powders containing the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine, optionally in combination with diluents, binders, lubricants, disintegrants, colorants, stabilizers or the like. As an alternative to direct compression, compressed tablets can be prepared using wet-granulation or dry-granulation processes. Tablets may also be molded rather than compressed, starting with a moist material containing a suitable water-soluble lubricant. In an alternative embodiment, the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine are granulated and the granulation is compressed into a tablet or filled into a capsule. Capsule materials may be either hard or soft, and are typically sealed, such as with gelatin bands or the like. Tablets and capsules for oral use will generally include one or more commonly used excipients as discussed herein. For administration of the dosage form, i.e., the tablet or capsule comprising the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine, a total weight in the range of approximately 100 mg to 1000 mg is used. The dosage form is orally administered to a patient suffering from a condition for which an cysteamine or cystamine would typically be indicated, including, but not limited to, cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. The compositions of the disclosure can be used in combination with other therapies useful for treating cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. For example, indomethacin therapy (Indocid® or Endol®) is an anti-inflammatory used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and lumbago, but it can be used to reduce water and electrolyte urine loss. In children with cystinosis, indomethacin reduces the urine volume and therefore liquid consumption by about 30%, sometimes by half. In most cases this is associated with an appetite improvement. Indomethacin treatment is generally followed for several years. Other therapies can be combined with the methods and compositions of the disclosure to treat diseases and disorders that are attributed or result from cystinosis. Urinary phosphorus loss, for example, entails rickets, and it may be necessary to give a phosphorus supplement. Carnitine is lost in the urine and blood levels are low. Carnitine allows fat to be used by the muscles to provide energy. Hormone supplementation is sometimes necessary. Sometimes the thyroid gland will not produce enough thyroid hormones. This is given as thyroxin (drops or tablets). Insulin treatment is sometimes necessary if diabetes appears, when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin. These treatments have become rarely necessary in children whom are treated with cysteamine, since the treatment protects the thyroid and the pancreas. Some adolescent boys require a testosterone treatment if puberty is late. Growth hormone therapy may be indicated if growth is not sufficient despite a good hydro electrolytes balance. Accordingly, such therapies can be combined with the enterically coated cysteamine and cystamine compositions and methods of the disclosure. The effectiveness of a method or composition of the disclosure can be assessed by measuring leukocyte cystine concentrations. Dosage adjustment and therapy can be made by a medical specialist depending upon, for example, the severity of cystenosis and/or the concentration of cystine. Additional therapies including the use of omeprazole (Prilosec®) can reduce these symptoms. In addition, various prodrugs can be “activated” by use of the enterically coated cysteamine. Prodrugs are pharmacologically inert, they themselves do not work in the body, but once they have been absorbed, the prodrug decomposes. The prodrug approach has been used successfully in a number of therapeutic areas including antibiotics, antihistamines and ulcer treatments. The advantage of using prodrugs is that the active agent is chemically camouflaged and no active agent is released until the drug has passed out of the gut and into the cells of the body. For example, a number of produgs use S—S bonds. Weak reducing agents, such as cysteamine, reduce these bonds and release the drug. Accordingly, the compositions of the disclosure are useful in combination with pro-drugs for timed release of the drug. In this aspect, a pro-drug can be administered followed by administration of an enterically coated cysteamine compositions of the invention (at a desired time) to activate the pro-drug. It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with specific embodiments thereof, that the foregoing description as well as the examples which follow are intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention. Other aspects, advantages and modifications within the scope of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art to which the invention Examples Subjects. Children with cystinosis, years old, and taking regular cysteamine bitartrate (Cystagon®; Mylan, Morgantown, W. Va.) were recruited to the study (Table I). Adult control patients were recruited locally. Patients with cystinosis had a mean leukocyte cystine level of less than 2.0 nmol half-cystine/mg protein over the past year. Cysteamine therapy was discontinued 2 days before admission, and acid suppressants, antibiotics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, pro-kinetic agents, and antihistamines were discontinued 2 weeks before admission. None of the patients had undergone kidney transplantation. Baseline chemistry, Helicobacter pylori serologic study, complete blood count, and urinalysis were performed. TABLE I Cystinosis patient data Age Weight Cysteamine dose Serum creatinine Patient (yrs.) Sex (kg) (mg)* (mg/dL) 1 16 Male 61.5 500 1.0 2 14 Male 39.4 406 1.2 3 13 Female 39.1 406 1.5 4 19 Female 38.1 406 1.4 5 13 Female 50.1 500 1.0 6 16 Male 58.7 500 3.1 *Dose of cysteamine base delivered into varying delivery sites Cysteamine Bitartrate Delivery. Cysteamine was infused through a silicone rubber nasoenteric tube (Dentsleeve Pty Ltd, Australia), 3 mm in diameter and 4.5 meters long. The tube, specifically made for this study, had a tungsten-weighted tip, and immediately proximal to this was an inflatable balloon (5-mL capacity). Immediately proximal to the balloon was an infusion port (1 mm diameter) through which the drug was delivered. After an overnight fast (except for water), the dose of cysteamine bitartrate (10 mg/kg/dose of base, maximum of 500 mg) was dissolved in 10 mL of water and infused over 1 to 2 minutes. On day 1 of the study, the nasoenteric tube was inserted into the stomach. By day 3 of the study the tube had passed into the proximal small intestine (SI) just distal to the ligament of Treitz (confirmed fluoroscopically). The balloon was then inflated, and peristalsis propelled the tube distally. Tube position within the cecum was confirmed fluoroscopically on day 5 (day 7 in 4 patients because of slow transit). If the tube had migrated too far, it was retracted into the desired location. Serum Gastrin, Cysteamine and Leukocyte Cystine Measurements. After an overnight fast (except for water) blood samples were taken at baseline and at varying intervals after intraluminal delivery of cysteamine. Serum gastrin levels were then measured at 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes and 3 and 4 hours; cysteamine levels were measured at 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, and 150 minutes and 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 16 hours; leukocyte cystine levels were measured at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12 hours in patients with cystinosis only. Gastrin was measured in picograms/mL with the Diagnostic Products Corporation (Los Angeles, Calif.) gastrin radioimmunoassay-assay kit. Leukocyte cystine levels were measured in nmol half-cystine per mg protein by the Cystine Determination Lab (La Jolla, Calif.). To measure plasma cysteamine, 100-μL plasma samples were collected in heparinized vacutainers and spun in a centrifuge within 1 hour, and plasma was stored at −18° C. The concentration of cysteamine was measured by use of tandem mass spectroscopy (API 2000 LC/MS/MS; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). Cysteamine concentrations were calculated with a calibration curve that was prepared by spiking plasma with buffered cysteamine solutions, and quality control samples were analyzed with each batch. Statistical Analysis. Mixed model restricted maximum likelihood (REML) repeated measures analysis of variance with subjects as a random effect was performed on the absolute leukocyte cystine levels, on the leukocyte cystine level changes from baseline, and on the “area over the curve” (AOC) for leukocyte cystine level changes from baseline after cysteamine administration for the subjects with cystinosis. AOC is computationally analogous to area under the curve, but it is applied when values are predominantly decreasing below baseline values. Large AOC values reflect large decreases, and a negative AOC reflects a net increase in value. Main effects for site of delivery, time after delivery, and the interaction between site and time were tested, except just the site effect was tested for AOCs. In the absence of significant interaction when a main effect was detected, Tukey's honestly significant difference test (HSD) was applied to identify where differences occurred within a 5% family wise error rate. The Tukey HSD procedure controls for overall significance level when performing all pairwise comparisons. An additional analysis was performed with plasma cysteamine Cmax added to the AOC model. REML repeated measures analyses of variance with subjects as a random effect were also performed as described above on AUC and the Cmax over time for plasma cysteamine levels separately for the subjects with cystinosis and control subjects and with both subject groups combined. Differences between means for the 3 sites were tested, plus group and group x site interaction effects for the combined groups. If a site effect was detected, Tukey's HSD was applied to determine which sites differed from each other. REML repeated measures analyses of variance were also performed as described above on gastrin levels. The analyses were performed on 2 versions of datasets: the full dataset and all data after omitting observations collected at 30 minutes (1 subject was missing a blood sample taken at 30 minutes after small intestinal cysteamine delivery). A 5% significance level was used without adjustment for all statistical testing. Six patients with cystinosis, (3 male, 3 female) with a mean age of 15.2 years (range 13-19 years) were recruited into the study (Table I). Eight healthy adult control patients (6 male, 2 female) with a mean age of 23.2 years (range 19-28 years) were enrolled. None of the children with cystinosis had undergone kidney transplantation. All control subjects received 500 mg cysteamine base, whereas the mean dose for subjects with cystinosis was 453 mg (range 406-500 mg). All subjects had normal liver function test results. In all subjects the nasoenteric tube passed successfully from the stomach into the upper SI; however, it did not progress any further in 2 subjects with cystinosis. In 2 of the control subjects the tube only reached the mid-ileum but did, however, progress to the cecum in 8 subjects (4 control subjects, 4 with cystinosis). There were no reported adverse effects with the insertion or removal of the nasoenteric tube (FIG. 1). Symptoms. Only 2 patients (1 male, 1 female) with cystinosis reported regular GI symptoms before the study, and these had responded to acid-suppression therapy. The male subject had severe retching and emesis about 15 minutes after receiving intragastric cysteamine but did not have any symptoms when the drug was infused into the proximal small intestine. The female child with cystinosis had mild transient nausea after SI drug delivery only. No other symptoms were reported after any other cysteamine delivery in the children with cystinosis. There were no associated adverse events with tube placement or removal. Plasma Cysteamine. Among the subjects with cystinosis as measured by analysis of variance, the mean plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUCs (of the concentration-time gradient) differed by site of cysteamine delivery (both P<0.03). Site (†) refers to either patients with cystinosis or control subjects. For the plasma cysteamine AUCs, the means differed between the duodenal and both gastric and cecal sites of delivery (Tukey HSD global P<0.05). Among control subjects, the mean AUC did not differ among delivery sites (P>0.4), but mean Cmax did (P<0.05). For both cystinosis and control groups the mean Cmax values differed only between the duodenum and cecum; mean Cmax values after duodenal versus gastric or gastric versus cecal delivery were not statistically different (Tables II and III). TABLE II Mean plasma cysteamine Cmax levels (γmol/L) and area under curve (AUC) measurements in cystinosis subjects, controls, and combined cystinosis and control subjects, after delivery of cysteamine into the stomach, small intestine, and cecum Cmax AUC Cmax AUC Cmax AUC Com- Com- Cystinosis Cystinosis Control Control bined bined Stomach 35.5 3006 39.5 3613 37.8 3353 (20.5) (1112) (16.4) (1384) (17.6) (1267) Small 55.8 4299 51.1 3988 53.2 4047 Intestine (13.0) (1056) (20.7) (1659) (17.4) (1376) Cecum 21.9 3002 23.1 2804 22.5 2903 (13.1) (909) (15.3) (1323) (13.2) (1056) The standard deviations are in parenthesis TABLE III Comparisons of mean plasma cysteamine Cmax (γmol/L) and AUC measurements for combined cystinosis subjects and control subjects among delivery sites AUC Cmax P value* <0.01 <0.01 Stomach vs SI + + Stomach vs Cecum − − SI vs Cecum + + + Significant difference using Tukey's HSD test (α = 0.05) − No significant difference *ANOVA test for equality of three delivery sites When data from the control subjects were combined with cystinosis subject data, there was both a group effect (P<0.05) and a site effect (P<0.01) for AUCs, with a significant difference between mean AUC levels for the duodenum versus both the stomach and cecum. Cmax values differed among sites (P<0.01) but not between groups (P>0.4). Group (*) refers to site of intestinal delivery. Cmax differed between duodenum versus both stomach and cecum (FIG. 2). Leukocyte Cystine. There were significant differences among the 3 sites of delivery for cystine levels (P<0.04), changes from baseline values (P<0.0001), and AOCs for changes from baseline (P<0.02). A Tukey HSD test, which controls for multiple comparisons, showed that mean leukocyte cystine levels differed between the cecum and stomach sites, but that cecum versus duodenum and stomach versus duodenum produced similar mean values. When the absolute cystine levels or AOCs for changes from baseline levels were evaluated, the significant differences in sites were found between the duodenum and both the stomach and cecum, but not between stomach and cecum (Tukey HSD global P<0.05) (FIG. 3). Plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUC contributed a statistical effect on AOC (P<0.001 and <0.02, respectively), even after controlling for delivery site (FIG. 4). Blood Gastrin. For the full gastrin dataset, there was a significant difference among the means for the different delivery sites (P<0.1), with the cecum resulting in a lower mean from that of the stomach and small intestine. Both group * and site † significant effects were detected after omitting observations from 30 minutes after delivery (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively). The 30-minute observations were omitted because of a missing data set. For these observations, mean levels of gastrin after delivery in the cecum were different from those from both the duodenum and stomach, although the latter did not differ from each other. The 1 boy (14 years) who had severe GI symptoms after intragastric, but not enteric or cecal, cysteamine delivery had a rise in baseline gastrin from 70 pg/mL to 121 pg/mL at 30 minutes after gastric cysteamine. Within the control group, more than half of the baseline and post-cysteamine gastrin levels remained undetectable (<25 pg/mL), and none of the control subjects had a significant rise in gastrin after cysteamine delivery into any site. Patients with cystinosis are required to ingest oral cysteamine (Cystagon®) every 6 hours, day and night. When taken regularly, cysteamine can deplete intracellular cystine by up to 90% (as measured in circulating white blood cells), and this has been shown to reduce the rate of progression to kidney failure/transplantation and also to obviate the need for thyroid replacement therapy. Unfortunately, because of the strict treatment regimen and the associated symptoms, non-adherence with cysteamine therapy remains a problem, particularly among adolescent and young adult patients. Certainly, by reducing the frequency of required cysteamine dosing adherence can be improved. The disclosure shows a strong statistical association between the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of cysteamine and AOC measurements for leukocyte cystine (P<0.001). A higher Cmaxis achieved after delivery of cysteamine into the small intestine than when infused into the stomach or colon; this may be due to improved absorption rate from the SI, greater surface area of the SI, or less cysteamine undergoing hepatic first pass elimination when absorbed rapidly through the small intestine. When data were combined for patients with cystinosis and control subjects, there was a statistical difference between duodenal versus both gastric and colonic delivery for plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUC levels (both P<0.05). The lack of similar statistical significance for the cystinosis group alone may simply reflect the small number of patients studied. Changes from baseline leukocyte cystine levels were statistically significant for absolute cystine levels and for AOC when cysteamine was infused into the duodenum compared with both stomach and colon. As shown in FIG. 3, the leukocyte cystine levels remained below pre-delivery levels for up to 12 hours after a single dose of cysteamine into the small intestine. This would suggest that effective absorption of cysteamine through the SI, by causing a higher Cmax and AUC on the cysteamine concentration-time gradient, could lead to prolonged depletion of leukocyte cystine and possibly less frequent daily dosing. Another explanation would be that by achieving a high enough plasma cysteamine concentration, more drug reaches the lysosome (where cystine accumulates). In the lysosome the cysteamine reacts with cystine forming the mixed disulfide of cysteamine and cysteine. The mixed disulfide exits the lysosome presumably via the lysine carrier. In the cytosol the mixed disulfide can be reduced by its reaction with glutathione. The cysteine released can be used for protein or glutathione synthesis. The cysteamine released from the mixed disulfide reenters the lysosome where it can react with another cystine molecule. Thus 1 molecule of cysteamine may release many molecules of cystine from the lysosome. This study showed a dramatic decrease in leukocyte cystine within an hour of cysteamine delivery. In retrospect, the finding from this study was that the leukocyte cystine levels remained at the 1-hour level for 24 hours, and even at 48 hours after delivery the levels had not returned to the pre-cysteamine level. Cysteamine is a potent gastric acid-secretagogue that has been used in laboratory animals to induce duodenal ulceration; studies in humans and animals have shown that cysteamine-induced gastric acid hypersecretion is most likely mediated through hypergastrinemia. In previous studies performed in children with cystinosis who suffered regular upper gastrointestinal symptoms, a single oral dose of cysteamine (11-23 mg/kg) was shown to cause hypergastrinemia and a 2-to 3-fold rise in gastric acid-hypersecretion. Symptoms suffered by these individuals included abdominal pain, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, and anorexia. Interestingly, only 2 of 6 subjects with cystinosis (who were known to suffer regular cysteamine-induced GI symptoms) had increased gastrin levels and symptoms, including nausea, retching, and discomfort after intragastric cysteamine. Gastrin levels were only available after small intestinal administration in 1 of the 2 children and the levels remained the same as baseline. Neither child had symptoms after enteric cysteamine delivery. None of the other patients with cystinosis or control subjects had an increase in gastrin levels with cysteamine infused into any site. This would suggest that cysteamine-induced hypergastrinemia may arise as a local effect on the gastric antral-predominant G-cells only in susceptible individuals. In addition, plasma gastrin levels usually peaks after intragastric delivery within 30 minutes, whereas the plasma cysteamine levels peaked later. 8,10 In 2 previous studies, children with cystinosis were shown to have a significant rise in plasma gastrin levels after receiving intragastric cysteamine; as part of these study's entry criteria all subjects did, however, suffer with regular GI symptoms. Data from this study would suggest that cysteamine does not cause hypergastrinemia, and therefore acid-hypersecretion, in all patients with cystinosis. Thus acid suppression therapy would not be recommended in patients with cystinosis without upper GI symptoms. The data suggest that direct administration of cysteamine into the jejunum may result in prolonged leukocyte cystine depletion. In a previous study, a child who had a gastrojejunal feeding tube for oral feeding aversion and severe UGI symptoms, responded to intrajejunal cysteamine with a 3-fold rise in serum gastrin as compared with drug administration into the stomach. The leukocyte cystine response was not measured in this child. Therefore patients with jejunal feeding tubes will have to be further evaluated. FIGS. 5 and 6 shows results from a patient that remained on the twice daily EC-cysteamine for an extended period of time. Over this period the patient's leukocyte cystine levels have been measured regularly. The dose of twice daily EC-cysteamine is titrated against the patient's symptoms and cystine levels. The patient's cystine levels have been 0.4, 1.0, 0.36. This study provides data that may be used to improve the quality of life for patients with cystinosis. The present formulation of Cystagon® comprises cysteamine in a capsule that will dissolve rapidly on contact with water, most likely within the stomach. Although a number of embodiments and features have been described above, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that modifications and variations of the described embodiments and features may be made without departing from the teachings of the disclosure or the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Cystinosis is a rare, autosomal recessive disease caused by intra-lysosomal accumulation of the amino acid cystine within various tissues, including the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, kidney, bone marrow, and eyes. Nephropathic cystinosis is associated with kidney failure that necessitates kidney transplantation. To date, the only specific treatment for nephropathic cystinosis is the sulfhydryl agent, cysteamine. Cysteamine has been shown to lower intracellular cystine levels, thereby reducing the rate of progression of kidney failure in children. Cysteamine, through a mechanism of increased gastrin and gastric acid production, is ulcerogenic. When administered orally to children with cystinosis, cysteamine has also been shown to cause a 3-fold increase in gastric acid production and a 50% rise of serum gastrin levels. As a consequence, subjects that use cysteamine suffer gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and are often unable to take cysteamine regularly or at full dose. To achieve sustained reduction of leukocyte cystine levels, patients are normally required to take oral cysteamine every 6 hours, which invariably means having to awaken from sleep. However, when a single dose of cysteamine was administered intravenously the leukocyte cystine level remained suppressed for more than 24 hours, possibly because plasma cysteamine concentrations were higher and achieved more rapidly than when the drug is administered orally. Regular intravenous administration of cysteamine would not be practical. Accordingly, there is a need for formulations and delivery methods that would result in higher plasma, and thus intracellular, concentration as well as decrease the number of daily doses and therefore improve the quality of life for patients. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The invention provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention also provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention further provides a composition comprising a coated cystinosis therapeutic agent that has increased uptake in the small intestine compared to a non-coated cystinosis therapeutic agent when administered orally. In one aspect, the coated cystinosis therapeutic agent comprises a cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention also provides a method of treating a subject with cystinosis, comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention. The invention also contemplates a method of treating a subject with a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a composition of the invention further including various pharmaceutically acceptable agents (e.g., flavorants, binders and the like) in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention provides a method of treating cystinosis or a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering a composition of the invention and a second therapeutic agent. | A61K31194 | 20170721 | 20180327 | 20171109 | 66231.0 | A61K31194 | 1 | AHMED, HASAN SYED | ENTERICALLY COATED CYSTEAMINE, CYSTAMINE AND DERIVATIVES THEREOF | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
15,656,884 | ACCEPTED | ENTERICALLY COATED CYSTEAMINE, CYSTAMINE AND DERIVATIVES THEREOF | The disclosure provides oral cysteamine and cystamine formulations useful for treating cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. The formulations provide controlled release compositions that improve quality of life and reduced side-effects. | 1. An oral pharmaceutical capsule comprising enterically-coated granules of cysteamine bitartrate and cystamine or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof, mixed with one or more pharmaceutically-acceptable binders, wherein the enteric coating begin to dissolve in an aqueous solution at a pH between about 4.5 to about 5.5. 2. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 1, wherein the enteric coating comprises a compound selected from the group consisting of polymerized gelatin, shellac, methacrylic acid copolymer type CNF, cellulose butyrate phthalate, cellulose hydrogen phthalate, cellulose proprionate phthalate, polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP), cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), cellulose acetate trimellitate (CAT), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate, dioxypropyl methylcellulose succinate, carboxymethyl ethylcellulose (CMEC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), and acrylic acid polymers and copolymers formed from methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate and/or ethyl methacrylate with copolymers of acrylic and methacrylic acid esters. 3. The pharmaceutical composition of claim 2, wherein the enteric coating comprises a methacrylic acid ester. 4. A method of treating a subject with nephropathic cystinosis comprising administering a composition of claim 1 twice per day. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein each administration comprises an amount of cysteamine bitartrate that would yield a dose of 100 to 1000 mg cysteamine free base. 6. The method according to claim 5, wherein administration maintains white blood-cell cysteine concentration at less than 1 nmol ½-cystine/mg protein. 7. The method of claim 5, wherein the total daily dose of cysteamine free base is about 1.35 g/m2 body surface area. 9. A method of lowering the cystine content of cells in patients having nephropathic cystinosis comprising administering a composition of claim 1. 10. The method of claim 9, wherein each administration comprises an amount of cysteamine bitartrate that would yield a dose of 100 to 1000 mg cysteamine free base. 11. The method of claim 9, wherein administration maintains white blood-cell cysteine concentration at less than 1 nmol ½-cystine/mg protein. 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the total daily dose of cysteamine free base is about 1.35 g/m2 body surface area. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/336,405, filed Oct. 27, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/950,234, filed Nov. 24, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/752,383, filed Jun. 26, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,198,882), which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/555,993, filed Nov. 28, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/399,900, filed Feb. 17, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/190,396, filed Jul. 25, 2011 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,129,433), which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/990,869, filed Nov. 13, 2008 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,026,284), which is a U.S. National Stage Application filed under 35 U.S.C. §371 and claims priority to International Application No. PCT/US07/02325, filed Jan. 26, 2007, which application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/762,715, filed Jan. 27, 2006, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to methods, compositions and treatments for metabolic conditions and free radical damage. More specifically, the invention relates to methods and composition useful for treating Cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, as free radical and radioprotectants, and as hepto-protectant agents. BACKGROUND Cystinosis is a rare, autosomal recessive disease caused by intra-lysosomal accumulation of the amino acid cystine within various tissues, including the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, kidney, bone marrow, and eyes. Nephropathic cystinosis is associated with kidney failure that necessitates kidney transplantation. To date, the only specific treatment for nephropathic cystinosis is the sulfhydryl agent, cysteamine. Cysteamine has been shown to lower intracellular cystine levels, thereby reducing the rate of progression of kidney failure in children. Cysteamine, through a mechanism of increased gastrin and gastric acid production, is ulcerogenic. When administered orally to children with cystinosis, cysteamine has also been shown to cause a 3-fold increase in gastric acid production and a 50% rise of serum gastrin levels. As a consequence, subjects that use cysteamine suffer gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and are often unable to take cysteamine regularly or at full dose. To achieve sustained reduction of leukocyte cystine levels, patients are normally required to take oral cysteamine every 6 hours, which invariably means having to awaken from sleep. However, when a single dose of cysteamine was administered intravenously the leukocyte cystine level remained suppressed for more than 24 hours, possibly because plasma cysteamine concentrations were higher and achieved more rapidly than when the drug is administered orally. Regular intravenous administration of cysteamine would not be practical. Accordingly, there is a need for formulations and delivery methods that would result in higher plasma, and thus intracellular, concentration as well as decrease the number of daily doses and therefore improve the quality of life for patients. SUMMARY The invention provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention also provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention further provides a composition comprising a coated cystinosis therapeutic agent that has increased uptake in the small intestine compared to a non-coated cystinosis therapeutic agent when administered orally. In one aspect, the coated cystinosis therapeutic agent comprises a cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention also provides a method of treating a subject with cystinosis, comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention. The invention also contemplates a method of treating a subject with a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a composition of the invention further including various pharmaceutically acceptable agents (e.g., flavorants, binders and the like) in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention provides a method of treating cystinosis or a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering a composition of the invention and a second therapeutic agent. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1A-B shows enterocolonic tube. (A) Is an abdominal X-ray film showing the radiopaque weighted tip of the tube entering the ascending colon. (B) Is a contrast infused picture. The tube has passed through the small intestine and the tip is confirmed. FIG. 2 shows mean plasma cysteamine levels taken from patients with cystinosis and control subjects after delivery of drug into various intestinal sites. Error bars are standard error of the mean. In 2 control subjects, most distal point of drug delivery was the mid-ileal region. FIG. 3 shows the mean change in leukocyte cystine levels, compared with baseline levels, over a 12-hour period following delivery of cysteamine into varying intestinal sites. Negative levels signify increased leukocyte cystine depletion compared with baseline. FIG. 4 shows a scatterplot of plasma cysteamine Cmax vs. AOC of WBC Cystine changes from Baseline. Positive value means decrease from baseline. Negative value means increase from baseline. AOC change from baseline was affected by Cmax for cysteamine (P<0.001). FIG. 5 shows serial leukocyte cystine levels after drug was given as normal Cystagon® and enteric-coated (EC) cysteamine on alternate days. These serial levels were taken during the inpatient phase of the study. Desired cystine levels are below 1 mmol ½cystine/mg protein. Higher dose enteric-coated (yellow)) drug resulted in prolonged cystine suppression with 12 hour levels still within desired range. FIG. 6 shows the blood cysteamine levels following a single 450 mg dose of Cystagon® (series 1), 450 mg EC-cysteamine (series 2) and 900 mg EC-cysteamine (series 3). The Cmax is higher following EC drug. In addition, the time to Cmax is longer following EC-drug, suggesting that the drug is released from the capsule within the small intestine rather than the stomach. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “and,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a derivative” includes a plurality of such derivatives and reference to “a subject” includes reference to one or more subjects known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the disclosed methods and compositions, the exemplary methods, devices and materials are described herein. The publications discussed above and throughout the text are provided solely for their disclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the inventors are not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior disclosure. Cystinosis is a metabolic disease characterized by an abnormal accumulation of the amino acid cystine in various organs of the body such as the kidney, eye, muscle, pancreas, and brain. Different organs are affected at different ages. There are three clinical forms of cystinosis. Infantile (or nephropathic) cystinosis; late-onset cystinosis; and benign cystinosis. The latter form does not produce kidney damage. Infantile cystinosis is usually diagnosed between 6 and 18 months of age with symptoms of excessive thirst and urination, failure to thrive, rickets, and episodes of dehydration. These findings are caused by a disorder called renal tubulopathy or Fanconi syndrome. As a consequence important nutrients and minerals are lost in the urine. Children with cystinosis also have crystals in their eyes (after one year of age) which may lead to photosensitivity. They also have an increased level of cystine in their white blood cells without adverse effect but allowing the diagnosis to be ascertained. Without specific treatment, children with cystinosis develop end-stage renal failure, i.e., lose their kidney function, usually between 6 and 12 years of age. Without cysteamine treatment subjects can develop complications in other organs due to the continued accumulation of cystine throughout the body. These complications can include muscle wasting, difficulty swallowing, diabetes, and hypothyroidism. Some symptoms include the inability of the kidneys to concentrate urine and allow important quantities of sodium, potassium, phosphorus, bicarbonate and substances like carnitine to be excreted in the urine. Treatment of symptoms compensates for these urinary losses. Subjects need to drink large quantities of water, because up to 2 to 3 liters of water are lost in the urine every day driving the feeling of being thirsty. In addition, the loss of urinary electrolytes (sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, phosphorus) must be compensated in the subject. It is often necessary to add a salt supplement in the form of sodium chloride. Children also lose bicarbonate and potassium in the urine, which can be compensated for by giving sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. Specific treatments of cystinosis aim to reduce cystine accumulation within the cells. Cystinosis is currently treated with cysteamine (Cystagon®). Cysteamine also improves growth of cystinosis children. Cysteamine is only active in a very short period of time not exceeding 5-6 hours, thus requiring administration of Cystagon® capsules 4 times a day, that is to say about every 6 hours. This treatment is also only effective if continued day after day, indefinitely in order to control the disease. About 1000 children require lifelong treatment to prolong their lives and prevent deterioration of kidney function. However, as mentioned above, cysteamine administration results in increased gastric secretions and is ulcerogenic. In addition, routes and timing of administration provide difficulty for subjects in need of such therapy. Recently, a similar drug called cystamine (the disulfide form of cysteamine) has been studied for neurodegenerative disorders including Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases. Cystamine has similar side-effects and dosing difficulties to that of cysteamine. Cysteamine is a potent gastric acid-secretagogue that has been used in laboratory animals to induce duodenal ulceration; studies in humans and animals have shown that cysteamine-induced gastric acid hypersecretion is most likely mediated through hypergastrinemia. In previous studies performed in children with cystinosis who suffered regular upper gastrointestinal symptoms, a single oral dose of cysteamine (11-23 mg/kg) was shown to cause hypergastrinemia and a 2-to 3-fold rise in gastric acid-hypersecretion. Symptoms suffered by these individuals included abdominal pain, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, and anorexia. The disclosure demonstrates that cysteamine-induced hypergastrinemia arises, in part, as a local effect on the gastric antral-predominant G-cells in susceptible individuals. The data also suggest that this is also a systemic effect of gastrin release by cysteamine. Depending upon the route of administration, plasma gastrin levels usually peak after intragastric delivery within 30 minutes, whereas the plasma cysteamine levels peak later. Subjects with cystinosis are required to ingest oral cysteamine (Cystagon®) every 6 hours, day and night. When taken regularly, cysteamine can deplete intracellular cystine by up to 90% (as measured in circulating white blood cells), and this has been shown to reduce the rate of progression to kidney failure/transplantation and also to obviate the need for thyroid replacement therapy. Unfortunately, because of the strict treatment regimen and the associated symptoms, non-adherence with cysteamine therapy remains a problem, particularly among adolescent and young adult patients. By reducing the frequency of required cysteamine dosing, adherence to a therapeutic regimen can be improved. The disclosure demonstrates that delivery of cysteamine to the small intestine reduces gastric distress and ulceration and improves bioavailability of cysteamine in the circulation. Delivery of cysteamine into the small intestine is useful due to improved absorption rate from the SI, greater surface area of the SI, and/or less cysteamine undergoing hepatic first pass elimination when absorbed through the small intestine. This disclosure shows a dramatic decrease in leukocyte cystine within an hour of cysteamine delivery. In addition, sulfhydryl (SH) compounds such as cysteamine, cystamine, and glutathione are among the most important and active intracellular antioxidants. Cysteamine protects animals against bone marrow and gastrointestinal radiation syndromes. The rationale for the importance of SH compounds is further supported by observations in mitotic cells. These are the most sensitive to radiation injury in terms of cell reproductive death and are noted to have the lowest level of SH compounds. Conversely, S-phase cells, which are the most resistant to radiation injury using the same criteria, have demonstrated the highest levels of inherent SH compounds. In addition, when mitotic cells were treated with cysteamine, they became very resistant to radiation. It has also been noted that cysteamine may directly protect cells against induced mutations. The protection is thought to result from scavenging of free radicals, either directly or via release of protein-bound GSH. An enzyme that liberates cysteamine from coenzyme A has been reported in avian liver and hog kidney. Recently, studies have appeared demonstrating a protective effect of cysteamine against the hepatotoxic agents acetaminophen, bromobenzene, and phalloidine. Cystamine, in addition, to its role as a radioprotectant, has been found to alleviate tremors and prolong life in mice with the gene mutation for Huntington's disease (HD). The drug may work by increasing the activity of proteins that protect nerve cells, or neurons, from degeneration. Cystamine appears to inactivate an enzyme called transglutaminase and thus results in a reduction of huntingtin protein (Nature Medicine 8, 143-149, 2002). In addition, cystamine was found to increase the levels of certain neuroprotective proteins. However, due to the current methods and formulation of delivery of cystamine, degradation and poor uptake require excessive dosing. The disclosure is not limited with respect to a specific cysteamine or cystamine salt or ester or derivative; the compositions of the disclosure can contain any cysteamine or cystamine, cysteamine or cystamine derivative, or combination of cysteamine or cystamines. The active agents in the composition, i.e., cysteamine or cystamine, may be administered in the form of a pharmacologically acceptable salt, ester, amide, prodrug or analog or as a combination thereof. Salts, esters, amides, prodrugs and analogs of the active agents may be prepared using standard procedures known to those skilled in the art of synthetic organic chemistry and described, for example, by J. March, “Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms and Structure,” 4th Ed. (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1992). For example, basic addition salts are prepared from the neutral drug using conventional means, involving reaction of one or more of the active agent's free hydroxyl groups with a suitable base. Generally, the neutral form of the drug is dissolved in a polar organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol and the base is added thereto. The resulting salt either precipitates or may be brought out of solution by addition of a less polar solvent. Suitable bases for forming basic addition salts include, but are not limited to, inorganic bases such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, trimethylamine, or the like. Preparation of esters involves functionalization of hydroxyl groups which may be present within the molecular structure of the drug. The esters are typically acyl-substituted derivatives of free alcohol groups, i.e., moieties which are derived from carboxylic acids of the formula R—COOH where R is alkyl, and typically is lower alkyl. Esters can be reconverted to the free acids, if desired, by using conventional hydrogenolysis or hydrolysis procedures. Preparation of amides and prodrugs can be carried out in an analogous manner. Other derivatives and analogs of the active agents may be prepared using standard techniques known to those skilled in the art of synthetic organic chemistry, or may be deduced by reference to the pertinent literature. The disclosure provides delivery methods and compositions that overcome the problems associated with cysteamine and cystamine delivery. The methods of compositions of the disclosure provide enteric-coated compositions that result in less frequent dosing (2×/day vs. 4×/day), increased patient compliance and fewer gastrointestinal side effects (e.g., pain, heartburn, acid production, vomiting) and other side effects (e.g., patients smell like rotten eggs—a particular compliance problem as subjects reach puberty). The disclosure provides enteric-coated cysteamine compositions (sulfhydryl/Cystagon®) and cystamine compositions. The disclosure provides methods for the treatment of cystinosis, the treatment of neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer Disease, Huntington's and Parkinson's disease and free radical damage using enterically coated cysteamine and cystamine, respectively. The disclosure provides composition comprising enterically formulated cysteamine and cystamine derivatives. Examples of cysteamine derivatives include hydrochloride, bitartrate and phosphocysteamine derivatives. Cystamine and cystamine derivatives include sulfated cystamine. Enteric coatings prolong release until the cystamine, cystamine derivative, or cysteamine derivative/Cystagon® reaches the intestinal tract, typically the small intestine. Because of the enteric coatings, delivery to the small intestine is improved thereby improving uptake of active ingredient while reducing gastric side effects. This will result in a reduction in the need for frequent administration that currently is associated with Cystagon® therapy, cystamine and cysteamine therapy. An “enterically coated” drug or tablet refers to a drug or tablet that is coated with a substance—i.e., with an “enteric coating”—that remains intact in the stomach but dissolves and releases the drug once the small intestine is reached. As used herein “enteric coating”, is a material, a polymer material or materials which encase the medicament core (e.g., cystamine, cysteamine, Cystagon®). Typically, a substantial amount or all of the enteric coating material is dissolved before the medicament or therapeutically active agent is released from the dosage form, so as to achieve delayed dissolution of the medicament core. A suitable pH-sensitive polymer is one which will dissolve in intestinal juices at a higher pH level (pH greater than 4.5), such as within the small intestine and therefore permit release of the pharmacologically active substance in the regions of the small intestine and not in the upper portion of the GI tract, such as the stomach. The coating material is selected such that the therapeutically active agent will be released when the dosage form reaches the small intestine or a region in which the pH is greater than pH 4.5. The coating may be a pH-sensitive materials, which remain intact in the lower pH environs of the stomach, but which disintegrate or dissolve at the pH commonly found in the small intestine of the patient. For example, the enteric coating material begins to dissolve in an aqueous solution at pH between about 4.5 to about 5.5. For example, pH-sensitive materials will not undergo significant dissolution until the dosage form has emptied from the stomach. The pH of the small intestine gradually increases from about 4.5 to about 6.5 in the duodenal bulb to about 7.2 in the distal portions of the small intestine (ileum). In order to provide predictable dissolution corresponding to the small intestine transit time of about 3 hours (e.g., 2-3 hours) and permit reproducible release therein, the coating should begin to dissolve within the pH range of the duodenum, and continue to dissolve at the pH range within the small intestine. Therefore, the amount of enteric polymer coating should be sufficient to substantially dissolve during the approximate three hour transit time within the small intestine (e.g., the proximal and mid-small intestine). Enteric coatings have been used for many years to arrest the release of the drug from orally ingestible dosage forms. Depending upon the composition and/or thickness, the enteric coatings are resistant to stomach acid for required periods of time before they begin to disintegrate and permit release of the drug in the lower stomach or upper part of the small intestines. Examples of some enteric coatings are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,202 which is incorporated by reference fully herein. As set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,202, some examples of coating previously employed are beeswax and glyceryl monostearate; beeswax, shellac and cellulose; and cetyl alcohol, mastic and shellac, as well as shellac and stearic acid (U.S. Pat. No. 2,809,918); polyvinyl acetate and ethyl cellulose (U.S. Pat. No. 3,835,221); and neutral copolymer of polymethacrylic acid esters (Eudragit L30D) (F. W. Goodhart et al., Pharm. Tech., pp. 64-71, April 1984); copolymers of methacrylic acid and methacrylic acid methylester (Eudragits), or a neutral copolymer of polymethacrylic acid esters containing metallic stearates (Mehta et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,728,512 and 4,794,001). Such coatings comprise mixtures of fats and fatty acids, shellac and shellac derivatives and the cellulose acid phthlates, e.g., those having a free carboxyl content. See, Remington's at page 1590, and Zeitova et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,432,966), for descriptions of suitable enteric coating compositions. Accordingly, increased adsorption in the small intestine due to enteric coatings of cystamine, cysteamine derivatives (including Cystagon®) can result in improvements in cystinosis as well as neurodegenerative diseases including, for example, Huntington's disease. Generally, the enteric coating comprises a polymeric material that prevents cysteamine or cystamine release in the low pH environment of the stomach but that ionizes at a slightly higher pH, typically a pH of 4 or 5, and thus dissolves sufficiently in the small intestines to gradually release the active agent therein. Accordingly, among the most effective enteric coating materials are polyacids having a pKa in the range of about 3 to 5. Suitable enteric coating materials include, but are not limited to, polymerized gelatin, shellac, methacrylic acid copolymer type C NF, cellulose butyrate phthalate, cellulose hydrogen phthalate, cellulose proprionate phthalate, polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP), cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), cellulose acetate trimellitate (CAT), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate, dioxypropyl methylcellulose succinate, carboxymethyl ethylcellulose (CMEC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), and acrylic acid polymers and copolymers, typically formed from methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate and/or ethyl methacrylate with copolymers of acrylic and methacrylic acid esters (Eudragit NE, Eudragit RL, Eudragit RS). For example, the enterically coating can comprise Eudragit L30D, triethylcitrate, and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), Cystagon® (or other cysteamine derivative), wherein the coating comprises 10 to 13% of the final product. By “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” or “pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle” are meant materials that are suitable for oral administration and not biologically, or otherwise, undesirable, i.e., that may be administered to a subject along with an active ingredient without causing any undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components of a pharmaceutical composition in which it is contained. Similarly, a “pharmaceutically acceptable” salt, ester or other derivative of an active agent comprise, for example, salts, esters or other derivatives which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. “Stabilizing agents” refer to compounds that lower the rate at which pharmaceutical degrades, particularly an oral pharmaceutical formulation under environmental conditions of storage. By the terms “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” of a enteric formulation of cysteamine or cystamine refers to a nontoxic but sufficient amount of the agent to provide the desired therapeutic effect. As will be pointed out below, the exact amount required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the age, weight, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the condition being treated, and the like. An appropriate “effective” amount in any individual case may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation. In one aspect of the disclosure there is provided a stabilized pharmaceutical composition for administration of an cysteamine or cystamine, wherein the cysteamine or cystamine is enterically coated. The cysteamine or cystamine is present in the composition in a therapeutically effective amount; typically, the composition is in unit dosage form. The amount of cysteamine or cystamine administered will, of course, be dependent on the age, weight, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the condition being treated, and the judgment of the prescribing physician. Suitable therapeutic amounts will be known to those skilled in the art and/or are described in the pertinent reference texts and literature. In one aspect, the dose is administered twice per day at about 0.5-1.0 g/m2 (e.g., 0.7-0.8 g/m2) body surface area. Current non-enterically coated doses are about 1.35 g/m2 body surface area and are administered 4-5 times per day. The entericaly coated cysteamine or cystamine can comprise various excipients, as is well known in the pharmaceutical art, provided such excipients do not exhibit a destabilizing effect on any components in the composition. Thus, excipients such as binders, bulking agents, diluents, disintegrants, lubricants, fillers, carriers, and the like can be combined with the cysteamine or cystamine. For solid compositions, diluents are typically necessary to increase the bulk of a tablet so that a practical size is provided for compression. Suitable diluents include dicalcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, lactose, cellulose, kaolin, mannitol, sodium chloride, dry starch and powdered sugar. Binders are used to impart cohesive qualities to a tablet formulation, and thus ensure that a tablet remains intact after compression. Suitable binder materials include, but are not limited to, starch (including corn starch and pregelatinized starch), gelatin, sugars (including sucrose, glucose, dextrose and lactose), polyethylene glycol, waxes, and natural and synthetic gums, e.g., acacia sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, cellulosic polymers (including hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, methyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, and the like), and Veegum. Lubricants are used to facilitate tablet manufacture; examples of suitable lubricants include, for example, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, and stearic acid, and are typically present at no more than approximately 1 weight percent relative to tablet weight. Disintegrants are used to facilitate tablet disintegration or “breakup” after administration, and are generally starches, clays, celluloses, algins, gums or crosslinked polymers. If desired, the pharmaceutical composition to be administered may also contain minor amounts of nontoxic auxiliary substances such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering agents and the like, for example, sodium acetate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine sodium acetate, triethanolamine oleate, and the like. If desired, flavoring, coloring and/or sweetening agents may be added as well. Other optional components for incorporation into an oral formulation herein include, but are not limited to, preservatives, suspending agents, thickening agents, and the like. Fillers include, for example, insoluble materials such as silicon dioxide, titanium oxide, alumina, talc, kaolin, powdered cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, and the like, as well as soluble materials such as mannitol, urea, sucrose, lactose, dextrose, sodium chloride, sorbitol, and the like. A pharmaceutical composition may also comprise a stabilizing agent such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose or polyvinylpyrrolidone, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,301,146. Other stabilizing agents include, but are not limited to, cellulosic polymers such as hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate phthalate, cellulose acetate trimellitate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, microcrystalline cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose sodium; and vinyl polymers and copolymers such as polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylacetate phthalate, vinylacetate crotonic acid copolymer, and ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers. The stabilizing agent is present in an amount effective to provide the desired stabilizing effect; generally, this means that the ratio of cysteamine or cystamine to the stabilizing agent is at least about 1:500 w/w, more commonly about 1:99 w/w. The tablets are manufactured by first enterically coating the cysteamine or cystamine. A method for forming tablets herein is by direct compression of the powders containing the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine, optionally in combination with diluents, binders, lubricants, disintegrants, colorants, stabilizers or the like. As an alternative to direct compression, compressed tablets can be prepared using wet-granulation or dry-granulation processes. Tablets may also be molded rather than compressed, starting with a moist material containing a suitable water-soluble lubricant. In an alternative embodiment, the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine are granulated and the granulation is compressed into a tablet or filled into a capsule. Capsule materials may be either hard or soft, and are typically sealed, such as with gelatin bands or the like. Tablets and capsules for oral use will generally include one or more commonly used excipients as discussed herein. For administration of the dosage form, i.e., the tablet or capsule comprising the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine, a total weight in the range of approximately 100 mg to 1000 mg is used. The dosage form is orally administered to a patient suffering from a condition for which an cysteamine or cystamine would typically be indicated, including, but not limited to, cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. The compositions of the disclosure can be used in combination with other therapies useful for treating cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. For example, indomethacin therapy (Indocid® or Endol®) is an anti-inflammatory used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and lumbago, but it can be used to reduce water and electrolyte urine loss. In children with cystinosis, indomethacin reduces the urine volume and therefore liquid consumption by about 30%, sometimes by half. In most cases this is associated with an appetite improvement. Indomethacin treatment is generally followed for several years. Other therapies can be combined with the methods and compositions of the disclosure to treat diseases and disorders that are attributed or result from cystinosis. Urinary phosphorus loss, for example, entails rickets, and it may be necessary to give a phosphorus supplement. Carnitine is lost in the urine and blood levels are low. Carnitine allows fat to be used by the muscles to provide energy. Hormone supplementation is sometimes necessary. Sometimes the thyroid gland will not produce enough thyroid hormones. This is given as thyroxin (drops or tablets). Insulin treatment is sometimes necessary if diabetes appears, when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin. These treatments have become rarely necessary in children whom are treated with cysteamine, since the treatment protects the thyroid and the pancreas. Some adolescent boys require a testosterone treatment if puberty is late. Growth hormone therapy may be indicated if growth is not sufficient despite a good hydro electrolytes balance. Accordingly, such therapies can be combined with the enterically coated cysteamine and cystamine compositions and methods of the disclosure. The effectiveness of a method or composition of the disclosure can be assessed by measuring leukocyte cystine concentrations. Dosage adjustment and therapy can be made by a medical specialist depending upon, for example, the severity of cystenosis and/or the concentration of cystine. Additional therapies including the use of omeprazole (Prilosec®) can reduce these symptoms. In addition, various prodrugs can be “activated” by use of the enterically coated cysteamine. Prodrugs are pharmacologically inert, they themselves do not work in the body, but once they have been absorbed, the prodrug decomposes. The prodrug approach has been used successfully in a number of therapeutic areas including antibiotics, antihistamines and ulcer treatments. The advantage of using prodrugs is that the active agent is chemically camouflaged and no active agent is released until the drug has passed out of the gut and into the cells of the body. For example, a number of produgs use S—S bonds. Weak reducing agents, such as cysteamine, reduce these bonds and release the drug. Accordingly, the compositions of the disclosure are useful in combination with pro-drugs for timed release of the drug. In this aspect, a pro-drug can be administered followed by administration of an enterically coated cysteamine compositions of the invention (at a desired time) to activate the pro-drug. It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with specific embodiments thereof, that the foregoing description as well as the examples which follow are intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention. Other aspects, advantages and modifications within the scope of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art to which the invention EXAMPLES Subjects. Children with cystinosis, ≧12 years old, and taking regular cysteamine bitartrate (Cystagon®; Mylan, Morgantown, W. Va.) were recruited to the study (Table I). Adult control patients were recruited locally. Patients with cystinosis had a mean leukocyte cystine level of less than 2.0 nmol half-cystine/mg protein over the past year. Cysteamine therapy was discontinued 2 days before admission, and acid suppressants, antibiotics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, pro-kinetic agents, and antihistamines were discontinued 2 weeks before admission. None of the patients had undergone kidney transplantation. Baseline chemistry, Helicobacter pylori serologic study, complete blood count, and urinalysis were performed. TABLE I Cystinosis patient data Serum Cysteamine creatinine Patient Age (yrs.) Sex Weight (kg) dose (mg)* (mg/dL) 1 16 Male 61.5 500 1.0 2 14 Male 39.4 406 1.2 3 13 Female 39.1 406 1.5 4 19 Female 38.1 406 1.4 5 13 Female 50.1 500 1.0 6 16 Male 58.7 500 3.1 *Dose of cysteamine base delivered into varying delivery sites Cysteamine bitartrate delivery. Cysteamine was infused through a silicone rubber nasoenteric tube (Dentsleeve Pty Ltd, Australia), 3 mm in diameter and 4.5 meters long. The tube, specifically made for this study, had a tungsten-weighted tip, and immediately proximal to this was an inflatable balloon (5-mL capacity). Immediately proximal to the balloon was an infusion port (1 mm diameter) through which the drug was delivered. After an overnight fast (except for water), the dose of cysteamine bitartrate (10 mg/kg/dose of base, maximum of 500 mg) was dissolved in 10 mL of water and infused over 1 to 2 minutes. On day 1 of the study, the nasoenteric tube was inserted into the stomach. By day 3 of the study the tube had passed into the proximal small intestine (SI) just distal to the ligament of Treitz (confirmed fluoroscopically). The balloon was then inflated, and peristalsis propelled the tube distally. Tube position within the cecum was confirmed fluoroscopically on day 5 (day 7 in 4 patients because of slow transit). If the tube had migrated too far, it was retracted into the desired location. Serum gastrin, cysteamine and leukocyte cystine measurements. After an overnight fast (except for water) blood samples were taken at baseline and at varying intervals after intraluminal delivery of cysteamine. Serum gastrin levels were then measured at 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes and 3 and 4 hours; cysteamine levels were measured at 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, and 150 minutes and 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 16 hours; leukocyte cystine levels were measured at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12 hours in patients with cystinosis only. Gastrin was measured in picograms/mL with the Diagnostic Products Corporation (Los Angeles, Calif.) gastrin radioimmunoassay-assay kit. Leukocyte cystine levels were measured in nmol half-cystine per mg protein by the Cystine Determination Lab (La Jolla, Calif.). To measure plasma cysteamine, 100-μL plasma samples were collected in heparinized vacutainers and spun in a centrifuge within 1 hour, and plasma was stored at −18° C. The concentration of cysteamine was measured by use of tandem mass spectroscopy (API 2000 LC/MS/MS; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). Cysteamine concentrations were calculated with a calibration curve that was prepared by spiking plasma with buffered cysteamine solutions, and quality control samples were analyzed with each batch. Statistical analysis. Mixed model restricted maximum likelihood (REML) repeated measures analysis of variance with subjects as a random effect was performed on the absolute leukocyte cystine levels, on the leukocyte cystine level changes from baseline, and on the “area over the curve” (AOC) for leukocyte cystine level changes from baseline after cysteamine administration for the subjects with cystinosis. AOC is computationally analogous to area under the curve, but it is applied when values are predominantly decreasing below baseline values. Large AOC values reflect large decreases, and a negative AOC reflects a net increase in value. Main effects for site of delivery, time after delivery, and the interaction between site and time were tested, except just the site effect was tested for AOCs. In the absence of significant interaction when a main effect was detected, Tukey's honestly significant difference test (HSD) was applied to identify where differences occurred within a 5% family wise error rate. The Tukey HSD procedure controls for overall significance level when performing all pairwise comparisons. An additional analysis was performed with plasma cysteamine Cmax added to the AOC model. REML repeated measures analyses of variance with subjects as a random effect were also performed as described above on AUC and the Cmax over time for plasma cysteamine levels separately for the subjects with cystinosis and control subjects and with both subject groups combined. Differences between means for the 3 sites were tested, plus group and group x site interaction effects for the combined groups. If a site effect was detected, Tukey's HSD was applied to determine which sites differed from each other. REML repeated measures analyses of variance were also performed as described above on gastrin levels. The analyses were performed on 2 versions of datasets: the full dataset and all data after omitting observations collected at 30 minutes (1 subject was missing a blood sample taken at 30 minutes after small intestinal cysteamine delivery). A 5% significance level was used without adjustment for all statistical testing. Six patients with cystinosis, (3 male, 3 female) with a mean age of 15.2 years (range 13-19 years) were recruited into the study (Table I). Eight healthy adult control patients (6 male, 2 female) with a mean age of 23.2 years (range 19-28 years) were enrolled. None of the children with cystinosis had undergone kidney transplantation. All control subjects received 500 mg cysteamine base, whereas the mean dose for subjects with cystinosis was 453 mg (range 406-500 mg). All subjects had normal liver function test results. In all subjects the nasoenteric tube passed successfully from the stomach into the upper SI; however, it did not progress any further in 2 subjects with cystinosis. In 2 of the control subjects the tube only reached the mid-ileum but did, however, progress to the cecum in 8 subjects (4 control subjects, 4 with cystinosis). There were no reported adverse effects with the insertion or removal of the nasoenteric tube (FIG. 1). Symptoms. Only 2 patients (1 male, 1 female) with cystinosis reported regular GI symptoms before the study, and these had responded to acid-suppression therapy. The male subject had severe retching and emesis about 15 minutes after receiving intragastric cysteamine but did not have any symptoms when the drug was infused into the proximal small intestine. The female child with cystinosis had mild transient nausea after SI drug delivery only. No other symptoms were reported after any other cysteamine delivery in the children with cystinosis. There were no associated adverse events with tube placement or removal. Plasma cysteamine. Among the subjects with cystinosis as measured by analysis of variance, the mean plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUCs (of the concentration-time gradient) differed by site of cysteamine delivery (both P<0.03). Site (†) refers to either patients with cystinosis or control subjects. For the plasma cysteamine AUCs, the means differed between the duodenal and both gastric and cecal sites of delivery (Tukey HSD global P<0.05). Among control subjects, the mean AUC did not differ among delivery sites (P>0.4), but mean Cmax did (P<0.05). For both cystinosis and control groups the mean Cmax values differed only between the duodenum and cecum; mean Cmax values after duodenal versus gastric or gastric versus cecal delivery were not statistically different (Tables II and III). TABLE II Mean plasma cysteamine Cmax levels (γmol/L) and area under curve (AUC) measurements in cystinosis subjects, controls, and combined cystinosis and control subjects, after delivery of cysteamine into the stomach, small intestine, and cecum Cmax AUC Cmax AUC Cmax AUC Cystinosis Cystinosis Control Control Combined Combined Stomach 35.5 3006 (1112) 39.5 3613 37.8 3353 (20.5) (16.4) (1384) (17.6) (1267) Small Intestine 55.8 4299 (1056) 51.1 3988 53.2 4047 (13.0) (20.7) (1659) (17.4) (1376) Cecum 21.9 3002 (909) 23.1 2804 22.5 2903 (13.1) (15.3) (1323) (13.2) (1056) The standard deviations are in parenthesis TABLE III Comparisons of mean plasma cysteamine Cmax (γmol/L) and AUC measurements for combined cystinosis subjects and control subjects among delivery sites AUC Cmax P value* <0.01 <0.01 Stomach vs SI + + Stomach vs Cecum − − SI vs Cecum + + + Significant difference using Tukey's HSD test (α = 0.05) − No significant difference *ANOVA test for equality of three delivery sites When data from the control subjects were combined with cystinosis subject data, there was both a group effect (P<0.05) and a site effect (P<0.01) for AUCs, with a significant difference between mean AUC levels for the duodenum versus both the stomach and cecum. Cmax values differed among sites (P<0.01) but not between groups (P>0.4). Group (*)refers to site of intestinal delivery. Cmax differed between duodenum versus both stomach and cecum (FIG. 2). Leukocyte cystine. There were significant differences among the 3 sites of delivery for cystine levels (P<0.04), changes from baseline values (P<0.0001), and AOCs for changes from baseline (P<0.02). A Tukey HSD test, which controls for multiple comparisons, showed that mean leukocyte cystine levels differed between the cecum and stomach sites, but that cecum versus duodenum and stomach versus duodenum produced similar mean values. When the absolute cystine levels or AOCs for changes from baseline levels were evaluated, the significant differences in sites were found between the duodenum and both the stomach and cecum, but not between stomach and cecum (Tukey HSD global P<0.05) (FIG. 3). Plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUC contributed a statistical effect on AOC (P<0.001 and <0.02, respectively), even after controlling for delivery site (FIG. 4). Blood gastrin. For the full gastrin dataset, there was a significant difference among the means for the different delivery sites (P<0.1), with the cecum resulting in a lower mean from that of the stomach and small intestine. Both group * and site † significant effects were detected after omitting observations from 30 minutes after delivery (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively). The 30-minute observations were omitted because of a missing data set. For these observations, mean levels of gastrin after delivery in the cecum were different from those from both the duodenum and stomach, although the latter did not differ from each other. The 1 boy (14 years) who had severe GI symptoms after intragastric, but not enteric or cecal, cysteamine delivery had a rise in baseline gastrin from 70 pg/mL to 121 pg/mL at 30 minutes after gastric cysteamine. Within the control group, more than half of the baseline and post-cysteamine gastrin levels remained undetectable (<25 pg/mL), and none of the control subjects had a significant rise in gastrin after cysteamine delivery into any site. Patients with cystinosis are required to ingest oral cysteamine (Cystagon®) every 6 hours, day and night. When taken regularly, cysteamine can deplete intracellular cystine by up to 90% (as measured in circulating white blood cells), and this has been shown to reduce the rate of progression to kidney failure/transplantation and also to obviate the need for thyroid replacement therapy. Unfortunately, because of the strict treatment regimen and the associated symptoms, non-adherence with cysteamine therapy remains a problem, particularly among adolescent and young adult patients. Certainly, by reducing the frequency of required cysteamine dosing adherence can be improved. The disclosure shows a strong statistical association between the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of cysteamine and AOC measurements for leukocyte cystine (P<0.001). A higher Cmax is achieved after delivery of cysteamine into the small intestine than when infused into the stomach or colon; this may be due to improved absorption rate from the SI, greater surface area of the SI, or less cysteamine undergoing hepatic first pass elimination when absorbed rapidly through the small intestine. When data were combined for patients with cystinosis and control subjects, there was a statistical difference between duodenal versus both gastric and colonic delivery for plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUC levels (both P<0.05). The lack of similar statistical significance for the cystinosis group alone may simply reflect the small number of patients studied. Changes from baseline leukocyte cystine levels were statistically significant for absolute cystine levels and for AOC when cysteamine was infused into the duodenum compared with both stomach and colon. As shown in FIG. 3, the leukocyte cystine levels remained below pre-delivery levels for up to 12 hours after a single dose of cysteamine into the small intestine. This would suggest that effective absorption of cysteamine through the SI, by causing a higher Cmax and AUC on the cysteamine concentration-time gradient, could lead to prolonged depletion of leukocyte cystine and possibly less frequent daily dosing. Another explanation would be that by achieving a high enough plasma cysteamine concentration, more drug reaches the lysosome (where cystine accumulates). In the lysosome the cysteamine reacts with cystine forming the mixed disulfide of cysteamine and cysteine. The mixed disulfide exits the lysosome presumably via the lysine carrier. In the cytosol the mixed disulfide can be reduced by its reaction with glutathione. The cysteine released can be used for protein or glutathione synthesis. The cysteamine released from the mixed disulfide reenters the lysosome where it can react with another cystine molecule. Thus 1 molecule of cysteamine may release many molecules of cystine from the lysosome. This study showed a dramatic decrease in leukocyte cystine within an hour of cysteamine delivery. In retrospect, the finding from this study was that the leukocyte cystine levels remained at the 1-hour level for 24 hours, and even at 48 hours after delivery the levels had not returned to the pre-cysteamine level. Cysteamine is a potent gastric acid-secretagogue that has been used in laboratory animals to induce duodenal ulceration; studies in humans and animals have shown that cysteamine-induced gastric acid hypersecretion is most likely mediated through hypergastrinemia. In previous studies performed in children with cystinosis who suffered regular upper gastrointestinal symptoms, a single oral dose of cysteamine (11-23 mg/kg) was shown to cause hypergastrinemia and a 2-to 3-fold rise in gastric acid-hypersecretion. Symptoms suffered by these individuals included abdominal pain, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, and anorexia. Interestingly, only 2 of 6 subjects with cystinosis (who were known to suffer regular cysteamine-induced GI symptoms) had increased gastrin levels and symptoms, including nausea, retching, and discomfort after intragastric cysteamine. Gastrin levels were only available after small intestinal administration in 1 of the 2 children and the levels remained the same as baseline. Neither child had symptoms after enteric cysteamine delivery. None of the other patients with cystinosis or control subjects had an increase in gastrin levels with cysteamine infused into any site. This would suggest that cysteamine-induced hypergastrinemia may arise as a local effect on the gastric antral-predominant G-cells only in susceptible individuals. In addition, plasma gastrin levels usually peaks after intragastric delivery within 30 minutes, whereas the plasma cysteamine levels peaked later. 8, 10 In 2 previous studies, children with cystinosis were shown to have a significant rise in plasma gastrin levels after receiving intragastric cysteamine; as part of these study's entry criteria all subjects did, however, suffer with regular GI symptoms. Data from this study would suggest that cysteamine does not cause hypergastrinemia, and therefore acid-hypersecretion, in all patients with cystinosis. Thus acid suppression therapy would not be recommended in patients with cystinosis without upper GI symptoms. The data suggest that direct administration of cysteamine into the jejunum may result in prolonged leukocyte cystine depletion. In a previous study, a child who had a gastrojejunal feeding tube for oral feeding aversion and severe UGI symptoms, responded to intrajejunal cysteamine with a 3-fold rise in serum gastrin as compared with drug administration into the stomach. The leukocyte cystine response was not measured in this child. Therefore patients with jejunal feeding tubes will have to be further evaluated. FIGS. 5 and 6 shows results from a patient that remained on the twice daily EC-cysteamine for an extended period of time. Over this period the patient's leukocyte cystine levels have been measured regularly. The dose of twice daily EC-cysteamine is titrated against the patient's symptoms and cystine levels. The patient's cystine levels have been 0.4, 1.0, 0.36. This study provides data that may be used to improve the quality of life for patients with cystinosis. The present formulation of Cystagon® comprises cysteamine in a capsule that will dissolve rapidly on contact with water, most likely within the stomach. Although a number of embodiments and features have been described above, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that modifications and variations of the described embodiments and features may be made without departing from the teachings of the disclosure or the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Cystinosis is a rare, autosomal recessive disease caused by intra-lysosomal accumulation of the amino acid cystine within various tissues, including the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, kidney, bone marrow, and eyes. Nephropathic cystinosis is associated with kidney failure that necessitates kidney transplantation. To date, the only specific treatment for nephropathic cystinosis is the sulfhydryl agent, cysteamine. Cysteamine has been shown to lower intracellular cystine levels, thereby reducing the rate of progression of kidney failure in children. Cysteamine, through a mechanism of increased gastrin and gastric acid production, is ulcerogenic. When administered orally to children with cystinosis, cysteamine has also been shown to cause a 3-fold increase in gastric acid production and a 50% rise of serum gastrin levels. As a consequence, subjects that use cysteamine suffer gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and are often unable to take cysteamine regularly or at full dose. To achieve sustained reduction of leukocyte cystine levels, patients are normally required to take oral cysteamine every 6 hours, which invariably means having to awaken from sleep. However, when a single dose of cysteamine was administered intravenously the leukocyte cystine level remained suppressed for more than 24 hours, possibly because plasma cysteamine concentrations were higher and achieved more rapidly than when the drug is administered orally. Regular intravenous administration of cysteamine would not be practical. Accordingly, there is a need for formulations and delivery methods that would result in higher plasma, and thus intracellular, concentration as well as decrease the number of daily doses and therefore improve the quality of life for patients. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The invention provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention also provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention further provides a composition comprising a coated cystinosis therapeutic agent that has increased uptake in the small intestine compared to a non-coated cystinosis therapeutic agent when administered orally. In one aspect, the coated cystinosis therapeutic agent comprises a cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention also provides a method of treating a subject with cystinosis, comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention. The invention also contemplates a method of treating a subject with a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a composition of the invention further including various pharmaceutically acceptable agents (e.g., flavorants, binders and the like) in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention provides a method of treating cystinosis or a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering a composition of the invention and a second therapeutic agent. | A61K31194 | 20170721 | 20180327 | 20171109 | 66231.0 | A61K31194 | 1 | AHMED, HASAN SYED | ENTERICALLY COATED CYSTEAMINE, CYSTAMINE AND DERIVATIVES THEREOF | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
15,656,903 | ACCEPTED | ENTERICALLY COATED CYSTEAMINE, CYSTAMINE AND DERIVATIVES THEREOF | The disclosure provides oral cysteamine and cystamine formulations useful for treating cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. The formulations provide controlled release compositions that improve quality of life and reduced side-effects. | 1. A dosage form comprising enterically-coated granules having a core comprising cysteamine bitartrate and cystamine or a pharmaceutically-acceptable salt thereof; at least one pharmaceutically acceptable binder; and an enteric coating surrounding the core. 2. A method of treating a subject with cystinosis comprising administering a composition of claim 1 less than 4 times per day, wherein the total daily dose of cystamine is about 1.35 g/m2 body surface area or less. 3. A method of treating a subject with cystinosis comprising administering a composition of claim 1, wherein each administration comprises an amount of cysteamine bitartrate that would yield a dose of 100 to 1000 mg cysteamine free base. 4. A method of treating a subject with cystinosis comprising administering a composition of claim 1 less than 4 times per day in an amount to provide white blood-cell cystine suppression with a 12 hour level below 1 nmol/½cystine/mg protein. 5. A method of treating a subject with cystinosis comprising administering a composition of claim 1 twice per day in an amount to provide white blood-cell cystine suppression with a 12 hour level below 1 nmol/½cystine/mg protein. 6. A method of treating a subject with Huntington's Disease comprising administering the composition of claim 1, wherein each administration comprises an amount of cysteamine bitartrate that would yield a dose of 100 to 1000 mg cysteamine free base. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/336,405, filed Oct. 27, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/950,234, filed Nov. 24, 2015, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/752,383, filed Jun. 26, 2015 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,198,882), which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/555,993, filed Nov. 28, 2014, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/399,900, filed Feb. 17, 2012, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/190,396, filed Jul. 25, 2011 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,129,433), which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/990,869, filed Nov. 13, 2008 (now U.S. Pat. No. 8,026,284), which is a U.S. National Stage Application filed under 35 U.S.C. §371 and claims priority to International Application No. PCT/US07/02325, filed Jan. 26, 2007, which application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/762,715, filed Jan. 27, 2006, the disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to methods, compositions and treatments for metabolic conditions and free radical damage. More specifically, the invention relates to methods and composition useful for treating Cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease, as free radical and radioprotectants, and as hepto-protectant agents. BACKGROUND Cystinosis is a rare, autosomal recessive disease caused by intra-lysosomal accumulation of the amino acid cystine within various tissues, including the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, kidney, bone marrow, and eyes. Nephropathic cystinosis is associated with kidney failure that necessitates kidney transplantation. To date, the only specific treatment for nephropathic cystinosis is the sulfhydryl agent, cysteamine. Cysteamine has been shown to lower intracellular cystine levels, thereby reducing the rate of progression of kidney failure in children. Cysteamine, through a mechanism of increased gastrin and gastric acid production, is ulcerogenic. When administered orally to children with cystinosis, cysteamine has also been shown to cause a 3-fold increase in gastric acid production and a 50% rise of serum gastrin levels. As a consequence, subjects that use cysteamine suffer gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and are often unable to take cysteamine regularly or at full dose. To achieve sustained reduction of leukocyte cystine levels, patients are normally required to take oral cysteamine every 6 hours, which invariably means having to awaken from sleep. However, when a single dose of cysteamine was administered intravenously the leukocyte cystine level remained suppressed for more than 24 hours, possibly because plasma cysteamine concentrations were higher and achieved more rapidly than when the drug is administered orally. Regular intravenous administration of cysteamine would not be practical. Accordingly, there is a need for formulations and delivery methods that would result in higher plasma, and thus intracellular, concentration as well as decrease the number of daily doses and therefore improve the quality of life for patients. SUMMARY The invention provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention also provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention further provides a composition comprising a coated cystinosis therapeutic agent that has increased uptake in the small intestine compared to a non-coated cystinosis therapeutic agent when administered orally. In one aspect, the coated cystinosis therapeutic agent comprises a cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention also provides a method of treating a subject with cystinosis, comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention. The invention also contemplates a method of treating a subject with a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a composition of the invention further including various pharmaceutically acceptable agents (e.g., flavorants, binders and the like) in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention provides a method of treating cystinosis or a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering a composition of the invention and a second therapeutic agent. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1A-B shows enterocolonic tube. (A) Is an abdominal X-ray film showing the radiopaque weighted tip of the tube entering the ascending colon. (B) Is a contrast infused picture. The tube has passed through the small intestine and the tip is confirmed. FIG. 2 shows mean plasma cysteamine levels taken from patients with cystinosis and control subjects after delivery of drug into various intestinal sites. Error bars are standard error of the mean. In 2 control subjects, most distal point of drug delivery was the mid-ileal region. FIG. 3 shows the mean change in leukocyte cystine levels, compared with baseline levels, over a 12-hour period following delivery of cysteamine into varying intestinal sites. Negative levels signify increased leukocyte cystine depletion compared with baseline. FIG. 4 shows a scatterplot of plasma cysteamine Cmax vs. AOC of WBC Cystine changes from Baseline. Positive value means decrease from baseline. Negative value means increase from baseline. AOC change from baseline was affected by Cmax for cysteamine (P<0.001). FIG. 5 shows serial leukocyte cystine levels after drug was given as normal Cystagon® and enteric-coated (EC) cysteamine on alternate days. These serial levels were taken during the inpatient phase of the study. Desired cystine levels are below 1 mmol ½cystine/mg protein. Higher dose enteric-coated (yellow)) drug resulted in prolonged cystine suppression with 12 hour levels still within desired range. FIG. 6 shows the blood cysteamine levels following a single 450 mg dose of Cystagon® (series 1), 450 mg EC-cysteamine (series 2) and 900 mg EC-cysteamine (series 3). The Cmax is higher following EC drug. In addition, the time to Cmax is longer following EC-drug, suggesting that the drug is released from the capsule within the small intestine rather than the stomach. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “and,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a derivative” includes a plurality of such derivatives and reference to “a subject” includes reference to one or more subjects known to those skilled in the art, and so forth. Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood to one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice of the disclosed methods and compositions, the exemplary methods, devices and materials are described herein. The publications discussed above and throughout the text are provided solely for their disclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the inventors are not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior disclosure. Cystinosis is a metabolic disease characterized by an abnormal accumulation of the amino acid cystine in various organs of the body such as the kidney, eye, muscle, pancreas, and brain. Different organs are affected at different ages. There are three clinical forms of cystinosis. Infantile (or nephropathic) cystinosis; late-onset cystinosis; and benign cystinosis. The latter form does not produce kidney damage. Infantile cystinosis is usually diagnosed between 6 and 18 months of age with symptoms of excessive thirst and urination, failure to thrive, rickets, and episodes of dehydration. These findings are caused by a disorder called renal tubulopathy or Fanconi syndrome. As a consequence important nutrients and minerals are lost in the urine. Children with cystinosis also have crystals in their eyes (after one year of age) which may lead to photosensitivity. They also have an increased level of cystine in their white blood cells without adverse effect but allowing the diagnosis to be ascertained. Without specific treatment, children with cystinosis develop end-stage renal failure, i.e., lose their kidney function, usually between 6 and 12 years of age. Without cysteamine treatment subjects can develop complications in other organs due to the continued accumulation of cystine throughout the body. These complications can include muscle wasting, difficulty swallowing, diabetes, and hypothyroidism. Some symptoms include the inability of the kidneys to concentrate urine and allow important quantities of sodium, potassium, phosphorus, bicarbonate and substances like carnitine to be excreted in the urine. Treatment of symptoms compensates for these urinary losses. Subjects need to drink large quantities of water, because up to 2 to 3 liters of water are lost in the urine every day driving the feeling of being thirsty. In addition, the loss of urinary electrolytes (sodium, potassium, bicarbonate, phosphorus) must be compensated in the subject. It is often necessary to add a salt supplement in the form of sodium chloride. Children also lose bicarbonate and potassium in the urine, which can be compensated for by giving sodium bicarbonate and potassium bicarbonate. Specific treatments of cystinosis aim to reduce cystine accumulation within the cells. Cystinosis is currently treated with cysteamine (Cystagon®). Cysteamine also improves growth of cystinosis children. Cysteamine is only active in a very short period of time not exceeding 5-6 hours, thus requiring administration of Cystagon® capsules 4 times a day, that is to say about every 6 hours. This treatment is also only effective if continued day after day, indefinitely in order to control the disease. About 1000 children require lifelong treatment to prolong their lives and prevent deterioration of kidney function. However, as mentioned above, cysteamine administration results in increased gastric secretions and is ulcerogenic. In addition, routes and timing of administration provide difficulty for subjects in need of such therapy. Recently, a similar drug called cystamine (the disulfide form of cysteamine) has been studied for neurodegenerative disorders including Huntington's and Parkinson's diseases. Cystamine has similar side-effects and dosing difficulties to that of cysteamine. Cysteamine is a potent gastric acid-secretagogue that has been used in laboratory animals to induce duodenal ulceration; studies in humans and animals have shown that cysteamine-induced gastric acid hypersecretion is most likely mediated through hypergastrinemia. In previous studies performed in children with cystinosis who suffered regular upper gastrointestinal symptoms, a single oral dose of cysteamine (11-23 mg/kg) was shown to cause hypergastrinemia and a 2- to 3-fold rise in gastric acid-hypersecretion. Symptoms suffered by these individuals included abdominal pain, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, and anorexia. The disclosure demonstrates that cysteamine-induced hypergastrinemia arises, in part, as a local effect on the gastric antral-predominant G-cells in susceptible individuals. The data also suggest that this is also a systemic effect of gastrin release by cysteamine. Depending upon the route of administration, plasma gastrin levels usually peak after intragastric delivery within 30 minutes, whereas the plasma cysteamine levels peak later. Subjects with cystinosis are required to ingest oral cysteamine (Cystagon®) every 6 hours, day and night. When taken regularly, cysteamine can deplete intracellular cystine by up to 90% (as measured in circulating white blood cells), and this has been shown to reduce the rate of progression to kidney failure/transplantation and also to obviate the need for thyroid replacement therapy. Unfortunately, because of the strict treatment regimen and the associated symptoms, non-adherence with cysteamine therapy remains a problem, particularly among adolescent and young adult patients. By reducing the frequency of required cysteamine dosing, adherence to a therapeutic regimen can be improved. The disclosure demonstrates that delivery of cysteamine to the small intestine reduces gastric distress and ulceration and improves bioavailability of cysteamine in the circulation. Delivery of cysteamine into the small intestine is useful due to improved absorption rate from the SI, greater surface area of the SI, and/or less cysteamine undergoing hepatic first pass elimination when absorbed through the small intestine. This disclosure shows a dramatic decrease in leukocyte cystine within an hour of cysteamine delivery. In addition, sulfhydryl (SH) compounds such as cysteamine, cystamine, and glutathione are among the most important and active intracellular antioxidants. Cysteamine protects animals against bone marrow and gastrointestinal radiation syndromes. The rationale for the importance of SH compounds is further supported by observations in mitotic cells. These are the most sensitive to radiation injury in terms of cell reproductive death and are noted to have the lowest level of SH compounds. Conversely, S-phase cells, which are the most resistant to radiation injury using the same criteria, have demonstrated the highest levels of inherent SH compounds. In addition, when mitotic cells were treated with cysteamine, they became very resistant to radiation. It has also been noted that cysteamine may directly protect cells against induced mutations. The protection is thought to result from scavenging of free radicals, either directly or via release of protein-bound GSH. An enzyme that liberates cysteamine from coenzyme A has been reported in avian liver and hog kidney. Recently, studies have appeared demonstrating a protective effect of cysteamine against the hepatotoxic agents acetaminophen, bromobenzene, and phalloidine. Cystamine, in addition, to its role as a radioprotectant, has been found to alleviate tremors and prolong life in mice with the gene mutation for Huntington's disease (HD). The drug may work by increasing the activity of proteins that protect nerve cells, or neurons, from degeneration. Cystamine appears to inactivate an enzyme called transglutaminase and thus results in a reduction of huntingtin protein (Nature Medicine 8, 143-149, 2002). In addition, cystamine was found to increase the levels of certain neuroprotective proteins. However, due to the current methods and formulation of delivery of cystamine, degradation and poor uptake require excessive dosing. The disclosure is not limited with respect to a specific cysteamine or cystamine salt or ester or derivative; the compositions of the disclosure can contain any cysteamine or cystamine, cysteamine or cystamine derivative, or combination of cysteamine or cystamines. The active agents in the composition, i.e., cysteamine or cystamine, may be administered in the form of a pharmacologically acceptable salt, ester, amide, prodrug or analog or as a combination thereof. Salts, esters, amides, prodrugs and analogs of the active agents may be prepared using standard procedures known to those skilled in the art of synthetic organic chemistry and described, for example, by J. March, “Advanced Organic Chemistry: Reactions, Mechanisms and Structure,” 4th Ed. (New York: Wiley-Interscience, 1992). For example, basic addition salts are prepared from the neutral drug using conventional means, involving reaction of one or more of the active agent's free hydroxyl groups with a suitable base. Generally, the neutral form of the drug is dissolved in a polar organic solvent such as methanol or ethanol and the base is added thereto. The resulting salt either precipitates or may be brought out of solution by addition of a less polar solvent. Suitable bases for forming basic addition salts include, but are not limited to, inorganic bases such as sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, ammonium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, trimethylamine, or the like. Preparation of esters involves functionalization of hydroxyl groups which may be present within the molecular structure of the drug. The esters are typically acyl-substituted derivatives of free alcohol groups, i.e., moieties which are derived from carboxylic acids of the formula R—COOH where R is alkyl, and typically is lower alkyl. Esters can be reconverted to the free acids, if desired, by using conventional hydrogenolysis or hydrolysis procedures. Preparation of amides and prodrugs can be carried out in an analogous manner. Other derivatives and analogs of the active agents may be prepared using standard techniques known to those skilled in the art of synthetic organic chemistry, or may be deduced by reference to the pertinent literature. The disclosure provides delivery methods and compositions that overcome the problems associated with cysteamine and cystamine delivery. The methods of compositions of the disclosure provide enteric-coated compositions that result in less frequent dosing (2×/day vs. 4×/day), increased patient compliance and fewer gastrointestinal side effects (e.g., pain, heartburn, acid production, vomiting) and other side effects (e.g., patients smell like rotten eggs—a particular compliance problem as subjects reach puberty). The disclosure provides enteric-coated cysteamine compositions (sulfhydryl/Cystagon®) and cystamine compositions. The disclosure provides methods for the treatment of cystinosis, the treatment of neurodegenerative disease such as Alzheimer Disease, Huntington's and Parkinson's disease and free radical damage using enterically coated cysteamine and cystamine, respectively. The disclosure provides composition comprising enterically formulated cysteamine and cystamine derivatives. Examples of cysteamine derivatives include hydrochloride, bitartrate and phosphocysteamine derivatives. Cystamine and cystamine derivatives include sulfated cystamine. Enteric coatings prolong release until the cystamine, cystamine derivative, or cysteamine derivative/Cystagon® reaches the intestinal tract, typically the small intestine. Because of the enteric coatings, delivery to the small intestine is improved thereby improving uptake of active ingredient while reducing gastric side effects. This will result in a reduction in the need for frequent administration that currently is associated with Cystagon® therapy, cystamine and cysteamine therapy. An “enterically coated” drug or tablet refers to a drug or tablet that is coated with a substance—i.e., with an “enteric coating”—that remains intact in the stomach but dissolves and releases the drug once the small intestine is reached. As used herein “enteric coating”, is a material, a polymer material or materials which encase the medicament core (e.g., cystamine, cysteamine, Cystagon®). Typically, a substantial amount or all of the enteric coating material is dissolved before the medicament or therapeutically active agent is released from the dosage form, so as to achieve delayed dissolution of the medicament core. A suitable pH-sensitive polymer is one which will dissolve in intestinal juices at a higher pH level (pH greater than 4.5), such as within the small intestine and therefore permit release of the pharmacologically active substance in the regions of the small intestine and not in the upper portion of the GI tract, such as the stomach. The coating material is selected such that the therapeutically active agent will be released when the dosage form reaches the small intestine or a region in which the pH is greater than pH 4.5. The coating may be a pH-sensitive materials, which remain intact in the lower pH environs of the stomach, but which disintegrate or dissolve at the pH commonly found in the small intestine of the patient. For example, the enteric coating material begins to dissolve in an aqueous solution at pH between about 4.5 to about 5.5. For example, pH-sensitive materials will not undergo significant dissolution until the dosage form has emptied from the stomach. The pH of the small intestine gradually increases from about 4.5 to about 6.5 in the duodenal bulb to about 7.2 in the distal portions of the small intestine (ileum). In order to provide predictable dissolution corresponding to the small intestine transit time of about 3 hours (e.g., 2-3 hours) and permit reproducible release therein, the coating should begin to dissolve within the pH range of the duodenum, and continue to dissolve at the pH range within the small intestine. Therefore, the amount of enteric polymer coating should be sufficient to substantially dissolve during the approximate three hour transit time within the small intestine (e.g., the proximal and mid-small intestine). Enteric coatings have been used for many years to arrest the release of the drug from orally ingestible dosage forms. Depending upon the composition and/or thickness, the enteric coatings are resistant to stomach acid for required periods of time before they begin to disintegrate and permit release of the drug in the lower stomach or upper part of the small intestines. Examples of some enteric coatings are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,202 which is incorporated by reference fully herein. As set forth in U.S. Pat. No. 5,225,202, some examples of coating previously employed are beeswax and glyceryl monostearate; beeswax, shellac and cellulose; and cetyl alcohol, mastic and shellac, as well as shellac and stearic acid (U.S. Pat. No. 2,809,918); polyvinyl acetate and ethyl cellulose (U.S. Pat. No. 3,835,221); and neutral copolymer of polymethacrylic acid esters (Eudragit L30D) (F. W. Goodhart et al., Pharm. Tech., pp. 64-71, April 1984); copolymers of methacrylic acid and methacrylic acid methylester (Eudragits), or a neutral copolymer of polymethacrylic acid esters containing metallic stearates (Mehta et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,728,512 and 4,794,001). Such coatings comprise mixtures of fats and fatty acids, shellac and shellac derivatives and the cellulose acid phthlates, e.g., those having a free carboxyl content. See, Remington's at page 1590, and Zeitova et al. (U.S. Pat. No. 4,432,966), for descriptions of suitable enteric coating compositions. Accordingly, increased adsorption in the small intestine due to enteric coatings of cystamine, cysteamine derivatives (including Cystagon®) can result in improvements in cystinosis as well as neurodegenerative diseases including, for example, Huntington's disease. Generally, the enteric coating comprises a polymeric material that prevents cysteamine or cystamine release in the low pH environment of the stomach but that ionizes at a slightly higher pH, typically a pH of 4 or 5, and thus dissolves sufficiently in the small intestines to gradually release the active agent therein. Accordingly, among the most effective enteric coating materials are polyacids having a pKa in the range of about 3 to 5. Suitable enteric coating materials include, but are not limited to, polymerized gelatin, shellac, methacrylic acid copolymer type C NF, cellulose butyrate phthalate, cellulose hydrogen phthalate, cellulose proprionate phthalate, polyvinyl acetate phthalate (PVAP), cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP), cellulose acetate trimellitate (CAT), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate, dioxypropyl methylcellulose succinate, carboxymethyl ethylcellulose (CMEC), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMCAS), and acrylic acid polymers and copolymers, typically formed from methyl acrylate, ethyl acrylate, methyl methacrylate and/or ethyl methacrylate with copolymers of acrylic and methacrylic acid esters (Eudragit NE, Eudragit RL, Eudragit RS). For example, the enterically coating can comprise Eudragit L30D, triethylcitrate, and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC), Cystagon® (or other cysteamine derivative), wherein the coating comprises 10 to 13% of the final product. By “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” or “pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle” are meant materials that are suitable for oral administration and not biologically, or otherwise, undesirable, i.e., that may be administered to a subject along with an active ingredient without causing any undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components of a pharmaceutical composition in which it is contained. Similarly, a “pharmaceutically acceptable” salt, ester or other derivative of an active agent comprise, for example, salts, esters or other derivatives which are not biologically or otherwise undesirable. “Stabilizing agents” refer to compounds that lower the rate at which pharmaceutical degrades, particularly an oral pharmaceutical formulation under environmental conditions of storage. By the terms “effective amount” or “therapeutically effective amount” of a enteric formulation of cysteamine or cystamine refers to a nontoxic but sufficient amount of the agent to provide the desired therapeutic effect. As will be pointed out below, the exact amount required will vary from subject to subject, depending on the age, weight, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the condition being treated, and the like. An appropriate “effective” amount in any individual case may be determined by one of ordinary skill in the art using only routine experimentation. In one aspect of the disclosure there is provided a stabilized pharmaceutical composition for administration of an cysteamine or cystamine, wherein the cysteamine or cystamine is enterically coated. The cysteamine or cystamine is present in the composition in a therapeutically effective amount; typically, the composition is in unit dosage form. The amount of cysteamine or cystamine administered will, of course, be dependent on the age, weight, and general condition of the subject, the severity of the condition being treated, and the judgment of the prescribing physician. Suitable therapeutic amounts will be known to those skilled in the art and/or are described in the pertinent reference texts and literature. In one aspect, the dose is administered twice per day at about 0.5-1.0 g/m2 (e.g., 0.7-0.8 g/m2) body surface area. Current non-enterically coated doses are about 1.35 g/m2 body surface area and are administered 4-5 times per day. The entericaly coated cysteamine or cystamine can comprise various excipients, as is well known in the pharmaceutical art, provided such excipients do not exhibit a destabilizing effect on any components in the composition. Thus, excipients such as binders, bulking agents, diluents, disintegrants, lubricants, fillers, carriers, and the like can be combined with the cysteamine or cystamine. For solid compositions, diluents are typically necessary to increase the bulk of a tablet so that a practical size is provided for compression. Suitable diluents include dicalcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, lactose, cellulose, kaolin, mannitol, sodium chloride, dry starch and powdered sugar. Binders are used to impart cohesive qualities to a tablet formulation, and thus ensure that a tablet remains intact after compression. Suitable binder materials include, but are not limited to, starch (including corn starch and pregelatinized starch), gelatin, sugars (including sucrose, glucose, dextrose and lactose), polyethylene glycol, waxes, and natural and synthetic gums, e.g., acacia sodium alginate, polyvinylpyrrolidone, cellulosic polymers (including hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, methyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, and the like), and Veegum. Lubricants are used to facilitate tablet manufacture; examples of suitable lubricants include, for example, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, and stearic acid, and are typically present at no more than approximately 1 weight percent relative to tablet weight. Disintegrants are used to facilitate tablet disintegration or “breakup” after administration, and are generally starches, clays, celluloses, algins, gums or crosslinked polymers. If desired, the pharmaceutical composition to be administered may also contain minor amounts of nontoxic auxiliary substances such as wetting or emulsifying agents, pH buffering agents and the like, for example, sodium acetate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine sodium acetate, triethanolamine oleate, and the like. If desired, flavoring, coloring and/or sweetening agents may be added as well. Other optional components for incorporation into an oral formulation herein include, but are not limited to, preservatives, suspending agents, thickening agents, and the like. Fillers include, for example, insoluble materials such as silicon dioxide, titanium oxide, alumina, talc, kaolin, powdered cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, and the like, as well as soluble materials such as mannitol, urea, sucrose, lactose, dextrose, sodium chloride, sorbitol, and the like. A pharmaceutical composition may also comprise a stabilizing agent such as hydroxypropyl methylcellulose or polyvinylpyrrolidone, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,301,146. Other stabilizing agents include, but are not limited to, cellulosic polymers such as hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, methyl cellulose, ethyl cellulose, cellulose acetate, cellulose acetate phthalate, cellulose acetate trimellitate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose phthalate, microcrystalline cellulose and carboxymethylcellulose sodium; and vinyl polymers and copolymers such as polyvinyl acetate, polyvinylacetate phthalate, vinylacetate crotonic acid copolymer, and ethylene-vinyl acetate copolymers. The stabilizing agent is present in an amount effective to provide the desired stabilizing effect; generally, this means that the ratio of cysteamine or cystamine to the stabilizing agent is at least about 1:500 w/w, more commonly about 1:99 w/w. The tablets are manufactured by first enterically coating the cysteamine or cystamine. A method for forming tablets herein is by direct compression of the powders containing the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine, optionally in combination with diluents, binders, lubricants, disintegrants, colorants, stabilizers or the like. As an alternative to direct compression, compressed tablets can be prepared using wet-granulation or dry-granulation processes. Tablets may also be molded rather than compressed, starting with a moist material containing a suitable water-soluble lubricant. In an alternative embodiment, the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine are granulated and the granulation is compressed into a tablet or filled into a capsule. Capsule materials may be either hard or soft, and are typically sealed, such as with gelatin bands or the like. Tablets and capsules for oral use will generally include one or more commonly used excipients as discussed herein. For administration of the dosage form, i.e., the tablet or capsule comprising the enterically coated cysteamine or cystamine, a total weight in the range of approximately 100 mg to 1000 mg is used. The dosage form is orally administered to a patient suffering from a condition for which an cysteamine or cystamine would typically be indicated, including, but not limited to, cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases such as Huntington's, Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease. The compositions of the disclosure can be used in combination with other therapies useful for treating cystinosis and neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. For example, indomethacin therapy (Indocid® or Endol®) is an anti-inflammatory used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and lumbago, but it can be used to reduce water and electrolyte urine loss. In children with cystinosis, indomethacin reduces the urine volume and therefore liquid consumption by about 30%, sometimes by half. In most cases this is associated with an appetite improvement. Indomethacin treatment is generally followed for several years. Other therapies can be combined with the methods and compositions of the disclosure to treat diseases and disorders that are attributed or result from cystinosis. Urinary phosphorus loss, for example, entails rickets, and it may be necessary to give a phosphorus supplement. Carnitine is lost in the urine and blood levels are low. Carnitine allows fat to be used by the muscles to provide energy. Hormone supplementation is sometimes necessary. Sometimes the thyroid gland will not produce enough thyroid hormones. This is given as thyroxin (drops or tablets). Insulin treatment is sometimes necessary if diabetes appears, when the pancreas does not produce enough insulin. These treatments have become rarely necessary in children whom are treated with cysteamine, since the treatment protects the thyroid and the pancreas. Some adolescent boys require a testosterone treatment if puberty is late. Growth hormone therapy may be indicated if growth is not sufficient despite a good hydro electrolytes balance. Accordingly, such therapies can be combined with the enterically coated cysteamine and cystamine compositions and methods of the disclosure. The effectiveness of a method or composition of the disclosure can be assessed by measuring leukocyte cystine concentrations. Dosage adjustment and therapy can be made by a medical specialist depending upon, for example, the severity of cystenosis and/or the concentration of cystine. Additional therapies including the use of omeprazole (Prilosec®) can reduce these symptoms. In addition, various prodrugs can be “activated” by use of the enterically coated cysteamine. Prodrugs are pharmacologically inert, they themselves do not work in the body, but once they have been absorbed, the prodrug decomposes. The prodrug approach has been used successfully in a number of therapeutic areas including antibiotics, antihistamines and ulcer treatments. The advantage of using prodrugs is that the active agent is chemically camouflaged and no active agent is released until the drug has passed out of the gut and into the cells of the body. For example, a number of produgs use S—S bonds. Weak reducing agents, such as cysteamine, reduce these bonds and release the drug. Accordingly, the compositions of the disclosure are useful in combination with pro-drugs for timed release of the drug. In this aspect, a pro-drug can be administered followed by administration of an enterically coated cysteamine compositions of the invention (at a desired time) to activate the pro-drug. It is to be understood that while the invention has been described in conjunction with specific embodiments thereof, that the foregoing description as well as the examples which follow are intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention. Other aspects, advantages and modifications within the scope of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art to which the invention Examples Subjects. Children with cystinosis, years old, and taking regular cysteamine bitartrate (Cystagon®; Mylan, Morgantown, WV) were recruited to the study (Table I). Adult control patients were recruited locally. Patients with cystinosis had a mean leukocyte cystine level of less than 2.0 nmol half-cystine/mg protein over the past year. Cysteamine therapy was discontinued 2 days before admission, and acid suppressants, antibiotics, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, pro-kinetic agents, and antihistamines were discontinued 2 weeks before admission. None of the patients had undergone kidney transplantation. Baseline chemistry, Helicobacter pylori serologic study, complete blood count, and urinalysis were performed. TABLE I Cystinosis patient data Serum Age Weight Cysteamine creatinine Patient (yrs.) Sex (kg) dose (mg)* (mg/dL) 1 16 Male 61.5 500 1.0 2 14 Male 39.4 406 1.2 3 13 Female 39.1 406 1.5 4 19 Female 38.1 406 1.4 5 13 Female 50.1 500 1.0 6 16 Male 58.7 500 3.1 *Dose of cysteamine base delivered into varying delivery sites Cysteamine Bitartrate Delivery. Cysteamine was infused through a silicone rubber nasoenteric tube (Dentsleeve Pty Ltd, Australia), 3 mm in diameter and 4.5 meters long. The tube, specifically made for this study, had a tungsten-weighted tip, and immediately proximal to this was an inflatable balloon (5-mL capacity). Immediately proximal to the balloon was an infusion port (1 mm diameter) through which the drug was delivered. After an overnight fast (except for water), the dose of cysteamine bitartrate (10 mg/kg/dose of base, maximum of 500 mg) was dissolved in 10 mL of water and infused over 1 to 2 minutes. On day 1 of the study, the nasoenteric tube was inserted into the stomach. By day 3 of the study the tube had passed into the proximal small intestine (SI) just distal to the ligament of Treitz (confirmed fluoroscopically). The balloon was then inflated, and peristalsis propelled the tube distally. Tube position within the cecum was confirmed fluoroscopically on day 5 (day 7 in 4 patients because of slow transit). If the tube had migrated too far, it was retracted into the desired location. Serum Gastrin, Cysteamine and Leukocyte Cystine Measurements. After an overnight fast (except for water) blood samples were taken at baseline and at varying intervals after intraluminal delivery of cysteamine. Serum gastrin levels were then measured at 30, 60, 90, and 120 minutes and 3 and 4 hours; cysteamine levels were measured at 0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 75, 90, 105, 120, and 150 minutes and 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, and 16 hours; leukocyte cystine levels were measured at 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, and 12 hours in patients with cystinosis only. Gastrin was measured in picograms/mL with the Diagnostic Products Corporation (Los Angeles, Calif.) gastrin radioimmunoassay-assay kit. Leukocyte cystine levels were measured in nmol half-cystine per mg protein by the Cystine Determination Lab (La Jolla, Calif.). To measure plasma cysteamine, 100-μL plasma samples were collected in heparinized vacutainers and spun in a centrifuge within 1 hour, and plasma was stored at −18° C. The concentration of cysteamine was measured by use of tandem mass spectroscopy (API 2000 LC/MS/MS; Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). Cysteamine concentrations were calculated with a calibration curve that was prepared by spiking plasma with buffered cysteamine solutions, and quality control samples were analyzed with each batch. Statistical Analysis. Mixed model restricted maximum likelihood (REML) repeated measures analysis of variance with subjects as a random effect was performed on the absolute leukocyte cystine levels, on the leukocyte cystine level changes from baseline, and on the “area over the curve” (AOC) for leukocyte cystine level changes from baseline after cysteamine administration for the subjects with cystinosis. AOC is computationally analogous to area under the curve, but it is applied when values are predominantly decreasing below baseline values. Large AOC values reflect large decreases, and a negative AOC reflects a net increase in value. Main effects for site of delivery, time after delivery, and the interaction between site and time were tested, except just the site effect was tested for AOCs. In the absence of significant interaction when a main effect was detected, Tukey's honestly significant difference test (HSD) was applied to identify where differences occurred within a 5% family wise error rate. The Tukey HSD procedure controls for overall significance level when performing all pairwise comparisons. An additional analysis was performed with plasma cysteamine Cmax added to the AOC model. REML repeated measures analyses of variance with subjects as a random effect were also performed as described above on AUC and the Cmax over time for plasma cysteamine levels separately for the subjects with cystinosis and control subjects and with both subject groups combined. Differences between means for the 3 sites were tested, plus group and group x site interaction effects for the combined groups. If a site effect was detected, Tukey's HSD was applied to determine which sites differed from each other. REML repeated measures analyses of variance were also performed as described above on gastrin levels. The analyses were performed on 2 versions of datasets: the full dataset and all data after omitting observations collected at 30 minutes (1 subject was missing a blood sample taken at 30 minutes after small intestinal cysteamine delivery). A 5% significance level was used without adjustment for all statistical testing. Six patients with cystinosis, (3 male, 3 female) with a mean age of 15.2 years (range 13-19 years) were recruited into the study (Table I). Eight healthy adult control patients (6 male, 2 female) with a mean age of 23.2 years (range 19-28 years) were enrolled. None of the children with cystinosis had undergone kidney transplantation. All control subjects received 500 mg cysteamine base, whereas the mean dose for subjects with cystinosis was 453 mg (range 406-500 mg). All subjects had normal liver function test results. In all subjects the nasoenteric tube passed successfully from the stomach into the upper SI; however, it did not progress any further in 2 subjects with cystinosis. In 2 of the control subjects the tube only reached the mid-ileum but did, however, progress to the cecum in 8 subjects (4 control subjects, 4 with cystinosis). There were no reported adverse effects with the insertion or removal of the nasoenteric tube (FIG. 1). Symptoms. Only 2 patients (1 male, 1 female) with cystinosis reported regular GI symptoms before the study, and these had responded to acid-suppression therapy. The male subject had severe retching and emesis about 15 minutes after receiving intragastric cysteamine but did not have any symptoms when the drug was infused into the proximal small intestine. The female child with cystinosis had mild transient nausea after SI drug delivery only. No other symptoms were reported after any other cysteamine delivery in the children with cystinosis. There were no associated adverse events with tube placement or removal. Plasma Cysteamine. Among the subjects with cystinosis as measured by analysis of variance, the mean plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUCs (of the concentration-time gradient) differed by site of cysteamine delivery (both P<0.03). Site (t) refers to either patients with cystinosis or control subjects. For the plasma cysteamine AUCs, the means differed between the duodenal and both gastric and cecal sites of delivery (Tukey HSD global P<0.05). Among control subjects, the mean AUC did not differ among delivery sites (P>0.4), but mean Cmax did (P<0.05). For both cystinosis and control groups the mean Cmax values differed only between the duodenum and cecum; mean Cmax values after duodenal versus gastric or gastric versus cecal delivery were not statistically different (Tables II and III). TABLE II Mean plasma cysteamine Cmax levels (γmol/L) and area under curve (AUC) measurements in cystinosis subjects, controls, and combined cystinosis and control subjects, after delivery of cysteamine into the stomach, small intestine, and cecum Cmax AUC Cmax AUC Cmax AUC Cys- Cys- Con- Con- Com- Com- tinosis tinosis trol trol bined bined Stomach 35.5 3006 39.5 3613 37.8 3353 (20.5) (1112) (16.4) (1384) (17.6) (1267) Small 55.8 4299 51.1 3988 53.2 4047 Intestine (13.0) (1056) (20.7) (1659) (17.4) (1376) Cecum 21.9 3002 23.1 2804 22.5 2903 (13.1) (909) (15.3) (1323) (13.2) (1056) The Standard Deviations are in Parenthesis TABLE III Comparisons of mean plasma cysteamine Cmax (γmol/L) and AUC measurements for combined cystinosis subjects and control subjects among delivery sites AUC Cmax P value* <0.01 <0.01 Stomach vs SI + + Stomach vs Cecum − − SI vs Cecum + + + Significant difference using Tukey's HSD test (α = 0.05) − No significant difference *ANOVA test for equality of three delivery sites When data from the control subjects were combined with cystinosis subject data, there was both a group effect (P<0.05) and a site effect (P<0.01) for AUCs, with a significant difference between mean AUC levels for the duodenum versus both the stomach and cecum. Cmax values differed among sites (P<0.01) but not between groups (P>0.4). Group (*) refers to site of intestinal delivery. Cmax differed between duodenum versus both stomach and cecum (FIG. 2). Leukocyte Cystine. There were significant differences among the 3 sites of delivery for cystine levels (P<0.04), changes from baseline values (P<0.0001), and AOCs for changes from baseline (P<0.02). A Tukey HSD test, which controls for multiple comparisons, showed that mean leukocyte cystine levels differed between the cecum and stomach sites, but that cecum versus duodenum and stomach versus duodenum produced similar mean values. When the absolute cystine levels or AOCs for changes from baseline levels were evaluated, the significant differences in sites were found between the duodenum and both the stomach and cecum, but not between stomach and cecum (Tukey HSD global P<0.05) (FIG. 3). Plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUC contributed a statistical effect on AOC (P<0.001 and <0.02, respectively), even after controlling for delivery site (FIG. 4). Blood Gastrin. For the full gastrin dataset, there was a significant difference among the means for the different delivery sites (P<0.1), with the cecum resulting in a lower mean from that of the stomach and small intestine. Both group * and site † significant effects were detected after omitting observations from 30 minutes after delivery (P<0.05 and P<0.01, respectively). The 30-minute observations were omitted because of a missing data set. For these observations, mean levels of gastrin after delivery in the cecum were different from those from both the duodenum and stomach, although the latter did not differ from each other. The 1 boy (14 years) who had severe GI symptoms after intragastric, but not enteric or cecal, cysteamine delivery had a rise in baseline gastrin from 70 pg/mL to 121 pg/mL at 30 minutes after gastric cysteamine. Within the control group, more than half of the baseline and post-cysteamine gastrin levels remained undetectable (<25 pg/mL), and none of the control subjects had a significant rise in gastrin after cysteamine delivery into any site. Patients with cystinosis are required to ingest oral cysteamine (Cystagon®) every 6 hours, day and night. When taken regularly, cysteamine can deplete intracellular cystine by up to 90% (as measured in circulating white blood cells), and this has been shown to reduce the rate of progression to kidney failure/transplantation and also to obviate the need for thyroid replacement therapy. Unfortunately, because of the strict treatment regimen and the associated symptoms, non-adherence with cysteamine therapy remains a problem, particularly among adolescent and young adult patients. Certainly, by reducing the frequency of required cysteamine dosing adherence can be improved. The disclosure shows a strong statistical association between the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) of cysteamine and AOC measurements for leukocyte cystine (P<0.001). A higher Cmax is achieved after delivery of cysteamine into the small intestine than when infused into the stomach or colon; this may be due to improved absorption rate from the SI, greater surface area of the SI, or less cysteamine undergoing hepatic first pass elimination when absorbed rapidly through the small intestine. When data were combined for patients with cystinosis and control subjects, there was a statistical difference between duodenal versus both gastric and colonic delivery for plasma cysteamine Cmax and AUC levels (both P<0.05). The lack of similar statistical significance for the cystinosis group alone may simply reflect the small number of patients studied. Changes from baseline leukocyte cystine levels were statistically significant for absolute cystine levels and for AOC when cysteamine was infused into the duodenum compared with both stomach and colon. As shown in FIG. 3, the leukocyte cystine levels remained below pre-delivery levels for up to 12 hours after a single dose of cysteamine into the small intestine. This would suggest that effective absorption of cysteamine through the SI, by causing a higher Cmax and AUC on the cysteamine concentration-time gradient, could lead to prolonged depletion of leukocyte cystine and possibly less frequent daily dosing. Another explanation would be that by achieving a high enough plasma cysteamine concentration, more drug reaches the lysosome (where cystine accumulates). In the lysosome the cysteamine reacts with cystine forming the mixed disulfide of cysteamine and cysteine. The mixed disulfide exits the lysosome presumably via the lysine carrier. In the cytosol the mixed disulfide can be reduced by its reaction with glutathione. The cysteine released can be used for protein or glutathione synthesis. The cysteamine released from the mixed disulfide reenters the lysosome where it can react with another cystine molecule. Thus 1 molecule of cysteamine may release many molecules of cystine from the lysosome. This study showed a dramatic decrease in leukocyte cystine within an hour of cysteamine delivery. In retrospect, the finding from this study was that the leukocyte cystine levels remained at the 1-hour level for 24 hours, and even at 48 hours after delivery the levels had not returned to the pre-cysteamine level. Cysteamine is a potent gastric acid-secretagogue that has been used in laboratory animals to induce duodenal ulceration; studies in humans and animals have shown that cysteamine-induced gastric acid hypersecretion is most likely mediated through hypergastrinemia. In previous studies performed in children with cystinosis who suffered regular upper gastrointestinal symptoms, a single oral dose of cysteamine (11-23 mg/kg) was shown to cause hypergastrinemia and a 2- to 3-fold rise in gastric acid-hypersecretion. Symptoms suffered by these individuals included abdominal pain, heartburn, nausea, vomiting, and anorexia. Interestingly, only 2 of 6 subjects with cystinosis (who were known to suffer regular cysteamine-induced GI symptoms) had increased gastrin levels and symptoms, including nausea, retching, and discomfort after intragastric cysteamine. Gastrin levels were only available after small intestinal administration in 1 of the 2 children and the levels remained the same as baseline. Neither child had symptoms after enteric cysteamine delivery. None of the other patients with cystinosis or control subjects had an increase in gastrin levels with cysteamine infused into any site. This would suggest that cysteamine-induced hypergastrinemia may arise as a local effect on the gastric antral-predominant G-cells only in susceptible individuals. In addition, plasma gastrin levels usually peaks after intragastric delivery within 30 minutes, whereas the plasma cysteamine levels peaked later. 8, 10 In 2 previous studies, children with cystinosis were shown to have a significant rise in plasma gastrin levels after receiving intragastric cysteamine; as part of these study's entry criteria all subjects did, however, suffer with regular GI symptoms. Data from this study would suggest that cysteamine does not cause hypergastrinemia, and therefore acid-hypersecretion, in all patients with cystinosis. Thus acid suppression therapy would not be recommended in patients with cystinosis without upper GI symptoms. The data suggest that direct administration of cysteamine into the jejunum may result in prolonged leukocyte cystine depletion. In a previous study, a child who had a gastrojejunal feeding tube for oral feeding aversion and severe UGI symptoms, responded to intrajejunal cysteamine with a 3-fold rise in serum gastrin as compared with drug administration into the stomach. The leukocyte cystine response was not measured in this child. Therefore patients with jejunal feeding tubes will have to be further evaluated. FIGS. 5 and 6 shows results from a patient that remained on the twice daily EC-cysteamine for an extended period of time. Over this period the patient's leukocyte cystine levels have been measured regularly. The dose of twice daily EC-cysteamine is titrated against the patient's symptoms and cystine levels. The patient's cystine levels have been 0.4, 1.0, 0.36. This study provides data that may be used to improve the quality of life for patients with cystinosis. The present formulation of Cystagon® comprises cysteamine in a capsule that will dissolve rapidly on contact with water, most likely within the stomach. Although a number of embodiments and features have been described above, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that modifications and variations of the described embodiments and features may be made without departing from the teachings of the disclosure or the scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Cystinosis is a rare, autosomal recessive disease caused by intra-lysosomal accumulation of the amino acid cystine within various tissues, including the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, kidney, bone marrow, and eyes. Nephropathic cystinosis is associated with kidney failure that necessitates kidney transplantation. To date, the only specific treatment for nephropathic cystinosis is the sulfhydryl agent, cysteamine. Cysteamine has been shown to lower intracellular cystine levels, thereby reducing the rate of progression of kidney failure in children. Cysteamine, through a mechanism of increased gastrin and gastric acid production, is ulcerogenic. When administered orally to children with cystinosis, cysteamine has also been shown to cause a 3-fold increase in gastric acid production and a 50% rise of serum gastrin levels. As a consequence, subjects that use cysteamine suffer gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms and are often unable to take cysteamine regularly or at full dose. To achieve sustained reduction of leukocyte cystine levels, patients are normally required to take oral cysteamine every 6 hours, which invariably means having to awaken from sleep. However, when a single dose of cysteamine was administered intravenously the leukocyte cystine level remained suppressed for more than 24 hours, possibly because plasma cysteamine concentrations were higher and achieved more rapidly than when the drug is administered orally. Regular intravenous administration of cysteamine would not be practical. Accordingly, there is a need for formulations and delivery methods that would result in higher plasma, and thus intracellular, concentration as well as decrease the number of daily doses and therefore improve the quality of life for patients. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>The invention provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention also provides a composition comprising an enterically coated cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention further provides a composition comprising a coated cystinosis therapeutic agent that has increased uptake in the small intestine compared to a non-coated cystinosis therapeutic agent when administered orally. In one aspect, the coated cystinosis therapeutic agent comprises a cysteamine or cysteamine derivative. The invention also provides a method of treating a subject with cystinosis, comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention. The invention also contemplates a method of treating a subject with a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering to the subject a composition of the invention comprising an enterically coated cystamine or cystamine derivative. The invention provides a pharmaceutical formulation comprising a composition of the invention further including various pharmaceutically acceptable agents (e.g., flavorants, binders and the like) in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The invention provides a method of treating cystinosis or a neurodegenerative disease or disorder comprising administering a composition of the invention and a second therapeutic agent. | A61K31194 | 20170721 | 20180327 | 20171109 | 66231.0 | A61K31194 | 1 | AHMED, HASAN SYED | ENTERICALLY COATED CYSTEAMINE, CYSTAMINE AND DERIVATIVES THEREOF | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
15,656,974 | ACCEPTED | BALANCED SOLAR TRACKER CLAMP | In an example, the present invention provides a solar tracker apparatus. In an example, the apparatus comprises a center of mass with an adjustable hanger assembly configured with a clam shell clamp assembly on the adjustable hanger assembly and a cylindrical torque tube comprising a plurality of torque tubes configured together in a continuous length from a first end to a second end such that the center of mass is aligned with a center of rotation of the cylindrical torque tubes to reduce a load of a drive motor operably coupled to the cylindrical torque tube. Further details of the present example, among others, can be found throughout the present specification and more particularly below. | 1. A solar tracker apparatus, the apparatus comprising: a drive device; a crank coupled to the drive device and coupled to a first end of a continuous torque tube; a frame assembly coupled to the continuous torque tube, the frame assembly coupled to a plurality of solar modules; a clamp assembly comprising a housing coupled to the continuous torque tube such that the continuous torque tube is coupled to the housing, the housing comprising an opening having a major plane normal to a length of the continuous torque tube, the opening comprising a first inner region and a second inner region, the first inner region acts as a first stop for the continuous torque tube when moved in a first radial direction, and the second inner region acts as a second stop for the continuous torque tube when moved in a second radial direction; wherein the drive device is operable to move the torque tube about a center of rotation and is under a load and moves the torque tube about the center of rotation at substantially a same force from a first radial position to a second radial position; wherein the center of rotation is offset from a center of the continuous torque tube via the crank configured in the offset manner. 2. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the continuous torque tube moves such that a spatial point of the continuous torque tube faces the center of rotation as the continuous torque tube pivots through the first radial position to the second radial position. 3. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device; the first crank comprising a first flange connected to the first side of the drive device, and the second crank comprising a second flange connected to the second side of the drive device, the first crank further comprising a first arm coupled to a first cylinder swage fitted to a first end of the continuous torque tube, the second crank comprising a second arm coupled to a second cylinder swage fitted to a second end of the continuous torque tube; wherein the continuous torque tube is off-set from an axis of the drive device. 4. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device. 5. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device; and further comprises a first swage fitting coupling the first crank to the continuous torque tube and a second swage fitting coupling the second crank to the continuous torque tube. 6. The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising a pier coupled to the drive device, the pier comprising a plurality of support structures coupled to a drive device support, the drive device support having a first member coupled to the plurality of support structures, and a second member coupled to the drive device. 7. The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising a drive mount coupled to a pier. 8. A tracker apparatus comprising: a first pier comprising a first pivot device; a second pier comprising a drive mount, the drive mount capable of accommodating construction tolerances in at least three-axes; a torque tube operably disposed on the first pier and the second pier, the torque tube comprising a first end and a second end; a clamp configured around a portion of the torque tube, the clamp comprising a support region configured to support a portion of a solar module; and a clamp assembly comprising a housing coupled to the torque tube such that the torque tube is coupled to the housing, the housing comprising an opening having a major plane normal to a length of the torque tube, the opening comprising a first inner region and a second inner region, the first inner region acts as a first stop for movement of the torque tube when moved in a first radial direction, and the second inner region acts as a second stop for movement of the torque tube when moved in a second radial direction. 9. The apparatus of claim 8 wherein the first pier comprises a wide flange beam; wherein the torque tube is made of a hollow structure steel; and further comprising a rail configured to support the clamp, the rail comprising a thread region configured to hold a bolt, the bolt being adapted to screw into the thread and bottom out against a portion of the torque tube such that the clamp is desirably torqued against the torque tube. 10. The apparatus of claim 9 wherein the torque tube is configured to rotate through a solid angle from a first radius to a second radius at a substantially constant load. 11. The apparatus of claim 10 further comprising an off-set crank coupled to the torque tube coupled to a drive device. 12. The apparatus of claim 10 wherein the torque tube comprises a first portion contacting the first inner region to stop and the movement of the torque tube in the first radial direction and wherein the torque tube comprising a second portion contacting the second inner region to stop the movement of the torque tube in the second radial direction. 13. A solar tracker apparatus, the apparatus comprising: a drive device; a crank coupled to the drive device and coupled to a first end of a continuous torque tube; a frame assembly coupled to the continuous torque tube, the frame assembly coupled to a plurality of solar modules; a clamp assembly comprising a housing coupled to the continuous torque tube, the housing comprising an opening having a major plane normal to a length of the continuous torque tube, the opening comprising a first inner region and a second inner region, the first inner region acts as a first stop for movement of the continuous torque tube when the torque tube is moved in a first radial direction, and the second inner region acts as a second stop for movement of the continuous torque tube when the torque tube is moved in a second radial direction; wherein the drive device is operable to move the torque tube about a center of rotation from a first radial position to a second radial position; and wherein the center of rotation is offset from a center of the continuous torque tube via the crank configured in the offset manner. 14. The apparatus of claim 13 wherein the continuous torque tube moves such that a spatial point of the continuous torque tube faces the center of rotation as the continuous torque tube pivots through the first radial position to the second radial position. 15. The apparatus of claim 13 wherein the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device; the first crank comprising a first flange connected to the first side of the drive device, and the second crank comprising a second flange connected to the second side of the drive device, the first crank further comprising a first arm coupled to a first cylinder swage fitted to a first end of the continuous torque tube, the second crank comprising a second arm coupled to a second cylinder swage fitted to a second end of the continuous torque tube; wherein the continuous torque tube is off-set from an axis of the drive device. 16. The apparatus of claim 13 wherein the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device. 17. The apparatus of claim 13 wherein the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device; and further comprises a first swage fitting coupling the first crank to the continuous torque tube and a second swage fitting coupling the second crank to the continuous torque tube. 18. The apparatus of claim 13 further comprising a pier coupled to the drive device, the pier comprising a plurality of support structures coupled to a drive device support, the drive device support having a first member coupled to the plurality of support structures, and a second member coupled to the drive device. 19. The apparatus of claim 13 further comprising a drive mount coupled to a pier. 20. The apparatus of claim 13 wherein the continuous torque tube comprises a first portion contacting the first inner region to stop the movement of the torque tube in the first radial direction and wherein the continuous torque tube comprises a second portion contacting the second inner region to stop the movement of the torque tube in the second radial direction. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS The present invention is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 15/261,681 filed Sep. 9, 2016, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 14/184,656 filed Feb. 19, 2014 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,466,749 issued on Oct. 11, 2016), which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/780,955 filed Mar. 13, 2013 and U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/780,947 filed Mar. 13, 2013, and is a continuation in part of and claims priority to U.S. application Ser. No. 14/101,273 filed Dec. 9, 2013 which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/735,537 filed Dec. 10, 2012, each of which is incorporated by reference herein for all purposes. BACKGROUND The present application relates generally to a tracking system for solar panels. More specifically, embodiments of the present invention provide tracking systems that are suitable for solar panels. In a specific embodiment, a tracking system according to the present invention is fully adjustable in at each of the pillars, among other aspects. There are other embodiments as well. As the population of the world increases, industrial expansion has lead to an equally large consumption of energy. Energy often comes from fossil fuels, including coal and oil, hydroelectric plants, nuclear sources, and others. As an example, the International Energy Agency projects further increases in oil consumption, with developing nations such as China and India accounting for most of the increase. Almost every element of our daily lives depends, in part, on oil, which is becoming increasingly scarce. As time further progresses, an era of “cheap” and plentiful oil is coming to an end. Accordingly, other and alternative sources of energy have been developed. Concurrent with oil, we have also relied upon other very useful sources of energy such as hydroelectric, nuclear, and the like to provide our electricity needs. As an example, most of our conventional electricity requirements for home and business use come from turbines run on coal or other forms of fossil fuel, nuclear power generation plants, and hydroelectric plants, as well as other forms of renewable energy. Often times, home and business use of electrical power has been stable and widespread. Most importantly, much if not all of the useful energy found on the Earth comes from our sun. Generally all common plant life on the Earth achieves life using photosynthesis processes from sun light. Fossil fuels such as oil were also developed from biological materials derived from energy associated with the sun. For human beings including “sun worshipers,” sunlight has been essential. For life on the planet Earth, the sun has been our most important energy source and fuel for modern day solar energy. Solar energy possesses many characteristics that are very desirable! Solar energy is renewable, clean, abundant, and often widespread. Certain technologies have been developed to capture solar energy, concentrate it, store it, and convert it into other useful forms of energy. Solar panels have been developed to convert sunlight into energy. As an example, solar thermal panels often convert electromagnetic radiation from the sun into thermal energy for heating homes, running certain industrial processes, or driving high grade turbines to generate electricity. As another example, solar photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly into electricity for a variety of applications. Solar panels are generally composed of an array of solar cells, which are interconnected to each other. The cells are often arranged in series and/or parallel groups of cells in series. Accordingly, solar panels have great potential to benefit our nation, security, and human users. They can even diversify our energy requirements and reduce the world's dependence on oil and other potentially detrimental sources of energy. Although solar panels have been used successfully for certain applications, there are still limitations. Often, solar panels are unable to convert energy at their full potential due to the fact that the sun is often at an angle that is not optimum for the solar cells to receive solar energy. In the past, various types of conventional solar tracking mechanisms have been developed. Unfortunately, conventional solar tracking techniques are often inadequate. These and other limitations are described throughout the present specification, and may be described in more detail below. From the above, it is seen that techniques for improving solar systems are highly desirable. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The present application relates generally to a tracking system for solar panels. More specifically, embodiments of the present invention provide tracking systems that are suitable for solar panels. In a specific embodiment, a tracking system according to the present invention is fully adjustable in at each of the pillars, among other aspects. There are other embodiments as well. In an example, the present invention provides a solar tracker apparatus. In an example, the apparatus comprises a center of mass with an adjustable hanger assembly configured with a clam shell clamp assembly on the adjustable hanger assembly and a cylindrical torque tube comprising a plurality of torque tubes configured together in a continuous length from a first end to a second end such that the center of mass is aligned with a center of rotation of the cylindrical torque tubes to reduce a load of a drive motor operably coupled to the cylindrical torque tube. Further details of the present example, among others, can be found throughout the present specification and more particularly below. Various additional objects, features and advantages of the present invention can be more fully appreciated with reference to the detailed description and accompanying drawings that follow. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a simplified perspective view of a horizontal tracker apparatus configured with a plurality of solar modules according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 2 through 7 illustrate a method of assembling the horizontal tracker apparatus of FIG. 1. FIG. 8 is a simplified perspective view of a pair of horizontal tracker apparatus configured together with a plurality of solar panels according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 is a simplified diagram of a plurality of horizontal tracker apparatus configured together according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 is a simplified diagram of an array of a plurality of horizontal tracker apparatus configured together according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 is a simplified diagram of a clamp assembly for the horizontal tracker of FIG. 1 according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 12 through 14 are simplified diagrams illustrating a method for assembling the clamp assembly of FIG. 11. FIG. 15 is a simplified perspective diagram of a drive assembly configured on a pier member according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 16 through 19 are simplified diagrams illustrating a method for assembling the drive assembly of FIG. 15. FIG. 20 is a simplified in-line view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly separate and apart from a pier member according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 21 is a simplified in-line view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 22 is a simplified in-line view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a first orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 23 is a simplified in-line view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a second orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 24 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a first orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 25 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a second orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 26 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a third orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 27 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a fourth orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 28 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a fifth orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 29 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a sixth orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 30 through 32 illustrate an in-line view of the clamp assembly and the drive assembly in multiple configurations according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 33 is a side view diagram of the tracker apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 34 and 35 are simplified side view diagrams of a torque tube according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 36, 37, and 38 are simplified perspective-view, side view, and front view diagrams of a clamp member according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 39 and 40 are simplified perspective-view and side view diagrams of a clamp housing according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 41, 42, 43, and 44 are simplified diagrams of component(s) for a U-bolt member according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 45, 46, and 47 are simplified diagrams illustrating a method of configuring a U-bolt member to a torque tube according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 48 and 49 illustrate various views of a tracker apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 50 and 51 illustrate views of a tracker apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIGS. 52 and 53 illustrate an illustration of a torque tube according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 54 is a perspective diagram of a clamp housing and support member according to an example of the present invention. FIG. 55 is a perspective diagram of a clamp housing and support member according to an example of the present invention. FIG. 56 is a front-view diagram of the clamp housing and support member according to an example of the present invention. FIGS. 57 and 58 illustrate a perspective view and a front view of the support member according to an example of the present invention. FIG. 59 illustrate a perspective view of the clamp housing according to an example of the present invention. FIG. 60 is an illustration of a plurality of torque tubes configured in a stack for transportation in an example. FIG. 61 is a more detailed illustration of a U-bolt and clamp having a recessed region for stacking in the stack of the prior Figure. FIGS. 62, 63, and 64 illustrate various views of the drive device support member according to an example of the present invention. FIGS. 65 and 66 illustrate various views of a clamp assembly according to an example of the present invention. FIGS. 67 through 71 illustrate various view of a horizontal tracker configured with a plurality of solar panels in a portrait view according to examples of the present invention. FIG. 72 is a simplified plot illustrating a force plotted against a wind speed in an example of the present invention. FIGS. 73, 74, and 75 illustrate a support member in a perspective, front, and side view diagrams according to examples of the present invention. FIGS. 76 and 77 are simplified side-view diagrams of the support and clamp assembly from a first side view and a second side view. FIGS. 78 through 83 are various simplified illustrations of a frame, torque tube, and clamp assembly according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 84 is a simplified diagram of a clamp assembly with support in a first position configured in a portion of the elongated slot in the support member. FIG. 85 is a simplified diagram of a clamp assembly with support in a first position configured in a first portion of the elongated slot in the support member, and a second position configured in a second portion of the elongated slot of the support member. FIG. 86 is an expanded view of the clamp assembly configured to the support member according to an embodiment of the present invention. DESCRIPTION OF THE SPECIFIC EMBODIMENTS The present application relates generally to a tracking system for solar panels. More specifically, embodiments of the present invention provide tracking systems that are suitable for solar panels. In a specific embodiment, a tracking system according to the present invention is fully adjustable in at each of the pillars, among other aspects. There are other embodiments as well. In a specific embodiment, the present invention provides a tracker apparatus for solar modules. The tracker apparatus has a first pier comprising a first pivot device and a second pier comprising a drive mount. The drive mount is capable for construction tolerances in at least three-axis, and is configured to a drive device. The drive device has an off-set clamp device coupled to a cylindrical bearing device coupled to a clamp member. The apparatus has a cylindrical torque tube operably disposed on the first pier and the second pier. The cylindrical torque tube comprises a first end and a second end, and a notch. The notch is one of a plurality of notches spatially disposed along a length of the cylindrical torque tube. The apparatus has a clamp configured around an annular portion of the cylindrical torque tube and mate with the notch to prevent movement of the clamp. The clamp comprises a support region configured to support a portion of a solar module. In an alternative embodiment, the present invention provides an alternative solar tracker apparatus. The apparatus has a drive device, a crank coupled to the drive device and configured in an offset manner to a frame assembly. The frame assembly is coupled to a plurality of solar modules. In an example, the apparatus has a continuous torque tube spatially disposed from a first region to a second region. The crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device. The crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device; and further comprises a first torque tube coupled to the first crank and a second torque tube coupled to the second crank. The crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device; and further comprises a first torque tube coupled to the first crank and a second torque tube coupled to the second crank, and further comprises a first swage fitting coupling the first crank to the first torque tube and a second swage fitting coupling the second crank to the second torque tube. The apparatus also has a pier coupled to the drive device. In an example, the apparatus also has a drive mount coupled to a pier. In an alternative embodiment, the present invention provides an alternative solar tracker apparatus. The apparatus has a center of mass with an adjustable hanger assembly configured with a clam shell clamp assembly on the adjustable hanger assembly and a cylindrical torque tube comprising a plurality of torque tubes configured together in a continuous length from a first end to a second end such that the center of mass is aligned with a center of rotation of the cylindrical torque tubes to reduce a load of a drive motor operably coupled to the cylindrical torque tube. In an example, the drive motor is operable to move the torque tube about the center of rotation and is substantially free from a load. The center of rotation is offset from a center of the cylindrical torque tube. In an alternative embodiment, the present invention provides a solar tracker apparatus. The apparatus has a clamp housing member configured in an upright direction. The clamp housing member comprises a lower region and an upper region. The lower region is coupled to a pier structure, and the upper region comprises a spherical bearing device. The upright direction is away from a direction of gravity. The apparatus has a clam shell clamp member coupled to the cylindrical bearing and a torque tube coupled to the spherical bearing to support the torque tube from the upper region of the clamp housing member. The torque tube is configured from an off-set position from a center region of rotation. In an example, the apparatus is configured substantially free from any welds during assembly. Reduced welding lowers cost, improves installation time, avoids errors in installation, improves manufacturability, and reduces component count through standardized parts. The torque tube is coupled to another torque tube via a swage device within a vicinity of the clam shall clamp member. In an example, the connection is low cost, and provides for strong axial and torsional loading. The apparatus is quick to install with the pokey-yoke design. The torque tube is coupled to an elastomeric damper in line to dampen torque movement to be substantially free from formation of a harmonic waveform along any portion of a plurality of solar panels configured to the torque tube. The apparatus also has a locking damper or rigid structure to configure a solar panel coupled to the torque tube in a fixed tilt position to prevent damage to stopper and lock into a foundation-in a position that is substantially free from fluttering in an environment with high movement of air. The apparatus further comprises a controller apparatus configured in an inserter box provided in an underground region to protect the controller apparatus. The apparatus has a drive device to linearly actuate the torque tube. In an example, the apparatus uses an electrical connection coupled to a drive device. In an example, the spherical bearing allows for a construction tolerance, tracker movement, and acts as a bonding path of least resistance taking an electrical current to ground. The apparatus can be one of a plurality of tracker apparatus configured in an array within a geographic region. Each of the plurality of tracker apparatus is driven independently of each other to cause each row to stow independently at a different or similar angle. Still further, the present invention provides a tracker apparatus comprising a clam shell apparatus, which has a first member operably coupled to a second member to hold a torque tube in place. In an example, the apparatus also has a clamp housing operably coupled to the clam shell apparatus via a spherical bearing device such that the spherical bearing comprises an axis of rotation. The axis of rotation is different from a center of the torque tube. The apparatus further comprises a solar module coupled to the torque tube. In an example, the invention provides a tracker apparatus comprising a plurality of torque tubes comprising a first torque tube coupled to a second torque tube coupled to an Nth torque tube, whereupon N is an integer greater than 2. Each pair of torque tubes is coupled to each other free from any welds. In an example, each pair of torque tubes is swaged fitted together. Each of the torque tubes is cylindrical in shape. Each of the plurality of torque tubes is characterized by a length greater than 80 meters. Each of the torque tubes comprises a plurality of notches. In an example, the apparatus also has a plurality of U-bolt devices coupled respectively to the plurality of notches. Each of the plurality of torque tubes are made of steel. In an alternative embodiment, the present invention provides a tracker apparatus having a pier member comprising a lower region and an upper region. A clamp holding member is configured to the upper region and is capable of moving in at least a first direction, a second direction opposite to the first direction, a third direction normal to the first direction and the second direction, a fourth direction opposite of the third direction, a fifth direction normal to the first direction, the second direction, the third direction, and the fourth direction, and a sixth direction opposite of the fifth direction. In yet an alternative embodiment, the present invention provides a solar tracker apparatus. The apparatus has a clamp housing member configured in an upright direction. The clamp housing member comprises a lower region and an upper region. The lower region is coupled to a pier structure. The upper region comprises a spherical bearing device. The upright direction is away from a direction of gravity. The apparatus has a clam shell clamp member coupled to the cylindrical bearing and the clam shell clamp being suspended from the cylindrical bearing. In an example, the apparatus has a torque tube comprising a first end and a second end. The first end is coupled to the spherical bearing to support the torque tube from the upper region of the clamp housing member. The torque tube is configured from an off-set position from a center region of rotation. The apparatus has a drive device coupled to the second end such that the drive device and the torque tube are configured to be substantially free from a twisting action while under a load, e.g., rotation, wind, other internal or external forces. Further details of the present examples can be found throughout the present specification and more particularly below. FIG. 1 is a simplified perspective view of a horizontal tracker apparatus configured with a plurality of solar modules according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the present invention provides a tracker apparatus for solar modules. In an example, the solar modules can be a silicon based solar module, a polysilicon based solar module, a concentrated solar module, or a thin film solar module, including cadmium telluride (CdTe), copper indium gallium selenide (CuIn1-xGaxSe2 or CIGS), which is a direct bandgap semiconductor useful for the manufacture of solar cells, among others. As shown, each of the solar panels can be arranged in pairs, which form an array. Of course, there can be other variations. In an example, the first pier and the second pier are provided on a sloped surface, an irregular surface, or a flat surface. The first pier and the second pier are two of a plurality of piers provided for the apparatus. In example, the apparatus has a solar module configured in a hanging position or a supporting position. The tracker apparatus has a first pier comprising a first pivot device and a second pier comprising a drive mount. In an example, the first pier is made of a solid or patterned metal structure, such as a wide beam flange or the like, as shown. In an example, each of the piers is inserted into the ground, and sealed, using cement or other attachment material. Each pier is provided in generally an upright position and in the direction of gravity, although there can be variations. In an example, each of the piers is spatially spaced along a region of the ground, which may be flat or along a hillside or other structure, according to an embodiment. In an example, the first pillar comprises a wide flange beam. In an example, the first pillar and the second pillar can be off-set and reconfigurable. In an example, the drive mount is capable for construction tolerances in at least three-axis, and is configured to a drive device. The drive device has an off-set clamp device coupled to a cylindrical bearing device coupled to a clamp member. In an example, the apparatus has a cylindrical torque tube operably disposed on the first pier and the second pier. In an example, the cylindrical torque tube comprises a one to ten inch diameter pipe made of Hollow Structure Steel (HSS) steel. The cylindrical torque tube comprises a first end and a second end, and a notch. The notch is one of a plurality of notches spatially disposed along a length of the cylindrical torque tube. In an example, the apparatus has a clamp configured around an annular portion of the cylindrical torque tube and mate with the notch to prevent movement of the clamp. The clamp comprises a support region configured to support a portion of a solar module. The clamp comprises a pin configured with the notch. The apparatus also has a rail configured to the clamp. The rail comprises a thread region configured to hold a bolt, which is adapted to screw into the thread and bottom out against a portion of cylindrical torque tube such that the clamp is desirably torqued against the cylindrical torque tube. The apparatus has a solar module attached to the rail or other attachment device-shared module claim or other devices. The cylindrical torque tube is one of a plurality of torque tubes configured in as a continuous structure and extends in length for 80 to 200 meters. Each pair of torque tubes is swage fitted together, and bolted for the configuration. In an example, the apparatus also has a center of mass of along an axial direction is matched with a pivot point of the drive device. The pivot point of the drive device is fixed in three dimensions while rotating along the center of mass. In an example, the off-set clamp comprises a crank device. The first pivot device comprises a spherical bearing configured a clam-shell clamp device to secure the first end to the cylindrical torque tube. In other examples, the drive device comprises a slew gear. The apparatus also has an overrun device configured with the first pivot device. The overrun device comprises a mechanical stop to allow the cylindrical torque tube to rotate about a desired range. Further details of the present tracker apparatus can be found throughout the present specification and more particularly below. FIGS. 2 through 7 illustrate a method of assembling the horizontal tracker apparatus of FIG. 1. As shown, the method includes disposing a first pier into a first ground structure. The method also includes disposing a second pier into a second ground structure. Each of the piers is one of a plurality of piers to be spatially disposed along a ground structure for one row of solar modules configured to a tracker apparatus. In an example, the method includes configuring a first pivot device on the first pier. In an example, the method includes configuring a drive mount on the second pier. In an example, the drive mount is capable for construction tolerances in at least three-axis. In an example, the drive mount is configured to a drive device having an off-set clamp device coupled to a cylindrical bearing device coupled to a clamp member. In an example, the method includes assembling a cylindrical torque tube and operably disposing on the first pier and the second pier cylindrical torque tube. The cylindrical torque tube comprises a first end and a second end, and a notch. In an example, the notch is one of a plurality of notches spatially disposed along a length of the cylindrical torque tube. In an example, the method includes assembling a plurality of clamps spatially disposed and configured around an annular portion of the cylindrical torque tube. Each of the plurality of clamps is configured to mate with the notch to prevent movement of the clamp. In an example, the clamp comprises a support region configured to support a portion of a solar module. In an example, the method includes attaching a rail configured to each of the clamps, the rail comprising a thread region configured to hold a bolt. The bolt is adapted to screw into the thread and bottom out against a portion of cylindrical torque tube such that the clamp is desirably torqued against the cylindrical torque tube. In an example, the method includes attaching a solar module to the rail or other attachment device. Further details of other examples can be found throughout the present specification and more particularly below. FIG. 8 is a simplified perspective view of a pair of horizontal tracker apparatus configured together with a plurality of solar panels according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown is a tracker apparatus for solar modules. The tracker apparatus has a first pier comprising a first pivot device, a second pier comprising a drive mount, and a third pier comprising a second pivot device. The second pier is between the first and third piers, as shown in an example. Of course, additional piers can be configured on each outer side of the first and third piers. In an example, the drive mount is capable for construction tolerances in at least three-axis, and is configured to a drive device. The drive device has an off-set clamp device coupled to a cylindrical bearing device coupled to a clamp member. In an example, the apparatus has a cylindrical torque tube operably disposed on the first pier and the second pier, and then on the third pier. In an example, the cylindrical torque tube comprises a first end and a second end, and a notch. The notch is one of a plurality of notches spatially disposed along a length of the cylindrical torque tube. The apparatus has a clamp configured around an annular portion of the cylindrical torque tube and mate with the notch to prevent movement of the clamp. The clamp comprises a support region configured to support a portion of a solar module. In an example, the cylindrical torque tube is configured to the drive device to rotate the cylindrical torque tube while each of the clamp members holds the tube in place. Further details of the present apparatus can be found throughout the present specification and more particularly below. FIG. 9 is a simplified diagram of a plurality of horizontal tracker apparatus configured together according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown is a solar tracker apparatus. The apparatus has a center of mass with an adjustable hanger assembly configured with a clam shell clamp assembly on the adjustable hanger assembly and a cylindrical torque tube comprising a plurality of torque tubes configured together in a continuous length from a first end to a second end such that the center of mass is aligned with a center of rotation of the cylindrical torque tubes to reduce a load of a drive motor operably coupled to the cylindrical torque tube. In an example, the drive motor is operable to move the torque tube about the center of rotation and is substantially free from a load. The center of rotation is offset from a center of the cylindrical torque tube. In an example, the invention provides a tracker apparatus comprising a plurality of torque tubes comprising a first torque tube coupled to a second torque tube coupled to an Nth torque tube, whereupon N is an integer greater than 2. Each pair of torque tubes is coupled to each other free from any welds. In an example, a single drive motor can be coupled to a center region of the plurality of torque tubes to rotate the torque tube in a desirable manner to allow each of the solar modules to track a direction of electromagnetic radiation from the sun. In an example, each tracker apparatus comprises a torque tube coupled to an array of solar panels, as shown. Each of the tracker apparatus is coupled to each other via the torque tube, and a pivot device. Each tracker has a corresponding pair of piers, a torque tube, and one or more pivot devices, as shown. Further details of each of these elements are described in detail throughout the present specification. FIG. 10 is a simplified diagram of an array of a plurality of horizontal tracker apparatus configured together according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown are an array of horizontally configured tracker devices to form a plurality of rows of tracker devices arranged in a parallel manner. Each pair of rows of trackers has an avenue, which allows for other applications. That is, row crops or other things can be provided in the avenue, which extends along an entirety of each horizontal tracker row. In an example, the plurality of tracker apparatus is configured in an array within a geographic region. Each of the plurality of tracker apparatus is driven independently of each other to cause each row to stow independently at a different or similar angle. Unlike conventional trackers, which often have mechanical device between the rows, each of the avenues is continuous from one end to the other end, as allows for a tractor or other vehicle to drive from one end to the other end in a preferred example. Of course, there can be other variations, modifications, and alternatives. In an example, the apparatus is configured substantially free from any welds during assembly, and can be assembled using conventional tools. In an example, the torque tube is coupled to another torque tube via a swage device within a vicinity of the clam shell clamp member. In an example, the torque tube is coupled to an elastomeric damper in line to dampen torque movement to be substantially free from formation of a harmonic waveform along any portion of a plurality of solar panels configured to the torque tube. In an example, the apparatus further comprising a locking damper or rigid structure to configure a solar panel coupled to the torque tube in a fixed tilt position to prevent damage to stopper and lock into a foundation-in a position that is substantially free from fluttering in an environment with high movement of air. In an example, the locking damper fixes each of the plurality of solar modules in a desirable angle relative to the direction of air or wind. In an example, the apparatus has a controller apparatus configured in an inserter box provided in an underground region to protect the controller apparatus. In an example, the inserter box is made of a suitable material, which is sealed and/or environmentally suitable to protect the controller apparatus. In operation, the apparatus has a drive device to linearly actuate the torque tube to allow for desirable positions of each of the solar modules relative to incident electromagnetic radiation. In an example, an electrical connection and source (e.g., 120V, 60 Hz, 240V) is coupled to a drive device. Of course, there can be variations. FIG. 11 is a simplified diagram of a clamp assembly for the horizontal tracker of FIG. 1 according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the clamp assembly has a clamp housing member configured in an upright direction, which is a direction away from a direction of gravity. In an example, the clamp housing member comprises a lower region and an upper region. The lower region is coupled to a pier structure. The lower region has a thickness of material comprising bolt openings, which align to openings on an upper portion of the pier structure. Locking nuts and bolts are configured to hold the lower region of the clamp housing to the pier structure in an upright manner. At least a pair of openings is provided in each of the lower region of the clamp housing and the pier structure, as shown. In an example, the upper region comprises a spherical bearing device. The upper region has a tongue structure, which has an opening that houses the spherical bearing between a pair of plates, which hold the bearing in place. In an example, the spherical bearing allows for rotational, and movement in each of the three axis directions within a desirable range. Each of the plates is disposed within a recessed region on each side of the tongue structure. Each of the plates may include a fastener to hold such plate in place within the recessed region. In an example, clamp assembly has a clam shell clamp member coupled to the spherical bearing and the clam shell clamp being suspended from the spherical bearing. That is, the clam shell clamp has a first side and a second side. Each side has an upper region comprising an opening. A pin is inserted through each of the openings, while an opening of the spherical bearing is provided as a third suspension region between each of the openings, as shown. Each side of the clam shell is shaped to conform or couple to at least one side of a portion of the torque tube, as shown. Each side has one or more opens, which align to one or more openings on the portion of the torque tube. A pin or bolt is inserted through each of the openings to clamp the clam shell clamp to the portion of the torque tube and surround substantially an entirety of a peripheral region of the torque tube. The pin or bolt or pins or bolts also holds the torque tube in a fixed position relative to the clam shell clamp to prevent the torque tube from slipping and/or twisting within the clam shell clamp. Of course, there can be variations. In an example, the spherical bearing allows for a construction tolerance, tracker movement, and acts as a bonding path of least resistance taking an electrical current to ground. The bonding path occurs from any of the modules, through the frame, to each of the clamp assembly, to one or more piers, and then to ground. In an example, a torque tube comprising a first end and a second end is coupled to the spherical bearing to support the torque tube from the upper region of the clamp housing member. In an example, the torque tube is configured from an off-set position from a center region of rotation. In an example, a drive device, which will be described in more detail below, is coupled to the second end such that the drive device and the torque tube are configured to be substantially free from a twisting action while under a load. In an example, the clam shell apparatus comprising a first member operably coupled to a second member to hold a torque tube in place. In an example, the apparatus has a clamp housing operably coupled to the clam shell apparatus via a spherical bearing device such that the spherical bearing comprises an axis of rotation, which is different from a center of the torque tube. FIGS. 12 through 14 are simplified diagrams illustrating a method for assembling the clamp assembly of FIG. 11. In an example, the present method is for assembling a solar tracker apparatus. The method includes providing a clamp housing member configured in an upright direction. The clamp housing member comprises a lower region and an upper region. In an example, the lower region is coupled to a pier structure. The upper region comprises a spherical bearing device. In an example, the upright direction is away from a direction of gravity. In an example, the method includes coupling a first half clam shell clamp member and a second half clam shell clamp member (collectively a clam shell clamp member) to the cylindrical bearing. The method also includes supporting a torque tube between the first half clam shell clamp and the second half clam shell clamp, each of which is coupled to the spherical bearing to support the torque tube from the upper region of the clamp housing member, the torque tube being configured from an off-set position from a center region of rotation. In an example, the apparatus is configured substantially free from any welds during assembly. In an example, the torque tube is coupled to another torque tube via a swage device within a vicinity of the clam shell clamp member. In an example, the torque tube is coupled to an elastomeric damper in line to dampen torque movement to be substantially free from formation of a harmonic waveform along any portion of a plurality of solar panels configured to the torque tube. In an example, the method includes coupling a pin member to the first half clam shell clamp member, the second half clam shell clamp member, and the spherical bearing. In an example, the method includes coupling a first member and a second member to sandwich the spherical bearing to a tongue region of the upper region of the clamp housing member. In an example, the spherical bearing is configured for rotation, and movement of the pin to pivot along a solid angle region. In an example, the housing clamp member is a continuous structure made of cast or stamped or machined metal material. In an example, each of the first half clam shell member and the second half claim shell member is made of a solid continuous structure that is cast or stamped or machined metal material. In an example, the spherical bearing allows for a construction tolerance, tracker movement, and acting as a bonding path of least resistance taking an electrical current to ground. Further details of the present method and apparatus can be found throughout the present specification and more particularly below. FIG. 15 is a simplified perspective diagram of a drive assembly configured on a pier member according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an example, as shown, the solar tracker apparatus comprises a drive device. The drive device is coupled to an electric motor, which can be DC or AC. The drive device has a shaft, which rotates around a rotational point, and drives each crank, which is described below. The drive device is provided on a support or drive mount, which is configured on an upper region of a pier, which has been described. The drive device is coupled to a crank coupled to the drive device and configured in an offset manner to a frame assembly, which has a plurality of solar modules. In an example, the drive device provides rotation to a continuous torque tube spatially disposed from a first region to a second region. The drive device has a drive line, which couples via a gear box to drive a pair of cranks. Each crank is coupled to each side of the drive device, which causes rotational movement of each crank. In an example, the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device. In an example, the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device. In an example, each crank has a flange having a plurality of bolt openings to couple to one side of the drive device. Each crank has an arm, which is normal to each flange, and couples to cylindrical member that has one or more bolt openings. The apparatus has a first torque tube coupled to the first crank via the cylindrical member and a second torque tube coupled to the second crank via another cylindrical member. In an example, a first swage fitting is coupling the first crank to the first torque tube and a second swage fitting is coupling the second crank to the second torque tube. One or more bolts are inserted through the cylindrical members to secure a portion of the torque tube in place, and keep it free from rotation or twisting within the cylindrical member, and lock it into place, as shown. In an example, each of the cranks is made of a suitable metal material that may be cast, machined, or stamped. Each cylindrical member is made of a suitable metal material to coupled to an end of the torque tube, as shown. A swage fitting can be provided to couple or connect the end of the torque tube to each cylindrical member as shown. Of course, there can be variations. Further details of assembling the drive device can be found throughout the present specification, and more particularly below. FIGS. 16 through 19 are simplified diagrams illustrating a method for assembling the drive assembly of FIG. 15. In an example, the method includes providing a drive device, as shown. In an example, the method includes coupling the drive device via a drive line or shaft to an electric motor, which can be DC or AC. The method includes coupling the drive device to a support or drive mount, which is configured on an upper region of a pier, which has been described. In an example, the pier comprising a plurality of support structures coupled to a drive device support. The drive device support having a first member coupled to the plurality of support structures, and a second member coupled to the drive device. In an example, the method includes coupling the drive device a crank coupled to the drive device and configured in an offset manner to a frame assembly, which has a plurality of solar modules. In an example, the drive device has the drive line, which couples via a gear box to drive a pair of cranks. Each crank is coupled to each side of the drive device, which causes rotational movement of each crank. In an example, the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device. In an example, the crank comprises a first crank coupled to a first side of the drive device and a second crank coupled to a second side of the drive device. In an example, each crank has a flange having a plurality of bolt openings to couple to one side of the drive device. Each crank has an arm, which is normal to each flange, and couples to cylindrical member that has one or more bolt openings. The apparatus has a first torque tube coupled to the first crank via the cylindrical member and a second torque tube coupled to the second crank via another cylindrical member. In an example, a first swage fitting is coupling the first crank to the first torque tube and a second swage fitting is coupling the second crank to the second torque tube. One or more bolts are inserted through the cylindrical members to secure a portion of the torque tube in place, and keep it free from rotation or twisting within the cylindrical member, and lock it into place, as shown. FIG. 20 is a simplified in-line view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly separate and apart from a pier member according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the clamp assembly has a clamp housing member configured in an upright direction, which is a direction away from a direction of gravity. In an example, the clamp housing member comprises a lower region and an upper region. The lower region is coupled to a pier structure. The lower region has a thickness of material comprising bolt openings, which align to openings on an upper portion of the pier structure. Locking nuts and bolts are configured to hold the lower region of the clamp housing to the pier structure in an upright manner. At least a pair of openings is provided in each of the lower region of the clamp housing and the pier structure, as shown. Each of the openings in the lower region of the clamp housing is configured as a slot to allow for adjustment in a direction normal to the direction of the length of the pier structure. Each of the openings in the pier structure is configured as an elongated slot in the direction of the length of the pier structure to allow for adjustment in the same direction. Of course, there can be variations, where the directions of the slots are exchanged and/or combined. In an example, the upper region comprises a spherical bearing device. The upper region has a tongue structure, which has an opening that houses the spherical bearing between a pair of plates, which hold the bearing in place. In an example, the spherical bearing allows for rotational, and movement in each of the three axis directions within a desirable range. Each of the plates is disposed within a recessed region on each side of the tongue structure. Each of the plates may include a fastener to hold such plate in place within the recessed region. In an example, the clamp housing has a pair of openings and lower region that is designed like a heart like shape and a tongue region, which supports the spherical bearing assembly, as shown. Each lobe of the heart like shape acts as a stop for movement of the torque tube in a lateral rotational movement in either direction depending upon the spatial orientation of the lobe. Further details of the clamp housing can be found further below. In an example, clamp assembly has a clam shell clamp member coupled to the spherical bearing and the clam shell clamp being suspended from the spherical bearing. That is, the clam shell clamp has a first side and a second side. Each side has an upper region comprising an opening. A pin is inserted through each of the openings, while an opening of the spherical bearing is provided as a third suspension region between each of the openings, as shown. Each side of the clam shell is shaped to conform or couple to at least one side of a portion of the torque tube, as shown. Each side has one or more opens, which align to one or more openings on the portion of the torque tube. A pin or bolt is inserted through each of the openings to clamp the clam shell clamp to the portion of the torque tube and surround substantially an entirety of a peripheral region of the torque tube. The pin or bolt or pins or bolts also holds the torque tube in a fixed position relative to the clam shell clamp to prevent the torque tube from slipping and/or twisting within the clam shell clamp. Of course, there can be variations. In an example, the spherical bearing allows for a construction tolerance, tracker movement, and acts as a bonding path of least resistance taking an electrical current to ground. The bonding path occurs from any of the modules, through the frame, to each of the clamp assembly, to one or more piers, and then to ground. In an example, the clam shell apparatus comprising a first member operably coupled to a second member to hold a torque tube in place. In an example, the apparatus has a clamp housing operably coupled to the clam shell apparatus via a spherical bearing device such that the spherical bearing comprises an axis of rotation, which is different from a center of the torque tube. FIG. 21 is a simplified in-line view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, a pair of nuts and bolts holds the pier structure to the clamp housing along the dotted line. FIG. 22 is a simplified in-line view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a first orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the clamp housing can be off-set in a vertical and lateral manner using the slots in each of the pier and housing structure facing the in-line view of the torque tube. FIG. 23 is a simplified in-line view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a second orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the clamp housing can be adjusted in a rotational manner (in either direction) using the same slots in each of the pier and housing structures facing the in-line view of the torque tube. FIG. 24 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a first orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the housing and pier structure, along with the torque tube, are arranged in a normal orientation using the pins configuring the torque tube to the clam shell clamp member. As shown, the clamp member has an elongated opening to allow each of the pins to be adjusted in place, which allows the relationship of the clamp and torque tube to be adjusted. FIG. 25 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a second orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the torque tube is shifted in an in-line direction (either way) using the slots in the clamp, while the torque tube has a smaller opening for the pin, which does not allow for any adjustment, in an example. FIG. 26 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a third orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the torque tube can be rotated or adjusted relative to the direction of the length of the pier using the movement of the spherical bearing assembly, explained and shown. As shown, the torque tube is parallel to the direction of gravity in an example. FIG. 27 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a fourth orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the torque tube can be rotated or adjusted relative to the direction of the length of the pier using the movement of the spherical bearing assembly, explained and shown. As shown, the torque tube is not parallel to the direction of gravity in an example. FIG. 28 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a fifth orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the torque tube, housing, and clamp are aligned in this example. FIG. 29 is a simplified side view diagram illustrating a clamp assembly coupled to a pier member in a sixth orientation according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the torque tube, housing, and clamp are aligned in this example. However, the position of the spherical bearing to pin has shifted in one direction by sliding the pin in the same direction, although the pin can be slid in the other opposite direction in other examples. In this example, pin to clamp arrangement can be moved along the pin from one spatial region to another spatial region. FIGS. 30 through 32 illustrate an in-line view of the clamp assembly and the drive assembly in multiple configurations according to embodiments of the present invention. As shown, the crank is in a lower position, which allows for the torque tube to be at its lowest position in an example. As the drive device moves the crank, the torque tube swings from the lowest position to an elevated position in a radial manner along a first direction or an elevated position in a radial manner along a second direction, as shown. As the torque tube rotates, the plurality of solar panels fixed to the torque tube also rotate along a path from a first spatial region to a second spatial region. As shown, each of the inner regions of the lobes acts as a stop for the torque tube or an override for the torque tube. Of course, there can be other variations. FIG. 33 is a side view diagram of the tracker apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown is a side view diagram of the torque tube, solar panels with frames, and clamp housing and structure. FIGS. 34 and 35 are simplified side view diagrams of a torque tube according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, each of the torque tubes has a plurality of openings on each end for affixing to either the clamp or drive device cylinder. Each of the torque tubes also has a plurality of openings for clamps configured to hold the tube to a frame coupled to the plurality of solar modules. FIGS. 36, 37, and 38 are simplified perspective-view, side view, and front view diagrams of a clamp member or half clam shell member according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown are the clam shell members, including pin opening to be coupled to the spherical bearing, and a plurality of slots for bolts to hold the torque tube in place and for adjustment. FIGS. 39 and 40 are simplified perspective-view and side view diagrams of a clamp housing according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown is the clamp housing configured as a heart like shape, with tongue. The tongue has a recessed region, and an opening or slot for the spherical bearing. The housing also has a member to be coupled to the pier structure. FIGS. 41, 42, 43, and 44 are simplified diagrams of component(s) for a U-bolt member according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown is a U-bolt member and a pair of nuts to secure the U-bolt. The components also includes an upper clamp with a protrusion to be coupled to a notch or opening in the torque tube to present any movement between the torque tube and U-bolt member. That is, the protrusion acts as a stop to hold the U-bolt in place. FIGS. 45, 46, and 47 are simplified diagrams illustrating a method of configuring a U-bolt member to a torque tube according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown are U-bolt coupled to a periphery of the torque tube. The clamp member including protrusion, which has a thinner portion and thicker portion, coupled to a notch in the torque tube. A pair of bolts fastens and secures the clamp member and U-bolt in place to hold the frame structure, which couples to the plurality of solar modules. FIGS. 48 and 49 illustrate various views of a tracker apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the torque tube and tracker apparatus are in a normal rest position. FIGS. 50 and 51 illustrate views of a tracker apparatus according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, a lateral force is provided against a direction normal to the length of the torque tube, which causes one end of the torque tube to move in the lateral direction, while the other end remains fixed in an example. FIGS. 52 and 53 illustrate an illustration of a torque tube according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown, the torque tube rotates and swings in a radial manner upon being subjected to the lateral force, in an example. The torque tube stops against an inner side of one of the lobes of the clamp housing. FIG. 54 is a perspective diagram of a clamp housing and support member according to an example of the present invention. As shown is a first configuration of the clamp to the support member. FIG. 55 is a perspective diagram of a clamp housing and support member according to an example of the present invention. As shown is a second configuration of the clamp to the support member. In an example, the support member has an elongated slot that allows for the clamp member to move from a first spatial location to a second spatial location in a continuous manner along a determined direction. A pair of nuts/bolts or other fasteners are provided to secure the housing to the support, as shown. FIG. 56 is a front-view diagram of the clamp housing and support member according to an example of the present invention. FIGS. 57 and 58 illustrate a perspective view and a front view of the support member according to an example of the present invention. FIG. 59 illustrate a perspective view of the clamp housing according to an example of the present invention. FIG. 60 is an illustration of a plurality of torque tubes configured in a stack for transportation in an example. As shown, each of the torque tubes has at least a pair of clamp or spacers having a recessed region, which has a similar or same curvature as the torque tube to allow the torque tube to be inserted into the recessed region and be substantially free from movement once the plurality of tubes have been strapped together. FIG. 61 is a more detailed illustration of a clamp or spacer having a recessed region for stacking in the stack of the prior Figure. As shown, each clamp or upper clamp or spacer has a recessed region, which intimately mates or couples with an outer periphery of the torque tube. Of course, there can be variations. FIGS. 62, 63, and 64 illustrate various views of the drive device support member according to an example of the present invention. As shown, the member has a built-in offset so that a horizontal portion remains centered over a pier structure. In an example, the offset can also be used to shift the drive device in a north-south direction or other direction. By installing the drive mount backwards, on the appropriate side of the pier, the drive can be moved about one inch or other dimension in the desired direction. In an example, the support member has a plurality of spacer plates, which can be 3/16-inch thick or other dimension. In an example, only one set of spacer plates may be used due to the length of the four 5052 M16×50 bolts, although there can be variations. FIGS. 65 and 66 illustrate various views of a clamp assembly according to an example of the present invention. FIGS. 67 through 71 illustrate various view of a horizontal tracker configured with a plurality of solar panels in a portrait view according to examples of the present invention. As shown, each of the solar panels can be configured where the length is aligned with a direction of gravity, while the width is normal to the length. FIG. 72 is a simplified plot illustrating a force plotted against a wind speed in an example of the present invention. As shown, the present method and apparatus have a lower drive force. In an example, a benefit of the present apparatus that the center of mass is configured to allow the solar modules to rotate about a first angle through a solid angle to a second angle, while the amount of load in driving the rotating is substantially the same, unlike conventional tracker technologies. FIGS. 73, 74, and 75 illustrate a support member in a perspective, front, and side view diagrams according to examples of the present invention. As shown, the support has a flat member comprising a pair of openings (elongated slots), a length, and a width to be configured to a pier structure, as described. The flat member is a truck of a y-shaped structure. Each of the branches extending from the flat member comprises a first portion configured to a first portion of the flat member, and a second portion configured to an upper region of the flat member. Each of the branches has an elongated slot perpendicular to the flat member. Each of the slots can be used to allow for an adjustment along a direction of the slot when configured to the pier or a structure for the clamp member. FIGS. 76 and 77 are simplified side-view diagrams of the support and clamp assembly from a first side view and a second side view. FIGS. 78 through 83 are various simplified illustrations of a frame, torque tube, and clamp assembly according to embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 84 is a simplified diagram of a clamp assembly with support in a first position configured in a portion of the elongated slot in the support member. FIG. 85 is a simplified diagram of a clamp assembly with support in a first position configured in a first portion of the elongated slot in the support member, and a second position configured in a second portion of the elongated slot of the support member. FIG. 86 is an expanded view of the clamp assembly configured to the support member according to an embodiment of the present invention. In an example, the present parts and elements can be made of suitable material, such as steel, aluminum, or other alloys. Additionally, such steel and/or alloys and/or aluminum can be cast, stamped, or welded, or combinations thereof. Of course, there can be other variations, modifications, and alternatives. In an example, the drive motor is operable to move the torque tube about the center of rotation and is substantially free from a load and move the torque tube about the center of rotation at substantially a same force from a first radial position to a second radial position. It is understood that the examples and embodiments described herein are for illustrative purposes only and that various modifications or changes in light thereof will be suggested to persons skilled in the art and are to be included within the spirit and purview of this application and scope of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present application relates generally to a tracking system for solar panels. More specifically, embodiments of the present invention provide tracking systems that are suitable for solar panels. In a specific embodiment, a tracking system according to the present invention is fully adjustable in at each of the pillars, among other aspects. There are other embodiments as well. As the population of the world increases, industrial expansion has lead to an equally large consumption of energy. Energy often comes from fossil fuels, including coal and oil, hydroelectric plants, nuclear sources, and others. As an example, the International Energy Agency projects further increases in oil consumption, with developing nations such as China and India accounting for most of the increase. Almost every element of our daily lives depends, in part, on oil, which is becoming increasingly scarce. As time further progresses, an era of “cheap” and plentiful oil is coming to an end. Accordingly, other and alternative sources of energy have been developed. Concurrent with oil, we have also relied upon other very useful sources of energy such as hydroelectric, nuclear, and the like to provide our electricity needs. As an example, most of our conventional electricity requirements for home and business use come from turbines run on coal or other forms of fossil fuel, nuclear power generation plants, and hydroelectric plants, as well as other forms of renewable energy. Often times, home and business use of electrical power has been stable and widespread. Most importantly, much if not all of the useful energy found on the Earth comes from our sun. Generally all common plant life on the Earth achieves life using photosynthesis processes from sun light. Fossil fuels such as oil were also developed from biological materials derived from energy associated with the sun. For human beings including “sun worshipers,” sunlight has been essential. For life on the planet Earth, the sun has been our most important energy source and fuel for modern day solar energy. Solar energy possesses many characteristics that are very desirable! Solar energy is renewable, clean, abundant, and often widespread. Certain technologies have been developed to capture solar energy, concentrate it, store it, and convert it into other useful forms of energy. Solar panels have been developed to convert sunlight into energy. As an example, solar thermal panels often convert electromagnetic radiation from the sun into thermal energy for heating homes, running certain industrial processes, or driving high grade turbines to generate electricity. As another example, solar photovoltaic panels convert sunlight directly into electricity for a variety of applications. Solar panels are generally composed of an array of solar cells, which are interconnected to each other. The cells are often arranged in series and/or parallel groups of cells in series. Accordingly, solar panels have great potential to benefit our nation, security, and human users. They can even diversify our energy requirements and reduce the world's dependence on oil and other potentially detrimental sources of energy. Although solar panels have been used successfully for certain applications, there are still limitations. Often, solar panels are unable to convert energy at their full potential due to the fact that the sun is often at an angle that is not optimum for the solar cells to receive solar energy. In the past, various types of conventional solar tracking mechanisms have been developed. Unfortunately, conventional solar tracking techniques are often inadequate. These and other limitations are described throughout the present specification, and may be described in more detail below. From the above, it is seen that techniques for improving solar systems are highly desirable. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present application relates generally to a tracking system for solar panels. More specifically, embodiments of the present invention provide tracking systems that are suitable for solar panels. In a specific embodiment, a tracking system according to the present invention is fully adjustable in at each of the pillars, among other aspects. There are other embodiments as well. In an example, the present invention provides a solar tracker apparatus. In an example, the apparatus comprises a center of mass with an adjustable hanger assembly configured with a clam shell clamp assembly on the adjustable hanger assembly and a cylindrical torque tube comprising a plurality of torque tubes configured together in a continuous length from a first end to a second end such that the center of mass is aligned with a center of rotation of the cylindrical torque tubes to reduce a load of a drive motor operably coupled to the cylindrical torque tube. Further details of the present example, among others, can be found throughout the present specification and more particularly below. Various additional objects, features and advantages of the present invention can be more fully appreciated with reference to the detailed description and accompanying drawings that follow. | F24J2541 | 20170721 | 20180515 | 20171123 | 99270.0 | F24J254 | 2 | NAMAY, DANIEL ELLIOT | BALANCED SOLAR TRACKER CLAMP | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | F24J | 2,017 |
15,657,141 | ACCEPTED | Method and System for Dynamic Estimation and Predictive Route Generation | The preferred embodiments of the present invention are directed to methods and systems for dynamic route estimation and prediction using discrete sampled location updates from various mobile devices for the purpose of providing a graphical representation of a mobile device's route along a known network path of map data. The embodiments also provide supplemental route metrics, such as traveled distance, elapsed time, etc., and the capability to assign destination points for the purpose of providing the ability to modify location update points in an application, such as a route planner, and/or to store the dynamically generated route based on various preferences for later retrieval. | 1. A method of controlling a mobile computing apparatus to dynamically predict and display a route of travel of the mobile computing apparatus, wherein the mobile computing apparatus includes a GPS receiver, a memory to store map data, a display, and at least one processor, the method comprising: providing the mobile computing apparatus with a non-transitory computer-readable medium storing instructions that, when executed by the at least one processor, cause the at least one processor to: individually receive a plurality of position updates; upon receiving a first one of the plurality of position updates, cause the display to display on a map generated from the map data a first position of the mobile computing apparatus; before receiving a second one of the plurality of position updates after receiving the first one of the plurality of position updates, cause the display to (i) display on the map a second position of the mobile computing apparatus, the second position being predicted by the at least one processor based on the first one of the plurality of position updates and one or more metrics associated with the mobile computing apparatus, the one or metrics including at least one of a speed of the mobile computing apparatus, a heading of the mobile computing apparatus, a road speed limit, and a turn restriction, and (ii) display on the map a partial route of travel of the mobile computing apparatus from the first position to the second position predicted by the at least one processor based on the first one of the plurality of position updates and the one or more metrics associated with the mobile computing apparatus; and upon receiving the second one of the plurality of position updates after causing the display to display on the map the second position of the mobile computing apparatus and the partial route of travel of the mobile computing apparatus from the first position to the second position, update the display on the map of the second position of the mobile computing apparatus and the partial route of travel of the mobile computing apparatus from the first position to the second position when the second one of the plurality of position updates indicates that the display on the map of the second position of the mobile apparatus does not coincide with a location identified by the second one of the plurality of position updates, wherein the updated display of the partial route of travel corresponds a time interval associated with the first one of the plurality of position updates and the second one of the plurality of position updates. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the plurality of position updates are received from the GPS receiver and determined based on GPS position signals. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein the instructions, when executed by the at least one processor of the mobile computing apparatus, further cause the mobile computing apparatus to: display on the mobile computing apparatus an indication of a destination location; display on the mobile computing apparatus indications of a plurality of possible routes to the destination location based on the one or more metrics; display on the mobile computing apparatus an indication of the one or more metrics; and as the mobile computing apparatus travels towards the destination location, update the display of the indication of the one or more metrics. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein the method further comprises: receiving, at a server, first data comprising a plurality of location updates from a plurality of transportation provider mobile devices, each of the plurality of transportation provider mobile devices corresponding to a respective one of a plurality of transportation providers and each of the plurality of location updates representing a location of a respective one of the plurality of transportation providers at a particular time; receiving, at the server from mobile computing apparatus, second data comprising a pickup location for a customer associated with the mobile computing apparatus; and computing a preferred transportation provider from among the plurality of transportation providers to provide transportation for the customer based on the first data and the second data, wherein the non-transitory computer-readable medium further includes instructions that, when executed by the at least one processor of the mobile computing apparatus, causes the at least one processor to cause the display to display on the map generated from the map data, each of the plurality of indicators corresponding to a current position of a respective one of the plurality of transportation providers based on a respective one of the plurality of location updates. 5. A method comprising: receiving, at a server, first data comprising a plurality of location updates from a plurality of transportation provider mobile devices, each of the plurality of transportation provider mobile devices corresponding to a respective one of a plurality of transportation providers and each of the plurality of location updates representing a location of a respective one of the plurality of transportation providers at a particular time; causing the display of a plurality of indicators on a graphical representation of a map, each of the plurality of indicators corresponding to a current position of a respective one of the plurality of transportation providers based on a respective one of the plurality of location updates; receiving, at the server from a customer mobile device, second data comprising a pickup location for a customer associated with the customer mobile device; and computing a preferred transportation provider from among the plurality of transportation providers to provide transportation for the customer based on the first data and the second data. 6. The method of claim 5, further comprising dispatching the preferred transportation provider to the pickup location. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the dispatching the preferred transportation provider comprises transmitting information about the pickup location to the mobile device corresponding to the preferred transportation provider. 8. The method of claim 7, further comprising: calculating a route for the preferred transportation provider based on a location of the preferred transportation provider relative to the pickup location. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein the dispatching the preferred transportation provider comprises transmitting the calculated route to the mobile device corresponding to the preferred transportation provider. 10. The method of claim 5, further comprising: receiving a location update from the mobile device corresponding to the preferred transportation provider; and updating a location of the preferred transportation provider in response to the receiving of the location update from the mobile device corresponding to the preferred transportation provider. 11. The method of claim 5, further comprising causing the indicators to be displayed on the map together with the pickup location. 12. The method of claim 5, wherein the first data further comprises a size or a type of a vehicle. 13. The method of claim 12, further comprising causing an indicator of the size or the type of the vehicle to be displayed. 14. The method of claim 5, wherein the second data further comprises a size or a type of the preferred transportation provider. 15. A server apparatus comprising: at least one memory comprising computer executable instructions; and at least one processor configured to execute the computer executable instructions, the computer executable instructions causing the least one processor to perform: receiving first data comprising a plurality of location updates from a plurality of transportation provider mobile devices, each of the plurality of transportation provider mobile devices corresponding to a respective one of a plurality of transportation providers and each of the plurality of location updates representing a location of a respective one of the plurality of transportation providers at a particular time; causing the display of a plurality of indicators on a graphical representation of a map, each of the plurality of indicators corresponding to a current position of a respective one of the plurality of transportation providers; receiving from a customer mobile device second data comprising a pickup location for a customer associated with the customer mobile device; and computing a preferred transportation provider from among the plurality of transportation providers to provide transportation for the customer based on the first data and the second data. 16. The apparatus of claim 15, further comprising dispatching the preferred transportation provider to the pickup location. 17. The apparatus of claim 16, wherein the dispatching the preferred transportation provider comprises transmitting information about the pickup location to the mobile device corresponding to the preferred transportation provider. 18. The apparatus of claim 17, wherein the computer executable instructions further cause the least one processor to perform calculating a route for the preferred transportation provider based on a location of the preferred transportation provider relative to the pickup location. 19. The apparatus of claim 18, wherein the dispatching the preferred transportation provider comprises transmitting the calculated route to the mobile device corresponding to the preferred transportation provider. 20. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the computer executable instructions further cause the least one processor to perform: receiving a location update from the mobile device corresponding to the preferred transportation provider; and updating a location of the preferred transportation provider in response to the receiving of the location update from the mobile device corresponding to the preferred transportation provider. 21. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the indicators are displayed on the map together with the pickup location. 22. The apparatus of claim 15, wherein the first data further comprises a size or a type of a vehicle. 23. The apparatus of claim 22, wherein the computer executable instructions further cause the least one processor to perform causing the display of an indicator of the size or the type of the vehicle. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/410,740, filed Apr. 10, 2003, which claims priority from U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/371,941 filed Apr. 10, 2002. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION 1. Field of Invention The present invention is directed to systems and methods for dynamic route estimation and prediction using discrete sampled location updates from various mobile devices, and to also provide supplemental information such as route metrics, including without limitation traveled distance and elapsed time. 2. Description of the Related Art Computerized mapping software is achieving widespread use today. Such mapping programs are commonly used to automate tasks of calculating routes, viewing location-specific geographical areas for their spatial content, such as addresses, roadways, rivers, etc., and for the purpose of being used with Global Positioning System (GPS) devices for various applications, such as a personal navigation application. Mapping software programs apply to a wide variety of uses, such as personal navigation, telematics, thematic mapping, resource planning, routing, fleet tracking, safety dispatching (i.e., Police, Fire, and Rescue organizations), and a wide variety of specialized Geographic Information System (GIS) applications, all of which are well known to people skilled in the art. Real-time communication networks today also provide the ability to transfer, in real-time, voice and data information from various mobile devices, such as wireless phones, telemetry devices, or the like, to a multitude of other devices, either mobile or stationary, all of which are well known to people that are skilled in the art. For example, GPS devices that are connected to a wireless MODEM are able to transfer their position coordinates, such as latitude and longitude, wirelessly to a computer or server for later retrieval or real-time viewing of said information. Current applications that integrate or combine mapping, real-time communication capabilities, and position devices, for various computing devices are well known to people skilled in the art. These applications are referred to by various terminologies, including, but not limited to Automatic Vehicle Location (AVL), Location-Based Services (LBS), Fleet Tracking Systems, etc., all of which are well known to people skilled in the art. Conventional systems, such as AVL systems, typically involve a positioning device connected to a wireless MODEM sending location information, amongst other telemetry information, at discrete time intervals to a computer for the viewing of said information. This monitoring, or tracking, of real-time location information or of location-history information is sometimes referred to as the breadcrumb trail or history information of the mobile device, since it illustrates the current and/or previous locations that the mobile device is or has been in space and time. The problem with the conventional system is that the ‘breadcrumb’ trail does not provide the user with sufficient information about the mobile device's actual or estimated route during the course of its travels, but only provides discrete location information over a specified period of time. How the mobile device traveled along the underling routable network infrastructure, such as roads, highways, exit ramps, etc., from point-to-point is not provided in prior art. Conventional applications will sometimes associate the term ‘route’ with a breadcrumb trail that directly connects discrete points with straight lines, but this is not an accurate use of the term as known to people that are skilled in the art. For example, a route is typically defined as a road, course, or way for traveling from one place to another over a set of various defined paths, such as a route along a highway. True routing applications include a network of paths that are used in combination with destination points, where destination points can include both an origin and stop points, in order to determine a specific route along said network paths between each of the destination points. Conventional systems widely use this method of connecting direct lines between location updates for illustrating the breadcrumb trail path and direction between location updated points. Some conventional systems further illustrate the order of the location updates that the mobile device traveled by chronologically numbering each of the location updates or by connecting a direct line from each point, or drawing an arrow at each point, with an arrow illustrating the mobile device's heading or pseudo heading. The problem with the conventional system is that these methods and systems do not provide the user with any actual or estimated route information derived from the location updates, specifically due to the discrete nature of the location data. As people skilled in the art will appreciate, a method and system that can create a dynamic estimated route between various discrete locations would provide a number of improvements over existing prior art, such as providing a better illustration of the data, which has inherent limitations due to its being discrete location data, extrapolating total driving distance from a set of discrete location updates, and providing to the user an ability to save the calculated estimated route or plan new routes from the existing location information. Thus, a need exits for a method and system that allows an application to dynamically generate estimated route information from location updates originally derived from a mobile positioning device. Until now, an adequate solution to these problems has eluded those skilled in the art. Thus, there exists a need to provide a solution that enables an application to dynamically generate, based on various route generation preferences, estimated and predictive routes using location information that was generated from a mobile positioning device sending discrete location updates of its position over various periods of time. This provides many important benefits for computing devices that receive discrete position updates for the purpose of monitoring, planning, and analysis of mobile devices' positional information. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling dynamic estimated routing calculations between location points generated from a mobile device with access to its own location (i.e., position) information, and also displaying said calculated route on a map display of varying size and resolution. In one embodiment, a wireless mobile device transmits its location information by means of a centralized server where the location data is routed to the specific destination device, either stationary or mobile. The device initially displays the first location point on the map display that has either a visible or transparent underlying road network. The next location update that arrives from the mobile device, indicating its next position, is preferably displayed similarly to the first location update, and a dynamically estimated route is generated in real-time based on a set of route preferences and displayed on the map display between the two location points. In this embodiment, if the location updates do not intersect the pathways of the road network exactly, the points used in the route calculation are a result of the location points being snapped to the nearest road pathway or segment for the purpose of enabling the route calculation. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling predictive dynamic routing calculations between location points in real-time as they arrive from a mobile device that has access to its own location information. Predictive routing provides the user or application with estimated predicted route calculation information between location updates based on various preferences, such as origin and destination information, map data information (e.g., road speed limits, one-way information, etc.), mobile device information (i.e., heading, speed, vehicle type, etc.). Predictive routing is based on one or more known location updates and is calculated from the time an initial location update arrives to the time when the next location update arrives. Predictive routing is preferably further augmented when the destination information is known in advance, but the various points between the origin and destination are not known. In one embodiment, an initial location update is provided and the destination location is known in advance. Using the initial location update, and various other aiding information, such as vehicle vector information such as heading, speed, etc., an estimated route can be calculated in pseudo real-time using the vector information of the device along with some destination information. In another embodiment, when destination information is not provided, the predicted route is calculated and displayed in all possible directions that routes can exist. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for displaying the dynamic route calculated using discrete location update information on a mobile or stationary computing device. In one embodiment, a mobile device would send discrete location information in a peer-to-peer connection to another mobile device, such as an in-vehicle navigation device, for the display of the remote mobile device's location information and for real-time dynamic route calculation of the remote mobile device's travels or to the remote mobile device's current location. In another embodiment, the mobile device would send discrete location information by means of a distributed server system that routes the location information to a stationary dispatch computer or group of computers. In both cases, the display and calculation of dynamic route information is similarly performed. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for providing a set of route preferences for use in calculating dynamic route information. The route preferences can be specific to each device thus allowing a more precise approximation of the actual versus estimated route traveled by the mobile device. In one embodiment, route preferences, when using map data that consists of road networks for motor vehicles, includes various types of categories, such as Driving Speeds, Route Optimization Goals, Road Preferences, etc. For example, Driving Speeds illustrates average speeds the vehicle travels over various types of roads, such as Interstate Highways Average Speed, Other Highways Average Speed, Arterial Roads Average Speed, Surface Streets Average Speed, or the like. In this embodiment, Route Optimization Goals illustrates either the Fastest Route or the Shortest Route, while Road Preferences illustrates whether the motor vehicle typically avoids Highways, Arterial Roads, or Toll Roads. These and other preferences allow the dynamic route calculation to closer approximate the actual route most likely traveled by the vehicle. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for providing the route to be calculated from a known infrastructure of network paths, such as a road, highway, exit, ramp, etc., which is usually associated with the type of map data, such as road, nautical, aviation, topographical, or the like. In one embodiment, after two or more location updates are used to calculate a route, the system uses map data, such as road map data, to calculate an estimated or predictive route. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for providing the capability to correlate location information with a known set of network pathways associated with the particular map data for determining the point on the network pathways nearest to the location information. This allows the route calculation to be the most accurate when using location updates that typically have some positional error associated with them, and when using map data that also has its own positional error. In one embodiment, a mobile device is attached to a positioning device, such as a GPS receiver, that has a positional error typically on the order of 2-15 meters. Map data consists of various segments of roadways, each of which typically has it own positional error, sometimes on the order of 2-50 meters. Since both the mobile device and the map data typically have some positional error, and it is necessary to calculate a route using the map data, the map data is preferably used as the datum, and the mobile device's location information is “snapped-to” the nearest point or segment on the map data. That is, the location used for route calculation is preferably the point on the network pathways of the map data nearest to the actual mobile device's location. This allows the dynamic route calculation to be as accurate as possible relative to the map data and location updates from the mobile device. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling the mobile device to send location updates to a receiving device or devices (i.e., broadcast) directly, in a peer-to-peer configuration, where the receiving device or devices can be client-type devices, either mobile or stationary, or server-type devices. In one embodiment, a mobile device is connected to a GPS receiver that transmits its location information, via a wireless communication network and the Internet, preferably at a frequency of one update per second (i.e., 1 Hz) to another mobile device connected to a different wireless communication network and is connected to the Internet. In another embodiment, a mobile device sends its updated position information intermittently and directly (i.e., peer-to-peer) to an online server-computing device via a wireless communications network and the Internet. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling the mobile device to send location updates to a receiving computing device, either a client or server, by means of a server, such as a centralized or distributed server system, that acts as a router and directs the location updates to the specific receiving computing and/or server device or devices (i.e., broadcast), which are either mobile or stationary. In one embodiment, a mobile device is connected to a GPS receiver that transmits its location information, via a wireless connection and the Internet, preferably at a frequency of one update every half a second (i.e., 2 Hz) to a centralized server that is connected to the Internet and routes the location information to a stationary computing device by means of an Internet connection. In an alternative embodiment, a mobile device transmits its position information periodically to a server that routes the location packet updates to another server component or system for storage and real-time or future dynamic estimated route calculation, performed at the server component or system and then delivered to the stationary or mobile computing device. In this embodiment, the location packet updates can be directly delivered to the stationary or mobile computing device, in real-time or from storage on the server, and the estimated route calculation would be performed at the stationary or mobile computing device. In yet another embodiment, the estimated route calculation can be preformed on the server, and then delivered to the stationary or mobile computing device. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling the mobile device to store location updates to a local storage medium, such as a hard disk drive or flash memory, on the mobile device at various or specific intervals. The mobile device can then calculate and display the estimated route information of the mobile devices' journey locally. Additionally, the mobile device can transfer the location information to a remote client directly (i.e., peer-to-peer) or to a server (i.e., peer-to-server), which can then deliver the location information to a client (i.e., server-to-peer), which may include the estimated route already calculated. The transfer to the remote client and/or server can occur using various transfer methods, such as wireless (e.g., Bluetooth, 802.11, etc.), infrared, wired (i.e., USB cable, etc.), or storage transfer (i.e., floppy disk, etc.). In one embodiment, a mobile device stores location information over a period of time, and then, using a wireless connection, transmits its location information to an in-vehicle navigation system, which calculates estimated route information using the discrete location updates that the mobile device recorded. Additionally, the transfer to the in-vehicle navigation system could consist of using a floppy disk drive to transfer said location update information. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for calculating estimated and predicted route information using various map data sets and location update information either on the end client application, such as a graphical user interface (GUI) local application, or on a server application. The end client and server applications can calculate the route estimation and prediction information in real-time, or can store the location information (i.e., location history information) and calculate the route estimation at a later time for delivery to the end user or client. Specifically, the server application can calculate, in real-time or on demand (using stored location history), the estimated route information for delivery to the end client (i.e., mobile or stationary computing device), either through a web interface (i.e., Web Browser), web service, or other communication protocol and interface. The server application can also calculate the route estimate information and store the results on the server for future deliver to the end client. The end client can also calculate the route estimation and prediction information in real-time or store the location history information for post-processing the route estimation information after it has been stored locally, such as in memory or in the local computing device's hard disk drive, optical disk drive, etc. In one embodiment, a wireless mobile device sends its location information to an online server, via a wireless communication network and the Internet, every 60 seconds. The server routes the location information to an end client that dynamically, and in real-time, calculates and displays the estimated route information of the mobile wireless device as the location updates arrive at the end client through the Internet connection to the online server. In another embodiment, a wireless mobile device sends its location information to an online server, via a wireless communication network and the Internet, every period of predetermined time interval. The server stores the location history information into an online server database. At a later time, and using a web browser, the user of the mobile wireless device preferably logs onto the online server and request to see the location history information of their trek, including the estimated route information. A server application component uses, from the database, the stored location history records for the mobile device for the time past and pre-defined general route preferences to calculate the estimated route information for the specific mobile device's journey on a known map data set. In this embodiment, the location information points and estimated route information are displayed to the mobile device's user via a web browser end client. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for sending an information packet, accompanied with every discrete location packet, that provides additional information about the location point. In the event when a location update was not scheduled to be transmitted and an information packet is transmitted, depending on the type of location packet type, an ad-hoc location update can also be transmitted accompanying the information packet. The additional information contained in this information packet consists of various location-related information, such as stop information (e.g., origin, stop, via, destination), waypoint information (e.g., personal notes, etc.), PIM (Personal Information Management) information, Point of Interest (POI) information (e.g., restaurants, gas stations, etc.), or the like. In one embodiment, such as a dispatch application, a user of a wireless mobile device, such as a wireless phone, arrives at a customer's location and enters the location and other appropriate information about the customer into an application on the wireless mobile device. The wireless mobile device then either locally stores the location and additional information, or remotely transmits the information to the remote client or online server. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for providing the capability of adding the location update information (i.e., position information, such as GPS, etc.) and/or location information generated by a mobile device (i.e., POI, waypoint, etc.) to a route planner for the purpose of modifying the collection of discrete location history information. In one embodiment, location updates periodically arrive to a dispatch client from a mobile wireless device. The location updates can then be transferred to a route planner application that allows the modification of the location update points prior to calculating the estimated route information. For instance, if a location update illustrates a point on a specific highway, but the mobile device should have been traveling on a different highway, then that point can be moved to the appropriate highway prior to the calculation of the estimated route. Additionally, the estimated route can be calculated prior to modifying the location history update information or in real-time as the location updates arrive, since the estimated route information provides graphical information that would aid the user in modifying the location history information. In another embodiment, as location updates arrive to a dispatch client, the location update points are typically defined as via points, but the via points can be changed to other destination points, such as a stop, origin, or destination end point, thus providing route planning capabilities on the discrete location updates. Additionally, these destination points can be accompanied by additional information, such as notes, start/departure time, stop duration, etc. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for saving, either on a server or locally, the calculated estimated route information and/or the location history information including the specific route preferences used to calculate the route. The estimated route information range (i.e., date, time, position, etc.) can be selected to indicate the starting and ending point boundaries for the route and/or location history information to be saved. In one embodiment, location updates periodically are received via the Internet and are displayed on a map display. With every location update received, an estimated route is calculated based on various route preferences. The user can select the displayed location history information with estimated route information and save it locally or to a remote server. Additionally, the user can select a subset of the entire estimated route and/or location history information and save only that portion to the local hard disk drive or flash memory, or to the online server for retrieval from other networked devices. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for calculating estimated route information, such as driving distance, using discrete sampled location update information and based on various user or device-defined route preferences. In one embodiment, using location history information, an estimated route is calculated based on a set of user route preferences (e.g., shortest time, etc.). After an estimated route has been created based on the location history information and various route preferences, the total driving distance can then be computed. A subset of information can also be illustrated, such as driving instructions (i.e., Turn Right onto Lawrence Road, etc.), heading, distance, and elapsed time for each portion of the estimated route, including summary information for the estimated route, such as total driving distance traveled. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for calculating an estimated route for multiple location-relevant ‘satellite’ points, such as a mobile device, to or from a ‘central’ destination or origin location point, where the estimated route is calculated relative to a known set, or sets, of map data, and the resulting estimated routes are ordered according to various metrics. These ordering calculation metrics may include preferences such as shortest time, shortest distance, most use of highways, most use of surface streets, least amount of traffic, least amount of cost, such as fuel usage for each mobile satellite and/or central point (which in this case can be considered to be a mobile motor vehicle), or the like. The central satellite destination or origin point can be a place, such as a POI (i.e., address, house, landmark, etc.), or a stationary or mobile device, where the mobile device's location is provided in real-time or from a cached location either locally, where the estimate route is calculated, or on the server system. The estimated route is based on various route preferences such as Driving Speeds, Route Optimization Goals, Road Preferences, etc., where each of the satellite points and/or central point can have estimated routes based on individual route preferences for each mobile or stationary point. The satellite points or central point can include real-time location updates from mobile devices, and known position points, such as POIs (i.e., stationary points), or the like. In one embodiment, an application defines an entered address as the central point, which is, for this embodiment, a stationary point. Using the location updates from the mobile devices surrounding the general area of the address, the application calculates in real-time an estimated route from each of the satellite mobile devices to the central address. The application then uses the total travel distance of the estimated route from each of the mobile devices to the central address location and calculates the estimated travel time for each mobile device to travel from their current location to the central address location. This time calculation is based on various route preferences and map data for each of the satellite mobile devices, such as the posted driving speed of the roads, number of stop lights required and the typical time spent at each stop light, etc. After calculating the estimated distance and time for each satellite mobile device (i.e., satellite implies surrounding the central address point), the mobile devices are preferably ranked or sorted based on various metrics, such as distance, time, fuel usage, etc. In another embodiment, the central point is another mobile device, and using real-time location updates, the estimated routes are dynamically calculated, in real-time, for a mobile device when an update on its location is received. Details of the various embodiments of the present invention will be further explained below. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates a network system for providing a communication channel between various different computing devices; FIG. 2 illustrates an aspect of the present invention showing a real-time communications program with an integrated mapping environment that graphically displays various location-relevant objects on a map; FIG. 3 illustrates another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying a road network of streets in a map display; FIG. 4 illustrates another aspect of the present invention for dynamically plotting various location update points on a map display that originated from a mobile device; FIG. 4A illustrates another aspect of the present invention for using a snap-to algorithm for determining the line segment of the map data that is nearest to location updates from a mobile device; FIG. 4B is a pictorial example of how location update information can arrive both asynchronously and synchronously from a mobile device; FIG. 5 illustrates another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying various possible routes between two points in space that are correlated against map data; FIG. 6 illustrates another aspect of the present invention for providing the most accurate estimated route between two location update points in real-time using various route preferences; FIG. 7 illustrates another aspect of the present invention for providing an additional estimated route between two location update points in real-time; FIG. 8 illustrates another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying the start of a predictive route calculation; FIG. 9 illustrates yet another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying all of the possible predictive route calculations at a fork or juncture of the map data; FIG. 10 illustrates yet another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying all of the possible predictive route calculations between an origin point and a destination point along a route resulting from a set of route preferences; FIG. 11 illustrates yet another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying a prior art location history trail of location points on a map display; FIG. 12 illustrates yet another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying the estimated route based on a set of location history points; FIG. 13 illustrates yet another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying a real-time location update point in addition to the previous estimated route calculation; FIG. 14 illustrates yet another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying a real-time route calculation based on tracking the mobile device that is periodically sending its location updates; FIG. 15 illustrates yet another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying the entire location history trail in addition to the real-time tracked location updates; FIG. 16 illustrates yet another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying an entire estimated route specifically illustrating the updated real-time estimated route calculations for the most recent location update points; FIG. 17 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying the entire estimated route based on a set of location history points; FIG. 18 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically changing a location update point to a Route Origin point; FIG. 19 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically changing a location update point to a Route Destination point; FIG. 20 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically changing a location update point to a Route Stop point; FIG. 21 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically changing a location update point to a Route Via point; FIG. 22 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically saving an estimated route to a route planner and illustrating the capability to clear the current estimated route and location points; FIG. 23 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying the location update points added to a route planner window for modifying and/or saving the estimated route; FIG. 24 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically saving a calculated route after it has been added to the route planner window. FIG. 25 illustrates still another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying the estimated route calculations from various mobile devices to a centralized stationary position or other mobile device; and FIG. 26 illustrates. still another aspect of the present invention for graphically displaying the sorting order of the previous figure's estimated route calculation. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENT The various embodiments of the present invention will now be described with references to FIGS. 1-26. The present invention provides a method and system for creating, storing, and displaying dynamic route prediction and estimation using discrete sampled location update information. The dynamic route prediction and estimation can be further augmented using additional information pertaining to the location points, such as stop or waypoint information. Additional route information can be obtained from this method and system including various route metrics, such as total elapsed distance, etc. The present invention may be embodied within or along with a mapping and real-time communication application. FIG. 1 illustrates a high-level diagram of an environment in which the invention may be implemented. The embodiment of the present invention will be described in the general context of an application that executes on an operating system in conjunction with a personal computer or server, but those skilled in the art will realize that this invention may also be implemented in combination with other program modules. Furthermore, this invention is not limited to a typical personal computer, but may also be utilized with other computing systems, such as handheld devices, mobile laptop computers, wireless phones, in-vehicle navigation systems, programmable consumer electronics, mainframe computers, distributed computer systems, etc., and the like. FIG. 1 illustrates a network server and client system for sending and receiving packets of data information, such as location updates, and includes a typical mobile positioning device, such as a wireless device, but those skilled in the art will appreciate that this may also include an optical or wired mobile device. The mobile device 100 includes or is attached via a connection interface 101, to a positioning device 102, such as. a GPS receiver. In one embodiment, the position device can receive position-aiding information by mean of a wireless connection, either a separate wireless connection 105 or by means of the primary wireless connection 103 that the wireless device uses to send data wirelessly to the wireless base station 104. The wireless base station 104 provides the interface, typically a connection 110 to the Internet, Intranet, or Extranet 111, but those skilled in the art will appreciate that the connection may include a wireless communication network, such as a telephone network. Additionally, other mobile computing devices 107 can also be supported by the wireless base station 104 through various types of connections 106, such as a TDMA, CDMA, or the like, connection. In one embodiment, there are preferably five primary architectures of routing location updates, amongst other location-relevant information, to the local or to other computing devices, which may be either a stationary 108 or mobile computing device 107, or a server system 125, or the like. In this embodiment, a server system preferably includes a XML router 115 for routing the location update packets, a position device server gateway 113 that connects to various mobile devices, a database 124 for storing the location information, a web page server client 118 for calculating on the server the estimated route information, and a web server 121 for delivering the location information or estimated route information to the end client. The various primary architectures for routing location updates preferably include: 1. Local Display, No Routing of Location Updates. 2. Peer-to-Peer 3. Peer-to-Server, then Server-to-Peer 4. Peer-to-Local Storage Device, then Local Storage Device (i.e., Peer)-to-Peer 5. Peer-to-Local Storage Device, then Local Storage Device (i.e., Peer)-to-Server, then to Peer The first architecture does not route its location updates, but only displays them on the mobile computing device's 100 local display. The second routing architecture is a peer-to-peer (P2P) model. In this embodiment, a P2P architecture includes a mobile wireless device 100 that obtains its position updates through various interfaces 101 or positioning devices 102, all which are known to those skilled in the art. The location update is routed from the mobile wireless device 100, through the wireless connection 103 to the wireless base station 104. The wireless base station 104 then routes, typically using an IP (i.e., TCP or UDP) protocol, to the appropriate other device, which is either a mobile device 107 connected 106 using the same or different wireless base station 104, or is a stationary computing device 108, which is typically connected 109 to the Internet, or the like. The remote peer can also be a server system 125 that would receive, calculate, and display the route information (i.e., estimated route information, predictive route information, total distance traveled, etc.). A third route architecture is a peer-to-server (P2S), then a server-to-peer (S2P) model. In one embodiment, a P2S architecture is similar to the P2P architecture, except that the end device is a server. In this embodiment, the wireless mobile device 100 obtains its location information from a positioning device 102. The discrete location update information is then transmitted 103 to the wireless base station 104 that is connected 110 to the Internet 111. The server system's 125 positioning device gateway 113 is also connected 112 to the Internet 111, and is capable of receiving location update packets from the mobile wireless device sending said packets. Thus the mobile wireless device 100 is capable of transmitting its discrete location update information to the server system (i.e., P2S). The same, or another client, such as a stationary computing device 108 (i.e., a personal computer) is also connected 109 to the Internet 111. The stationary computing device 108 has a connection to the server system 125 preferably by means of the XML Router 115, that is also connected to the Internet 111. If the discrete location packets are sent by the mobile wireless device 100, they arrive at the server system's 125 positioning device gateway, and are then preferably routed 114 to the XML Router 115 which then forwards the location packets to the stationary computing device 108 via the Internet 111 and the XML Router's Internet connection 120. The discrete location packets are then sent to the stationary computing device 108 preferably by means of a dedicated Internet connection 109, which is the S2P part of the third routing architecture. In another embodiment, the peer device in the S2P portion of the model could be a different mobile device 107, or even the same mobile device 100 that is transmitting the location updates. It should be noted that the location information could also be obtained by means of a server connected to the mobile wireless device 100 at its location, thus sending the location update information directly to the Internet 111, or the like, and to the server system 125. This scenario also applies for all of the other architectures of routing location update information. As it will be appreciated to those skilled in the art, the position information obtained for calculating the discrete location information can vary across networks that use various technology implementations, such as E-OTD, TOA, AOA, gpsOne from Qualcomm, SnapTrack Servers, Assisted-GPS, etc., which are known to those skilled in the art. A fourth architecture includes a mobile device (i.e., where the mobile device does not need to be a wireless device, such as a non-wireless Personal Digital Assistant (PDA)) that captures the location information from a positioning device and stores it locally, such as in its hard disk drive, optical drive, local memory (i.e., Flash, SDRAM, etc.), floppy disk drive, etc. The mobile device can then transfer its stored discrete location information to another computing device, either stationary or mobile, using various methods. These transfer methods include, but are not limited to, the use of an infrared connection, floppy disk, Bluetooth connection, removable hard drive, or the like. This architecture is denoted as a peer-to-peer local (i.e., storage device) transfer, followed by a peer-to-peer transfer (P2L-P2P). A fifth architecture includes a mobile device that captures location history and stores it locally as previously mentioned. At a later point in time, the location history information is transferred to the online server system 125 through the previously mentioned methods, or the like. Once the data is stored on the server, the S2P model can be used to retrieve the store information. Location history information can be stored completely on the server and, by request, be transferred to an end peer client, such as a stationary computing device 108 or a mobile computing device 107 using either a wireless 106 or dedicated landline connection, such as an Ethernet cable. As illustrated in FIG. 1, the end clients, such as the stationary computing device 108 or mobile computing device 107, can directly interact with each other through the provided system, or directly with the server systems 125. For instance, a personal computer 108 can request to view estimated route information through a web server application 118 that interfaces to the server system's 125 database 124. The web server application 118 can display the estimated route information to the stationary computing device 108 using its interface 123 to the web server 121, the web server's connection 122 to the Internet 111, and a dedicated connection 109 from the Internet 111 to the stationary computing device 108. The estimated route information, in this embodiment, is calculated on the server system 125 in the web server application 118 and displayed to the end client 108 using the web server 121. In another embodiment, the discrete location history information is transferred from the server system 125 to the end client 108 by the primary means of the Internet 111 and the direct connections that interface 120, 122 to the Internet with the end client 108 and XML Router 115. The XML Router 115 routes the location history information to the end client 108 from its storage place in the database 124 contained in the online server system 125. The estimated route information is then preferably calculated and displayed on the end client 108. The online server system 125 is displayed as a centralized server system, but can also embody a distributed server system, which is well known to those skilled in the art. FIG. 2 illustrates an application screen display of the Real-Time Communication and Mapping Program (RTCMP) 201 with a map display of several geographical objects in a map window 202 below a menu bar 200. The map display 202 contains a route estimate 207 starting with an initial point 204 (i.e., origin), an intermediate point 205 (i.e., via or stop), and an end point 206 (i.e., destination). A typical graphical users interface (GUI) program (i.e., RTCMP) 201 is best utilized with an icon pointer 203, typically known as a mouse icon pointer to those skilled in the art. A route 207 preferably includes an origin 204 and one or more destination points 205 & 206, which can each be considered a “link”. The route is illustrated as a series of links, such as link between the origin point 204 and the first destination point 205. It should be noted and appreciated to those skilled in the art that a link is not typically a straight line as illustrated in the sample map, but rather follows the topography of the roadways calculated between two route points, such as an origin 204 and destination 205 point. However, for simplicity, all links are illustrated as straight lines. FIG. 3 illustrates a map display 202 that shows a network of streets, such as Colorado Boulevard 300, Lawrence Road 302; Madison Avenue 303, and Tea Street 301, amongst other surface streets. FIG. 4 illustrates a series of location updates, such as Point T1 400 (Colorado Blvd.), Point T2 401 (Madison Ave.), and Point T3 402 (NIM Rd.). These location updates illustrate the course of a mobile vehicle's path versus time, as illustrated in FIG. 4B. Note in FIG. 4B that the location updates can arrive asynchronously and independently of each other relative to the other location updates (i.e., they are mutually exclusive). For instance, Point T1 423 arrives at an initial time, while Point T2 424 arrives at a significantly later time compared to the time difference between Points T2 424 and T3 425. It should be noted and appreciated to those skilled in the art that location update points, such as Point T1 400 of FIG. 4, have a positional error associated with it, typically referred to as a circular error probability or error radius. This error radius is due to the original calculation of the position coordinates on the device or by using the device's characteristics (e.g., Time-of-Arrival (TOA) Location Estimation), and is typically due to the datum used, GPS satellite orbit error, multipath, or the like. Additionally, map data also has its own inherent positional error typically associated with every element, such as a highway or surface street. The goal for calculating the estimated route, as people skilled in the art will appreciate, is to correlate the location update position of the mobile device with the most likely position on the map data. Once a point in the map data has been chosen, or Snapped-To, estimated and/or predicted routes can be calculated with greater efficiency and accuracy. FIG. 4A illustrates several location updates 404, 403, 406, & 405 each with its own positional accuracy superimposed on the map data's positional accuracy of roads, such as 9th Street 421, 10th Street 420, and Bear Road 419 & 422. Using the map data as the current datum, it is necessary to “snap” the location update information to the most likely road position on the map data that a location update point actually represents. This is a moot point if, for example, the location update information is accompanied with other location-relevant information, such as an address. If this is the case, then the point on the street can be GEO-Coded, which allows the address information to be compared against an additional file, typically contained in the map data, where the file provides the latitude and longitude position of the device in the map data, such as on 9th Street 416. GEO-Coding is a term widely known to people skilled in the art. If location update information (i.e., latitude, longitude, altitude, etc.) is the only information provided, then the actual positions of the location updates on the map data roads must be determined. For example, Point-1 404 appears to be either on 9th Street 416 or Bear Road 422. The preferred method used to calculate the most probable map data point for Point-1 404, considering the error probability of Point-1 404, would be the point on a road nearest to the location update point, as described by the following method: 1) Extend an error radius 408 that creates a circle 412 from the center of the location update 404; and 2) as the circle radius 408 is increased, determine the road segment from the map data that first intersects the newly created circle 412. As shown in FIG. 4A, that point is illustrated 416 on 9th Street 421. As people skilled in the art will appreciate, this point 416 also has a street address, but it is omitted in this example. This same approach is applied to all location update points shown in FIG. 4A, such as Point-1 404, Point-2 403, Point-3 406, and Point-4 405. Each location update point is snapped-to the nearest road segment, such as 416, 415, 418, & 417, using the same circle test 412, 411, 414, & 413 and circle radius 408, 407, 410, & 409 illustrated in FIG. 4A. As shown in FIG. 5, there are various pathways that can result from a route computation between Points T1 400 and T2 401, a subset of which are illustrated in FIG. 5. For instance, the possible routes from Point T1 400 and Point T2 illustrated include, but are not limited to 500, 501, 502, 503, 504, 505, 506, 507, 508, and 509. As an example, route 500 travels north on Colorado Boulevard 300 and then East on Madison Avenue 303 until Point T2 401 is reached. The estimated route, from Point T1 400 to Point T2 401, is based on various general route preferences, and can be greatly improved when the route preferences are tailored to the specific mobile device, such as in the case of a truck which would only be allowed to travel on major roads, while a car can transverse major and minor road networks. These route preferences can include various categories, such as Driving Speeds, Route Optimization Goal, Road Preferences, etc. For example, Driving Speeds illustrates various types of average speeds the specific motor vehicle travels over various type of roads, such as Interstate Highways Average Speed, Other Highways Average Speed, Arterial Roads Average Speed, Surface Streets Average Speed, or the like. In this embodiment, Route Optimization Goal represents either the Fastest Route or the Shortest Route, while Road Preferences illustrates whether the motor vehicle typically avoids Highways, Arterial Roads, or Toll Roads. These and other preferences allow the route estimation to more closely approximate the actual route most likely traveled by the motor vehicle when it provided the discrete location update information. Using the provided route preferences, the most probable route 600 that the mobile device traveled between Point T1 400 and Point T2 401 is illustrated in FIG. 6. This route includes the shortest distance and fastest time route between the two points. The route information includes driving directions, such as “North on Colorado Blvd for 0.2 miles, Right onto Tea Street heading East for 0.4 miles, Left onto Independence Road heading North for 0.35 miles, Right onto Madison Avenue heading East for 120 yards, Arrive at Destination”. In this embodiment, this route is dynamically created upon the receipt of Point T2 401, given that Point T1 400 has already been received and displayed on the application. The process is completed when Point T3 402 is received from the mobile device and a new route is estimated and displayed, as shown in FIG. 7. As people skilled in the art will appreciate, this process provides significantly more information to the user and application compared to having only the points displayed on the map, straight lines between the points, or arrows at the points indicating the heading of the device at that specific point. Also contained in this invention is the process of calculating predictive routes. An estimated route is computed upon the arrival of each location update, and at least 2 location updates are needed to compute an estimated route. A predictive route graphically illustrates the mobile device's location when a location update is received, and a predicted estimate of its current location, based on metrics such as speed, heading, etc., until the next location update arrives. In one embodiment, as shown in FIG. 8, if an origin point 800 and destination point 801 are known, and the origin update arrives at a given time, using either the road speed limit or the mobile device's typical speed (i.e., motor vehicle, bicycle, runner, etc.), a predictive route can be calculated. For example, given that point 800 is the starting point, and using the expected velocity and system time, it is possible to compute the average distance traveled as a factor of time (Distance=F(t)=Velocity*Time) and display that information without requiring the known or expected position of the next or destination point 801. At a time of 2 seconds later, a scalar distance 807 is computed and displayed as a highlighted partial route up to the point 802. At a time of 3 seconds later, a scalar distance 806 is computed and displayed as a highlighted partial route up to the point 803. At a time of 4 seconds later, a scalar distance 805 is computed and displayed as a highlighted partial route up to the point 804. This process is continued until a fork in the road is encountered. This is further illustrated by FIG. 9. In another example, once a fork in the road is encountered, as shown in FIG. 9, the previous points 900, 904, 905, 906 are already drawn. The possible pathways the vehicle can continue moving along are: 1). The same road (North), 2). Turn Left (West), or 3). Turn Right (East). If the system did not know a priori the destination point 902, then the predicted route would display all possible routes. For example, after point 906 is received from the mobile device, and 1 second later, routes to points 907, 910, and 915 would be calculated and displayed. At a time of 2 seconds later, routes to points 908, 911, and 914 would be drawn. At a time of 3 seconds later, routes to points 909, 912, and 913 would be calculated and displayed. In this embodiment, once the next location update 901arrives, the other route legs that do not lead towards the new point 901 (i.e., 915, 914, 913, and 910, 911, and 912) would be erased and the route from point 900 to 901 would be displayed. As illustrated in FIG. 10, this same process would be completed for all known forks in the road. For example, having the route 1003 drawn from point 1000 to 1001 and continuing at various time intervals based on the expected speed of the mobile device, all possible forks 1012, 1010, 1011, 1013, 1008, 1009, 1014, 1007, 1006, 1005 can be drawn until the next location update is provided 1002. Using the last known position 1001 with the expected destination 1002 to calculate the best estimated route between the 2 points can narrow down the possible routes and further mitigate excessive drawing. Illustrating a breadcrumb history with only points and/or direct lines has significant limitations. As people skilled in the art will appreciate, computing a dynamic estimated route, based on various route preferences, provides a significant benefit over prior art. FIG. 11 illustrates a typical breadcrumb history trail. The trail consists of points 1101, 1102, 1103, 1104, 1105, 1106, 1107, and 1108, all in chronological order of the mobile devices path. The problem is that the user does not know looking at this location history information where the device actually traveled. Since the location history information is discrete in nature, it is impossible to derive the actual route traveled by the mobile device without additional information and/or providing location history information at a significantly higher frequency. Calculating an estimated route 1201, as illustrated in FIG. 12, provides the breadcrumb history trail with significantly more visual information and metric information, such as total driving distance, or the like. The estimated route provides a much closer approximation to the actual driven route that the mobile device traveled. The estimated route calculation can be tailored using extensive route (e.g., driving) preferences that are specific to the mobile device. FIG. 13 illustrates a new location update 1301 which arrives in real-time and is displayed on the map display. FIG. 14 illustrates the new estimated route leg 1401 calculated between Point-8 1108 and Point-9 1301. As people skilled in the art will appreciate, it is not necessary to compute an entire new route for the entire breadcrumb trail, but only the portion of the estimated route that needs to be calculated. As shown in FIG. 14, the original estimated route 1201 does not need to be recalculated, but only the new additional estimated route segment 1401 needs to be calculated. The present invention can also allow a user to pull the entire location history information from a server or the mobile device in a number of ways, such as wirelessly, over the Internet, through a floppy disk, etc. As shown in FIG. 15, the entire location history trail was pulled from a server. The trail includes the previously noted points 1101, 1102, 1103, 1104, 1105, 1106, 1107, 1301, as well as the new additional points 1501, 1502, 1503, 1504, and 1505 that are added in real-time from the mobile device. These location history points are preferably numbered in their chronological order according to the time that the mobile device recorded them. As illustrated in FIG. 16, an estimated route 1201 is preferably displayed for the previous location history points, and the newly updated real-time estimated routes are preferably displayed as each new location update arrives, either via a server (P2S-S2P) or directly from the device (P2P). The new estimated routes, calculated in real-time as the location updates arrive to the application, are illustrated as 1601, 1602, 1603, 1604, and 1605. Shown in FIG. 17 are the entire location history trail points as they were captured from the mobile device. Each one of these points 1701, 1702, 1703, 1704, 1705, 1706, 1707, 1708, 1709, 1710, 1711, 1712, 1713, and 1714 are considered “via” points (i.e., a pass through point). Another embodiment of the present invention also allows the capability to change the individual location update points, such as in a route planner or directly on the map display. As illustrated in FIG. 18, using an icon pointer 1803 and selecting the desired point 1801, it is possible to change the point 1801 to a different type of destination point, such as an origin, via, stop, or destination point (by default, all points are vias). For example, selecting the desired location point 1801 using the icon pointer 1803 and selecting the focus on the map of the desired location point 1801, a pop-up window 1802 will open illustrating the various destination point types that the current location point type can be changed to. Using the icon pointer 1803 and selecting 1804 the desired destination type, in this case a route origin, it is possible to change the route point attributes. As illustrated in FIG. 19, the route Point-14 1901 can be selected using an icon pointer causing a pop-up window 1902 to appear. The selected 1904 destination point is changed using the icon pointer 1903 to the desired type, a route destination. As illustrated in FIG. 20, the route Point-11 2001 can also be selected using an icon pointer causing a pop-up window 2002 to appear. The selected 2004 destination point is changed using the icon pointer 2003 to select the desired type, a route stop. In FIG. 21, the route Point-5 2101 is again selected using an icon pointer 2003 causing a pop-up window 2102 to appear. The selected 2103 destination point is changed using the icon pointer 2103 to select the desired type, a route via. It should be noted that the entire estimated route could be saved or cleared. In one embodiment, illustrated in FIG. 22, selecting the entire route 2201 with the icon pointer 2203 causes a pop-up window 2202 to appear where the desired action can be selected 2204 using the icon pointer 2204. Additionally, as people skilled in the art will appreciate, individual points can be modified, moved or deleted, and new points can be added to the route. This is possible by adding the highlighted estimated route or location history points into a route planner where all of these modifications can be implemented either in the planner or on the map display. Illustrated in FIG. 23 is the Map Messenger™ program 2309. The program 2309 contains a menu bar 2304, a tool bar 2305, a map display 2305, and a route planner window 2301. The location history trail with its estimated route 2306 calculated using the aforementioned method and system consists of 14 route points. After adding the points to the route planner window 2301, in this embodiment, the first 2310 and last 2311 points of the estimated route 2306 are changed to an origin 2302 and destination 2304 route point, respectively. Each of the other individual route points 2307 are also added to the route planner window 2301, and in the same order are displayed on the map display 2305. The route planner window 2301 illustrates all of the location points and the addresses 2303 of the location points. Using the route planner window 2301, it is possible to modify the route completely by adding points, deleting points, moving points, or the like. As people skilled in the art will appreciate, the route planner window 2310 gives the user complete control over the location history trail and estimated route 2306, in the event that they want to modify it at anytime. Also illustrated in FIG. 23, is the capability to save a route 2308. After a route is in the route planner window 2301, all of the specific information can be saved, either locally or on the server system 125. FIG. 24 illustrates the window 2405 for saving a route, which includes a place to enter a file name 2403 and a mechanism for selecting the directory 2402 to save the route within and the account 2404 to save the route to. To save the final route, the icon pointer 2401 is preferably used to select the save button 2406. The route is then stored either locally or on the server system 125, which is then available for later retrieval. In another embodiment, a user wishing to calculate which mobile device is closest to a particular single location, or single mobile device, when using real-time location updates from each of the mobile devices can significantly improving the sorting calculation and decision process when compared to Line-Of-Sight (LOS) distance calculations which are currently used in the prior art. As people skilled in the art will appreciate, calculating the estimated route in real-time, or based on the current position information for each mobile device, will significantly improve the decision making process in determining which mobile device is closest to the central point. For example, as illustrated in FIG. 25 showing a map display with various location points 2501, 2502, 2503, 2504, 2505, 2506, & 2507, which each represent the location of either a mobile device 2502, 2503, 2504, 2505, 2506, & 2507, and the location of a house (i.e., POI) 2501. The location of the house 2501 represents the pick-up location, as in a dispatching software application, where the person at the house wants to receive transportation to the airport from a cab. The requirements for this customer are that they need a vehicle with a capacity to hold 3 passengers to pick them up at the house in 15 minutes. The local dispatch application computes the vehicle best suited to meet the customer's needs by first performing a search for vehicles in the area that can support 3 or more passengers, and then calculating the estimated route for each of the mobile vehicles from their current location to the pick-up location. The estimated route preferably uses the provided map data to calculate the route, and is based on various vehicle-specific route preferences and map data information, such as one-way streets, posted road speeds, turn restrictions, etc. As illustrated in FIG. 25, there are specific estimated routes 2508, 2509, 2510, 2511, 2512, & 2513 for each of the mobile vehicles' current locations 2502, 2503, 2504, 2505, 2506, & 2507, respectively. Each of the estimated routes is relative to the map data's road network. The sort order of the mobile vehicles is further illustrated by the numbering of each vehicle's position 2502, 2503, 2504, 2505, 2506, & 2507, where the lower the number is (i.e., two (2) is the closet), the closer to the pick-up location 2501 the vehicle is. The pick-up location is shown as the numeral one (1) in FIG. 25. FIG. 26 illustrates an accompanying window 2601 for the map display of FIG. 25 and shows the various metrics, such as distance 2604, time 2605, fuel usage 2606, and number of passengers 2607, that the dispatch application user can use to determine the ‘closest’ 2602 mobile vehicle relative to the pick-up location 2501, according to the calculation of each mobile vehicle's estimated route to the customer's location 2501. The sorting order of the illustrated mobile vehicles 2502, 2503, 2504, 2505, 2506, & 2507, is based on, in this embodiment, the time 2605 and distance 2604 required to arrive at the customer's address 2603 location 2501. Each vehicle is sorted based on 1). its being the closest (i.e., distance 2604) to the customer's 2501 address 2603, and 2). it requiring the least amount of travel time 2605 from each mobile vehicle's current location 2502, 2503, 2504, 2505, 2506, & 2507, to the customer's pick-up location 2501, which was originally derived from the customer's address 2603 information. The mobile vehicle that is ‘closest’ 2602 to the pick-up location 2051 is illustrated as “Vehicle 1257—Bill's Taxi—Car” 2613, along side other information such as the driver's name and the type of taxi (i.e., a car). The sorting order indicates that this vehicle 2613 is the closest vehicle to the pick-up location 2501, since it is numbered as two (2) 2614 (i.e., the closest number to the address location, numbered (1) 2616) on the current sort display 2601. The “Estimated Route Order” display 2601 also illustrates various driving metrics to the pick-up location, such as distance (i.e., 3 miles 2609), time 2605 (i.e., 5 minutes 2610), fuel usage 2610 (i.e., 0.5 gallons 2611), and information about its vehicle, such as the number of passengers 2607 (i.e., 4 passengers 2612). The fuel usage field 2606 is preferably calculated based on the specific vehicle's fuel compensation and the total travel distance and time. It should be noted that the present invention may be embodied in forms other than the preferred embodiments described above without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The specification contained herein provides sufficient disclosure for one skilled in the art to implement the various embodiments of the present invention, including the preferred embodiment, which should be considered in all aspect as illustrative and not restrictive; all changes or alternatives that fall within the meaning and range or equivalency of the claim are intended to be embraced within. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling dynamic estimated routing calculations between location points generated from a mobile device with access to its own location (i.e., position) information, and also displaying said calculated route on a map display of varying size and resolution. In one embodiment, a wireless mobile device transmits its location information by means of a centralized server where the location data is routed to the specific destination device, either stationary or mobile. The device initially displays the first location point on the map display that has either a visible or transparent underlying road network. The next location update that arrives from the mobile device, indicating its next position, is preferably displayed similarly to the first location update, and a dynamically estimated route is generated in real-time based on a set of route preferences and displayed on the map display between the two location points. In this embodiment, if the location updates do not intersect the pathways of the road network exactly, the points used in the route calculation are a result of the location points being snapped to the nearest road pathway or segment for the purpose of enabling the route calculation. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling predictive dynamic routing calculations between location points in real-time as they arrive from a mobile device that has access to its own location information. Predictive routing provides the user or application with estimated predicted route calculation information between location updates based on various preferences, such as origin and destination information, map data information (e.g., road speed limits, one-way information, etc.), mobile device information (i.e., heading, speed, vehicle type, etc.). Predictive routing is based on one or more known location updates and is calculated from the time an initial location update arrives to the time when the next location update arrives. Predictive routing is preferably further augmented when the destination information is known in advance, but the various points between the origin and destination are not known. In one embodiment, an initial location update is provided and the destination location is known in advance. Using the initial location update, and various other aiding information, such as vehicle vector information such as heading, speed, etc., an estimated route can be calculated in pseudo real-time using the vector information of the device along with some destination information. In another embodiment, when destination information is not provided, the predicted route is calculated and displayed in all possible directions that routes can exist. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for displaying the dynamic route calculated using discrete location update information on a mobile or stationary computing device. In one embodiment, a mobile device would send discrete location information in a peer-to-peer connection to another mobile device, such as an in-vehicle navigation device, for the display of the remote mobile device's location information and for real-time dynamic route calculation of the remote mobile device's travels or to the remote mobile device's current location. In another embodiment, the mobile device would send discrete location information by means of a distributed server system that routes the location information to a stationary dispatch computer or group of computers. In both cases, the display and calculation of dynamic route information is similarly performed. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for providing a set of route preferences for use in calculating dynamic route information. The route preferences can be specific to each device thus allowing a more precise approximation of the actual versus estimated route traveled by the mobile device. In one embodiment, route preferences, when using map data that consists of road networks for motor vehicles, includes various types of categories, such as Driving Speeds, Route Optimization Goals, Road Preferences, etc. For example, Driving Speeds illustrates average speeds the vehicle travels over various types of roads, such as Interstate Highways Average Speed, Other Highways Average Speed, Arterial Roads Average Speed, Surface Streets Average Speed, or the like. In this embodiment, Route Optimization Goals illustrates either the Fastest Route or the Shortest Route, while Road Preferences illustrates whether the motor vehicle typically avoids Highways, Arterial Roads, or Toll Roads. These and other preferences allow the dynamic route calculation to closer approximate the actual route most likely traveled by the vehicle. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for providing the route to be calculated from a known infrastructure of network paths, such as a road, highway, exit, ramp, etc., which is usually associated with the type of map data, such as road, nautical, aviation, topographical, or the like. In one embodiment, after two or more location updates are used to calculate a route, the system uses map data, such as road map data, to calculate an estimated or predictive route. It is another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for providing the capability to correlate location information with a known set of network pathways associated with the particular map data for determining the point on the network pathways nearest to the location information. This allows the route calculation to be the most accurate when using location updates that typically have some positional error associated with them, and when using map data that also has its own positional error. In one embodiment, a mobile device is attached to a positioning device, such as a GPS receiver, that has a positional error typically on the order of 2-15 meters. Map data consists of various segments of roadways, each of which typically has it own positional error, sometimes on the order of 2-50 meters. Since both the mobile device and the map data typically have some positional error, and it is necessary to calculate a route using the map data, the map data is preferably used as the datum, and the mobile device's location information is “snapped-to” the nearest point or segment on the map data. That is, the location used for route calculation is preferably the point on the network pathways of the map data nearest to the actual mobile device's location. This allows the dynamic route calculation to be as accurate as possible relative to the map data and location updates from the mobile device. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling the mobile device to send location updates to a receiving device or devices (i.e., broadcast) directly, in a peer-to-peer configuration, where the receiving device or devices can be client-type devices, either mobile or stationary, or server-type devices. In one embodiment, a mobile device is connected to a GPS receiver that transmits its location information, via a wireless communication network and the Internet, preferably at a frequency of one update per second (i.e., 1 Hz) to another mobile device connected to a different wireless communication network and is connected to the Internet. In another embodiment, a mobile device sends its updated position information intermittently and directly (i.e., peer-to-peer) to an online server-computing device via a wireless communications network and the Internet. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling the mobile device to send location updates to a receiving computing device, either a client or server, by means of a server, such as a centralized or distributed server system, that acts as a router and directs the location updates to the specific receiving computing and/or server device or devices (i.e., broadcast), which are either mobile or stationary. In one embodiment, a mobile device is connected to a GPS receiver that transmits its location information, via a wireless connection and the Internet, preferably at a frequency of one update every half a second (i.e., 2 Hz) to a centralized server that is connected to the Internet and routes the location information to a stationary computing device by means of an Internet connection. In an alternative embodiment, a mobile device transmits its position information periodically to a server that routes the location packet updates to another server component or system for storage and real-time or future dynamic estimated route calculation, performed at the server component or system and then delivered to the stationary or mobile computing device. In this embodiment, the location packet updates can be directly delivered to the stationary or mobile computing device, in real-time or from storage on the server, and the estimated route calculation would be performed at the stationary or mobile computing device. In yet another embodiment, the estimated route calculation can be preformed on the server, and then delivered to the stationary or mobile computing device. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for enabling the mobile device to store location updates to a local storage medium, such as a hard disk drive or flash memory, on the mobile device at various or specific intervals. The mobile device can then calculate and display the estimated route information of the mobile devices' journey locally. Additionally, the mobile device can transfer the location information to a remote client directly (i.e., peer-to-peer) or to a server (i.e., peer-to-server), which can then deliver the location information to a client (i.e., server-to-peer), which may include the estimated route already calculated. The transfer to the remote client and/or server can occur using various transfer methods, such as wireless (e.g., Bluetooth, 802 . 11 , etc.), infrared, wired (i.e., USB cable, etc.), or storage transfer (i.e., floppy disk, etc.). In one embodiment, a mobile device stores location information over a period of time, and then, using a wireless connection, transmits its location information to an in-vehicle navigation system, which calculates estimated route information using the discrete location updates that the mobile device recorded. Additionally, the transfer to the in-vehicle navigation system could consist of using a floppy disk drive to transfer said location update information. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for calculating estimated and predicted route information using various map data sets and location update information either on the end client application, such as a graphical user interface (GUI) local application, or on a server application. The end client and server applications can calculate the route estimation and prediction information in real-time, or can store the location information (i.e., location history information) and calculate the route estimation at a later time for delivery to the end user or client. Specifically, the server application can calculate, in real-time or on demand (using stored location history), the estimated route information for delivery to the end client (i.e., mobile or stationary computing device), either through a web interface (i.e., Web Browser), web service, or other communication protocol and interface. The server application can also calculate the route estimate information and store the results on the server for future deliver to the end client. The end client can also calculate the route estimation and prediction information in real-time or store the location history information for post-processing the route estimation information after it has been stored locally, such as in memory or in the local computing device's hard disk drive, optical disk drive, etc. In one embodiment, a wireless mobile device sends its location information to an online server, via a wireless communication network and the Internet, every 60 seconds. The server routes the location information to an end client that dynamically, and in real-time, calculates and displays the estimated route information of the mobile wireless device as the location updates arrive at the end client through the Internet connection to the online server. In another embodiment, a wireless mobile device sends its location information to an online server, via a wireless communication network and the Internet, every period of predetermined time interval. The server stores the location history information into an online server database. At a later time, and using a web browser, the user of the mobile wireless device preferably logs onto the online server and request to see the location history information of their trek, including the estimated route information. A server application component uses, from the database, the stored location history records for the mobile device for the time past and pre-defined general route preferences to calculate the estimated route information for the specific mobile device's journey on a known map data set. In this embodiment, the location information points and estimated route information are displayed to the mobile device's user via a web browser end client. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for sending an information packet, accompanied with every discrete location packet, that provides additional information about the location point. In the event when a location update was not scheduled to be transmitted and an information packet is transmitted, depending on the type of location packet type, an ad-hoc location update can also be transmitted accompanying the information packet. The additional information contained in this information packet consists of various location-related information, such as stop information (e.g., origin, stop, via, destination), waypoint information (e.g., personal notes, etc.), PIM (Personal Information Management) information, Point of Interest (POI) information (e.g., restaurants, gas stations, etc.), or the like. In one embodiment, such as a dispatch application, a user of a wireless mobile device, such as a wireless phone, arrives at a customer's location and enters the location and other appropriate information about the customer into an application on the wireless mobile device. The wireless mobile device then either locally stores the location and additional information, or remotely transmits the information to the remote client or online server. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for providing the capability of adding the location update information (i.e., position information, such as GPS, etc.) and/or location information generated by a mobile device (i.e., POI, waypoint, etc.) to a route planner for the purpose of modifying the collection of discrete location history information. In one embodiment, location updates periodically arrive to a dispatch client from a mobile wireless device. The location updates can then be transferred to a route planner application that allows the modification of the location update points prior to calculating the estimated route information. For instance, if a location update illustrates a point on a specific highway, but the mobile device should have been traveling on a different highway, then that point can be moved to the appropriate highway prior to the calculation of the estimated route. Additionally, the estimated route can be calculated prior to modifying the location history update information or in real-time as the location updates arrive, since the estimated route information provides graphical information that would aid the user in modifying the location history information. In another embodiment, as location updates arrive to a dispatch client, the location update points are typically defined as via points, but the via points can be changed to other destination points, such as a stop, origin, or destination end point, thus providing route planning capabilities on the discrete location updates. Additionally, these destination points can be accompanied by additional information, such as notes, start/departure time, stop duration, etc. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for saving, either on a server or locally, the calculated estimated route information and/or the location history information including the specific route preferences used to calculate the route. The estimated route information range (i.e., date, time, position, etc.) can be selected to indicate the starting and ending point boundaries for the route and/or location history information to be saved. In one embodiment, location updates periodically are received via the Internet and are displayed on a map display. With every location update received, an estimated route is calculated based on various route preferences. The user can select the displayed location history information with estimated route information and save it locally or to a remote server. Additionally, the user can select a subset of the entire estimated route and/or location history information and save only that portion to the local hard disk drive or flash memory, or to the online server for retrieval from other networked devices. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for calculating estimated route information, such as driving distance, using discrete sampled location update information and based on various user or device-defined route preferences. In one embodiment, using location history information, an estimated route is calculated based on a set of user route preferences (e.g., shortest time, etc.). After an estimated route has been created based on the location history information and various route preferences, the total driving distance can then be computed. A subset of information can also be illustrated, such as driving instructions (i.e., Turn Right onto Lawrence Road, etc.), heading, distance, and elapsed time for each portion of the estimated route, including summary information for the estimated route, such as total driving distance traveled. It is still another object of the present invention to provide a method and system for calculating an estimated route for multiple location-relevant ‘satellite’ points, such as a mobile device, to or from a ‘central’ destination or origin location point, where the estimated route is calculated relative to a known set, or sets, of map data, and the resulting estimated routes are ordered according to various metrics. These ordering calculation metrics may include preferences such as shortest time, shortest distance, most use of highways, most use of surface streets, least amount of traffic, least amount of cost, such as fuel usage for each mobile satellite and/or central point (which in this case can be considered to be a mobile motor vehicle), or the like. The central satellite destination or origin point can be a place, such as a POI (i.e., address, house, landmark, etc.), or a stationary or mobile device, where the mobile device's location is provided in real-time or from a cached location either locally, where the estimate route is calculated, or on the server system. The estimated route is based on various route preferences such as Driving Speeds, Route Optimization Goals, Road Preferences, etc., where each of the satellite points and/or central point can have estimated routes based on individual route preferences for each mobile or stationary point. The satellite points or central point can include real-time location updates from mobile devices, and known position points, such as POIs (i.e., stationary points), or the like. In one embodiment, an application defines an entered address as the central point, which is, for this embodiment, a stationary point. Using the location updates from the mobile devices surrounding the general area of the address, the application calculates in real-time an estimated route from each of the satellite mobile devices to the central address. The application then uses the total travel distance of the estimated route from each of the mobile devices to the central address location and calculates the estimated travel time for each mobile device to travel from their current location to the central address location. This time calculation is based on various route preferences and map data for each of the satellite mobile devices, such as the posted driving speed of the roads, number of stop lights required and the typical time spent at each stop light, etc. After calculating the estimated distance and time for each satellite mobile device (i.e., satellite implies surrounding the central address point), the mobile devices are preferably ranked or sorted based on various metrics, such as distance, time, fuel usage, etc. In another embodiment, the central point is another mobile device, and using real-time location updates, the estimated routes are dynamically calculated, in real-time, for a mobile device when an update on its location is received. Details of the various embodiments of the present invention will be further explained below. | G01C21367 | 20170722 | 20180320 | 20171109 | 97221.0 | G01C2136 | 1 | WONG, YUEN H | Method and System for Dynamic Estimation and Predictive Route Generation | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G01C | 2,017 |
15,658,342 | PENDING | HIGHLY REFLECTIVE ROOFING SYSTEM | A cool roofing system includes highly reflective calcined kaolin particles having a solar reflectance of 80% to 92%. When applied to a roofing substrate, the highly reflective kaolin particles produce a roofing system having a solar reflectance greater than or equal to 70%. | 1. A cool roofing system comprising: at least one asphalt layer and at least one granular layer comprising a plurality of highly reflective calcined kaolin particles having a reflectance ranging from about 80% to about 92% adhered to the asphalt layer, wherein the cool roofing system has minimum solar reflectance of 70% or more. 2. The cool roofing system according to claim 1, wherein the solar reflectance of the cool roofing system ranges from about 70% to about 82%. 3. The cool roofing system according to claim 1, wherein the calcined kaolin particles have a particle size ranging from about 0.3 mm to about 2.4 mm. 4. The cool roofing system according to claim 1, wherein the calcined kaolin particles further comprise a surface treatment. 5. The cool roofing system according to claim 4, wherein the surface treatment is a surface treatment selected from the group consisting of silanes, siloxanes, polysiloxanes, organo-siloxancs, silicates, organic silicates, silicone resins, acrylics, urethanes, polyurethanes, glycol ethers and mixtures thereof. 6. The cool roofing system according to claim 4, wherein the treatment comprises a solventless emulsion comprising silanes and siloxanes. 7. The cool roofing system according to claim 1, further comprising a surface treatment applied to the granular layer. 8. The cool roofing system according to claim 7, wherein the surface treatment comprises a surface treatment selected from the group consisting of silanes, siloxanes, polysiloxanes, organo-siloxanes, silicates, organic silicates, silicone resins, acrylics, urethanes, polyurethanes, glycol ethers and mixtures thereof. 9. The cool roofing system according to claim 7, wherein the surface treatment comprises an emulsion comprising silanes and siloxanes. 10. A cool roofing system comprising: a roofing substrate, at least one layer of spray polyurethane foam applied to the roofing substrate, an elastomeric coating layer applied over and adhered to the spray polyurethane foam layer, and a granular layer comprising plurality of highly reflective calcined kaolin particles having a reflectance ranging from about 80% to about 92% adhered to a top surface of the elastomeric coating layer, wherein the cool roofing system has a minimum reflectance of at least 70%. 11. The cool roofing system according to claim 10, wherein a thickness of the spray polyurethane foam layer ranges from about 1 inch to about 3 inches. 12. The cool roofing system according to claim 10, wherein the solar reflectance ranges from at least 70% to about 84%, 13. The cool roofing system according to claim 10, wherein the calcined kaolin particles have a particle size ranging from about 0.3 mm to about 2.4 mm. 14. The cool roofing system according to claim 10, wherein the elastomeric coating layer comprises any one of an acrylic, urethane or silicone. 15. The cool roofing system according to claim 10, wherein the calcined kaolin particles further comprise a surface treatment. 16. The cool roofing system according to claim 15, wherein the surface treatment is a treatment selected from the group consisting of silanes, siloxanes, polysiloxanes, organo-siloxanes, silicates, organic silicates, silicone resins, acrylics, urethanes, polyurethanes, glycol ethers and mixtures thereof. 17. The cool roofing system according to claim 16, wherein the surface treatment comprises an emulsion of silanes and siloxanes. 18. The cool roofing system according to claim 10, further comprising a surface treatment applied to the granular layer. 19. The cool roofing system according to claim 18, wherein the surface treatment comprises an emulsion of silanes and siloxanes. 20. The cool roofing system according to claim 18, wherein the surface treatment comprises a surface treatment selected from the group consisting of silanes, siloxanes, polysiloxanes, organo-siloxanes, silicates, organic silicates, silicone resins, acrylics, urethanes, polyurethanes, glycol ethers and mixtures thereof. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C.§119 of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/248,285, filed on Oct. 2, 2009, entitled “Highly Reflective Roofing System,” which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety for all purposes. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to cool roofing systems. More particularly, the present invention relates to a cool roofing system including highly reflective particles that can be applied to a substrate to increase the solar reflectance of a roofing system to equal to or greater than 70%. BACKGROUND Title 24 of the California Code of Regulations, and similar requirements of other agencies, require the solar reflectance of commercial roofing materials to be a minimum of 70%. Many current roofing materials, such as asphalt and modified bitumen, are black in color and have very low solar reflectance. Most of these black roofing materials use mineral granules on the surface to reduce weathering and add fire resistance. Most current roofing granules for asphalt and other dark colored roofing materials are made from crushed rock such as feldspar, which are coated with a ceramic coating in order to make them white enough to achieve an acceptable solar reflectance. However, despite these efforts, the granules that are commercially available today are not bright enough to increase the solar reflectance of the black materials to meet the 70% standard. SUMMARY In some embodiments, the present invention is a cool roofing system which includes at least one asphalt layer and at least one granular layer including a plurality of highly reflective calcined kaolin particles having a reflectance ranging from about 80% to about 92% adhered to the asphalt layer. The cool roofing system has a minimum solar reflectance of 70% and, more particularly, a solar reflectance ranging from about 70% to about 82%. According to various other embodiments, the present invention is a cool roofing system including a roofing substrate, at least one layer of spray polyurethane foam applied to the rooting substrate such that it has a thickness ranging from about one inch to about three inches, an clastomeric coating layer applied over and adhered to the spray polyurethane foam layer, and a plurality of highly reflective, white calcined kaolin particles having a reflectance ranging from about 80% to about 92% adhered to the elastomeric coating layer. The cool roofing system has minimum solar reflectance of 70% and, more particularly, a solar reflectance ranging from about 70% to about 82%. While multiple embodiments are disclosed, still other embodiments of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which shows and describes illustrative embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, the drawings and detailed description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not restrictive. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a cool roofing system according to an embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 2 is a schematic view of a cool rooting system according to another embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Various materials have been investigated that may be used to make a roofing granule or particle that when applied to a roofing substrate might achieve a highly reflective roofing surface. These various materials include white quartz, tabular alumina, ceramic sand, and calcined clay from a variety of sources globally. When applied to a black roofing substrate, none of these materials were found to meet the desired 70% solar reflectance standard. White quartz, for example, lacked the necessary opacity to provide sufficient protection to the roofing substrate from the sun's ultra-violet rays. Tabular alumina was extensively tested for its reflectivity and other properties, but the results were not satisfactory, Calcined clay from a variety of sources was investigated and was found not to produce a high enough solar reflectance when applied to a roofing substrate. Ceramic sand which is made from pieces of white porcelain and ground into particles of the desired size was also tested. Like the other materials that were investigated, ceramic sand, when applied to an asphalt roofing substrate, also failed to meet the 70% solar reflectance standard. Roofing materials and systems containing reflective particles and processes for making the same are generally shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,291,358 and U.S. Published Application No. 2004/0017938, both of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. A cool roofing system according to the various embodiments of the present invention includes highly reflective calcined kaolin particles producing a roofing system having a minimum solar reflectance of 70%. Calcined kaolin is known and referred to as kaolin chamotte, aluminum silicate, calcined clay, calcined china clay, mullite and calcined flint clay. There are many different sources of calcined kaolin found throughout the world. Most calcined kaolin sourced from a variety of locations is off-white, tan or light grey in color. However, there are a few unique sources in the world where there are deposits of kaolin that produce extremely bright white and highly reflective calcined kaolin. These unique sources are found in China and in Central/Eastern Europe. The kaolin mined in China and Central/Eastern Europe is calcined at temperatures between 1100° C. and 1600° C. to improve the whiteness and hardness of the kaolin clay material. This unique kaolin clay is ground or crushed into granules having an approximate size ranging from 0.3 mm to 2,4 mm and its solar reflectance determined. The solar reflectance of these unique kaolin clay particles ranges from 80% to 92%. When applied to a black roofing substrate at the rate normally used for roofing materials, the resultant reflectance was between 70% and 82%. One example of highly reflective calcined kaolin that is suitable for use in the various embodiments of the present invention is Kaolinchamotte AS 45 obtained from Amberger Kaolinwerke located in Hirschau and Schnaittenbach, Germany. FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of a cool roofing system 10 according to one embodiment of the present invention. The cool roofing system 10 includes at least one asphalt layer 12 such as a layer of bitumen or modified bitumen. Bitumen or modified bitumen can be composed of one or more asphalt layers 14 and one or more layers of a reinforcing material 16 such as, for example, polyester or fiberglass. The upper asphalt layer 12 includes at least one granular layer 18 including a plurality of highly reflective calcined kaolin particles 20 adhered to or embedded within a top surface of the asphalt layer 12. According to various embodiments, the highly reflective calcined kaolin particles have a solar reflectance ranging from about 80% to about 92% such that when applied to the reinforced asphalt layer 12 result in a roofing system having a minimum solar reflectance of 70% and, more particularly, a solar reflectance ranging from about 70% to about 82%. The particles 20 are bright white in color and have a size ranging from about 0.3 mm to about 2.4 mm. In one embodiment, the particles 62 are of substantially the same particle size distribution. For example, the particles 62 have a particle size distribution that corresponds to the following: Grade: (ASTM D451) U.S. % Retained Specification Sieve No. Nominal Opening Minimum Maximum 8 2.36 mm 0.0 0.1 12 1.70 mm 4.0 10.0 16 1.18 mm 30.0 45.0 20 850 μm 25.0 35.0 30 600 μm 15.0 25.0 40 425 μm 2.0 9.0 >40 >425 μm 0.0 2.0 *Typical range The cool rooting system 10 including the asphalt layer is produced by passing a reinforcement material 16, such as fiberglass or polyester, through hot liquid asphalt, which impregnates and coats the reinforcement material 16. This coated strip is then run under a hopper which dispenses the calcined kaolin particles 20 onto the upper surface of the hot asphalt coated strip to substantially fully cover the surface. This strip is then passed over a roller or drum to flatten the particles 20 and press them into the asphalt included in the reinforced asphalt layer 12. The rooting material can be provided in the form of individual shingles or sheets which can then be applied to any commercial, industrial low or steep slope roofing surface. FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing of a cool roofing system 50 according to another embodiment of the present invention. The cool roofing system 50 shown in FIG. 2 includes at least one layer of spray polyurethane foam 52 applied to a roofing substrate 54. The roofing substrate 54 can be an exposed roofing surface of a structure or sheets or layers of a roofing material. For example, in one embodiment, the layer of spray polyurethane foam 52 can be applied directly onto a roofing surface of a building. In other embodiments, the spray polyurethane foam layer 52 can be applied to a variety of surfaces including concrete, wood, gravel, asphalt, built-up roofing (BUR), modified bitumen, single ply membranes and the like. In one embodiment, the spray polyurethane foam layer 52 can be applied over another spray polyurethane foam layer. A thickness of the spray polyurethane foam layer typically ranges from about 1 inch to about 3 inches. Additionally, the cool roofing system 50 depicted in FIG. 2 includes at least one layer of an elastomeric coating 56. The elastomeric coating 56 is applied to the upper surface 58 of the spray polyurethane foam layer 52 within 24 hours to protect the spray polyurethane foam from UV light damage. In one embodiment, the elastomeric coating 56 is applied to the upper surface of the spray polyurethane foam layer 52 such that it substantially coats the entire surface of the spray polyurethane foam layer 52. The elastomeric coating can be formed From a wide variety of elastomeric materials including, but not limited to acrylics, urethanes, and silicones. The cool roofing system 50 also includes at least one granular layer 60. The granular layer 60 includes a plurality of highly reflective calcined kaolin particles 62, such as those described above, adhered to or embedded within the elastomeric coating layer 56. The particles 62 are white in color and can range in size from about 0.3 mm to about 2.4 mm. In one embodiment, the particles 62 are of substantially the same size. Additionally, the highly reflective calcined kaolin particles have a solar reflectance ranging from about 80% to about 92% that when applied to the reinforced asphalt layer 12 results in a roofing system having a minimum solar reflectance of 70% and, more particularly, ranging from about 70% to about 82%. In one embodiment, the cool roofing system 50 is produced by applying at least one layer of spray polyurethane foam to a rooting substrate such as a roof surface, and then coating the spray polyurethane foam layer with an elastomeric coating layer. While elastomeric coating layer is still wet, calcined kaolin granules are then applied to the coating. In some embodiments, the calcined kaolin particles used in the roofing systems, as described above, can include a coating and/or a surface treatment. The calcined kaolin particles can be coated and/or their surfaces treated for any number of reasons including dust control, to enhance and/or increase water repellency and to prevent various kinds of staining. Various compounds can be used to coat or treat the surface the calcined kaolin particles described above according to the various embodiments of the present invention. These compounds include, but are not limited to the following: silanes, siloxanes, polysiloxanes, organo-siloxanes, silicates, organic silicates, silicone resins, acrylics, urethanes, polyurethanes, glycol ethers and mineral oil. Table 1 provides a list of exemplary commercially available coatings and surface treatments and their general descriptions that can be used to coat or treat the surface of calcined kaolin particles or other roofing particles. Additional, exemplary coatings, surface treatments, and methods of coating and treating particles are shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 7, 241,500, U.S. Pat. No. 3,479,201, U.S. Pat. No. 3,255,031, and U.S. Pat. No. 3,208,571, all of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for all purposes. TABLE 1 Coating/Surface Treatment Description Manufacturer Salt Water Resistant Deionized water, alkylalkoxysilanes, DuPont Sealer* siloxanes, alcohol, ethoxylate Maximum Bullet Deionized water, mixed fluoroalkyl salts, DuPont Proof Sealer* propylene glycol monobutyl ether Heavy Duty Sealer* Deionized water mixed fluoroalkyl salts, DuPont propylene glycol, monobutyl ether Heavy Duty Exterior Aliphatic hydrocarbons, proprietary silicone DuPont Sealer* resin, alkyl alkoxysilane, methanol Impregnator Pro* Aliphatic hydrocarbons, butyl acetate, DuPont fluorinated acrylic copolymer, fragrance Rich Color Enhancer Aliphatic hydrocarbons, proprietary silicone DuPont Pro* resin, alkyl alkoxysilane, methanol, butyl acetate AcryShield ® A130 Proprietary acrylic formulation National Coatings Corporation AcryShield ® A179- Proprietary acrylic formulation National Coatings X628 Corporation QW77 Urethane Henkel Corporation Water-based Polyurethane Minwax Corporation polyurethanes Sitren ® 595 Polydimethylsiloxane emulsion Evonik Corporation Sitren ® 270 Aqueous emulsion based on reactive organo- Evonik Corporation siloxanes SILRES ® BS1011A Water-thinable, solventless emulsion based Wacker Chemie AG on a mixture of silane and siloxane SILRES ® BS3003 Water-thinable, solventless emulsion based Wacker Chemie AG on a mixture of silane and siloxane Tego XP 5000 Emulsion of silicone resins Evonik Goldschmidt Corporation Kynar RC-10, 147 Acrylic copolymer, vinylidine fluoride Arkema Inc. copolymer RHOPLEX ™ EC 100% acrylic polymer The Dow Chemical 2540 Company Sycoat 235 Acrylic copolymer emulsion Saiden Technologies *Marketed under the StoneTech ® Professional brand To maintain the high solar reflectance of the calcined kaolin particles, the coating and/or surface treatment should be applied to the calcined kaolin particles such that the coating and/or surface treatment does not significantly decrease the reflectance of the calcined kaolin particles. For example, many of the coatings and/or surface treatments are sealants or otherwise clear coatings that do not adversely affect the overall solar reflectance of the calcined kaolin particles. In one embodiment, the calcined kaolin particles are treated with an emulsion of silanes and siloxanes without added solvents. In another embodiment, the calcined kaolin particles are treated with SILRES BS3003. The surface treatments and/or coatings can be applied to calcined kaolin particles using a variety of methods and processes known to those of skill in the art. For example, in one exemplary embodiment, after the raw material has been crushed and sized according to the preferred screen size and packaged, the particles can be treated by adding the particles to an aqueous solution fully saturating the particles with the treatment and then, immediately drying the particles to drive off excess moisture at a temperature not exceeding 600° F. In another exemplary embodiment, after the raw material has been crushed and sized according to the preferred screen size and packaged, the particles can be post treated by spraying the particles with an aqueous solution and then immediately drying the particles to drive off excess moisture at a temperature not to exceed 600° F., in yet another exemplary embodiment, after the raw material has been crushed and sized according to the preferred screen size, the particles can be treated by spraying the particles with an aqueous solution and then immediately kiln drying the particles to drive off excess moisture at a temperature not to exceed 600° F. after which time they can be packaged. In still yet another embodiment of coating and/or treating the surface of calcined kaolin particles, after the raw material has been crushed and sized according to the preferred screen size, the particles are treated by spraying with an aqueous solution followed by immediately aerating the particles to drive off excess moisture after which time the particles can be packaged. The coatings and/or surface treatments may be applied as delivered (e.g., off the shelf) or from aqueous dilutions. The dilution ratio may range from 1:5 to 1:200. The dilutions may be prepared from demineralized water. EXAMPLES Example 1 Treated Granule Preparation The method of sample preparation for laboratory testing was as follows. A small plastic or glass container was placed on a digital scale, and the scale zeroed. Approximately 1 oz. (approximately 29.5 ml or 35 grams) of the treatment solution to be tested was placed into the container. The scale was then re-zeroed. 100 grams of calcined kaolin rooting granules was added to the container. The container was then closed with a lid. The container containing the calcined kaolin roofing granules and the treatment solution was vigorously agitated to ensure complete coverage of the granules by the treatment. Next, the treated granules were removed and evenly spread out on a foil tray. The tray containing the treated granules was placed into an oven preheated to 80° C. and the treated granules were dried overnight. The treated granules were removed from the oven and allowed to cool for several hours. The objective of cooling the treated granules was to ensure that the granules return to an ambient or equalized humidity as they might be found prior to a production run of the product. A brief description of each of the different granules and treatments appear in Table 2 below. TABLE 2 Description Manufacturer Granule #1 WA-14 calcined kaolin particle Sedlecky Kaolin having a reflectivity ranging from (Bo{hacek over (z)}i{hacek over (c)}any, 70 to 92%. Czech Republic) Granule #2 WA-11 calcined kaolin particle AKW (Hirschau, having a reflectivity ranging from Germany) 70 to 92%. Treatment #1 SITREN 595 Evonik Industries AG (Essen, Germany) Treatment #2 TEGO XP 5000 Evonik Industries AG (Essen, Germany) Treatment #3 SILRES BS1001A Wacker Chemie AG (Munich, Germany) Treatment #4 SILRES BS3003 Wacker Chemie AG (Munich, Germany) Example 2 Reflectivity Reflectivity of each of the treated samples was measured using a D&S Reflectometer, Model SSR-ER Version 6 (Devices and Services Company, Dallas, Tex.). To carry out the measurement using the reflectometer, about 100 g of treated sample was placed onto a sample receiving dish. The sample was smoothed out such that the surface of the sample in the dish was roughly level. The reflectometer was cycled through each measurement cycle 1-2 times for each measurement location. A total of five measurements locations were used. The measurement locations represented the four points on a compass (north, south, cast and west), with the fifth measurement taken at the center of the sample dish. The reflectivity readings at each of the five measurement locations were averaged together to obtain an average reflectivity for each individual treated sample. The average reflectivities of each of the treated samples are presented in Table 3 below. TABLE 3 Sample Reflectivity Granule #1, Treatment #1 82.3% Granule #1, Treatment #2 82.5% Granule #1, Treatment #3 82.5% Granule #1, Treatment #4 82.4% Granule #1, Untreated 83.9% Granule #2, Treatment #1 82.5% Granule #2, Treatment #2 83.2% Granule #2, Treatment #3 83.4% Granule #2, Treatment #4 83.7% Granule #2, Untreated 83.7% Example 3 Water Repellency Test The water repellency is a quality control test frequently used in the roofing granule industry. It is important to have hydrophobic roofing granules because hydrophilic granules may exhibit difficulty in being adhered to an asphalt-based substrate. When roofing granules are applied to an asphalt-based substrate, water may then be sprayed on the hot asphalt to cool the heated substrate. If the roofing granules are hydrophilic, water may be present between the granules and the substrate, thereby hindering granule adherence to the asphalt-based substrate. Each of the granules used in the water repellency test was treated with a solution according to the method described above such that the weight of the treatment solution to the weight of the granules was 2° A by weight. Products treated with SILRES BS3003 were treated using a 0.67% dilution. The 0.67% dilution was prepared by weighing 45 g of deionized water into a container and into the same container, weighing 2.50 g of SILRES BS3003. The mixture was gently swirled to form a diluted emulsion. The diluted SILRES BS3003 was then applied to the granules. A brief description of each of the samples is provided in Table 4 below. TABLE 4 Coating and/or Sample Treatment Granule a SITREN 595 WA-11 b TEGO XP 5000 WA-11 c SYCOAT 235 WA-11 d SILRES BS 1001A WA-11 e ACRYSHIELD A130 WA-11 f ACRYSHIELD A179- WA-11 X628 g EC 2540 WA-11 h KYNAR R-10 147 WA-11 i SITREN 595 WA-14 j TEGO XP 5000 WA-14 k SILRES BS1001A WA-14 l SILRES BS3003 WA-14 m SILRES BS3003 WA-11 WA-11 is a calcined kaolin granule supplied by AKW of Hirschgau, Germany. The reflectivity of WA-11 ranges from about 80% to 92%. WA-14 is a calcined kaolin particle supplied by Sedlecky Kaolin of Bo{hacek over (z)}i{hacek over (c)}any, Czech Republic. The reflectivity of WA-14 ranges from about 80% to 92%. Water repellency was measured by placing three drops of distilled water from an eye dropper onto a 25 gram pile of treated roofing granules. The drops were placed in a depression that had been made in the center of the pile of granules. The three drops of distilled water formed a bead in the depression. A measurement was taken for the amount of time it takes for the bead to break up and sink down through the granules. Longer times indicate better hydrophobicity. The water repellency test results for each of the treated samples are presented in Table 5 below. TABLE 5 Time to Water Sample Absorption a >120 min b >120 min c <1 min d >120 min e <1 min f <45 min g <10 min h <1 min i >120 min j >120 min k >120 min l >120 min m >120 min The samples treated with SITREN 595, TEGO XP 5000 and SILRES BS 1001A showed more favorable water repellency test results. The sample treated with SILRES BS3003 produced superior results. Example 4 4-Day Stain Test The 4-Day Stain Test is another quality control test frequently used in the roofing granule industry. The 4-Day Stain Test is an accelerated measurement of the tendency of roofing granules to adsorb asphaltic oils in an asphalt-based substrate. Each of the granules used in the 4-Day Stain test was treated with a solution according to the method described above such that the weight of the solution to the weight of the granules was 2% by weight. A brief description of each the different granules, treatments and asphalt types used to create each of the samples used evaluated using the 4-Day Stain Test is provided in Table 6 below. TABLE 6 Description Manufacturer Granule #1 WA-14 calcined kaolin particle having a Sedlecky Kaolin (Bo{hacek over (z)}i{hacek over (c)}any, reflectivity ranging from about 80 to 92%. Czech Republic) Granule #2 WA-11 calcined kaolin particle having a AKW (Hirschau, Germany) reflectivity ranging from about 80 to 92%. Asphalt #1 Type AC-7 asphalt having low melting Marathon Petroleum point. Company LLC (Findlay OH) Asphalt #2 Type III roofing asphalt. This type of United Asphalts (Commerce asphalt is typically used in the “hot mop” City, CO) built up type of roofing. Treatment #1 SITREN 595 Evonik Industries AG (Essen, Germany) Treatment #2 TEGO XP 5000 Evonik Industries AG (Essen, Germany) Treatment #3 SILRES BS1001A Wacker Chemie AG (Munich, Germany) Treatment #4 SILRES BS3003 Wacker Chemie AG (Munich, Germany) The treated granules for each sample were embedded in asphalt that had been heated to about 200° C. The embedded treated granules were then placed on a tray in an oven at 85° C. for 96 hours (4 days). The trays were removed from the oven, and the asphalt including the embedded granules was allowed to cool to room temperature. The granules were then evaluated for staining using an 8× magnifier/loupe. The stain values were evaluated on a pass/no pass basis and then ranked according to relative staining. The 4-Day Stain Test results are provided in Table 7 below. TABLE 7 Sample Description Pass/Fail A1 Granule #1, Treatment #1, Asphalt #1 F A2 Granule #1, Treatment #1, Asphalt #2 P B1 Granule #2, Treatment #1, Asphalt #1 F B2 Granule #2, Treatment #1, Asphalt #2 P C1 Granule #1, Treatment #2, Asphalt #1 F C2 Granule #1, Treatment #2, Asphalt #2 F D1 Granule #2, Treatment #2, Asphalt #1 F D2 Granule #2, Treatment #2, Asphalt #2 P E1 Granule #1, Treatment #3, Asphalt #1 F E2 Granule #1, Treatment #3, Asphalt #2 P F1 Granule #2, Treatment #3, Asphalt #1 F F2 Granule #2, Treatment #3, Asphalt #2 P G1 Granule#1, Untreated, Asphalt #1 F G2 Granule#1, Untreated, Asphalt #2 F H1 Granule#2, Untreated, Asphalt #1 F H2 Granule#2, Untreated, Asphalt #2 F I1 Granule #1, Treatment #4, Asphalt #1 F I2 Granule #1, Treatment #4, Asphalt #2 P JI Granule #2, Treatment #4, Asphalt #1 F J2 Granule #2, Treatment #4, Asphalt #2 P The samples treated with SITREN 595, SILRES BS1001A and SILRES BS3003 showed the most favorable test results. In particular, the samples treated with SILRES BS3003 showed significantly less staining. Example 5 Adhesion Test The pick test is a practical test used in the roofing granule industry to predict the adhesive characteristics of roofing granules toward asphalt. Preparation (Screening) of Particles The standard #11 particle distribution is what was used in the following steps. Preparation of Asphalt Asphalt is heated to about 200° C. The fluid asphalt in poured into an aluminum tray so that the entire surface is just coated. This requires about 5 grams of asphalt per sample. Pick Test The asphalt is reheated on a small hotplate to about 200° C. until the asphalt becomes molten. About 25 grams of granules are broadcast across the entire surface until the entire asphalt surface has been covered. While the asphalt is still warm, the granules are pressed into the asphalt, as they would be in a production environment. Due to the rapid cooling that can take place the samples are placed into an 80° C. oven for 4 days after which time they are allowed to completely cool to room/ambient temperature. The particles are picked out or the cooled asphalt. Only those particles which were embedded well are examined. A picked particle is examined with an 8× magnifier/loupe to estimate the amount of asphalt that was adhered to it. The granules adhesion was measured on two different elements. The first was whether the adhesion failure was due to an adhesive or cohesive failure of the asphalt. The second clement was a ranked judgment of the adhesive strength, Best/Average/Poor. The Best rank required a concerted effort to remove granules, The Average rank would be compared to most current market granulated products granule adhesion. The Poor rank was the evidence of little effort required to dislodge the granule. The results of the pick test are presented in Table 8. TABLE 8 Adhesive/ 1 = BEST, Cohesive 2 = AVG, Treatment .67%-2% by weight Sample Failure 3 = POOR Granule #1, Treatment #1, Asphalt #1 A1 A 3 Granule #1, Treatment #1, Asphalt #2 A2 C 1, 2 Granule #2, Treatment #1, Asphalt #1 B1 A 3 Granule #2, Treatment #1, Asphalt #2 B2 A/C 2 Granule #1, Treatment #2, Asphalt #1 C1 A/C 2 Granule #1, Treatment #2, Asphalt #2 C2 A/C 1 Granule #2, Treatment #2, Asphalt #1 D1 A 3 Granule #2, Treatment #2, Asphalt #2 D2 C 1 Granule #1, Treatment #3, Asphalt #1 E1 A/C 3 Granule #1, Treatment #3, Asphalt #2 E2 C 1, 2 Granule #2, Treatment #3, Asphalt #1 F1 C 1 Granule #2, Treatment #3, Asphalt #2 F2 A 3 Granule#1, Untreated, Asphalt #1 G1 C 2 Granule#1, Untreated, Asphalt #2 G2 A 3 Granule#2, Untreated, Asphalt #1 H1 A/C 1, 2 Granule#2, Untreated, Asphalt #2 H2 A/C 3 Granule#1, Treatment #4, Asphalt #1 I1 C 1 Granule#1, Treatment #4, Asphalt #2 I2 C 1 Granule#2, Treatment #4, Asphalt #1 J1 A/C 1 Granule#2, Treatment #4, Asphalt #2 J2 C 1 Various modifications and additions can be made to the exemplary embodiments discussed without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, while the embodiments described above refer to particular features, the scope of this invention also includes embodiments having different combinations of features and embodiments that do not include all of the above described features. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Title 24 of the California Code of Regulations, and similar requirements of other agencies, require the solar reflectance of commercial roofing materials to be a minimum of 70%. Many current roofing materials, such as asphalt and modified bitumen, are black in color and have very low solar reflectance. Most of these black roofing materials use mineral granules on the surface to reduce weathering and add fire resistance. Most current roofing granules for asphalt and other dark colored roofing materials are made from crushed rock such as feldspar, which are coated with a ceramic coating in order to make them white enough to achieve an acceptable solar reflectance. However, despite these efforts, the granules that are commercially available today are not bright enough to increase the solar reflectance of the black materials to meet the 70% standard. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In some embodiments, the present invention is a cool roofing system which includes at least one asphalt layer and at least one granular layer including a plurality of highly reflective calcined kaolin particles having a reflectance ranging from about 80% to about 92% adhered to the asphalt layer. The cool roofing system has a minimum solar reflectance of 70% and, more particularly, a solar reflectance ranging from about 70% to about 82%. According to various other embodiments, the present invention is a cool roofing system including a roofing substrate, at least one layer of spray polyurethane foam applied to the rooting substrate such that it has a thickness ranging from about one inch to about three inches, an clastomeric coating layer applied over and adhered to the spray polyurethane foam layer, and a plurality of highly reflective, white calcined kaolin particles having a reflectance ranging from about 80% to about 92% adhered to the elastomeric coating layer. The cool roofing system has minimum solar reflectance of 70% and, more particularly, a solar reflectance ranging from about 70% to about 82%. While multiple embodiments are disclosed, still other embodiments of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description, which shows and describes illustrative embodiments of the invention. Accordingly, the drawings and detailed description are to be regarded as illustrative in nature and not restrictive. | E04D1102 | 20170724 | 20171109 | 99574.0 | E04D1102 | 1 | PATEL, RONAK C | HIGHLY REFLECTIVE ROOFING SYSTEM | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | E04D | 2,017 |
|
15,658,626 | PENDING | ARTICULATING SUPPORT ARM WITH IMPROVED TILTER AND FRICTION JOINT | The present application discloses an articulating support arm with improved friction joint designs that are facilitated by the use of a non-annular bushing. In particular, the bushing is designed to interact with another portion of the friction joint to prevent rotational movement of the bushing, thereby minimizing the risk of joint malfunction. A bushing that interacts with a larger percentage of the width of a friction cylinder as compared to prior art devices, thereby improving the performance of the joint, is also disclosed. The improved friction joint according to the present invention may comprise an arm joint and/or tilter joint. | 1. A support arm for supporting an electronic device, the support arm comprising: a base portion that is adapted to support the support arm from a mounting surface; a lower arm portion comprising a parallelogram portion, the parallelogram portion comprising an upper channel, a lower channel, a lower endcap, and an upper endcap, wherein a first end of the upper channel and a first end of the lower channel are each rotatably attached to the lower endcap and a second end of the upper channel and a second end of the lower channel are each rotatably attached to the upper endcap; a tilter assembly, the tilter assembly comprising a tilter body, a cylinder, and a center tilt mount that is rotatably attached to the tilter body via the cylinder, the center tilt mount being adapted to support the electronic device therefrom; and at least one friction joint, the at least one friction joint comprising: a bushing comprising a main portion having an exterior surface, an interior surface, and an outer circumference, the bushing further comprising a first tab, a second tab, and a split located between the first and second tabs, wherein at least one of the first tab and second tab extends at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing; a friction cylinder comprising an exterior surface and at least one portion that fixedly engages with a separate component of the support arm; an opening for accommodating the bushing and friction cylinder therein; a threaded passage that intersects with the opening; and a threaded member that is extendable through the threaded passage and into the opening, the bushing being located within the opening such that the exterior surface of the main portion of the bushing engages the opening, the friction cylinder being located within the opening and routed internal to the bushing such that the exterior surface of the friction cylinder engages the interior surface of the main portion of the bushing, the friction cylinder being rotatable along with the separate component of the support arm within the opening, the threaded member being extendable into the opening such that the threaded member makes contact with one of the first tab and the second tab of the bushing, wherein the at least one friction joint is located within at least one of the lower endcap, upper endcap, and tilter assembly, wherein if the at least one friction joint is located within either of the lower endcap and upper endcap, the separate component is at least one of the upper channel and lower channel, and wherein if the at least one friction joint is located within the tilter assembly, the opening and threaded passage are located in the tilter body, the cylinder corresponds with the friction cylinder, and the separate component is the center tilt mount. 2. The support arm of claim 1, wherein a first friction joint of the at least one friction joint is located within the lower endcap and a second friction joint of the at least one friction joint is located within the tilter assembly. 3. The support arm of claim 1, wherein at least a portion of each of the first tab and the second tab extend exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. 4. The support arm of claim 3, wherein an entirety of at least one of the first tab and the second tab extends exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. 5. The support arm of claim 1, the opening comprising at least one seating surface located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein one of the first tab and second tab is in contact with the at least one seating surface. 6. The support arm of claim 1, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis does not extend through any portion of the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing when the threaded member is extended through the threaded passage. 7. The support arm of claim 1, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. 8. The support arm of claim 1, wherein the bushing has a width and the friction cylinder has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 50% of the width of the friction cylinder. 9. The support arm of claim 8, wherein the opening has a width and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. 10. A support arm, the support arm comprising: a base portion that is adapted to support the support arm from a mounting surface; a lower arm portion comprising a parallelogram portion, the parallelogram portion comprising an upper channel, a lower channel, a lower endcap, and an upper endcap, wherein a first end of the upper channel and a first end of the lower channel are rotatably attached to the lower endcap and a second end of the upper channel and a second end of the lower channel are rotatably attached to the upper endcap; and a tilter assembly, the tilter assembly comprising a tilter body, a friction cylinder, a bushing, and a threaded member, the tilter body having an opening and a threaded passage located therein, the threaded passage intersecting with the opening, the friction cylinder extending through the opening along an axis of rotation, the friction cylinder having an exterior surface and at least one portion that is engageable with a component that can support the electronic device therefrom, the friction cylinder being rotatable relative to the tilter body about the axis of rotation, the bushing located between the friction cylinder and the opening of the tilter body, the bushing having a main portion, a first tab, a second tab, and a split located between the first and second tabs, the main portion having an exterior surface that engages the opening in the tilter body, an interior surface that engages the exterior surface of the friction cylinder, and an outer circumference, at least one of the first tab and second tab extending at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, the threaded member being extendable through the threaded passage and into the opening of the tilter body such that the threaded member contacts one of the first tab and second tab. 11. The support arm of claim 10, wherein at least a portion of each of the first tab and the second tab extend exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. 12. The support arm of claim 10, wherein an entirety of at least one of the first tab and the second tab extends exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. 13. The support arm of claim 10, the opening of the tilter body comprising at least one seating surface located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein one of the first tab and second tab is in contact with the at least one seating surface. 14. The support arm of claim 10, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis does not extend through any portion of the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing when the threaded member is extended through the threaded passage. 15. The support arm of claim 10, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. 16. The support arm of claim 10, wherein the bushing has a width and the friction cylinder has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 50% of the width of the friction cylinder. 17. The support arm of claim 16, wherein the opening in the tilter body has a width and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. 18. A support arm, the support arm comprising: a base portion that is adapted to support the support arm from a mounting surface; a lower arm portion comprising a parallelogram portion, the parallelogram portion comprising an upper channel, a lower channel, a lower endcap, an upper endcap, and an extension and retraction device, a first end of the upper channel being rotatably attached to the lower endcap at a first joint, a first end of the lower channel being rotatably attached to the lower endcap at a second joint, a second end of the upper channel being rotatably attached to the upper endcap at a third joint, and a second end of the lower channel being rotatably attached to the upper endcap at a fourth joint, a first end of the extension and retraction device being attached to the lower endcap and a second end of the extension retraction device being attached to the lower channel, wherein at least one of the first joint and the second joint comprises a friction joint, the lower endcap having a threaded passage therein; and a device mount coupled to the lower arm portion, the device mount being adapted to support an electronic display device therefrom; wherein the friction joint comprises an opening located in the lower endcap, a friction cylinder, a bushing, and a threaded member, the threaded passage intersects with the opening, the friction cylinder extends through the opening along an axis of rotation that corresponds with the respective one of the first joint and the second joint, the friction cylinder having an exterior surface and at least one portion that is engageable with the upper channel or lower channel, the friction cylinder being rotatable relative to the lower endcap about the axis of rotation, the bushing is located between the friction cylinder and the opening, the bushing having a main portion, a first tab, a second tab, and a split located between the first and second tabs, the main portion having an exterior surface that engages the opening in the lower endcap, an interior surface that engages the exterior surface of the friction cylinder, and an outer circumference, at least one of the first tab and second tab extending at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, the threaded member being extendable through the threaded passage and into the opening such that the threaded member contacts one of the first tab and second tab. 19. The support arm of claim 18, wherein at least a portion of each of the first tab and the second tab extend exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. 20. The support arm of claim 18, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis does not extend through any portion of the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing when the threaded member is extended through the threaded passage. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to an articulating support arm having a tilter assembly for positioning an attached user device, for example an electronic device such as a flat-screen monitor. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Some existing articulating arm and tilter designs use a set screw that is driven directly into a bushing of approximately circular cross-sectional area that is positioned around the rotating cylinder of an arm or tilter joint to supply pressure to the rotating cylinder in order to restrict rotation of the attached arm or user device about the rotating cylinder. In these prior art devices, the bushing includes a split that permits the size of the outer circumference of the bushing to be adjusted when acted upon by the set screw, thus supplying the desired amount of friction to the rotating cylinder. In these devices, proper placement of the split in the bushing away from the axis of the shaft of the set screw is necessary to ensure that the bushing properly transfers the force to the rotating cylinder that is being applied by the set screw to the bushing. If the split in the bushing becomes aligned with—or gets too close to being aligned with—the axis of the shaft of the set screw, the split in the bushing may not close and open as intended in response to movement of the set screw, thus causing the articulating arm joint or tilter to malfunction. Further, in some prior art articulating arms and tilters, the bushing clamps around only a small portion of the width of the rotating cylinder, which causes clamping forces to be unevenly applied to the rotating cylinder and the set screws to work themselves loose over time. Accordingly, there is a need for an articulating support arm with an improved tilter and friction joint that addresses these and other drawbacks of the prior art. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The present invention will hereinafter be described in conjunction with the appended drawing figures, wherein like numerals denote like elements. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a support arm according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective top view of the lower arm portion of the support arm of FIG. 1, with the lower arm portion channel cover removed; FIG. 3 is a partial exploded view of the lower endcap and lower arm portion of the support arm of FIG. 1; FIG. 4 is a partial exploded view of the lower arm portion of the support arm of FIG. 1; FIG. 5 is a sectional view taken along line 5-5 of FIG. 1; FIG. 6 is a partial exploded view of a tilter assembly of the support arm of FIG. 1; FIGS. 7 and 8 are partial exploded views of components thereof; FIG. 9 is a partial exploded view of the tilter assembly of FIG. 6; FIG. 10 is a sectional view taken along line 10-10 of FIG. 1; FIG. 11 is a perspective view of a tilter in accordance with the prior art; FIG. 12 is an exploded view thereof; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a tilter in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a sectional view taken along line 14-14 of FIG. 13; and FIG. 15 is an exploded view of the tilter of FIG. 13. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The ensuing detailed description provides preferred exemplary embodiments only, and is not intended to limit the scope, applicability, or configuration of the invention. Rather, the ensuing detailed description of the preferred exemplary embodiments will provide those skilled in the art with an enabling description for implementing the preferred exemplary embodiments of the invention. It being understood that various changes may be made in the function and arrangement of elements without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention, as set forth in the appended claims. To aid in describing the invention, directional terms may be used in the specification and claims to describe portions of the present invention (e.g., upper, lower, left, right, etc.). These directional definitions are merely intended to assist in describing and claiming the invention and are not intended to limit the invention in any way. In addition, reference numerals that are introduced in the specification in association with a drawing figure may be repeated in one or more subsequent figures without additional description in the specification in order to provide context for other features. Referring generally to FIGS. 1-10, an embodiment of a support arm 10 according to the present invention will be described in detail. As will be described in detail below, the support arm 10 is fully articulable in all three spatial axes to permit the desired placement and orientation of an attached electronic device (e.g., a display monitor). In this embodiment, the support arm 10 comprises a support mount 12 that is used to attach the support arm 10 to a desired surface. In this embodiment, the support mount 12 comprises a C-clamp (not shown) for attaching the support arm 10 around the edge of a desk, table top, or other support surface. In alternate embodiments, the support mount 12 could comprise a bolt-through mount, wall mount, ceiling mount, slat-wall mount, rail mount, or any other type of known mounting structure. Referring back to the embodiment of FIG. 1, the support arm 10 further comprises a base portion 13 having a cable router 14 attached thereto for collecting and routing cables that extend from the attached device. In this embodiment, the base portion 13 is rotatably coupled to the support mount 12 about a generally vertical axis (not labeled). In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, the base portion 13 could be rotationally fixed with respect to the support mount 12. In the present embodiment, the support arm 10 further comprises a lower endcap 16, a lower arm portion 22 that is connected at a first end to the lower endcap 16 and at a second end to an upper endcap 58, a forearm 84 that is connected at a first end to the upper endcap 58 and at a second end to a tilter assembly 92, and a device mount 88 connected to the tilter assembly 92 that accommodates mounting an electronic device (e.g., a computer display monitor) thereto. As seen in FIG. 1, the lower endcap 16 is covered by a channel cover 24 for aesthetic purposes and to eliminate pinch points. In alternate embodiments, the channel cover 24 could be omitted. In the embodiment of FIG. 1, a second cable router 62 for collecting and routing cables that extend from the attached electronic device is attached to the upper endcap 58. In this embodiment, the bottom side of the forearm 84 is partially hollow to save on material costs. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, cable clips or tabs could be included within the hollow space on the bottom side of the forearm 84 to permit device cable(s) to be at least partially retained and concealed within the forearm 84. In further alternate embodiments, the forearm 84 could be omitted entirely from the support arm 10, and the tilter assembly 92 and device mount 88 could be attached directly to the upper endcap 58. FIGS. 2-5 generally show the construction of the lower arm portion 22 of the support arm 10. In this embodiment, the lower endcap 16 functions as the lower joint of a parallelogram structure comprising a lower channel 50 and a pair of stringers 56a,56b that collectively comprise an upper channel of the parallelogram structure, and the upper endcap 58 functions as the upper joint of the parallelogram structure. Said another way, the lower channel 50 is maintained in a parallel relationship to the pair of stringers 56a,56b in all positions and orientations of the lower arm portion 22 via the connections made by each of the stringers 56a,56b and the lower channel 50 with both of the lower endcap 16 and upper endcap 58. A first endcap pin 60a rotatably attaches the lower channel 50 to the upper endcap 58 and a second endcap pin 60b rotatably attaches the stringers 56a,56b to the upper endcap 58. In the present embodiment, each of the endcap pins 60a,60b is fixed in place by a respective retainer ring (not shown or labeled) that attaches to the end of the respective endcap pin 60a,60b and prevents the respective endcap pin 60a,60b from sliding out of the upper endcap 58. An axle pin 26 rotatably attaches the lower channel 50 to the lower endcap 16 about an axis of rotation 33 (see FIG. 4) and a spring axle pin 34 rotatably attaches the stringers 56a,56b to the lower endcap 16. As shown in FIGS. 2 and 5, the lower arm portion 22 further comprises a spring 38 that is attached between the lower endcap 16 and the lower channel 50 and nested above the lower channel 50 and between the stringers 56a,56b. In this embodiment, an upper end of the spring 38 has a hooked portion 40 that hooks around a hook slot 54 located in the lower channel 50 to fix the upper end of the spring 38 in relation to the lower channel 50. In this embodiment, the lower end of the spring 38 terminates within the length of the lower arm portion 22. A spring connection nut 42 is fixed to the lower end of the spring 38 and a spring connection bolt 46 is attached between the spring axle pin 34 and the spring connection nut 42. The spring connection nut 42 is internally threaded and engages with threading on the exterior of the spring connection bolt 46. A retaining ring 44 locks the spring connection bolt 46 to the spring connection nut 42. A pair of retaining rings (only retaining ring 36 labeled) fix the ends of the spring axle pin 34 to the stringers 56a,56b. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, the spring 38 could be connected between the lower endcap 16 and the upper channel (via one or both stringers 56a,56b). In this embodiment, the spring connection bolt 46 is used to supply a desired amount of tension to the spring 38 in order to permit the lower arm portion 22 to support a desired amount of mass that will be attached to the device mount 88 (e.g., the mass of a computer display monitor). In this embodiment, a bolt head 47 of the spring connection bolt 46 is rotated during construction of the lower arm portion 22 in order to move the spring connection nut 42 along the length of the spring connection bolt 46, thereby pre-tensioning the spring 38 to accommodate an attached device mass equal to the minimum end of the range of masses that the support arm 10 is designed to support. For example, if the support arm 10 is designed to support devices weighing between 6 and 20 pounds, the spring 38 is pre-tensioned during assembly to support (i.e., counteract) a mass of 6 pounds. As explained below in detail, the improved friction joint design according to the present invention is used to provide any necessary additional restorative force to the lower arm portion 22 to accommodate greater attached weights. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, the bolt head 47 is accessible to the end user after the support arm 10 has shipped so that the end user can adjust the amount of restorative force that the spring 38 supplies to the lower arm portion 22. As shown in the partial exploded view of FIG. 3, the axle pin 26 comprises a head 27, a first locking portion 30, a shaft 28 of cylindrical shape and having an exterior surface 29, and a second locking portion 31. It should be understood that the shaft 28 of the axle pin 26 acts as a friction cylinder that is engaged by a bushing 70, as will be described below in detail. The lower endcap 16 has an opening 18 through which the shaft 28 rotatably extends when the axle pin 26 is installed in the lower arm portion 22. The first locking portion 30 has a non-circular shape and a complementary-shaped locking portion cutout 52 is provided on a first side of the bottom end of the lower channel 50 so that the first locking portion 30 mates with the locking portion cutout 52 when the axle pin 26 is installed in the lower arm portion 22. The second locking portion 31, which is located on the opposite end of the shaft 28, also has a non-circular shape and mates with a non-circular cutout (not shown) located on the second side (not shown) of the bottom end of the lower channel 50 when the axle pin 26 is installed in the lower arm portion 22. In this way, the axle pin 26 is fixed to and rotates with the lower channel 50 about the axis of rotation 33 as the position of the lower arm portion 22 is changed. Simultaneously, the shaft 28 of the axle pin 26—due to its cylindrical shape—rotates within the opening 18 in the lower endcap 16. As noted above, in this embodiment the lower endcap 16 comprises a friction joint in which the axle pin 26 serves as a friction cylinder, in other words a cylinder that is acted on by frictional forces in order to retard the movement of an object—in this case the lower channel 50—to which the axle pin 26 is attached. In this embodiment, the bottom side of the lower endcap 16 comprises a threaded passage 20. A threaded member 64, which in this embodiment is a set screw having a head 65, a threaded shaft 66, and an end face 67, is inserted into the threaded passage 20 and extended into or retracted from the threaded passage 20 to a desired degree by the end user of the support arm 10 in order to impart a desired amount of force to an exterior surface 75 of the bushing 70, as will be discussed below in greater detail. The threaded shaft 66 of the threaded member 64 is linear and has a central axis 68. In this embodiment, the threaded member 64 has a hex head opening that requires an Allen wrench or similar tool to adjust the tightness of the threaded member 64 against the bushing 70. In alternate embodiments, the threaded member 64 could be replaced with a manually-adjustable knob that does not require a tool to operate. In the present embodiment, the bushing 70 is located within the opening 18 in the lower endcap 16 and the exterior surface 75 of the bushing 70 is in contact with the interior surfaces of the opening 18. The bushing 70 comprises a main portion 72 having an outer circumference 73 (see FIG. 5), a first tab 78 that extends partially exterior to the outer circumference 73 of the main portion 72, and a second tab 80 that extends partially exterior to the outer circumference 73 of the main portion 72. A split 76 is located between the first tab 78 and the second tab 80, and extends partially exterior to the outer circumference 73. An outer surface 79 of the first tab 78 rests against a first seating surface (not labeled) of the opening 18 of the lower endcap 16, and an outer surface 81 of the second tab 80 rests against a second seating surface 19 of the opening 18 of the lower endcap 16. In this embodiment, the threaded passage 20 extends through the bottom surface of the lower endcap 16 and terminates on the first seating surface of the opening 18. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, the threaded passage 20 could extend through the top surface of the lower endcap 16 and terminate on the second seating surface 19 of the opening 18. In this embodiment, the first tab 78 and second tab 80 of the bushing 70 are identical in shape and size. In alternate embodiments, the first tab 78 and second tab 80 could be of different shapes and/or sizes. In this embodiment, when the threaded member 64 is extended further into the opening 18, an increased amount of force is imparted to the outer surface 79 of the first tab 78. Because the second tab 80 is in contact with the second seating surface 19 and the bushing 70 is otherwise captive within the opening 18, the split 76 of the bushing 70 is maintained in its desired non-aligned orientation with respect to the central axis 68 of the threaded shaft 66 of the threaded member 64. This greatly reduces the likelihood that the bushing 70 will become misaligned over time as compared to known prior art devices. Furthermore, imparting force to or withdrawing force from the outer surface 79 of the first tab 78 will cause the outer circumference 73 of the bushing 70 to change in size. For example, when an increased amount of force is imparted to the outer surface 79 of the first tab 78 by rotating the threaded member 64 such that it extends further into the opening 18, the size of the split 76 decreases, thus reducing the size of the outer circumference 73. The bushing 70 further comprises an interior surface 74 that engages the exterior surface 29 of the axle pin 26, which is routed interior to the bushing 70. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, the friction joint described above could be located instead within the upper endcap 58, with the spring 38 connected between the upper endcap 58 and either of the lower channel 50 or the upper channel (via one or both stringers 56a,56b ), with the necessary changes to the arrangement of the support arm 10 being made, as would be appreciated by one having ordinary skill in the art. As would be understood by one having ordinary skill in the art, it is desirable to design a support arm that is articulable and repositionable such that the attached device (e.g., a monitor) stays where it is placed, for example at different heights and rotational positions to accommodate different users of a workstation. Therefore, it is desirable that the restorative force applied by the support arm 10 to the device mount 88 at least approximates—and most desirably closely matches—the mass of the attached device, so that the attached device doesn't either “float up” or fall down after it has been placed in a desired position. As noted above, the spring 38 provides a baseline amount of restorative force to the lower arm portion 22, and thus to the entire support arm 10. Adjusting the position of the threaded member 64 with respect to the first tab 78 of the bushing 70 acts to increase or decrease the amount of frictional force that the interior surface 74 of the bushing 70 applies to the exterior surface 29 of the shaft 28 of the axle pin 26. Because the axle pin 26 is fixed to the lower channel 50 of the lower arm portion 22 via the first locking portion 30 and second locking portion 31, the addition of friction to the shaft 28 of the axle pin 26 permits the lower arm portion 22 (and accordingly the entire support arm 10) to support a greater attached mass from the device mount 88 in a stable (i.e., counterbalanced) position. Conversely, a reduction in the amount of force that is being applied to the shaft 28 of the axle pin 26 by the bushing 70 reduces the mass that will be supported (i.e., counterbalanced) by the lower arm portion 22. In practice, a user would likely make fine adjustments of the position of the threaded member 64 until the supporting force of the lower arm portion 22 (which is approximately equal to the restorative force supplied by the spring 38 to the lower channel 50 and the frictional force supplied to the lower channel 50 via the axle pin 26 being acted on by the bushing 70) approximately matches the gravitational forces that are pulling downwardly on the support arm 10 and any attached device. In this embodiment, the central axis 68 of the threaded shaft 66 of the threaded member 64 that comes into contact with the first tab 78 of the bushing 70 does not intersect with any portion of the outer circumference 73 of the main portion 72 of the bushing 70. In other words, the location at which pressure is applied to the first tab 78 of the bushing 70 to grip the bushing 70 around the shaft 28 of the axle pin 26 is offset from the main portion 72 of the bushing 70. This geometry, coupled with the presence of the first seating surface and second seating surface 19—which act to hold the non-annular bushing 70 in a preferred rotational orientation with respect to the threaded member 64—allows for much finer, more accurate, and more reliable adjustment of the friction that is applied to the axle pin 26 by the bushing 70 as compared to known prior art devices. In alternate embodiments, the central axis 68 of the threaded shaft 66 of the threaded member 64 could intersect with or even bisect the main portion 72 of the bushing 70, so long as the end face 67 of the threaded member 64 engages the first tab 78 or second tab 80 at an angle sufficient to adequately alter the size of the split 76 in the bushing 70 to properly vary the amount of friction being applied to the shaft 28 of the axle pin 26. Turning back to the present embodiment, the central axis 68 is oriented at an orthogonal angle to the split 76 in the bushing 70 when the threaded shaft 66 is extended through the threaded passage 20. In alternate embodiments, the central axis 68 could be arranged at a non-orthogonal angle with respect to the split 76 when the threaded shaft 66 is extended through the threaded passage 20. For example, the central axis 68 could be arranged with respect to the split 76 at an angle between 0-90 degrees, more preferably at an angle between 15-90 degrees, and most preferably at an angle between 30-90 degrees. As shown in FIG. 5, forearm 84 is attached to upper endcap 58 such that the forearm 84 may rotate about a vertical axis with respect to the upper endcap 58. In this embodiment, the forearm 84 is attached to the upper endcap 58 via a structure that is identical to the structure that is employed to connect the forearm 84 to the tilter assembly 92. This structure will be discussed in greater detail below with respect to FIG. 10, it being understood that this discussion is equally applicable to the connection between the forearm 84 and the upper endcap 58. Referring now to FIGS. 6-10, a first embodiment of a tilter assembly 92 according to the present invention will be described in detail. In this embodiment, the tilter assembly 92 comprises the device mount 88, which in this embodiment comprises two sets of four display screen mounting holes (not labeled) that are arranged according to existing industry standards for video displays, for example the Video Electronics Standards Association (VESA). In this embodiment, the two sets of display screen mounting holes are arranged, respectively, in 75 mm×75 mm and 100 mm×100 mm square hole patterns according to VESA standards. It should be understood that, in alternate embodiments, the display screen mounting holes may be arranged in non-standard pattern(s), only one set of display screen mounting holes may be included on the device mount 88, or more than two sets of display screen mounting holes may be included on the device mount 88. As would be appreciated by one having ordinary skill in the relevant art, an electronic device (e.g., a monitor) is mountable to the device mount 88 by aligning the appropriate set of display screen mounting holes with the appropriate mounting holes on the back of the electronic device, and securing appropriate fasteners (e.g., machine screws) through both sets of holes. In this embodiment, the tilter assembly 92 further comprises a tilter body 94 that is rotatably attached to a coupling 86 of the forearm 84 about a generally vertical axis (not labeled) and a center tilt mount 110 that is rotatably attached to the tilter body 94 via a friction cylinder 160 about an axis of rotation 165. The tilter assembly 92 further comprises a rivet plate 122 and a rivet plate holder 142. The rivet plate 122 comprises a main body 126 having a top edge 127, a front side 124 that includes a front mount portion 128 and a mounting shaft 130 having a rivet hole 132 centrally located therein, and a rear side 134 that includes a sloped surface 136 at its lower end. In this embodiment, the device mount 88 is mounted to the rivet plate 122 by routing a rivet (not shown) sequentially through washer 138b, washer 140b, a central mounting hole 89 of the device mount 88, washer 140a, washer 138a, and into the rivet hole 132 of the rivet plate 122. In this embodiment, the washers 138a,138b are comprised of steel for rigidity and the washers 140a,140b are comprised of nylon so that there is no metal-on-metal contact after the device mount 88 is mounted into the rivet hole 132 of the mounting shaft 130. It should be understood that, in alternate embodiments, suitable alternate materials for the washers 138a,138b,140a,140b are possible within the scope of this invention. In this embodiment, the device mount 88 is rotatable in 360 degrees with respect to the mounting shaft 130 once attached thereto. In alternate embodiments, the device mount 88 may be rotationally fixed with respect to the mounting shaft 130 or rotatable only through a particular range of motion through the use of one or more stop members (e.g., rotatable by a maximum of approximately 90 degrees to permit an attached electronic display to be reoriented only between portrait and landscape orientations). The rivet plate holder 142 comprises a main portion 143 and a mounting portion 152. A front side 144 of the main portion 143 comprises a release tab 146, a catch 148 having a sloped surface 149, and a stud 150. A rear side 154 of the main portion 143 comprises a mounting hook 156 located at a bottom end thereof. The center tilt mount 110 comprises a front mount cutout 112 that permits the mounting shaft 130 of the rivet plate 122 to extend from the center tilt mount 110 once the rivet plate 122 is installed within the center tilt mount 110, and an arcuate portion 114 that accommodates the plate-shaped rear indentation (see FIG. 6) of the device mount 88. As seen in FIG. 8, the center tilt mount 110 comprises a rivet plate holder slot 118 for releasably supporting the rivet plate holder 142 therein and a rivet plate slot 116 for releasably supporting the rivet plate 122 therein. When the rivet plate holder 142 is installed within the rivet plate holder slot 118 of the center tilt mount 110, the mounting portion 152 of the rivet plate holder 142 engages the slotted side portions of the rivet plate holder slot 118 and the mounting hook 156 located on the bottom end of the rivet plate holder 142 engages a mounting hook slot 120 that is formed through a bottom surface 96 of the center tilt mount 110. In this way, the rivet plate holder 142 is securely but releasably installed within the center tilt mount 110. If necessary, the rivet plate holder 142 may be released from the center tilt mount 110 by pressing forwardly on the mounting hook 156 while pulling upwardly on the rivet plate holder 142, thereby freeing the mounting hook 156 from the mounting hook slot 120 and permitting the rivet plate holder 142 to be pulled upwardly out of the rivet plate holder slot 118 and removed from the center tilt mount 110. In this embodiment, the rivet plate 122 is releasably attachable to the rivet plate holder 142. Specifically, when the rivet plate 122 is moved downwardly towards the rivet plate holder 142 to install the rivet plate 122—as partially shown in FIG. 7—the sloped surface 136 of the rear side 134 of the main body 126 of the rivet plate 122 rides along the catch 148 and temporarily deforms the main portion 143 of the rivet plate holder 142 rearwardly until the top edge 127 of the main body 126 of the rivet plate 122 clears the sloped surface 149 of the catch 148. Once the top edge 127 of the main body 126 of the rivet plate 122 clears the sloped surface 149 of the catch 148 of the rivet plate holder 142, the main portion 143 of the rivet plate holder 142 will inherently spring back forwardly so that the catch 148 becomes located above the top edge 127 of the main body 126 of the rivet plate 122 as the rivet plate 122 slides into the rivet plate slot 116. The rivet plate 122 is thus securely but releasably installed within the tilter assembly 92. To release the rivet plate 122 (and any attached device) from the tilter assembly 92, a user would deform the main portion 143 of the rivet plate holder 142 by pressing rearwardly on the release tab 146 until the catch 148 is no longer located above the top edge 127 of the main body 126 of the rivet plate 122 while simultaneously lifting upwardly on the rivet plate 122 (and any attached device) until the top edge 127 of the rivet plate 122 is clear of the catch 148. The tilter assembly 92 according to the present invention thus provides an improved quick-release mechanism over prior art devices. In this embodiment, the main body 126 of the rivet plate 122 has a generally keystone-shaped profile that greatly reduces the risk that a user will install the rivet plate 122 incorrectly into the center tilt mount 110. Not only does the irregular shape of the main body 126 of the rivet plate 122 visually indicate to the user the appropriate orientation of the rivet plate 122, but the rivet plate 122 will in general attach easily to the tilter assembly 92 only when the sloped surface 136 is aimed downwardly during installation. FIGS. 9 and 10 show additional details of the tilter assembly 92. In this embodiment, the tilter assembly 92 has a tilter body 94 having an opening 100 therethrough, a bottom surface 96, a top surface 97, a threaded passage 106 extending through the bottom surface 96 and into the opening 100, and a tilter shaft 98 extending from the bottom surface 96 which is used to attach the tilter assembly 92 to the coupling 86 of the forearm 84 and rotate the tilter assembly 92 about a generally vertical axis (not labeled). A bearing bushing 83 of generally circular shape is located between the tilter body 94 and the coupling 86 of the forearm 84 to prevent metal-on-metal contact between the tilter body 94 and coupling 86. As noted above, the connection between the forearm 84 and the tilter assembly 92 comprises an anti-loosening apparatus that prevents the tilter assembly 92 from coming loose from the coupling 86 of the forearm 84 as the tilter shaft 98 is rotated with respect to the coupling 86. In this embodiment, the bottom end of the tilter shaft 98 is circular except for a cutout portion 99. A bearing washer 85 of generally circular shape is located between the coupling 86 of the forearm 84 and a shaft cap 87. In this embodiment the bearing washer 85 is comprised of steel, but in alternate embodiments according to the present invention suitable additional materials are possible, for example nylon or acetal resin. The shaft cap 87 is generally annular in shape, but also has a protruding portion 91 that protrudes inwardly from the interior surface and mates with the cutout portion 99 of the bottom end of the tilter shaft 98. A fastener 93 is routed through the shaft cap 87 and rotated into threading located in the bottom end of the tilter shaft 98 to secure the joint together. Due to the interaction between the protruding portion 91 of the shaft cap 87 and the cutout portion 99 of the bottom end of the tilter shaft 98, the tilter shaft 98 and shaft cap 87 are rotationally fixed together below the coupling 86, thus preventing this joint from coming loose over time. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, the bottom end of the tilter shaft 98 contains a plurality of cutout portions or indents and the shaft cap 87 comprises a complementary plurality of protrusions that mate with the cutout portions in the tilter shaft 98 such that the tilter shaft 98 and shaft cap 87 are rotationally fixed together. A threaded member 186, which in this embodiment is a set screw having a head 187, a threaded shaft 188, and an end face 189, is inserted into the threaded passage 106 and extended into or retracted from the opening 100 to a desired degree in order to impart a desired amount of force to an exterior surface 174 of a bushing 166, as will be discussed below in further detail. The threaded shaft 188 of the threaded member 186 has a central axis 190. In this embodiment, the threaded member 186 will typically be rotated using a tool (e.g., an Allen wrench) to adjust the tightness of the threaded member 186 against the bushing 166. In alternate embodiments, the set screw could be replaced with a bolt or other fastener that requires a tool to operate or a manually-adjustable knob. The opening 100 in the tilter body 94 has a width 101 and contains a first seating surface 102 and a second seating surface 104. The bushing 166 is located within the opening 100 and the exterior surface 174 of the bushing 166 is in contact with the interior surfaces of the opening 100. The bushing 166 comprises a main portion 168 having a width 167 and an outer circumference 170, a first tab 178 that extends partially exterior to the outer circumference 170 of the main portion 168, and a second tab 182 that extends partially exterior to the outer circumference 170 of the main portion 168. A split 176 is located between the first tab 178 and the second tab 182, and the split 176 extends partially exterior to the outer circumference 170. An outer surface 180 of the first tab 178 rests against the first seating surface 102 and an outer surface 184 of the second tab 182 rests against the second seating surface 104. In this embodiment, the threaded passage 106 extends through the bottom surface 96 of the tilter body 94 and terminates on the first seating surface 102. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, the threaded passage 106 could extend through the top surface of the tilter body 94 and terminate on the second seating surface 104. In the present embodiment, the first tab 178 and second tab 182 are of different shapes. In alternate embodiments, the first tab 178 and second tab 182 could be of the same shape and/or size. In the present embodiment, when the threaded member 186 is extended further into the opening 100, an increased amount of force is imparted to the outer surface 180 of the first tab 178. Because the second tab 182 is in contact with the second seating surface 104 and the bushing 166 is otherwise captive within the opening 100, the split 176 of the bushing 166 is maintained in its desired non-aligned orientation with respect to the central axis 190 of the threaded shaft 188 of the threaded member 186. This greatly reduces the likelihood that the bushing 166 will become misaligned over time as compared to known prior art tilters. In this way, imparting force to or withdrawing force from the outer surface 180 of the first tab 178 will cause the outer circumference 170 to change in size. For example, when an increased amount of force is imparted to the outer surface 180 of the first tab 178 by rotating the threaded member 186 such that it extends further into the opening 100, the size of the split 176 decreases, thus reducing the size of the outer circumference 170. The bushing 166 further comprises an interior surface 172 that engages an exterior surface 164 of a friction cylinder 160 that is routed interior to the bushing 166. In this embodiment, the friction cylinder 160 has a width 161 and a knurled end portion 162 that fixedly engages the center tilt mount 110 such that the friction cylinder 160 and center tilt mount 110 rotate simultaneously about the axis of rotation 165. As noted above, a user device having a particular mass is attached to the device mount 88—which is fixedly attached to the center tilt mount 110—and the threaded member 186 is tightened against the outer surface 180 of the first tab 178 until sufficient force is applied to the friction cylinder 160 by the bushing 166 to adequately support the mass of the user device. In this embodiment, the central axis 190 of the threaded shaft 188 of the threaded member 186 that comes into contact with the first tab 178 of the bushing 166 intersects the outer circumference 170 of the main portion 168 of the bushing 166 and the end face 189 of the threaded member 186 engages the first tab 178 at an angle sufficient to adequately alter the size of the split 176 in the bushing 166 to properly vary the amount of friction being applied to the friction cylinder 160. In alternate embodiments, the central axis 190 could intersect the outer circumference 170 at any possible angle, including bisecting the outer circumference 170, or could not intersect with the outer circumference 170 at all, so long as the end face 189 of the threaded member 186 engages the first tab 178 at an angle sufficient to adequately alter the size of the split 176 in the bushing 166 to properly vary the amount of friction being applied to the friction cylinder 160. In the present embodiment, the central axis 190 is oriented at a non-orthogonal angle of approximately 40 degrees to the split 176 in the bushing 166 when the threaded shaft 188 is extended through the threaded passage 106. In alternate embodiments, the central axis 190 could be arranged at an orthogonal angle or other non-orthogonal angles with respect to the split 176 when the threaded shaft 188 is extended through the threaded passage 106. For example, the central axis 190 could be arranged with respect to the split 176 at any angle between 0-90 degrees, more preferably at an angle between 15-90 degrees, and most preferably at an angle between 30-90 degrees. In this embodiment, the bushing 166 has a width 167 that is much larger in comparison to both the width 101 of the opening 100 in the tilter body 94 and the width 161 of the friction cylinder 160 than the respective width ratios in the tilter assembly 210 according to the prior art that is shown in FIGS. 11 and 12 and discussed below. For example, in this embodiment the width 167 of the bushing 166 is greater than 50% of the width 161 of the friction cylinder 160 and equal to the width 101 of the opening 100 in the tilter body 94. In alternate embodiments, the width 167 of the bushing 166 may be between 50-90% of the width 161 of the friction cylinder 160 and/or the width 167 of the bushing 166 may be between 75-100% of the width 101 of the opening 100 in the tilter body 94. In further alternate embodiments, the width 167 of the bushing 166 may be approximately two-thirds of the width 161 of the friction cylinder 160 and/or the width 167 of the bushing 166 may be approximately equal to the width 101 of the opening 100 in the tilter body 94. For sake of comparison, FIGS. 11 and 12 show a tilter assembly 210 in accordance with the prior art. For ease of discussion certain primary components of the tilter assembly 210 are omitted from these figures, for example the center tilt mount that attaches to the ends of the friction cylinder 240 and that is used to support a user device, for example a flat-screen monitor. As shown in FIGS. 11 and 12, the tilter assembly 210 comprises a tilter body 212 having an opening 214 therethrough, the opening 214 having a width 217. The tilter body 212 further comprises a bottom surface 216, a top surface 218, a passage 220 extending through the bottom surface 216 and into the opening 214, and a tilter shaft 226 extending from the bottom surface 216 which is used to attach the tilter assembly 210 to a support means and rotate the tilter assembly 210 about a generally vertical axis (not labeled). The passage 220 is internally threaded. A threaded member 230, which in this embodiment is a set screw having a head 232, a threaded shaft 234, and an end face 238, is inserted into the passage 220 and extended into or retracted from the opening 214 to a desired degree in order to impart a desired amount of force to an exterior surface 258 of a bushing 250, as will be discussed below in greater detail. The bushing 250 is located within the opening 214 and the exterior surface 258 of the bushing 250 is in contact with the interior surfaces of the opening 214. The bushing 250 comprises a split 262 along its circumference. The bushing 250 has an outer circumference 254 that changes in size when the amount of force imparted to the exterior surface 258 thereof by the threaded member 230 is adjusted. For example, when an increased amount of force is imparted to the exterior surface 258 of the bushing 250 by rotating the threaded member 230 such that it extends further into the opening 214, the size of the split 262 decreases so that the outer circumference 254 decreases in size, because the bushing 250 is captive within the opening 214 such that the bushing 250 cannot otherwise move. The bushing 250 further comprises an interior surface 256 that engages an exterior surface 244 of a friction cylinder 240 that is routed interior to the bushing 250 along an axis of rotation 215. The bushing 250 has a width 260 and the friction cylinder has a width 246. In this prior art tilter assembly 210, the friction cylinder 240 comprises a knurled end portion 242 that fixedly engages a center tilt mount component (not shown) such that the friction cylinder 240 and center tilt mount rotate simultaneously about the axis of rotation 215. As noted above, a user device having a particular mass is attached to the center tilt mount via one or more intermediate components that would be understood by one having ordinary skill in the art (e.g., a rotating plate, a VESA plate, and/or a quick-release adapter). In order to handle a device having a large mass, the threaded member 230 is pressed more tightly into the exterior surface 258 of the bushing 250, thereby imparting a greater frictional force to the exterior surface 244 of the friction cylinder 240 until the mass of the user device is appropriately supported. An item of lesser mass would not require the threaded member 230 to be pressed as tightly into the bushing 250. In this prior art tilter assembly 210, the width 260 of the bushing 250 is approximately 50% of the width 217 of the opening 214 in the tilter body 212, and the width 260 of the bushing 250 is approximately 25-30% of the width 246 of the friction cylinder 240. Accordingly, when pressure is applied to the exterior surface 258 of the bushing 250, the interior surface 256 of the bushing 250 applies force to less than one-third of the width 246 of the friction cylinder 240. This can cause the forces to be applied unevenly to the friction cylinder 240, and result in the threaded member 230 working itself loose over time as the user device is moved (i.e., cycled) up and down about the axis of rotation 215. Moreover, in the prior art tilter assembly 210 the bushing 250 is made of bronze, which is expensive and causes the tilter assembly 210 to create creaking noises when metal-on-metal contact between the threaded member 230 and the bushing 250 occurs. Further, in the prior art tilter assembly 210, if the bushing 250 is installed improperly such that the end face 238 of the threaded member 230 engages the split 262 in the bushing 250 or the split 262 is not properly rotated with respect to the threaded member 230 such that the force imparted by the threaded member 230 will act to change the size of the split 262 (for example if the split 262 is rotated exactly opposite the location where the end face 238 engages the bushing 250), the tilter assembly 210 will malfunction. Because the bushing 250 is annular, furthermore, there is nothing to prevent the bushing 250 from rotating out of its desired orientation with respect to the threaded member 230 over time if the frictional forces being applied to the bushing 250 become insufficient to prevent its rotation. Referring now to FIGS. 13-15, an alternate embodiment of a tilter assembly 310 according to the present invention will be described in detail. In this embodiment, the tilter assembly 310 has a tilter body 312 having an opening 314 therethrough, a bottom surface 316, a top surface 318, a passage 320 extending through the top surface 318 and into the opening 314, and a tilter shaft 326 extending from the bottom surface 316 which is used to attach the tilter assembly 310 to a support means and rotate the tilter assembly 310 about a generally vertical axis. In this embodiment, the passage 320 has internal threading. The opening 314 has a width 317 (see FIG. 15) and contains a first seating surface 322 and a second seating surface 324. In this embodiment, a center tilt mount 328 of the tilter assembly 310 is shown in FIGS. 13 and 14, but is omitted from FIG. 15 for ease of discussion. The center tilt mount 328 attaches to the tilter assembly 310 and functions in the same manner as in the tilter assembly 92 of FIGS. 6-10. A threaded member 330, which in this embodiment is an adjustment knob having a head 332, a threaded shaft 334, and an end face 338, is inserted into the passage 320 and extended into or retracted from the opening 314 to a desired degree in order to impart a desired amount of force to an exterior surface 358 of a bushing 350, as will be discussed below in greater detail. The threaded shaft 334 of the threaded member 330 is linear and has a central axis 336. In this embodiment, the threaded member 330 may be operated by hand using the head 332 without the need for a tool (e.g., an Allen wrench) to adjust the tightness of the threaded member 330 against the bushing 350. In alternate embodiments, the adjustment knob could be replaced with a set screw, bolt, or other fastener that requires a tool to operate. The bushing 350 is located within the opening 314 and the exterior surface 358 of the bushing 350 is in contact with the interior surfaces of the opening 314. The bushing 350 comprises a main portion 352 having an outer circumference 354, a first tab 364 that extends exterior to the outer circumference 354 of the main portion 352, and a second tab 368 that extends exterior to the outer circumference 354 of the main portion 352. A split 362 is located between the first tab 364 and the second tab 368, and extends partially exterior to the outer circumference 354. An outer surface 366 of the first tab 364 rests against the first seating surface 322 and an outer surface 370 of the second tab 368 rests against the second seating surface 324. In this embodiment, the passage 320 extends through the top surface 318 of the tilter body 312 and terminates on the first seating surface 322. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, the passage 320 could extend through the bottom surface 316 of the tilter body 312 and terminate on the second seating surface 324. In this embodiment, the first tab 364 and second tab 368 are identical in shape and size. In alternate embodiments, the first tab 364 and second tab 368 could be of different shapes and/or sizes. In this embodiment, when the threaded member 330 is extended further into the opening 314, an increased amount of force is imparted to the outer surface 366 of the first tab 364. Because the second tab 368 is in contact with the second seating surface 324 and the bushing 350 is otherwise captive within the opening 314, the bushing 350 is maintained in its desired non-aligned orientation with respect to the central axis 336 of the threaded shaft 334 of the threaded member 330. Furthermore, imparting force to or withdrawing force from the outer surface 366 of the first tab 364 will cause the outer circumference 354 to change in size. For example, when an increased amount of force is imparted to the outer surface 366 of the first tab 364 by rotating the threaded member 330 such that it extends further into the opening 314, the size of the split 362 decreases, thus reducing the size of the outer circumference 354. The bushing 350 further comprises an interior surface 356 that engages an exterior surface 344 of a friction cylinder 340 that is routed interior to the bushing 350 along an axis of rotation 315. In this embodiment, the friction cylinder 340 comprises a knurled end portion 342 that fixedly engages the center tilt mount 328 such that the friction cylinder 340 and center tilt mount 328 are collectively rotatable about the axis of rotation 315. As noted above, a user device having a particular mass is attached to the center tilt mount 328, and the threaded member 330 is tightened against the outer surface 366 of the first tab 364 until a sufficient amount of force is applied to the friction cylinder 340 by the bushing 350 to adequately support the mass of the user device. In this embodiment, the central axis 336 of the threaded shaft 334 of the threaded member 330 that comes into contact with the first tab 364 of the bushing 350 does not intersect with any portion of the outer circumference 354 of the main portion 352 of the bushing 350. In other words, the location at which pressure is applied to the first tab 364 of the bushing 350 to grip the bushing 350 around the friction cylinder 340 is offset from the main portion 352 of the bushing 350. This geometry, coupled with the presence of the first seating surface 322 and second seating surface 324 which act to hold the non-annular bushing 350 in a preferred rotational orientation with respect to the threaded member 330, allows for much finer, more accurate, and more reliable adjustment of the friction that is applied to the friction cylinder 340 by the bushing 350. In alternate embodiments, the central axis 336 of the threaded shaft 334 could intersect with or even bisect the main portion 352 of the bushing 350, so long as the end face 338 of the threaded member 330 engages the first tab 364 or second tab 368 at an angle sufficient to adequately alter the size of the split 362 in the bushing 350 to properly vary the amount of friction being applied to the friction cylinder 340. In the present embodiment, the central axis 336 is oriented at an orthogonal angle to the split 362 in the bushing 350 when the threaded shaft 334 is extended through the passage 320. In alternate embodiments, the central axis 336 could be arranged at a non-orthogonal angle with respect to the split 362 when the threaded shaft 334 is extended through the passage 320. For example, the central axis 336 could be arranged with respect to the split 362 at an angle between 0-90 degrees, more preferably at an angle between 15-90 degrees, and most preferably at an angle between 30-90 degrees. In this embodiment, the bushing 350 has a width 360 that is much larger in comparison to both the width 317 of the opening 314 and a width 346 of the friction cylinder 340 than the respective width ratios in the tilter assembly 210 according to the prior art. For example, in this embodiment the width 360 of the bushing 350 is greater than 50% of the width 346 of the friction cylinder 340 and equal to the width 317 of the opening 314. In alternate embodiments, the width 360 of the bushing 350 may be between 50-90% of the width 346 of the friction cylinder 340 and/or the width 360 of the bushing 350 may be between 75-100% of the width 317 of the opening 314 in the tilter body 312. The inventors of the present application have discovered that designing bushings so that they contact a larger percentage of the width of the friction cylinder permits materials other than metals to be used to construct the bushing, for example thermoplastics and nylon, resulting in large cost savings and quieter joint operation. In the embodiments shown in FIGS. 1-10 and 13-15, the bushings 70,166,350 are formed of a polyoxymethylene acetal polymer, which is sold by different companies in various formulations as either a homopolymer or copolymer, for example under the name Delrin® by E. I. du Pont de Nemours and Company of Wilmington, Del., U.S.A. In alternate embodiments according to the present invention, suitable metal bushings could also be used. The inventors have also discovered that the use of an elongated bushing 70,166,350 resulted in frictional forces being much more evenly provided by the bushing 70,166,350 along the width of the friction cylinders 28,160,340, leading to much quieter operation and greatly improved wear performance without any reduction in maximum weight capacity of the device. In accordance with the present invention, the width of the respective bushing 70,166,350 is preferably at least 75% of the width of the respective opening 18,100,314 in the lower endcap 16 or tilter body 94,312, is more preferably at least 90% of the width of the respective opening 18,100,314 in the lower endcap 16 or tilter body 94,312, and most preferably is equal to the width of the opening 18,100,314 in the lower endcap 16 or tilter body 94,312. Further, in accordance with the present invention, the width of the respective bushing 70,166,350 is preferably at least 50% of a width of the respective friction cylinder 28,160,340, more preferably approximately 66.7% of a width of the respective friction cylinder 28,160,340, and most preferably at least 75% of the width of the respective friction cylinder 28,160,340. The inventors have also discovered that providing bushings 70,166,350 that are not circular in cross section allows for the rotational orientation of the bushings 70,166,350 to be fixed with respect to the respective threaded member 64,186 or adjustment knob 330, thus preventing the split 76,176,362 of the respective bushing 70,166,350 from rotating out of a desirable non-aligned orientation with respect to the threaded member 64,186 or adjustment knob 330. This also greatly reduces the likelihood of joint failure over time and improves the functioning of the joint by ensuring that movement of the respective threaded member 64,186 or adjustment knob 330 always acts to adjust the size of the respective split 76,176,362 of the bushings 70,166,350. While the principles of the invention have been described above in connection with preferred embodiments, it is to be clearly understood that this description is made only by way of example and not as a limitation of the scope of the invention. Further Aspects of the Invention Further aspects of the invention include: Aspect 1. A support arm for supporting an electronic device, the support arm comprising: a base portion that is adapted to support the support arm from a mounting surface; a lower arm portion comprising a parallelogram portion, the parallelogram portion comprising an upper channel, a lower channel, a lower endcap, and an upper endcap, wherein a first end of the upper channel and a first end of the lower channel are each rotatably attached to the lower endcap and a second end of the upper channel and a second end of the lower channel are each rotatably attached to the upper endcap; a tilter assembly, the tilter assembly comprising a tilter body, a cylinder, and a center tilt mount that is rotatably attached to the tilter body via the cylinder, the center tilt mount being adapted to support the electronic device therefrom; and at least one friction joint, the at least one friction joint comprising: a bushing comprising a main portion having an exterior surface, an interior surface, and an outer circumference, the bushing further comprising a first tab, a second tab, and a split located between the first and second tabs, wherein at least one of the first tab and second tab extends at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing; a friction cylinder comprising an exterior surface and at least one portion that fixedly engages with a separate component of the support arm; an opening for accommodating the bushing and friction cylinder therein; a threaded passage that intersects with the opening; and a threaded member that is extendable through the threaded passage and into the opening, the bushing being located within the opening such that the exterior surface of the main portion of the bushing engages the opening, the friction cylinder being located within the opening and routed internal to the bushing such that the exterior surface of the friction cylinder engages the interior surface of the main portion of the bushing, the friction cylinder being rotatable along with the separate component of the support arm within the opening, the threaded member being extendable into the opening such that the threaded member makes contact with one of the first tab and the second tab of the bushing, wherein the at least one friction joint is located within at least one of the lower endcap, upper endcap, and tilter assembly, wherein if the at least one friction joint is located within either of the lower endcap and upper endcap, the separate component is at least one of the upper channel and lower channel, and wherein if the at least one friction joint is located within the tilter assembly, the opening and threaded passage are located in the tilter body, the cylinder corresponds with the friction cylinder, and the separate component is the center tilt mount. Aspect 2. The support arm of Aspect 1, wherein a first friction joint of the at least one friction joint is located within the lower endcap and a second friction joint of the at least one friction joint is located within the tilter assembly. Aspect 3. The support arm of either of Aspect 1 and Aspect 2, wherein the threaded passage intersects with the opening at an orthogonal angle thereto. Aspect 4. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-3, wherein at least a portion of each of the first tab and the second tab extend exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. Aspect 5. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-4, wherein an entirety of at least one of the first tab and the second tab extends exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. Aspect 6. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-5, the opening comprising at least one seating surface located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein one of the first tab and second tab is in contact with the at least one seating surface. Aspect 7. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-6, the opening comprising a first seating surface and a second seating surface, the first and second seating surfaces located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein the first tab is in contact with the first seating surface and the second tab is in contact with the second seating surface, the interaction of the first tab with the first seating surface and the interaction of the second tab with the second seating surface preventing rotation of the bushing within the opening. Aspect 8. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-7, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis does not extend through any portion of the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing when the threaded member is extended through the threaded passage. Aspect 9. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-8, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis is oriented at an orthogonal angle to the split in the bushing when the shaft is extended through the threaded passage. Aspect 10. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-9, wherein the first tab and the second tab have different dimensions. Aspect 11. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-10, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. Aspect 12. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-11, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 90% of the width of the opening. Aspect 13. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-12, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening has a width, and the width of the bushing is equal to the width of the opening. Aspect 14. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-13, wherein the bushing has a width and the friction cylinder has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 50% of the width of the friction cylinder. Aspect 15. The support arm of Aspect 14, wherein the opening has a width and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. Aspect 16. The support arm of Aspect 14, wherein the opening has a width and the width of the bushing is at least 90% of the width of the opening. Aspect 17. The support arm of Aspect 14, wherein the opening has a width and the width of the bushing is equal to the width of the opening. Aspect 18. The support arm of any of Aspects 1-17, wherein the upper channel comprises a pair of stringers. Aspect 19. A support arm, the support arm comprising: a base portion that is adapted to support the support arm from a mounting surface; a lower arm portion comprising a parallelogram portion, the parallelogram portion comprising an upper channel, a lower channel, a lower endcap, and an upper endcap, wherein a first end of the upper channel and a first end of the lower channel are rotatably attached to the lower endcap and a second end of the upper channel and a second end of the lower channel are rotatably attached to the upper endcap; and a tilter assembly, the tilter assembly comprising a tilter body, a friction cylinder, a bushing, and a threaded member, the tilter body having an opening and a threaded passage located therein, the threaded passage intersecting with the opening, the friction cylinder extending through the opening along an axis of rotation, the friction cylinder having an exterior surface and at least one portion that is engageable with a component that can support the electronic device therefrom, the friction cylinder being rotatable relative to the tilter body about the axis of rotation, the bushing located between the friction cylinder and the opening of the tilter body, the bushing having a main portion, a first tab, a second tab, and a split located between the first and second tabs, the main portion having an exterior surface that engages the opening in the tilter body, an interior surface that engages the exterior surface of the friction cylinder, and an outer circumference, at least one of the first tab and second tab extending at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, the threaded member being extendable through the threaded passage and into the opening of the tilter body such that the threaded member contacts one of the first tab and second tab. Aspect 20. The support arm of Aspect 19, wherein at least a portion of each of the first tab and the second tab extend exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. Aspect 21. The support arm of either of Aspect 19 and Aspect 20, wherein an entirety of at least one of the first tab and the second tab extends exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. Aspect 22. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-21, the opening of the tilter body comprising at least one seating surface located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein one of the first tab and second tab is in contact with the at least one seating surface. Aspect 23. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-22, the opening of the tilter body comprising a first seating surface and a second seating surface, the first and second seating surfaces located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein the first tab is in contact with the first seating surface and the second tab is in contact with the second seating surface, the interaction of the first tab with the first seating surface and the interaction of the second tab with the second seating surface preventing rotation of the bushing within the opening. Aspect 24. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-23, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis does not extend through any portion of the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing when the threaded member is extended through the threaded passage. Aspect 25. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-24, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis is oriented at an orthogonal angle to the split in the bushing when the shaft is extended through the threaded passage. Aspect 26. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-25, wherein the first tab and the second tab have different dimensions. Aspect 27. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-26, wherein the component is a center tilt mount that is fixedly engageable with the friction cylinder such that the friction cylinder and the center tilt mount are collectively rotatable relative to the tilter body about the axis of rotation. Aspect 28. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-27, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. Aspect 29. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-28, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 90% of the width of the opening. Aspect 30. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-29, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is equal to the width of the opening. Aspect 31. The support arm of any of Aspects 19-30, wherein the bushing has a width and the friction cylinder has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 50% of the width of the friction cylinder. Aspect 32. The support arm of Aspect 31, wherein the opening in the tilter body has a width and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. Aspect 33. The support arm of Aspect 31, wherein the opening in the tilter body has a width and the width of the bushing is at least 90% of the width of the opening. Aspect 34. The support arm of Aspect 31, wherein the opening in the tilter body has a width and the width of the bushing is equal to the width of the opening. Aspect 35. A support arm, the support arm comprising: a base portion that is adapted to support the support arm from a mounting surface; a lower arm portion comprising a parallelogram portion, the parallelogram portion comprising an upper channel, a lower channel, a lower endcap, an upper endcap, and an extension and retraction device, a first end of the upper channel being rotatably attached to the lower endcap at a first joint, a first end of the lower channel being rotatably attached to the lower endcap at a second joint, a second end of the upper channel being rotatably attached to the upper endcap at a third joint, and a second end of the lower channel being rotatably attached to the upper endcap at a fourth joint, a first end of the extension and retraction device being attached to the lower endcap and a second end of the extension retraction device being attached to the lower channel, wherein at least one of the first joint and the second joint comprises a friction joint, the lower endcap having a threaded passage therein; and a device mount coupled to the lower arm portion, the device mount being adapted to support an electronic display device therefrom; wherein the friction joint comprises an opening located in the lower endcap, a friction cylinder, a bushing, and a threaded member, the threaded passage intersects with the opening, the friction cylinder extends through the opening along an axis of rotation that corresponds with the respective one of the first joint and the second joint, the friction cylinder having an exterior surface and at least one portion that is engageable with the upper channel or lower channel, the friction cylinder being rotatable relative to the lower endcap about the axis of rotation, the bushing is located between the friction cylinder and the opening, the bushing having a main portion, a first tab, a second tab, and a split located between the first and second tabs, the main portion having an exterior surface that engages the opening in the lower endcap, an interior surface that engages the exterior surface of the friction cylinder, and an outer circumference, at least one of the first tab and second tab extending at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, the threaded member being extendable through the threaded passage and into the opening such that the threaded member contacts one of the first tab and second tab. Aspect 36. The support arm of Aspect 35, further comprising a forearm, the forearm being attached at a first end to the upper endcap and at a second end to the device mount. Aspect 37. The support arm of either of Aspect 35 and Aspect 36, wherein at least a portion of each of the first tab and the second tab extend exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. Aspect 38. The support arm of any of Aspects 35-37, wherein an entirety of at least one of the first tab and the second tab extends exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. Aspect 39. The support arm of any of Aspects 35-38, the opening of the tilter body comprising at least one seating surface located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein one of the first tab and second tab is in contact with the at least one seating surface. Aspect 40. The support arm of any of Aspects 35-39, the opening of the tilter body comprising a first seating surface and a second seating surface, the first and second seating surfaces located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein the first tab is in contact with the first seating surface and the second tab is in contact with the second seating surface, the interaction of the first tab with the first seating surface and the interaction of the second tab with the second seating surface preventing rotation of the bushing within the opening. Aspect 41. The support arm of any of Aspects 35-40, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis does not extend through any portion of the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing when the threaded member is extended through the threaded passage. Aspect 42. The support arm of any of Aspects 35-41, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis is oriented at an orthogonal angle to the split in the bushing when the shaft is extended through the threaded passage. Aspect 43. The support arm of any of Aspects 35-42, wherein the first tab and the second tab have different dimensions. Aspect 44. A tilter for supporting an electronic device, the tilter comprising: a tilter body, the tilter body having an opening and a threaded passage located therein, the threaded passage intersecting with the opening; a friction cylinder extending through the opening along an axis of rotation, the friction cylinder having an exterior surface and at least one portion that is engageable with a component that can support the electronic device therefrom, the friction cylinder being rotatable relative to the tilter body about the axis of rotation; a bushing located between the friction cylinder and the opening of the tilter body, the bushing having a main portion, a first tab, a second tab, and a split located between the first and second tabs, the main portion having an exterior surface that engages the opening in the tilter body, an interior surface that engages the exterior surface of the friction cylinder, and an outer circumference, at least one of the first tab and second tab extending at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing; and a threaded member that is extendable through the threaded passage and into the opening of the tilter body such that the threaded member contacts one of the first tab and second tab. Aspect 45. The tilter of Aspect 44, wherein at least a portion of each of the first tab and the second tab extend exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. Aspect 46. The tilter of either of Aspect 44 and Aspect 45, wherein an entirety of at least one of the first tab and the second tab extends exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing. Aspect 47. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-46, the opening of the tilter body comprising at least one seating surface located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein one of the first tab and second tab is in contact with the at least one seating surface. Aspect 48. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-47, the opening of the tilter body comprising a first seating surface and a second seating surface, the first and second seating surfaces located exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing, wherein the first tab is in contact with the first seating surface and the second tab is in contact with the second seating surface, the interaction of the first tab with the first seating surface and the interaction of the second tab with the second seating surface preventing rotation of the bushing within the opening. Aspect 49. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-48, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis does not extend through any portion of the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing when the threaded member is extended through the threaded passage. Aspect 50. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-49, the threaded member comprising a shaft having a central axis, wherein the central axis is oriented at an orthogonal angle to the split in the bushing when the shaft is extended through the threaded passage. Aspect 51. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-50, wherein the first tab and the second tab have different dimensions. Aspect 52. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-51, wherein the component is a center tilt mount that is fixedly engageable with the friction cylinder such that the friction cylinder and the center tilt mount are collectively rotatable relative to the tilter body about the axis of rotation. Aspect 53. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-52, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. Aspect 54. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-53, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 90% of the width of the opening. Aspect 55. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-54, wherein the bushing has a width and the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is equal to the width of the opening. Aspect 56. The tilter of any of Aspects 44-55, wherein the bushing has a width and the friction cylinder has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 50% of the width of the friction cylinder. Aspect 57. The tilter of Aspect 56, wherein the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 75% of the width of the opening. Aspect 58. The tilter of Aspect 56, wherein the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is at least 90% of the width of the opening. Aspect 59. The tilter of Aspect 56, wherein the opening in the tilter body has a width, and the width of the bushing is equal to the width of the opening. Aspect 60. A tilter comprising: a tilter body, the tilter body having an opening and a passage located therein, the passage intersecting with the opening; a friction cylinder extending through the opening along an axis of rotation, the friction cylinder having an exterior surface and being rotatable relative to the tilter body about the axis of rotation; a bushing located between the friction cylinder and the opening of the tilter body, the bushing having a main portion, a first tab, a second tab, and a split located between the first and second tabs, the main portion having an exterior surface that engages the opening in the tilter body, an interior surface that engages the exterior surface of the friction cylinder, and an outer circumference, at least one of the first tab and the second tab extending at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing and the split extending at least partially exterior to the outer circumference of the main portion of the bushing; and a pressure-supplying member that is extendable through the passage and into the opening of the tilter body such that the pressure-supplying member contacts one of the first tab and second tab. Aspect 61. The tilter of Aspect 60, wherein the passage is threaded and the pressure supplying-member is a threaded member. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Some existing articulating arm and tilter designs use a set screw that is driven directly into a bushing of approximately circular cross-sectional area that is positioned around the rotating cylinder of an arm or tilter joint to supply pressure to the rotating cylinder in order to restrict rotation of the attached arm or user device about the rotating cylinder. In these prior art devices, the bushing includes a split that permits the size of the outer circumference of the bushing to be adjusted when acted upon by the set screw, thus supplying the desired amount of friction to the rotating cylinder. In these devices, proper placement of the split in the bushing away from the axis of the shaft of the set screw is necessary to ensure that the bushing properly transfers the force to the rotating cylinder that is being applied by the set screw to the bushing. If the split in the bushing becomes aligned with—or gets too close to being aligned with—the axis of the shaft of the set screw, the split in the bushing may not close and open as intended in response to movement of the set screw, thus causing the articulating arm joint or tilter to malfunction. Further, in some prior art articulating arms and tilters, the bushing clamps around only a small portion of the width of the rotating cylinder, which causes clamping forces to be unevenly applied to the rotating cylinder and the set screws to work themselves loose over time. Accordingly, there is a need for an articulating support arm with an improved tilter and friction joint that addresses these and other drawbacks of the prior art. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The present invention will hereinafter be described in conjunction with the appended drawing figures, wherein like numerals denote like elements. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a support arm according to the present invention; FIG. 2 is a perspective top view of the lower arm portion of the support arm of FIG. 1 , with the lower arm portion channel cover removed; FIG. 3 is a partial exploded view of the lower endcap and lower arm portion of the support arm of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 4 is a partial exploded view of the lower arm portion of the support arm of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 5 is a sectional view taken along line 5 - 5 of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 6 is a partial exploded view of a tilter assembly of the support arm of FIG. 1 ; FIGS. 7 and 8 are partial exploded views of components thereof; FIG. 9 is a partial exploded view of the tilter assembly of FIG. 6 ; FIG. 10 is a sectional view taken along line 10 - 10 of FIG. 1 ; FIG. 11 is a perspective view of a tilter in accordance with the prior art; FIG. 12 is an exploded view thereof; FIG. 13 is a perspective view of a tilter in accordance with an alternate embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 14 is a sectional view taken along line 14 - 14 of FIG. 13 ; and FIG. 15 is an exploded view of the tilter of FIG. 13 . detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | F16M1110 | 20170725 | 20171109 | 87065.0 | F16M1110 | 0 | DUCKWORTH, BRADLEY | ARTICULATING SUPPORT ARM WITH IMPROVED TILTER AND FRICTION JOINT | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | F16M | 2,017 |
|
15,659,175 | ACCEPTED | DIGITAL MEDIA REPRODUCTION AND LICENSING | Systems and methods for monetizing the reproduction of digital media content for the rights-holders of the digital media content. Embodiments of the present disclosure relate to determining whether a user of a media content item has a license to reproduce the media content item. In one embodiment, the media content item may be reproduced when the user is licensed. The user is prompted to select to acquire a license to reproduce the media content item or to decline the license to reproduce the media content item when the user is not licensed. Further embodiments determine whether a user may receive a license when the user wishes to acquire a license. In an embodiment, the user is declined a license when not approved for the license. | 1. A computer implemented method for providing a multimedia hardware device to generate an authorized reproduction of a media content item included in a digital media file, comprising: receiving a license request from a user requesting to engage in a license transaction to reproduce a media content item; evaluating the license transaction to determine whether the user has acquired a license to reproduce the media content item; after the evaluation of the license transaction, extracting from the license transaction user data that is specific to the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item when the user acquires the license and when the user declines the license, wherein the user data includes demographic data associated with the user that enables a copyright owner of the media content item to gauge a demographic that acquired the license for the media content item of the copyright owner and a demographic that declined the license for the media content item of the copyright owner; aggregating the user data into a statistics record for the license request when the user acquires the license and when the user declines the license, wherein the statistics record summarizes the user data associated with the license request; storing in a license database the statistics record so that the user data is accessible to the copyright owner of the media content item; and analyzing a plurality of statistics records aggregated from each license request for the media content item owned by the copyright owner to provide the copyright owner with the aggregated user data from each license request of the media content item. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: receiving a license to reproduce the media content from the licensing system when the licensing request is granted by the licensing system; and preventing reproduction of the media content item when the licensing request is declined by the licensing system. 3. The method of claim 2, further comprising: reproducing the media content item based on a plurality of reproduction parameters in the license that is received from the licensing system. 4. The computer implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: storing in the license database the user data that is associated with the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item that is accessible to a third party online media retailer that has been selected by the copyright owner to distribute the media content item. 5. The computer implemented method of claim 1, further comprising: storing in the license database the user data that is associated with the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item that is accessible to a hardware device manufacturer that manufacturers hardware that is implemented by the multimedia hardware device. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein the user data includes a geographic location of the user who is accessing the media content item. 7. A computer implemented method for providing a media content licensing and verification system to license media content for reproduction, the method comprising: receiving a media licensing request from an external device associated with a user, wherein the media licensing request includes digital media information associated with the media content item included in a digital media file; determining whether the media licensing request is to be granted based on a media content record stored in a media catalog database that is associated with the media content item; after the determination of the media licensing request, extracting from the media licensing request user data that is specific to the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item when the user is granted the license and when the user declines the license, wherein the user data includes demographic data associated with the user that enables a copyright owner to gauge a demographic that acquired the license for the media content item of the copyright owner and a demographic that declined the license for the media content item of the copyright owner; aggregating the user data into a statistics record for the media licensing request when the user acquires the license and when the user declines the license, wherein the statistics record summarizes the user data associated with the media licensing request; storing in a license database the statistics record so that the user data is accessible to the copyright owner of the media content item; and analyzing a plurality of statistics records aggregated from each media licensing request for the media content item owned by the copyright owner to provide the copyright owner with the aggregated user data from each media licensing request of the media content item when the license is acquired by the user and when the license is declined by the user. 7. The method of claim 7, further comprising: generating a license record that includes license granting information associated with the license granted to the external device; and storing the license record in a registered user database that is associated with the user. 8. The method of claim 7, wherein the digital media information includes a fingerprint associated with the media content item. 9. The method of claim 7, further comprising: storing in the license database the user data that is associated with the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item that is accessible to a third party online media retailer that has been selected by the copyright owner to distribute the media content item. 10. The method of claim 7, further comprising: storing in the license database the user data that is associated with the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item that is accessible to a hardware device manufacturer that manufacturers hardware that is implemented by the multimedia hardware device. 11. The method of claim 7, wherein the user data includes additional media content items that the user has previously accessed. 12. A system for providing a multimedia hardware device to generate an authorized reproduction of a media content item included in a digital media file, comprising: a processor configured to: receive a license request from a user requesting to engage in a license transaction to reproduce the media content item; evaluate the license transaction to determine whether the user has acquired a license to reproduce the media content item; after the evaluation of the license transaction, extract from the license transaction user data that is specific to the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item when the user acquires the license and when the user declines the license, wherein the user data includes demographic data associated with the user that enables a copyright owner to gauge a demographic that acquired the license for the media content item of the copyright owner and a demographic that declined the license for the media content item of the copyright owner, aggregate the user data into a statistics record for the license request when the user acquires the license and when the user declines the license, wherein the statistics record summarizes the user data associated with the license request, store in the license database the statistics record so that the user data is accessible to the copyright owner of the media content item, and analyze a plurality of statistics records aggregated from each license request for the media content item owned by the copyright owner to provide the copyright owner with the aggregated user data from each license request of the media content item when the license is acquired by the user and when the license is declined by the user. 13. The system of claim 12, wherein the processor is further configured to: receive a license to reproduce the media content item from the licensing system when the licensing request is granted by the licensing system; and prevent reproduction of the media content item when the licensing request is declined by the licensing system. 14. The system of claim 12, wherein the processor is further configured to reproduce the media content item based on a plurality of reproduction parameters included in the license that is received from the licensing system. 15. The system of claim 12, wherein the processor is further configured to store in the license database the user data that is associated with the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item that is accessible to a third party online media retailer that has been selected by the copyright owner to distribute the media content item. 16. The system of claim 12, wherein the processor is further configured to store in the license database the user data that is associated with the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item that is accessible to a hardware device manufacturer that manufacturers hardware that is implemented by the multimedia hardware device. 17. The system of claim 12, wherein the user data includes a quantity of times that the user has previously accessed the media content item and additional media content items. 18. A system for providing a media content licensing and verification system to license media content for reproduction, comprising: a transceiver configured to receive a media licensing request from an external device associated with a user, wherein the media licensing request includes digital media information associated with the media content item included in a digital media file; and a processor configured to: determine whether the media licensing request is to be granted based on the media content record stored in the media catalog database that is associated with the media content item, after the determination of the media licensing request, extracting from the media licensing request user data that is specific to the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item when the user acquires the license and when the user declines the license, wherein the user data includes demographic data associated with the user that enables a copyright owner to gauge a demographic that acquired the license for the media content item of the copyright owner and a demographic that declined the license for the media content item of the copyright owner, aggregate the user data into a statistics record for the media licensing request when the user acquires the license and when the user declines the license, wherein the statistics record summarizes the user data associated with the media licensing request, and store in a license database the statistics record so that the user data is accessible to the copyright owner of the media content item, and analyze a plurality of statistics records aggregated from each media licensing request for the media content item owned by the copyright owner to provide the copyright owner with the aggregated user data from each license request of the media content item when the license is acquired by the user and when the license is declined by the user. 19. The system of claim 18, wherein the processor is further configured to: generate a license record that includes license granting information associated with the license granted to the external device; and store the license record in a registered user database that is associated with the user. 20. The system of claim 18, wherein the processor is further configured to store in the license database the user data that is associated with the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item that is accessible to a third party online media retailer that has been selected by the copyright owner to distribute the media content item. 21. The system of claim 20, wherein the processor is further configured to store in the license database the user data that is associated with the user that is attempting to reproduce the media content item that is accessible to a hardware device manufacturer that manufacturers hardware that is implemented by the multimedia hardware device. 22. The system of claim 18, wherein the user data includes a geographic location of the user who is accessing the media content item that enables the copyright owner to gauge geographic locations where the media content item is being accessed. | CROSS-REFERENCE The present application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/667,629, filed Nov. 2, 2012, and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/555,810, filed Nov. 4, 2011, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. TECHNICAL FIELD Embodiments relate to licensing digital media for reproduction, and more specifically to a digital media licensing system for licensing and enabling reproduction of digital media on a reproduction device. BACKGROUND Conventionally, the distribution of media content, such as music, movies, and books for example, is in large part controlled by owners who are the rights-holders of the media content. In conventional systems, the media content is incorporated into a physical media such as a compact disk (CD), a digital video disk (DVD), a printed publication, and/or any other physical media. In such conventional systems, the rights-holders of the media content are able to control licensing of the media content, the production of physical media copies of the media content, and/or the distribution of the media content to customers and/or third party retailers and thereby monetize the media content. There has been a dramatic shift in the marketplace away from media content distributed on physical media to digital media content that may be distributed via the internet. Conventionally, rights-holders of digital media content have significantly less control over the distribution of such digital media content as compared to the distribution of physical media. For example, a party that does not hold rights of the digital media content may reproduce the digital media content and then distribute the digital media content via the internet without the permission of the actual rights-holder of the digital media content. As a result, the actual-rights holder of the digital media content cannot monetize the unauthorized distribution of the digital media content. The inability of rights-holders of digital media content to monetize the unauthorized distribution of the digital media content limits the financial gain that rights-holders of the digital media content obtain in creating the original digital media content. Often times such unauthorized distribution of the digital media content prohibits the rights-holders of the digital media from covering the costs of creating the original digital media content which discourages creation of digital media content. BRIEF SUMMARY Embodiments relate to monetizing the reproduction of digital media content for the rights-holder of the digital media content. In an embodiment, a computer implemented method provides a multimedia hardware device a capability to generate an authorized reproduction of a media content item included in a digital media file. A digital media file that includes a media content item may be loaded for reproduction. The digital media file may be analyzed to identify digital media information associated with the media content item. A license database may be accessed to determine whether a user is licensed to reproduce the media content item based on the digital media information. The media content item may be reproduced when the user is licensed to reproduce the media content item based on the digital media information. A licensing query may be provided to the user when the user is not licensed to reproduce the media content item to prompt the user to select to acquire a license to reproduce the media content item or to decline the license to reproduce the media content item. In another embodiment, a system provides a media content licensing and verification system to license media content for reproduction. A transceiver may receive a media licensing request from an external device associated with a user. The media licensing request may include digital media information associated with a media content item included in a digital media file. A processor may access a media catalog database that includes a plurality of media content records where a media content record from the plurality of media content records is associated with the media content item. The processor may also determine whether the media licensing request is to be granted based on the media content record stored in the media catalog database that is associated with the media content item. The processor may grant the media licensing request for the external device when the media content record associated with the media content item verifies the granting of the license for the media content item to the external device. The processor may also decline the media licensing request for the external device when the media content record associated with the media content item does not verify the granting of the license for the media content item to the external device. Further embodiments, features, and advantages, as well as the structure and operation of the various embodiments, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments are described with reference to the accompanying drawings. In the drawings, like reference numbers may indicate identical or functionally similar elements. FIG. 1 illustrates a digital media file licensing and authorized reproduction system, according to an embodiment; FIG. 2 illustrates a second digital media file licensing and authorized reproduction system, according to an embodiment; FIG. 3 illustrates a flowchart illustrating an exemplary aspect of operation for the media content licensing and verification system to analyze a received catalog of media content and manage the catalog of media content, according to an embodiment; FIG. 4 illustrates a flowchart illustrating an exemplary aspect of operation for the external multimedia hardware device, according to an embodiment; FIG. 5 illustrates a flowchart illustrating an exemplary aspect of operation for the media content licensing and verification system to receive a payment for a license to reproduce a digital media file, according to an embodiment; FIG. 6 illustrates a flow chart illustrating an exemplary aspect of operation for the media content licensing and verification system to receive licensing information from a third party media retailer, according to an embodiment; and FIG. 7 illustrates a flow chart illustrating an exemplary aspect of operation for the media content licensing and verification system to receive a third-party request for licensing statistics. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The digital media file licensing and authorized reproduction system provides a capability to ensure that a user possesses a license to reproduce a digital media file and if the user does not have a license, providing to the user the option to obtain such a license. In the Detailed Description herein, references to “one embodiment”, “an embodiment”, an “example embodiment”, etc., indicate that the embodiment described may include a particular feature, structure, or characteristic, by every embodiment may not necessarily include the particular feature, structure, or characteristic. Moreover, such phrases are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Further, when a particular feature, structure, or characteristic may be described in connection with an embodiment, it may be submitted that it may be within the knowledge of one skilled in the art to effect such feature, structure, or characteristic in connection with other embodiments whether or not explicitly described. Overview FIG. 1 illustrates a digital media file licensing and authorized reproduction system 30 in which embodiments or portions thereof, may be implemented. Digital media file licensing and authorized reproduction system 30 includes an external multimedia hardware device 10, a network 12, a media content licensing and verification system 16, a media content rights-holders system 18, a third party online media retailers system 20, and a hardware device manufacturers system 22. System 30 may monetize the reproduction of a media content item included within a digital media file. Reproduction of a media content item may include reproducing sound from a digital audio file, reproducing video from a digital video file, reproducing text from a digital text file, and/or any other reproduction of a digital media file that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Reproduction may be defined as a first use by a user of the media content item. For example, reproduction of the media content item may include when a user first accesses a media content item where the user obtained the media content item from an outside source, such as but not limited to a third party online media distributor. Reproduction may also be defined as further distribution of the media content item by the user after the user has initially accessed the media content item. For example, reproduction of the media content item may include when the user distributes the media content item to other parties after the user has obtained the media content item from the third party online media distributor. A digital media file may represent a MPEG Layer 3 (MP3) file, a RealAudio (RA) file, a raw sample (RAW) file, a Microsoft wave (WAV) file, a Windows Media Audio (WMA) file, and/or any other suitable digital media file that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. The media content item may include any portion of data included in the digital media file. A user of external multimedia hardware device 10 may reproduce the media content item with external multimedia hardware device 10. Device 10 may represent a smart phone, a smart tablet, a mobile telephone, a television, an audio system, a personal music player, a portable computing device, other computing devices such as a personal computer, a laptop, or a desktop computer, computer peripheral such as a printer, a portable audio/or a video player, and/or any other suitable electronic device that can reproduce a media content item that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. However, the user may not have a license that authorizes the user to reproduce the media content item. The digital media file including the media content item may have been procured from various sources that are not licensed to reproduce the media content item and do not collect licensing fees for use of the media content item. As such, when the user loads the digital media file for reproduction, device 10 may analyze the digital media file to determine the media content item included in the file and determine whether the user of device 10 is authorized. For example, the device may analyze a digital music file to identify the song and artist of the media content item that may be a track included in the digital music file. The user may be authorized when the user has a license to load and/or reproduce a media content item included in the digital media file. In an embodiment, device 10 may analyze a plurality of identifying characteristics associated with the media content item to identify the media content item and to determine whether the user of device 10 is authorized. The plurality of identifying characteristics may be an identifying characteristic associated with the media content item inherently present in the media content item such that the media content item is not remastered to include the identifying characteristic after the media content item is initially recorded. The plurality of identifying characteristics can represent a fingerprint, digital watermarking, and/or any other suitable algorithm to identify copyright ownership of the media content item included in the digital media file that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. In an embodiment, device 10 may analyze metadata included in the loaded digital media file to identify the media content item included in the digital media file. System 30 may query a license database locally and/or remotely located to system 30 to determine whether the user of device 10 has the appropriate license for the media content item. Device 10 may refuse to play the digital media file and query the user to determine whether the user wishes to purchase the appropriate license when the user does not have the appropriate license. Device 10 may communicate with media content licensing and verification system 16 over network 12 and transmit the fingerprint of the media content item to media content licensing and verification system 16 when the user selects to purchase the appropriate license. Licensing system 16 may identify the media content item based on the received fingerprint. Licensing system 16 may transmit back to device 10 the title and/or other information associated with the identified media content item and request the user to confirm purchase of the license. The user may interface with device 10 to conduct the licensing transaction with licensing system 16, and after purchasing the license, licensing system 16 may transmit a license to device 10. After receiving the license from licensing system 16, device 10 may commence reproduction of the media content item. Moreover, licensing system 16 may store a record of the transaction for statistical purposes, and/or store a copy of the license in a database under a user record associated with the user of device 10. Device 10 and licensing system 16 may provide data associated with the use of the media content item to media content rights-holders system 18 over network 12. Rights-holders system 18 may be accessed by an owner of a copyright for the media content item. For example, device 10 and licensing system 16 may provide data to rights-holders system 18 that includes the user who is accessing the media content item, the geographic location of the user who is accessing the media content item, other media content items that the user may be accessing, the quantity of times the media content item is accessed, and/or any other data associated with the use of the media content item that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. The data provided by device 10 and licensing system 16 to rights-holders system 18 for the media content item may be used by the copyright owner to develop future licensing agreements that may be provided to the user of device 10 by licensing system 16 for future use of the media content item. Payments for the license to use the media content item may be received from the user via device 10 and licensing system 16. Payments may also be distributed to the copyright owner via rights-holders system 18. Device 10 and licensing system 16 may also provide data associated with the use of the media content item to third party online media retailers system 20. The data provided to retailers system 20 may be similar to the data provided to rights-holders system 18. However, retailers system 20 may be accessed by third party online media retailers who have been selected by the copyright owner of the media content item to distribute the media content item via the Internet. The data provided by device 10 and licensing system 16 to retailers system 20 for the media content item may be used by the third party online retailers to develop future pricing for their online media content item distribution including which media content items to distribute in the future. The data provided to retailers system 20 may also be used to help third party online media retailers target the marketing of the media content item to demographics that have shown a trend of interest in the media content item. Payments for the distribution of the media content item by the third party on line media retailer may be received from the user via device 10 and licensing system 16. Payments may also be distributed to the third party online media retailer via retailers system 20. Device 10 and licensing system 16 may also provide data associated with the use of the media content item to hardware device manufactures system 22. The data provided to manufactures system 22 may be similar to the data provided to rights-holders system 18 and retailer system 20. However, manufactures system 22 may be accessed by hardware device manufacturers who manufacture the hardware that may be implemented in device 10 that provides device 10 with the capabilities to limit reproduction of the media content item to when the user has a license to reproduce the media content item. Payments for use of the hardware provided by the hardware device manufacturers implemented in device 10 by the user of device 10 may also be distributed to the hardware device manufacturer via manufacturers system 20. Device 10 may be configured to connect to network 12. Network 12 may include one or more networks, such as the Internet. In some examples, network 12 may include one or more network technologies such as Ethernet, Fast Ethernet, Gigabit Ethernet, a variant of the IEEE 802.11 standard such as WiFi, and the like. Communication over network 12 takes place using one or more network communication protocols including reliable streaming protocols such as transmission control protocol (TCP). These examples are illustrative and not intended to limit the present disclosure. As shown in FIG. 1, device 10 may engage in communication with network 12 via connection 14, where connection 14 may be a wireless, wired, a secured communication connection, any combination thereof, and/or any other communication connection that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Licensing system 16 may be configured to engage in communication with network 12. As such, device 10 may communicate with licensing system 16 via network 12. Additionally, rights-holders system 18, retailers system 20, and/or manufacturers system 22 may also communicate with licensing system 16 and device 10 via network 12. Licensing system 16, rights-holders system 18, retailers system 20, and/or manufacturers system 22 may engage in communication with network 12 via a communication connection similar to connection 14. Device 10, licensing system 16, rights-holders system 18, retailers system 20, and/or manufacturers system 22 may have a cloud computing configuration. Device 10, licensing system 16, rights-holders system 18, retailers system 20, and/or manufacturers system 22 may share resources via network 12. For example, device 10 may retrieve licensing information for the user of device 10 who wishes to reproduce the media content item via network 12. Licensing system 16 may also update rights-holders system 18 with the user information for the user who wishes to reproduce the media content item. Based on the cloud computing configuration, the interaction between device 10, licensing system 16, and rights-holders system 18 may not be limited to a single external multimedia hardware device. A plurality of external multimedia hardware devices may update licensing system 16 and rights-holders system 18 via network 12 with user information of users wishing to reproduce the media content item. Licensing system 16 may provide each of these updates for the user information to any media content rights-holders system that requests the user information. Digital Media File Licensing and Authorized Reproduction System FIG. 2 illustrates a second digital media file licensing and authorized reproduction system 95 in which embodiments or portions thereof, may be implemented. Digital media file licensing and authorized reproduction system 95 includes external multimedia hardware device 10, media content licensing and verification system 16, and network 12. External multimedia hardware device 10 includes a processor 40, a transceiver 44, an input/output interface 46, a memory 52, a mass storage 60, a human machine interface (HMI) 48 and a reproduction module 50. Processor 40 may be a hardware based processor that includes a general purpose microcontroller, a special purpose microcontroller and/or any other controller that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Processor 40 includes a media recognition module 42. Media recognition module 42 may be configured to analyze a loaded digital media file to identify the media content item included in the digital media file and/or determine an identifying characteristic, such as a fingerprint for example, of the media content item. In an embodiment, the media recognition module 40 may include hardware based circuitry configured to analyze a loaded digital media file. In an embodiment, the media recognition module 42 may include program code executing on the processor 40 configured to cause the processor 40 to analyze a loaded digital media file. Memory 52 includes a digital media file 58, an application 54, and an operating system (OS) 56. Memory 52 may be accessed by processor 40, such that processor 40 may read data from memory 52 and write data to memory 52. In some embodiments, application 54 and/or OS 56 may include program code including one or more instructions, that when executed by processor 40 cause device 10 to perform the steps necessary to execute steps or elements embodying the various aspects of the disclosure. Furthermore, digital media file 58 may be loaded for reproduction. Mass storage 60 includes a license database 62 and digital media file 58. License database 62 includes a license record 64. Mass storage 60 may be utilized in addition to memory 52, or may not be included at all, in which case the data elements illustrated as stored on mass storage 60 would be stored in memory 52. For exemplary purposes, mass storage 60 includes digital media files 58, illustrating that one or more digital media files 58 may be stored in mass storage 60 of device 10. Moreover, mass storage 60 includes a license database 62, where license database 62 includes one or more license records 64. In an embodiment, license database 62 includes license records 64, where license records 64 indicate a media content item that a user of the device may be licensed to reproduce. Media content licensing and verification system 16 includes a transceiver 68, a processor 66, an input/output interface 70, a mass storage 74, a memory 76, and a HMI 72. Memory 76 includes an application 78, an OS 80, a registered user database 86, a digital media catalog database 82, and a licensing statistics database 92. Application 78 and/or the OS 80 may include program code including one or more instructions configured to be executed by processor 66 to cause licensing system 16 to perform steps necessary to perform embodiments of the disclosure. Registered user database 86 includes a user record 88. User record 88 includes a license record 90. Digital media catalog database 82 includes a media record 84. Each media record 84 includes data associated with a unique media content item loaded into the licensing system 16. As such, a rights-holder or content creator may load a catalog of media content items that may include but not limited to a song, a movie, a television show, a novel, and/or any other media content item into licensing system 16. Licensing system 16 may analyze each media content item in the catalog, and generate a media record corresponding to each media content item. In some embodiments, each media record may include data indicating various information of the corresponding media content item, including but not limited to the rights-holder of the media content item, the title of the media content item, the plurality of identifying characteristics, and/or any other information associated with the corresponding media content item that will be apparent to the those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Each user record 88 may be associated with a unique user and indicates all media content items the user has purchased a license for. Each user record 88 may include one or more license records 90, where each license record may include data indicating a media content item that the user is licensed to reproduce. Licensing statistics database 92 includes a statistics record 94. Each statistics record 94 may include data indicating a license purchased by a user connecting to licensing system 16. The data may include, for example, whether a user that purchased a license for a particular media content item, how many users refused to license a particular media content item, the rights-holder of the media content item for which the license was purchased, the title of the media content item, demographic information for the user that may include but is not limited to age, gender, location, and/or any other data that may be associated with the user and/or license obtained by the user that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Embodiments of the present disclosure can be implemented on any type of processing (or computing) device having one or more processors. For example, embodiments can be implemented on a workstation, mobile device, computer, cluster of computers, set-top box, or other devices having at least one processor. In an embodiment, multiple modules may be implemented on the same processing device. Software can include one or more applications and an operating system. Hardware can include, but may not be limited to, a processor, memory, and/or graphical user interface display. Method 100 FIG. 3 illustrates a flowchart of an exemplary method 100 of processing a digital media catalog for use in a media content licensing and verification system. At step 102, the media content licensing and verification system receives digital media catalog. At step 104, each media content item of the received catalog may be analyzed. At step 106, a plurality of identifying characteristics associated with the media content item may be determined. For example, the fingerprint of the media content item may be determined. Determining a media content fingerprint may include one or more steps for analyzing the digital file including the media content item to determine one or more characteristics that uniquely identify the media content item stored therein. For example, if the media content item were a book stored in a digital text file, the natural media fingerprint may be determined to be a predefined number of words from the beginning of the text file. In another exemplary embodiment, the media content item may be a song stored in a digital music file, and the system may determine the natural media fingerprint by analyzing the digital music file to identify lyrics included in the song, notes played in the song, and/or a sampled sound wave included in the song. These characteristics may be considered individually or in various combinations to uniquely identify the song. Moreover, in many digital media file formats, one or more information fields related to the media content item stored in the file are included in metadata of the file. In an embodiment of the invention, the system may analyze metadata included in the digital media file to identify the media content item stored thereon. In step 108, the system generates a media record for each media content item, where the media record includes data indicating the fingerprint, rights-holder information, title, and/or any other media content item data. In step 110, the media record is stored in a digital media catalog database accessible by the system. Embodiments can work with software, hardware, and/or operating system implementations other than those described herein. Any software, hardware, and operating system implementations suitable for performing the functions described herein can be used. Method 120 FIG. 4 illustrates a flowchart of an exemplary method 120 of verifying that a digital media file has been licensed prior to reproduction and facilitating the purchase of a license if the digital media file has not been properly licensed prior to reproduction. At step 122, a digital media file is loaded for reproduction on the external multimedia hardware device. At step 124, the device analyzes the digital media file. At step 126, information associated with the digital media file is determined. Information associated with the digital media file may include a fingerprint associated with the media content item included in the digital media file, the rights-holder of the media content item, the title of the media content item, and/or any other digital media file information that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. For example, as described above with respect to FIG. 3, the device may analyze the digital media file to determine one or more characteristics of the media content item stored thereon, where the characteristics may be utilized alone and/or in various combinations to identify the media content item. The selected characteristics may be referred to as the natural media fingerprint of the media content item. Advantageously, the natural media fingerprint identifies a media content item, even considering the possibility of different versions of the same media content item. For example, multiple versions of a song are recorded at various times and may be stored as digital music files, such as a live version and a studio version. However, by analyzing the characteristics of a media content item, different versions of the same song may be consistently identified. For example, analyzing characteristics may include analyzing word recognition of lyrics, the occurrence of various frequencies at particular points in time in relation to the occurrence of the lyrics, and/or any other media content item characteristic that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. At step 128, the device accesses a license database. At step 130, whether a user of the device has a license for the digital media file may be determined based on the natural media fingerprint and/or other digital media information, such as metadata, included in the digital media file. At step 132, the device initializes reproduction of the digital media file in response to the determining that the user has the appropriate license. At step 134, the device generates a display query asking the user whether the user would like to purchase a license for the digital media file in response to determining that the user does not have the appropriate license. The device generates a display query asking the user whether the user would like to purchase a license for the digital media file. At step 136, the device indicates to the user that the digital media file cannot be played in response to the user indicating that the user would not like to purchase a license. At step 137, the device transmits statistics related to the media content item stored on the digital media file to the media content licensing and verification system. The statistics information may include, for example, the determined natural media fingerprint of the media content item stored in the digital media file and/or any other such information related to the media content item, the digital media file, the external multimedia hardware device, and/or the user of the device. At step 138, the device initializes a licensing interface in response to the user indicating that the user would like to purchase the license. The device initializes a licensing interface that includes establishing a secure communication connection to a media content licensing and verification system. At step 140, the device transmits user identification data to the system, such that the user of the device may be identified to log into a user account associated with the user, process the licensing transaction, and/or for other such reasons to facilitate purchasing a license for the media content item. The user identification data may include for example, a user name and password, a unique identifier associated with the user, the user's billing information, and/or any other user identification data that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. At step 142, the device transmits a licensing request to the system, where the request includes information corresponding to the digital media file and the media content item included in the digital media file, such as the fingerprint of the media content item, the title of the media content item, the rights-holder of the digital media file, and/or other media content item information that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. Embodiments can work with software, hardware, and/or operating system implementations other than those described herein. Any software, hardware, and operating system implementations suitable for performing the functions described herein can be used. Method 160 FIG. 5 illustrates a flowchart of an exemplary method 160 of processing a license request from an external multimedia hardware device. At step 161, prior to initializing the licensing transaction, the system receives the user identification data and confirms the user's identity. For example, the system logs the device into a secured transaction interface associated with an account of the user. At step 162, the system receives a digital media licensing request from an external multimedia hardware device over a network where the licensing request includes data indicating a media content item that a user of the device wishes to acquire a license for. In an embodiment, the licensing request includes a fingerprint of the media content item, information identifying the rights-holder of the media content item, the title of the media content item, and/or other media content item information. At step 164, the system accesses a digital media catalog database to identify the media content item indicated by the request. At step 166, the system matches the fingerprint of the media content item included in the license request to a fingerprint in the digital media catalog database to identify the media content item associated with the licensing request, the rights-holder associated with the media content item, the price required for a license for the media content item, and/or any other identification information that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. At step 168, the system transmits data to the device indicating that a license is not required for reproduction in response to determining that a record corresponding to the media content item is not in the digital media catalog database. At step 169, the system transmits data to the device such that a user of the device may confirm a transaction to acquire the license associated with the media content item in response to identifying the media content item associated with the licensing request. In an embodiment, the system transmits data indicating the title of the media content item, the rights-holder of the media content item, an artist associated with the media content item, and/or other media content information such that the device presents this information to the user when asking the user whether to confirm the transaction. At step 170, the system transmits data to the device indicating that the license has not been purchased in response to the user declining the licensing transaction, at which point, the device may refuse to reproduce the digital media file for the user. At step 172, the system processes the licensing transaction in response to the user confirming the licensing transaction and the system receiving confirmation data from the device. The processing may include collecting payment information, charging previously known payment information, debiting a user account, and/or any other such payment processing methods. At step 174, the system transmits a license associated with the media content item over the communication network to the device in response to processing the licensing transaction. At step 176, the system generates a license record indicating the user and the media content item in response to processing the transaction, the system generates a transaction record including data that identifies the user, the media content item, demographic information about the user, and/or any other license record information that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. At step 177, the user has not purchased a license for a media content item, either because the media content item is not identified in the database or because the user refuses to make the purchase. However, a statistics record may be generated. The statistics data may include for example the natural media fingerprint associated with the media content item, the rights-holder of the media content item, the title of the media content item, and/or any other statistical data. The statistics data generated may be utilized for a variety of purposes, including for example, encouraging non-participating rights-holders from participating in the system by identifying the number of times a license was requested for a media content item owned by the non-participating rights-holder. At step 178, the statistics record is stored in the licensing statistics database, and the license record is stored in the registered user database in a user record associated with the user. Embodiments can work with software, hardware, and/or operating system implementations other than those described herein. Any software, hardware, and operating system implementations suitable for performing the functions described herein can be used. Method 180 FIG. 6 illustrates a flowchart of an exemplary method 180 of loading licenses for media content items associated with a user from third party sources. At step 182, the system connects to a third party online media retailer. At step 184, licenses purchased from the third party retailers may be uploaded into a registered user database of the system. At step 186, after receiving the user license data, the system updates the registered user database of the system. Embodiments can work with software, hardware, and/or operating system implementations other than those described herein. Any software, hardware, and operating system implementations suitable for performing the functions described herein can be used. Method 200 FIG. 7 illustrates a flowchart of an exemplary method 700 of providing statistics associated with licensing transactions performed by the system to a third party over a communication network consistent with embodiments of the invention. At step 202, the system stores one or more transaction records in a connected licensing statistics database. At step 204, the system dynamically aggregates the transaction records in relation to one or more fields of information included in each transaction record. For example, the system may aggregate all transaction records stored in the licensing statistics database where the media content item of the transaction record has a desired title, and as such, data and statistics related to how many times a license was purchased for the media content item having the desired title may be retrieved. In an embodiment, similar aggregation may be performed to determine how many licenses were purchased for a particular rights-holder, titles of media content items that users of a particular demographic purchased, and/or other such relevant data and statistics. At step 206, the system may receive a statistics request from a third party that may include but not limited to a rights-holder, a hardware manufacturer, a marketing/analytics partner, and/or other such third parties that will be apparent to those skilled in the relevant art(s) without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. At step 208, the system may generate a statistics report based on the received request. At step 210, the system may transmit the statistics report to the third party over the communication network. As such, in an embodiment a participating rights-holder may quickly retrieve licensing data and statistics for media content items that the rights-holder owns. In another embodiment, a marketing and/or analytics company may receive valuable licensing and statistics data for media content items for particular demographics of users, genres of media content items, and/or other such categories. Embodiments can work with software, hardware, and/or operating system implementations, other than those described herein. Any software, hardware, and operating system implementations suitable for performing the functions described herein can be used. Conclusion As such, in general, some embodiments of the invention are directed to a system for recognizing licensed and unlicensed multi-media content by use of a natural media fingerprint recognition and license verification database and system. The system disables the use of unlicensed content and provides a secure method to license unlicensed multimedia content and distribute the licensing revenue to content owners, rights-holders, participating third-party hardware and software manufacturers, and/or other additional third parties. In some embodiments, an external multi-media hardware device includes a hardware or software read/write licensed media database module, operatively connected to a hardware or software natural media fingerprint recognition and license verification module, where the recognition and license verification module may be operatively connected to a hardware or software data encryption module. Moreover the device may include an operating system and/or application stored on memory associated with the external multi-media hardware device. Where the operating system and/or application may be executed by a processor associated with the device to cause the processor to control one or more of the modules to perform one or more tasks associated with the one or more modules. In addition, media reproduction (e.g., audio and video playback) hardware and/or software module may be monitored and controlled by processor of the device operatively connected to, executing, and/or accessing the content fingerprint recognition and license verification module. Moreover, a physical memory device (e.g., a memory and/or a mass storage device) may be accessible by the processor during execution of the one or more operations of the operating system and/or application residing on a memory associated with the external multi-media hardware device. In some embodiments, the operating system and/or application may cause the processor to drive a peripheral device using an I/O interface to present a user of the device with a graphic user interface. Furthermore, the external multimedia hardware device may communicate over a communication network (e.g., an internet connection, a cellular communication network connection, etc.). In some embodiments, the external multimedia hardware device may be connected to a one or more servers functioning as a media content licensing and verification system over the communication network, such as a media content licensing and verification system shown in FIGS. 1 and 2. In other embodiments, the external multimedia hardware device may be connected to a personal computer functioning as a media content licensing and verification system. For example, an external multimedia hardware device may connect to a user's personal computer over a Wi-Fi connection to verify a user has the appropriate license to reproduce a particular media content item, where the personal computer may include a plurality of licensing records associated with the user. In some embodiments, the communication connection between the device and the server may be a secure internet connection. In addition, the media content licensing and verification system may receive multi-media content items (e.g., songs, videos, books, etc.) from participating copyright owners and/or rights-holders through a catalog submissions module operatively connected to the system and executing thereon. The catalog submissions may be loaded into a natural media fingerprint creation module to generate a natural media fingerprint catalog. In addition, the system may be operatively connected to a storage device storing a registered users and licensed media database. In addition, the media content licensing and verification system may be operatively connected to and/or execute a secure license verification and payment collection module stored on a connected storage device and/or executing on a computing system connected over the communication network. Such that the the content fingerprint and licenses verification module associated with the external multimedia hardware device may conduct license purchasing transactions by communicating over the communication network with the media licensing and verification system and/or the secure license verification and payment collection module. The secure license verification and payment collection module may be connected through the central computer controlled sub-system server (e.g. a media content licensing and verification system) and/or through a computing system in communication with the media content licensing and verification system over the communication network. As such, the application and/or operating system executing on the external multimedia hardware device may facilitate licensing transactions for various media content items stored in the media content licensing and verification system. Furthermore the media content licensing and verification system may include a payments distribution with real-time statistics module that may execute on the media content licensing and verification system, such that copyright owners, rights-holders, and/or participating hardware manufacturers may receive payments and statistics associated with the licensing of media content items using the media content licensing and verification system. In some embodiments, pre-existing licenses may be submitted to the media content licensing and verification system such that the registered users and licensed media master database may be updated to include licenses for registered users purchased from third party sources, such as third party online media retailers. Where the previously purchased license data may be imported into the system over the communication network to the media content licensing and verification system from the third party sources, such as databases maintained by third parties. It will therefore be appreciated that the invention may be implemented, for example, using program code implemented on one or more hardware-based computers, one or more processors, and/or one or more integrated circuits (e.g., semiconductors). Program code typically comprises one or more instructions that are resident at various times in various memory and storage devices in a computer, and that, when read and executed by one or more processors in a computer, cause that computer to perform the steps necessary to execute steps or elements embodying the various aspects of the invention. Moreover, while the invention has and hereinafter will be described in the context of fully functioning computers and computer systems, those skilled in the art will appreciate that the various embodiments of the invention are capable of being distributed as a program product in a variety of forms, and that the invention applies equally regardless of the particular type of computer readable media used to actually carry out the distribution. Examples of computer readable media include but are not limited to tangible, recordable type media such as volatile and non-volatile memory devices, floppy and other removable disks, hard disk drives, magnetic tape, optical disks (e.g., CD-ROMs, DVDs, etc.) among others. Moreover, while the invention has and hereinafter will been described in the context of digital media files resident on a memory, the invention is not so limited. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that embodiments of the invention are capable of facilitating licensing transactions with respect to streaming digital media. For example, a media content item may be streamed to an external multimedia hardware device over a communication network, and a portion of the media content item may be stored in a local memory (e.g., buffered in a cache of a processor associated with the external multimedia hardware device) while a portion may be stored remotely on a memory device accessible by the external multimedia hardware device over a communication network. For example, a media content item may be streamed to an external multimedia hardware device over a communication network from a cloud based storage system, a digital media streaming service (e.g., Pandora, Last.fm, Spotify, iTunes, iCloud, Netflix, and/or other such services) and embodiments of the invention may analyze the media content item when loaded for reproduction and perform the operations consistent with embodiments of the invention to confirm that a user of the device has the appropriate license for the streaming media content item prior to reproducing the streaming media content item. While the invention has been illustrated by a description of the various embodiments and the examples, and while these embodiments have been described in considerable detail, it is not the intention of the applicants to restrict or in any other way limit the scope of the invention to such detail. Additional advantages and modifications will readily appear to those skilled in the art. Thus, the invention in its broader aspects is therefore not limited to the specific details, representative apparatus and method, and illustrative example shown and described. In particular, any of the blocks of the above flowcharts may be deleted, augmented, made to be simultaneous with another, combined, or be otherwise altered in accordance with the principles of the invention. Accordingly, departures may be made from such details without departing from the spirit or scope of applicants' general inventive concept. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Conventionally, the distribution of media content, such as music, movies, and books for example, is in large part controlled by owners who are the rights-holders of the media content. In conventional systems, the media content is incorporated into a physical media such as a compact disk (CD), a digital video disk (DVD), a printed publication, and/or any other physical media. In such conventional systems, the rights-holders of the media content are able to control licensing of the media content, the production of physical media copies of the media content, and/or the distribution of the media content to customers and/or third party retailers and thereby monetize the media content. There has been a dramatic shift in the marketplace away from media content distributed on physical media to digital media content that may be distributed via the internet. Conventionally, rights-holders of digital media content have significantly less control over the distribution of such digital media content as compared to the distribution of physical media. For example, a party that does not hold rights of the digital media content may reproduce the digital media content and then distribute the digital media content via the internet without the permission of the actual rights-holder of the digital media content. As a result, the actual-rights holder of the digital media content cannot monetize the unauthorized distribution of the digital media content. The inability of rights-holders of digital media content to monetize the unauthorized distribution of the digital media content limits the financial gain that rights-holders of the digital media content obtain in creating the original digital media content. Often times such unauthorized distribution of the digital media content prohibits the rights-holders of the digital media from covering the costs of creating the original digital media content which discourages creation of digital media content. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments relate to monetizing the reproduction of digital media content for the rights-holder of the digital media content. In an embodiment, a computer implemented method provides a multimedia hardware device a capability to generate an authorized reproduction of a media content item included in a digital media file. A digital media file that includes a media content item may be loaded for reproduction. The digital media file may be analyzed to identify digital media information associated with the media content item. A license database may be accessed to determine whether a user is licensed to reproduce the media content item based on the digital media information. The media content item may be reproduced when the user is licensed to reproduce the media content item based on the digital media information. A licensing query may be provided to the user when the user is not licensed to reproduce the media content item to prompt the user to select to acquire a license to reproduce the media content item or to decline the license to reproduce the media content item. In another embodiment, a system provides a media content licensing and verification system to license media content for reproduction. A transceiver may receive a media licensing request from an external device associated with a user. The media licensing request may include digital media information associated with a media content item included in a digital media file. A processor may access a media catalog database that includes a plurality of media content records where a media content record from the plurality of media content records is associated with the media content item. The processor may also determine whether the media licensing request is to be granted based on the media content record stored in the media catalog database that is associated with the media content item. The processor may grant the media licensing request for the external device when the media content record associated with the media content item verifies the granting of the license for the media content item to the external device. The processor may also decline the media licensing request for the external device when the media content record associated with the media content item does not verify the granting of the license for the media content item to the external device. Further embodiments, features, and advantages, as well as the structure and operation of the various embodiments, are described in detail below with reference to the accompanying drawings. | G06F2110 | 20170725 | 20180220 | 20171109 | 99899.0 | G06F2110 | 2 | MCCOY, RICHARD ANTHONY | DIGITAL MEDIA REPRODUCTION AND LICENSING | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,017 |
15,659,339 | PENDING | METHOD FOR REDUCING POWER CONSUMPTION OF TERMINAL IN MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM USING MULTI-CARRIER STRUCTURE | A method for reducing power consumption of a terminal that communicates with a base station in a mobile communication system using a multi-carrier structure composed of a primary component carrier and at least one secondary component carrier comprises: receiving a discontinuous reception (DRX) parameter group for multi carriers from the base station; and setting the multi carriers to the same parameter value, by using the received parameter group. The method for reducing power consumption of the terminal further comprises: performing a downlink control channel receive operation on each carrier according to a DRX cycle. As the base station in the mobile communication system using the multi-carrier structure simplifies the DRX process for reducing power consumption of a terminal by reducing signaling load, for the multi-carrier control of the terminal, it becomes possible to reduce power consumption of the terminal. | 1.-14. (canceled) 15. A method for a discontinuous reception by a terminal, the method comprising: receiving information about a first discontinuous reception cycle, a duration of the first discontinuous reception cycle and a second discontinuous reception cycle from a base station; performing the discontinuous reception of a physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) on a first component carrier based on the information about the first discontinuous reception cycle in the duration of the first discontinuous reception cycle; receiving a first message; and switching the discontinuous reception on the first component carrier from the first discontinuous reception cycle to the second discontinuous reception cycle in response to the first message in the duration of the first discontinuous reception cycle, wherein the PDCCH comprises a carrier indicator (CI) indicating a second component carrier through which a data channel is received by the terminal. 16. An apparatus, comprising: a memory and a processor operably coupled to the memory, to execute program instructions stored in the memory, wherein the processor, through execution of the program instructions, is configured to: instruct to receive information about a first discontinuous reception cycle, a duration of the first discontinuous reception cycle and a second discontinuous reception cycle from a base station; perform a discontinuous reception of a physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) on a first component carrier based on the information about the first discontinuous reception cycle in the duration of the first discontinuous reception cycle; cause the transceiver to receive a first message; and switch the discontinuous reception on the first component carrier from the first discontinuous reception cycle to the second discontinuous reception cycle in response to the first message in the duration of the first discontinuous reception cycle, wherein the PDCCH comprises a carrier indicator (CI) indicating a second component carrier through which a data channel is received by the terminal. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. 371 patent application Ser. No. 13/383,455 filed on Jan. 11, 2012, which is a 35 U.S.C. §371 filing of International Application Number PCT/KR2010/006730 which was filed on Oct. 1, 2010, and which claims priority to, and the benefit of, Korean Application Nos. 10-2009-0093895, filed on Oct. 1, 2009 and 10-2010-0001516 filed Jan. 8, 2010. The contents of the aforementioned application are hereby incorporated herein by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD Example embodiments of the present invention relate in general to a method of reducing power consumption of a terminal in a long term evolution (LTE system, which is under standardization by 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP), performing communication between a base station and the terminal, and more specifically to a method for a base station to efficiently control a discontinuous reception (DRX) operation of a terminal in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers. BACKGROUND ART 3GPP, a mobile communication standardization organization, developed the LTE system standard to develop a next-generation mobile communication standard. Also, to meet International Mobile Telecommunication (IMT)-advanced requirements suggested by International Telecommunication Union Radio communications (ITU-R), an LTE-advanced system standard, which is an extended LIE standard, is under development. The LTE standard supports a maximum wireless bandwidth of 20 MHz for mobile communication, and the LTE-advanced standard uses carrier aggregation technology to support a maximum bandwidth of 100 MHz. Thus, the bandwidth of 100 MHz is divided into component carriers (CCs) having a maximum bandwidth of 20 MHz, and a base station and a terminal can communicate with each other using a plurality of CCs at the same time. Since a terminal operating in a carrier aggregation structure receives a plurality of wireless channels in a wideband, power consumption increases. To solve this problem, a control procedure for minimizing power consumption in a multi-carrier environment is needed. DISCLOSURE Technical Problem Accordingly, in order to substantially obviate one or more problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art, an object of the present invention provide a method of reducing power consumption of a terminal communicating with a base station in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers for reducing power consumption of terminals. One aspect of the present invention provides a method of reducing power consumption of a terminal communicating with a base station using multiple carriers includes: receiving one discontinuous reception (DRX) parameter group for multiple carriers from the base station; receiving a value of the one parameter group, and setting the multiple carriers to the same parameter value; and performing an operation of receiving a downlink (DL) control channel for each of the carriers according to a DRX cycle. Also, the performing the operation of receiving the DL control channel for each of the carriers according to the DRX cycle may include performing, at all the carriers, the operation of receiving the DL control channel in the same way. The performing the operation of receiving the DL control channel for each of the carriers according to the DRX cycle may include: when the DL control channel is received on a carrier of the terminal, interpreting the received control channel to demodulate the corresponding data channel; and continuously performing an on-duration operation until a new control channel is received in a next subframe time, and then switching to a sleep operation when a new control channel is not received during a time of an inactivity timer. The performing the operation of receiving the DL control channel for each of the carriers according to the DRX cycle may include, when a carrier indicator (CI) is included in the received control channel, receiving a data channel of a carrier corresponding to a carrier number indicated by the CI and demodulating data. The terminal may receive a message instructing the terminal to switch a DRX operation cycle for another carrier from a short DRX cycle to a long DRX cycle, a message instructing the terminal to switch the DRX operation cycle for the other carrier from the long DRX cycle to the short DRX cycle, a message instructing the terminal to stop an operation of transmitting and receiving the other carrier, and a message instructing the terminal to start the operation of transmitting and receiving the other carrier from the base station. The performing the operation of receiving the DL control channel for each of the carriers according to the DRX cycle may include, when the terminal receives a physical downlink control channel (PDCCH) in a long DRX period state, demodulating the PDCCH or a physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH), and when it is not necessary to switch to a short DRX period state, staying in the long DRX period state. The performing the operation of receiving the DL control channel for each of the carriers according to the DRX cycle may include: when the terminal receives the PDCCH in the long DRX period state, demodulating the PDCCH or the PDSCH to determine whether or not a type of data requires continuous data communication; when it is determined that the type of data does not require continuous data communication, staying in the long DRX period state; and when it is determined that the type of data requires continuous data communication, switching to the short DRX period state. A case in which the type of data does not require continuous data communication may include at least one of a case in which the base station allocates an uplink (UL) radio resource but there is no data in a buffer of the terminal, a case in which the base station requests UL transmission to maintain UL synchronization, a case in which the base station requests UL transmission to search for location information about the terminal, and a case in which the base station requests a DL channel state report. Another aspect of the present invention provides a method of reducing power consumption of a terminal communicating with a base station using multiple carriers includes: transmitting, at the base station, a configuration message to the terminal so that the terminal can carry out a configuration procedure of controlling a plurality of carriers; and transmitting, at the base station, a carrier activation message to the terminal so that the terminal stands by without using a carrier, which is instructed to he configured by the configuration message, for communication with the base station and then uses a carrier, which is instructed to be activated by the carrier activation message, for communication with the base station when a carrier activation procedure is complete. The activation message may be transmitted through a data channel transmitted to the terminal by the base station, and may include at least one of an activation carrier number, a deactivation carrier number, an activation identity, and a deactivation identity. A plurality of the carrier activation messages may be stored in one data channel transmitted to the terminal, and transmitted. The base station may transmit a deactivation message to the terminal to switch the terminal to a standby state for the activated carrier. The carrier activation procedure may be carried out for a DL carrier. The carrier activation procedure may be carried out for a UL carrier in connection with activation of the DL carrier. To be specific, in the UL carrier activation procedure carried out in connection with activation of the DL carrier, the base station may include mapping information about the UL carrier interoperating with the DL carrier in a DL configuration message and transmit the DL configuration message to the terminal so that the UL carrier mapped to the DL carrier instructed to be activated is activated and used for communication with the base station when the DL carrier is instructed to be activated by the terminal. Still another aspect of the present invention provides a method of reducing power consumption of a terminal communicating with a base station in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers including a primary component carrier and at least one secondary component carrier includes: transmitting, at the base station, a configuration message to the terminal; and transmitting, at the base station, a carrier activation message to the terminal. The configuration message may include carrier mapping information between UL carriers interoperating with the DL carriers. The method may further include having a DL carrier indicated by the carrier activation message to be activated. When the carrier mapping information is included in the configuration message and transferred to the terminal, the UL carriers may be implicitly activated in connection with activation of the DL carriers. DL carriers may be activated in connection with activation of DL carriers. Different numbers of the DL carriers and the UL carriers may be mapped to each other. When the different numbers of the DL carriers and the UL carriers are mapped to each other, the UL carriers may be implicitly activated in connection with activation of the DL carriers by including the carrier mapping information in the configuration message and transferring the configuration message to the terminal. The configuration message may be a radio resource control (RRC) message including the number of additional secondary cells (Scells) and secondary component carrier (SCC) control information. The activation message may be transmitted to the terminal through a media access control (MAC) control message. The activation message may be included in a data channel in the MAC control message and transmitted. A plurality of the carrier activation messages may be stored in the data channel in the MAC control message transmitted to the terminal, and transmitted. The MAC control message may include a control channel and a data channel, and the data channel may include a data channel header, the carrier activation message, and traffic data. The method may further include transmitting, at the base station, a carrier deactivation message to the terminal to switch the terminal to a standby state for a carrier indicated by the carrier activation message. The carrier activation message may include at least one of a physical uplink control channel (PUCCH), which is a UL control channel, and a transmission cycle of a sounding reference symbol (SRS). Advantageous Effects According to example embodiments of the present invention, a base station in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers reduces signaling for multi-carrier control of a terminal to simplify a DRX procedure for reducing power consumption of the terminal, so that the power consumption of the terminal can be reduced. Also, using a simplified control message, a call processing procedure of the system can be reduced. DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a timing diagram illustrating a discontinuous reception (DRX) operation of a terminal in a mobile communication system. FIG. 2 is a timing diagram illustrating a DRX operation of a mobile communication system having a multi-carrier structure using a carrier indicator (CI) according to example embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating a process of switching a DRX operation cycle for one or more carriers from a short DRX cycle to a long DRX cycle in a downlink (DL) of a mobile communication system using multiple carriers according to example embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating a process of switching a DRX operation cycle for one or more carriers from a long DRX cycle to a short DRX cycle in a DL of a mobile communication system using multiple carriers according to other example embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a process for a base station to activate a carrier of a terminal in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers. FIG. 6 is a conceptual diagram illustrating a process for a base station to activate a carrier of a terminal in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers. FIG. 7 illustrates a structure of a carrier activation message transmitted to a terminal by a base station. BEST MODE Example embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein. However, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are merely representative for purposes of describing example embodiments of the present invention, however, example embodiments of the present invention may be embodied in many alternate forms and should not be construed as limited to example embodiments of the present invention set forth herein. Accordingly, while the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and will herein be described in detail. It should be understood, however, that there is no intent to limit the invention to the particular forms disclosed, but on the contrary, the invention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the invention. It will be understood that, although the terms first, second, etc. may be used herein to describe various elements, these elements should not be limited by these terms. These terms are only used to distinguish one element from another. For example, a first element could be termed a second element, and, similarly, a second element could he termed a first element, without departing from the scope of the present invention. As used herein, the term “and/or” includes any and all combinations of one or more of the associated listed items. It will be understood that when an element is referred to as being “connected” or “coupled” to another element, it can be directly connected or coupled went or intervening elements may be present. In contrast, when an element is referred to as being “directly connected” or “directly coupled” to another element, there are no intervening elements present. Other words used to describe the relationship between elements should be interpreted in a like fashion (i.e., “between” versus “directly between,” “adjacent” versus “directly adjacent,” etc.). The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the invention. As used herein, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well, unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be further understood that the terms “comprises,” “comprising,” “includes” and/or “including,” when used herein, specify the presence of stated features, integers, steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude the presence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps, operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof. Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientific terms) used herein have the same a as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those defined in commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaning that is consistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant art and will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal sense unless expressly so defined herein. The term “terminal” used herein may be referred to as a mobile station (MS), user equipment (UE), user terminal (UT), wireless terminal, access terminal (AT), subscriber unit, subscriber station (SS), wireless device, wireless communication device, wireless transmit/receive unit (WTRU), moving node, mobile, or other terms. Various example embodiments of a terminal may include a cellular phone, a smart phone having a wireless communication function, a personal digital assistant (PDA) having a wireless communication function, a wireless modem, a portable computer having a wireless communication function, a photographing apparatus such as a digital camera having a wireless communication function, a gaming apparatus having a wireless communication function, a music storing and playing appliance having a wireless communication function, an Internet home appliance capable of wireless Internet access and browsing, and also portable units or terminals having a combination of such functions, but are not limited to these. The term “base station” used herein generally denotes a fixed point communicating with a terminal, and may be referred to as a Node-B, evolved Node-B (eNode-B), base transceiver system (BTS), access point, and other terms. One or more cells can be present in the coverage area of one base station. The term “carrier” used herein has the same meaning as a component carrier (CC) when carrier aggregation is applied to the carrier. The term “primary cell (Pcell)” used herein denotes a cell that is initially configured during connection establishment, and plays an essential role with regard to security, upper layer system information, and some lower layer functions. The term “secondary cell (Scell)” used herein denotes a cell that is configured after connection establishment to merely provide additional radio resources. The term “serving cell” may denote a Pcell or Scell, and may be used to denote a set of one or more cells including a Pcell and all Scells. In the case of carrier aggregation, one serving cell provides non-access stratum (NAS) mobility information, e.g., a tracking area identity (TAI), upon radio resource control (RRC) connection establishment/connection re-establishment/handover, and one serving cell provides a security input upon RRC connection re-establishment/handover. Here, the TAT denotes a tracking area for managing base stations located within a predetermined range together, and is generated as a unit managed by the NAS from a public land mobile network (PLMN) identity that the tracking area belongs to and a tracking area code (TAC) of the tracking area. Such a serving cell will be defined as a Pcell below. In the case of carrier aggregation, carriers can he classified as a primary component carrier (PCC) and a secondary component carrier (SCC). In a downlink (DL), a carrier corresponding to the Pcell is defined as a DL PCC, and in an uplink. (UL), a carrier corresponding to the Pcell is defined as a UL PCC. According to a capability of a terminal, a Scell can constitute a set of serving cells together with a Pcell. In a DL, a carrier corresponding to the Scell is defined as a DL SCC, and in a UL, a carrier corresponding to the Scell is defined as a UL SCC. Thus, a set of serving cells for one terminal includes one Pcell and at least one Scell. The number of configurable serving cells can be set according to an aggregation capability of the terminal. The Pcell can be changed only through a handover procedure. The Pcell is used for transmission of a UL control channel, e.g., a physical uplink control channel (PUCCH). The Pcell can be distinguished from the Scell in that the Pcell cannot be deactivated. Hereinafter, example embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to the appended drawings. To aid in understanding the present invention, like numbers refer to like elements throughout the description of the figures, and description of the same component will not be reiterated. FIG. 1 is a timing diagram illustrating a discontinuous reception (DRX) operation of a terminal in a mobile communication system, and FIG. 2 is a timing diagram illustrating a DRX operation of a mobile communication system having a multi-carrier structure using a carrier indicator (CI) according to example embodiments of the present invention. A terminal is controlled according to an on-duration period 12 in which the terminal receives a DL control channel transmitted by a base station, and a period 14 in which the terminal stops the receiving operation and performs a sleep operation to reduce power consumption. When the base station does not transmit a control channel to the terminal while the terminal performs the on-duration operation, the terminal determines that is not necessary to receive data and switches to the sleep operation. A cycle in which the terminal performs the on-duration operation is indicated by a DRX cycle 10. The DRX cycle 10 is separately indicated by a long DRX 20 and a short DRX 40. The long DRX 20 can minimize power consumption because a data receiving cycle of the terminal is large. A power consumption reducing operation of a terminal in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers is performed in parallel to control the multiple carriers including one PCC and at least one SCC. Thus, the terminal controls a DRX operation according to the respective carriers (PCC and SCC). More specifically, a base station transmits a message for DRX control to the terminal, and the DRX control message includes parameter values, such as an on-duration, a long DRX cycle, a short DRX cycle, and an inactivity timer, for controlling the DRX operation of the terminal. A media access control (MAC) message generated in the MAC layer can be used as the DRX control message. The MAC message can have a size of N bits (N is a natural number). In example embodiments of the present invention, to reduce the size of a control message transmitted by a base station in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers, the base station transmits one DRX parameter group to a terminal, and the terminal receives a value of the one parameter group and sets the multiple carriers to the same parameter value. Thus, a plurality of DRX parameter groups required to transmit required parameters according to respective carriers (PCC and SCC) are not required. When a DRX environment is set, a terminal performs an operation of receiving a DL control channel for respective carriers (PCC and SCC) according to a DRX cycle. When a DL control channel is received on a CC of the terminal, the terminal performs a data channel receiving operation. Also, the terminal continuously performs an on-duration operation and waits for a new control channel to be received in a next subframe time. This operation stands by for a time corresponding to a value of an inactivity tinter, and the terminal switches to the sleep operation when a new control channel is not received during the time of the inactivity timer. In example embodiments of the present invention, to support a DRX operation of a terminal, a base station transmits the following messages to the terminal. 1. The base station instructs the terminal to switch a DRX operation cycle for one or more CCs from a short DRX cycle to a long DRX cycle. The long DRX instruction message includes a message identity, a carrier identity, etc., and is generated at the MAC layer and transmitted. 2. The base station instructs the terminal to switch a DRX operation cycle for one or more CCs from a long DRX cycle to a short DRX cycle. The short DRX instruction message includes a message identity, a carrier identity, etc., and is generated at the MAC layer and transmitted. 3. The base station instructs the terminal to stop an operation of transmitting and receiving one or more carriers. The message is generated at an RRC layer and transmitted. 4. The base station instructs the terminal to start an operation of transmitting and receiving one or more carriers. The message is generated at the RRC layer and transmitted. In a mobile communication system of FIG. 2 having a multi-carrier structure using a CI, a terminal interprets a control channel, e.g., a physical downlink control channel (PDCCH), received on one PCC, e.g., CCI of FIG. 2, to demodulate the corresponding data channel, e.g., a physical downlink shared channel (PDSCH). When a CI is included in the received control channel (“PDCCH with CI” of FIG. 2), the terminal receives a data channel of an SCC corresponding to a carrier number indicated by the CI, e.g., CC2 of FIG. 2, to demodulate data. In this operation, a base station in the mobile communication system having the multi-carrier structure transmits the following messages to the terminal, thereby controlling DRX. 1. The base s instructs the terminal to switch a DRX operation cycle for another carrier (SCC) from a short DRX cycle to a long DRX cycle. The long DRX instruction message includes a message identity, a carrier identity, etc., and is generated at the MAC layer and transmitted. 2. The base station instructs the terminal to switch a DRX operation cycle for another carrier (SCC) from a long DRX cycle to a short DRX cycle. The short DRX instruction message includes a message identity, a carrier identity, etc., and is generated at the MAC layer and transmitted. 3. The base station instructs the terminal to stop an operation of transmitting and receiving another carrier. The message is generated at the RRC layer and transmitted. 4. The base station instructs the terminal to start an operation of transmitting and receiving another carrier. The message is generated at the RRC layer and transmitted. FIG. 3 is a flowchart illustrating a process of switching a DRX operation cycle for one or more carriers from a short DRX cycle to a long DRX cycle in a DL of a mobile communication system using multiple carriers according to example embodiments of the present invention, and FIG. 4 is a flowchart illustrating a process of switching a DRX operation cycle for one or more carriers from a long DRX cycle to a short DRX cycle in a DL of a mobile communication system using multiple carriers according to other example embodiments of the present invention. A process of switching a DRX operation cycle for one or more carriers from a short DRX cycle to a long DRX cycle in a DL of a mobile communication system using multiple carriers according to example embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail below. Referring to FIG. 3, first, a base station transmits a DL control channel, e.g., a PDCCH, to a terminal (operation 301). The DL control channel may include a CI (Carrier Indicator). By cross-carrier scheduling with a CI, a PDCCH of a serving cell can schedule resources of another serving cell. For example, using a CI, a PDCCH can allocate PDSCH or physical uplink shared channel (PDSCH) resources of one CC among multiple carriers. When the DL control channel is received, the terminal interprets the DL control channel, receives a data channel, e.g., a PDSCH, of a PCC or SCC corresponding to a carrier number indicated by the CI of the DL control channel, and demodulates data (operation 303). In other words, when a CI is included in the received control channel (“PDCCH with CI” of FIG. 2), the terminal receives a data channel of a SCC corresponding to a carrier number indicated by the CI, e.g., CC2 of FIG. 2, to demodulate data. When the amount of data corresponding to a predetermined threshold value or less is in a buffer for a predetermined time, the base station transmits a long DRX instruction message, which instructs the terminal to switch to long DRX, to the terminal (operation 305), and the terminal receives the long DRX instruction message and switches to long DRX (operation 307). The long DRX instruction message can include a message identity, a carrier identity, and so on. A MAC message generated in the MAC layer can be used as the long DRX instruction message. The MAC message can have a size of, for example, N bits (N is a natural number). A process of switching a DRX operation cycle for one or more carriers from a long DRX cycle to a short DRX cycle in a DL of a mobile communication system using multiple carriers according to other example embodiments of the present invention will be described in detail below. Referring to FIG. 4, first, a base station transmits a DL control channel, e.g., a PDCCH, to a terminal (operation 401). The DL control channel may include a CI. By cross-carrier scheduling with a CI, a PDCCH of a serving cell can schedule resources of another serving cell. For example, using a CI, a PDCCH can allocate PDSCH or PUSCH resources of one CC among multiple carriers. When the DL control channel is received, the terminal interprets the DL control channel, receives a data channel, e.g., a PDSCH, of a PCC or SCC corresponding to a carrier number indicated by the CI of the DL control channel, and demodulates data (operation 403). When the amount of data corresponding to a predetermined threshold value or less is in a buffer for a predetermined time and then increases, the base station transmits a short DRX instruction message, which instructs the terminal to switch to short DRX, to the terminal (operation 405), and the terminal receives the short DRX instruction message and switches to short DRX (operation 407). The Long DRX instruction message can include a message identity, a carrier identity, and so on. A MAC message generated in the MAC layer can he used as the short DRX instruction message. The MAC message can have a size of, for example, N bits (N is a natural number). In a multi-carrier environment sing a CI, a DRX operation of one CC is influenced by receiving of a control channel of another CC. Thus, in example embodiments of the present invention, when one carrier is instructed to receive a data channel by another carrier, a terminal carries out a procedure as if a control channel was received on a carrier of the terminal. When a terminal receives a DL control channel, e.g., a PDCCH, in a long DRX period state in which the terminal receives a DL channel at long periods, the terminal immediately switches to a short DRX period state, thereby receiving data at short periods. In this procedure, it is necessary to reduce power consumption of the terminal caused when the terminal receives meaningless data and switches from a long DRX period to a short DRX period. In example embodiments of the present invention, when a terminal receives a DL control channel, e.g., a PDCCH, in the long DRX period state but does not need to switch to the short DRX period state after demodulating the PDCCH or a PDSCH, the terminal stays in the long DRX period state. To he specific, after receiving a PDCCH, the terminal demodulates the PDCCH and PDSCH to determine whether or not a type of data requires continuous data communication, and switches to a short DRX period only when continuous data communication is required. Continuous data communication is not required in the following cases. A base station allocates UL radio resources, but there is no data in a buffer of a terminal. A base station requests UL transmission to maintain UL synchronization. A base station requests UL transmission to retrieve location information about a terminal. A base station requests a DL channel state report. When continuous data communication is not required as mentioned above, the terminal can continuously perform a long DRX period operation to minimize power consumption according to a procedure proposed in example embodiments of the present invention. FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a process for a base station to activate a carrier of a terminal in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers, and FIG. 6 is a conceptual diagram illustrating a process for a base station to activate a carrier of a terminal in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers. FIG. 7 illustrates a structure of a carrier activation message transmitted to a terminal by a base station. A process for a base station to activate a carrier of a terminal in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers will be described in detail below with reference to FIGS. 5 to 7. In an idle mode and an initial access mode for a base station, a terminal communicates with the base station using a single carrier, e.g., CC #1 for a DL and CC #1 for a UL as shown in FIG. 6. In the idle mode or the initial access mode in a mobile communication system using multiple carriers, the base station transmits a configuration message to the terminal so that the terminal controls a plurality of CCs, thereby performing a configuration procedure (operation 501). The configuration message can be transmitted by the base station using an RRC message. The RRC message can include the number of additional Scells and multi-SCC control information. The configuration message can be the RRC message and can he used to add, modify, or release an Scell. The RRC message can he transmitted through a dedicated channel. After receiving the configuration message, the terminal transmits a configuration response message as a receiving completion message to the base station (operation 503). As a result, for example, the configuration procedure for DL CC #2 and CC #3 is complete as illustrated in FIG. 6. The terminal having completed the configuration procedure stores control information for the multiple carriers included in the configuration message transmitted by the base station, but stands by to reduce power consumption of the terminal itself without performing communication using a carrier (e.g., DL CC #2 or DL CC #3 shown in FIG. 2) specified in the configuration message. To be specific, the terminal does not receive a control channel of the configured carriers DL CC #2 and DL CC #3, and does not measure a channel state either. After the configuration procedure is complete, the base station transmits a carrier activation message to the terminal, thereby performing a carrier activation procedure (operation 505). The terminal receives the carrier activation message to activate the corresponding carrier (operation 507). For example, DL CC #2 and DL CC #3 are activated as shown in FIG. 6. After receiving the carrier activation message, the terminal transmits an ACK/NACK to the base station (operation 509). The ACK/NACK may be sent immediately after the terminal receives the carrier activation message, or after the terminal receives the carrier activation message and then activates the corresponding carrier (operation 507). When the activation procedure is complete, the terminal actually uses the activated carrier for communication with the base station. Through the above-described operations, a DL multi-carrier activation procedure is carried out. A carrier activation message according to example embodiments of the present invention is transmitted through a data channel 720 transmitted to a terminal by a base station, and can be a MAC control message as shown in FIG. 7. Referring to FIG. 7, the MAC control message includes a control channel 710 and a data channel 720, and the data channel 720 may consist of a data channel header 721, a carrier activation message 723, and traffic data 727. In other words, the carrier activation message 723 can be included in the data channel 720 of the MAC control message. The carrier activation message 723 can include an activation or deactivation carrier identity. The carrier activation message 723 may further include an activation or deactivation identity. The carrier activation message 723 may be transmitted along with traffic data, which is transmitted to the terminal by the base station, by a piggyback mechanism. A plurality of carrier activation messages may be stored in one data channel and transmitted. When the carrier activation procedure is complete and a plurality of carriers are activated, all the activated carriers perform the power consumption reducing operation through the DRX procedure illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 2, and the terminal communicates with the base station using all the activated carriers. The activated carriers can be switched to the standby state when the base station transmits a carrier deactivation message to the terminal. The carrier deactivation message can have the same format as the carrier activation message. In other words, the carrier deactivation message can be included in a data channel of a MAC control message and transmitted, and can include a deactivation carrier identity. A UL carrier activation procedure according to example embodiments of the present invention can he carried out in the same manner as the above-described DL carrier activation procedure. In other words, the base station transmits a configuration message and a carrier activation message to the terminal, so that the UL carrier activation procedure can be carried out. During the UL carrier activation procedure, the base station can include a transmission cycle of a physical control channel (e.g., a PUCCH or sounding reference symbol (SRS)) or information for separately indicating a transmission start in the configuration message and transmit the configuration message to the terminal. Alternatively, the transmission cycle of a physical control channel (e.g., a PUCCH or SRS) or the information for separately indicating a transmission start may be included in the carrier activation message and transmitted to the terminal. For example, a transmission cycle of a PUCCH, which is a UL, control channel, SRS may be included in the carrier activation message and transmitted to the terminal. Using a format similar to that of the carrier activation message of FIG. 6, the configuration message for activating a UL carrier may be transmitted along with traffic data, which is transmitted to the terminal by the base station, by a piggyback mechanism. Also, a plurality of carrier activation messages may be stored in one data channel and transmitted. Alternatively, a UL carrier activation procedure can be controlled in connection with DL carrier activation. When UL control is performed in connection with DL control, the number of control message transmissions between the base station and the terminal and the amount of control data are reduced. A UL carrier configuration procedure according to other example embodiments of the present invention can be carried out in connection with a DL carrier configuration procedure at the same time. The UL carrier activation procedure carried out after the DL carrier configuration procedure can be simultaneously performed with a DL activation procedure. To be specific, mapping information about a UT, carrier interoperating with a DL, carrier can he included in the DL configuration message of operation 501 and transmitted to the terminal. The carrier mapping information can indicate that DI, CC #2 interoperates with UL CC #2 as illustrated in FIG. 6 and hybrid automatic repeat request (HARQ) ACK/NACK transmission resources operate in connection with each other, and also indicate that DL CC #3 interoperates with UL CC #3 and HARQ ACK/NACK transmission resources operate in connection with each other. Further, the carrier mapping information can indicate that a PDCCH indicating permission for transmission of a UL data channel operates in connection with resource information about the UL data channel (PUSCH). Thus, the base station includes all mapping information in the configuration message, transfers the configuration message to the terminal in advance, and thus can implicitly start UL carrier activation as soon as a DL activation message is received by the terminal without transmitting a UL carrier activation message to the terminal (operation 511 of FIG. 5). For example, as illustrated in FIG. 6, after the carrier activation message of operation 505 is received, the terminal can activate the corresponding carrier (DL CC #2 and DL CC #3) and implicitly activate UL CC #2 and UL CC #3 at the same time. When a DL carrier is instructed to be activated, the terminal can activate a UL carrier mapped to the DL carrier and use the UL carrier for communication. Thus, when the base station makes an instruction for UL data transmission, an activated UL carrier can be used when the terminal transmits data to the base station, and a UL control channel (e.g., a PUCCH or SRS) can be transmitted according to a set condition. An activated UL carrier can be deactivated as soon as a deactivation procedure of a previously mapped DL carrier is complete. A UL carrier whose activation procedure is complete requires the base station and the terminal to operate in synchronization with each other. Thus, the base station and the terminal manage a UL synchronization timer, thereby managing synchronization. The base station sets the timer at a point in time that synchronization of the terminal is maintained to store the maximum synchronization maintenance time. After this, when a value of the timer is due at a point in time that an activation message is received and synchronization is lost, the base station restores synchronization of the carrier using a random access procedure and then performs an activation operation. When the random access procedure is successful, the base station and the terminal reset the timer to the maximum synchronization maintenance and carry out a synchronization maintenance procedure using a data channel in a UL data transceiving state. Different numbers of DL carriers and UL carriers may be mapped to each other. Even when different numbers of DL carriers and UL carriers are mapped to each other, a UL carrier configuration procedure can be carried out in connection with a DL carrier configuration procedure at the same tune. Even when different numbers of DL carriers and UL carriers are mapped to each other, mapping information is included in a configuration message and transmitted to the terminal in advance by the base station, so that UL carrier activation can be implicitly started as soon as a DL activation message is received by the terminal without transmitting a UL carrier activation message to the terminal. While the example embodiments of the present invention and their advantages have been described, in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations may be made herein without departing from the scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND ART <EOH>3GPP, a mobile communication standardization organization, developed the LTE system standard to develop a next-generation mobile communication standard. Also, to meet International Mobile Telecommunication (IMT)-advanced requirements suggested by International Telecommunication Union Radio communications (ITU-R), an LTE-advanced system standard, which is an extended LIE standard, is under development. The LTE standard supports a maximum wireless bandwidth of 20 MHz for mobile communication, and the LTE-advanced standard uses carrier aggregation technology to support a maximum bandwidth of 100 MHz. Thus, the bandwidth of 100 MHz is divided into component carriers (CCs) having a maximum bandwidth of 20 MHz, and a base station and a terminal can communicate with each other using a plurality of CCs at the same time. Since a terminal operating in a carrier aggregation structure receives a plurality of wireless channels in a wideband, power consumption increases. To solve this problem, a control procedure for minimizing power consumption in a multi-carrier environment is needed. | H04W520235 | 20170725 | 20171109 | 75572.0 | H04W5202 | 2 | CHENG, CHI TANG P | METHOD FOR REDUCING POWER CONSUMPTION OF TERMINAL IN MOBILE COMMUNICATION SYSTEM USING MULTI-CARRIER STRUCTURE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04W | 2,017 |
||
15,659,803 | ACCEPTED | USE OF INHIBITORS OF BRUTON'S TYROSINE KINASE (BTK) | Disclosed herein are methods for treating a cancer comprising: a. administering a Btk inhibitor to a subject sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes defined by immunophenotyping; b. determining the expression profile of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes; and c. administering a second agent based on the determined expression profile. | 1.-129. (canceled) 130. A method for treating chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)/small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL) in an individual who has failed at least one prior therapy for chronic lymphocytic leukemia or small lymphocytic lymphoma comprising administering to the individual once per day about 420 mg of an oral dose of an inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) having the structure: 131. The method of claim 130, wherein the oral dose is a capsule. 132. The method of claim 130, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a stable disease, a partial response, or a complete response. 133. The method of claim 130, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a partial response or a complete response. 134. The method of claim 130, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a complete response. 135. The method of claim 130, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual does not experience a progressive disease. 136. The method of claim 130, wherein the method is a method of treating chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). 137. The method of claim 130, wherein the method is a method of treating small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL). 138. The method of claim 130, wherein the individual has nucleic acid deletion in chromosome 17. 139. The method of claim 138, wherein the deletion is in 17p. 140. A method for treating relapsed or refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)/relapsed or refractory small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL) in an individual comprising administering to the individual in need thereof once per day about 420 mg of an oral dose of an inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) having the structure: 141. The method of claim 140, wherein the oral dose is a capsule. 142. The method of claim 140, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a stable disease, a partial response, or a complete response. 143. The method of claim 140, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a partial response or a complete response. 144. The method of claim 140, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a complete response. 145. The method of claim 140, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual does not experience a progressive disease. 146. The method of claim 140, wherein the method is a method of treating relapsed or refractory chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL). 147. The method of claim 140, wherein the method is a method of treating relapsed or refractory small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL). 148. The method of claim 140, wherein the individual has nucleic acid deletion in chromosome 17. 149. The method of claim 148, wherein the deletion is in 17p. 150. A method for treating small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL) in an individual who has failed at least one prior therapy for small lymphocytic lymphoma comprising administering to the individual once per day about 420 mg of an oral dose of an inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) having the structure: 151. The method of claim 150, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a partial response or a complete response. 152. The method of claim 150, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a complete response. 153. The method of claim 150, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual does not experience a progressive disease. 154. The method of claim 150, wherein the individual has nucleic acid deletion in chromosome 17p. 155. A method for treating relapsed or refractory small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL) in an individual comprising administering to the individual in need thereof once per day about 420 mg of an oral dose of an inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk) having the structure: 156. The method of claim 155, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a partial response or a complete response. 157. The method of claim 155, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual achieves a complete response. 158. The method of claim 155, wherein, following administration of the inhibitor, the individual does not experience a progressive disease. 159. The method of claim 155, wherein the individual has nucleic acid deletion in chromosome 17p. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/091,196, filed Nov. 26, 2013; which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/869,700, filed Apr. 24, 2013; which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/153,317, filed Jun. 3, 2011; which claims the benefit of priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/351,130, filed Jun. 3, 2010; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/351,655, filed Jun. 4, 2010; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/351,793, filed Jun. 4, 2010; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/351,762, filed Jun. 4, 2010; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/419,764, filed Dec. 3, 2010; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/472,138, filed Apr. 5, 2011; all of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. SEQUENCE LISTING The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy is named 25922-819-307SEQ.txt and is 812 bytes in size. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk), a member of the Tec family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases, is a key signaling enzyme expressed in all hematopoietic cells types except T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. Btk plays an essential role in the B-cell signaling pathway linking cell surface B-cell receptor (BCR) stimulation to downstream intracellular responses. Btk is a key regulator of B-cell development, activation, signaling, and survival (Kurosaki, Curr Op Imm, 2000, 276-281; Schaeffer and Schwartzberg, Curr Op Imm 2000, 282-288). In addition, Btk plays a role in a number of other hematopoietic cell signaling pathways, e.g., Toll like receptor (TLR) and cytokine receptor-mediated TNF-α production in macrophages, IgE receptor (FcepsilonRI) signaling in Mast cells, inhibition of Fas/APO-1 apoptotic signaling in B-lineage lymphoid cells, and collagen-stimulated platelet aggregation. See, e.g., C. A. Jeffries, et al., (2003), Journal of Biological Chemistry 278:26258-26264; N. J. Horwood, et al., (2003), The Journal of Experimental Medicine 197:1603-1611; Iwaki et al. (2005), Journal of Biological Chemistry 280(48):40261-40270; Vassilev et al. (1999), Journal of Biological Chemistry 274(3):1646-1656, and Quek et al. (1998), Current Biology 8(20):1137-1140. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a hematological malignancy in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is CLL. In some embodiments, the treating the hematological malignancy comprises managing the hematological malignancy. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is a B-cell malignancy. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is a leukemia, lymphoproliferative disorder, or myeloid. In some embodiments, the mobilized cells are myeloid cells or lymphoid cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises preparing a biomarker profile for a population of cells isolated from the plurality of cells, wherein the biomarker profile indicates the expression of a biomarker, the expression level of a biomarker, mutations in a biomarker, or the presence of a biomarker. In some embodiments, the biomarker is any cytogenetic, cell surface molecular or protein or RNA expression marker. In some embodiments, the biomarker is: ZAP70; t(14,18); β-2 microglobulin; p53 mutational status; ATM mutational status; del(17)p; del(11)q; del(6)q; CD5; CD11c; CD19; CD20; CD22; CD25; CD38; CD103; CD138; secreted, surface or cytoplasmic immunoglobulin expression; VH mutational status; or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method further comprises providing a second cancer treatment regimen based on the biomarker profile. In some embodiments, the method further comprises not administering based on the biomarker profile. In some embodiments, the method further comprises predicting the efficacy of a treatment regimen based on the biomarker profile. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is a chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL), high risk CLL, or a non-CLL/SLL lymphoma. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is follicular lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), mantle cell lymphoma, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, multiple myeloma, marginal zone lymphoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, non-Burkitt high grade B cell lymphoma, or extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is chronic myelogenous (or myeloid) leukemia, or acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma, relapsed or refractory follicular lymphoma, relapsed or refractory CLL; relapsed or refractory SLL; relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor forms a covalent bond with a cysteine sidechain of a Bruton's tyrosine kinase, a Bruton's tyrosine kinase homolog, or a Btk tyrosine kinase cysteine homolog. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 420 mg/day up to, and including, 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day, about 560 mg/day, or about 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day. In some embodiments, the AUC0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 150 and about 3500 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the AUC0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 500 and about 1100 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered orally. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered once per day, twice per day, or three times per day. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered daily until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered every other day until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is a front line therapy, second line therapy, third line therapy, fourth line therapy, fifth line therapy, or sixth line therapy. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor treats a refractory hematological malignancy. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is a maintenance therapy. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, a steroid, an immunotherapeutic agent, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the B cell receptor pathway inhibitor is a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, a DNA damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises chlorambucil, ifosphamide, doxorubicin, mesalazine, thalidomide, lenalidomide, temsirolimus, everolimus, fludarabine, fostamatinib, paclitaxel, docetaxel, ofatumumab, rituximab, dexamethasone, prednisone, CAL-101, ibritumomab, tositumomab, bortezomib, pentostatin, endostatin, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises bendamustine, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises etoposide, doxorubicin, vinristine, cyclophosphamide, prednisolone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises dexamethasone and lenalidomide. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase is a reversible inhibitor. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase is an irreversible inhibitor. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase forms a covalent bond with a cysteine sidechain of a Bruton's tyrosine kinase, a Bruton's tyrosine kinase homolog, or a Btk tyrosine kinase cysteine homolog. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase has the structure of Formula (D): wherein: La is CH2, O, NH or S; Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl; Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; Z is C(═O), OC(═O), NHC(═O), C(═S), S(═O)x, OS(═O)x, NHS(═O)x, where x is 1 or 2; R7 and R8 are independently H; or R7 and R8 taken together form a bond; R6 is H; and pharmaceutically active metabolites, or pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In some embodiments, the Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor is (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, La is O. In some embodiments, Ar is phenyl. In some embodiments, Z is C(═O), NHC(═O), or S(═O)2. In some embodiments, each of R7 and R8 is H. In some embodiments, Y is a 4-, 5-, 6-, or 7-membered cycloalkyl ring; or Y is a 4-, 5-, 6-, or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl ring. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating relapsed or refractory non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: administering to the individual a therapeutically-effective amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma, or relapsed or refractory follicular lymphoma. In some embodiments, the amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is from 420 mg/day up to, and including, 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is about 420 mg/day, about 560 mg/day, or about 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day. In some embodiments, the AUC0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 150 and about 3500 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the AUC0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 500 and about 1100 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered orally. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered once per day, twice per day, or three times per day. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered daily until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered every other day until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is a second line therapy, third line therapy, fourth line therapy, fifth line therapy, or sixth line therapy. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is a maintenance therapy. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen is administered after mobilization of a plurality of lymphoid cells from the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen is administered after lymphocytosis of a plurality of lymphoid cells from the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, a steroid, an immunotherapeutic agent, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the B cell receptor pathway inhibitor is a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, a DNA damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises chlorambucil, ifosphamide, doxorubicin, mesalazine, thalidomide, lenalidomide, temsirolimus, everolimus, fludarabine, fostamatinib, paclitaxel, docetaxel, ofatumumab, rituximab, dexamethasone, prednisone, CAL-101, ibritumomab, tositumomab, bortezomib, pentostatin, endostatin, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises bendamustine, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises etoposide, doxorubicin, vinristine, cyclophosphamide, prednisolone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises dexamethasone and lenalidomide. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, activated B cell-like subtype (ABC-DLBCL), in an individual in need thereof, comprising: administering to the individual an irreversible Btk inhibitor in an amount from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. In some embodiments, the method further comprises diagnosing the individual with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, activated B cell-like subtype (ABC-DLBCL), by determining the gene sequence of one or more biomarkers in a plurality of lymphoid cells isolated from the diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, the ABC-DLBCL is characterized by a CD79B mutation. In some embodiments, the CD79B mutation is a mutation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling module. In some embodiments, the CD79B mutation is a missense mutation of the first immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) tyrosine. In some embodiments, the CD79B mutation increases surface BCR expression and attenuates Lyn kinase activity. In some embodiments, the ABC-DLBCL is characterized by a CD79A mutation. In some embodiments, the CD79A mutation is in the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling module. In some embodiments, the CD79A mutation is a splice-donor-site mutation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling module. In some embodiments, the CD79A mutation deletes the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling module. In some embodiments, the ABC-DLBCL is characterized by a mutation in MyD88, A20, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the MyD88 mutation is the amino acid substitution L265P in the MYD88 Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 420 mg/day up to, and including, 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day, about 560 mg/day, or about 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day. In some embodiments, the AUC0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 150 and about 3500 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the AUC0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 500 and about 1100 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is administered orally. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is administered daily until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is administered every other day until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is a front line therapy, second line therapy, third line therapy, fourth line therapy, fifth line therapy, or sixth line therapy. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor treats a refractory hematological malignancy. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is a maintenance therapy. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering at least one additional cancer treatment regimen. In some embodiments, the additional cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, an immunotherapeutic agent, a steroid, radiation therapy, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, in certain embodiments is a damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method of determining a cancer treatment regimen for an individual with a hematological malignancy, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells; and (c) selecting a cancer treatment regimen. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, a steroid, an immunotherapeutic agent, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the B cell receptor pathway inhibitor is a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, a DNA damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises chlorambucil, ifosphamide, doxorubicin, mesalazine, thalidomide, lenalidomide, temsirolimus, everolimus, fludarabine, fostamatinib, paclitaxel, docetaxel, ofatumumab, rituximab, dexamethasone, prednisone, CAL-101, ibritumomab, tositumomab, bortezomib, pentostatin, endostatin, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises bendamustine, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises etoposide, doxorubicin, vinristine, cyclophosphamide, prednisolone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises dexamethasone and lenalidomide. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES FIG. 1 depicts the role of Btk activity in a number of processes in a CLL cell that contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease FIG. 2 presents the absolute lyphocyte count during the course of treatment with an irreversible Btk inhibitor for an individual with CLL. FIG. 3 presents change in the sum of the product of the diameters of lymph node (LN) in patients with CLL and SLL who are treated with an irreversible Btk inhibitor. FIG. 4 depicts LN response in patient suffering from CLL. Left panel depicts LN prior to treatment with an irreversible Btk inhibitor and Right panel depicts LN post-treatment with an irreversible Btk inhibitor. FIG. 5 depicts the effect of an irreversible Btk inhibitor on LN disease burden and lymphocytosis over time in the patients suffering with CLL and/or SLL. FIG. 6 depicts adverse effects in patients treated with an irreversible Btk inhibitor. Grades 1-4 represent severity of effects with 1 representing very mild to 4 representing extreme discomfort. FIG. 7 depicts the absolute lymphocyte count (ALC)/109 L vs. Cycle Day after administering a Btk inhibitor to individuals with follicular lymphoma who achieved complete or partial response (CR/PR). The Y Axis shows the Absolute Lymphocyte Counts (ALC) at each time point by cycle number and day in the X axis. All Patients (except Pt 32009) were treated on schedule of 4 weeks on treatment followed by one week off. Thus, day 1 of each cycle follows one week off drug for these patients. Note the increases of ALC during most cycles of most patients, and the fall of ALC at the beginning of subsequent cycles. This pattern is often blunted in later cycles as patients responded to treatment. Patient 32009 received treatment without interruption and did not show this cyclic pattern, but did show an increase at Cycle 1, day 15, and gradual increases during Cycles 2 to 5. FIG. 8 depicts the absolute lymphocyte count (ALC)/109 L vs. Cycle Day after administering a Btk inhibitor to individuals with follicular lymphoma who had Stable Disease (SD) during treatment. The Y Axis shows the Absolute Lymphocyte Counts (ALC) at each time point by cycle number and day in the X axis. All Patients were treated on schedule of 4 weeks on treatment followed by one week off. Thus, day 1 of each cycle follows one week off drug for these patients. Note the gradual increase of blood ALC mobilization of Patient 32004, who initially was stable but later had Progressive Disease (PD). FIG. 9 depicts the absolute lymphocyte count (ALC)/109 L vs. Cycle Day after administering a Btk inhibitor to PD individuals with follicular lymphoma. The Y Axis shows the Absolute Lymphocyte Counts (ALC) at each time point by cycle number and day in the X axis. All Patients except 38010 were treated on schedule of 4 weeks on treatment followed by one week off. Thus, day 1 of each cycle follows one week off drug for these patients. Note lack of mobilization, especially patients 38010 and 32001. Patient 323001 had limited treatment before being taken off study. The lymphocyte response suggests that this patient might had responded if it had been possible to stay on treatment longer. FIG. 10 depicts the absolute lymphocyte count (ALC)/109 L vs. Cycle Day after administering a Btk inhibitor to PR and SD individuals with DLBCL. The Y Axis shows the Absolute Lymphocyte Counts (ALC) at each time point by cycle number and day in the X axis. Patient 38011 was treated on schedule of 4 weeks on treatment followed by one week off. Thus, day 1 of each cycle follows one week off drug for this patient. Patients 38008 and 324001 were treated with continuous daily doses. FIG. 11 depicts the absolute lymphocyte count (ALC)/109 L vs. Cycle Day after administering a Btk inhibitor to PD individuals with DLBCL. The Y Axis shows the Absolute Lymphocyte Counts (ALC) at each time point by cycle number and day in the X axis. All Patients were treated on schedule of 4 weeks on treatment followed by one week off. Thus, day 1 of each cycle follows one week off drug for these patients. Note lack of mobilization for 3 of the 4 patients. Patient 32002 received only one cycle of treatment. FIG. 12 depicts the absolute lymphocyte count (ALC)/109 L vs. Cycle Day after administering a Btk inhibitor to individuals with mantle cell lymphoma. The Y Axis shows the Absolute Lymphocyte Counts (ALC) at each time point by cycle number and day in the X axis. Patients 32006, 38003, and 38004 were treated on schedule of 4 weeks on treatment followed by one week off. Thus, day 1 of each cycle follows one week off drug for these patients. The other patients were treated with continuous daily dosing. Note that the patient with initial PD (32014) failed to show mobilization. FIG. 13 depicts the absolute lymphocyte count (ALC)/109 L vs. Cycle Day for after administering a Btk inhibitor to the individuals with mantle cell lymphoma shown in FIG. 12. The axis has been changed, as compared to FIG. 12, to demonstrate low amplitude fluctuations. Note that all responding patients showed some degree of mobilization. FIG. 14 demonstrates that lymphocyte mobilization, specifically B Cell type, consistent with lymphoma cells, decreases as disease responds. Patient 32007, Cohort 4, had follicular lymphoma, grade 3, which gradually regressed from SD to CR. Although the changes of ALC in this case are not dramatic, the B cell fraction is undergoing characteristic cyclic increases in response to treatment with a Btk inhibitor. Also note the decreasing cycle by cycle magnitude of shifts consistent with cumulative disease control. FIG. 15 demonstrates that there is increased B Cell mobilization with disease progression. Patient 32004, Cohort 2, had follicular lymphoma, grade 1, which progressed from SD initially to PD following Cycle 6. FIG. 16 depicts early mobilization and eventual decrease of a CD45DIM B cell subpopulation in responding mantle cell lymphoma patient 200-005. This subpopulation has a typical MCL immunophenotype (CD45DIM) and is different than that of normal lymphocytes. FIG. 17 depicts abnormal high light scatter CD19+ cells mobilizing and then regressing in CR DLBCL Pt 324001. These CD45+ cells with light scatter (SSC-H) in the upper panels were gated upon and their CD3 vs CD19 staining displayed in the lower panels. Here the putative malignant cells were “hidden” in the large MNC window normally defining monocytes. The sequence of mobilization followed by response is similar to other examples. FIG. 18 presents the responses for a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor to elderly patients with CLL or SLL, who are naïve for drug intervention. Individuals were administered 420 mg/day of a Btk inhibitor. FIG. 19 presents the responses for a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor to R/R patients with CLL or SLL. Individuals were administered 420 mg/day of a Btk inhibitor. FIG. 20 presents the responses for a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor to individuals with high risk CLL. FIG. 21 presents the response over time for a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor to individuals with CLL or SLL. FIG. 22 presents the best responses for all patients in a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor to individuals with CLL or SLL. FIG. 23 presents the best responses for abstract patients in a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor to individuals with CLL or SLL. FIG. 24 presents the best response by prognostic factor in CLL or SLL patients involved in a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor. FIG. 25 presents initial (Cycle 2) response assessment and best response (420 mg Cohorts) in CLL or SLL patients involved in a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor. FIG. 26 presents initial (Cycle 2) response assessment by dose in relapsed/refractory CLL or SLL patients involved in a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor. FIG. 27 presents improvements in hematological parameters in CLL or SLL patients involved in a clinical trial involving administering a Btk inhibitor. FIG. 28 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and Carboplatin or Velcade in DoHH2 cells. FIG. 29 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and Dexamethasone or Lenalidomide in DoHH2 cells. FIG. 30 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and Temsirolimus or R406 in DoHH2 cells. FIG. 31 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and Gemcitabine or Doxorubicin in DoHH2 cells. FIG. 32 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and Cal-101 in TMD8 cells. FIG. 33 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and R406 in TMD8 cells. FIG. 34 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and vincristine in TMD8 cells. FIG. 35 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and doxorubicin in TMD8 cells. FIG. 36 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and lenolidomide in TMD8 cells. FIG. 37 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and velcade in TMD8 cells. FIG. 38 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and Fludarabine in TMD8 cells. FIG. 39 present data showing the results of a combination of a Btk inhibitor and taxol in TMD8 cells. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION There is currently a need for methods of treating (including, diagnosing) hematological malignancies, including relapsed and refractory B cell malignancies, and ABC-DLBCL. The present application is based, in part, on the unexpected discovery that Btk inhibitors induce mobilization (or, in some cases, lymphocytosis) of lymphoid cells in solid hematological malignancies. Mobilization of the lymphoid cells increases their exposure to additional cancer treatment regimens and their availability for biomarker screening. The inventors have also found that Btk inhibitors are useful for treating relapsed and refractory malignancies and ABC-DLBCL. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a hematological malignancy in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, activated B cell-like subtype (ABC-DLBCL), in an individual in need thereof, comprising: administering to the individual an irreversible Btk inhibitor in an amount from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. Further disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating relapsed or refractory non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: administering to the individual a therapeutically-effective amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. Certain Terminology Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as is commonly understood by one of skill in the art to which the claimed subject matter belongs. In the event that there are a plurality of definitions for terms herein, those in this section prevail. Where reference is made to a URL or other such identifier or address, it is understood that such identifiers can change and particular information on the internet can come and go, but equivalent information can be found by searching the internet. Reference thereto evidences the availability and public dissemination of such information. It is to be understood that the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only and are not restrictive of any subject matter claimed. In this application, the use of the singular includes the plural unless specifically stated otherwise. It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. In this application, the use of “or” means “and/or” unless stated otherwise. Furthermore, use of the term “including” as well as other forms, such as “include”, “includes,” and “included,” is not limiting. The section headings used herein are for organizational purposes only and are not to be construed as limiting the subject matter described. All documents, or portions of documents, cited in the application including, but not limited to, patents, patent applications, articles, books, manuals, and treatises are hereby expressly incorporated by reference in their entirety for any purpose. Definition of standard chemistry terms may be found in reference works, including Carey and Sundberg “ADVANCED ORGANIC CHEMISTRY 4TH ED.” Vols. A (2000) and B (2001), Plenum Press, New York. Unless otherwise indicated, conventional methods of mass spectroscopy, NMR, HPLC, protein chemistry, biochemistry, recombinant DNA techniques and pharmacology, within the skill of the art are employed. Unless specific definitions are provided, the nomenclature employed in connection with, and the laboratory procedures and techniques of, analytical chemistry, synthetic organic chemistry, and medicinal and pharmaceutical chemistry described herein are those known in the art. Standard techniques can be used for chemical syntheses, chemical analyses, pharmaceutical preparation, formulation, and delivery, and treatment of patients. Standard techniques can be used for recombinant DNA, oligonucleotide synthesis, and tissue culture and transformation (e.g., electroporation, lipofection). Reactions and purification techniques can be performed e.g., using kits of manufacturer's specifications or as commonly accomplished in the art or as described herein. The foregoing techniques and procedures can be generally performed of conventional methods well known in the art and as described in various general and more specific references that are cited and discussed throughout the present specification. It is to be understood that the methods and compositions described herein are not limited to the particular methodology, protocols, cell lines, constructs, and reagents described herein and as such may vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to limit the scope of the methods and compositions described herein, which will be limited only by the appended claims. All publications and patents mentioned herein are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for the purpose of describing and disclosing, for example, the constructs and methodologies that are described in the publications, which might be used in connection with the methods, compositions and compounds described herein. The publications discussed herein are provided solely for their disclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the inventors described herein are not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention or for any other reason. An “alkyl” group refers to an aliphatic hydrocarbon group. The alkyl moiety may be a “saturated alkyl” group, which means that it does not contain any alkene or alkyne moieties. The alkyl moiety may also be an “unsaturated alkyl” moiety, which means that it contains at least one alkene or alkyne moiety. An “alkene” moiety refers to a group that has at least one carbon-carbon double bond, and an “alkyne” moiety refers to a group that has at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. The alkyl moiety, whether saturated or unsaturated, may be branched, straight chain, or cyclic. Depending on the structure, an alkyl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., an alkylene group). The alkyl group could also be a “lower alkyl” having 1 to 6 carbon atoms. As used herein, C1-Cx includes C1-C2, C1-C3 . . . C1-Cx. The “alkyl” moiety may have 1 to 10 carbon atoms (whenever it appears herein, a numerical range such as “1 to 10” refers to each integer in the given range; e.g., “1 to 10 carbon atoms” means that the alkyl group may have 1 carbon atom, 2 carbon atoms, 3 carbon atoms, etc., up to and including 10 carbon atoms, although the present definition also covers the occurrence of the term “alkyl” where no numerical range is designated). The alkyl group of the compounds described herein may be designated as “C1-C4 alkyl” or similar designations. By way of example only, “C1-C4 alkyl” indicates that there are one to four carbon atoms in the alkyl chain, i.e., the alkyl chain is selected from among methyl, ethyl, propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and t-butyl. Thus C1-C4 alkyl includes C1-C2 alkyl and C1-C3 alkyl. Alkyl groups can be substituted or unsubstituted. Typical alkyl groups include, but are in no way limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tertiary butyl, pentyl, hexyl, ethenyl, propenyl, butenyl, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, and the like. As used herein, the term “non-cyclic alkyl” refers to an alkyl that is not cyclic (i.e., a straight or branched chain containing at least one carbon atom). Non-cyclic alkyls can be fully saturated or can contain non-cyclic alkenes and/or alkynes. Non-cyclic alkyls can be optionally substituted. The term “alkenyl” refers to a type of alkyl group in which the first two atoms of the alkyl group form a double bond that is not part of an aromatic group. That is, an alkenyl group begins with the atoms —C(R)═C(R)—R, wherein R refers to the remaining portions of the alkenyl group, which may be the same or different. The alkenyl moiety may be branched, straight chain, or cyclic (in which case, it would also be known as a “cycloalkenyl” group). Depending on the structure, an alkenyl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., an alkenylene group). Alkenyl groups can be optionally substituted. Non-limiting examples of an alkenyl group include —CH═CH2, —C(CH3)═CH2, —CH═CHCH3, —C(CH3)═CHCH3. Alkenylene groups include, but are not limited to, —CH═CH—, —C(CH3)═CH—, —CH═CHCH2—, —CH═CHCH2CH2— and —C(CH3)═CHCH2—. Alkenyl groups could have 2 to 10 carbons. The alkenyl group could also be a “lower alkenyl” having 2 to 6 carbon atoms. The term “alkynyl” refers to a type of alkyl group in which the first two atoms of the alkyl group form a triple bond. That is, an alkynyl group begins with the atoms —C≡C—R, wherein R refers to the remaining portions of the alkynyl group, which may be the same or different. The “R” portion of the alkynyl moiety may be branched, straight chain, or cyclic. Depending on the structure, an alkynyl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., an alkynylene group). Alkynyl groups can be optionally substituted. Non-limiting examples of an alkynyl group include, but are not limited to, —C≡CH, —C≡CCH3, —C≡CCH2CH3, —C≡C—, and —C≡CCH2—. Alkynyl groups can have 2 to 10 carbons. The alkynyl group could also be a “lower alkynyl” having 2 to 6 carbon atoms. An “alkoxy” group refers to a (alkyl)O— group, where alkyl is as defined herein. “Hydroxyalkyl” refers to an alkyl radical, as defined herein, substituted with at least one hydroxy group. Non-limiting examples of a hydroxyalkyl include, but are not limited to, hydroxymethyl, 2-hydroxyethyl, 2-hydroxypropyl, 3-hydroxypropyl, 1-(hydroxymethyl)-2-methylpropyl, 2-hydroxybutyl, 3-hydroxybutyl, 4-hydroxybutyl, 2,3-dihydroxypropyl, 1-(hydroxymethyl)-2-hydroxyethyl, 2,3-dihydroxybutyl, 3,4-dihydroxybutyl and 2-(hydroxymethyl)-3-hydroxypropyl. “Alkoxyalkyl” refers to an alkyl radical, as defined herein, substituted with an alkoxy group, as defined herein. An “alkenyloxy” group refers to a (alkenyl)O— group, where alkenyl is as defined herein. The term “alkylamine” refers to the —N(alkyl)xHy group, where x and y are selected from among x=1, y=1 and x=2, y=0. When x=2, the alkyl groups, taken together with the N atom to which they are attached, can optionally form a cyclic ring system. “Alkylaminoalkyl” refers to an alkyl radical, as defined herein, substituted with an alkylamine, as defined herein. An “amide” is a chemical moiety with the formula —C(O)NHR or —NHC(O)R, where R is selected from among alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl (bonded through a ring carbon) and heteroalicyclic (bonded through a ring carbon). An amide moiety may form a linkage between an amino acid or a peptide molecule and a compound described herein, thereby forming a prodrug. Any amine, or carboxyl side chain on the compounds described herein can be amidified. The procedures and specific groups to make such amides are known to those of skill in the art and can readily be found in reference sources such as Greene and Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., 1999, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The term “ester” refers to a chemical moiety with formula —COOR, where R is selected from among alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl (bonded through a ring carbon) and heteroalicyclic (bonded through a ring carbon). Any hydroxy, or carboxyl side chain on the compounds described herein can be esterified. The procedures and specific groups to make such esters are known to those of skill in the art and can readily be found in reference sources such as Greene and Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., 1999, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. As used herein, the term “ring” refers to any covalently closed structure. Rings include, for example, carbocycles (e.g., aryls and cycloalkyls), heterocycles (e.g., heteroaryls and non-aromatic heterocycles), aromatics (e.g. aryls and heteroaryls), and non-aromatics (e.g., cycloalkyls and non-aromatic heterocycles). Rings can be optionally substituted. Rings can be monocyclic or polycyclic. As used herein, the term “ring system” refers to one, or more than one ring. The term “membered ring” can embrace any cyclic structure. The term “membered” is meant to denote the number of skeletal atoms that constitute the ring. Thus, for example, cyclohexyl, pyridine, pyran and thiopyran are 6-membered rings and cyclopentyl, pyrrole, furan, and thiophene are 5-membered rings. The term “fused” refers to structures in which two or more rings share one or more bonds. The term “carbocyclic” or “carbocycle” refers to a ring wherein each of the atoms forming the ring is a carbon atom. Carbocycle includes aryl and cycloalkyl. The term thus distinguishes carbocycle from heterocycle (“heterocyclic”) in which the ring backbone contains at least one atom which is different from carbon (i.e a heteroatom). Heterocycle includes heteroaryl and heterocycloalkyl. Carbocycles and heterocycles can be optionally substituted. The term “aromatic” refers to a planar ring having a delocalized π-electron system containing 4n+2 π electrons, where n is an integer. Aromatic rings can be formed from five, six, seven, eight, nine, or more than nine atoms. Aromatics can be optionally substituted. The term “aromatic” includes both carbocyclic aryl (e.g., phenyl) and heterocyclic aryl (or “heteroaryl” or “heteroaromatic”) groups (e.g., pyridine). The term includes monocyclic or fused-ring polycyclic (i.e., rings which share adjacent pairs of carbon atoms) groups. As used herein, the term “aryl” refers to an aromatic ring wherein each of the atoms forming the ring is a carbon atom. Aryl rings can be formed by five, six, seven, eight, nine, or more than nine carbon atoms. Aryl groups can be optionally substituted. Examples of aryl groups include, but are not limited to phenyl, naphthalenyl, phenanthrenyl, anthracenyl, fluorenyl, and indenyl. Depending on the structure, an aryl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., an arylene group). An “aryloxy” group refers to an (aryl)O— group, where aryl is as defined herein. “Aralkyl” means an alkyl radical, as defined herein, substituted with an aryl group. Non-limiting aralkyl groups include, benzyl, phenethyl, and the like. “Aralkenyl” means an alkenyl radical, as defined herein, substituted with an aryl group, as defined herein. The term “cycloalkyl” refers to a monocyclic or polycyclic radical that contains only carbon and hydrogen, and may be saturated, partially unsaturated, or fully unsaturated. Cycloalkyl groups include groups having from 3 to 10 ring atoms. Illustrative examples of cycloalkyl groups include the following moieties: and the like. Depending on the structure, a cycloalkyl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (e.g., an cycloalkylene group). The cycloalkyl group could also be a “lower cycloalkyl” having 3 to 8 carbon atoms. “Cycloalkylalkyl” means an alkyl radical, as defined herein, substituted with a cycloalkyl group. Non-limiting cycloalkylalkyl groups include cyclopropylmethyl, cyclobutylmethyl, cyclopentylmethyl, cyclohexylmethyl, and the like. The term “heterocycle” refers to heteroaromatic and heteroalicyclic groups containing one to four heteroatoms each selected from O, S and N, wherein each heterocyclic group has from 4 to 10 atoms in its ring system, and with the proviso that the ring of said group does not contain two adjacent O or S atoms. Herein, whenever the number of carbon atoms in a heterocycle is indicated (e.g., C1-C6 heterocycle), at least one other atom (the heteroatom) must be present in the ring. Designations such as “C1-C6 heterocycle” refer only to the number of carbon atoms in the ring and do not refer to the total number of atoms in the ring. It is understood that the heterocylic ring can have additional heteroatoms in the ring. Designations such as “4-6 membered heterocycle” refer to the total number of atoms that are contained in the ring (i.e., a four, five, or six membered ring, in which at least one atom is a carbon atom, at least one atom is a heteroatom and the remaining two to four atoms are either carbon atoms or heteroatoms). In heterocycles that have two or more heteroatoms, those two or more heteroatoms can be the same or different from one another. Heterocycles can be optionally substituted. Binding to a heterocycle can be at a heteroatom or via a carbon atom. Non-aromatic heterocyclic groups include groups having only 4 atoms in their ring system, but aromatic heterocyclic groups must have at least 5 atoms in their ring system. The heterocyclic groups include benzo-fused ring systems. An example of a 4-membered heterocyclic group is azetidinyl (derived from azetidine). An example of a 5-membered heterocyclic group is thiazolyl. An example of a 6-membered heterocyclic group is pyridyl, and an example of a 10-membered heterocyclic group is quinolinyl. Examples of non-aromatic heterocyclic groups are pyrrolidinyl, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothienyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyranyl, tetrahydrothiopyranyl, piperidino, morpholino, thiomorpholino, thioxanyl, piperazinyl, azetidinyl, oxetanyl, thietanyl, homopiperidinyl, oxepanyl, thiepanyl, oxazepinyl, diazepinyl, thiazepinyl, 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridinyl, 2-pyrrolinyl, 3-pyrrolinyl, indolinyl, 2H-pyranyl, 4H-pyranyl, dioxanyl, 1,3-dioxolanyl, pyrazolinyl, dithianyl, dithiolanyl, dihydropyranyl, dihydrothienyl, dihydrofuranyl, pyrazolidinyl, imidazolinyl, imidazolidinyl, 3-azabicyclo[3.1.0]hexanyl, 3-azabicyclo[4.1.0]heptanyl, 3H-indolyl and quinolizinyl. Examples of aromatic heterocyclic groups are pyridinyl, imidazolyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, pyrazinyl, tetrazolyl, furyl, thienyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, isothiazolyl, pyrrolyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, indolyl, benzimidazolyl, benzofuranyl, cinnolinyl, indazolyl, indolizinyl, phthalazinyl, pyridazinyl, triazinyl, isoindolyl, pteridinyl, purinyl, oxadiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, furazanyl, benzofurazanyl, benzothiophenyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoxazolyl, quinazolinyl, quinoxalinyl, naphthyridinyl, and furopyridinyl. The foregoing groups, as derived from the groups listed above, may be C-attached or N-attached where such is possible. For instance, a group derived from pyrrole may be pyrrol-1-yl (N-attached) or pyrrol-3-yl (C-attached). Further, a group derived from imidazole may be imidazol-1-yl or imidazol-3-yl (both N-attached) or imidazol-2-yl, imidazol-4-yl or imidazol-5-yl (all C-attached). The heterocyclic groups include benzo-fused ring systems and ring systems substituted with one or two oxo (═O) moieties such as pyrrolidin-2-one. Depending on the structure, a heterocycle group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., a heterocyclene group). The terms “heteroaryl” or, alternatively, “heteroaromatic” refers to an aryl group that includes one or more ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. An N-containing “heteroaromatic” or “heteroaryl” moiety refers to an aromatic group in which at least one of the skeletal atoms of the ring is a nitrogen atom. Illustrative examples of heteroaryl groups include the following moieties: and the like. Depending on the structure, a heteroaryl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., a heteroarylene group). As used herein, the term “non-aromatic heterocycle”, “heterocycloalkyl” or “heteroalicyclic” refers to a non-aromatic ring wherein one or more atoms forming the ring is a heteroatom. A “non-aromatic heterocycle” or “heterocycloalkyl” group refers to a cycloalkyl group that includes at least one heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur. The radicals may be fused with an aryl or heteroaryl. Heterocycloalkyl rings can be formed by three, four, five, six, seven, eight, nine, or more than nine atoms. Heterocycloalkyl rings can be optionally substituted. In certain embodiments, non-aromatic heterocycles contain one or more carbonyl or thiocarbonyl groups such as, for example, oxo- and thio-containing groups. Examples of heterocycloalkyls include, but are not limited to, lactams, lactones, cyclic imides, cyclic thioimides, cyclic carbamates, tetrahydrothiopyran, 4H-pyran, tetrahydropyran, piperidine, 1,3-dioxin, 1,3-dioxane, 1,4-dioxin, 1,4-dioxane, piperazine, 1,3-oxathiane, 1,4-oxathiin, 1,4-oxathiane, tetrahydro-1,4-thiazine, 2H-1,2-oxazine, maleimide, succinimide, barbituric acid, thiobarbituric acid, dioxopiperazine, hydantoin, dihydrouracil, morpholine, trioxane, hexahydro-1,3,5-triazine, tetrahydrothiophene, tetrahydrofuran, pyrroline, pyrrolidine, pyrrolidone, pyrrolidione, pyrazoline, pyrazolidine, imidazoline, imidazolidine, 1,3-dioxole, 1,3-dioxolane, 1,3-dithiole, 1,3-dithiolane, isoxazoline, isoxazolidine, oxazoline, oxazolidine, oxazolidinone, thiazoline, thiazolidine, and 1,3-oxathiolane. Illustrative examples of heterocycloalkyl groups, also referred to as non-aromatic heterocycles, include: and the like. The term heteroalicyclic also includes all ring forms of the carbohydrates, including but not limited to the monosaccharides, the disaccharides and the oligosaccharides. Depending on the structure, a heterocycloalkyl group can be a monoradical or a diradical (i.e., a heterocycloalkylene group). The term “halo” or, alternatively, “halogen” or “halide” means fluoro, chloro, bromo and iodo. The terms “haloalkyl,” “haloalkenyl,” “haloalkynyl” and “haloalkoxy” include alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl and alkoxy structures in which at least one hydrogen is replaced with a halogen atom. In certain embodiments in which two or more hydrogen atoms are replaced with halogen atoms, the halogen atoms are all the same as one another. In other embodiments in which two or more hydrogen atoms are replaced with halogen atoms, the halogen atoms are not all the same as one another. The term “fluoroalkyl,” as used herein, refers to alkyl group in which at least one hydrogen is replaced with a fluorine atom. Examples of fluoroalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, —CF3, —CH2CF3, —CF2CF3, —CH2CH2CF3 and the like. As used herein, the terms “heteroalkyl” “heteroalkenyl” and “heteroalkynyl” include optionally substituted alkyl, alkenyl and alkynyl radicals in which one or more skeletal chain atoms is a heteroatom, e.g., oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, silicon, phosphorus or combinations thereof. The heteroatom(s) may be placed at any interior position of the heteroalkyl group or at the position at which the heteroalkyl group is attached to the remainder of the molecule. Examples include, but are not limited to, —CH2—O—CH3, —CH2—CH2—O—CH3, —CH2—NH—CH3, —CH2—CH2—NH—CH3, —CH2—N(CH3)—CH3, —CH2—CH2—NH—CH3, —CH2—CH2—N(CH3)—CH3, —CH2—S—CH2—CH3, —CH2—CH2, —S(O)—CH3, —CH2—CH2—S(O)2—CH3, —CH═CH—O—CH3, —Si(CH3)3, —CH2—CH═N—OCH3, and —CH═CH—N(CH3)—CH3. In addition, up to two heteroatoms may be consecutive, such as, by way of example, —CH2—NH—OCH3 and —CH2—O—Si(CH3)3. The term “heteroatom” refers to an atom other than carbon or hydrogen. Heteroatoms are typically independently selected from among oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, silicon and phosphorus, but are not limited to these atoms. In embodiments in which two or more heteroatoms are present, the two or more heteroatoms can all be the same as one another, or some or all of the two or more heteroatoms can each be different from the others. The term “bond” or “single bond” refers to a chemical bond between two atoms, or two moieties when the atoms joined by the bond are considered to be part of larger substructure. An “isocyanato” group refers to a —NCO group. An “isothiocyanato” group refers to a —NCS group. The term “moiety” refers to a specific segment or functional group of a molecule. Chemical moieties are often recognized chemical entities embedded in or appended to a molecule. A “sulfinyl” group refers to a —S(═O)—R. A “sulfonyl” group refers to a —S(═O)2—R. A “thioalkoxy” or “alkylthio” group refers to a —S-alkyl group. A “alkylthioalkyl” group refers to an alkyl group substituted with a —S-alkyl group. As used herein, the term “O-carboxy” or “acyloxy” refers to a group of formula RC(═O)O—. “Carboxy” means a —C(O)OH radical. As used herein, the term “acetyl” refers to a group of formula —C(═O)CH3. “Acyl” refers to the group —C(O)R. As used herein, the term “trihalomethanesulfonyl” refers to a group of formula X3CS(═O)2— where X is a halogen. As used herein, the term “cyano” refers to a group of formula —CN. “Cyanoalkyl” means an alkyl radical, as defined herein, substituted with at least one cyano group. As used herein, the term “N-sulfonamido” or “sulfonylamino” refers to a group of formula RS(═O)2NH—. As used herein, the term “O-carbamyl” refers to a group of formula —OC(═O)NR2. As used herein, the term “N-carbamyl” refers to a group of formula ROC(═O)NH—. As used herein, the term “O-thiocarbamyl” refers to a group of formula —OC(═S)NR2. As used herein, the term “N-thiocarbamyl” refers to a group of formula ROC(═S)NH—. As used herein, the term “C-amido” refers to a group of formula —C(═O)NR2. “Aminocarbonyl” refers to a —CONH2 radical. As used herein, the term “N-amido” refers to a group of formula RC(═O)NH—. As used herein, the substituent “R” appearing by itself and without a number designation refers to a substituent selected from among from alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl (bonded through a ring carbon) and non-aromatic heterocycle (bonded through a ring carbon). The term “optionally substituted” or “substituted” means that the referenced group may be substituted with one or more additional group(s) individually and independently selected from alkyl, cycloalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heteroalicyclic, hydroxy, alkoxy, aryloxy, alkylthio, arylthio, alkylsulfoxide, arylsulfoxide, alkylsulfone, arylsulfone, cyano, halo, acyl, nitro, haloalkyl, fluoroalkyl, amino, including mono- and di-substituted amino groups, and the protected derivatives thereof. By way of example an optional substituents may be LsRs, wherein each Ls is independently selected from a bond, —O—, —C(═O)—, —S—, —S(═O)—, —S(═O)2—, —NH—, —NHC(O)—, —C(O)NH—, S(═O)2NH—, —NHS(═O)2, —OC(O)NH—, —NHC(O)O—, -(substituted or unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl), or -(substituted or unsubstituted C2-C6 alkenyl); and each Rs is independently selected from H, (substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl), (substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl), heteroaryl, or heteroalkyl. The protecting groups that may form the protective derivatives of the above substituents are known to those of skill in the art and may be found in references such as Greene and Wuts, above. The term “Michael acceptor moiety” refers to a functional group that can participate in a Michael reaction, wherein a new covalent bond is formed between a portion of the Michael acceptor moiety and the donor moiety. The Michael acceptor moiety is an electrophile and the “donor moiety” is a nucleophile. The term “nucleophile” or “nucleophilic” refers to an electron rich compound, or moiety thereof. An example of a nucleophile includes, but in no way is limited to, a cysteine residue of a molecule, such as, for example Cys 481 of Btk. The term “electrophile”, or “electrophilic” refers to an electron poor or electron deficient molecule, or moiety thereof. Examples of electrophiles include, but in no way are limited to, Micheal acceptor moieties. The term “acceptable” or “pharmaceutically acceptable”, with respect to a formulation, composition or ingredient, as used herein, means having no persistent detrimental effect on the general health of the subject being treated or does not abrogate the biological activity or properties of the compound, and is relatively nontoxic. “B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders (BCLD) biomarkers”, as used herein, refer to any biological molecule (found either in blood, other body fluids, or tissues) or any chromosomal abnormality that is a sign of a BCLD-related condition or disease. “Tumor,” as used herein, refers to all neoplastic cell growth and proliferation, whether malignant or benign, and all pre-cancerous and cancerous cells and tissues. “Neoplastic,” as used herein, refers to any form of dysregulated or unregulated cell growth, whether malignant or benign, resulting in abnormal tissue growth. Thus, “neoplastic cells” include malignant and benign cells having dysregulated or unregulated cell growth. The terms “cancer” and “cancerous” refer to or describe the physiological condition in mammals that is typically characterized by unregulated cell growth. Examples of cancer include, but are not limited to, B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders (BCLDs), such as lymphoma and leukemia, and solid tumors. By “B cell-related cancer” or “cancer of B-cell lineage” is intended any type of cancer in which the dysregulated or unregulated cell growth is associated with B cells. By “refractory” in the context of a cancer is intended the particular cancer is resistant to, or non-responsive to, therapy with a particular therapeutic agent. A cancer can be refractory to therapy with a particular therapeutic agent either from the onset of treatment with the particular therapeutic agent (i.e., non-responsive to initial exposure to the therapeutic agent), or as a result of developing resistance to the therapeutic agent, either over the course of a first treatment period with the therapeutic agent or during a subsequent treatment period with the therapeutic agent. By “agonist activity” is intended that a substance functions as an agonist. An agonist combines with a receptor on a cell and initiates a reaction or activity that is similar to or the same as that initiated by the receptor's natural ligand. By “antagonist activity” is intended that the substance functions as an antagonist. An antagonist of Btk prevents or reduces induction of any of the responses meidated by Btk. By “significant” agonist activity is intended an agonist activity of at least 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100% greater than the agonist activity induced by a neutral substance or negative control as measured in an assay of a B cell response. Preferably, “significant” agonist activity is an agonist activity that is at least 2-fold greater or at least 3-fold greater than the agonist activity induced by a neutral substance or negative control as measured in an assay of a B cell response. Thus, for example, where the B cell response of interest is B cell proliferation, “significant” agonist activity would be induction of a level of B cell proliferation that is at least 2-fold greater or at least 3-fold greater than the level of B cell proliferation induced by a neutral substance or negative control. A substance “free of significant agonist activity” would exhibit an agonist activity of not more than about 25% greater than the agonist activity induced by a neutral substance or negative control, preferably not more than about 20% greater, 15% greater, 10% greater, 5% greater, 1% greater, 0.5% greater, or even not more than about 0.1% greater than the agonist activity induced by a neutral substance or negative control as measured in an assay of a B cell response. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor therapeutic agent is an antagonist anti-Btk antibody. Such antibodies are free of significant agonist activity as noted above when bound to a Btk antigen in a human cell. In one embodiment of the invention, the antagonist anti-Btk antibody is free of significant agonist activity in one cellular response. In another embodiment of the invention, the antagonist anti-Btk antibody is free of significant agonist activity in assays of more than one cellular response (e.g., proliferation and differentiation, or proliferation, differentiation, and, for B cells, antibody production). By “Btk-mediated signaling” it is intended any of the biological activities that are dependent on, either directly or indirection, the activity of Btk. Examples of Btk-mediated signaling are signals that lead to proliferation and survival of Btk-expressing cells, and stimulation of one or more Btk-signaling pathways within Btk-expressing cells. A Btk “signaling pathway” or “signal transduction pathway” is intended to mean at least one biochemical reaction, or a group of biochemical reactions, that results from the activity of Btk, and which generates a signal that, when transmitted through the signal pathway, leads to activation of one or more downstream molecules in the signaling cascade. Signal transduction pathways involve a number of signal transduction molecules that lead to transmission of a signal from the cell-surface across the plasma membrane of a cell, and through one or more in a series of signal transduction molecules, through the cytoplasm of the cell, and in some instances, into the cell's nucleus. Of particular interest to the present invention are Btk signal transduction pathways which ultimately regulate (either enahnce or inhibit) the activation of NF-κB via the NF-κB signaling pathway. The methods of the present invention are directed to methods for treating cancer that, in certain embodiments, utilize antibodies for determining the expression or presence of certain BCLD biomarkers in these methods. The following terms and definitions apply to such antibodies. Antibodies” and “immunoglobulins” (Igs) are glycoproteins having the same structural characteristics. The terms are used synonymously. In some instances the antigen specificity of the immunoglobulin may be known. The term “antibody” is used in the broadest sense and covers fully assembled antibodies, antibody fragments that can bind antigen (e.g., Fab, F(ab′)2, Fv, single chain antibodies, diabodies, antibody chimeras, hybrid antibodies, bispecific antibodies, humanized antibodies, and the like), and recombinant peptides comprising the forgoing. The terms “monoclonal antibody” and “mAb” as used herein refer to an antibody obtained from a substantially homogeneous population of antibodies, i.e., the individual antibodies comprising the population are identical except for possible naturally occurring mutations that may be present in minor amounts. Native antibodies” and “native immunoglobulins” are usually heterotetrameric glycoproteins of about 150,000 daltons, composed of two identical light (L) chains and two identical heavy (H) chains. Each light chain is linked to a heavy chain by one covalent disulfide bond, while the number of disulfide linkages varies among the heavy chains of different immunoglobulin isotypes. Each heavy and light chain also has regularly spaced intrachain disulfide bridges. Each heavy chain has at one end a variable domain (VH) followed by a number of constant domains. Each light chain has a variable domain at one end (VL) and a constant domain at its other end; the constant domain of the light chain is aligned with the first constant domain of the heavy chain, and the light chain variable domain is aligned with the variable domain of the heavy chain. Particular amino acid residues are believed to form an interface between the light and heavy-chain variable domains. The term “variable” refers to the fact that certain portions of the variable domains differ extensively in sequence among antibodies. Variable regions confer antigen-binding specificity. However, the variability is not evenly distributed throughout the variable domains of antibodies. It is concentrated in three segments called complementarity determining regions (CDRs) or hypervariable regions, both in the light chain and the heavy-chain variable domains. The more highly conserved portions of variable domains are celled in the framework (FR) regions. The variable domains of native heavy and light chains each comprise four FR regions, largely adopting a β-pleated-sheet configuration, connected by three CDRs, which form loops connecting, and in some cases forming part of, the β-pleated-sheet structure. The CDRs in each chain are held together in close proximity by the FR regions and, with the CDRs from the other chain, contribute to the formation of the antigen-binding site of antibodies (see, Kabat et al. (1991) NIH PubL. No. 91-3242, Vol. I, pages 647-669). The constant domains are not involved directly in binding an antibody to an antigen, but exhibit various effector functions, such as Fc receptor (FcR) binding, participation of the antibody in antibody-dependent cellular toxicity, initiation of complement dependent cytotoxicity, and mast cell degranulation. The term “hypervariable region,” when used herein, refers to the amino acid residues of an antibody that are responsible for antigen-binding. The hypervariable region comprises amino acid residues from a “complementarily determining region” or “CDR” (i.e., residues 24-34 (L1), 50-56 (L2), and 89-97 (L3) in the light-chain variable domain and 31-35 (H1), 50-65 (H2), and 95-102 (H3) in the heavy-chain variable domain; Kabat et al. (1991) Sequences of Proteins of Immunological Interest, 5th Ed. Public Health Service, National Institute of Health, Bethesda, Md.) and/or those residues from a “hypervariable loop” (i.e., residues 26-32 (L1), 50-52 (L2), and 91-96 (L3) in the light-chain variable domain and (H1), 53-55 (H2), and 96-101 (13) in the heavy chain variable domain; Clothia and Lesk, (1987) J. Mol. Biol., 196:901-917). “Framework” or “FR” residues are those variable domain residues other than the hypervariable region residues, as herein deemed. “Antibody fragments” comprise a portion of an intact antibody, preferably the antigen-binding or variable region of the intact antibody. Examples of antibody fragments include Fab, Fab, F(ab′)2, and Fv fragments; diabodies; linear antibodies (Zapata et al. (1995) Protein Eng. 10:1057-1062); single-chain antibody molecules; and multispecific antibodies formed from antibody fragments. Papain digestion of antibodies produces two identical antigen-binding fragments, called “Fab” fragments, each with a single antigen-binding site, and a residual “Fc” fragment, whose name reflects its ability to crystallize readily. Pepsin treatment yields an F(ab′)2 fragment that has two antigen-combining sites and is still capable of cross-linking antigen. “Fv” is the minimum antibody fragment that contains a complete antigen recognition and binding site. This region consists of a dimer of one heavy- and one light-chain variable domain in tight, non-covalent association. It is in this configuration that the three CDRs of each variable domain interact to define an antigen-binding site on the surface of the VH-VL dimer. Collectively, the six CDRs confer antigen-binding specificity to the antibody. However, even a single variable domain (or half of an Fv comprising only three CDRs specific for an antigen) has the ability to recognize and bind antigen, although at a lower affinity than the entire binding site. The Fab fragment also contains the constant domain of the light chain and the first constant domain (CH1) of the heavy chain. Fab fragments differ from Fab′ fragments by the addition of a few residues at the carboxy terminus of the heavy chain Cm domain including one or more cysteines from the antibody hinge region. Fab′-SH is the designation herein for Fab′ in which the cysteine residue(s) of the constant domains bear a free thiol group. Fab′ fragments are produced by reducing the F(ab′)2 fragment's heavy chain disulfide bridge. Other chemical couplings of antibody fragments are also known. The “light chains” of antibodies (immunoglobulins) from any vertebrate species can be assigned to one of two clearly distinct types, called kappa (κ) and lambda (λ), based on the amino acid sequences of their constant domains. Depending on the amino acid sequence of the constant domain of their heavy chains, immunoglobulins can be assigned to different classes. There are five major classes of human immunoglobulins: IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, and IgM, and several of these may be further divided into subclasses (isotypes), e.g., IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4, IgA1, and IgA2. The heavy-chain constant domains that correspond to the different classes of immunoglobulins are called alpha, delta, epsilon, gamma, and mu, respectively. The subunit structures and three-dimensional configurations of different classes of immunoglobulins are well known. Different isotypes have different effector functions. For example, human IgG1 and IgG3 isotypes have ADCC (antibody dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity) activity. The word “label” when used herein refers to a detectable compound or composition that is conjugated directly or indirectly to the antibody so as to generate a “labeled” antibody. The label may be detectable by itself (e.g., radioisotope labels or fluorescent labels) or, in the case of an enzymatic label, may catalyze chemical alteration of a substrate compound or composition that is detectable. The term “acceptable” or “pharmaceutically acceptable”, with respect to a formulation, composition or ingredient, as used herein, means having no persistent detrimental effect on the general health of the subject being treated or does not abrogate the biological activity or properties of the compound, and is relatively nontoxic. As used herein, the term “agonist” refers to a compound, the presence of which results in a biological activity of a protein that is the same as the biological activity resulting from the presence of a naturally occurring ligand for the protein, such as, for example, Btk. As used herein, the term “partial agonist” refers to a compound the presence of which results in a biological activity of a protein that is of the same type as that resulting from the presence of a naturally occurring ligand for the protein, but of a lower magnitude. As used herein, the term “antagonist” refers to a compound, the presence of which results in a decrease in the magnitude of a biological activity of a protein. In certain embodiments, the presence of an antagonist results in complete inhibition of a biological activity of a protein, such as, for example, Btk. In certain embodiments, an antagonist is an inhibitor. The term “Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk),” as used herein, refers to Bruton's tyrosine kinase from Homo sapiens, as disclosed in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,326,469 (GenBank Accession No. NP_000052). The term “Bruton's tyrosine kinase homolog,” as used herein, refers to orthologs of Bruton's tyrosine kinase, e.g., the orthologs from mouse (GenBank Accession No. AAB47246), dog (GenBank Accession No. XP_549139.), rat (GenBank Accession No. NP_001007799), chicken (GenBank Accession No. NP_989564), or zebra fish (GenBank Accession No. XP_698117), and fusion proteins of any of the foregoing that exhibit kinase activity towards one or more substrates of Bruton's tyrosine kinase (e.g. a peptide substrate having the amino acid sequence “AVLESEEELYSSARQ” (SEQ ID NO: 1)). The terms “co-administration” or “combination therapy” and the like, as used herein, are meant to encompass administration of the selected therapeutic agents to a single patient, and are intended to include treatment regimens in which the agents are administered by the same or different route of administration or at the same or different time. The term “effective amount,” as used herein, refers to a sufficient amount of a Btk inhibitory agent or a Btk inhibitor compound being administered which will result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes (e.g., pharmaceutical debulking). For example, an “effective amount” for diagnostic and/or prognostic uses is the amount of the composition including a compound as disclosed herein required to provide a clinically significant decrease an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes without undue adverse side effects. An appropriate “effective amount” in any individual case may be determined using techniques, such as a dose escalation study. The term “therapeutically effective amount,” as used herein, refers to a sufficient amount of an agent or a compound being administered which will relieve to some extent one or more of the symptoms s B-cell lymphoproliferative disorder (BCLD). The result can be reduction and/or alleviation of the signs, symptoms, or causes of BCLD, or any other desired alteration of a biological system. The term “therapeutically effective amount” includes, for example, a prophylactically effective amount. An “effective amount” of a compound disclosed herein is an amount effective to achieve a desired pharmacologic effect or therapeutic improvement without undue adverse side effects. It is understood that “an effect amount” or “a therapeutically effective amount” can vary from subject to subject, due to variation in metabolism of the compound of any of Formula (A), Formula (B), Formula (C), or Formula (D), age, weight, general condition of the subject, the condition being treated, the severity of the condition being treated, and the judgment of the prescribing physician. By way of example only, therapeutically effective amounts may be determined by routine experimentation, including but not limited to a dose escalation clinical trial. The terms “enhance” or “enhancing” means to increase or prolong either in potency or duration a desired effect. By way of example, “enhancing” the effect of therapeutic agents refers to the ability to increase or prolong, either in potency or duration, the effect of therapeutic agents on during treatment of a disease, disorder or condition. An “enhancing-effective amount,” as used herein, refers to an amount adequate to enhance the effect of a therapeutic agent in the treatment of a disease, disorder or condition. When used in a patient, amounts effective for this use will depend on the severity and course of the disease, disorder or condition, previous therapy, the patient's health status and response to the drugs, and the judgment of the treating physician. The term “homologous cysteine,” as used herein refers to a cysteine residue found with in a sequence position that is homologous to that of cysteine 481 of Bruton's tyrosine kinase, as defined herein. For example, cysteine 482 is the homologous cysteine of the rat ortholog of Bruton's tyrosine kinase; cysteine 479 is the homologous cysteine of the chicken ortholog; and cysteine 481 is the homologous cysteine in the zebra fish ortholog. In another example, the homologous cysteine of TXK, a Tec kinase family member related to Bruton's tyrosine, is Cys 350. See also the sequence alignments of tyrosine kinases (TK) published on the world wide web at kinase.com/human/kinome/phylogeny.html. The term “identical,” as used herein, refers to two or more sequences or subsequences which are the same. In addition, the term “substantially identical,” as used herein, refers to two or more sequences which have a percentage of sequential units which are the same when compared and aligned for maximum correspondence over a comparison window, or designated region as measured using comparison algorithms or by manual alignment and visual inspection. By way of example only, two or more sequences may be “substantially identical” if the sequential units are about 60% identical, about 65% identical, about 70% identical, about 75% identical, about 80% identical, about 85% identical, about 90% identical, or about 95% identical over a specified region. Such percentages to describe the “percent identity” of two or more sequences. The identity of a sequence can exist over a region that is at least about 75-100 sequential units in length, over a region that is about 50 sequential units in length, or, where not specified, across the entire sequence. This definition also refers to the complement of a test sequence. By way of example only, two or more polypeptide sequences are identical when the amino acid residues are the same, while two or more polypeptide sequences are “substantially identical” if the amino acid residues are about 60% identical, about 65% identical, about 70% identical, about 75% identical, about 80% identical, about 85% identical, about 90% identical, or about 95% identical over a specified region. The identity can exist over a region that is at least about 75-100 amino acids in length, over a region that is about 50 amino acids in length, or, where not specified, across the entire sequence of a polypeptide sequence. In addition, by way of example only, two or more polynucleotide sequences are identical when the nucleic acid residues are the same, while two or more polynucleotide sequences are “substantially identical” if the nucleic acid residues are about 60% identical, about 65% identical, about 70% identical, about 75% identical, about 80% identical, about 85% identical, about 90% identical, or about 95% identical over a specified region. The identity can exist over a region that is at least about 75-100 nucleic acids in length, over a region that is about 50 nucleic acids in length, or, where not specified, across the entire sequence of a polynucleotide sequence. The terms “inhibits”, “inhibiting”, or “inhibitor” of a kinase, as used herein, refer to inhibition of enzymatic phosphotransferase activity. The term “irreversible inhibitor,” as used herein, refers to a compound that, upon contact with a target protein (e.g., a kinase) causes the formation of a new covalent bond with or within the protein, whereby one or more of the target protein's biological activities (e.g., phosphotransferase activity) is diminished or abolished notwithstanding the subsequent presence or absence of the irreversible inhibitor. The term “irreversible Btk inhibitor,” as used herein, refers to an inhibitor of Btk that can form a covalent bond with an amino acid residue of Btk. In one embodiment, the irreversible inhibitor of Btk can form a covalent bond with a Cys residue of Btk; in particular embodiments, the irreversible inhibitor can form a covalent bond with a Cys 481 residue (or a homolog thereof) of Btk or a cysteine residue in the homologous corresponding position of another tyrosine kinase. The term “isolated,” as used herein, refers to separating and removing a component of interest from components not of interest. Isolated substances can be in either a dry or semi-dry state, or in solution, including but not limited to an aqueous solution. The isolated component can be in a homogeneous state or the isolated component can be a part of a pharmaceutical composition that comprises additional pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and/or excipients. By way of example only, nucleic acids or proteins are “isolated” when such nucleic acids or proteins are free of at least some of the cellular components with which it is associated in the natural state, or that the nucleic acid or protein has been concentrated to a level greater than the concentration of its in vivo or in vitro production. Also, by way of example, a gene is isolated when separated from open reading frames which flank the gene and encode a protein other than the gene of interest. A “metabolite” of a compound disclosed herein is a derivative of that compound that is formed when the compound is metabolized. The term “active metabolite” refers to a biologically active derivative of a compound that is formed when the compound is metabolized. The term “metabolized,” as used herein, refers to the sum of the processes (including, but not limited to, hydrolysis reactions and reactions catalyzed by enzymes, such as, oxidation reactions) by which a particular substance is changed by an organism. Thus, enzymes may produce specific structural alterations to a compound. For example, cytochrome P450 catalyzes a variety of oxidative and reductive reactions while uridine diphosphate glucuronyl transferases catalyze the transfer of an activated glucuronic-acid molecule to aromatic alcohols, aliphatic alcohols, carboxylic acids, amines and free sulfhydryl groups. Further information on metabolism may be obtained from The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 9th Edition, McGraw-Hill (1996). Metabolites of the compounds disclosed herein can be identified either by administration of compounds to a host and analysis of tissue samples from the host, or by incubation of compounds with hepatic cells in vitro and analysis of the resulting compounds. Both methods are well known in the art. In some embodiments, metabolites of a compound are formed by oxidative processes and correspond to the corresponding hydroxy-containing compound. In some embodiments, a compound is metabolized to pharmacologically active metabolites. The term “modulate,” as used herein, means to interact with a target either directly or indirectly so as to alter the activity of the target, including, by way of example only, to enhance the activity of the target, to inhibit the activity of the target, to limit the activity of the target, or to extend the activity of the target. As used herein, the term “modulator” refers to a compound that alters an activity of a molecule. For example, a modulator can cause an increase or decrease in the magnitude of a certain activity of a molecule compared to the magnitude of the activity in the absence of the modulator. In certain embodiments, a modulator is an inhibitor, which decreases the magnitude of one or more activities of a molecule. In certain embodiments, an inhibitor completely prevents one or more activities of a molecule. In certain embodiments, a modulator is an activator, which increases the magnitude of at least one activity of a molecule. In certain embodiments the presence of a modulator results in an activity that does not occur in the absence of the modulator. As used herein, the term “selective binding compound” refers to a compound that selectively binds to any portion of one or more target proteins. As used herein, the term “selectively binds” refers to the ability of a selective binding compound to bind to a target protein, such as, for example, Btk, with greater affinity than it binds to a non-target protein. In certain embodiments, specific binding refers to binding to a target with an affinity that is at least 10, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000 or more times greater than the affinity for a non-target. As used herein, the term “selective modulator” refers to a compound that selectively modulates a target activity relative to a non-target activity. In certain embodiments, specific modulator refers to modulating a target activity at least 10, 50, 100, 250, 500, 1000 times more than a non-target activity. The term “substantially purified,” as used herein, refers to a component of interest that may be substantially or essentially free of other components which normally accompany or interact with the component of interest prior to purification. By way of example only, a component of interest may be “substantially purified” when the preparation of the component of interest contains less than about 30%, less than about 25%, less than about 20%, less than about 15%, less than about 10%, less than about 5%, less than about 4%, less than about 3%, less than about 2%, or less than about 1% (by dry weight) of contaminating components. Thus, a “substantially purified” component of interest may have a purity level of about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 96%, about 97%, about 98%, about 99% or greater. The term “subject” as used herein, refers to an animal which is the object of treatment, observation or experiment. By way of example only, a subject may be, but is not limited to, a mammal including, but not limited to, a human. As used herein, the term “target activity” refers to a biological activity capable of being modulated by a selective modulator. Certain exemplary target activities include, but are not limited to, binding affinity, signal transduction, enzymatic activity, tumor growth, effects on particular biomarkers related to B-cell lymphoproliferative disorder pathology. As used herein, the term “target protein” refers to a molecule or a portion of a protein capable of being bound by a selective binding compound. In certain embodiments, a target protein is Btk. The terms “treat,” “treating” or “treatment”, as used herein, include alleviating, abating or ameliorating a disease or condition, or symptoms thereof; managing a disease or condition, or symptoms thereof; preventing additional symptoms; ameliorating or preventing the underlying metabolic causes of symptoms; inhibiting the disease or condition, e.g., arresting the development of the disease or condition; relieving the disease or condition; causing regression of the disease or condition, relieving a condition caused by the disease or condition; or stopping the symptoms of the disease or condition. The terms “treat,” “treating” or “treatment”, include, but are not limited to, prophylactic and/or therapeutic treatments. As used herein, the IC50 refers to an amount, concentration or dosage of a particular test compound that achieves a 50% inhibition of a maximal response, such as inhibition of Btk, in an assay that measures such response. As used herein, EC50 refers to a dosage, concentration or amount of a particular test compound that elicits a dose-dependent response at 50% of maximal expression of a particular response that is induced, provoked or potentiated by the particular test compound. Hematological Malignancies Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a hematological malignancy in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is CLL. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is a chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL), high risk CLL, or a non-CLL/SLL lymphoma. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is follicular lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), mantle cell lymphoma, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, multiple myeloma, marginal zone lymphoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, non-Burkitt high grade B cell lymphoma, or extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is acute or chronic myelogenous (or myeloid) leukemia, myelodysplastic syndrome, or acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma, relapsed or refractory follicular lymphoma, relapsed or refractory CLL; relapsed or refractory SLL; relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is a hematological malignancy that is classified as high-risk. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is high risk CLL or high risk SLL. B-cell lymphoproliferative disorders (BCLDs) are neoplasms of the blood and encompass, inter alia, non-Hodgkin lymphoma, multiple myeloma, and leukemia. BCLDs can originate either in the lymphatic tissues (as in the case of lymphoma) or in the bone marrow (as in the case of leukemia and myeloma), and they all are involved with the uncontrolled growth of lymphocytes or white blood cells. There are many subtypes of BCLD, e.g., chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). The disease course and treatment of BCLD is dependent on the BCLD subtype; however, even within each subtype the clinical presentation, morphologic appearance, and response to therapy is heterogeneous. Malignant lymphomas are neoplastic transformations of cells that reside predominantly within lymphoid tissues. Two groups of malignant lymphomas are Hodgkin's lymphoma and non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL). Both types of lymphomas infiltrate reticuloendothelial tissues. However, they differ in the neoplastic cell of origin, site of disease, presence of systemic symptoms, and response to treatment (Freedman et al., “Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas” Chapter 134, Cancer Medicine, (an approved publication of the American Cancer Society, B.C. Decker Inc., Hamilton, Ontario, 2003). Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is CLL. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. Further disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating relapsed or refractory non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: administering to the individual a therapeutically-effective amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma, or relapsed or refractory follicular lymphoma. Non-Hodgkin lymphomas (NHL) are a diverse group of malignancies that are predominately of B-cell origin. NHL may develop in any organs associated with lymphatic system such as spleen, lymph nodes or tonsils and can occur at any age. NHL is often marked by enlarged lymph nodes, fever, and weight loss. NHL is classified as either B-cell or T-cell NHL. Lymphomas related to lymphoproliferative disorders following bone marrow or stem cell transplantation are usually B-cell NHL. In the Working Formulation classification scheme, NHL has been divided into low-, intermediate-, and high-grade categories by virtue of their natural histories (see “The Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma Pathologic Classification Project,” Cancer 49(1982):2112-2135). The low-grade lymphomas are indolent, with a median survival of 5 to 10 years (Horning and Rosenberg (1984) N. Engl. J. Med. 311:1471-1475). Although chemotherapy can induce remissions in the majority of indolent lymphomas, cures are rare and most patients eventually relapse, requiring further therapy. The intermediate- and high-grade lymphomas are more aggressive tumors, but they have a greater chance for cure with chemotherapy. However, a significant proportion of these patients will relapse and require further treatment. A non-limiting list of the B-cell NHL includes Burkitt's lymphoma (e.g., Endemic Burkitt's Lymphoma and Sporadic Burkitt's Lymphoma), Cutaneous B-Cell Lymphoma, Cutaneous Marginal Zone Lymphoma (MZL), Diffuse Large Cell Lymphoma (DLBCL), Diffuse Mixed Small and Large Cell Lympoma, Diffuse Small Cleaved Cell, Diffuse Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma, Extranodal Marginal Zone B-cell lymphoma, follicular lymphoma, Follicular Small Cleaved Cell (Grade 1), Follicular Mixed Small Cleaved and Large Cell (Grade 2), Follicular Large Cell (Grade 3), Intravascular Large B-Cell Lymphoma, Intravascular Lymphomatosis, Large Cell Immunoblastic Lymphoma, Large Cell Lymphoma (LCL), Lymphoblastic Lymphoma, MALT Lymphoma, Mantle Cell Lymphoma (MCL), immunoblastic large cell lymphoma, precursor B-lymphoblastic lymphoma, mantle cell lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)/small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL), extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma-mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma, Mediastinal Large B-Cell Lymphoma, nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma, splenic marginal zone B-cell lymphoma, primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, lymphoplasmocytic lymphoma, hairy cell leukemia, Waldenstrom's Macroglobulinemia, and primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma. Additional non-Hodgkin's lymphomas are contemplated within the scope of the present invention and apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art. DLBCL Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a DLCBL in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. As used herein, the term “Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL)” refers to a neoplasm of the germinal center B lymphocytes with a diffuse growth pattern and a high-intermediate proliferation index. DLBCLs represent approximately 30% of all lymphomas and may present with several morphological variants including the centroblastic, immunoblastic, T-cell/histiocyte rich, anaplastic and plasmoblastic subtypes. Genetic tests have shown that there are different subtypes of DLBCL. These subtypes seem to have different outlooks (prognoses) and responses to treatment. DLBCL can affect any age group but occurs mostly in older people (the average age is mid-60s). Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, activated B cell-like subtype (ABC-DLBCL), in an individual in need thereof, comprising: administering to the individual an irreversible Btk inhibitor in an amount from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. The ABC subtype of diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (ABC-DLBCL) is thought to arise from post germinal center B cells that are arrested during plasmatic differentiation. The ABC subtype of DLBCL (ABC-DLBCL) accounts for approximately 30% total DLBCL diagnoses. It is considered the least curable of the DLBCL molecular subtypes and, as such, patients diagnosed with the ABC-DLBCL typically display significantly reduced survival rates compared with individuals with other types of DLCBL. ABC-DLBCL is most commonly associated with chromosomal translocations deregulating the germinal center master regulator BCL6 and with mutations inactivating the PRDM1 gene, which encodes a transcriptional repressor required for plasma cell differentiation. A particularly relevant signaling pathway in the pathogenesis of ABC-DLBCL is the one mediated by the nuclear factor (NF)-κB transcription complex. The NF-κB family comprises 5 members (p50, p52, p65, c-rel and RelB) that form homo- and heterodimers and function as transcriptional factors to mediate a variety of proliferation, apoptosis, inflammatory and immune responses and are critical for normal B-cell development and survival. NF-κB is widely used by eukaryotic cells as a regulator of genes that control cell proliferation and cell survival. As such, many different types of human tumors have misregulated NF-κB: that is, NF-κB is constitutively active. Active NF-κB turns on the expression of genes that keep the cell proliferating and protect the cell from conditions that would otherwise cause it to die via apoptosis. The dependence of ABC DLBCLs on NF-kB depends on a signaling pathway upstream of IkB kinase comprised of CARD11, BCL10 and MALT1 (the CBM complex). Interference with the CBM pathway extinguishes NF-kB signaling in ABC DLBCL cells and induces apoptosis. The molecular basis for constitutive activity of the NF-kB pathway is a subject of current investigation but some somatic alterations to the genome of ABC DLBCLs clearly invoke this pathway. For example, somatic mutations of the coiled-coil domain of CARD11 in DLBCL render this signaling scaffold protein able to spontaneously nucleate protein-protein interaction with MALT1 and BCL10, causing IKK activity and NF-kB activation. Constitutive activity of the B cell receptor signaling pathway has been implicated in the activation of NF-kB in ABC DLBCLs with wild type CARD11, and this is associated with mutations within the cytoplasmic tails of the B cell receptor subunits CD79A and CD79B. Oncogenic activating mutations in the signaling adapter MYD88 activate NF-kB and synergize with B cell receptor signaling in sustaining the survival of ABC DLBCL cells. In addition, inactivating mutations in a negative regulator of the NF-kB pathway, A20, occur almost exclusively in ABC DLBCL. Indeed, genetic alterations affecting multiple components of the NF-κB signaling pathway have been recently identified in more than 50% of ABC-DLBCL patients, where these lesions promote constitutive NF-κB activation, thereby contributing to lymphoma growth. These include mutations of CARD11 (˜10% of the cases), a lymphocyte-specific cytoplasmic scaffolding protein that—together with MALT1 and BCL10—forms the BCR signalosome, which relays signals from antigen receptors to the downstream mediators of NF-κB activation. An even larger fraction of cases (˜30%) carry biallelic genetic lesions inactivating the negative NF-κB regulator A20. Further, high levels of expression of NF-κB target genes have been observed in ABC-DLBCL tumor samples. See, e.g., U. Klein et al., (2008), Nature Reviews Immunology 8:22-23; R. E. Davis et al., (2001), Journal of Experimental Medicine 194:1861-1874; G. Lentz et al., (2008), Science 319:1676-1679; M. Compagno et al., (2009), Nature 459:712-721; and L. Srinivasan et al., (2009), Cell 139:573-586). DLBCL cells of the ABC subtype, such as OCI-Ly10, have chronic active BCR signalling and are very sensitive to the Btk inhibitors described herein. The irreversible Btk inhibitors described herein potently and irreversibly inhibit the growth of OCI-Ly10 (EC50 continuous exposure=10 nM, EC50 1 hour pulse=50 nM). In addition, induction of apoptosis, as shown by capsase activation, Annexin-V flow cytometry and increase in sub-GO fraction is observed in OCILy10. Both sensitive and resistant cells express Btk at similar levels, and the active site of Btk is fully occupied by the inhibitor in both as shown using a fluorescently labeled affinity probe. OCI-Ly10 cells are shown to have chronically active BCR signalling to NF-kB which is dose dependently inhibited by the Btk inhibitors described herein. The activity of Btk inhibitors in the cell lines studied herein are also characterized by comparing signal transduction profiles (Btk, PLCγ, ERK, NF-kB, AKT), cytokine secretion profiles and mRNA expression profiles, both with and without BCR stimulation, and observed significant differences in these profiles that lead to clinical biomarkers that identify the most sensitive patient populations to Btk inhibitor treatment. See U.S. Pat. No. 7,711,492 and Staudt et al., Nature, Vol. 463, Jan. 7, 2010, pp. 88-92, the contents of which are incorporated by reference in their entirety. Follicular Lymphoma Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a follicular lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. As used herein, the term “follicular lymphoma” refers to any of several types of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in which the lymphomatous cells are clustered into nodules or follicles. The term follicular is used because the cells tend to grow in a circular, or nodular, pattern in lymph nodes. The average age for people with this lymphoma is about 60. CLL/SLL Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a CLL or SLL in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the CLL or SLL is high-risk. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. Chronic lymphocytic leukemia and small lymphocytic lymphoma (CLL/SLL) are commonly thought as the same disease with slightly different manifestations. Where the cancerous cells gather determines whether it is called CLL or SLL. When the cancer cells are primarily found in the lymph nodes, lima bean shaped structures of the lymphatic system (a system primarily of tiny vessels found in the body), it is called SLL. SLL accounts for about 5% to 10% of all lymphomas. When most of the cancer cells are in the bloodstream and the bone marrow, it is called CLL. Both CLL and SLL are slow-growing diseases, although CLL, which is much more common, tends to grow slower. CLL and SLL are treated the same way. They are usually not considered curable with standard treatments, but depending on the stage and growth rate of the disease, most patients live longer than 10 years. Occasionally over time, these slow-growing lymphomas may transform into a more aggressive type of lymphoma. Chronic lymphoid leukemia (CLL) is the most common type of leukemia. It is estimated that 100,760 people in the United States are living with or are in remission from CLL. Most (>75%) people newly diagnosed with CLL are over the age of 50. Currently CLL treatment focuses on controlling the disease and its symptoms rather than on an outright cure. CLL is treated by chemotherapy, radiation therapy, biological therapy, or bone marrow transplantation. Symptoms are sometimes treated surgically (splenectomy removal of enlarged spleen) or by radiation therapy (“de-bulking” swollen lymph nodes). Though CLL progresses slowly in most cases, it is considered generally incurable. Certain CLLs are classified as high-risk. As used herein, “high risk CLL” means CLL characterized by at least one of the following 1) 17p13-; 2) 11q22-; 3) unmutated IgVH together with ZAP-70+ and/or CD38+; or 4) trisomy 12. CLL treatment is typically administered when the patient's clinical symptoms or blood counts indicate that the disease has progressed to a point where it may affect the patient's quality of life. Small lymphocytic leukemia (SLL) is very similar to CLL described supra, and is also a cancer of B-cells. In SLL the abnormal lymphocytes mainly affect the lymph nodes. However, in CLL the abnormal cells mainly affect the blood and the bone marrow. The spleen may be affected in both conditions. SLL accounts for about 1 in 25 of all cases of non-Hodgkin lymphoma. It can occur at any time from young adulthood to old age, but is rare under the age of 50. SLL is considered an indolent lymphoma. This means that the disease progresses very slowly, and patients tend to live many years after diagnosis. However, most patients are diagnosed with advanced disease, and although SLL responds well to a variety of chemotherapy drugs, it is generally considered to be incurable. Although some cancers tend to occur more often in one gender or the other, cases and deaths due to SLL are evenly split between men and women. The average age at the time of diagnosis is 60 years. Although SLL is indolent, it is persistently progressive. The usual pattern of this disease is one of high response rates to radiation therapy and/or chemotherapy, with a period of disease remission. This is followed months or years later by an inevitable relapse. Re-treatment leads to a response again, but again the disease will relapse. This means that although the short-term prognosis of SLL is quite good, over time, many patients develop fatal complications of recurrent disease. Considering the age of the individuals typically diagnosed with CLL and SLL, there is a need in the art for a simple and effective treatment of the disease with minimum side-effects that do not impede on the patient's quality of life. The instant invention fulfills this long standing need in the art. Mantle Cell Lymphoma Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a Mantle cell lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. As used herein, the term, “Mantle cell lymphoma” refers to a subtype of B-cell lymphoma, due to CD5 positive antigen-naive pregerminal center B-cell within the mantle zone that surrounds normal germinal center follicles. MCL cells generally over-express cyclin D1 due to a t(11:14) chromosomal translocation in the DNA. More specifically, the translocation is at t(11;14)(q13;q32). Only about 5% of lymphomas are of this type. The cells are small to medium in size. Men are affected most often. The average age of patients is in the early 60s. The lymphoma is usually widespread when it is diagnosed, involving lymph nodes, bone marrow, and, very often, the spleen. Mantle cell lymphoma is not a very fast growing lymphoma, but is difficult to treat. Marginal Zone B-Cell Lymphoma Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a marginal zone B-cell lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. As used herein, the term “marginal zone B-cell lymphoma” refers to a group of related B-cell neoplasms that involve the lymphoid tissues in the marginal zone, the patchy area outside the follicular mantle zone. Marginal zone lymphomas account for about 5% to 10% of lymphomas. The cells in these lymphomas look small under the microscope. There are 3 main types of marginal zone lymphomas including extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphomas, nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma, and splenic marginal zone lymphoma. MALT Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a MALT in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. The term “mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphoma”, as used herein, refers to extranodal manifestations of marginal-zone lymphomas. Most MALT lymphoma are a low grade, although a minority either manifest initially as intermediate-grade non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) or evolve from the low-grade form. Most of the MALT lymphoma occur in the stomach, and roughly 70% of gastric MALT lymphoma are associated with Helicobacter pylori infection. Several cytogenetic abnormalities have been identified, the most common being trisomy 3 or t(11;18). Many of these other MALT lymphoma have also been linked to infections with bacteria or viruses. The average age of patients with MALT lymphoma is about 60. Nodal Marginal Zone B-Cell Lymphoma Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. The term “nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma” refers to an indolent B-cell lymphoma that is found mostly in the lymph nodes. The disease is rare and only accounts for 1% of all Non-Hodgkin's Lymphomas (NHL). It is most commonly diagnosed in older patients, with women more susceptible than men. The disease is classified as a marginal zone lymphoma because the mutation occurs in the marginal zone of the B-cells. Due to its confinement in the lymph nodes, this disease is also classified as nodal. Splenic Marginal Zone B-Cell Lymphoma Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a splenic marginal zone B-cell lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. The term “splenic marginal zone B-cell lymphoma” refers to specific low-grade small B-cell lymphoma that is incorporated in the World Health Organization classification. Characteristic features are splenomegaly, moderate lymphocytosis with villous morphology, intrasinusoidal pattern of involvement of various organs, especially bone marrow, and relative indolent course. Tumor progression with increase of blastic forms and aggressive behavior are observed in a minority of patients. Molecular and cytogenetic studies have shown heterogeneous results probably because of the lack of standardized diagnostic criteria. Burkitt Lymphoma Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a Burkitt lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. The term “Burkitt lymphoma” refers to a type of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (NHL) that commonly affects children. It is a highly aggressive type of B-cell lymphoma that often starts and involves body parts other than lymph nodes. In spite of its fast-growing nature, Burkitt's lymphoma is often curable with modern intensive therapies. There are two broad types of Burkitt's lymphoma—the sporadic and the endemic varieties: Endemic Burkitt's lymphoma: The disease involves children much more than adults, and is related to Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) infection in 95% cases. It occurs primarily is equatorial Africa, where about half of all childhood cancers are Burkitt's lymphoma. It characteristically has a high chance of involving the jawbone, a rather distinctive feature that is rare in sporadic Burkitt's. It also commonly involves the abdomen. Sporadic Burkitt's lymphoma: The type of Burkitt's lymphoma that affects the rest of the world, including Europe and the Americas is the sporadic type. Here too, it's mainly a disease in children. The link between Epstein Barr Virus (EBV) is not as strong as with the endemic variety, though direct evidence of EBV infection is present in one out of five patients. More than the involvement of lymph nodes, it is the abdomen that is notably affected in more than 90% of the children. Bone marrow involvement is more common than in the sporadic variety. Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. The term “Waldenstrom macroglobulinemia”, also known as lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma, is cancer involving a subtype of white blood cells called lymphocytes. It is characterized by an uncontrolled clonal proliferation of terminally differentiated B lymphocytes. It is also characterized by the lymphoma cells making an antibody called immunoglobulin M (IgM). The IgM antibodies circulate in the blood in large amounts, and cause the liquid part of the blood to thicken, like syrup. This can lead to decreased blood flow to many organs, which can cause problems with vision (because of poor circulation in blood vessels in the back of the eyes) and neurological problems (such as headache, dizziness, and confusion) caused by poor blood flow within the brain. Other symptoms can include feeling tired and weak, and a tendency to bleed easily. The underlying etiology is not fully understood but a number of risk factors have been identified, including the locus 6p21.3 on chromosome 6. There is a 2- to 3-fold risk increase of developing WM in people with a personal history of autoimmune diseases with autoantibodies and particularly elevated risks associated with hepatitis, human immunodeficiency virus, and rickettsiosis. Multiple Myeloma Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a myeloma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a multiple myeloma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. Multiple myeloma, also known as MM, myeloma, plasma cell myeloma, or as Kahler's disease (after Otto Kahler) is a cancer of the white blood cells known as plasma cells. A type of B cell, plasma cells are a crucial part of the immune system responsible for the production of antibodies in humans and other vertebrates. They are produced in the bone marrow and are transported through the lymphatic system. Leukemia Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a leukemia in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. Leukemia is a cancer of the blood or bone marrow characterized by an abnormal increase of blood cells, usually leukocytes (white blood cells). Leukemia is a broad term covering a spectrum of diseases. The first division is between its acute and chronic forms: (i) acute leukemia is characterized by the rapid increase of immature blood cells. This crowding makes the bone marrow unable to produce healthy blood cells. Immediate treatment is required in acute leukemia due to the rapid progression and accumulation of the malignant cells, which then spill over into the bloodstream and spread to other organs of the body. Acute forms of leukemia are the most common forms of leukemia in children; (ii) chronic leukemia is distinguished by the excessive build up of relatively mature, but still abnormal, white blood cells. Typically taking months or years to progress, the cells are produced at a much higher rate than normal cells, resulting in many abnormal white blood cells in the blood. Chronic leukemia mostly occurs in older people, but can theoretically occur in any age group. Additionally, the diseases are subdivided according to which kind of blood cell is affected. This split divides leukemias into lymphoblastic or lymphocytic leukemias and myeloid or myelogenous leukemias: (i) lymphoblastic or lymphocytic leukemias, the cancerous change takes place in a type of marrow cell that normally goes on to form lymphocytes, which are infection-fighting immune system cells; (ii) myeloid or myelogenous leukemias, the cancerous change takes place in a type of marrow cell that normally goes on to form red blood cells, some other types of white cells, and platelets. Within these main categories, there are several subcategories including, but not limited to, Acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL), Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML), Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CIVIL), and Hairy cell leukemia (HCL). Btk Inhibitors Also presented herein are methods for treating a cancer such as by way of example only, a BCLD, in a subject wherein the subject has been treated with a dosing regimen of a Btk inhibitor. In the following description of irreversible Btk compounds suitable for use in the methods described herein, definitions of referred-to standard chemistry terms may be found in reference works (if not otherwise defined herein), including Carey and Sundberg “Advanced Organic Chemistry 4th Ed.” Vols. A (2000) and B (2001), Plenum Press, New York. Unless otherwise indicated, conventional methods of mass spectroscopy, NMR, HPLC, protein chemistry, biochemistry, recombinant DNA techniques and pharmacology, within the ordinary skill of the art are employed. In addition, nucleic acid and amino acid sequences for Btk (e.g., human Btk) are known in the art as disclosed in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,326,469. Unless specific definitions are provided, the nomenclature employed in connection with, and the laboratory procedures and techniques of, analytical chemistry, synthetic organic chemistry, and medicinal and pharmaceutical chemistry described herein are those known in the art. Standard techniques can be used for chemical syntheses, chemical analyses, pharmaceutical preparation, formulation, and delivery, and treatment of patients. The Btk inhibitor compounds described herein are selective for Btk and kinases having a cysteine residue in an amino acid sequence position of the tyrosine kinase that is homologous to the amino acid sequence position of cysteine 481 in Btk. Generally, an irreversible inhibitor compound of Btk used in the methods described herein is identified or characterized in an in vitro assay, e.g., an acellular biochemical assay or a cellular functional assay. Such assays are useful to determine an in vitro IC50 for an irreversible Btk inhibitor compound. For example, an acellular kinase assay can be used to determine Btk activity after incubation of the kinase in the absence or presence of a range of concentrations of a candidate irreversible Btk inhibitor compound. If the candidate compound is in fact an irreversible Btk inhibitor, Btk kinase activity will not be recovered by repeat washing with inhibitor-free medium. See, e.g., J. B. Smaill, et al. (1999), J. Med. Chem. 42(10):1803-1815. Further, covalent complex formation between Btk and a candidate irreversible Btk inhibitor is a useful indicator of irreversible inhibition of Btk that can be readily determined by a number of methods known in the art (e.g., mass spectrometry). For example, some irreversible Btk-inhibitor compounds can form a covalent bond with Cys 481 of Btk (e.g., via a Michael reaction). Cellular functional assays for Btk inhibition include measuring one or more cellular endpoints in response to stimulating a Btk-mediated pathway in a cell line (e.g., BCR activation in Ramos cells) in the absence or presence of a range of concentrations of a candidate irreversible Btk inhibitor compound. Useful endpoints for determining a response to BCR activation include, e.g., autophosphorylation of Btk, phosphorylation of a Btk target protein (e.g., PLC-γ), and cytoplasmic calcium flux. High throughput assays for many acellular biochemical assays (e.g., kinase assays) and cellular functional assays (e.g., calcium flux) are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art. In addition, high throughput screening systems are commercially available (see, e.g., Zymark Corp., Hopkinton, Mass.; Air Technical Industries, Mentor, Ohio; Beckman Instruments, Inc. Fullerton, Calif.; Precision Systems, Inc., Natick, Mass., etc.). These systems typically automate entire procedures including all sample and reagent pipetting, liquid dispensing, timed incubations, and final readings of the microplate in detector(s) appropriate for the assay. Automated systems thereby allow the identification and characterization of a large number of irreversible Btk compounds without undue effort. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is selected from the group consisting of a small organic molecule, a macromolecule, a peptide or a non-peptide. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor provided herein is a reversible or irreversible inhibitor. In certain embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is an irreversible inhibitor. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor forms a covalent bond with a cysteine sidechain of a Bruton's tyrosine kinase, a Bruton's tyrosine kinase homolog, or a Btk tyrosine kinase cysteine homolog. Irreversible Btk inhibitor compounds can use for the manufacture of a medicament for treating any of the foregoing conditions (e.g., autoimmune diseases, inflammatory diseases, allergy disorders, B-cell proliferative disorders, or thromboembolic disorders). In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor compound used for the methods described herein inhibits Btk or a Btk homolog kinase activity with an in vitro IC50 of less than 10 μM. (e.g., less than 1 μM, less than 0.5 μM, less than 0.4 μM, less than 0.3 μM, less than 0.1, less than 0.08 μM, less than 0.06 μM, less than 0.05 μM, less than 0.04 μM, less than 0.03 μM, less than less than 0.02 μM, less than 0.01, less than 0.008 μM, less than 0.006 μM, less than 0.005 μM, less than 0.004 μM, less than 0.003 μM, less than less than 0.002 μM, less than 0.001, less than 0.00099 μM, less than 0.00098 μM, less than 0.00097 μM, less than 0.00096 μM, less than 0.00095 μM, less than 0.00094 μM, less than 0.00093 μM, less than 0.00092, or less than 0.00090 μM). In one embodiment, the irreversible Btk inhibitor compound selectively and irreversibly inhibits an activated form of its target tyrosine kinase (e.g., a phosphorylated form of the tyrosine kinase). For example, activated Btk is transphosphorylated at tyrosine 551. Thus, in these embodiments the irreversible Btk inhibitor inhibits the target kinase in cells only once the target kinase is activated by the signaling events. In other embodiments, the Btk inhibitor used in the methods describe herein has the structure of any of Formula (A), Formula (B), Formula (C), Formula (D), Formula (E), or Formula (F). Also described herein are pharmaceutically acceptable salts, pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically active metabolites, and pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs of such compounds. Pharmaceutical compositions that include at least one such compound or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, pharmaceutically acceptable solvate, pharmaceutically active metabolite or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug of such compound, are provided. In some embodiments, when compounds disclosed herein contain an oxidizable nitrogen atom, the nitrogen atom can be converted to an N-oxide by methods well known in the art. In certain embodiments, isomers and chemically protected forms of compounds having a structure represented by any of Formula (A), Formula (B), Formula (C), Formula (D), Formula (E), or Formula (F), are also provided. Formula (A) is as follows: wherein: A is independently selected from N or CR5; R1 is H, L2-(substituted or unsubstituted alkyl), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkenyl), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted heterocycle), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl), or L2-(substituted or unsubstituted aryl), where L2 is a bond, O, S, —S(═O), —S(═O)2, C(═O), -(substituted or unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl), or -(substituted or unsubstituted C2-C6 alkenyl); R2 and R3 are independently selected from H, lower alkyl and substituted lower alkyl; R4 is L3-X-L4-G, wherein, L3 is optional, and when present is a bond, optionally substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, optionally substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl, optionally substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, optionally substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl; X is optional, and when present is a bond, O, —C(═O), S, —S(═O), —S(═O)2, —NH, —NR9, —NHC(O), —C(O)NH, —NR9C(O), —C(O)NR9, —S(═O)2NH, —NHS(═O)2, —S(═O)2NR9—, —NR9S(═O)2, —OC(O)NH—, —NHC(O)O—, —OC(O)NR9—, —NR9C(O)O—, —CH═NO—, —ON═CH—, —NR10C(O)NR10—, heteroaryl, aryl, —NR10C(═NR11)NR10—, —NR10C(═NR11)—, —C(═NR11)NR10—, —OC(═NR11)—, or —C(═NR11)O—; L4 is optional, and when present is a bond, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocycle; or L3, X and L4 taken together form a nitrogen containing heterocyclic ring; G is wherein, R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from among H, lower alkyl or substituted lower alkyl, lower heteroalkyl or substituted lower heteroalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted lower cycloalkyl, and substituted or unsubstituted lower heterocycloalkyl; R5 is H, halogen, -L6-(substituted or unsubstituted C1-C3 alkyl), -L6-(substituted or unsubstituted C2-C4 alkenyl), -L6-(substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl), or -L6-(substituted or unsubstituted aryl), wherein L6 is a bond, O, S, —S(═O), S(═O)2, NH, C(O), —NHC(O)O, —OC(O)NH, —NHC(O), or —C(O)NH; each R9 is independently selected from among H, substituted or unsubstituted lower alkyl, and substituted or unsubstituted lower cycloalkyl; each R10 is independently H, substituted or unsubstituted lower alkyl, or substituted or unsubstituted lower cycloalkyl; or two R10 groups can together form a 5-, 6-, 7-, or 8-membered heterocyclic ring; or R9 and R10 can together form a 5-, 6-, 7-, or 8-membered heterocyclic ring; or each R11 is independently selected from H, —S(═O)2R8, —S(═O)2NH2, —C(O)R8, —CN, —NO2, heteroaryl, or heteroalkyl; and pharmaceutically active metabolites, pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In one aspect are compounds having the structure of Formula (A1): wherein A is independently selected from N or CR5; R1 is H, L2-(substituted or unsubstituted alkyl), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkenyl), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted heterocycle), L2-(substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl), or L2-(substituted or unsubstituted aryl), where L2 is a bond, O, S, —S(═O), —S(═O)2, C(═O), -(substituted or unsubstituted C1-C6 alkyl), or -(substituted or unsubstituted C2-C6 alkenyl); R2 and R3 are independently selected from H, lower alkyl and substituted lower alkyl; R4 is L3-X-L4-G, wherein, L3 is optional, and when present is a bond, or an optionally substituted group selected from alkyl, heteroalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkylaryl, alkylheteroaryl, or alkylheterocycloalkyl; X is optional, and when present is a bond, O, —C(═O), S, —S(═O), —S(═O)2, —NH, —NR9, —NHC(O), —C(O)NH, —NR9C(O), —C(O)NR9, —S(═O)2NH, —NHS(═O)2, —S(═O)2NR9—, —NR9S(═O)2, —OC(O)NH—, —NHC(O)O—, —OC(O)NR9—, —NR9C(O)O—, —CH═NO—, —ON═CH—, —NR10C(O)NR10—, heteroaryl, aryl, —NR10C(═NR11)NR10—, —NR10C(═NR11)—, —C(═NR11)NR10—, —OC(═NR11)—, or —C(═NR11)O—; L4 is optional, and when present is a bond, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocycle; or L3, X and L4 taken together form a nitrogen containing heterocyclic ring, or an optionally substituted group selected from alkyl, heteroalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkylaryl, alkylheteroaryl, or alkylheterocycloalkyl; G is where Ra is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl; and either R7 and R8 are H; R6 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); R6 and R8 are H; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6 cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or R6 and R8 taken together form a bond; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or R5 is H, halogen, -L6-(substituted or unsubstituted C1-C3 alkyl), -L6-(substituted or unsubstituted C2-C4 alkenyl), -L6-(substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl), or -L6-(substituted or unsubstituted aryl), wherein L6 is a bond, O, S, —S(═O), S(═O)2, NH, C(O), —NHC(O)O, —OC(O)NH, —NHC(O), or —C(O)NH; each R9 is independently selected from among H, substituted or unsubstituted lower alkyl, and substituted or unsubstituted lower cycloalkyl; each R10 is independently H, substituted or unsubstituted lower alkyl, or substituted or unsubstituted lower cycloalkyl; or two R10 groups can together form a 5-, 6-, 7-, or 8-membered heterocyclic ring; or R9 and R10 can together form a 5-, 6-, 7-, or 8-membered heterocyclic ring; or each R11 is independently selected from H, —S(═O)2R8, —S(═O)2NH2, —C(O)R8, —CN, —NO2, heteroaryl, or heteroalkyl; and pharmaceutically active metabolites, pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In another embodiment are provided pharmaceutically acceptable salts of compounds of Formula (A1). By way of example only, are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid or malonic acid. Further salts include those in which the counterion is an anion, such as adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, and valerate. Further salts include those in which the counterion is an cation, such as sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium, and quaternary ammonium (substituted with at least one organic moiety) cations. In another embodiment are pharmaceutically acceptable esters of compounds of Formula (A1), including those in which the ester group is selected from a formate, acetate, propionate, butyrate, acrylate and ethylsuccinate. In another embodiment are pharmaceutically acceptable carbamates of compounds of Formula (A1). In another embodiment are pharmaceutically acceptable N-acyl derivatives of compounds of Formula (A1). Examples of N-acyl groups include N-acetyl and N-ethoxycarbonyl groups. In a further embodiment, the compound of Formula (A) has the following structure of Formula (B): wherein: Y is alkyl or substituted alkyl, or a 4-, 5-, or 6-membered cycloalkyl ring; each Ra is independently H, halogen, —CF3, —CN, —NO2, OH, NH2, -La-(substituted or unsubstituted alkyl), -La-(substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl), -La-(substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl), or -La-(substituted or unsubstituted aryl), wherein La is a bond, O, S, —S(═O), —S(═O)2, NH, C(O), CH2, —NHC(O)O, —NHC(O), or —C(O)NH; G is wherein, R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from among H, lower alkyl or substituted lower alkyl, lower heteroalkyl or substituted lower heteroalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted lower cycloalkyl, and substituted or unsubstituted lower heterocycloalkyl; R12 is H or lower alkyl; or Y and R12 taken together form a 4-, 5-, or 6-membered heterocyclic ring; and pharmaceutically acceptable active metabolites, pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In further embodiments, G is selected from among In further embodiments, is selected from among In a further embodiment, the compound of Formula (A1) has the following structure of Formula (B1): wherein: Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkylene, heteroalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, alkylenearylene, alkyleneheteroarylene, and alkyleneheterocycloalkylene; each Ra is independently H, halogen, —CF3, —CN, —NO2, OH, NH2, -La-(substituted or unsubstituted alkyl), -La-(substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl), -La-(substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl), or -La-(substituted or unsubstituted aryl), wherein La is a bond, O, S, —S(═O), —S(═O)2, NH, C(O), CH2, —NHC(O)O, —NHC(O), or —C(O)NH; G is where Ra is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl; and either R7 and R8 are H; R6 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); R6 and R8 are H; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or R6 and R8 taken together form a bond; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); R12 is H or lower alkyl; or Y and R12 taken together form a 4-, 5-, or 6-membered heterocyclic ring; and pharmaceutically acceptable active metabolites, pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In further embodiments, G is selected from among where R is H, alkyl, alkylhydroxy, heterocycloalkyl, heteroaryl, alkylalkoxy, alkylalkoxyalkyl. In further embodiments, is selected from among In a further embodiment, the compound of Formula (B) has the following structure of Formula (C): Y is alkyl or substituted alkyl, or a 4-, 5-, or 6-membered cycloalkyl ring; R12 is H or lower alkyl; or Y and R12 taken together form a 4-, 5-, or 6-membered heterocyclic ring; G is wherein, R6, R7 and R8 are independently selected from among H, lower alkyl or substituted lower alkyl, lower heteroalkyl or substituted lower heteroalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted lower cycloalkyl, and substituted or unsubstituted lower heterocycloalkyl; and pharmaceutically acceptable active metabolites, pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In further embodiment, the compound of Formula (B1) has the following structure of Formula (C1): Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkyl, heteroalkyl, aryl, heteroaryl, alkylaryl, alkylheteroaryl, and alkylheterocycloalkyl; R12 is H or lower alkyl; or Y and R12 taken together form a 4-, 5-, or 6-membered heterocyclic ring; G is where Ra is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl; and either R7 and R8 are H; R6 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); R6 and R8 are H; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or R6 and R8 taken together form a bond; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6 cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); and pharmaceutically acceptable active metabolites, pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In a further or alternative embodiment, the “G” group of any of Formula (A1), Formula (B1), or Formula (C1) is any group that is used to tailor the physical and biological properties of the molecule. Such tailoring/modifications are achieved using groups which modulate Michael acceptor chemical reactivity, acidity, basicity, lipophilicity, solubility and other physical properties of the molecule. The physical and biological properties modulated by such modifications to G include, by way of example only, enhancing chemical reactivity of Michael acceptor group, solubility, in vivo absorption, and in vivo metabolism. In addition, in vivo metabolism includes, by way of example only, controlling in vivo PK properties, off-target activities, potential toxicities associated with cypP450 interactions, drug-drug interactions, and the like. Further, modifications to G allow for the tailoring of the in vivo efficacy of the compound through the modulation of, by way of example, specific and non-specific protein binding to plasma proteins and lipids and tissue distribution in vivo. In another embodiment, provided herein is a compound of Formula (D). Formula (D) is as follows: wherein: La is CH2, O, NH or S; Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl; Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; Z is C(═O), OC(═O), NHC(═O), C(═S), S(═O)x, OS(═O)x, NHS(═O)x, where x is 1 or 2; R6, R7, and R8 are each independently selected from among H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C6heterocycloalkyl, C1-C6alkoxyalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(aryl), substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(C3-C8cycloalkyl), or substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or R7 and R8 taken together form a bond; and pharmaceutically active metabolites, or pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In one embodiment are compounds having the structure of Formula (D1): wherein La is CH2, O, NH or S; Ar is an optionally substituted aromatic carbocycle or an aromatic heterocycle; Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkylene, heteroalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, alkylenearylene, alkyleneheteroarylene, and alkyleneheterocycloalkylene, or combination thereof; Z is C(═O), NHC(═O), NRaC(═O), NRaS(═O)x, where x is 1 or 2, and Ra is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl; and either R7 and R8 are H; R6 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); R6 and R8 are H; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or R6 and R8 taken together form a bond; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or combinations thereof; and pharmaceutically active metabolites, or pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In another embodiment are provided pharmaceutically acceptable salts of compounds of Formula (D1). By way of example only, are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid and perchloric acid or with organic acids such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid or malonic acid. Further salts include those in which the counterion is an anion, such as adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, and valerate. Further salts include those in which the counterion is an cation, such as sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium, and quaternary ammonium (substituted with at least one organic moiety) cations. In another embodiment are pharmaceutically acceptable esters of compounds of Formula (D1), including those in which the ester group is selected from a formate, acetate, propionate, butyrate, acrylate and ethylsuccinate. In another embodiment are pharmaceutically acceptable carbamates of compounds of Formula (D1). In another embodiment are pharmaceutically acceptable N-acyl derivatives of compounds of Formula (D1). Examples of N-acyl groups include N-acetyl and N-ethoxycarbonyl groups. In a further embodiment, La is O. In a further embodiment, Ar is phenyl. In a further embodiment, Z is C(═O), NHC(═O), or NCH3C(═O). In a further embodiment, each of R1, R2, and R3 is H. In one embodiment is a compound of Formula (D1) wherein R6, R7, and R8 are all H. In another embodiment, R6, R7, and R8 are not all H. For any and all of the embodiments, substituents can be selected from among from a subset of the listed alternatives. For example, in some embodiments, La is CH2, O, or NH. In other embodiments, La is O or NH. In yet other embodiments, La is O. In some embodiments, Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl. In yet other embodiments, Ar is a 6-membered aryl. In some other embodiments, Ar is phenyl. In some embodiments, x is 2. In yet other embodiments, Z is C(═O), OC(═O), NHC(═O), S(═O)x, OS(═O)x, or NHS(═O)x. In some other embodiments, Z is C(═O), NHC(═O), or S(═O)2. In some embodiments, R7 and R8 are independently selected from among H, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, substituted C1-C4alkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, and substituted C1-C4heteroalkyl; or R7 and R8 taken together form a bond. In yet other embodiments, each of R7 and R8 is H; or R7 and R8 taken together form a bond. In some embodiments, R6 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C6alkoxyalkyl, C1-C2alkyl-N(C1-C3alkyl)2, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C4alkyl(C3-C8cycloalkyl), or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl). In some other embodiments, R6 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C6alkoxyalkyl, C1-C2alkyl-N(C1-C3alkyl)2, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C4alkyl(C3-C8cycloalkyl), or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl). In yet other embodiments, R6 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, —CH2—O—(C1-C3alkyl), —CH2—N(C1-C3alkyl)2, C1-C4alkyl(phenyl), or C1-C4alkyl(5- or 6-membered heteroaryl). In some embodiments, R6 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, —CH2—O—(C1-C3alkyl), —CH2—N(C1-C3alkyl)2, C1-C4alkyl(phenyl), or C1-C4alkyl(5- or 6-membered heteroaryl containing 1 or 2 N atoms), or C1-C4alkyl(5- or 6-membered heterocycloalkyl containing 1 or 2 N atoms). In some embodiments, Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, and heterocycloalkyl. In other embodiments, Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among C1-C6alkyl, C1-C6heteroalkyl, 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered cycloalkyl, and 4-, 5-, 6- or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl. In yet other embodiments, Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among C1-C6alkyl, C1-C6heteroalkyl, 5-, or 6-membered cycloalkyl, and 5-, or 6-membered heterocycloalkyl containing 1 or 2 N atoms. In some other embodiments, Y is a 5-, or 6-membered cycloalkyl, or a 5-, or 6-membered heterocycloalkyl containing 1 or 2 N atoms. Any combination of the groups described above for the various variables is contemplated herein. It is understood that substituents and substitution patterns on the compounds provided herein can be selected by one of ordinary skill in the art to provide compounds that are chemically stable and that can be synthesized by techniques known in the art, as well as those set forth herein. In one embodiment the irreversible inhibitor of a kinase has the structure of Formula (E): wherein: wherein is a moiety that binds to the active site of a kinase, including a tyrosine kinase, further including a Btk kinase cysteine homolog; Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkylene, heteroalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, heterocycloalkylene, cycloalkylene, alkylenearylene, alkyleneheteroarylene, alkylenecycloalkylene, and alkyleneheterocycloalkylene; Z is C(═O), OC(═O), NHC(═O), NCH3C(═O), C(═S), S(═O)x, OS(═O)x, NHS(═O)x, where x is 1 or 2; R6, R7, and R8 are each independently selected from among H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C6heterocycloalkyl, C1-C6alkoxyalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(aryl), substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(C3-C8cycloalkyl), or substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or R7 and R8 taken together form a bond; and pharmaceutically active metabolites, or pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In some embodiments, is a substituted fused biaryl moiety selected from In one aspect, provided herein are compounds of Formula (F). Formula (F) is as follows: wherein La is CH2, O, NH or S; Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl; and either (a) Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkylene, heteroalkylene, arylene, heteroarylene, alkylenearylene, alkyleneheteroarylene, alkylenecycloalkylene and alkyleneheterocycloalkylene; Z is C(═O), NHC(═O), NRaC(═O), NRaS(═O)x, where x is 1 or 2, and Ra is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl; and either (i) R6, R7, and R8 are each independently selected from among H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C6heterocycloalkyl, C1-C6alkoxyalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(aryl), substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(C3-C8cycloalkyl), or substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); (ii) R6 and R8 are H; R7 is H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8 hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8 alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or (iii) R7 and R8 taken together form a bond; R6 is selected from among H, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C6heterocycloalkyl, C1-C6alkoxyalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(aryl), substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(C3-C8cycloalkyl), or substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl) or (b) Y is an optionally substituted group selected from cycloalkylene or heterocycloalkylene; Z is C(═O), NHC(═O), NRaC(═O), NRaS(═O)x, where x is 1 or 2, and Ra is H, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl; and either (i) R7 and R8 are H; R6 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8 hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8 alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); (ii) R6 and R8 are H; R7 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8 hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8 alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); or (iii) R7 and R8 taken together form a bond; R6 is substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C4heteroalkyl, C1-C8alkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8hydroxyalkylaminoalkyl, C1-C8alkoxyalkylaminoalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted C1-C8alkylC3-C6cycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted C2-C8heterocycloalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, C1-C4alkyl(aryl), C1-C4alkyl(heteroaryl), C1-C8alkylethers, C1-C8alkylamides, or C1-C4alkyl(C2-C8heterocycloalkyl); and pharmaceutically active metabolites, or pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof Further embodiments of compounds of Formula (A), Formula (B), Formula (C), Formula (D), include, but are not limited to, compounds selected from the group consisting of: In still another embodiment, compounds provided herein are selected from among: In one aspect, provided herein is a compound selected from among: 1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (Compound 4); (E)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)but-2-en-1-one (Compound 5); 1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)sulfonylethene (Compound 6); 1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-yn-1-one (Compound 8); 1-(4-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (Compound 9); N-((1s,4s)-4-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)cyclohexyl)acrylamide (Compound 10); 1-((R)-3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)pyrrolidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (Compound 11); 1-((S)-3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)pyrrolidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (Compound 12); 1-((R)-3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (Compound 13); 1-((S)-3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one (Compound 14); and (E)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)-4-(dimethylamino)but-2-en-1-one (Compound 15). In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In one embodiment, the Btk inhibitor is α-cyano-β-hydroxy-β-methyl-N-(2,5-dibromophenyl)propenamide (LFM-A13), AVL-101, 4-tert-butyl-N-(3-(8-(phenylamino)imidazo[1,2-a]pyrazin-6-yl)phenyl)benzamide, 5-(3-amino-2-methylphenyl)-1-methyl-3-(4-(morpholine-4-carbonyl)phenylamino)pyrazin-2(1H)-one, N-(2-methyl-3-(4-methyl-6-(4-(morpholine-4-carbonyl)phenylamino)-5-oxo-4,5-dihydropyrazin-2-yl)phenyl)acetamide, 4-tert-butyl-N-(2-methyl-3-(4-methyl-6-(4-(morpholine-4-carbonyl)phenylamino)-5-oxo-4,5-dihydropyrazin-2-yl)phenyl)benzamide, 5-(3-(4-tert-butylbenzylamino)-2-methylphenyl)-1-methyl-3-(4-(morpholine-4-carbonyl)phenylamino)pyrazin-2(1H)-one, 5-(3-(3-tert-butylbenzylamino)-2-methylphenyl)-1-methyl-3-(4-(morpholine-4-carbonyl)phenylamino)pyrazin-2(1H)-one, 3-tert-butyl-N-(2-methyl-3-(4-methyl-6-(4-(morpholine-4-carbonyl)phenylamino)-5-oxo-4,5-dihydropyrazin-2-yl)phenyl)benzamide, 6-tert-butyl-N-(2-methyl-3-(4-methyl-6-(4-(morpholine-4-carbonyl)phenylamino)-5-oxo-4,5-dihydropyrazin-2-yl)phenyl)nicotinamide, and terreic acid. Throughout the specification, groups and substituents thereof can be chosen by one skilled in the field to provide stable moieties and compounds. In certain embodiments, any of the Btk inhibitors and/or the second agent provided herein for the invention methods is included in a pharmaceutical composition comprising: i) a physiologically acceptable carrier, diluent, and/or excipient. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor of the invention methods is administered at a dose of from about 1.25 mg/kg/day to about 12.5 mg/kg/day. In certain embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered at a dose selected from the group consisting of about 1.25 mg/kg/day, about 2.5 mg/kg/day, about 5 mg/kg/day, about 8.3 mg/kg/day, or about 12.5 mg/kg/day. In some embodiments provide the biomarkers in accordance with the practice of the present invention is selected from ZAP-70, CD5, t(14;18), CD38, β-2 microglobulin, p53 mutational status, ATM mutational status, chromosome 17p deletion, chromosome 11q deletion, surface or cytoplasmic immunoglobulin, CD138, CD25, 6q deletion, CD19, CD20, CD22, CD11c, CD 103, chromosome 7q deletion, and VH mutational status. In some embodiments, determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes is of a combination of biomarkers. In certain embodiments, the combination of biomarkers is CD19 and CD5 or CD20 and CD5. In other embodiments, the second agent is administered at a dose of from about 1.25 mg/kg/day to about 12.5 mg/kg/day. In certain embodiments, the second agent is administered at a dose selected from the group consisting of about 1.25 mg/kg/day, about 2.5 mg/kg/day, about 5 mg/kg/day, about 8.3 mg/kg/day, or about 12.5 mg/kg/day. The dosage of the second agent is based on the determined expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes. A person skilled in the art such as a physician can readily determine the suitable regimen (e.g. dosage of the second agent) based on the diagnostic results. In other embodiments, the present invention provides methods for treating a cancer comprising determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes in a subject that has received a dose of a Btk inhibitor; and administering a second agent based on the determined expression profile. In other embodiments, the present invention also provides methods for treating a cancer comprising administering a Btk inhibitor sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes defined by immunophenotyping; and administering a second agent once the increase or appearance in the blood of the subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined. In some embodiments, the subject is a human. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitors are orally administered. In any of the aforementioned aspects are further embodiments in which administration is enteral, parenteral, or both, and wherein (a) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor is systemically administered to the mammal; (b) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor is administered orally to the mammal; (c) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor is intravenously administered to the mammal; (d) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor administered by inhalation; (e) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor is administered by nasal administration; or (f) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor is administered by injection to the mammal; (g) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor is administered topically (dermal) to the mammal; (h) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor is administered by ophthalmic administration; or (i) the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor is administered rectally to the mammal. In any of the aforementioned aspects are further embodiments comprising single administrations of the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor, including further embodiments in which (i) the Btk inhibitor is administered once; (ii) the Btk inhibitor is administered to the mammal multiple times over the span of one day; (iii) continually; or (iv) continuously. In any of the aforementioned aspects are further embodiments comprising multiple administrations of the effective amount of the Btk inhibitor, including further embodiments in which (i) the Btk inhibitor is administered in a single dose; (ii) the time between multiple administrations is every 6 hours; (iii) the Btk inhibitor is administered to the mammal every 8 hours. In further or alternative embodiments, the method comprises a drug holiday, wherein the administration of the Btk inhibitor is temporarily suspended or the dose of the Btk inhibitor being administered is temporarily reduced; at the end of the drug holiday, dosing of the Btk inhibitor is resumed. The length of the drug holiday can vary from 2 days to 1 year. In any of the aforementioned aspects are further embodiments in which administration is enteral, parenteral, or both, and wherein (a) the effective amount of the second agent is systemically administered to the mammal; (b) the effective amount of the second agent is administered orally to the mammal; (c) the effective amount of the second agent is intravenously administered to the mammal; (d) the effective amount of the second agent administered by inhalation; (e) the effective amount of the second agent is administered by nasal administration; or (f) the effective amount of the second agent is administered by injection to the mammal; (g) the effective amount of the second agent is administered topically (dermal) to the mammal; (h) the effective amount of the second agent is administered by ophthalmic administration; or (i) the effective amount of the second agent is administered rectally to the mammal. In any of the aforementioned aspects are further embodiments comprising single administrations of the effective amount of second agent, including further embodiments in which (i) the second agent is administered once; (ii) the second agent is administered to the mammal multiple times over the span of one day; (iii) continually; or (iv) continuously. In any of the aforementioned aspects are further embodiments comprising multiple administrations of the effective amount of the second agent, including further embodiments in which (i) the second agent is administered in a single dose; (ii) the time between multiple administrations is every 6 hours; (iii) the second agent is administered to the mammal every 8 hours. In further or alternative embodiments, the method comprises a drug holiday, wherein the administration of the second agent is temporarily suspended or the dose of the second agent being administered is temporarily reduced; at the end of the drug holiday, dosing of the second agent is resumed. The length of the drug holiday can vary from 2 days to 1 year. In any of the aforementioned aspects the second agent is selected from the group consisting of alemtuzumab, arsenic trioxide, asparaginase (pegylated or non-), bevacizumab, cetuximab, platinum-based compounds such as cisplatin, cladribine, daunorubicin/doxorubicin/idarubicin, irinotecan, fludarabine, 5-fluorouracil, gemtuzumab, methotrexate, Paclitaxel™, taxol, temozolomide, thioguanine, or classes of drugs including hormones (an antiestrogen, an antiandrogen, or gonadotropin releasing hormone analogues, interferons such as alpha interferon, nitrogen mustards such as busulfan or melphalan or mechlorethamine, retinoids such as tretinoin, topoisomerase inhibitors such as irinotecan or topotecan, tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as gefinitinib or imatinib, or agents to treat signs or symptoms induced by such therapy including allopurinol, filgrastim, granisetron/ondansetron/palonosetron, dronabinol. Preparation of Compounds Compounds of Formula D may be synthesized using standard synthetic techniques known to those of skill in the art or using methods known in the art in combination with methods described herein. In additions, solvents, temperatures and other reaction conditions presented herein may vary according to those of skill in the art. As a further guide the following synthetic methods may also be utilized. The reactions can be employed in a linear sequence to provide the compounds described herein or they may be used to synthesize fragments which are subsequently joined by the methods described herein and/or known in the art. Formation of Covalent Linkages by Reaction of an Electrophile with a Nucleophile The compounds described herein can be modified using various electrophiles or nucleophiles to form new functional groups or substituents. Table 1 entitled “Examples of Covalent Linkages and Precursors Thereof” lists selected examples of covalent linkages and precursor functional groups which yield and can be used as guidance toward the variety of electrophiles and nucleophiles combinations available. Precursor functional groups are shown as electrophilic groups and nucleophilic groups. TABLE 1 Examples of Covalent Linkages and Precursors Thereof Covalent Linkage Product Electrophile Nucleophile Carboxamides Activated esters amines/anilines Carboxamides acyl azides amines/anilines Carboxamides acyl halides amines/anilines Esters acyl halides alcohols/phenols Esters acyl nitriles alcohols/phenols Carboxamides acyl nitriles amines/anilines Imines Aldehydes amines/anilines Hydrazones aldehydes or ketones Hydrazines Oximes aldehydes or ketones Hydroxylamines Alkyl amines alkyl halides amines/anilines Esters alkyl halides carboxylic acids Thioethers alkyl halides Thiols Ethers alkyl halides alcohols/phenols Thioethers alkyl sulfonates Thiols Esters alkyl sulfonates carboxylic acids Ethers alkyl sulfonates alcohols/phenols Esters Anhydrides alcohols/phenols Carboxamides Anhydrides amines/anilines Thiophenols aryl halides Thiols Aryl amines aryl halides Amines Thioethers Azindines Thiols Boronate esters Boronates Glycols Carboxamides carboxylic acids amines/anilines Esters carboxylic acids Alcohols hydrazines Hydrazides carboxylic acids N-acylureas or Anhydrides carbodiimides carboxylic acids Esters diazoalkanes carboxylic acids Thioethers Epoxides Thiols Thioethers haloacetamides Thiols Ammotriazines halotriazines amines/anilines Triazinyl ethers halotriazines alcohols/phenols Amidines imido esters amines/anilines Ureas Isocyanates amines/anilines Urethanes Isocyanates alcohols/phenols Thioureas isothiocyanates amines/anilines Thioethers Maleimides Thiols Phosphite esters phosphoramidites Alcohols Silyl ethers silyl halides Alcohols Alkyl amines sulfonate esters amines/anilines Thioethers sulfonate esters Thiols Esters sulfonate esters carboxylic acids Ethers sulfonate esters Alcohols Sulfonamides sulfonyl halides amines/anilines Sulfonate esters sulfonyl halides phenols/alcohols Alkyl thiol α,β-unsaturated ester thiols Alkyl ethers α,β-unsaturated ester alcohols Alkyl amines α,β-unsaturated ester amines Alkyl thiol Vinyl sulfone thiols Alkyl ethers Vinyl sulfone alcohols Alkyl amines Vinyl sulfone amines Vinyl sulfide Propargyl amide thiol Use of Protecting Groups In the reactions described, it may be necessary to protect reactive functional groups, for example hydroxy, amino, imino, thio or carboxy groups, where these are desired in the final product, to avoid their unwanted participation in the reactions. Protecting groups are used to block some or all reactive moieties and prevent such groups from participating in chemical reactions until the protective group is removed. In one embodiment, each protective group be removable by a different means. Protective groups that are cleaved under totally disparate reaction conditions fulfill the requirement of differential removal. Protective groups can be removed by acid, base, and hydrogenolysis. Groups such as trityl, dimethoxytrityl, acetal and t-butyldimethylsilyl are acid labile and may be used to protect carboxy and hydroxy reactive moieties in the presence of amino groups protected with Cbz groups, which are removable by hydrogenolysis, and Fmoc groups, which are base labile. Carboxylic acid and hydroxy reactive moieties may be blocked with base labile groups such as, but not limited to, methyl, ethyl, and acetyl in the presence of amines blocked with acid labile groups such as t-butyl carbamate or with carbamates that are both acid and base stable but hydrolytically removable. Carboxylic acid and hydroxy reactive moieties may also be blocked with hydrolytically removable protective groups such as the benzyl group, while amine groups capable of hydrogen bonding with acids may be blocked with base labile groups such as Fmoc. Carboxylic acid reactive moieties may be protected by conversion to simple ester compounds as exemplified herein, or they may be blocked with oxidatively-removable protective groups such as 2,4-dimethoxybenzyl, while co-existing amino groups may be blocked with fluoride labile silyl carbamates. Allyl blocking groups are useful in then presence of acid- and base-protecting groups since the former are stable and can be subsequently removed by metal or pi-acid catalysts. For example, an allyl-blocked carboxylic acid can be deprotected with a Pd0-catalyzed reaction in the presence of acid labile t-butyl carbamate or base-labile acetate amine protecting groups. Yet another form of protecting group is a resin to which a compound or intermediate may be attached. As long as the residue is attached to the resin, that functional group is blocked and cannot react. Once released from the resin, the functional group is available to react. Typically blocking/protecting groups may be selected from: Other protecting groups, plus a detailed description of techniques applicable to the creation of protecting groups and their removal are described in Greene and Wuts, Protective Groups in Organic Synthesis, 3rd Ed., John Wiley & Sons, New York, N.Y., 1999, and Kocienski, Protective Groups, Thieme Verlag, New York, N.Y., 1994, which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Further Forms of Compounds The compounds described herein may possess one or more stereocenters and each center may exist in the R or S configuration. The compounds presented herein include all diastereomeric, enantiomeric, and epimeric forms as well as the appropriate mixtures thereof. Stereoisomers may be obtained, if desired, by methods known in the art as, for example, the separation of stereoisomers by chiral chromatographic columns. Diasteromeric mixtures can be separated into their individual diastereomers on the basis of their physical chemical differences by methods known, for example, by chromatography and/or fractional crystallization. In one embodiment, enantiomers can be separated by chiral chromatographic columns. In other embodiments, enantiomers can be separated by converting the enantiomeric mixture into a diastereomeric mixture by reaction with an appropriate optically active compound (e.g., alcohol), separating the diastereomers and converting (e.g., hydrolyzing) the individual diastereomers to the corresponding pure enantiomers. All such isomers, including diastereomers, enantiomers, and mixtures thereof are considered as part of the compositions described herein. The methods and formulations described herein include the use of N-oxides, crystalline forms (also known as polymorphs), or pharmaceutically acceptable salts of compounds described herein, as well as active metabolites of these compounds having the same type of activity. In some situations, compounds may exist as tautomers. All tautomers are included within the scope of the compounds presented herein. In addition, the compounds described herein can exist in unsolvated as well as solvated forms with pharmaceutically acceptable solvents such as water, ethanol, and the like. The solvated forms of the compounds presented herein are also considered to be disclosed herein. Compounds of Formula D in unoxidized form can be prepared from N-oxides of compounds of Formula D by treating with a reducing agent, such as, but not limited to, sulfur, sulfur dioxide, triphenyl phosphine, lithium borohydride, sodium borohydride, phosphorus trichloride, tribromide, or the like in a suitable inert organic solvent, such as, but not limited to, acetonitrile, ethanol, aqueous dioxane, or the like at 0 to 80° C. In some embodiments, compounds described herein are prepared as prodrugs. A “prodrug” refers to an agent that is converted into the parent drug in vivo. Prodrugs are often useful because, in some situations, they may be easier to administer than the parent drug. They may, for instance, be bioavailable by oral administration whereas the parent is not. The prodrug may also have improved solubility in pharmaceutical compositions over the parent drug. An example, without limitation, of a prodrug would be a compound described herein, which is administered as an ester (the “prodrug”) to facilitate transmittal across a cell membrane where water solubility is detrimental to mobility but which then is metabolically hydrolyzed to the carboxylic acid, the active entity, once inside the cell where water-solubility is beneficial. A further example of a prodrug might be a short peptide (polyaminoacid) bonded to an acid group where the peptide is metabolized to reveal the active moiety. In certain embodiments, upon in vivo administration, a prodrug is chemically converted to the biologically, pharmaceutically or therapeutically active form of the compound. In certain embodiments, a prodrug is enzymatically metabolized by one or more steps or processes to the biologically, pharmaceutically or therapeutically active form of the compound. To produce a prodrug, a pharmaceutically active compound is modified such that the active compound will be regenerated upon in vivo administration. The prodrug can be designed to alter the metabolic stability or the transport characteristics of a drug, to mask side effects or toxicity, to improve the flavor of a drug or to alter other characteristics or properties of a drug. By virtue of knowledge of pharmacodynamic processes and drug metabolism in vivo, those of skill in this art, once a pharmaceutically active compound is known, can design prodrugs of the compound. (see, for example, Nogrady (1985) Medicinal Chemistry A Biochemical Approach, Oxford University Press, New York, pages 388-392; Silverman (1992), The Organic Chemistry of Drug Design and Drug Action, Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, pages 352-401, Saulnier et al., (1994), Bioorganic and Medicinal Chemistry Letters, Vol. 4, p. 1985). Prodrug forms of the herein described compounds, wherein the prodrug is metabolized in vivo to produce a derivative as set forth herein are included within the scope of the claims. In some cases, some of the herein-described compounds may be a prodrug for another derivative or active compound. Prodrugs are often useful because, in some situations, they may be easier to administer than the parent drug. They may, for instance, be bioavailable by oral administration whereas the parent is not. The prodrug may also have improved solubility in pharmaceutical compositions over the parent drug. Prodrugs may be designed as reversible drug derivatives, for use as modifiers to enhance drug transport to site-specific tissues. In some embodiments, the design of a prodrug increases the effective water solubility. See, e.g., Fedorak et al., Am. J. Physiol., 269:G210-218 (1995); McLoed et al., Gastroenterol, 106:405-413 (1994); Hochhaus et al., Biomed. Chrom., 6:283-286 (1992); J. Larsen and H. Bundgaard, Int. J. Pharmaceutics, 37, 87 (1987); J. Larsen et al., Int. J. Pharmaceutics, 47, 103 (1988); Sinkula et al., J. Pharm. Sci., 64:181-210 (1975); T. Higuchi and V. Stella, Pro-drugs as Novel Delivery Systems, Vol. 14 of the A.C.S. Symposium Series; and Edward B. Roche, Bioreversible Carriers in Drug Design, American Pharmaceutical Association and Pergamon Press, 1987, all incorporated herein in their entirety. Sites on the aromatic ring portion of compounds of Formula D can be susceptible to various metabolic reactions, therefore incorporation of appropriate substituents on the aromatic ring structures, such as, by way of example only, halogens can reduce, minimize or eliminate this metabolic pathway. Compounds described herein include isotopically-labeled compounds, which are identical to those recited in the various formulas and structures presented herein, but for the fact that one or more atoms are replaced by an atom having an atomic mass or mass number different from the atomic mass or mass number usually found in nature. Examples of isotopes that can be incorporated into the present compounds include isotopes of hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine and chlorine, such as 2H, 3H, 13C, 14C, 15N, 18O, 17O, 35S, 18F, 36Cl respectively. Certain isotopically-labeled compounds described herein, for example those into which radioactive isotopes such as 3H and 14C are incorporated, are useful in drug and/or substrate tissue distribution assays. Further, substitution with isotopes such as deuterium, i.e., 2H, can afford certain therapeutic advantages resulting from greater metabolic stability, for example increased in vivo half-life or reduced dosage requirements. In additional or further embodiments, the compounds described herein are metabolized upon administration to an organism in need to produce a metabolite that is then used to produce a desired effect, including a desired therapeutic effect. Compounds described herein may be formed as, and/or used as, pharmaceutically acceptable salts. The type of pharmaceutical acceptable salts, include, but are not limited to: (1) acid addition salts, formed) by reacting the free base form of the compound with a pharmaceutically acceptable: inorganic acid such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, metaphosphoric acid, and the like; or with an organic acid such as acetic acid, propionic acid, hexanoic acid, cyclopentanepropionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, lactic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, trifluoroacetic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, 3-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, 1,2-ethanedisulfonic acid, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, toluenesulfonic acid, 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid, 4-methylbicyclo-[2.2.2]oct-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid, glucoheptonic acid, 4,4′-methylenebis-(3-hydroxy-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid), 3-phenylpropionic acid, trimethylacetic acid, tertiary butylacetic acid, lauryl sulfuric acid, gluconic acid, glutamic acid, hydroxynaphthoic acid, salicylic acid, stearic acid, muconic acid, and the like; (2) salts formed when an acidic proton present in the parent compound either is replaced by a metal ion, e.g., an alkali metal ion (e.g. lithium, sodium, potassium), an alkaline earth ion (e.g. magnesium, or calcium), or an aluminum ion; or coordinates with an organic base. Acceptable organic bases include ethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, tromethamine, N-methylglucamine, and the like. Acceptable inorganic bases include aluminum hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, and the like. The corresponding counterions of the pharmaceutically acceptable salts may be analyzed and identified using various methods including, but not limited to, ion exchange chromatography, ion chromatography, capillary electrophoresis, inductively coupled plasma, atomic absorption spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, or any combination thereof. The salts are recovered by using at least one of the following techniques: filtration, precipitation with a non-solvent followed by filtration, evaporation of the solvent, or, in the case of aqueous solutions, lyophilization. It should be understood that a reference to a pharmaceutically acceptable salt includes the solvent addition forms or crystal forms thereof, particularly solvates or polymorphs. Solvates contain either stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric amounts of a solvent, and may be formed during the process of crystallization with pharmaceutically acceptable solvents such as water, ethanol, and the like. Hydrates are formed when the solvent is water, or alcoholates are formed when the solvent is alcohol. Solvates of compounds described herein can be conveniently prepared or formed during the processes described herein. In addition, the compounds provided herein can exist in unsolvated as well as solvated forms. In general, the solvated forms are considered equivalent to the unsolvated forms for the purposes of the compounds and methods provided herein. It should be understood that a reference to a salt includes the solvent addition forms or crystal forms thereof, particularly solvates or polymorphs. Solvates contain either stoichiometric or non-stoichiometric amounts of a solvent, and are often formed during the process of crystallization with pharmaceutically acceptable solvents such as water, ethanol, and the like. Hydrates are formed when the solvent is water, or alcoholates are formed when the solvent is alcohol. Polymorphs include the different crystal packing arrangements of the same elemental composition of a compound. Polymorphs usually have different X-ray diffraction patterns, infrared spectra, melting points, density, hardness, crystal shape, optical and electrical properties, stability, and solubility. Various factors such as the recrystallization solvent, rate of crystallization, and storage temperature may cause a single crystal form to dominate. Compounds described herein may be in various forms, including but not limited to, amorphous forms, milled forms and nano-particulate forms. In addition, compounds described herein include crystalline forms, also known as polymorphs. Polymorphs include the different crystal packing arrangements of the same elemental composition of a compound. Polymorphs usually have different X-ray diffraction patterns, infrared spectra, melting points, density, hardness, crystal shape, optical and electrical properties, stability, and solubility. Various factors such as the recrystallization solvent, rate of crystallization, and storage temperature may cause a single crystal form to dominate. The screening and characterization of the pharmaceutically acceptable salts, polymorphs and/or solvates may be accomplished using a variety of techniques including, but not limited to, thermal analysis, x-ray diffraction, spectroscopy, vapor sorption, and microscopy. Thermal analysis methods address thermo chemical degradation or thermo physical processes including, but not limited to, polymorphic transitions, and such methods are used to analyze the relationships between polymorphic forms, determine weight loss, to find the glass transition temperature, or for excipient compatibility studies. Such methods include, but are not limited to, Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), Modulated Differential Scanning calorimetry (MDCS), Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), and Thermogravi-metric and Infrared analysis (TG/IR). X-ray diffraction methods include, but are not limited to, single crystal and powder diffractometers and synchrotron sources. The various spectroscopic techniques used include, but are not limited to, Raman, FTIR, UVIS, and NMR (liquid and solid state). The various microscopy techniques include, but are not limited to, polarized light microscopy, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) with Energy Dispersive X-Ray Analysis (EDX), Environmental Scanning Electron Microscopy with EDX (in gas or water vapor atmosphere), IR microscopy, and Raman microscopy. Throughout the specification, groups and substituents thereof can be chosen by one skilled in the field to provide stable moieties and compounds. Cancer Treatment Regimens Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a hematological malignancy in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, administering a Btk inhibitor before a second cancer treatment regimen reduces immune-mediated reactions to the second cancer treatment regimen. In some embodiments, administering a Btk inhibitor before ofatumumab reduces immune-mediated reactions to ofatumumab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, a steroid, an immunotherapeutic agent, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the B cell receptor pathway inhibitor is a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, a DNA damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises chlorambucil, ifosphamide, doxorubicin, mesalazine, thalidomide, lenalidomide, temsirolimus, everolimus, fludarabine, fostamatinib, paclitaxel, docetaxel, ofatumumab, rituximab, dexamethasone, prednisone, CAL-101, ibritumomab, tositumomab, bortezomib, pentostatin, endostatin, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises bendamustine, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises etoposide, doxorubicin, vinristine, cyclophosphamide, prednisolone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises dexamethasone and lenalidomide. Additional cancer treatment regimens include Nitrogen Mustards such as for example, bendamustine, chlorambucil, chlormethine, cyclophosphamide, ifosfamide, melphalan, prednimustine, trofosfamide; Alkyl Sulfonates like busulfan, mannosulfan, treosulfan; Ethylene Imines like carboquone, thiotepa, triaziquone; Nitrosoureas like carmustine, fotemustine, lomustine, nimustine, ranimustine, semustine, streptozocin; Epoxides such as for example, etoglucid; Other Alkylating Agents such as for example dacarbazine, mitobronitol, pipobroman, temozolomide; Folic Acid Analogues such as for example methotrexate, permetrexed, pralatrexate, raltitrexed; Purine Analogs such as for example cladribine, clofarabine, fludarabine, mercaptopurine, nelarabine, tioguanine; Pyrimidine Analogs such as for example azacitidine, capecitabine, carmofur, cytarabine, decitabine, fluorouracil, gemcitabine, tegafur; Vinca Alkaloids such as for example vinblastine, vincristine, vindesine, vinflunine, vinorelbine; Podophyllotoxin Derivatives such as for example etoposide, teniposide; Colchicine derivatives such as for example demecolcine; Taxanes such as for example docetaxel, paclitaxel, paclitaxel poliglumex; Other Plant Alkaloids and Natural Products such as for example trabectedin; Actinomycines such as for example dactinomycin; Antracyclines such as for example aclarubicin, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, epirubicin, idarubicin, mitoxantrone, pirarubicin, valrubicin, zorubincin; Other Cytotoxic Antibiotics such as for example bleomycin, ixabepilone, mitomycin, plicamycin; Platinum Compounds such as for example carboplatin, cisplatin, oxaliplatin, satraplatin; Methylhydrazines such as for example procarbazine; Sensitizers such as for example aminolevulinic acid, efaproxiral, methyl aminolevulinate, porfimer sodium, temoporfin; Protein Kinase Inhibitors such as for example dasatinib, erlotinib, everolimus, gefitinib, imatinib, lapatinib, nilotinib, pazonanib, sorafenib, sunitinib, temsirolimus; Other Antineoplastic Agents such as for example alitretinoin, altretamine, amzacrine, anagrelide, arsenic trioxide, asparaginase, bexarotene, bortezomib, celecoxib, denileukin diftitox, estramustine, hydroxycarbamide, irinotecan, lonidamine, masoprocol, miltefosein, mitoguazone, mitotane, oblimersen, pegaspargase, pentostatin, romidepsin, sitimagene ceradenovec, tiazofurine, topotecan, tretinoin, vorinostat; Estrogens such as for example diethylstilbenol, ethinylestradiol, fosfestrol, polyestradiol phosphate; Progestogens such as for example gestonorone, medroxyprogesterone, megestrol; Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone Analogs such as for example buserelin, goserelin, leuprorelin, triptorelin; Anti-Estrogens such as for example fulvestrant, tamoxifen, toremifene; Anti-Androgens such as for example bicalutamide, flutamide, nilutamide, Enzyme Inhibitors, aminoglutethimide, anastrozole, exemestane, formestane, letrozole, vorozole; Other Hormone Antagonists such as for example abarelix, degarelix; Immunostimulants such as for example histamine dihydrochloride, mifamurtide, pidotimod, plerixafor, roquinimex, thymopentin; Immunosuppressants such as for example everolimus, gusperimus, leflunomide, mycophenolic acid, sirolimus; Calcineurin Inhibitors such as for example ciclosporin, tacrolimus; Other Immunosuppressants such as for example azathioprine, lenalidomide, methotrexate, thalidomide; and Radiopharmaceuticals such as for example, iobenguane. Additional cancer treatment regimens include interferons, interleukins, Tumor Necrosis Factors, Growth Factors, or the like. Additional cancer treatment regimens include Immunostimulants such as for example ancestim, filgrastim, lenograstim, molgramostim, pegfilgrastim, sargramostim; Interferons such as for example interferon alfa natural, interferon alfa-2a, interferon alfa-2b, interferon alfacon-1, interferon alfa-n1, interferon beta natural, interferon beta-1a, interferon beta-1b, interferon gamma, peginterferon alfa-2a, peginterferon alfa-2b; Interleukins such as for example aldesleukin, oprelvekin; Other Immunostimulants such as for example BCG vaccine, glatiramer acetate, histamine dihydrochloride, immunocyanin, lentinan, melanoma vaccine, mifamurtide, pegademase, pidotimod, plerixafor, poly I:C, poly ICLC, roquinimex, tasonermin, thymopentin; Immunosuppressants such as for example abatacept, abetimus, alefacept, antilymphocyte immunoglobulin (horse), antithymocyte immunoglobulin (rabbit), eculizumab, efalizumab, everolimus, gusperimus, leflunomide, muromab-CD3, mycophenolic acid, natalizumab, sirolimus; TNF alpha Inhibitors such as for example adalimumab, afelimomab, certolizumab pegol, etanercept, golimumab, infliximab; Interleukin Inhibitors such as for example anakinra, basiliximab, canakinumab, daclizumab, mepolizumab, rilonacept, tocilizumab, ustekinumab; Calcineurin Inhibitors such as for example ciclosporin, tacrolimus; Other Immunosuppressants such as for example azathioprine, lenalidomide, methotrexate, thalidomide. Additional cancer treatment regimens include Adalimumab, Alemtuzumab, Basiliximab, Bevacizumab, Cetuximab, Certolizumab pegol, Daclizumab, Eculizumab, Efalizumab, Gemtuzumab, Ibritumomab tiuxetan, Infliximab, Muromonab-CD3, Natalizumab, Panitumumab, Ranibizumab, Rituximab, Tositumomab, Trastuzumab, or the like, or a combination thereof. Additional cancer treatment regimens include Monoclonal Antibodies such as for example alemtuzumab, bevacizumab, catumaxomab, cetuximab, edrecolomab, gemtuzumab, ofatumumab, panitumumab, rituximab, trastuzumab, Immunosuppressants, eculizumab, efalizumab, muromab-CD3, natalizumab; TNF alpha Inhibitors such as for example adalimumab, afelimomab, certolizumab pegol, golimumab, infliximab, Interleukin Inhibitors, basiliximab, canakinumab, daclizumab, mepolizumab, tocilizumab, ustekinumab, Radiopharmaceuticals, ibritumomab tiuxetan, tositumomab; Others Monoclonal Antibodies such as for example abagovomab, adecatumumab, alemtuzumab, anti-CD30 monoclonal antibody Xmab2513, anti-MET monoclonal antibody MetMab, apolizumab, apomab, arcitumomab, basiliximab, bispecific antibody 2B1, blinatumomab, brentuximab vedotin, capromab pendetide, cixutumumab, claudiximab, conatumumab, dacetuzumab, denosumab, eculizumab, epratuzumab, epratuzumab, ertumaxomab, etaracizumab, figitumumab, fresolimumab, galiximab, ganitumab, gemtuzumab ozogamicin, glembatumumab, ibritumomab, inotuzumab ozogamicin, ipilimumab, lexatumumab, lintuzumab, lintuzumab, lucatumumab, mapatumumab, matuzumab, milatuzumab, monoclonal antibody CC49, necitumumab, nimotuzumab, ofatumumab, oregovomab, pertuzumab, ramacurimab, ranibizumab, siplizumab, sonepcizumab, tanezumab, tositumomab, trastuzumab, tremelimumab, tucotuzumab celmoleukin, veltuzumab, visilizumab, volociximab, zalutumumab. Additional cancer treatment regimens include agents that affect the tumor micro-enviroment such as cellular signaling network (e.g. phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling pathway, signaling from the B-cell receptor and the IgE receptor). In some embodiments, the second agent is a PI3K signaling inhibitor or a syc kinase inhibitor. In one embodiment, the syk inhibitor is R788. In another embodiment is a PKCγ inhibitor such as by way of example only, enzastaurin. Examples of agents that affect the tumor micro-environment include PI3K signaling inhibitor, syc kinase inhibitor, Protein Kinase Inhibitors such as for example dasatinib, erlotinib, everolimus, gefitinib, imatinib, lapatinib, nilotinib, pazonanib, sorafenib, sunitinib, temsirolimus; Other Angiogenesis Inhibitors such as for example GT-111, JI-101, R1530; Other Kinase Inhibitors such as for example AC220, AC480, ACE-041, AMG 900, AP24534, Arry-614, AT7519, AT9283, AV-951, axitinib, AZD1152, AZD7762, AZD8055, AZD8931, bafetinib, BAY 73-4506, BGJ398, BGT226, BI 811283, BI6727, BIM 1120, BMW 2992, BMS-690154, BMS-777607, BMS-863233, BSK-461364, CAL-101, CEP-11981, CYC116, DCC-2036, dinaciclib, dovitinib lactate, E7050, EMD 1214063, ENMD-2076, fostamatinib disodium, GSK2256098, GSK690693, INCB18424, INNO-406, JNJ-26483327, JX-594, KX2-391, linifanib, LY2603618, MGCD265, MK-0457, MK1496, MLN8054, MLN8237, MP470, NMS-1116354, NMS-1286937, ON 01919.Na, OSI-027, OSI-930, Btk inhibitor, PF-00562271, PF-02341066, PF-03814735, PF-04217903, PF-04554878, PF-04691502, PF-3758309, PHA-739358, PLC3397, progenipoietin, R547, R763, ramucirumab, regorafenib, RO5185426, SAR103168, SCH 727965, SGI-1176, SGX523, SNS-314, TAK-593, TAK-901, TKI258, TLN-232, TTP607, XL147, XL228, XL281RO5126766, XL418, XL765. Further examples of anti-cancer agents for use in combination with a Btk inhibitor compound include inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinase signaling, e.g., U0126, PD98059, PD184352, PD0325901, ARRY-142886, SB239063, SP600125, BAY 43-9006, wortmannin, or LY294002; Syk inhibitors; mTOR inhibitors; and antibodies (e.g., rituxan). Other anti-cancer agents that can be employed in combination with a Btk inhibitor compound include Adriamycin, Dactinomycin, Bleomycin, Vinblastine, Cisplatin, acivicin; aclarubicin; acodazole hydrochloride; acronine; adozelesin; aldesleukin; altretamine; ambomycin; ametantrone acetate; aminoglutethimide; amsacrine; anastrozole; anthramycin; asparaginase; asperlin; azacitidine; azetepa; azotomycin; batimastat; benzodepa; bicalutamide; bisantrene hydrochloride; bisnafide dimesylate; bizelesin; bleomycin sulfate; brequinar sodium; bropirimine; busulfan; cactinomycin; calusterone; caracemide; carbetimer; carboplatin; carmustine; carubicin hydrochloride; carzelesin; cedefingol; chlorambucil; cirolemycin; cladribine; crisnatol mesylate; cyclophosphamide; cytarabine; dacarbazine; daunorubicin hydrochloride; decitabine; dexormaplatin; dezaguanine; dezaguanine mesylate; diaziquone; doxorubicin; doxorubicin hydrochloride; droloxifene; droloxifene citrate; dromostanolone propionate; duazomycin; edatrexate; eflornithine hydrochloride; elsamitrucin; enloplatin; enpromate; epipropidine; epirubicin hydrochloride; erbulozole; esorubicin hydrochloride; estramustine; estramustine phosphate sodium; etanidazole; etoposide; etoposide phosphate; etoprine; fadrozole hydrochloride; fazarabine; fenretinide; floxuridine; fludarabine phosphate; fluorouracil; flurocitabine; fosquidone; fostriecin sodium; gemcitabine; gemcitabine hydrochloride; hydroxyurea; idarubicin hydrochloride; ifosfamide; iimofosine; interleukin Il (including recombinant interleukin II, or rlL2), interferon alfa-2a; interferon alfa-2b; interferon alfa-n1; interferon alfa-n3; interferon beta-1 a; interferon gamma-1 b; iproplatin; irinotecan hydrochloride; lanreotide acetate; letrozole; leuprolide acetate; liarozole hydrochloride; lometrexol sodium; lomustine; losoxantrone hydrochloride; masoprocol; maytansine; mechlorethamine hydrochloride; megestrol acetate; melengestrol acetate; melphalan; menogaril; mercaptopurine; methotrexate; methotrexate sodium; metoprine; meturedepa; mitindomide; mitocarcin; mitocromin; mitogillin; mitomalcin; mitomycin; mitosper; mitotane; mitoxantrone hydrochloride; mycophenolic acid; nocodazoie; nogalamycin; ormaplatin; oxisuran; pegaspargase; peliomycin; pentamustine; peplomycin sulfate; perfosfamide; pipobroman; piposulfan; piroxantrone hydrochloride; plicamycin; plomestane; porfimer sodium; porfiromycin; prednimustine; procarbazine hydrochloride; puromycin; puromycin hydrochloride; pyrazofurin; riboprine; rogletimide; safingol; safingol hydrochloride; semustine; simtrazene; sparfosate sodium; sparsomycin; spirogermanium hydrochloride; spiromustine; spiroplatin; streptonigrin; streptozocin; sulofenur; talisomycin; tecogalan sodium; tegafur; teloxantrone hydrochloride; temoporfin; teniposide; teroxirone; testolactone; thiamiprine; thioguanine; thiotepa; tiazofurin; tirapazamine; toremifene citrate; trestolone acetate; triciribine phosphate; trimetrexate; trimetrexate glucuronate; triptorelin; tubulozole hydrochloride; uracil mustard; uredepa; vapreotide; verteporfin; vinblastine sulfate; vincristine sulfate; vindesine; vindesine sulfate; vinepidine sulfate; vinglycinate sulfate; vinleurosine sulfate; vinorelbine tartrate; vinrosidine sulfate; vinzolidine sulfate; vorozole; zeniplatin; zinostatin; zorubicin hydrochloride. Other anti-cancer agents that can be employed in combination with a Btk inhibitor compound include: 20-epi-1, 25 dihydroxyvitamin D3; 5-ethynyluracil; abiraterone; aclarubicin; acylfulvene; adecypenol; adozelesin; aldesleukin; ALL-TK antagonists; altretamine; ambamustine; amidox; amifostine; aminolevulinic acid; amrubicin; amsacrine; anagrelide; anastrozole; andrographolide; angiogenesis inhibitors; antagonist D; antagonist G; antarelix; anti-dorsalizing morphogenetic protein-1; antiandrogen, prostatic carcinoma; antiestrogen; antineoplaston; antisense oligonucleotides; aphidicolin glycinate; apoptosis gene modulators; apoptosis regulators; apurinic acid; ara-CDP-DL-PTBA; arginine deaminase; asulacrine; atamestane; atrimustine; axinastatin 1; axinastatin 2; axinastatin 3; azasetron; azatoxin; azatyrosine; baccatin III derivatives; balanol; batimastat; BCR/ABL antagonists; benzochlorins; benzoylstaurosporine; beta lactam derivatives; beta-alethine; betaclamycin B; betulinic acid; bFGF inhibitor; bicalutamide; bisantrene; bisaziridinylspermine; bisnafide; bistratene A; bizelesin; breflate; bropirimine; budotitane; buthionine sulfoximine; calcipotriol; calphostin C; camptothecin derivatives; canarypox IL-2; capecitabine; carboxamide-amino-triazole; carboxyamidotriazole; CaRest M3; CARN 700; cartilage derived inhibitor; carzelesin; casein kinase inhibitors (ICOS); castanospermine; cecropin B; cetrorelix; chlorins; chloroquinoxaline sulfonamide; cicaprost; cis-porphyrin; cladribine; clomifene analogues; clotrimazole; collismycin A; collismycin B; combretastatin A4; combretastatin analogue; conagenin; crambescidin 816; crisnatol; cryptophycin 8; cryptophycin A derivatives; curacin A; cyclopentanthraquinones; cycloplatam; cypemycin; cytarabine ocfosfate; cytolytic factor; cytostatin; dacliximab; decitabine; dehydrodidemnin B; deslorelin; dexamethasone; dexifosfamide; dexrazoxane; dexverapamil; diaziquone; didemnin B; didox; diethylnorspermine; dihydro-5-azacytidine; 9-dioxamycin; diphenyl spiromustine; docosanol; dolasetron; doxifluridine; droloxifene; dronabinol; duocarmycin SA; ebselen; ecomustine; edelfosine; edrecolomab; eflornithine; elemene; emitefur; epirubicin; epristeride; estramustine analogue; estrogen agonists; estrogen antagonists; etanidazole; etoposide phosphate; exemestane; fadrozole; fazarabine; fenretinide; filgrastim; finasteride; flavopiridol; flezelastine; fluasterone; fludarabine; fluorodaunorunicin hydrochloride; forfenimex; formestane; fostriecin; fotemustine; gadolinium texaphyrin; gallium nitrate; galocitabine; ganirelix; gelatinase inhibitors; gemcitabine; glutathione inhibitors; hepsulfam; heregulin; hexamethylene bisacetamide; hypericin; ibandronic acid; idarubicin; idoxifene; idramantone; ilmofosine; ilomastat; imidazoacridones; imiquimod; immunostimulant peptides; insulin-such as for example growth factor-1 receptor inhibitor; interferon agonists; interferons; interleukins; iobenguane; iododoxorubicin; ipomeanol, 4-; iroplact; irsogladine; isobengazole; isohomohalicondrin B; itasetron; jasplakinolide; kahalalide F; lamellarin-N triacetate; lanreotide; leinamycin; lenograstim; lentinan sulfate; leptolstatin; letrozole; leukemia inhibiting factor; leukocyte alpha interferon; leuprolide+estrogen+progesterone; leuprorelin; levamisole; liarozole; linear polyamine analogue; lipophilic disaccharide peptide; lipophilic platinum compounds; lissoclinamide 7; lobaplatin; lombricine; lometrexol; lonidamine; losoxantrone; lovastatin; loxoribine; lurtotecan; lutetium texaphyrin; lysofylline; lytic peptides; maitansine; mannostatin A; marimastat; masoprocol; maspin; matrilysin inhibitors; matrix metalloproteinase inhibitors; menogaril; merbarone; meterelin; methioninase; metoclopramide; MIF inhibitor; mifepristone; miltefosine; mirimostim; mismatched double stranded RNA; mitoguazone; mitolactol; mitomycin analogues; mitonafide; mitotoxin fibroblast growth factor-saporin; mitoxantrone; mofarotene; molgramostim; monoclonal antibody, human chorionic gonadotrophin; monophosphoryl lipid A+myobacterium cell wall sk; mopidamol; multiple drug resistance gene inhibitor; multiple tumor suppressor 1-based therapy; mustard anticancer agent; mycaperoxide B; mycobacterial cell wall extract; myriaporone; N-acetyldinaline; N-substituted benzamides; nafarelin; nagrestip; naloxone+pentazocine; napavin; naphterpin; nartograstim; nedaplatin; nemorubicin; neridronic acid; neutral endopeptidase; nilutamide; nisamycin; nitric oxide modulators; nitroxide antioxidant; nitrullyn; O6-benzylguanine; octreotide; okicenone; oligonucleotides; onapristone; ondansetron; ondansetron; oracin; oral cytokine inducer; ormaplatin; osaterone; oxaliplatin; oxaunomycin; palauamine; palmitoylrhizoxin; pamidronic acid; panaxytriol; panomifene; parabactin; pazelliptine; pegaspargase; peldesine; pentosan polysulfate sodium; pentostatin; pentrozole; perflubron; perfosfamide; perillyl alcohol; phenazinomycin; phenylacetate; phosphatase inhibitors; picibanil; pilocarpine hydrochloride; pirarubicin; piritrexim; placetin A; placetin B; plasminogen activator inhibitor; platinum complex; platinum compounds; platinum-triamine complex; porfimer sodium; porfiromycin; prednisone; propyl bis-acridone; prostaglandin J2; proteasome inhibitors; protein A-based immune modulator; protein kinase C inhibitor; protein kinase C inhibitors, microalgal; protein tyrosine phosphatase inhibitors; purine nucleoside phosphorylase inhibitors; purpurins; pyrazoloacridine; pyridoxylated hemoglobin polyoxyethylerie conjugate; raf antagonists; raltitrexed; ramosetron; ras farnesyl protein transferase inhibitors; ras inhibitors; ras-GAP inhibitor; retelliptine demethylated; rhenium Re 186 etidronate; rhizoxin; ribozymes; RII retinamide; rogletimide; rohitukine; romurtide; roquinimex; rubiginone B1; ruboxyl; safingol; saintopin; SarCNU; sarcophytol A; sargramostim; Sdi 1 mimetics; semustine; senescence derived inhibitor 1; sense oligonucleotides; signal transduction inhibitors; signal transduction modulators; single chain antigen-binding protein; sizofiran; sobuzoxane; sodium borocaptate; sodium phenylacetate; solverol; somatomedin binding protein; sonermin; sparfosic acid; spicamycin D; spiromustine; splenopentin; spongistatin 1; squalamine; stem cell inhibitor; stem-cell division inhibitors; stipiamide; stromelysin inhibitors; sulfinosine; superactive vasoactive intestinal peptide antagonist; suradista; suramin; swainsonine; synthetic glycosaminoglycans; tallimustine; tamoxifen methiodide; tauromustine; tazarotene; tecogalan sodium; tegafur; tellurapyrylium; telomerase inhibitors; temoporfin; temozolomide; teniposide; tetrachlorodecaoxide; tetrazomine; thaliblastine; thiocoraline; thrombopoietin; thrombopoietin mimetic; thymalfasin; thymopoietin receptor agonist; thymotrinan; thyroid stimulating hormone; tin ethyl etiopurpurin; tirapazamine; titanocene bichloride; topsentin; toremifene; totipotent stem cell factor; translation inhibitors; tretinoin; triacetyluridine; triciribine; trimetrexate; triptorelin; tropisetron; turosteride; tyrosine kinase inhibitors; tyrphostins; UBC inhibitors; ubenimex; urogenital sinus-derived growth inhibitory factor; urokinase receptor antagonists; vapreotide; variolin B; vector system, erythrocyte gene therapy; velaresol; veramine; verdins; verteporfin; vinorelbine; vinxaltine; vitaxin; vorozole; zanoterone; zeniplatin; zilascorb; and zinostatin stimalamer. Yet other anticancer agents that can be employed in combination with a Btk inhibitor compound include alkylating agents, antimetabolites, natural products, or hormones, e.g., nitrogen mustards (e.g., mechloroethamine, cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, etc.), alkyl sulfonates (e.g., busulfan), nitrosoureas (e.g., carmustine, lomusitne, ete.), or triazenes (decarbazine, etc.). Examples of antimetabolites include but are not limited to folic acid analog (e.g., methotrexate), or pyrimidine analogs (e.g., Cytarabine), purine analogs (e.g., mercaptopurine, thioguanine, pentostatin). Examples of alkylating agents that can be employed in combination a Btk inhibitor compound include, but are not limited to, nitrogen mustards (e.g., mechloroethamine, cyclophosphamide, chlorambucil, meiphalan, etc.), ethylenimine and methylmelamines (e.g., hexamethlymelamine, thiotepa), alkyl sulfonates (e.g., busulfan), nitrosoureas (e.g., carmustine, lomusitne, semustine, streptozocin, etc.), or triazenes (decarbazine, ete.). Examples of antimetabolites include, but are not limited to folic acid analog (e.g., methotrexate), or pyrimidine analogs (e.g., fluorouracil, floxouridine, Cytarabine), purine analogs (e.g., mercaptopurine, thioguanine, pentostatin. Examples of anti-cancer agents which act by arresting cells in the G2-M phases due to stabilized microtubules and which can be used in combination with a Btk inhibitor compound include without limitation the following marketed drugs and drugs in development: Erbulozole (also known as R-55104), Dolastatin 10 (also known as DLS-10 and NSC-376128), Mivobulin isethionate (also known as CI-980), Vincristine, NSC-639829, Discodermolide (also known as NVP-XX-A-296), ABT-751 (Abbott, also known as E-7010), Altorhyrtins (such as Altorhyrtin A and Altorhyrtin C), Spongistatins (such as Spongistatin 1, Spongistatin 2, Spongistatin 3, Spongistatin 4, Spongistatin 5, Spongistatin 6, Spongistatin 7, Spongistatin 8, and Spongistatin 9), Cemadotin hydrochloride (also known as LU-103793 and NSC-D-669356), Epothilones (such as Epothilone A, Epothilone B, Epothilone C (also known as desoxyepothilone A or dEpoA), Epothilone D (also referred to as KOS-862, dEpoB, and desoxyepothilone B), Epothilone E, Epothilone F, Epothilone B N-oxide, Epothilone A N-oxide, 16-aza-epothilone B, 21-aminoepothilone B (also known as BMS-310705), 21-hydroxyepothilone D (also known as Desoxyepothilone F and dEpoF), 26-fluoroepothilone), Auristatin PE (also known as NSC-654663), Soblidotin (also known as TZT-1027), LS-4559-P (Pharmacia, also known as LS-4577), LS-4578 (Pharmacia, also known as LS-477-P), LS-4477 (Pharmacia), LS-4559 (Pharmacia), RPR-112378 (Aventis), Vincristine sulfate, DZ-3358 (Daiichi), FR-182877 (Fujisawa, also known as WS-9885B), GS-164 (Takeda), GS-198 (Takeda), KAR-2 (Hungarian Academy of Sciences), BSF-223651 (BASF, also known as ILX-651 and LU-223651), SAH-49960 (Lilly/Novartis), SDZ-268970 (Lilly/Novartis), AM-97 (Armad/Kyowa Hakko), AM-132 (Armad), AM-138 (Armad/Kyowa Hakko), IDN-5005 (Indena), Cryptophycin 52 (also known as LY-355703), AC-7739 (Ajinomoto, also known as AVE-8063A and CS-39.HCI), AC-7700 (Ajinomoto, also known as AVE-8062, AVE-8062A, CS-39-L-Ser.HCI, and RPR-258062A), Vitilevuamide, Tubulysin A, Canadensol, Centaureidin (also known as NSC-106969), T-138067 (Tularik, also known as T-67, TL-138067 and TI-138067), COBRA-1 (Parker Hughes Institute, also known as DDE-261 and WHI-261), H10 (Kansas State University), H16 (Kansas State University), Oncocidin A1 (also known as BTO-956 and DIME), DDE-313 (Parker Hughes Institute), Fijianolide B, Laulimalide, SPA-2 (Parker Hughes Institute), SPA-1 (Parker Hughes Institute, also known as SPIKET-P), 3-IAABU (Cytoskeleton/Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, also known as MF-569), Narcosine (also known as NSC-5366), Nascapine, D-24851 (Asta Medica), A-105972 (Abbott), Hemiasterlin, 3-BAABU (Cytoskeleton/Mt. Sinai School of Medicine, also known as MF-191), TMPN (Arizona State University), Vanadocene acetylacetonate, T-138026 (Tularik), Monsatrol, lnanocine (also known as NSC-698666), 3-1AABE (Cytoskeleton/Mt. Sinai School of Medicine), A-204197 (Abbott), T-607 (Tuiarik, also known as T-900607), RPR-115781 (Aventis), Eleutherobins (such as Desmethyleleutherobin, Desaetyleleutherobin, lsoeleutherobin A, and Z-Eleutherobin), Caribaeoside, Caribaeolin, Halichondrin B, D-64131 (Asta Medica), D-68144 (Asta Medica), Diazonamide A, A-293620 (Abbott), NPI-2350 (Nereus), Taccalonolide A, TUB-245 (Aventis), A-259754 (Abbott), Diozostatin, (−)-Phenylahistin (also known as NSCL-96F037), D-68838 (Asta Medica), D-68836 (Asta Medica), Myoseverin B, D-43411 (Zentaris, also known as D-81862), A-289099 (Abbott), A-318315 (Abbott), HTI-286 (also known as SPA-110, trifluoroacetate salt) (Wyeth), D-82317 (Zentaris), D-82318 (Zentaris), SC-12983 (NCI), Resverastatin phosphate sodium, BPR-OY-007 (National Health Research Institutes), and SSR-250411 (Sanofi). Biomarkers Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a hematological malignancy in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises preparing a biomarker profile for a population of cells isolated from the plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the biomarker expression profile is used to diagnose, determine a prognosis, or create a predictive profile of a hematological malignancy. In some embodiments, the biomarker profile indicates the expression of a biomarker, the expression level of a biomarker, mutations in a biomarker, or the presence of a biomarker. In some embodiments, the biomarker is any cytogenetic, cell surface molecular or protein or RNA expression marker. In some embodiments, the biomarker is: ZAP70; t(14,18); β-2 microglobulin; p53 mutational status; ATM mutational status; del(17)p; del(11)q; del(6)q; CD5; CD11c; CD19; CD20; CD22; CD25; CD38; CD103; CD138; secreted, surface or cytoplasmic immunoglobulin expression; VH mutational status; or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method further comprises providing a second cancer treatment regimen based on the biomarker profile. In some embodiments, the method further comprises not administering based on the biomarker profile. In some embodiments, the method further comprises predicting the efficacy of a treatment regimen based on the biomarker profile. In certain embodiments, the methods comprise diagnosing, determining a prognosis, or creating a predictive profile of a hematological malignancy based upon the expression or presence of certain biomarkers. In other embodiments, the methods further comprise stratifying patient populations based upon the expression or presence of certain biomarkers in the affected lymphocytes. In still other embodiments, the methods further comprise determining a therapeutic regimen for the subject based upon the expression or presence of certain biomarkers in the affected lymphocytes. In yet other embodiments, the methods further comprise predicting a response to therapy in a subject based upon the expression or presence of certain biomarkers in the affected lymphocytes. In certain aspects, provided herein are methods of diagnosing, determining a prognosis, or creating a predictive profile of a hematological malignancy in a subject comprising: (a) administering a Btk inhibitor to the subject sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes; and (b) determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes; wherein the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is used to diagnose the hematological malignancy, determine the prognosis of the hematological malignancy, or create a predictive profile of the hematological malignancy. In one embodiment, the increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined by immunophenotyping. In another embodiment, the increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined by fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS). In other aspects, provided herein are methods of stratifying a patient population having a hematological malignancy comprising: (a) administering a Btk inhibitor to the subject sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes; and (b) determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes; wherein the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is used to stratify patients for treatment of the hematological malignancy. In one embodiment, the increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined by immunophenotyping. In another embodiment, the increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined by fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS). In still other aspects, provided herein are methods of determining a therapeutic regimen in a subject having a hematological malignancy comprising: (a) administering a Btk inhibitor to the subject sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes; and (b) determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes; wherein the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is used to determine the therapeutic regimen for the treatment of the hematological malignancy. In one embodiment, the increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined by immunophenotyping. In another embodiment, the increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined by fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS). In yet other aspects, provided herein are methods of predicting a response to therapy in a subject having a hematological malignancy comprising: (a) administering a Btk inhibitor to the subject sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes; and (b) determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes; wherein the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is used to predict the subject's response to therapy for the hematological malignancy. In one embodiment, the increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined by immunophenotyping. In another embodiment, the increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes is determined by fluorescent activated cell sorting (FACS). In certain aspects, provided herein are methods of diagnosing, determining a prognosis, or creating a predictive profile of a hematological malignancy in a subject comprising determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes in a subject that has received a dose of a Btk inhibitor wherein the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is used to diagnose the hematological malignancy, determine the prognosis of the hematological malignancy, or create a predictive profile of the hematological malignancy. In one embodiment, the dose of Btk inhibitor is sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes defined by immunophenotyping. In another embodiment, the determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes further comprises isolating, detecting or measuring one or more type of lymphocyte. In still another embodiment, the Btk inhibitor is a reversible or irreversible inhibitor. In other aspects, provided herein are methods of stratifying a patient population having a hematological malignancy comprising determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes in a subject that has received a dose of a Btk inhibitor wherein the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is used to stratify patients for treatment of the hematological malignancy. In one embodiment, the dose of Btk inhibitor is sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes defined by immunophenotyping. In another embodiment, the determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes further comprises isolating, detecting or measuring one or more type of lymphocyte. In still another embodiment, the Btk inhibitor is a reversible or irreversible inhibitor. In still other aspects, provided herein are methods of determining the therapeutic regimen in a subject having a hematological malignancy comprising determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes in a subject that has received a dose of a Btk inhibitor wherein the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is used to determine the therapeutic regimen for the treatment of the hematological malignancy. In one embodiment, the dose of Btk inhibitor is sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes defined by immunophenotyping. In another embodiment, the determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes further comprises isolating, detecting or measuring one or more type of lymphocyte. In still another embodiment, the Btk inhibitor is a reversible or irreversible inhibitor. In yet other aspects, provided herein are methods of predicting a response to therapy in a subject having a hematological malignancy comprising determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more circulating lymphocytes in a subject that has received a dose of a Btk inhibitor wherein the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is used to predict the subject's response to therapy for the hematological malignancy. In one embodiment, the dose of Btk inhibitor is sufficient to result in an increase or appearance in the blood of a subpopulation of lymphocytes defined by immunophenotyping. In another embodiment, the determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes further comprises isolating, detecting or measuring one or more type of lymphocyte. In still another embodiment, the Btk inhibitor is a reversible or irreversible inhibitor. As contemplated herein, any biomarker related to hematological malignancies are in some embodiments utilized in the present methods. These biomarkers include any biological molecule (found either in blood, other body fluids, or tissues) or any chromosomal abnormality that is a sign of a hematological malignancy. In certain embodiments, the biomarkers include, but are not limited to, TdT, CD5, CD11c, CD19, CD20, CD22, CD79a, CD15, CD30, CD38, CD138, CD103, CD25, ZAP-70, p53 mutational status, ATM mutational status, mutational status of IgVH, chromosome 17 deletions (del 17p), chromosome 6 deletions (del 6q), chromosome 7 deletions (del 7q), chromosome 11 deletions (del 11q), trisomy 12, chromosome 13 deletions (del 13 q), t(11:14) chromosomal translocation, t(14:18) chromosomal translocation, CD10, CD23, beta-2 microglobulin, bcl-2 expression, CD9, presence of Helicobacter pylori, CD154/CD40, Akt, NF-κB, WNT, Mtor, ERK, MAPK, and Src tyrosine kinase expression. In certain embodiments, the biomarkers include ZAP-70, CD5, t(14;18), CD38, β-2 microglobulin, p53 mutational status, ATM mutational status, chromosome 17p deletion, chromosome 11q deletion, surface or cytoplasmic immunoglobulin, CD138, CD25, 6q deletion, CD19, CD20, CD22, CD11c, CD 103, chromosome 7q deletion, VH mutational status, or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, subpopulations of patients having a hematological malignancy cancer or pre- that would benefit from a known treatment regimen are identified by screening candidate subjects for one or more clinically useful biomarkers known in the art. Any clinically useful prognostic marker known to those of skill in the art can be used. In some embodiments, the subpopulation includes patients having chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), and the clinically useful prognostic markers of particular interest include, but are not limited to, ZAP-70, CD38, .beta.2 microglobulin, and cytogenetic markers, for example, p53 mutational status, ATM mutational status, chromosome deletions, such as the chromosome 17p deletion and the chromosome 11q deletion, all of which are clinically useful prognostic markers for this disease. ZAP-70 is a tyrosine kinase that associates with the zeta subunit of the T cell antigen receptor (TCR) and plays a pivotal role in T cell activation and development (Chan et al. (1992) Cell 71:649-662). ZAP-70 undergoes tyrosine phosphorylation and is essential in mediating signal transduction following TCR stimulation. Overexpression or constitutive activation of tyrosine kinases has been demonstrated to be involved in a number of malignancies including leukemias and several types of solid tumors. For example, increased ZAP-70 RNA expression levels are a prognostic marker of chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) (Rosenwald et al. (2001) J. Exp. Med. 194:1639-1647). ZAP-70 is expressed in T-cells and natural killer cells, but is not known to be expressed in normal B-cells. However, ZAP-70 is expressed at high levels in the B-cells of chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma (CLL/SLL) patients, and more particularly in the subset of CLL patients who tend to have the more aggressive clinical course that is found in CLL/SLL patients with unmutated Ig genes (Wiestner et al. (2003) Blood 101: 4944-4951; U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 20030203416). Because of the correlation between ZAP-70 expression levels and Ig gene mutation status, ZAP-70 can be used as a prognostic indicator to identify those patients likely to have severe disease (high ZAP-70, unmutated Ig genes), and who are therefore candidates for aggressive therapy. CD38 is a signal transduction molecule as well as an ectoenzyme catalyzing the synthesis and degradation of cyclic ADP ribose (cADPR). CD38 expression is present at high levels in bone marrow precursor B cells, is down-regulated in resting normal B cells, and then is re-expressed in terminally differentiated plasma cells (Campana et al. (2000) Chem. Immunol. 75:169-188). CD38 is a reliable prognostic indicator in B-CLL, with the expression of CD38 generally indicating a less favorable outcome (D'Arena et al. (2001) Leuk. Lymphoma 42:109; Del Poeta et al. (2001) Blood 98:2633; Durig et al. (2002) Leukemia 16:30; Ibrahim et al. (2001) Blood 98:181; Deaglio et al. (2003) Blood 102:2146-2155). The unfavorable clinical indications that CD38 expression has been associated with include an advanced stage of disease, poor responsiveness to chemotherapy, a shorter time before initial treatment is required, and a shorter survival time (Deaglio et al. (2003) Blood 102:2146-2155). Initially, a strong correlation between CD38 expression and IgV gene mutation was observed, with patients having unmutated V genes displaying higher percentages of CD38.sup.+ B-CLL cells than those with mutated V genes (Damle et al. (1999) Blood 94:1840-1847). However, subsequent studies have indicated that CD38 expression does not always correlate with the rearrangement of the IgV genes (Hamblin et al. (2002) Blood 99:1023; Thunberg et al. (2001) Blood 97:1892). p53 is a nuclear phosphoprotein that acts as a tumor suppressor. Wild-type p53 is involved in regulating cell growth and division. p53 binds to DNA, stimulating the production of a protein (p21) that interacts with a cell division-stimulating protein (cdk2). When p21 is bound to cdk2, the cell is blocked from entering the next stage of cell division. Mutant p53 is incapable of binding DNA effectively, thus preventing p21 from acting as the stop signal for cell division, resulting in uncontrolled cell division, and tumor formation. p53 also regulates the induction of programmed cell death (apoptosis) in response to DNA damage, cell stress or the aberrant expression of some oncogenes. Expression of wild type p53 in some cancer cell lines has been shown to restore growth suppression control (Casey et al. (1991) Oncogene 6:1791-1797; Takahashi et al. (1992) Cancer Res. 52:734-736). Mutations in p53 are found in most tumor types, including tumors of the colon, breast, lung, ovary, bladder, and many other organs. p53 mutations have been found to be associated with Burkitt's lymphoma, L3-type B-cell acute lymphoblastic leukemia, B-cell chronic lymphocytic leukemia (Gaidano et al. (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 88:5413-5417). p53 abnormalities have also been found associated with B-cell prolymphocytic leukemia (Lens et al. (1997) Blood 89:2015-2023). The gene for p53 is located on the short arm of chromosome 17 at 17p13.105-p12. B-2-microglobulin is an extracellular protein that is noncovalently associated with the .alpha. chain of the class I major histocompatibility complex (MHC). It is detectable in the serum, and is an adverse prognostic indicator in CLL (Keating et al. (1998) Blood 86:606a) and Hodgkin's lymphoma (Chronowski et al. (2002) Cancer 95:2534-2538). It is clinically used for lymphoproliferative diseases including leukemia, lymphoma, and multiple myeloma, where serum β-2-microglobulin levels are related to tumor cell load, prognosis, and disease activity (Bataille et al. (1983) Br. J. Haematol. 55:439-447; Aviles et al. (1992) Rev. Invest. Clin. 44:215-220). P2 microglobulin is also useful in staging myeloma patients (Pasqualetti et al. (1991) Eur. J. Cancer 27:1123-1126). Cytogenetic aberrations may also be used as markers to create a predictive profile of a hematological malignancy. For example, chromosome abnormalities are found in a large percentage of CLL patients and are helpful in predicting the course of CLL. For example, a 17p deletion is indicative of aggressive disease progression. In addition, CLL patients with a chromosome 17p deletion or mutation in p53, or both, are known to respond poorly to chemotherapeutics and rituximab. Allelic loss on chromosome 17p may be also be a useful prognostic marker in colorectal cancer, where patients with a 17p deletion are associated with an increased tendency of disease dissemination in colorectal cancer (Khine et al. (1994) Cancer 73:28-35). Deletions of the long arm of chromosome 11 (11q) are one of the most frequent structural chromosome aberrations in various types of lymphoproliferative disorders. CLL patients with chromosome 11q deletion and possibly ATM mutations have a poor survival compared to patients without either this defect or the 17p deletion. Furthermore, an 11q deletion is often accompanied by extensive lymph node involvement (Dohner et al. (1997) Blood 89:2516-2522). This deletion also identifies patients who are at high risk for disease persistence after high-dose therapy and autologous transplantation. The ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATA4) gene is a tumor suppressor gene that is involved in cell cycle arrest, apoptosis, and repair of DNA double-strand breaks. It is found on chromosome 11. ATMmutations are associated with increased risk for breast cancer among women with a family history of breast cancer (Chenevix-Trench et al. (2002) J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 94:205-215; Thorstenson et al. (2003) Cancer Res. 63:3325-3333) and/or early-onset breast cancers (Izatt et al. (1999) Genes Chromosomes Cancer 26:286-294; Teraoka et al. (2001) Cancer 92:479-487). There is also a high frequency of association of rhabdomyosarcoma with ATM gene mutation/deletion (Zhang et al. (2003) Cancer Biol. Ther. 1:87-91). Methods for detecting chromosomal abnormalities in a patient are well known in the art (see, for example, Cuneo et al. (1999) Blood 93:1372-1380; Dohner et al. (1997) Blood 89:2516-2522). Methods to measure mutated proteins, such as ATM, are well known in the art (see, for example, Butch et al. (2004) Clin. Chem. 50: 2302-2308). Thus, the biomarkers that are evaluated in the methods described herein include the cell survival and apoptotic proteins described supra, and proteins involved in hematological malignancy-related signaling pathways. Determining the expression or presence can be at the protein or nucleic acid level. Thus, the biomarkers include these proteins and the genes encoding these proteins. Where detection is at the protein level, the biomarker protein comprises the full-length polypeptide or any detectable fragment thereof, and can include variants of these protein sequences. Similarly, where detection is at the nucleotide level, the biomarker nucleic acid includes DNA comprising the full-length coding sequence, a fragment of the full-length coding sequence, variants of these sequences, for example naturally occurring variants or splice-variants, or the complement of such a sequence. Biomarker nucleic acids also include RNA, for example, mRNA, comprising the full-length sequence encoding the biomarker protein of interest, a fragment of the full-length RNA sequence of interest, or variants of these sequences. Biomarker proteins and biomarker nucleic acids also include variants of these sequences. By “fragment” is intended a portion of the polynucleotide or a portion of the amino acid sequence and hence protein encoded thereby. Polynucleotides that are fragments of a biomarker nucleotide sequence generally comprise at least 10, 15, 20, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 350, 400, 450, 500, 550, 600, 650, 700, 800, 900, 1,000, 1,100, 1,200, 1,300, or 1,400 contiguous nucleotides, or up to the number of nucleotides present in a full-length biomarker polynucleotide disclosed herein. A fragment of a biomarker polynucleotide will generally encode at least 15, 25, 30, 50, 100, 150, 200, or 250 contiguous amino acids, or up to the total number of amino acids present in a full-length biomarker protein of the invention. “Variant” is intended to mean substantially similar sequences. Generally, variants of a particular biomarker of the invention will have at least about 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99% or more sequence identity to that biomarker as determined by sequence alignment programs known in the art. As provided above, any method known in the art can be used in the methods for determining the expression or presence of biomarker described herein. Circulating levels of biomarkers in a blood sample obtained from a candidate subject, can be measured, for example, by ELISA, radioimmunoassay (MA), electrochemiluminescence (ECL), Western blot, multiplexing technologies, or other similar methods. Cell surface expression of biomarkers can be measured, for example, by flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, Western Blot, immunoprecipitation, magnetic bead selection, and quantification of cells expressing either of these cell surface markers. Biomarker RNA expression levels could be measured by RT-PCR, Qt-PCR, microarray, Northern blot, or other similar technologies. As previously noted, determining the expression or presence of the biomarker of interest at the protein or nucleotide level can be accomplished using any detection method known to those of skill in the art. By “detecting expression” or “detecting the level of” is intended determining the expression level or presence of a biomarker protein or gene in the biological sample. Thus, “detecting expression” encompasses instances where a biomarker is determined not to be expressed, not to be detectably expressed, expressed at a low level, expressed at a normal level, or overexpressed. In certain aspects of the method provided herein, the one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes are isolated, detected or measured. In certain embodiments, the one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes are isolated, detected or measured using immunophenotyping techniques. In other embodiments, the one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes are isolated, detected or measured using fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS) techniques. In certain embodiments of the methods provided herein, the one or more biomarkers comprises ZAP-70, CD5, t(14;18), CD38, β-2 microglobulin, p53 mutational status, ATM mutational status, chromosome 17p deletion, chromosome 11q deletion, surface or cytoplasmic immunoglobulin, CD138, CD25, 6q deletion, CD19, CD20, CD22, CD11c, CD 103, chromosome 7q deletion, VH mutational status, or a combination thereof. In certain aspects, the methods described herein, the determining step requires determining the expression or presence of a combination of biomarkers. In certain embodiment, the combination of biomarkers is CD19 and CD5 or CD20 and CD5. In certain aspects, the expression or presence of these various biomarkers and any clinically useful prognostic markers in a biological sample can be detected at the protein or nucleic acid level, using, for example, immunohistochemistry techniques or nucleic acid-based techniques such as in situ hybridization and RT-PCR. In one embodiments, the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is carried out by a means for nucleic acid amplification, a means for nucleic acid sequencing, a means utilizing a nucleic acid microarray (DNA and RNA), or a means for in situ hybridization using specifically labeled probes. In other embodiments, the determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers is carried out through gel electrophoresis. In one embodiment, the determination is carried out through transfer to a membrane and hybridization with a specific probe. In other embodiments, the determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers carried out by a diagnostic imaging technique. In still other embodiments, the determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers carried out by a detectable solid substrate. In one embodiment, the detectable solid substrate is paramagnetic nanoparticles functionalized with antibodies. In another aspect, provided herein are methods for detecting or measuring residual lymphoma following a course of treatment in order to guide continuing or discontinuing treatment or changing from one therapeutic regimen to another comprising determining the expression or presence of one or more biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes in a subject wherein the course of treatment is treatment with a Btk inhibitor. Methods for detecting expression of the biomarkers described herein, and optionally cytokine markers, within the test and control biological samples comprise any methods that determine the quantity or the presence of these markers either at the nucleic acid or protein level. Such methods are well known in the art and include but are not limited to western blots, northern blots, ELISA, immunoprecipitation, immunofluorescence, flow cytometry, immunohistochemistry, nucleic acid hybridization techniques, nucleic acid reverse transcription methods, and nucleic acid amplification methods. In particular embodiments, expression of a biomarker is detected on a protein level using, for example, antibodies that are directed against specific biomarker proteins. These antibodies can be used in various methods such as Western blot, ELISA, multiplexing technologies, immunoprecipitation, or immunohistochemistry techniques. In some embodiments, detection of cytokine markers is accomplished by electrochemiluminescence (ECL). Any means for specifically identifying and quantifying a biomarker (for example, biomarker, a biomarker of cell survival or proliferation, a biomarker of apoptosis, a biomarker of a Btk-mediated signaling pathway) in the biological sample of a candidate subject is contemplated. Thus, in some embodiments, expression level of a biomarker protein of interest in a biological sample is detected by means of a binding protein capable of interacting specifically with that biomarker protein or a biologically active variant thereof. Preferably, labeled antibodies, binding portions thereof, or other binding partners may be used. The word “label” when used herein refers to a detectable compound or composition that is conjugated directly or indirectly to the antibody so as to generate a “labeled” antibody. The label may be detectable by itself (e.g., radioisotope labels or fluorescent labels) or, in the case of an enzymatic label, may catalyze chemical alteration of a substrate compound or composition that is detectable. The antibodies for detection of a biomarker protein may be monoclonal or polyclonal in origin, or may be synthetically or recombinantly produced. The amount of complexed protein, for example, the amount of biomarker protein associated with the binding protein, for example, an antibody that specifically binds to the biomarker protein, is determined using standard protein detection methodologies known to those of skill in the art. A detailed review of immunological assay design, theory and protocols can be found in numerous texts in the art (see, for example, Ausubel et al., eds. (1995) Current Protocols in Molecular Biology) (Greene Publishing and Wiley-Interscience, NY)); Coligan et al., eds. (1994) Current Protocols in Immunology (John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, N.Y.). The choice of marker used to label the antibodies will vary depending upon the application. However, the choice of the marker is readily determinable to one skilled in the art. These labeled antibodies may be used in immunoassays as well as in histological applications to detect the presence of any biomarker or protein of interest. The labeled antibodies may be polyclonal or monoclonal. Further, the antibodies for use in detecting a protein of interest may be labeled with a radioactive atom, an enzyme, a chromophoric or fluorescent moiety, or a colorimetric tag as described elsewhere herein. The choice of tagging label also will depend on the detection limitations desired. Enzyme assays (ELISAs) typically allow detection of a colored product formed by interaction of the enzyme-tagged complex with an enzyme substrate. Radionuclides that can serve as detectable labels include, for example, I-131, I-123, I-125, Y-90, Re-188, Re-186, At-211, Cu-67, Bi-212, and Pd-109. Examples of enzymes that can serve as detectable labels include, but are not limited to, horseradish peroxidase, alkaline phosphatase, beta-galactosidase, and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase. Chromophoric moieties include, but are not limited to, fluorescein and rhodamine. The antibodies may be conjugated to these labels by methods known in the art. For example, enzymes and chromophoric molecules may be conjugated to the antibodies by means of coupling agents, such as dialdehydes, carbodiimides, dimaleimides, and the like. Alternatively, conjugation may occur through a ligand-receptor pair. Examples of suitable ligand-receptor pairs are biotin-avidin or biotin-streptavidin, and antibody-antigen. In certain embodiments, expression or presence of one or more biomarkers or other proteins of interest within a biological sample, for example, a sample of bodily fluid, is determined by radioimmunoassays or enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISAs), competitive binding enzyme-linked immunoassays, dot blot (see, for example, Promega Protocols and Applications Guide (2nd ed.; Promega Corporation (1991), Western blot (see, for example, Sambrook et al. (1989) Molecular Cloning, A Laboratory Manual, Vol. 3, Chapter 18 (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Plainview, N.Y.), chromatography, preferably high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), or other assays known in the art. Thus, the detection assays can involve steps such as, but not limited to, immunoblotting, immunodiffusion, immunoelectrophoresis, or immunoprecipitation. In certain other embodiments, the methods of the invention are useful for identifying and treating hematological malignancies, including those listed above, that are refractory to (i.e., resistant to, or have become resistant to) first-line oncotherapeutic treatments. The expression or presence of one or more of the biomarkers described herein may also be determined at the nucleic acid level. Nucleic acid-based techniques for assessing expression are well known in the art and include, for example, determining the level of biomarker mRNA in a biological sample. Many expression detection methods use isolated RNA. Any RNA isolation technique that does not select against the isolation of mRNA can be utilized for the purification of RNA (see, e.g., Ausubel et al., ed. (1987-1999) Current Protocols in Molecular Biology (John Wiley & Sons, New York). Additionally, large numbers of tissue samples can readily be processed using techniques well known to those of skill in the art, such as, for example, the single-step RNA isolation process disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,843,155. Thus, in some embodiments, the detection of a biomarker or other protein of interest is assayed at the nucleic acid level using nucleic acid probes. The term “nucleic acid probe” refers to any molecule that is capable of selectively binding to a specifically intended target nucleic acid molecule, for example, a nucleotide transcript. Probes can be synthesized by one of skill in the art, or derived from appropriate biological preparations. Probes may be specifically designed to be labeled, for example, with a radioactive label, a fluorescent label, an enzyme, a chemiluminescent tag, a colorimetric tag, or other labels or tags that are discussed above or that are known in the art. Examples of molecules that can be utilized as probes include, but are not limited to, RNA and DNA. For example, isolated mRNA can be used in hybridization or amplification assays that include, but are not limited to, Southern or Northern analyses, polymerase chain reaction analyses and probe arrays. One method for the detection of mRNA levels involves contacting the isolated mRNA with a nucleic acid molecule (probe) that can hybridize to the mRNA encoded by the gene being detected. The nucleic acid probe can be, for example, a full-length cDNA, or a portion thereof, such as an oligonucleotide of at least 7, 15, 30, 50, 100, 250 or 500 nucleotides in length and sufficient to specifically hybridize under stringent conditions to an mRNA or genomic DNA encoding a biomarker, biomarker described herein above. Hybridization of an mRNA with the probe indicates that the biomarker or other target protein of interest is being expressed. In one embodiment, the mRNA is immobilized on a solid surface and contacted with a probe, for example by running the isolated mRNA on an agarose gel and transferring the mRNA from the gel to a membrane, such as nitrocellulose. In an alternative embodiment, the probe(s) are immobilized on a solid surface and the mRNA is contacted with the probe(s), for example, in a gene chip array. A skilled artisan can readily adapt known mRNA detection methods for use in detecting the level of mRNA encoding the biomarkers or other proteins of interest. An alternative method for determining the level of a mRNA of interest in a sample involves the process of nucleic acid amplification, e.g., by RT-PCR (see, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 4,683,202), ligase chain reaction (Barany (1991) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 88:189-193), self-sustained sequence replication (Guatelli et al. (1990) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 87:1874-1878), transcriptional amplification system (Kwoh et al. (1989) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:1173-1177), Q-Beta Replicase (Lizardi et al. (1988) Bio/Technology 6:1197), rolling circle replication (U.S. Pat. No. 5,854,033) or any other nucleic acid amplification method, followed by the detection of the amplified molecules using techniques well known to those of skill in the art. These detection schemes are especially useful for the detection of nucleic acid molecules if such molecules are present in very low numbers. In particular aspects of the invention, biomarker expression is assessed by quantitative fluorogenic RT-PCR (i.e., the TaqMan® System). Expression levels of an RNA of interest may be monitored using a membrane blot (such as used in hybridization analysis such as Northern, dot, and the like), or microwells, sample tubes, gels, beads or fibers (or any solid support comprising bound nucleic acids). See U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,770,722, 5,874,219, 5,744,305, 5,677,195 and 5,445,934, which are incorporated herein by reference. The detection of expression may also comprise using nucleic acid probes in solution. In one embodiment of the invention, microarrays are used to determine expression or presence of one or more biomarkers. Microarrays are particularly well suited for this purpose because of the reproducibility between different experiments. DNA microarrays provide one method for the simultaneous measurement of the expression levels of large numbers of genes. Each array consists of a reproducible pattern of capture probes attached to a solid support. Labeled RNA or DNA is hybridized to complementary probes on the array and then detected by laser scanning. Hybridization intensities for each probe on the array are determined and converted to a quantitative value representing relative gene expression levels. See, U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,040,138, 5,800,992 and 6,020,135, 6,033,860, and 6,344,316, which are incorporated herein by reference. High-density oligonucleotide arrays are particularly useful for determining the gene expression profile for a large number of RNA's in a sample. Techniques for the synthesis of these arrays using mechanical synthesis methods are described in, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,384,261, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Although a planar array surface is preferred, the array may be fabricated on a surface of virtually any shape or even a multiplicity of surfaces. Arrays may be peptides or nucleic acids on beads, gels, polymeric surfaces, fibers such as fiber optics, glass or any other appropriate substrate, see U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,770,358, 5,789,162, 5,708,153, 6,040,193 and 5,800,992, each of which is hereby incorporated in its entirety for all purposes. Arrays may be packaged in such a manner as to allow for diagnostics or other manipulation of an all-inclusive device. See, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,856,174 and 5,922,591, herein incorporated by reference. Pharmaceutical Compositions/Formulations Pharmaceutical compositions may be formulated in a conventional manner using one or more physiologically acceptable carriers including excipients and auxiliaries which facilitate processing of the active compounds into preparations which can be used pharmaceutically. Proper formulation is dependent upon the route of administration chosen. Any of the well-known techniques, carriers, and excipients may be used as suitable and as understood in the art. A summary of pharmaceutical compositions described herein may be found, for example, in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, Nineteenth Ed (Easton, Pa.: Mack Publishing Company, 1995); Hoover, John E., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. 1975; Liberman, H. A. and Lachman, L., Eds., Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms, Marcel Decker, New York, N.Y., 1980; and Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, Seventh Ed. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 1999), herein incorporated by reference in their entirety. A pharmaceutical composition, as used herein, refers to a mixture of a compound described herein, such as, for example, compounds of Formula D or the second agent, with other chemical components, such as carriers, stabilizers, diluents, dispersing agents, suspending agents, thickening agents, and/or excipients. The pharmaceutical composition facilitates administration of the compound to an organism. In practicing the methods of treatment or use provided herein, therapeutically effective amounts of compounds described herein are administered in a pharmaceutical composition to a mammal having a disease, disorder, or condition to be treated. Preferably, the mammal is a human. A therapeutically effective amount can vary widely depending on the severity of the disease, the age and relative health of the subject, the potency of the compound used and other factors. The compounds can be used singly or in combination with one or more therapeutic agents as components of mixtures. In certain embodiments, compositions may also include one or more pH adjusting agents or buffering agents, including acids such as acetic, boric, citric, lactic, phosphoric and hydrochloric acids; bases such as sodium hydroxide, sodium phosphate, sodium borate, sodium citrate, sodium acetate, sodium lactate and tris-hydroxymethylaminomethane; and buffers such as citrate/dextrose, sodium bicarbonate and ammonium chloride. Such acids, bases and buffers are included in an amount required to maintain pH of the composition in an acceptable range. In other embodiments, compositions may also include one or more salts in an amount required to bring osmolality of the composition into an acceptable range. Such salts include those having sodium, potassium or ammonium cations and chloride, citrate, ascorbate, borate, phosphate, bicarbonate, sulfate, thiosulfate or bisulfite anions; suitable salts include sodium chloride, potassium chloride, sodium thiosulfate, sodium bisulfite and ammonium sulfate. The term “pharmaceutical combination” as used herein, means a product that results from the mixing or combining of more than one active ingredient and includes both fixed and non-fixed combinations of the active ingredients. The term “fixed combination” means that the active ingredients, e.g. a compound described herein and a co-agent, are both administered to a patient simultaneously in the form of a single entity or dosage. The term “non-fixed combination” means that the active ingredients, e.g. a compound described herein and a co-agent, are administered to a patient as separate entities either simultaneously, concurrently or sequentially with no specific intervening time limits, wherein such administration provides effective levels of the two compounds in the body of the patient. The latter also applies to cocktail therapy, e.g. the administration of three or more active ingredients. The pharmaceutical formulations described herein can be administered to a subject by multiple administration routes, including but not limited to, oral, parenteral (e.g., intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular), intranasal, buccal, topical, rectal, or transdermal administration routes. The pharmaceutical formulations described herein include, but are not limited to, aqueous liquid dispersions, self-emulsifying dispersions, solid solutions, liposomal dispersions, aerosols, solid dosage forms, powders, immediate release formulations, controlled release formulations, fast melt formulations, tablets, capsules, pills, delayed release formulations, extended release formulations, pulsatile release formulations, multiparticulate formulations, and mixed immediate and controlled release formulations. Pharmaceutical compositions including a compound described herein may be manufactured in a conventional manner, such as, by way of example only, by means of conventional mixing, dissolving, granulating, dragee-making, levigating, emulsifying, encapsulating, entrapping or compression processes. “Antifoaming agents” reduce foaming during processing which can result in coagulation of aqueous dispersions, bubbles in the finished film, or generally impair processing. Exemplary anti-foaming agents include silicon emulsions or sorbitan sesquoleate. “Antioxidants” include, for example, butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), sodium ascorbate, ascorbic acid, sodium metabisulfite and tocopherol. In certain embodiments, antioxidants enhance chemical stability where required. In certain embodiments, compositions provided herein may also include one or more preservatives to inhibit microbial activity. Suitable preservatives include mercury-containing substances such as merfen and thiomersal; stabilized chlorine dioxide; and quaternary ammonium compounds such as benzalkonium chloride, cetyltrimethylammonium bromide and cetylpyridinium chloride. Formulations described herein may benefit from antioxidants, metal chelating agents, thiol containing compounds and other general stabilizing agents. Examples of such stabilizing agents, include, but are not limited to: (a) about 0.5% to about 2% w/v glycerol, (b) about 0.1% to about 1% w/v methionine, (c) about 0.1% to about 2% w/v monothioglycerol, (d) about 1 mM to about 10 mM EDTA, (e) about 0.01% to about 2% w/v ascorbic acid, (f) 0.003% to about 0.02% w/v polysorbate 80, (g) 0.001% to about 0.05% w/v. polysorbate 20, (h) arginine, (i) heparin, (j) dextran sulfate, (k) cyclodextrins, (l) pentosan polysulfate and other heparinoids, (m) divalent cations such as magnesium and zinc; or (n) combinations thereof. “Binders” impart cohesive qualities and include, e.g., alginic acid and salts thereof; cellulose derivatives such as carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose (e.g., Methocel®), hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose (e.g., Klucel®), ethylcellulose (e.g., Ethocel®), and microcrystalline cellulose (e.g., Avicel®); microcrystalline dextrose; amylose; magnesium aluminum silicate; polysaccharide acids; bentonites; gelatin; polyvinylpyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer; crosspovidone; povidone; starch; pregelatinized starch; tragacanth, dextrin, a sugar, such as sucrose (e.g., Dipac®), glucose, dextrose, molasses, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol (e.g., Xylitab®), and lactose; a natural or synthetic gum such as acacia, tragacanth, ghatti gum, mucilage of isapol husks, polyvinylpyrrolidone (e.g., Polyvidone® CL, Kollidon® CL, Polyplasdone® XL-10), larch arabogalactan, Veegum®, polyethylene glycol, waxes, sodium alginate, and the like. A “carrier” or “carrier materials” include any commonly used excipients in pharmaceutics and should be selected on the basis of compatibility with compounds disclosed herein, such as, compounds of any of Formula D and the second agent, and the release profile properties of the desired dosage form. Exemplary carrier materials include, e.g., binders, suspending agents, disintegration agents, filling agents, surfactants, solubilizers, stabilizers, lubricants, wetting agents, diluents, and the like. “Pharmaceutically compatible carrier materials” may include, but are not limited to, acacia, gelatin, colloidal silicon dioxide, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium lactate, maltodextrin, glycerine, magnesium silicate, polyvinylpyrrollidone (PVP), cholesterol, cholesterol esters, sodium caseinate, soy lecithin, taurocholic acid, phosphotidylcholine, sodium chloride, tricalcium phosphate, dipotassium phosphate, cellulose and cellulose conjugates, sugars sodium stearoyl lactylate, carrageenan, monoglyceride, diglyceride, pregelatinized starch, and the like. See, e.g., Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, Nineteenth Ed (Easton, Pa.: Mack Publishing Company, 1995); Hoover, John E., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. 1975; Liberman, H. A. and Lachman, L., Eds., Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms, Marcel Decker, New York, N.Y., 1980; and Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, Seventh Ed. (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 1999). “Dispersing agents,” and/or “viscosity modulating agents” include materials that control the diffusion and homogeneity of a drug through liquid media or a granulation method or blend method. In some embodiments, these agents also facilitate the effectiveness of a coating or eroding matrix. Exemplary diffusion facilitators/dispersing agents include, e.g., hydrophilic polymers, electrolytes, Tween® 60 or 80, PEG, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP; commercially known as Plasdone®), and the carbohydrate-based dispersing agents such as, for example, hydroxypropyl celluloses (e.g., HPC, HPC-SL, and HPC-L), hydroxypropyl methylcelluloses (e.g., HPMC K100, HPMC K4M, HPMC K15M, and HPMC K100M), carboxymethylcellulose sodium, methylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose phthalate, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate stearate (HPMCAS), noncrystalline cellulose, magnesium aluminum silicate, triethanolamine, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), vinyl pyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer (S630), 4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)-phenol polymer with ethylene oxide and formaldehyde (also known as tyloxapol), poloxamers (e.g., Pluronics F68®, F88®, and F108®, which are block copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide); and poloxamines (e.g., Tetronic 908®, also known as Poloxamine 908®, which is a tetrafunctional block copolymer derived from sequential addition of propylene oxide and ethylene oxide to ethylenediamine (BASF Corporation, Parsippany, N.J.)), polyvinylpyrrolidone K12, polyvinylpyrrolidone K17, polyvinylpyrrolidone K25, or polyvinylpyrrolidone K30, polyvinylpyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer (S-630), polyethylene glycol, e.g., the polyethylene glycol can have a molecular weight of about 300 to about 6000, or about 3350 to about 4000, or about 7000 to about 5400, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, polysorbate-80, sodium alginate, gums, such as, e.g., gum tragacanth and gum acacia, guar gum, xanthans, including xanthan gum, sugars, cellulosics, such as, e.g., sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, polysorbate-80, sodium alginate, polyethoxylated sorbitan monolaurate, polyethoxylated sorbitan monolaurate, povidone, carbomers, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), alginates, chitosans and combinations thereof. Plasticizers such as cellulose or triethyl cellulose can also be used as dispersing agents. Dispersing agents particularly useful in liposomal dispersions and self-emulsifying dispersions are dimyristoyl phosphatidyl choline, natural phosphatidyl choline from eggs, natural phosphatidyl glycerol from eggs, cholesterol and isopropyl myristate. Combinations of one or more erosion facilitator with one or more diffusion facilitator can also be used in the present compositions. The term “diluent” refers to chemical compounds that are used to dilute the compound of interest prior to delivery. Diluents can also be used to stabilize compounds because they can provide a more stable environment. Salts dissolved in buffered solutions (which also can provide pH control or maintenance) are utilized as diluents in the art, including, but not limited to a phosphate buffered saline solution. In certain embodiments, diluents increase bulk of the composition to facilitate compression or create sufficient bulk for homogenous blend for capsule filling. Such compounds include e.g., lactose, starch, mannitol, sorbitol, dextrose, microcrystalline cellulose such as Avicel®; dibasic calcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate dihydrate; tricalcium phosphate, calcium phosphate; anhydrous lactose, spray-dried lactose; pregelatinized starch, compressible sugar, such as Di-Pac® (Amstar); mannitol, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate stearate, sucrose-based diluents, confectioner's sugar; monobasic calcium sulfate monohydrate, calcium sulfate dihydrate; calcium lactate trihydrate, dextrates; hydrolyzed cereal solids, amylose; powdered cellulose, calcium carbonate; glycine, kaolin; mannitol, sodium chloride; inositol, bentonite, and the like. The term “disintegrate” includes both the dissolution and dispersion of the dosage form when contacted with gastrointestinal fluid. “Disintegration agents or disintegrants” facilitate the breakup or disintegration of a substance. Examples of disintegration agents include a starch, e.g., a natural starch such as corn starch or potato starch, a pregelatinized starch such as National 1551 or Amijel®, or sodium starch glycolate such as Promogel® or Explotab®, a cellulose such as a wood product, methylcrystalline cellulose, e.g., Avicel®, Avicel® PH101, Avicel® PH102, Avicel® PH105, Elcema® P100, Emcocel®, Vivacel®, Ming Tia®, and Solka-Floc®, methylcellulose, croscarmellose, or a cross-linked cellulose, such as cross-linked sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Ac-Di-Sol®), cross-linked carboxymethylcellulose, or cross-linked croscarmellose, a cross-linked starch such as sodium starch glycolate, a cross-linked polymer such as crosspovidone, a cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone, alginate such as alginic acid or a salt of alginic acid such as sodium alginate, a clay such as Veegum® HV (magnesium aluminum silicate), a gum such as agar, guar, locust bean, Karaya, pectin, or tragacanth, sodium starch glycolate, bentonite, a natural sponge, a surfactant, a resin such as a cation-exchange resin, citrus pulp, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate in combination starch, and the like. “Drug absorption” or “absorption” typically refers to the process of movement of drug from site of administration of a drug across a barrier into a blood vessel or the site of action, e.g., a drug moving from the gastrointestinal tract into the portal vein or lymphatic system. An “enteric coating” is a substance that remains substantially intact in the stomach but dissolves and releases the drug in the small intestine or colon. Generally, the enteric coating comprises a polymeric material that prevents release in the low pH environment of the stomach but that ionizes at a higher pH, typically a pH of 6 to 7, and thus dissolves sufficiently in the small intestine or colon to release the active agent therein. “Erosion facilitators” include materials that control the erosion of a particular material in gastrointestinal fluid. Erosion facilitators are generally known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Exemplary erosion facilitators include, e.g., hydrophilic polymers, electrolytes, proteins, peptides, and amino acids. “Filling agents” include compounds such as lactose, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, dibasic calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, microcrystalline cellulose, cellulose powder, dextrose, dextrates, dextran, starches, pregelatinized starch, sucrose, xylitol, lactitol, mannitol, sorbitol, sodium chloride, polyethylene glycol, and the like. “Flavoring agents” and/or “sweeteners” useful in the formulations described herein, include, e.g., acacia syrup, acesulfame K, alitame, anise, apple, aspartame, banana, Bavarian cream, berry, black currant, butterscotch, calcium citrate, camphor, caramel, cherry, cherry cream, chocolate, cinnamon, bubble gum, citrus, citrus punch, citrus cream, cotton candy, cocoa, cola, cool cherry, cool citrus, cyclamate, cylamate, dextrose, eucalyptus, eugenol, fructose, fruit punch, ginger, glycyrrhetinate, glycyrrhiza (licorice) syrup, grape, grapefruit, honey, isomalt, lemon, lime, lemon cream, monoammonium glyrrhizinate (MagnaSweet®), maltol, mannitol, maple, marshmallow, menthol, mint cream, mixed berry, neohesperidine DC, neotame, orange, pear, peach, peppermint, peppermint cream, Prosweet® Powder, raspberry, root beer, rum, saccharin, safrole, sorbitol, spearmint, spearmint cream, strawberry, strawberry cream, stevia, sucralose, sucrose, sodium saccharin, saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, mannitol, talin, sylitol, sucralose, sorbitol, Swiss cream, tagatose, tangerine, thaumatin, tutti fruitti, vanilla, walnut, watermelon, wild cherry, wintergreen, xylitol, or any combination of these flavoring ingredients, e.g., anise-menthol, cherry-anise, cinnamon-orange, cherry-cinnamon, chocolate-mint, honey-lemon, lemon-lime, lemon-mint, menthol-eucalyptus, orange-cream, vanilla-mint, and mixtures thereof. “Lubricants” and “glidants” are compounds that prevent, reduce or inhibit adhesion or friction of materials. Exemplary lubricants include, e.g., stearic acid, calcium hydroxide, talc, sodium stearyl fumerate, a hydrocarbon such as mineral oil, or hydrogenated vegetable oil such as hydrogenated soybean oil (Sterotex®), higher fatty acids and their alkali-metal and alkaline earth metal salts, such as aluminum, calcium, magnesium, zinc, stearic acid, sodium stearates, glycerol, talc, waxes, Stearowet®, boric acid, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride, leucine, a polyethylene glycol (e.g., PEG-4000) or a methoxypolyethylene glycol such as Carbowax™, sodium oleate, sodium benzoate, glyceryl behenate, polyethylene glycol, magnesium or sodium lauryl sulfate, colloidal silica such as Syloid™, Cab-O-Sil®, a starch such as corn starch, silicone oil, a surfactant, and the like. A “measurable serum concentration” or “measurable plasma concentration” describes the blood serum or blood plasma concentration, typically measured in mg, □g, or ng of therapeutic agent per ml, dl, or l of blood serum, absorbed into the bloodstream after administration. As used herein, measurable plasma concentrations are typically measured in ng/ml or □g/ml. “Pharmacodynamics” refers to the factors which determine the biologic response observed relative to the concentration of drug at a site of action. “Pharmacokinetics” refers to the factors which determine the attainment and maintenance of the appropriate concentration of drug at a site of action. “Plasticizers” are compounds used to soften the microencapsulation material or film coatings to make them less brittle. Suitable plasticizers include, e.g., polyethylene glycols such as PEG 300, PEG 400, PEG 600, PEG 1450, PEG 3350, and PEG 800, stearic acid, propylene glycol, oleic acid, triethyl cellulose and triacetin. In some embodiments, plasticizers can also function as dispersing agents or wetting agents. “Solubilizers” include compounds such as triacetin, triethylcitrate, ethyl oleate, ethyl caprylate, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium doccusate, vitamin E TPGS, dimethylacetamide, N-methylpyrrolidone, N-hydroxyethylpyrrolidone, polyvinylpyrrolidone, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cyclodextrins, ethanol, n-butanol, isopropyl alcohol, cholesterol, bile salts, polyethylene glycol 200-600, glycofurol, transcutol, propylene glycol, and dimethyl isosorbide and the like. “Stabilizers” include compounds such as any antioxidation agents, buffers, acids, preservatives and the like. “Steady state,” as used herein, is when the amount of drug administered is equal to the amount of drug eliminated within one dosing interval resulting in a plateau or constant plasma drug exposure. “Suspending agents” include compounds such as polyvinylpyrrolidone, e.g., polyvinylpyrrolidone K12, polyvinylpyrrolidone K17, polyvinylpyrrolidone K25, or polyvinylpyrrolidone K30, vinyl pyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer (S630), polyethylene glycol, e.g., the polyethylene glycol can have a molecular weight of about 300 to about 6000, or about 3350 to about 4000, or about 7000 to about 5400, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, hydroxymethylcellulose acetate stearate, polysorbate-80, hydroxyethylcellulose, sodium alginate, gums, such as, e.g., gum tragacanth and gum acacia, guar gum, xanthans, including xanthan gum, sugars, cellulosics, such as, e.g., sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, polysorbate-80, sodium alginate, polyethoxylated sorbitan monolaurate, polyethoxylated sorbitan monolaurate, povidone and the like. “Surfactants” include compounds such as sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium docusate, Tween 60 or 80, triacetin, vitamin E TPGS, sorbitan monooleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, polysorbates, polaxomers, bile salts, glyceryl monostearate, copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, e.g., Pluronic® (BASF), and the like. Some other surfactants include polyoxyethylene fatty acid glycerides and vegetable oils, e.g., polyoxyethylene (60) hydrogenated castor oil; and polyoxyethylene alkylethers and alkylphenyl ethers, e.g., octoxynol 10, octoxynol 40. In some embodiments, surfactants may be included to enhance physical stability or for other purposes. “Viscosity enhancing agents” include, e.g., methyl cellulose, xanthan gum, carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose acetate stearate, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose phthalate, carbomer, polyvinyl alcohol, alginates, acacia, chitosans and combinations thereof. “Wetting agents” include compounds such as oleic acid, glyceryl monostearate, sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine oleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, sodium docusate, sodium oleate, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium doccusate, triacetin, Tween 80, vitamin E TPGS, ammonium salts and the like. Dosage Forms The compositions described herein can be formulated for administration to a subject via any conventional means including, but not limited to, oral, parenteral (e.g., intravenous, subcutaneous, or intramuscular), buccal, intranasal, rectal or transdermal administration routes. As used herein, the term “subject” is used to mean an animal, preferably a mammal, including a human or non-human. The terms patient and subject may be used interchangeably. Moreover, the pharmaceutical compositions described herein, which include a compound of any of Formula D or the second agent can be formulated into any suitable dosage form, including but not limited to, aqueous oral dispersions, liquids, gels, syrups, elixirs, slurries, suspensions and the like, for oral ingestion by a patient to be treated, solid oral dosage forms, aerosols, controlled release formulations, fast melt formulations, effervescent formulations, lyophilized formulations, tablets, powders, pills, dragees, capsules, delayed release formulations, extended release formulations, pulsatile release formulations, multiparticulate formulations, and mixed immediate release and controlled release formulations. Pharmaceutical preparations for oral use can be obtained by mixing one or more solid excipient with one or more of the compounds described herein, optionally grinding the resulting mixture, and processing the mixture of granules, after adding suitable auxiliaries, if desired, to obtain tablets or dragee cores. Suitable excipients include, for example, fillers such as sugars, including lactose, sucrose, mannitol, or sorbitol; cellulose preparations such as, for example, maize starch, wheat starch, rice starch, potato starch, gelatin, gum tragacanth, methylcellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose; or others such as: polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP or povidone) or calcium phosphate. If desired, disintegrating agents may be added, such as the cross-linked croscarmellose sodium, polyvinylpyrrolidone, agar, or alginic acid or a salt thereof such as sodium alginate. Dragee cores are provided with suitable coatings. For this purpose, concentrated sugar solutions may be used, which may optionally contain gum arabic, talc, polyvinylpyrrolidone, carbopol gel, polyethylene glycol, and/or titanium dioxide, lacquer solutions, and suitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures. Dyestuffs or pigments may be added to the tablets or dragee coatings for identification or to characterize different combinations of active compound doses. Pharmaceutical preparations which can be used orally include push-fit capsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules made of gelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. The push-fit capsules can contain the active ingredients in admixture with filler such as lactose, binders such as starches, and/or lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearate and, optionally, stabilizers. In soft capsules, the active compounds may be dissolved or suspended in suitable liquids, such as fatty oils, liquid paraffin, or liquid polyethylene glycols. In addition, stabilizers may be added. All formulations for oral administration should be in dosages suitable for such administration. In some embodiments, the solid dosage forms disclosed herein may be in the form of a tablet, (including a suspension tablet, a fast-melt tablet, a bite-disintegration tablet, a rapid-disintegration tablet, an effervescent tablet, or a caplet), a pill, a powder (including a sterile packaged powder, a dispensable powder, or an effervescent powder) a capsule (including both soft or hard capsules, e.g., capsules made from animal-derived gelatin or plant-derived HPMC, or “sprinkle capsules”), solid dispersion, solid solution, bioerodible dosage form, controlled release formulations, pulsatile release dosage forms, multiparticulate dosage forms, pellets, granules, or an aerosol. In other embodiments, the pharmaceutical formulation is in the form of a powder. In still other embodiments, the pharmaceutical formulation is in the form of a tablet, including but not limited to, a fast-melt tablet. Additionally, pharmaceutical formulations described herein may be administered as a single capsule or in multiple capsule dosage form. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical formulation is administered in two, or three, or four, capsules or tablets. In some embodiments, solid dosage forms, e.g., tablets, effervescent tablets, and capsules, are prepared by mixing particles of a compound of any of Formula (A1-A6), Formula (B1-B6), Formula (C1-C6), or Formula (D1-D6), with one or more pharmaceutical excipients to form a bulk blend composition. When referring to these bulk blend compositions as homogeneous, it is meant that the particles of the compound of any of Formula (A1-A6), Formula (B1-B6), Formula (C1-C6), or Formula (D1-D6), are dispersed evenly throughout the composition so that the composition may be readily subdivided into equally effective unit dosage forms, such as tablets, pills, and capsules. The individual unit dosages may also include film coatings, which disintegrate upon oral ingestion or upon contact with diluent. These formulations can be manufactured by conventional pharmacological techniques. Conventional pharmacological techniques include, e.g., one or a combination of methods: (1) dry mixing, (2) direct compression, (3) milling, (4) dry or non-aqueous granulation, (5) wet granulation, or (6) fusion. See, e.g., Lachman et al., The Theory and Practice of Industrial Pharmacy (1986). Other methods include, e.g., spray drying, pan coating, melt granulation, granulation, fluidized bed spray drying or coating (e.g., wurster coating), tangential coating, top spraying, tableting, extruding and the like. The pharmaceutical solid dosage forms described herein can include a compound described herein and one or more pharmaceutically acceptable additives such as a compatible carrier, binder, filling agent, suspending agent, flavoring agent, sweetening agent, disintegrating agent, dispersing agent, surfactant, lubricant, colorant, diluent, solubilizer, moistening agent, plasticizer, stabilizer, penetration enhancer, wetting agent, anti-foaming agent, antioxidant, preservative, or one or more combination thereof. In still other aspects, using standard coating procedures, such as those described in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 20th Edition (2000), a film coating is provided around the formulation of the compound of any of Formula (A1-A6), Formula (B1-B6), Formula (C1-C6), or Formula (D1-D6). In one embodiment, some or all of the particles of the compound of any of Formula (A1-A6), Formula (B1-B6), Formula (C1-C6), or Formula (D1-D6), are coated. In another embodiment, some or all of the particles of the compound of any of Formula (A1-A6), Formula (B1-B6), Formula (C1-C6), or Formula (D1-D6), are microencapsulated. In still another embodiment, the particles of the compound of any of Formula (A1-A6), Formula (B1-B6), Formula (C1-C6), or Formula (D1-D6), are not microencapsulated and are uncoated. Suitable carriers for use in the solid dosage forms described herein include, but are not limited to, acacia, gelatin, colloidal silicon dioxide, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium lactate, maltodextrin, glycerine, magnesium silicate, sodium caseinate, soy lecithin, sodium chloride, tricalcium phosphate, dipotassium phosphate, sodium stearoyl lactylate, carrageenan, monoglyceride, diglyceride, pregelatinized starch, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate stearate, sucrose, microcrystalline cellulose, lactose, mannitol and the like. Suitable filling agents for use in the solid dosage forms described herein include, but are not limited to, lactose, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate, dibasic calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, microcrystalline cellulose, cellulose powder, dextrose, dextrates, dextran, starches, pregelatinized starch, hydroxypropylmethycellulose (HPMC), hydroxypropylmethycellulose phthalate, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate stearate (HPMCAS), sucrose, xylitol, lactitol, mannitol, sorbitol, sodium chloride, polyethylene glycol, and the like. In order to release the compound of any of Formula (A1-A6), Formula (B1-B6), Formula (C1-C6), or Formula (D1-D6), from a solid dosage form matrix as efficiently as possible, disintegrants are often used in the formulation, especially when the dosage forms are compressed with binder. Disintegrants help rupturing the dosage form matrix by swelling or capillary action when moisture is absorbed into the dosage form. Suitable disintegrants for use in the solid dosage forms described herein include, but are not limited to, natural starch such as corn starch or potato starch, a pregelatinized starch such as National 1551 or Amijel®, or sodium starch glycolate such as Promogel® or Explotab®, a cellulose such as a wood product, methylcrystalline cellulose, e.g., Avicel®, Avicel® PH101, Avicel® PH102, Avicel® PH105, Elcema® P100, Emcocel®, Vivacel®, Ming Tia®, and Solka-Floc®, methylcellulose, croscarmellose, or a cross-linked cellulose, such as cross-linked sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Ac-Di-Sol®), cross-linked carboxymethylcellulose, or cross-linked croscarmellose, a cross-linked starch such as sodium starch glycolate, a cross-linked polymer such as crospovidone, a cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone, alginate such as alginic acid or a salt of alginic acid such as sodium alginate, a clay such as Veegum® HV (magnesium aluminum silicate), a gum such as agar, guar, locust bean, Karaya, pectin, or tragacanth, sodium starch glycolate, bentonite, a natural sponge, a surfactant, a resin such as a cation-exchange resin, citrus pulp, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate in combination starch, and the like. Binders impart cohesiveness to solid oral dosage form formulations: for powder filled capsule formulation, they aid in plug formation that can be filled into soft or hard shell capsules and for tablet formulation, they ensure the tablet remaining intact after compression and help assure blend uniformity prior to a compression or fill step. Materials suitable for use as binders in the solid dosage forms described herein include, but are not limited to, carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose (e.g., Methocer), hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (e.g. Hypromellose USP Pharmacoat-603, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate stearate (Aqoate HS-LF and HS), hydroxyethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose (e.g., Klucel®), ethylcellulose (e.g., Ethocel®), and microcrystalline cellulose (e.g., Avicel®), microcrystalline dextrose, amylose, magnesium aluminum silicate, polysaccharide acids, bentonites, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer, crospovidone, povidone, starch, pregelatinized starch, tragacanth, dextrin, a sugar, such as sucrose (e.g., Dipac®), glucose, dextrose, molasses, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol (e.g., Xylitab®), lactose, a natural or synthetic gum such as acacia, tragacanth, ghatti gum, mucilage of isapol husks, starch, polyvinylpyrrolidone (e.g., Povidone® CL, Kollidon® CL, Polyplasdone® XL-10, and Povidone® K-12), larch arabogalactan, Veegum®, polyethylene glycol, waxes, sodium alginate, and the like. In general, binder levels of 20-70% are used in powder-filled gelatin capsule formulations. Binder usage level in tablet formulations varies whether direct compression, wet granulation, roller compaction, or usage of other excipients such as fillers which itself can act as moderate binder. Formulators skilled in art can determine the binder level for the formulations, but binder usage level of up to 70% in tablet formulations is common. Suitable lubricants or glidants for use in the solid dosage forms described herein include, but are not limited to, stearic acid, calcium hydroxide, talc, corn starch, sodium stearyl fumerate, alkali-metal and alkaline earth metal salts, such as aluminum, calcium, magnesium, zinc, stearic acid, sodium stearates, magnesium stearate, zinc stearate, waxes, Stearowet®, boric acid, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride, leucine, a polyethylene glycol or a methoxypolyethylene glycol such as Carbowax™, PEG 4000, PEG 5000, PEG 6000, propylene glycol, sodium oleate, glyceryl behenate, glyceryl palmitostearate, glyceryl benzoate, magnesium or sodium lauryl sulfate, and the like. Suitable diluents for use in the solid dosage forms described herein include, but are not limited to, sugars (including lactose, sucrose, and dextrose), polysaccharides (including dextrates and maltodextrin), polyols (including mannitol, xylitol, and sorbitol), cyclodextrins and the like. The term “non water-soluble diluent” represents compounds typically used in the formulation of pharmaceuticals, such as calcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, starches, modified starches and microcrystalline cellulose, and microcellulose (e.g., having a density of about 0.45 g/cm3, e.g. Avicel, powdered cellulose), and talc. Suitable wetting agents for use in the solid dosage forms described herein include, for example, oleic acid, glyceryl monostearate, sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine oleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, quaternary ammonium compounds (e.g., Polyquat 10®), sodium oleate, sodium lauryl sulfate, magnesium stearate, sodium docusate, triacetin, vitamin E TPGS and the like. Suitable surfactants for use in the solid dosage forms described herein include, for example, sodium lauryl sulfate, sorbitan monooleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, polysorbates, polaxomers, bile salts, glyceryl monostearate, copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide, e.g., Pluronic® (BASF), and the like. Suitable suspending agents for use in the solid dosage forms described here include, but are not limited to, polyvinylpyrrolidone, e.g., polyvinylpyrrolidone K12, polyvinylpyrrolidone K17, polyvinylpyrrolidone K25, or polyvinylpyrrolidone K30, polyethylene glycol, e.g., the polyethylene glycol can have a molecular weight of about 300 to about 6000, or about 3350 to about 4000, or about 7000 to about 5400, vinyl pyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer (S630), sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxy-propylmethylcellulose, polysorbate-80, hydroxyethylcellulose, sodium alginate, gums, such as, e.g., gum tragacanth and gum acacia, guar gum, xanthans, including xanthan gum, sugars, cellulosics, such as, e.g., sodium carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, sodium carboxymethylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, polysorbate-80, sodium alginate, polyethoxylated sorbitan monolaurate, polyethoxylated sorbitan monolaurate, povidone and the like. Suitable antioxidants for use in the solid dosage forms described herein include, for example, e.g., butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), sodium ascorbate, and tocopherol. It should be appreciated that there is considerable overlap between additives used in the solid dosage forms described herein. Thus, the above-listed additives should be taken as merely exemplary, and not limiting, of the types of additives that can be included in solid dosage forms described herein. The amounts of such additives can be readily determined by one skilled in the art, according to the particular properties desired. In other embodiments, one or more layers of the pharmaceutical formulation are plasticized. Illustratively, a plasticizer is generally a high boiling point solid or liquid. Suitable plasticizers can be added from about 0.01% to about 50% by weight (w/w) of the coating composition. Plasticizers include, but are not limited to, diethyl phthalate, citrate esters, polyethylene glycol, glycerol, acetylated glycerides, triacetin, polypropylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, triethyl citrate, dibutyl sebacate, stearic acid, stearol, stearate, and castor oil. Compressed tablets are solid dosage forms prepared by compacting the bulk blend of the formulations described above. In various embodiments, compressed tablets which are designed to dissolve in the mouth will include one or more flavoring agents. In other embodiments, the compressed tablets will include a film surrounding the final compressed tablet. In some embodiments, the film coating can provide a delayed release of the compound of of any of Formula D or the second agent, from the formulation. In other embodiments, the film coating aids in patient compliance (e.g., Opadry® coatings or sugar coating). Film coatings including Opadry® typically range from about 1% to about 3% of the tablet weight. In other embodiments, the compressed tablets include one or more excipients. A capsule may be prepared, for example, by placing the bulk blend of the formulation of the compound of any of Formula D or the second agent, described above, inside of a capsule. In some embodiments, the formulations (non-aqueous suspensions and solutions) are placed in a soft gelatin capsule. In other embodiments, the formulations are placed in standard gelatin capsules or non-gelatin capsules such as capsules comprising HPMC. In other embodiments, the formulation is placed in a sprinkle capsule, wherein the capsule may be swallowed whole or the capsule may be opened and the contents sprinkled on food prior to eating. In some embodiments, the therapeutic dose is split into multiple (e.g., two, three, or four) capsules. In some embodiments, the entire dose of the formulation is delivered in a capsule form. In various embodiments, the particles of the compound of any of Formula D or the second agent, and one or more excipients are dry blended and compressed into a mass, such as a tablet, having a hardness sufficient to provide a pharmaceutical composition that substantially disintegrates within less than about 30 minutes, less than about 35 minutes, less than about 40 minutes, less than about 45 minutes, less than about 50 minutes, less than about 55 minutes, or less than about 60 minutes, after oral administration, thereby releasing the formulation into the gastrointestinal fluid. In another aspect, dosage forms may include microencapsulated formulations. In some embodiments, one or more other compatible materials are present in the microencapsulation material. Exemplary materials include, but are not limited to, pH modifiers, erosion facilitators, anti-foaming agents, antioxidants, flavoring agents, and carrier materials such as binders, suspending agents, disintegration agents, filling agents, surfactants, solubilizers, stabilizers, lubricants, wetting agents, and diluents. Materials useful for the microencapsulation described herein include materials compatible with compounds of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, which sufficiently isolate the compound of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, from other non-compatible excipients. Materials compatible with compounds of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, are those that delay the release of the compounds of of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, in vivo. Exemplary microencapsulation materials useful for delaying the release of the formulations including compounds described herein, include, but are not limited to, hydroxypropyl cellulose ethers (HPC) such as Klucel® or Nisso HPC, low-substituted hydroxypropyl cellulose ethers (L-HPC), hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose ethers (HPMC) such as Seppifilm-LC, Pharmacoat®, Metolose SR, Methocel®-E, Opadry YS, PrimaFlo, Benecel MP824, and Benecel MP843, methylcellulose polymers such as Methocel®-A, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate stearate Aqoat (HF-LS, HF-LG, HF-MS) and Metolose®, Ethylcelluloses (EC) and mixtures thereof such as E461, Ethocel®, Aqualon®-EC, Surelease®, Polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) such as Opadry AMB, hydroxyethylcelluloses such as Natrosol®, carboxymethylcelluloses and salts of carboxymethylcelluloses (CMC) such as Aqualon®-CMC, polyvinyl alcohol and polyethylene glycol co-polymers such as Kollicoat monoglycerides (Myverol), triglycerides (KLX), polyethylene glycols, modified food starch, acrylic polymers and mixtures of acrylic polymers with cellulose ethers such as Eudragit® EPO, Eudragit® L30D-55, Eudragit® FS 30D Eudragit® L100-55, Eudragit® L100, Eudragit® S100, Eudragit® RD100, Eudragit® E100, Eudragit® L12.5, Eudragit® S12.5, Eudragit® NE30D, and Eudragit® NE 40D, cellulose acetate phthalate, sepifilms such as mixtures of HPMC and stearic acid, cyclodextrins, and mixtures of these materials. In still other embodiments, plasticizers such as polyethylene glycols, e.g., PEG 300, PEG 400, PEG 600, PEG 1450, PEG 3350, and PEG 800, stearic acid, propylene glycol, oleic acid, and triacetin are incorporated into the microencapsulation material. In other embodiments, the microencapsulating material useful for delaying the release of the pharmaceutical compositions is from the USP or the National Formulary (NF). In yet other embodiments, the microencapsulation material is Klucel. In still other embodiments, the microencapsulation material is methocel. Microencapsulated compounds of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, may be formulated by methods known by one of ordinary skill in the art. Such known methods include, e.g., spray drying processes, spinning disk-solvent processes, hot melt processes, spray chilling methods, fluidized bed, electrostatic deposition, centrifugal extrusion, rotational suspension separation, polymerization at liquid-gas or solid-gas interface, pressure extrusion, or spraying solvent extraction bath. In addition to these, several chemical techniques, e.g., complex coacervation, solvent evaporation, polymer-polymer incompatibility, interfacial polymerization in liquid media, in situ polymerization, in-liquid drying, and desolvation in liquid media could also be used. Furthermore, other methods such as roller compaction, extrusion/spheronization, coacervation, or nanoparticle coating may also be used. In one embodiment, the particles of compounds of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, are microencapsulated prior to being formulated into one of the above forms. In still another embodiment, some or most of the particles are coated prior to being further formulated by using standard coating procedures, such as those described in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 20th Edition (2000). In other embodiments, the solid dosage formulations of the compounds of any of Formula D or the second agent, are plasticized (coated) with one or more layers. Illustratively, a plasticizer is generally a high boiling point solid or liquid. Suitable plasticizers can be added from about 0.01% to about 50% by weight (w/w) of the coating composition. Plasticizers include, but are not limited to, diethyl phthalate, citrate esters, polyethylene glycol, glycerol, acetylated glycerides, triacetin, polypropylene glycol, polyethylene glycol, triethyl citrate, dibutyl sebacate, stearic acid, stearol, stearate, and castor oil. In other embodiments, a powder including the formulations with a compound of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, described herein, may be formulated to include one or more pharmaceutical excipients and flavors. Such a powder may be prepared, for example, by mixing the formulation and optional pharmaceutical excipients to form a bulk blend composition. Additional embodiments also include a suspending agent and/or a wetting agent. This bulk blend is uniformly subdivided into unit dosage packaging or multi-dosage packaging units. In still other embodiments, effervescent powders are also prepared in accordance with the present disclosure. Effervescent salts have been used to disperse medicines in water for oral administration. Effervescent salts are granules or coarse powders containing a medicinal agent in a dry mixture, usually composed of sodium bicarbonate, citric acid and/or tartaric acid. When salts of the compositions described herein are added to water, the acids and the base react to liberate carbon dioxide gas, thereby causing “effervescence.” Examples of effervescent salts include, e.g., the following ingredients: sodium bicarbonate or a mixture of sodium bicarbonate and sodium carbonate, citric acid and/or tartaric acid. Any acid-base combination that results in the liberation of carbon dioxide can be used in place of the combination of sodium bicarbonate and citric and tartaric acids, as long as the ingredients were suitable for pharmaceutical use and result in a pH of about 6.0 or higher. In some embodiments, the solid dosage forms described herein can be formulated as enteric coated delayed release oral dosage forms, i.e., as an oral dosage form of a pharmaceutical composition as described herein which utilizes an enteric coating to affect release in the small intestine of the gastrointestinal tract. The enteric coated dosage form may be a compressed or molded or extruded tablet/mold (coated or uncoated) containing granules, powder, pellets, beads or particles of the active ingredient and/or other composition components, which are themselves coated or uncoated. The enteric coated oral dosage form may also be a capsule (coated or uncoated) containing pellets, beads or granules of the solid carrier or the composition, which are themselves coated or uncoated. The term “delayed release” as used herein refers to the delivery so that the release can be accomplished at some generally predictable location in the intestinal tract more distal to that which would have been accomplished if there had been no delayed release alterations. In some embodiments the method for delay of release is coating. Any coatings should be applied to a sufficient thickness such that the entire coating does not dissolve in the gastrointestinal fluids at pH below about 5, but does dissolve at pH about 5 and above. It is expected that any anionic polymer exhibiting a pH-dependent solubility profile can be used as an enteric coating in the methods and compositions described herein to achieve delivery to the lower gastrointestinal tract. In some embodiments the polymers described herein are anionic carboxylic polymers. In other embodiments, the polymers and compatible mixtures thereof, and some of their properties, include, but are not limited to: (a) Shellac, also called purified lac, a refined product obtained from the resinous secretion of an insect. This coating dissolves in media of pH >7; (b) Acrylic polymers. The performance of acrylic polymers (primarily their solubility in biological fluids) can vary based on the degree and type of substitution. Examples of suitable acrylic polymers include methacrylic acid copolymers and ammonium methacrylate copolymers. The Eudragit series E, L, S, RL, RS and NE (Rohm Pharma) are available as solubilized in organic solvent, aqueous dispersion, or dry powders. The Eudragit series RL, NE, and RS are insoluble in the gastrointestinal tract but are permeable and are used primarily for colonic targeting. The Eudragit series E dissolve in the stomach. The Eudragit series L, L-30D and S are insoluble in stomach and dissolve in the intestine; (c) Cellulose Derivatives. Examples of suitable cellulose derivatives are: ethyl cellulose; reaction mixtures of partial acetate esters of cellulose with phthalic anhydride. The performance can vary based on the degree and type of substitution. Cellulose acetate phthalate (CAP) dissolves in pH >6. Aquateric (FMC) is an aqueous based system and is a spray dried CAP psuedolatex with particles <1 μm. Other components in Aquateric can include pluronics, Tweens, and acetylated monoglycerides. Other suitable cellulose derivatives include: cellulose acetate trimellitate (Eastman); methylcellulose (Pharmacoat, Methocel); hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose phthalate (HPMCP); hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose succinate (HPMCS); and hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate succinate (e.g., AQOAT (Shin Etsu)). The performance can vary based on the degree and type of substitution. For example, HPMCP such as, HP-50, HP-55, HP-55S, HP-55F grades are suitable. The performance can vary based on the degree and type of substitution. For example, suitable grades of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose acetate succinate include, but are not limited to, AS-LG (LF), which dissolves at pH 5, AS-MG (MF), which dissolves at pH 5.5, and AS-HG (HF), which dissolves at higher pH. These polymers are offered as granules, or as fine powders for aqueous dispersions; Poly Vinyl Acetate Phthalate (PVAP). PVAP dissolves in pH >5, and it is much less permeable to water vapor and gastric fluids. In some embodiments, the coating can, and usually does, contain a plasticizer and possibly other coating excipients such as colorants, talc, and/or magnesium stearate, which are well known in the art. Suitable plasticizers include triethyl citrate (Citroflex 2), triacetin (glyceryl triacetate), acetyl triethyl citrate (Citroflec A2), Carbowax 400 (polyethylene glycol 400), diethyl phthalate, tributyl citrate, acetylated monoglycerides, glycerol, fatty acid esters, propylene glycol, and dibutyl phthalate. In particular, anionic carboxylic acrylic polymers usually will contain 10-25% by weight of a plasticizer, especially dibutyl phthalate, polyethylene glycol, triethyl citrate and triacetin. Conventional coating techniques such as spray or pan coating are employed to apply coatings. The coating thickness must be sufficient to ensure that the oral dosage form remains intact until the desired site of topical delivery in the intestinal tract is reached. Colorants, detackifiers, surfactants, antifoaming agents, lubricants (e.g., carnuba wax or PEG) may be added to the coatings besides plasticizers to solubilize or disperse the coating material, and to improve coating performance and the coated product. In other embodiments, the formulations described herein, which include compounds of Formula D or the secodn agent, are delivered using a pulsatile dosage form. A pulsatile dosage form is capable of providing one or more immediate release pulses at predetermined time points after a controlled lag time or at specific sites. Many other types of controlled release systems known to those of ordinary skill in the art and are suitable for use with the formulations described herein. Examples of such delivery systems include, e.g., polymer-based systems, such as polylactic and polyglycolic acid, plyanhydrides and polycaprolactone; porous matrices, nonpolymer-based systems that are lipids, including sterols, such as cholesterol, cholesterol esters and fatty acids, or neutral fats, such as mono-, di- and triglycerides; hydrogel release systems; silastic systems; peptide-based systems; wax coatings, bioerodible dosage forms, compressed tablets using conventional binders and the like. See, e.g., Liberman et al., Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms, 2 Ed., Vol. 1, pp. 209-214 (1990); Singh et al., Encyclopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology, 2nd Ed., pp. 751-753 (2002); U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,327,725, 4,624,848, 4,968,509, 5,461,140, 5,456,923, 5,516,527, 5,622,721, 5,686,105, 5,700,410, 5,977,175, 6,465,014 and 6,932,983, each of which is specifically incorporated by reference. In some embodiments, pharmaceutical formulations are provided that include particles of the compounds of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, described herein and at least one dispersing agent or suspending agent for oral administration to a subject. The formulations may be a powder and/or granules for suspension, and upon admixture with water, a substantially uniform suspension is obtained. Liquid formulation dosage forms for oral administration can be aqueous suspensions selected from the group including, but not limited to, pharmaceutically acceptable aqueous oral dispersions, emulsions, solutions, elixirs, gels, and syrups. See, e.g., Singh et al., Encyclopedia of Pharmaceutical Technology, 2nd Ed., pp. 754-757 (2002). In addition to the particles of compounds of Formula (A1-A6), the liquid dosage forms may include additives, such as: (a) disintegrating agents; (b) dispersing agents; (c) wetting agents; (d) at least one preservative, (e) viscosity enhancing agents, (f) at least one sweetening agent, and (g) at least one flavoring agent. In some embodiments, the aqueous dispersions can further include a crystalline inhibitor. The aqueous suspensions and dispersions described herein can remain in a homogenous state, as defined in The USP Pharmacists' Pharmacopeia (2005 edition, chapter 905), for at least 4 hours. The homogeneity should be determined by a sampling method consistent with regard to determining homogeneity of the entire composition. In one embodiment, an aqueous suspension can be re-suspended into a homogenous suspension by physical agitation lasting less than 1 minute. In another embodiment, an aqueous suspension can be re-suspended into a homogenous suspension by physical agitation lasting less than 45 seconds. In yet another embodiment, an aqueous suspension can be re-suspended into a homogenous suspension by physical agitation lasting less than 30 seconds. In still another embodiment, no agitation is necessary to maintain a homogeneous aqueous dispersion. Examples of disintegrating agents for use in the aqueous suspensions and dispersions include, but are not limited to, a starch, e.g., a natural starch such as corn starch or potato starch, a pregelatinized starch such as National 1551 or Amijel®, or sodium starch glycolate such as Promogel® or Explotab®; a cellulose such as a wood product, methylcrystalline cellulose, e.g., Avicel®, Avicel® PH101, AvicerPH102, Avicel® PH105, Elcema® P100, Emcocel®, Vivacel®, Ming Tia®, and Solka-Floc®, methylcellulose, croscarmellose, or a cross-linked cellulose, such as cross-linked sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Ac-Di-Sol®), cross-linked carboxymethylcellulose, or cross-linked croscarmellose; a cross-linked starch such as sodium starch glycolate; a cross-linked polymer such as crospovidone; a cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone; alginate such as alginic acid or a salt of alginic acid such as sodium alginate; a clay such as Veegum® HV (magnesium aluminum silicate); a gum such as agar, guar, locust bean, Karaya, pectin, or tragacanth; sodium starch glycolate; bentonite; a natural sponge; a surfactant; a resin such as a cation-exchange resin; citrus pulp; sodium lauryl sulfate; sodium lauryl sulfate in combination starch; and the like. In some embodiments, the dispersing agents suitable for the aqueous suspensions and dispersions described herein are known in the art and include, for example, hydrophilic polymers, electrolytes, Tween® 60 or 80, PEG, polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP; commercially known as) Plasdone®, and the carbohydrate-based dispersing agents such as, for example, hydroxypropylcellulose and hydroxypropyl cellulose ethers (e.g., HPC, HPC-SL, and HPC-L), hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose ethers (e.g. HPMC K100, HPMC K4M, HPMC K15M, and HPMC K100M), carboxymethylcellulose sodium, methylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose phthalate, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose acetate stearate, noncrystalline cellulose, magnesium aluminum silicate, triethanolamine, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), polyvinylpyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer (Plasdone®, e.g., S-630), 4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)-phenol polymer with ethylene oxide and formaldehyde (also known as tyloxapol), poloxamers (e.g., Pluronics F68®, F88®, and F108®, which are block copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide); and poloxamines (e.g., Tetronic908®, also known as Poloxamine 908®, which is a tetrafunctional block copolymer derived from sequential addition of propylene oxide and ethylene oxide to ethylenediamine (BASF Corporation, Parsippany, N.J.)). In other embodiments, the dispersing agent is selected from a group not comprising one of the following agents: hydrophilic polymers; electrolytes; Tween® 60 or 80; PEG; polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP); hydroxypropylcellulose and hydroxypropyl cellulose ethers (e.g., HPC, HPC-SL, and HPC-L); hydroxypropyl methylcellulose and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose ethers (e.g. HPMC K100, HPMC K4M, HPMC K15M, HPMC K100M, and Pharmacoat® USP 2910 (Shin-Etsu)); carboxymethylcellulose sodium; methylcellulose; hydroxyethylcellulose; hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose phthalate; hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose acetate stearate; non-crystalline cellulose; magnesium aluminum silicate; triethanolamine; polyvinyl alcohol (PVA); 4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)-phenol polymer with ethylene oxide and formaldehyde; poloxamers (e.g., Pluronics F68®, F88®, and F108®, which are block copolymers of ethylene oxide and propylene oxide); or poloxamines (e.g., Tetronic 908®, also known as Poloxamine 908®). Wetting agents suitable for the aqueous suspensions and dispersions described herein are known in the art and include, but are not limited to, cetyl alcohol, glycerol monostearate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan fatty acid esters (e.g., the commercially available Tweens® such as e.g., Tween 20® and Tween 80® (ICI Specialty Chemicals)), and polyethylene glycols (e.g., Carbowaxs 3350® and 1450®, and Carbopol 934® (Union Carbide)), oleic acid, glyceryl monostearate, sorbitan monooleate, sorbitan monolaurate, triethanolamine oleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate, polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate, sodium oleate, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium docusate, triacetin, vitamin E TPGS, sodium taurocholate, simethicone, phosphotidylcholine and the like Suitable preservatives for the aqueous suspensions or dispersions described herein include, for example, potassium sorbate, parabens (e.g., methylparaben and propylparaben), benzoic acid and its salts, other esters of parahydroxybenzoic acid such as butylparaben, alcohols such as ethyl alcohol or benzyl alcohol, phenolic compounds such as phenol, or quaternary compounds such as benzalkonium chloride. Preservatives, as used herein, are incorporated into the dosage form at a concentration sufficient to inhibit microbial growth. Suitable viscosity enhancing agents for the aqueous suspensions or dispersions described herein include, but are not limited to, methyl cellulose, xanthan gum, carboxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose, Plasdon® S-630, carbomer, polyvinyl alcohol, alginates, acacia, chitosans and combinations thereof. The concentration of the viscosity enhancing agent will depend upon the agent selected and the viscosity desired. Examples of sweetening agents suitable for the aqueous suspensions or dispersions described herein include, for example, acacia syrup, acesulfame K, alitame, anise, apple, aspartame, banana, Bavarian cream, berry, black currant, butterscotch, calcium citrate, camphor, caramel, cherry, cherry cream, chocolate, cinnamon, bubble gum, citrus, citrus punch, citrus cream, cotton candy, cocoa, cola, cool cherry, cool citrus, cyclamate, cylamate, dextrose, eucalyptus, eugenol, fructose, fruit punch, ginger, glycyrrhetinate, glycyrrhiza (licorice) syrup, grape, grapefruit, honey, isomalt, lemon, lime, lemon cream, monoammonium glyrrhizinate (MagnaSweet®), maltol, mannitol, maple, marshmallow, menthol, mint cream, mixed berry, neohesperidine DC, neotame, orange, pear, peach, peppermint, peppermint cream, Prosweet® Powder, raspberry, root beer, rum, saccharin, safrole, sorbitol, spearmint, spearmint cream, strawberry, strawberry cream, stevia, sucralose, sucrose, sodium saccharin, saccharin, aspartame, acesulfame potassium, mannitol, talin, sucralose, sorbitol, swiss cream, tagatose, tangerine, thaumatin, tutti fruitti, vanilla, walnut, watermelon, wild cherry, wintergreen, xylitol, or any combination of these flavoring ingredients, e.g., anise-menthol, cherry-anise, cinnamon-orange, cherry-cinnamon, chocolate-mint, honey-lemon, lemon-lime, lemon-mint, menthol-eucalyptus, orange-cream, vanilla-mint, and mixtures thereof. In one embodiment, the aqueous liquid dispersion can comprise a sweetening agent or flavoring agent in a concentration ranging from about 0.001% to about 1.0% the volume of the aqueous dispersion. In another embodiment, the aqueous liquid dispersion can comprise a sweetening agent or flavoring agent in a concentration ranging from about 0.005% to about 0.5% the volume of the aqueous dispersion. In yet another embodiment, the aqueous liquid dispersion can comprise a sweetening agent or flavoring agent in a concentration ranging from about 0.01% to about 1.0% the volume of the aqueous dispersion. In addition to the additives listed above, the liquid formulations can also include inert diluents commonly used in the art, such as water or other solvents, solubilizing agents, and emulsifiers. Exemplary emulsifiers are ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propyleneglycol, 1,3-butyleneglycol, dimethylformamide, sodium lauryl sulfate, sodium doccusate, cholesterol, cholesterol esters, taurocholic acid, phosphotidylcholine, oils, such as cottonseed oil, groundnut oil, corn germ oil, olive oil, castor oil, and sesame oil, glycerol, tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols, fatty acid esters of sorbitan, or mixtures of these substances, and the like. In some embodiments, the pharmaceutical formulations described herein can be self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS). Emulsions are dispersions of one immiscible phase in another, usually in the form of droplets. Generally, emulsions are created by vigorous mechanical dispersion. SEDDS, as opposed to emulsions or microemulsions, spontaneously form emulsions when added to an excess of water without any external mechanical dispersion or agitation. An advantage of SEDDS is that only gentle mixing is required to distribute the droplets throughout the solution. Additionally, water or the aqueous phase can be added just prior to administration, which ensures stability of an unstable or hydrophobic active ingredient. Thus, the SEDDS provides an effective delivery system for oral and parenteral delivery of hydrophobic active ingredients. SEDDS may provide improvements in the bioavailability of hydrophobic active ingredients. Methods of producing self-emulsifying dosage forms are known in the art and include, but are not limited to, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,858,401, 6,667,048, and 6,960,563, each of which is specifically incorporated by reference. It is to be appreciated that there is overlap between the above-listed additives used in the aqueous dispersions or suspensions described herein, since a given additive is often classified differently by different practitioners in the field, or is commonly used for any of several different functions. Thus, the above-listed additives should be taken as merely exemplary, and not limiting, of the types of additives that can be included in formulations described herein. The amounts of such additives can be readily determined by one skilled in the art, according to the particular properties desired. Intranasal Formulations Intranasal formulations are known in the art and are described in, for example, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,476,116, 5,116,817 and 6,391,452, each of which is specifically incorporated by reference. Formulations that include a compound of any of Formula (A1-A6), Formula (B1-B6), Formula (C1-C6), or Formula (D1-D6), which are prepared according to these and other techniques well-known in the art are prepared as solutions in saline, employing benzyl alcohol or other suitable preservatives, fluorocarbons, and/or other solubilizing or dispersing agents known in the art. See, for example, Ansel, H. C. et al., Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, Sixth Ed. (1995). Preferably these compositions and formulations are prepared with suitable nontoxic pharmaceutically acceptable ingredients. These ingredients are known to those skilled in the preparation of nasal dosage forms and some of these can be found in REMINGTON: THE SCIENCE AND PRACTICE OF PHARMACY, 21st edition, 2005, a standard reference in the field. The choice of suitable carriers is highly dependent upon the exact nature of the nasal dosage form desired, e.g., solutions, suspensions, ointments, or gels. Nasal dosage forms generally contain large amounts of water in addition to the active ingredient. Minor amounts of other ingredients such as pH adjusters, emulsifiers or dispersing agents, preservatives, surfactants, gelling agents, or buffering and other stabilizing and solubilizing agents may also be present. The nasal dosage form should be isotonic with nasal secretions. For administration by inhalation, the compounds of any of Formula D or the second agent, described herein may be in a form as an aerosol, a mist or a powder. Pharmaceutical compositions described herein are conveniently delivered in the form of an aerosol spray presentation from pressurized packs or a nebuliser, with the use of a suitable propellant, e.g., dichlorodifluoromethane, trichlorofluoromethane, dichlorotetrafluoroethane, carbon dioxide or other suitable gas. In the case of a pressurized aerosol, the dosage unit may be determined by providing a valve to deliver a metered amount. Capsules and cartridges of, such as, by way of example only, gelatin for use in an inhaler or insufflator may be formulated containing a powder mix of the compound described herein and a suitable powder base such as lactose or starch. Buccal Formulations Buccal formulations that include compounds of any of Formula D or the second agent may be administered using a variety of formulations known in the art. For example, such formulations include, but are not limited to, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,229,447, 4,596,795, 4,755,386, and 5,739,136, each of which is specifically incorporated by reference. In addition, the buccal dosage forms described herein can further include a bioerodible (hydrolysable) polymeric carrier that also serves to adhere the dosage form to the buccal mucosa. The buccal dosage form is fabricated so as to erode gradually over a predetermined time period, wherein the delivery of the compound of any of Formula D or the second agent, is provided essentially throughout. Buccal drug delivery, as will be appreciated by those skilled in the art, avoids the disadvantages encountered with oral drug administration, e.g., slow absorption, degradation of the active agent by fluids present in the gastrointestinal tract and/or first-pass inactivation in the liver. With regard to the bioerodible (hydrolysable) polymeric carrier, it will be appreciated that virtually any such carrier can be used, so long as the desired drug release profile is not compromised, and the carrier is compatible with the compound of any of Formula D or the second agent, and any other components that may be present in the buccal dosage unit. Generally, the polymeric carrier comprises hydrophilic (water-soluble and water-swellable) polymers that adhere to the wet surface of the buccal mucosa. Examples of polymeric carriers useful herein include acrylic acid polymers and co, e.g., those known as “carbomers” (Carbopol®, which may be obtained from B.F. Goodrich, is one such polymer). Other components may also be incorporated into the buccal dosage forms described herein include, but are not limited to, disintegrants, diluents, binders, lubricants, flavoring, colorants, preservatives, and the like. For buccal or sublingual administration, the compositions may take the form of tablets, lozenges, or gels formulated in a conventional manner. Transdermal Formulations Transdermal formulations described herein may be administered using a variety of devices which have been described in the art. For example, such devices include, but are not limited to, U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,598,122, 3,598,123, 3,710,795, 3,731,683, 3,742,951, 3,814,097, 3,921,636, 3,972,995, 3,993,072, 3,993,073, 3,996,934, 4,031,894, 4,060,084, 4,069,307, 4,077,407, 4,201,211, 4,230,105, 4,292,299, 4,292,303, 5,336,168, 5,665,378, 5,837,280, 5,869,090, 6,923,983, 6,929,801 and 6,946,144, each of which is specifically incorporated by reference in its entirety. The transdermal dosage forms described herein may incorporate certain pharmaceutically acceptable excipients which are conventional in the art. In one embodiments, the transdermal formulations described herein include at least three components: (1) a formulation of a compound of any of Formula D or the secodn agent; (2) a penetration enhancer; and (3) an aqueous adjuvant. In addition, transdermal formulations can include additional components such as, but not limited to, gelling agents, creams and ointment bases, and the like. In some embodiments, the transdermal formulation can further include a woven or non-woven backing material to enhance absorption and prevent the removal of the transdermal formulation from the skin. In other embodiments, the transdermal formulations described herein can maintain a saturated or supersaturated state to promote diffusion into the skin. Formulations suitable for transdermal administration of compounds described herein may employ transdermal delivery devices and transdermal delivery patches and can be lipophilic emulsions or buffered, aqueous solutions, dissolved and/or dispersed in a polymer or an adhesive. Such patches may be constructed for continuous, pulsatile, or on demand delivery of pharmaceutical agents. Still further, transdermal delivery of the compounds described herein can be accomplished by means of iontophoretic patches and the like. Additionally, transdermal patches can provide controlled delivery of the compounds of any of Formula D or the second agent. The rate of absorption can be slowed by using rate-controlling membranes or by trapping the compound within a polymer matrix or gel. Conversely, absorption enhancers can be used to increase absorption. An absorption enhancer or carrier can include absorbable pharmaceutically acceptable solvents to assist passage through the skin. For example, transdermal devices are in the form of a bandage comprising a backing member, a reservoir containing the compound optionally with carriers, optionally a rate controlling barrier to deliver the compound to the skin of the host at a controlled and predetermined rate over a prolonged period of time, and means to secure the device to the skin. Injectable Formulations Formulations that include a compound of any of Formula D or the secodn agent, suitable for intramuscular, subcutaneous, or intravenous injection may include physiologically acceptable sterile aqueous or non-aqueous solutions, dispersions, suspensions or emulsions, and sterile powders for reconstitution into sterile injectable solutions or dispersions. Examples of suitable aqueous and non-aqueous carriers, diluents, solvents, or vehicles including water, ethanol, polyols (propyleneglycol, polyethylene-glycol, glycerol, cremophor and the like), suitable mixtures thereof, vegetable oils (such as olive oil) and injectable organic esters such as ethyl oleate. Proper fluidity can be maintained, for example, by the use of a coating such as lecithin, by the maintenance of the required particle size in the case of dispersions, and by the use of surfactants. Formulations suitable for subcutaneous injection may also contain additives such as preserving, wetting, emulsifying, and dispensing agents. Prevention of the growth of microorganisms can be ensured by various antibacterial and antifungal agents, such as parabens, chlorobutanol, phenol, sorbic acid, and the like. It may also be desirable to include isotonic agents, such as sugars, sodium chloride, and the like. Prolonged absorption of the injectable pharmaceutical form can be brought about by the use of agents delaying absorption, such as aluminum monostearate and gelatin. For intravenous injections, compounds described herein may be formulated in aqueous solutions, preferably in physiologically compatible buffers such as Hank's solution, Ringer's solution, or physiological saline buffer. For transmucosal administration, penetrants appropriate to the barrier to be permeated are used in the formulation. Such penetrants are generally known in the art. For other parenteral injections, appropriate formulations may include aqueous or nonaqueous solutions, preferably with physiologically compatible buffers or excipients. Such excipients are generally known in the art. Parenteral injections may involve bolus injection or continuous infusion. Formulations for injection may be presented in unit dosage form, e.g., in ampoules or in multi-dose containers, with an added preservative. The pharmaceutical composition described herein may be in a form suitable for parenteral injection as a sterile suspensions, solutions or emulsions in oily or aqueous vehicles, and may contain formulatory agents such as suspending, stabilizing and/or dispersing agents. Pharmaceutical formulations for parenteral administration include aqueous solutions of the active compounds in water-soluble form. Additionally, suspensions of the active compounds may be prepared as appropriate oily injection suspensions. Suitable lipophilic solvents or vehicles include fatty oils such as sesame oil, or synthetic fatty acid esters, such as ethyl oleate or triglycerides, or liposomes. Aqueous injection suspensions may contain substances which increase the viscosity of the suspension, such as sodium carboxymethyl cellulose, sorbitol, or dextran. Optionally, the suspension may also contain suitable stabilizers or agents which increase the solubility of the compounds to allow for the preparation of highly concentrated solutions. Alternatively, the active ingredient may be in powder form for constitution with a suitable vehicle, e.g., sterile pyrogen-free water, before use. Other Formulations In certain embodiments, delivery systems for pharmaceutical compounds may be employed, such as, for example, liposomes and emulsions. In certain embodiments, compositions provided herein can also include an mucoadhesive polymer, selected from among, for example, carboxymethylcellulose, carbomer (acrylic acid polymer), poly(methylmethacrylate), polyacrylamide, polycarbophil, acrylic acid/butyl acrylate copolymer, sodium alginate and dextran. In some embodiments, the compounds described herein may be administered topically and can be formulated into a variety of topically administrable compositions, such as solutions, suspensions, lotions, gels, pastes, medicated sticks, balms, creams or ointments. Such pharmaceutical compounds can contain solubilizers, stabilizers, tonicity enhancing agents, buffers and preservatives. The compounds described herein may also be formulated in rectal compositions such as enemas, rectal gels, rectal foams, rectal aerosols, suppositories, jelly suppositories, or retention enemas, containing conventional suppository bases such as cocoa butter or other glycerides, as well as synthetic polymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone, PEG, and the like. In suppository forms of the compositions, a low-melting wax such as, but not limited to, a mixture of fatty acid glycerides, optionally in combination with cocoa butter is first melted. Dosing and Treatment Regimens Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a hematological malignancy in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 420 mg/day up to, and including, 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day, about 560 mg/day, or about 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day. In some embodiments, the AUC0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 150 and about 3500 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the AUC0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 500 and about 1100 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered orally. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered once per day, twice per day, or three times per day. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered daily until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered every other day until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is a maintenance therapy. The compounds described herein can be used in the preparation of medicaments for the inhibition of Btk or a homolog thereof, or for the treatment of diseases or conditions that would benefit, at least in part, from inhibition of Btk or a homolog thereof, including a patient and/or subject diagnosed with a hematological malignancy. In addition, a method for treating any of the diseases or conditions described herein in a subject in need of such treatment, involves administration of pharmaceutical compositions containing at least one compound of any of Formula (A), Formula (B), Formula (C), or Formula (D), described herein, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, pharmaceutically acceptable N-oxide, pharmaceutically active metabolite, pharmaceutically acceptable prodrug, or pharmaceutically acceptable solvate thereof, in therapeutically effective amounts to said subject. The compositions containing the compound(s) described herein can be administered for prophylactic, therapeutic, or maintenance treatment. In some embodiments, compositions containing the compounds described herein are administered for therapeutic applications (e.g., administered to a patient diagnosed with a hematological malignancy). In some embodiments, compositions containing the compounds described herein are administered for therapeutic applications (e.g., dministered to a patient susceptible to or otherwise at risk of developing a hematological malignancy). In some embodiments, compositions containing the compounds described herein are administered to a patient who is in remission as a maintenance therapy. Amounts of a compound disclosed herein will depend on the use (e.g., therapeutic, prophylactic, or maintenance). Amounts of a compound disclosed herein will depend on severity and course of the disease or condition, previous therapy, the patient's health status, weight, and response to the drugs, and the judgment of the treating physician. It is considered well within the skill of the art for one to determine such therapeutically effective amounts by routine experimentation (including, but not limited to, a dose escalation clinical trial). In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 420 mg/day up to, and including, 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is from 400 mg/day up to, and including, 860 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is about 360 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is about 560 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is about 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is from 2 mg/kg/day up to, and including, 13 mg/kg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is from 2.5 mg/kg/day up to, and including, 8 mg/kg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is from 2.5 mg/kg/day up to, and including, 6 mg/kg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is from 2.5 mg/kg/day up to, and including, 4 mg/kg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is about 2.5 mg/kg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the Btk inhibitor is about 8 mg/kg/day. In some embodiments, a Btk inhibitor disclosed herein is administered daily. In some embodiments, a Btk inhibitor disclosed herein is administered every other day. In some embodiments, a Btk inhibitor disclosed herein is administered once per day. In some embodiments, a Btk inhibitor disclosed herein is administered twice per day. In some embodiments, a Btk inhibitor disclosed herein is administered here times per day. In some embodiments, a Btk inhibitor disclosed herein is administered times per per day. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered daily until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered every other day until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In the case wherein the patient's status does improve, upon the doctor's discretion the administration of the compounds may be given continuously; alternatively, the dose of drug being administered may be temporarily reduced or temporarily suspended for a certain length of time (i.e., a “drug holiday”). The length of the drug holiday can vary between 2 days and 1 year, including by way of example only, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, 6 days, 7 days, 10 days, 12 days, 15 days, 20 days, 28 days, 35 days, 50 days, 70 days, 100 days, 120 days, 150 days, 180 days, 200 days, 250 days, 280 days, 300 days, 320 days, 350 days, or 365 days. The dose reduction during a drug holiday may be from 10%-100%, including, by way of example only, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100%. Once improvement of the patient's conditions has occurred, a maintenance dose is administered if necessary. Subsequently, the dosage or the frequency of administration, or both, can be reduced, as a function of the symptoms, to a level at which the improved disease, disorder or condition is retained. Patients can, however, require intermittent treatment on a long-term basis upon any recurrence of symptoms. The amount of a given agent that will correspond to such an amount will vary depending upon factors such as the particular compound, the severity of the disease, the identity (e.g., weight) of the subject or host in need of treatment, but can nevertheless be routinely determined in a manner known in the art according to the particular circumstances surrounding the case, including, e.g., the specific agent being administered, the route of administration, and the subject or host being treated. In general, however, doses employed for adult human treatment will typically be in the range of 0.02-5000 mg per day, or from about 1-1500 mg per day. The desired dose may conveniently be presented in a single dose or as divided doses administered simultaneously (or over a short period of time) or at appropriate intervals, for example as two, three, four or more sub-doses per day. The pharmaceutical composition described herein may be in unit dosage forms suitable for single administration of precise dosages. In unit dosage form, the formulation is divided into unit doses containing appropriate quantities of one or more compound. The unit dosage may be in the form of a package containing discrete quantities of the formulation. Non-limiting examples are packaged tablets or capsules, and powders in vials or ampoules. Aqueous suspension compositions can be packaged in single-dose non-reclosable containers. Alternatively, multiple-dose reclosable containers can be used, in which case it is typical to include a preservative in the composition. By way of example only, formulations for parenteral injection may be presented in unit dosage form, which include, but are not limited to ampoules, or in multi-dose containers, with an added preservative. In some embodiments, each unit dosage form comprises 210 mg of a compound disclosed herein. In some embodiments, an individual is administered 1 unit dosage form per day. In some embodiments, an individual is administered 2 unit dosage forms per day. In some embodiments, an individual is administered 3 unit dosage forms per day. In some embodiments, an individual is administered 4 unit dosage forms per day. The foregoing ranges are merely suggestive, as the number of variables in regard to an individual treatment regime is large, and considerable excursions from these recommended values are not uncommon. Such dosages may be altered depending on a number of variables, not limited to the activity of the compound used, the disease or condition to be treated, the mode of administration, the requirements of the individual subject, the severity of the disease or condition being treated, and the judgment of the practitioner. Toxicity and therapeutic efficacy of such therapeutic regimens can be determined by standard pharmaceutical procedures in cell cultures or experimental animals, including, but not limited to, the determination of the LD50 (the dose lethal to 50% of the population) and the ED50 (the dose therapeutically effective in 50% of the population). The dose ratio between the toxic and therapeutic effects is the therapeutic index and it can be expressed as the ratio between LD50 and ED50. Compounds exhibiting high therapeutic indices are preferred. The data obtained from cell culture assays and animal studies can be used in formulating a range of dosage for use in human. The dosage of such compounds lies preferably within a range of circulating concentrations that include the ED50 with minimal toxicity. The dosage may vary within this range depending upon the dosage form employed and the route of administration utilized. Kits/Articles of Manufacture The present invention also encompasses kits for carrying out the methods of the present invention. For example, the kit can comprise a labeled compound or agent capable of detecting a biomarker described herein, e.g., a biomarker of apoptosis, cellular proliferation or survival, or a Btk-mediated signaling pathway, either at the protein or nucleic acid level, in a biological sample and means for determining the amount of the biomarker in the sample (for example, an antibody or an oligonucleotide probe that binds to RNA encoding a biomarker of interest) following incubation of the sample with a BCLD therapeutic agent of interest. Kits can be packaged to allow for detection of multiple biomarkers of interest by including individual labeled compounds or agents capable of detecting each individual biomarker of interest and means for determining the amount of each biomarker in the sample. The particular choice of the second agent used will depend upon the diagnosis of the attending physicians and their judgment of the condition of the patient and the appropriate treatment protocol of the Btk inhibitors. EXAMPLES The following specific and non-limiting examples are to be construed as merely illustrative, and do not limit the present disclosure in any way whatsoever. Without further elaboration, it is believed that one skilled in the art can, based on the description herein, utilize the present disclosure to its fullest extent. All publications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. Where reference is made to a URL or other such identifier or address, it is understood that such identifiers can change and particular information on the internet can come and go, but equivalent information can be found by searching the internet. Reference thereto evidences the availability and public dissemination of such information. Example 1: Treatment of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma by Administering a Btk Inhibitor to Induce Pharmaceutical Debulking Two groups of patients with Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma (15 each) are treated with or without a Btk inhibitor followed by administering a second agent (Taxane). Group 1 is subject to the second agent treatment only (Taxane) and Group 2 is subject to a Btk inhibitor treatment for 2 days followed by administering the second agent based on the determined expression or presence of one or more B-cell lymphoproliferative disorder (BCLD) biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes. Example 2. Determining the Expression or Presence of BCLD after Administering the Btk Inhibitor for the Treatment of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Determining the expression or presence of BCLD after administering compound 15 to a patient of Group 1 is used by the known procedures. Example 3. Use of Taxane for the Treatment of Non-Hodgkin Lymphoma Following determination of the expression or presence of one or more B-cell lymphoproliferative disorder (BCLD) biomarkers from one or more subpopulation of lymphocytes in the patient, Taxane is used for Group 2 patients. Example 4: Clinical Example of Determination of BCLDs Using a Btk Inhibitor A patient with BCLD completes treatment with a Btk inhibitor or another treatment, and appears to be in complete remission. After this treatment is stopped, a short course of the Btk inhibitor is then given. If cells with markers of the malignant cells appear in the peripheral blood, in some embodiments it is an indication for continued treatment or for starting another treatment. One example of the cell subpopulation investigated for in the peripheral blood is cells bearing both the CD5 and CD20 markers, which is typical of CLL/SLL and Mantle Cell Lymphoma. These markers can be detectable by flow cytometry. A further example of cell type is follicular lymphoma, which is characterized by cells with t(14;18) which in other embodiments are detectable by PCR or in situ hybridization in cells harvested from the peripheral blood. Based on the markers of the malignant cells as determined in the peripheral blood, a suitable second treatment regimen is administered. Example 5: Pharmaceutical Compositions The compositions described below are presented with a compound of Formula (D) for illustrative purposes; any of the compounds of any of Formulas (A), (B), (C), or (D) can be used in such pharmaceutical compositions. Example 5a: Parenteral Composition To prepare a parenteral pharmaceutical composition suitable for administration by injection, 100 mg of a water-soluble salt of a compound of Formula (D) is dissolved in DMSO and then mixed with 10 mL of 0.9% sterile saline. The mixture is incorporated into a dosage unit form suitable for administration by injection. Example 5b: Oral Composition To prepare a pharmaceutical composition for oral delivery, 100 mg of a compound of Formula (D) is mixed with 750 mg of starch. The mixture is incorporated into an oral dosage unit for, such as a hard gelatin capsule, which is suitable for oral administration. Example 5c: Sublingual (Hard Lozenge) Composition To prepare a pharmaceutical composition for buccal delivery, such as a hard lozenge, mix 100 mg of a compound of Formula (D), with 420 mg of powdered sugar mixed, with 1.6 mL of light corn syrup, 2.4 mL distilled water, and 0.42 mL mint extract. The mixture is gently blended and poured into a mold to form a lozenge suitable for buccal administration. Example 5d: Inhalation Composition To prepare a pharmaceutical composition for inhalation delivery, 20 mg of a compound of Formula (D) is mixed with 50 mg of anhydrous citric acid and 100 mL of 0.9% sodium chloride solution. The mixture is incorporated into an inhalation delivery unit, such as a nebulizer, which is suitable for inhalation administration. Example 5e: Rectal Gel Composition To prepare a pharmaceutical composition for rectal delivery, 100 mg of a compound of Formula (D) is mixed with 2.5 g of methylcellulose (1500 mPa), 100 mg of methylparapen, 5 g of glycerin and 100 mL of purified water. The resulting gel mixture is then incorporated into rectal delivery units, such as syringes, which are suitable for rectal administration. Example 5f: Topical Gel Composition To prepare a pharmaceutical topical gel composition, 100 mg of a compound of Formula (D) is mixed with 1.75 g of hydroxypropyl cellulose, 10 mL of propylene glycol, 10 mL of isopropyl myristate and 100 mL of purified alcohol USP. The resulting gel mixture is then incorporated into containers, such as tubes, which are suitable for topical administration. Example 5g: Ophthalmic Solution Composition To prepare a pharmaceutical opthalmic solution composition, 100 mg of a compound of Formula (D) is mixed with 0.9 g of NaCl in 100 mL of purified water and filtered using a 0.2 micron filter. The resulting isotonic solution is then incorporated into ophthalmic delivery units, such as eye drop containers, which are suitable for ophthalmic administration. Example 6—Clinical Trial to Determine Efficacy of a Btk Irreversible Inhibitor in CLL and SLL Patients Patients with CLL and/or SLL: The data provided herein is a pooled analysis of patients with CLL or SLL from two clinical trials of a Btk irreversible inhibitor. The initial trial (Study 04753) was a Phase 1A multi-cohort, first-in-human, dose escalation trial of a Btk irreversible inhibitor in patients with relapsed or refractory B-cell. 56 patients were enrolled between March 2009 and September 2010 and two doses were evaluated, namely oral once-daily dosing of a Btk irreversible inhibitor with a 28-day-on, 7-day-off schedule, and a continuous daily oral dosing schedule. Of the 56 patients enrolled, 16 CLL/SLL patients are included in this pooled analysis. The second trial (Study 1102) is a Phase 1B/II trial of two once-daily oral doses of a Btk irreversible inhibitor in 2 populations of patients with CLL or SLL; a cohort containing patients with relapsed of refractory disease after at least 2 prior treatment regimens, and a second cohort of elderly patients with treatment-naïve disease. This study began enrollment in May 2010, and has enrolled 56 patients to date. For the purpose of this pooled analysis, 38 patients, with a minimum of 28 days follow-up and 28 patients with on study tumor assessments are included in this analysis. In sum, 56 patients from the two studies are included in this analysis. The baseline characteristics of patients enrolled to the two studies are summarized here. In study 04753, the median age was 66, there were 11 patients with CLL and 5 patients with SLL. The median # of prior therapies was 3, with a range of 1-10. x % of patients had received prior nucleoside analogues, and x % had received prior anti-CD20 agents. In study 1102, the median age was 68, 32 patients had CLL and 2 patients had SLL. Of the patients with CLL, 10 had del 17p. 15 patients had bulky disease, defined as a nodal mass >5 cm diameter. In the relapsed/refractory cohort, the median # of prior regimens was x.3 Per the eligibility requirements, all patients had received a nucleoside analogue-based regimen. 93% had received prior anti-CD20 agents, 9% alemtuzumab, and 19% bendamustine. Objectives of the Analysis The objective of this pooled analysis is to characterize the nature and kinetics of the response to a Btk irreversible inhibitor in CLL. The Btk irreversible inhibitor compound is one of a new class of BCR signaling inhibitors, and, similar to other inhibitors of this pathway, the kinetics of response differ between the peripheral blood and the nodal compartments. The second objective was to summarize the current status of the two studies with respect to best response, patient disposition, and time on treatment. The final objective was the summarization of the adverse event profile of the Btk inhibitor on a larger and more diverse population of patients with CLL or SLL. Response Criteria Different response criteria were applied to patients with CLL and SLL respectively in these trials. Though considered biologically similar (or identical) diseases, given the phenotypic differences in presentation, the IW criteria for CLL are based on improvement in circulating lymphocytes, nodal/splenic/marrow-based disease, and normalization of hematologic parameters. In contrast, the NHL criteria used to gauge the lymphomatous presentation of this disease (or SLL) are based only on improvement in lymphadenopathy and organomegaly. Lymphocyte Count FIG. 5 depicts the change with treatment in the lymphocyte count for a 57 year-old patient with disease relapse following multiple prior therapies and the poor-risk cytogenetic feature del 11q began treatment with a Btk irreversible inhibitor nearly 6 months ago. Typical of the majority of CLL patients treated with a Btk irreversible inhibitor, there was an initial, rapid, and prominent reduction in nodal disease and spleen size, with a corresponding rise in the circulating lymphocyte count, likely a consequence of the inhibitory effects of a Btk irreversible inhibitor on lymphocyte homing to the nodal and splenic compartments. Simultaneous with these changes, patients reported symptomatic improvement consistent with the resolution of bulky disease. Over time, the initial rise in lymphocytes returns to pre-treatment levels in spite of sustained reductions in adenopathy and splenomegaly. Cases such as this seen with a Btk irreversible inhibitor and similar agents, highlights the difficulty in applying standard response criteria to newer agents. Effect of Treatment on Lymph Node SPD As shown in FIG. 6, patients treated with a Btk irreversible inhibitor had an immediate and marked nodal response to treatment. 85% of evaluable patients achieved a partial response and even more had some LN shrinkage. 80% of patients with measurable LN disease achieved a 50% reduction in their SPD within 2 cycles of therapy. FIG. 7 shows the remarkable shrinkage in Lymph node post-treatment for the 57 year-old patient described supra. Change in Lymph Node and Absolute Lymphocyte Count (ALC) FIG. 8 depicts the effect of a Btk irreversible inhibitor on LN disease burden and lymphocytosis over time in the patients from the Phase Ia trial. Summary statistics from the patients with an early lymphocytosis show a similar pattern in the median percent change over time in both ALC and in LN disease burden measured by the SPD. Immediately following treatment, patients develop an early lymphocytosis which decreases with time to pre-treatment or normal levels. There is a sustained decrease in disease burden shown by the LN sum of perpendicular diameters. Thus, with some variability in timing, many patients show a marked decrease in tumor burden in both peripheral blood and in LN disease with sustained treatment. Adverse Effects Adverse effects seen as a side effect of the treatment were monitored as outlined in FIG. 9. The effects were categorized by severity into grades 1-4. Grade 3 or greater events have been very uncommon. The vast majority of events have been mild in severity. Diarrhea, nausea, and fatigue have been the most commonly reported adverse events, with most of the reports occurring early in treatment Thus, the oral Btk inhibitor has marked activity in patients with CLL and SLL including high-risk pts. It provides good disease control with longer follow-up commonly exceeds 6 months. There is no evidence of drug-related myelosuppression or cumulative toxicity. Example 7 Clinical Trial to Determine Safety and Efficacy of Compounds of Formula (D) The purpose of this clinical trial is to study the side effects and best dose of a compound of Formula (D) and to determine its efficacy in the treatment of patients diagnosed with recurrent B-cell lymphoma. Study Design Cohorts of 6 patients each receive a compound of Formula (D) at 1.25, 2.5, 5.0, 8.3, 12.5, 17.5 mg/kg/d until the MTD is established. In cases where MTD is not reached, dosing levels are increased beyond 17.5 mg/kg/d by 33% increments. Patients receive daily treatment for 28 days followed by a 7 day rest period (one cycle). Tests for Btk occupancy by the drug (“occupancy”) are performed on Day 1, 2, 8, 15 and 29 during Cycle 1 and on Day 1 and 15 of Cycles 3, 5, 7, 9, and 11. If ≦1 DLT (“dose-limiting toxicity”) is observed in the cohort during Cycle 1, escalation to the next cohort will proceed. Patients are enrolled in the next cohort if four of the six patients enrolled in the cohort completed Cycle 1 without experiencing a DLT, while the remaining two patients are completing evaluation. If ≧2 DLTs are observed during Cycle 1, dosing at that dose and higher is suspended and the MTD is established as the previous cohort. Patients are allowed to continue dosing at the MTD. If ≧2 DLTs are seen at the 5.0 mg/kg/d cohort an additional cohort of 6 patients can be added at 3.75 mg/kg/d. Upon determination of the MTD, a cohort of 6 patients is enrolled to receive a compound of Formula (D) at the MTD or “preferred occupying dose” continuously for 35 days with no rest period (one cycle). Study Population Up to 52 patients with recurrent surface immunoglobulin positive B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma according to WHO classification (including small lymphocytic lymphoma/chronic lymphocytic leukemia) Study Objectives 1. Primary Objectives include: A. Determine pharmacokinetics (PK) of an orally administered compound of Formula (D). B. Evaluate tumor response. Patients have screening (i.e., baseline) disease assessments within 30 days before beginning treatment. Patients undergo follow-up disease assessments following specified dosing cycles. Patients without evidence of disease progression on treatment are followed for a maximum of 6 months off treatment for disease progression. At screening, a computed tomography (CT) (with contrast unless contraindicated) and positron-emission tomography (PET) or CT/PET scan of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis are required. At other visits, a CT (with contrast unless contraindicated) scan of the chest, abdomen, and pelvis are obtained. A CT/PET or PET is required to confirm a complete response. Bone marrow biopsy is optional. In patients known to have positive bone marrow before treatment with study drug, a repeat biopsy should be done to confirm a complete response following treatment. All patients are evaluated for response based on International Working Group Revised Response Criteria for Malignant Lymphoma, Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of chronic lymphocytic leukemia14, or Uniform Response Criteria in Waldenstrom's Macroglobulinemia. C. Measure pharmacodynamic (PD) parameters to include drug occupancy of Btk, the target enzyme, and effect on biological markers of B cell function. Specifically, this study examines the pharmacodynamics (PD) of the drug in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) using two PD assays. The first PD assay measures occupancy of the Btk active site by the drug using a specially designed fluorescent probe. The second PD assay measures inhibition of B cell activation by stimulating the PBMCs ex vivo at the BCR with anti-IgM/IgG, and then assaying cell surface expression of the activation marker CD69 by flow cytometry The PD biomarkers are measured in vitro from a blood sample removed from patients 4-6 hours following an oral dose of the drug. These assays determine what drug levels are required to achieve maximal occupancy of Btk and maximal inhibition of BCR signaling. When possible, similar studies are conducted on circulating tumor cells isolated from blood of patients. 2. Secondary Objectives include: A. To analyze tumor biopsy samples (when possible) for apoptotic biomarker expression analysis. Inclusion Criteria To be eligible to participate in this study, a patient must meet the following criteria: Women and men ≧18 years of age Body weight ≧40 kg Recurrent surface immunoglobulin positive B cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma (NHL) according to WHO classification, including small lymphocytic lymphoma/chronic lymphocytic leukemia (SLL/CLL) and lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma, including Waldenstrom's Macroglobulinemia (WM) Measurable disease (for NHL, bidimensional disease ≧2 cm diameter in at least one dimension, for CLL ≧5000 leukemia cells/mm3, and for WM presence of immunoglobulin M paraprotein with a minimum IgM level ≧1000 mg/dL and infiltration of bone marrow by lymphoplasmacytic cells) Have failed ≧1 previous treatment for lymphoma and no standard therapy is available. Patients with diffuse large B cell lymphoma must have failed, refused or be ineligible for autologous stem cell transplant ECOG performance status of ≦1 Ability to swallow oral capsules without difficulty Willing and able to sign a written informed consent Exclusion Criteria A patient meeting any of the following criteria will be excluded from this study: More than four prior systemic therapies (not counting maintenance rituximab), except for CLL patients. Salvage therapy/conditioning regimen leading up to autologous bone marrow transplantation is considered to be one regimen Prior allogeneic bone marrow transplant Immunotherapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy or experimental therapy within 4 weeks before first day of study drug dosing Major surgery within 4 weeks before first day of study drug dosing CNS involvement by lymphoma Active opportunistic infection or treatment for opportunistic infection within 4 weeks before first day of study drug dosing Uncontrolled illness including but not limited to: ongoing or active infection, symptomatic congestive heart failure (New York Heart Association Class III or IV heart failure), unstable angina pectoris, cardiac arrhythmia, and psychiatric illness that would limit compliance with study requirements History of myocardial infarction, acute coronary syndromes (including unstable angina), coronary angioplasty and/or stenting within the past 6 months Known HIV infection Hepatitis B sAg or Hepatitis C positive Other medical or psychiatric illness or organ dysfunction which, in the opinion of the investigator, would either compromise the patient's safety or interfere with the evaluation of the safety of the study agent Pregnant or lactating women (female patients of child-bearing potential must have a negative serum pregnancy test within 14 days of first day of drug dosing, or, if positive, a pregnancy ruled out by ultrasound) History of prior cancer <2 years ago, except for basal cell or squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, cervical cancer in situ or other in situ carcinomas Results: 29 pts (12 follicular, 7 CLL/SLL, 4 DLBCL, 4 mantle, 2 marginal) with a median of 3 prior therapies have been enrolled on cohorts 1-4. Therapy was well tolerated with most adverse events <grade 2. One protocol defined DLT (dose delay >7 d due to neutropenia) was observed. 19/22 pts from cohorts 1-3 are evaluable. The ORR is 42%; 1 CR (SLL), 7 PR (4 CLL/SLL, 2 MCL and 1FL). In cohort 2, PD demonstrate complete occupancy of Btk by a compound of Formula (D), with >95% enzyme occupancy 4 hours post dose in all pts. Basophil degranulation, a Btk-dependent cellular process, was completely inhibited up to 24 hrs. T-cell responses were not affected, and no significant depletion of peripheral blood B, T or NK cell counts was observed. Positive correlation (R2=0.93) was found between Btk active-site occupancy in PBMCs (mean of Days 1 and 8) and a compound of Formula (D) plasma AUC0-° (Day 1) at the 1.25 mg/kg dose. Example 8: Clinical Example of Diagnosis of BCLDs Using a Btk Inhibitor A patient with BCLD completes treatment with a Btk inhibitor or another treatment, and appears to be in complete remission. After this treatment is stopped, a short course of the Btk inhibitor is then given. If cells with markers of the malignant cells appear in the peripheral blood, in some embodiments it is an indication for continued treatment or for starting another treatment. One example of the cell subpopulation investigated for in the peripheral blood is cells bearing both the CD5 and CD20 markers, which is typical of CLL/SLL and Mantle Cell Lymphoma. These markers can be detectable by flow cytometry. A further example of cell type is follicular lymphoma, which is characterized by cells with t(14;18) which in other embodiments are detectable by PCR or in situ hybridization in cells harvested from the peripheral blood. For patients initially starting on treatment an increase of the malignant subpopulation can be an early predictive marker of response or duration of response. For patients who have previously received treatment and are suspected of progressing based upon changes (for example in a scan) that are non-diagnostic, the BTK test for peripheral blood cell increases could add diagnostic information that enable earlier treatment of relapse. This would be valuable in determining whether to re-start treatment for BCLD or to watch or to pursue an alternative diagnosis. The test could yield better diagnostic information for patients whose BCLD is suspected to be transforming into a more aggressive cellular form. For example both CLL/SLL and lower grade follicular lymphoma can transform into a higher grade process which may resemble diffuse large B cell lymphoma, and require more aggressive treatment. Example 9: Patient Selection Patient selection screens are performed to identify an individual with the ABC subtype of DLBCL. Gene expression profiling is conducted using FFPE biopsy material, using RNA amplified with a Nugen kit and assayed on an Affymetrix U133Plus 2.0 arrays. Samples are screened for recurrent somatic mutations. This is accomplished by conventional resequencing of candidate genes in the NF-kB and B cell receptor signaling pathways (e.g. CARD11, CD79A, CD79B, MYD88, TNFAIP3) plus p53 by exon amplification and standard dideoxy automated DNA sequencing. The patient selection screen also identifies patients with ABC DLBCL that are particularly sensitive or resistant to Btk inhibitors. A positive result for a CARD11 mutation indicates that the individual is resistant to Btk inhibitors because CARD11 mutations activate the NF-kB pathway at a step that is downstream of BTK. Genomic copy number analysis is also required to adequately assess the activity of oncogenic pathways that may be relevant for the response to Btk inhibitors as well as to assess prognosis. In particular, ABC DLBCLs harbor genomic deletions of the TNFAIP3 locus, which encodes A20, a negative regulator of NF-kB. Thus, a full assessment of A20 status requires both resequencing to look for somatic mutations and copy number analysis to look for deletions. In addition, patients are identified with DLBCL tumors that harbor genomic deletions in the INK4a/ARF locus or have trisomy of chromosome 3 because these genomic aberrations are associated with poor prognosis in ABC DLBCL. A single pass high throughput DNA sequencing is performed using the Illumina HiSeq2000 platform to assess genomic copy number globally. Example 10: PK and Efficacy of a Btk Inhibitor in Individuals with CLL or SLL A Btk inhibitor was administered to 33 individuals diagnosed with CLL or SLL. Efficacy and PK was determined. Day 8 Dose AUC0-24 IWG Resp No. mg Patient_ID Group Sex (ng · h/mL) Cycle March 2011 1 420 073-203 Naïve Female 102 7 PR 2 420 217-107 R/R Male 120 8 PR 3 420 217-202 Naïve Female 121 7 SD 4 420 032-110 R/R Male 155 6 PR 5 420 217-104 R/R Male 176 8 PR 6 420 032-201 Naïve Male 177 9 PR 7 420 217-103 R/R Female 206 8 Nodal 8 420 032-104 R/R Male 227 8 PR 9 420 217-102 R/R Male 243 9 Nodal 10 420 217-106 R/R Female 267 8 Nodal 11 420 032-109 R/R Male 318 7 Nodal 12 420 217-110 R/R Female 407 7 Nodal 13 420 038-101 R/R Male 428 7 PR 14 420 217-111 R/R Male 473 7 PR 15 420 217-109 R/R Male 498 7 Nodal 16 420 032-107 R/R Male 502 8 Nodal 17 420 073-201 Naïve Male 532 2 SD 18 420 032-105 R/R Male 534 8 PR 19 420 217-101 R/R Male 570 9 CR 20 420 073-101 R/R Male 593 4 PR 21 420 217-105 R/R Female 594 8 PR 22 420 032-101 R/R Female 643 9 Nodal 23 420 073-202 Naïve Male 648 9 PR 24 420 217-112 R/R Female 653 7 SD 25 420 217-201 Naïve Male 687 9 PR 26 420 073-204 Naïve Male 784 1 NE 27 420 217-108 R/R Male 809 1 PD 28 420 032-108 R/R Male 907 7 PR 29 420 032-106 R/R Male 1200 8 Nodal 30 420 032-102 R/R Male 1210 2 NE 31 420 217-113 R/R Male 1270 4 Cri 32 420 032-202 Naïve Female 1670 8 PR 33 420 038-201 Naïve Female 2000 7 CR Example 11: Clinical Trial with Btk Inhibitor A phase Ib/II clinical trial was performed to study the effects of a Btk inhibitor on individuals with CLL. Study Type: Interventional Allocation: Non-Randomized Endpoint Classification: Safety Study Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment Masking: Open Label Primary Purpose: Treatment Group I (elderly, naïve, individuals) received 420 mg/day of the Btk inhibitor. Group II (R/R individuals, who had twice been treated with fludara) received 420 mg/day of the Btk inhibitor. Group III (R/R individuals, who had twice been treated with fludara) received 840 mg/day of the Btk inhibitor. Patient Characteristics Treatment- Relapsed/ Relapsed/ Naïve Refractory Refractory/ 420 mg 420 mg 840 mg (N = 23) (N = 27) (N = 33) Age, y Median: 71 64 65 Range: 66-84 40-81 44-80 Dx # pts CLL: 22 (96%) 26 (96%) 32 (97%) SLL: 1 (4%) 1 (4%) 1 (3%) Prior Rx, # Median: 0 3 5 Range: 2-10 2-12 Prior therapy, % Nucleoside analog 0 (0%) 27 (100%) 33 (100%) Rituximab 0 (0%) 25 (93%) 32 (97%) Alkylator 0 (0%) 24 (89%) 27 (82%) Alemtuzumab 0 (0%) 5 (19%) 3 (9%) Bendamustine 0 (0%) 8 (30%) 13 (39%) Ofatumumab 0 (0%) 8 (30%) 10 (30%) Cytopenia at baseline, % ANC <1500/UL 1 (4%) 6 (22%) 17 (52%) HGB <11 g/dL 7 (30%) 4 (15%) 19 (58%) Platelets <100,000/uL 9 (39%) 8 (30%) 22 (67%) Prognostic Markers, %* IgVH unmutated: 8/16 (50%) 17/24 (71%) 18/24 (75%) Del(17p): 2/17 (12%) 9/24 (38%) 10/25 (40%) Del(11q): 0/17 (0%) 8/24 (33%) 12/25 (48%) β Microglobin 10/16 (62%) 14/23 (61%) 8/25 (32%) <3 mg/L β Microglobin 6/16 (38%) 9/23 (39%) 17/25 (68%) ≧3 mg/L Tumor assessment was performed every 2 treatment cycles. Objectives Describe the characteristics of the antitumor effect of a Btk inhibitor in individuals with CLL/SLL, e.g., reduction in lymphadenopathy/splenomegaly, and kinetics of change in absolute lymphocyte count (ACL). Summarize the safety profile of the Btk inhibitor. Inclusion Criteria FOR TREATMENT-NAIVE GROUP ONLY: Men and women ≧65 years of age with confirmed diagnosis of CLL/SLL, who require treatment per NCI or International Working Group guidelines 11-14 FOR RELAPSED/REFRACTORY GROUP ONLY: Men and women ≧18 years of age with a confirmed diagnosis of relapsed/refractory CLL/SLL unresponsive to therapy (ie, failed ≧2 previous treatments for CLL/SLL and at least 1 regimen had to have had a purine analog [eg, fludarabine] for subjects with CLL) Body weight ≧40 kg ECOG performance status of ≦2 Agreement to use contraception during the study and for 30 days after the last dose of study drug if sexually active and able to bear children Willing and able to participate in all required evaluations and procedures in this study protocol including swallowing capsules without difficulty Ability to understand the purpose and risks of the study and provide signed and dated informed consent and authorization to use protected health information (in accordance with national and local subject privacy regulations) Exclusion Criteria A life-threatening illness, medical condition or organ system dysfunction which, in the investigator's opinion, could compromise the subject's safety, interfere with the absorption or metabolism of Btk inhibitor PO, or put the study outcomes at undue risk Any immunotherapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or experimental therapy within 4 weeks before first dose of study drug (corticosteroids for disease-related symptoms allowed but require 1-week washout before study drug administration) Central Nervous System (CNS) Involvement by Lymphoma Major surgery within 4 weeks before first dose of study drug Creatinine >1.5× institutional upper limit of normal (ULN); total bilirubin >1.5× ULN (unless due to Gilbert's disease); and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) >2.5×ULN unless disease related Concomitant use of medicines known to cause QT prolongation or torsades de pointes Significant screening electrocardiogram (ECG) abnormalities including left bundle branch block, 2nd degree AV block type II, 3rd degree block, bradycardia, and QTc >470 msec Lactating or pregnant Response Criteria NHL IWG criteria 1 were applied to SLL cases without modification The 2008 CLL IWG criteria were applied to CLL cases with the following modifications: a. An isolated lymphocytosis, in the absence of other parameters meeting the criteria for PD, was not considered PD b. Patients experiencing a lymphocytosis, but obtaining a PR by other measurable parameters, were classified as “nodal” response until there was a 50% reduction in ALC from baseline in which case they were categorized as PR. c. Patients with a normal ALC (<5K) at baseline with treatment-related lymphocytosis required normalization to <5K to be categorized as PR. Results Subject Disposition Treatment- Relapsed/ Relapsed/ Naïve Refractory Refractory 420 mg 420 mg 840 mg (N = 23) (N = 27) (N = 33) Number of subjects 23 27 33 Follow-up Median (months) 6.3 7.8 4.6 Range 1.4-9.2 0.7-9.5 0.3-6.5 Subjects still on study 21 (91%) 22 (81%) 28 (85%) Subject Discontinued 2 (9%) 5 (19%) 5 (15%) Primary Reasons for Discontinuation Disease Progression 0 (0%) 2 (7%) 1 (3%) Death 0 (0%) 0 (0%) 2 (6%) Adverse Event 1 (4%) 1 (4%) 1 (3%) Other 1 (4%) 2 (7%) 1 (3%) Best Response Treatment-Naïve Relapsed/Refractory 420 mg 420 mg N 21 27 CR 1 (5%) 1 (4%) PR 13 (62%) 12 (44%) ORR % 67% 48% Nodal 4 (19%) 11 (41%) SD 2 (10%) 1 (4%) PD 0 1 (4%) NE 1 (5%) 1 (4%) Best Response by Risk Features Best Response Molecular Risk Feature N IWG Response Nodal Response Overall 27 48% 41% Del17p 9 44% 33% Del11q 8 63% 37% IgVH unmutated 17 53% 29% Results further summarized in FIGS. 18-27. FIG. 18 presents the responses for the naive, 420 mg/day group. FIG. 19 presents the responses for the R/R, 420 mg/day group. FIG. 20 presents the responses by prognostic factors. FIG. 21 presents responses over time. FIG. 22 presents the best responses for all patients. FIG. 23 presents the best responses for abstract patients. FIG. 24 presents the best response by prognostic factor. FIG. 25 presents initial (Cycle 2) response assessment and best response (420 mg Cohorts). FIG. 26 presents initial (Cycle 2) response assessment by dose: relapsed/refractory. FIG. 27 presents improvements in hematological parameters. Conclusions The interim Phase II data confirm that a Btk inhibitor is highly active in both treatment-naïve and relapsed/refractory CLL/SLL patients Class-specific rapid lymph node reduction with concurrent lymphocytosis seen in the majority of patients 2008 CLL IWG objective responses (PR+CR) and nodal responses appear to be durable and independent of high risk genomic features A high proportion (85%) of relapsed or refractory patients are free-of-progression at 6 months (420 mg cohort) Example 12: Long Term Follow-Up Trial for Individuals Taking Btk Inhibitor The purpose of this study is to determine the long-term safety of a fixed-dose, daily regimen of Btk inhibitor PO in subjects with B cell lymphoma or chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic leukemia (CLL/SLL). Study Type: Interventional Allocation: Non-Randomized Endpoint Classification: Safety Study Intervention Model: Single Group Assignment Masking: Open Label Primary Purpose: Treatment Intervention: 420 mg/day of a Btk inhibitor Applicable conditions: B-cell Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia; Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma; Diffuse Well-Differentiated Lymphocytic Lymphoma; B Cell Lymphoma; Follicular Lymphoma; Mantle Cell Lymphoma; Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma; Waldenstrom Macroglobulinemia; Burkitt Lymphoma; B-Cell Diffuse Lymphoma Primary Outcome Measures: Adverse Events/Safety Tolerability [Time Frame: 30 days after last dose of study drug]−frequency, severity, and relatedness of adverse events Secondary Outcome Measures: Tumor Response [Time Frame: frequency of tumor assessments done per standard of care]−tumor response will be assessed per established response criteria. This study will capture time to disease progression and duration of response. Tumor Response [Time Frame: Time to disease progression]−Duration of response as measured by established response criteria for B cell lymphoma and chronic lymphocytic leukemia Inclusion Criteria Men and women with B cell lymphoma or CLL/small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL) who had stable disease or response to Btk inhibitor PO for at least 6 months on a prior Btk inhibitor study and want to continue study drug or who had disease progression on PCYC-04753 and want to try a higher dose Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of ≦2 Agreement to use contraception during the study and for 30 days after the last dose of study drug if sexually active and able to bear children Willing and able to participate in all required evaluations and procedures in this study protocol including swallowing capsules without difficulty Ability to understand the purpose and risks of the study and provide signed and dated informed consent and authorization to use protected health information (in accordance with national and local subject privacy regulations) Exclusion Criteria A life-threatening illness, medical condition or organ system dysfunction which, in the investigator's opinion, could compromise the subject's safety, interfere with the absorption or metabolism of Btk inhibitor PO, or put the study outcomes at undue risk Concomitant immunotherapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, corticosteroids (at dosages equivalent to prednisone >20 mg/day), or experimental therapy Concomitant use of medicines known to cause QT prolongation or torsades de pointes Central nervous system (CNS) involvement by lymphoma Creatinine >1.5×institutional upper limit of normal (ULN); total bilirubin >1.5×ULN (unless due to Gilbert's disease); and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) or alanine aminotransferase (ALT) >2.5×ULN unless disease related Lactating or pregnant Example 13: Phase II Study of Btk Inhibitor in R/R MCL The purpose of this study is to: Evaluate the efficacy of Btk inhibitor in relapsed/refractory subjects with MCL who have not had prior bortezomib, and who have had prior bortezomib The secondary objective is to evaluate the safety of a fixed daily dosing regimen of Btk inhibitor capsules in this population. Study Type: Interventional Allocation: Non-Randomized Endpoint Classification: Safety/Efficacy Study Intervention Model: Parallel Assignment Masking: Open Label Primary Purpose: Treatment Intervention: 560 mg/day of a Btk inhibitor Primary Outcome Measures To Measure the Number of Participants with a Response to Study Drug [Time Frame: Participants will be followed until progression of disease or start of another anti-cancer treatment.] Secondary Outcome Measures To Measure the Number of Participants with Adverse Events as a Measure of Safety and Tolerability [Time Frame: Participants will be followed until progression of disease or start of another anti-cancer treatment.] To Measure the Number of Participants Pharmacokinetics to Assist in Determining How the Body Responds to the Study Drug [Time Frame: Procedure to be Performed During the First Month of Receiving Study Drug.] Patient Reported Outcomes [Time Frame: Participants will be followed until progression of disease or start of another anti-cancer treatment.] To measure the number of participants reported outcomes in determining the health related quality of life. Inclusion Criteria: Men and women ≧18 years of age ECOG performance status of ≦2 Pathologically confirmed MCL, with documentation of either overexpression of cyclin D1 or t(11;14), and measurable disease on cross sectional imaging that is ≧2 cm in the longest diameter and measurable in 2 perpendicular dimensions Documented failure to achieve at least partial response (PR) with, or documented disease progression disease after, the most recent treatment regimen At least 1, but no more than 5, prior treatment regimens for MCL (Note: Subjects having received ≧2 cycles of prior treatment with bortezomib, either as a single agent or as part of a combination therapy regimen, will be considered to be bortezomib-exposed.) Willing and able to participate in all required evaluations and procedures in this study protocol including swallowing capsules without difficulty Ability to understand the purpose and risks of the study and provide signed and dated informed consent and authorization to use protected health information (in accordance with national and local subject privacy regulations) Major Exclusion Criteria: Prior chemotherapy within 3 weeks, nitrosoureas within 6 weeks, therapeutic anticancer antibodies within 4 weeks, radio- or toxin-immunoconjugates within 10 weeks, radiation therapy within 3 weeks, or major surgery within 2 weeks of first dose of study drug Any life-threatening illness, medical condition or organ system dysfunction which, in the investigator's opinion, could compromise the subject's safety, interfere with the absorption or metabolism of Btk inhibitor capsules, or put the study outcomes at undue risk Clinically significant cardiovascular disease such as uncontrolled or symptomatic arrhythmias, congestive heart failure, or myocardial infarction within 6 months of screening, or any Class 3 or 4 cardiac disease as defined by the New York Heart Association Functional Classification Malabsorption syndrome, disease significantly affecting gastrointestinal function, or resection of the stomach or small bowel or ulcerative colitis, symptomatic inflammatory bowel disease, or partial or complete bowel obstruction Any of the following laboratory abnormalities: a. Absolute neutrophil count (ANC)<750 cells/mm3 (0.75×109/L) unless there is documented bone marrow involvement b. Platelet count <50,000 cells/mm3 (50×109/L) independent of transfusion support unless there is documented bone marrow involvement c. Serum aspartate transaminase (AST/SGOT) or alanine transaminase (ALT/SGPT) >3.0×upper limit of normal (ULN) d. Creatinine >2.0×ULN Example 14: Phase II Study of Btk Inhibitor+Ofatumumab in R/R CLL The purpose of this study was to determine the efficacy and safety of a fixed-dose, daily regimen of orally administered Btk inhibitor combined with ofatumumab in subjects with relapsed/refractory CLL/SLL and related diseases Study Type: Interventional Allocation: Non-Randomized Endpoint Classification: Safety Study Intervention Model: Single Group Assignment Masking: Open Label Primary Purpose: Treatment Intervention: 420 mg/day of a Btk inhibitor, standard dose of ofatumumab Applicable conditions: B-cell Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia; Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma; Diffuse Well-Differentiated Lymphocytic Lymphoma; Prolymphocyctic Leukemia; Richter's Transformation Primary Outcome Measures: Response and safety of Btk inhibitor [Time Frame: At the end of cycles 1 and 3] Response rate as defined by recent guidelines in Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia Secondary Outcome Measures: Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic assessments [Time Frame: during 1-2 cycles] Pharmacodynamics of Btk inhibitor (ie, drug occupancy of Btk and effect on biological market 1/2) of Btk inhibitor. Tumor Response [Time Frame: at the end of Cycles 2, 4 and 6 (28 days for each cycle)] Overall response rate as defined by recent guidelines on CLL Inclusion Criteria: Subjects with histologically confirmed chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL), prolymphocytic leukemia (PLL) as defined by WHO classification of hematopoietic neoplasms, or Richter's transformation arising out of CLL/SLL and satisfying ≧1 of the following conditions: Progressive splenomegaly and/or lymphadenopathy identified by physical examination or radiographic studies Anemia (<11 g/dL) or thrombocytopenia (<100,000/μL) due to bone marrow involvement Presence of unintentional weight loss >10% over the preceding 6 months NCI CTCAE Grade 2 or 3 fatigue Fevers >100.5 degree or night sweats for >2 weeks without evidence of infection Progressive lymphocytosis with an increase of >50% over a 2 month period or an anticipated doubling time of <6 months Need for cytoreduction prior to stem cell transplant Subjects must have failed ≧2 prior therapies for CLL including a nucleoside analog or ≧2 prior therapies not including nucleoside analog if there is a contraindication to such therapy >10% expression of CD20 on tumor cells ECOG performance status ≦2 Life expectancy ≧12 weeks Subjects must have organ and marrow function as defined below: Absolute neutrophil count (ANC) ≧1000/μL in the absence of bone marrow involvement Platelets >30,000/μL Total bilirubin ≦1.5×institutional upper limit of normal unless due to Gilbert's disease AST(SGOT)≦2.5×institutional upper limit of normal unless due to infiltration of the liver Creatinine ≦2.0 mg/dL OR creatinine clearance ≧50 mL/min No history of prior anaphylactic reaction to rituximab No history of prior exposure to ofatumumab Age ≧18 years Body weight ≧40 kg Able to swallow capsules without difficulty and no history of malabsorption syndrome, disease significantly affecting gastrointestinal function, or resection of the stomach or small bowel or ulcerative colitis, symptomatic inflammatory bowel disease, or partial or complete bowel obstruction Exclusion Criteria: A life-threatening illness, medical condition or organ system dysfunction which, in the investigator's opinion, could compromise the subject's safety, interfere with the absorption or metabolism of Btk inhibitor PO, or put the study outcomes at undue risk Any anticancer immunotherapy, chemotherapy, radiotherapy, or experimental therapy within 4 weeks before first dose of study drug. Corticosteroids for disease-related symptoms are allowed provided 1 week washout occurs. Active central nervous system (CNS) involvement by lymphoma Major surgery within 4 weeks before first dose of study drug Lactating or pregnant History of prior malignancy, except for adequately treated basal cell or squamous cell skin cancer, in situ cervical cancer, or other cancer from which the subject has been disease free for at least 2 years or which will not limit survival to <2 years History of Grade ≧2 toxicity (other than alopecia) continuing from prior anticancer therapy. Results 6 Patients have been evaluated for DLT through end of cycle 2.0 DLTs occurred in these patients. 4 patients have had end of cycle 3 scans and blood counts. 3 of 4 are responder per IWG criteria. Our response rate is 75% for these pts. Example 15: Phase II Study of Btk Inhibitor+BR or FCR in R/R CLL The purpose of this study is to establish the safety of orally administered Btk inhibitor in combination with fludarabine/cyclophosphamide/rituximab (FCR) and bendamustine/rituximab (BR) in patients with chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL)/small lymphocytic lymphoma(SLL). Study Type: Interventional Allocation: Non-Randomized Endpoint Classification: Safety Study Intervention Model: Single Group Assignment Masking: Open Label Primary Purpose: Treatment Intervention: 420 mg/day of a Btk inhibitor, standard FCR or BR regimen Applicable conditions: B-cell Chronic Lymphocytic Leukemia; Small Lymphocytic Lymphoma; Diffuse Well-differentiated Lymphocytic Lymphoma Primary Outcome Measures: To measure the number of participants with prolonged hematologic toxicity [Time Frame: 8 weeks from first dose] Secondary Outcome Measures: To measure the number of participants with adverse events as a measure of safety and tolerability [Time Frame: For 30 days after the last dose of Btk inhibitor] To measure the number of patients who respond to treatment by measuring the increase or decrease of disease in the lymph nodes and/or blood test results [Time Frame: Patients may remain on study until the last subject enrolled completes a maximum of 12 cycles of Btk inhibitor. Any subjects still receiving Btk inhibitor at that time may enroll in a long-term follow-up study to continue to receive Btk inhibitor capsules] Inclusion Criteria: Histologically confirmed CLL or SLL and satisfying at least 1 of the following criteria for requiring treatment: Progressive splenomegaly and/or lymphadenopathy identified by physical examination or radiographic studies Anemia (<11 g/dL) or thrombocytopenia (<100,000/μL) due to bone marrow involvement Presence of unintentional weight loss >10% over the preceding 6 months NCI CTCAE Grade 2 or 3 fatigue Fevers >100.5° or night sweats for >2 weeks without evidence of infection Progressive lymphocytosis with an increase of >50% over a 2 month period or an anticipated doubling time of <6 months 1 to 3 prior treatment regimens for CLL/SLL ECOG performance status of ≦1 ≧18 years of age Willing and able to participate in all required evaluations and procedures in this study protocol including swallowing capsules without difficulty Ability to understand the purpose and risks of the study and provide signed and dated informed consent and authorization to use protected health information (in accordance with national and local subject privacy regulations) Exclusion Criteria: Any chemotherapy, therapeutic antineoplastic antibodies (not including radio- or toxin immunoconjugates), radiation therapy, or experimental antineoplastic therapy within 4 weeks of first dose of study drug Radio- or toxin-conjugated antibody therapy within 10 weeks of first dose of study drug Concomitant use of medicines known to cause QT prolongation or torsades de pointes Transformed lymphoma or Richter's transformation Any life-threatening illness, medical condition or organ system dysfunction which, in the investigator's opinion, could compromise the subject's safety, interfere with the absorption or metabolism of Btk inhibitor PO, or put the study outcomes at undue risk Any of the following laboratory abnormalities: a. Absolute neutrophil count (ANC)<1000 cells/mm3 (1.0×109/L) b. Platelet count <50,000/mm3 (50×109/L) c. Serum aspartate transaminase (AST/SGOT) or alanine transaminase (ALT/SGPT)≧3.0×upper limit of normal (ULN) d. Creatinine >2.0×ULN or creatinine clearance <40 mL/min Example 16: Phase II Study of Btk Inhibitor in R/R DLBCL The purpose of this study is to evaluate the efficacy of Btk inhibitor in relapsed/refractory de novo activated B-cell (ABC) and germinal-cell B-Cell (GCB) Diffuse Large B-cell Lymphoma (DLBCL). Study Type: Interventional Allocation: Non-Randomized Endpoint Classification: Safety Study Intervention Model: Single Group Assignment Masking: Open Label Primary Purpose: Treatment Intervention: 560 mg/day Btk inhibitor Primary Outcome Measures: To measure the number of patients with a response to study drug [Time Frame: 24 weeks from first dose] Participants will be followed until progression of disease or start of another anti-cancer treatment. Secondary Outcome Measures: To measure the number of patients with adverse events as a measure of safety and tolerability. [Time Frame: For 30 days after the last dose of Btk inhibitor] Participants will be followed until progression of the disease or start of another anticancer treatment. To measure the number of participants pharmacokinetics to assist in determining how the body responses to the study drug. [Time Frame: Procedure will be performed during the first month of receiving study drug.] Inclusion Criteria: Men and women ≧18 years of age. Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group (ECOG) performance status of ≦2. Pathologically confirmed de novo DLBCL; subjects must have available archival tissue for central review to be eligible. Relapsed or refractory disease, defined as either: 1) recurrence of disease after a complete remission (CR), or 2) partial response (PR), stable disease (SD), or progressive disease (PD) at completion of the treatment regimen preceding entry to the study (residual disease):Subjects must have previously received an appropriate first-line treatment regimen. Subjects with suspected residual disease after the treatment regimen directly preceding study enrollment must have biopsy demonstration of residual DLBCL. Subjects who have not received high dose chemotherapy/autologous stem cell transplant (HDT/ASCT) must be ineligible for HDT/ASCT as defined by meeting any of the following criteria: Age ≧70 years, Diffuse lung capacity for carbon monoxide (DLCO)<50% by pulmonary function test (PFT), Left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF)<50% by multiple gated acquisition(MUGA)/echocardiograph (ECHO), Other organ dysfunction or comorbidities precluding the use of HDT/ASCT on the basis of unacceptable risk of treatment-related morbidity, Subject refusal of HDT/ASCT. Subjects must have ≧1 measurable (>2 cm in longest dimension) disease sites on computed tomography (CT) scan. Exclusion Criteria: Transformed DLBCL or DLBCL with coexistent histologies (eg, follicular or mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue [MALT] lymphoma) Primary mediastinal (thymic) large B-cell lymphoma (PMBL) Known central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma Any chemotherapy, external beam radiation therapy, or anticancer antibodies within 3 weeks of the first dose of study drug Radio- or toxin-immunoconjugates within 10 weeks of the first dose of study drug Major surgery within 2 weeks of first dose of study drug Any life-threatening illness, medical condition or organ system dysfunction which, in the investigator's opinion, could compromise the subject's safety, or put the study outcomes at undue risk Clinically significant cardiovascular disease such as uncontrolled or symptomatic arrhythmias, congestive heart failure, or myocardial infarction within 6 months of screening, or any Class 3 or 4 cardiac disease as defined by the New York Heart Association Functional Classification Unable to swallow capsules or malabsorption syndrome, disease significantly affecting gastrointestinal function, or resection of the stomach or small bowel or ulcerative colitis, symptomatic inflammatory bowel disease, or partial or complete bowel obstruction Any of the following laboratory abnormalities: a. Absolute neutrophil count (ANC)<750 cells/mm3 (0.75×109/L) unless there is documented bone marrow involvement b. Platelet count <50,000 cells/mm3 (50×109/L) independent of transfusion support unless there is documented bone marrow involvement c. Serum aspartate transaminase (AST/SGOT) or alanine transaminase (ALT/SGPT) >3.0 upper limit of normal (ULN) d. Creatinine >2.0×ULN Example 17: Assay of Drug Combinations Combinations of a Btk inhibitor and additional cancer treatment agents were assayed using DoHH2 cells. DOHH2 is a DLBCL (diffuse large B-cell lymphoma) cell line, from a transformed follicular lymphoma patient. It is moderately sensitive to a Btk inhibitor. The Btk inhibitor was incubated with other cancer drugs for 2 days. Assay was an alamar blue assay. The combinations were: a. Btk inhibitor and Gemicitabine; b. Btk inhibitor and Dexamethasone; c. Btk inhibitor and Lenalinomide; d. Btk inhibitor and R-406; e. Btk inhibitor and Temsirolimus; f. Btk inhibitor and Carboplatin; g. Btk inhibitor and Bortezomib; and h. Btk inhibitor and Doxorubicin. Results are presented in FIGS. 28-31. Example 18: Assay of Drug Combinations Combinations of a Btk inhibitor and additional cancer treatment agents were assayed using TMD8 cells. TMD8 is a NF-kB signalling-dependent ABC-DLBCL cell line. It is sensitive to BTK inhibitors alone at low nanomolar concentrations (GI50˜1-3 nM). A Btk inhibitor was incubated with other cancer drugs for 2 days. Assay was an alamar blue assay. The combinations were: a. Btk inhibitor and CAL-101; b. Btk inhibitor and Lenalinomide; c. Btk inhibitor and R-406; d. Btk inhibitor and Bortezomib; e. Btk inhibitor and Vincristine; f. Btk inhibitor and Taxol; g. Btk inhibitor and Fludarabine; and h. Btk inhibitor and Doxorubicin. Results are presented in FIGS. 32-39. Example 19: Clinical Trial of Btk Inhibitor in Combination with BR A clinical trial was performed to determine the effects of combining a Btk inhibitor with BR (bendamustine and rituximab). The Btk inhibitor was administered. Following an increase in the concentration of lymphoid cells in the peripheral blood, BR was administered. Initial results indicated that the combination of the Btk inhibitor and BR resulted in substantially no lymphoid cells in the peripheral blood. Example 20: Clinical Trial of Btk Inhibitor in Combination with Ofatumumab A clinical trial was performed to determine the effects of combining a Btk inhibitor with ofatumumab. The Btk inhibitor was administered. Following an increase in the concentration of lymphoid cells in the peripheral blood, ofatumumab was administered. Initial results indicated that the combination of the Btk inhibitor and ofatumumab resulted in a decrease in lymphoid cells in the peripheral blood. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Bruton's tyrosine kinase (Btk), a member of the Tec family of non-receptor tyrosine kinases, is a key signaling enzyme expressed in all hematopoietic cells types except T lymphocytes and natural killer cells. Btk plays an essential role in the B-cell signaling pathway linking cell surface B-cell receptor (BCR) stimulation to downstream intracellular responses. Btk is a key regulator of B-cell development, activation, signaling, and survival (Kurosaki, Curr Op Imm, 2000, 276-281; Schaeffer and Schwartzberg, Curr Op Imm 2000, 282-288). In addition, Btk plays a role in a number of other hematopoietic cell signaling pathways, e.g., Toll like receptor (TLR) and cytokine receptor-mediated TNF-α production in macrophages, IgE receptor (FcepsilonRI) signaling in Mast cells, inhibition of Fas/APO-1 apoptotic signaling in B-lineage lymphoid cells, and collagen-stimulated platelet aggregation. See, e.g., C. A. Jeffries, et al., (2003), Journal of Biological Chemistry 278:26258-26264; N. J. Horwood, et al., (2003), The Journal of Experimental Medicine 197:1603-1611; Iwaki et al. (2005), Journal of Biological Chemistry 280(48):40261-40270; Vassilev et al. (1999), Journal of Biological Chemistry 274(3):1646-1656, and Quek et al. (1998), Current Biology 8(20):1137-1140. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating a hematological malignancy in an individual in need thereof, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; and (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is sufficient to induce lymphocytosis of a plurality of cells from the malignancy. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is CLL. In some embodiments, the treating the hematological malignancy comprises managing the hematological malignancy. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is a B-cell malignancy. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is a leukemia, lymphoproliferative disorder, or myeloid. In some embodiments, the mobilized cells are myeloid cells or lymphoid cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the peripheral blood concentration of the mobilized plurality of cells has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises counting the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood increases as compared to the concentration before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, administering the second cancer treatment regimen occurs after a subsequent decrease in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises measuring the duration of an increase in the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood as compared to the number before administration of the Btk inhibitor. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen after the number of mobilized plurality of cells in the peripheral blood has increased for a predetermined length of time. In some embodiments, analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells comprises preparing a biomarker profile for a population of cells isolated from the plurality of cells, wherein the biomarker profile indicates the expression of a biomarker, the expression level of a biomarker, mutations in a biomarker, or the presence of a biomarker. In some embodiments, the biomarker is any cytogenetic, cell surface molecular or protein or RNA expression marker. In some embodiments, the biomarker is: ZAP70; t(14,18); β-2 microglobulin; p53 mutational status; ATM mutational status; del(17)p; del(11)q; del(6)q; CD5; CD11c; CD19; CD20; CD22; CD25; CD38; CD103; CD138; secreted, surface or cytoplasmic immunoglobulin expression; V H mutational status; or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the method further comprises providing a second cancer treatment regimen based on the biomarker profile. In some embodiments, the method further comprises not administering based on the biomarker profile. In some embodiments, the method further comprises predicting the efficacy of a treatment regimen based on the biomarker profile. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is a chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL), small lymphocytic lymphoma (SLL), high risk CLL, or a non-CLL/SLL lymphoma. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is follicular lymphoma, diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), mantle cell lymphoma, Waldenstrom's macroglobulinemia, multiple myeloma, marginal zone lymphoma, Burkitt's lymphoma, non-Burkitt high grade B cell lymphoma, or extranodal marginal zone B cell lymphoma. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is chronic myelogenous (or myeloid) leukemia, or acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In some embodiments, the hematological malignancy is relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma, relapsed or refractory follicular lymphoma, relapsed or refractory CLL; relapsed or refractory SLL; relapsed or refractory multiple myeloma. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor forms a covalent bond with a cysteine sidechain of a Bruton's tyrosine kinase, a Bruton's tyrosine kinase homolog, or a Btk tyrosine kinase cysteine homolog. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 420 mg/day up to, and including, 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day, about 560 mg/day, or about 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day. In some embodiments, the AUC 0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 150 and about 3500 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the AUC 0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 500 and about 1100 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered orally. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered once per day, twice per day, or three times per day. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered daily until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is administered every other day until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is a front line therapy, second line therapy, third line therapy, fourth line therapy, fifth line therapy, or sixth line therapy. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor treats a refractory hematological malignancy. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is a maintenance therapy. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, a steroid, an immunotherapeutic agent, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the B cell receptor pathway inhibitor is a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, a DNA damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises chlorambucil, ifosphamide, doxorubicin, mesalazine, thalidomide, lenalidomide, temsirolimus, everolimus, fludarabine, fostamatinib, paclitaxel, docetaxel, ofatumumab, rituximab, dexamethasone, prednisone, CAL-101, ibritumomab, tositumomab, bortezomib, pentostatin, endostatin, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises bendamustine, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises etoposide, doxorubicin, vinristine, cyclophosphamide, prednisolone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises dexamethasone and lenalidomide. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase is a reversible inhibitor. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase is an irreversible inhibitor. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase forms a covalent bond with a cysteine sidechain of a Bruton's tyrosine kinase, a Bruton's tyrosine kinase homolog, or a Btk tyrosine kinase cysteine homolog. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of Bruton's tyrosine kinase has the structure of Formula (D): wherein: L a is CH 2 , O, NH or S; Ar is a substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or a substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl; Y is an optionally substituted group selected from among alkyl, heteroalkyl, cycloalkyl, heterocycloalkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl; Z is C(═O), OC(═O), NHC(═O), C(═S), S(═O) x , OS(═O) x , NHS(═O) x , where x is 1 or 2; R 7 and R 8 are independently H; or R 7 and R 8 taken together form a bond; R 6 is H; and pharmaceutically active metabolites, or pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, pharmaceutically acceptable salts, or pharmaceutically acceptable prodrugs thereof. In some embodiments, the Bruton's tyrosine kinase inhibitor is (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, La is O. In some embodiments, Ar is phenyl. In some embodiments, Z is C(═O), NHC(═O), or S(═O) 2 . In some embodiments, each of R 7 and R 8 is H. In some embodiments, Y is a 4-, 5-, 6-, or 7-membered cycloalkyl ring; or Y is a 4-, 5-, 6-, or 7-membered heterocycloalkyl ring. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating relapsed or refractory non-Hodgkin's lymphoma in an individual in need thereof, comprising: administering to the individual a therapeutically-effective amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma is relapsed or refractory diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL), relapsed or refractory mantle cell lymphoma, or relapsed or refractory follicular lymphoma. In some embodiments, the amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is from 420 mg/day up to, and including, 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is about 420 mg/day, about 560 mg/day, or about 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day. In some embodiments, the AUC 0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 150 and about 3500 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the AUC 0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 500 and about 1100 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered orally. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered once per day, twice per day, or three times per day. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered daily until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is administered every other day until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one is a second line therapy, third line therapy, fourth line therapy, fifth line therapy, or sixth line therapy. In some embodiments, the Btk inhibitor is a maintenance therapy. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering a second cancer treatment regimen. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen is administered after mobilization of a plurality of lymphoid cells from the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen is administered after lymphocytosis of a plurality of lymphoid cells from the non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, a steroid, an immunotherapeutic agent, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the B cell receptor pathway inhibitor is a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, a DNA damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises chlorambucil, ifosphamide, doxorubicin, mesalazine, thalidomide, lenalidomide, temsirolimus, everolimus, fludarabine, fostamatinib, paclitaxel, docetaxel, ofatumumab, rituximab, dexamethasone, prednisone, CAL-101, ibritumomab, tositumomab, bortezomib, pentostatin, endostatin, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises bendamustine, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises etoposide, doxorubicin, vinristine, cyclophosphamide, prednisolone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises dexamethasone and lenalidomide. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method for treating diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, activated B cell-like subtype (ABC-DLBCL), in an individual in need thereof, comprising: administering to the individual an irreversible Btk inhibitor in an amount from 300 mg/day up to, and including, 1000 mg/day. In some embodiments, the method further comprises diagnosing the individual with diffuse large B-cell lymphoma, activated B cell-like subtype (ABC-DLBCL), by determining the gene sequence of one or more biomarkers in a plurality of lymphoid cells isolated from the diffuse large B-cell lymphoma. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is (R)-1-(3-(4-amino-3-(4-phenoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrazolo[3,4-d]pyrimidin-1-yl)piperidin-1-yl)prop-2-en-1-one. In some embodiments, the ABC-DLBCL is characterized by a CD79B mutation. In some embodiments, the CD79B mutation is a mutation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling module. In some embodiments, the CD79B mutation is a missense mutation of the first immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) tyrosine. In some embodiments, the CD79B mutation increases surface BCR expression and attenuates Lyn kinase activity. In some embodiments, the ABC-DLBCL is characterized by a CD79A mutation. In some embodiments, the CD79A mutation is in the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling module. In some embodiments, the CD79A mutation is a splice-donor-site mutation of the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling module. In some embodiments, the CD79A mutation deletes the immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif (ITAM) signaling module. In some embodiments, the ABC-DLBCL is characterized by a mutation in MyD88, A20, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the MyD88 mutation is the amino acid substitution L265P in the MYD88 Toll/IL-1 receptor (TIR) domain. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is from 420 mg/day up to, and including, 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day, about 560 mg/day, or about 840 mg/day. In some embodiments, the amount of the irreversible Btk inhibitor is about 420 mg/day. In some embodiments, the AUC 0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 150 and about 3500 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the AUC 0-24 of the Btk inhibitor is between about 500 and about 1100 ng*h/mL. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is administered orally. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is administered daily until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is administered every other day until disease progression, unacceptable toxicity, or individual choice. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is a front line therapy, second line therapy, third line therapy, fourth line therapy, fifth line therapy, or sixth line therapy. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor treats a refractory hematological malignancy. In some embodiments, the irreversible Btk inhibitor is a maintenance therapy. In some embodiments, the method further comprises administering at least one additional cancer treatment regimen. In some embodiments, the additional cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, an immunotherapeutic agent, a steroid, radiation therapy, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, in certain embodiments is a damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. Disclosed herein, in certain embodiments, is a method of determining a cancer treatment regimen for an individual with a hematological malignancy, comprising: (a) administering to the individual an amount of an irreversible Btk inhibitor sufficient to mobilize a plurality of cells from the malignancy; (b) analyzing the mobilized plurality of cells; and (c) selecting a cancer treatment regimen. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises a chemotherapeutic agent, a steroid, an immunotherapeutic agent, a targeted therapy, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the second cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the B cell receptor pathway inhibitor is a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises a B cell receptor pathway inhibitor. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises a CD79A inhibitor, a CD79B inhibitor, a CD19 inhibitor, a Lyn inhibitor, a Syk inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, a Blnk inhibitor, a PLCγ inhibitor, a PKCβ inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises an antibody, B cell receptor signaling inhibitor, a PI3K inhibitor, an IAP inhibitor, an mTOR inhibitor, a radioimmunotherapeutic, a DNA damaging agent, a proteosome inhibitor, a histone deacetylase inhibitor, a protein kinase inhibitor, a hedgehog inhibitor, an Hsp90 inhibitor, a telomerase inhibitor, a Jak1/2 inhibitor, a protease inhibitor, a PKC inhibitor, a PARP inhibitor, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises chlorambucil, ifosphamide, doxorubicin, mesalazine, thalidomide, lenalidomide, temsirolimus, everolimus, fludarabine, fostamatinib, paclitaxel, docetaxel, ofatumumab, rituximab, dexamethasone, prednisone, CAL-101, ibritumomab, tositumomab, bortezomib, pentostatin, endostatin, or a combination thereof. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, hydroxydaunorubicin, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises bendamustine, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises fludarabine, cyclophosphamide, and rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises cyclophosphamide, vincristine, and prednisone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises etoposide, doxorubicin, vinristine, cyclophosphamide, prednisolone, and optionally, rituximab. In some embodiments, the cancer treatment regimen comprises dexamethasone and lenalidomide. | A61K31519 | 20170726 | 20180626 | 20180118 | 91396.0 | A61K31519 | 1 | RAMACHANDRAN, UMAMAHESWARI | USE OF INHIBITORS OF BRUTON'S TYROSINE KINASE (BTK) | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
15,660,114 | PENDING | COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR TREATING CNS DISORDERS | Described herein are neuroactive steroids of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein , A, R1, R2, and R3 are as defined herein. Such compounds are envisioned, in certain embodiments, to behave as GABA modulators. The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound of the present invention and methods of use, e.g., for treating a subject suffering from a disease or disorder described herein. | 1. A compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein RA3 is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. 2. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-a): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring; and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. 3-20. (canceled) 21. The compound of claim 2, wherein the compound of Formula (I-a) is selected from: 22. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-b): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring; and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. 23. The compound of claim 22, wherein the compound of Formula (I-b) is a compound of Formula (I-b-i), (I-b-ii), (I-b-iii), or (I-b-iv): 24-41. (canceled) 42. The compound of claim 22, wherein the compound of Formula (I-b) is selected from: 43. The compound of claim 42, wherein the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-c): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring; and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. 44. The compound of claim 43, wherein the compound of Formula (I-c) is a compound of Formula (I-c-i), (I-c-ii), (I-c-iii), or (I-c-iv): 45-62. (canceled) 63. The compound of claim 44, wherein the compound of Formula (I-c) is selected from: 64. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of claim 1 and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. 65. A method of inducing sedation and/or anesthesia in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. 66. A method of administering an effective amount of a compound, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or pharmaceutical composition of a compound of claim 1, to a subject in need thereof, wherein the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia within two hours of administration. 67. The method of claim 66, wherein the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia within one hour of administration. 68. The method of claim 66, wherein the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia instantaneously. 69. The method of claim 66, wherein the compound is administered by intravenous administration. 70. The method of claim 66, wherein the compound is administered chronically. 71. The method of claim 66, wherein the subject is a mammal. 72. The method of claim 71, wherein the subject is a human. 73. The method of claim 66, wherein the compound is administered in combination with another therapeutic agent. 74. A method for treating seizure in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. 75. A method for treating epilepsy in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. 76. A method for treating status epilepticus (SE) in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. 77. The method of claim 76, wherein the status epilepticus is convulsive status epilepticus or non-convulsive status epilepticus. 78. (canceled) 79. A method for treating a CNS-related disorder in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. 80. The method of claim 79, wherein the CNS-related disorder is a sleep disorder, a mood disorder, a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, a convulsive disorder, a disorder of memory and/or cognition, a movement disorder, an anxiety disorder, a personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, pain, traumatic brain injury, a vascular disease, a substance abuse disorder and/or withdrawal syndrome, or tinnitus. 81. The method of claim 79, wherein the compound is administered orally. 82. The method of claim 79, wherein the compound is administered intramuscularly. 83. The method of claim 79, wherein the subject is a subject with Rett syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, or Angelman syndrome. 84-100. (canceled) 101. A kit comprising a solid composition comprising a compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Applications No. 62/107,776 filed Jan. 26, 2015 and 62/144,789 filed Apr. 8, 2015, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Brain excitability is defined as the level of arousal of an animal, a continuum that ranges from coma to convulsions, and is regulated by various neurotransmitters. In general, neurotransmitters are responsible for regulating the conductance of ions across neuronal membranes. At rest, the neuronal membrane possesses a potential (or membrane voltage) of approximately −70 mV, the cell interior being negative with respect to the cell exterior. The potential (voltage) is the result of ion (K+, Na+, Cl−, organic anions) balance across the neuronal semipermeable membrane. Neurotransmitters are stored in presynaptic vesicles and are released under the influence of neuronal action potentials. When released into the synaptic cleft, an excitatory chemical transmitter such as acetylcholine will cause membrane depolarization, e.g., a change of potential from −70 mV to −50 mV. This effect is mediated by postsynaptic nicotinic receptors which are stimulated by acetylcholine to increase membrane permeability to Na+ ions. The reduced membrane potential stimulates neuronal excitability in the form of a postsynaptic action potential. In the case of the GABA receptor complex (GRC), the effect on brain excitability is mediated by GABA, a neurotransmitter. GABA has a profound influence on overall brain excitability because up to 40% of the neurons in the brain utilize GABA as a neurotransmitter. GABA regulates the excitability of individual neurons by regulating the conductance of chloride ions across the neuronal membrane. GABA interacts with its recognition site on the GRC to facilitate the flow of chloride ions down an electrochemical gradient of the GRC into the cell. An intracellular increase in the levels of this anion causes hyperpolarization of the transmembrane potential, rendering the neuron less susceptible to excitatory inputs, i.e., reduced neuron excitability. In other words, the higher the chloride ion concentration in the neuron, the lower the brain excitability and level of arousal. It is well-documented that the GRC is responsible for the mediation of anxiety, seizure activity, and sedation. Thus, GABA and drugs that act like GABA or facilitate the effects of GABA (e.g., the therapeutically useful barbiturates and benzodiazepines (BZs), such as Valium®) produce their therapeutically useful effects by interacting with specific regulatory sites on the GRC. Accumulated evidence has now indicated that in addition to the benzodiazepine and barbiturate binding site, the GRC contains a distinct site for neuroactive steroids. See, e.g., Lan, N. C. et al., Neurochem. Res. (1991) 16:347-356. Neuroactive steroids can occur endogenously. The most potent endogenous neuroactive steroids are 3α-hydroxy-5-reduced pregnan-20-one and 3α-21-dihydroxy-5-reduced pregnan-20-one, metabolites of hormonal steroids progesterone and deoxycorticosterone, respectively. The ability of these steroid metabolites to alter brain excitability was recognized in 1986 (Majewska, M. D. et al., Science 232:1004-1007 (1986); Harrison, N. L. et al., J Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 241:346-353 (1987)). The ovarian hormone progesterone and its metabolites have been demonstrated to have profound effects on brain excitability (Backstrom, T. et al., Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. Suppl. 130:19-24 (1985); Pfaff, D. W and McEwen, B. S., Science 219:808-814 (1983); Gyermek et al., J Med Chem. 11: 117 (1968); Lambert, J. et al., Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 8:224-227 (1987)). The levels of progesterone and its metabolites vary with the phases of the menstrual cycle. It has been well documented that the levels of progesterone and its metabolites decrease prior to the onset of menses. The monthly recurrence of certain physical symptoms prior to the onset of menses has also been well documented. These symptoms, which have become associated with premenstrual syndrome (PMS), include stress, anxiety, and migraine headaches (Dalton, K., Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy, 2nd edition, Chicago Yearbook, Chicago (1984)). Subjects with PMS have a monthly recurrence of symptoms that are present in premenses and absent in postmenses. In a similar fashion, a reduction in progesterone has also been temporally correlated with an increase in seizure frequency in female epileptics, i.e., catamenial epilepsy (Laidlaw, J., Lancet, 1235-1237 (1956)). A more direct correlation has been observed with a reduction in progesterone metabolites (Rosciszewska et al., J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych. 49:47-51 (1986)). In addition, for subjects with primary generalized petit mal epilepsy, the temporal incidence of seizures has been correlated with the incidence of the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (Backstrom, T. et al., J. Psychosom. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2:8-20 (1983)). The steroid deoxycorticosterone has been found to be effective in treating subjects with epileptic spells correlated with their menstrual cycles (Aird, R. B. and Gordan, G., J. Amer. Med. Soc. 145:715-719 (1951)). A syndrome also related to low progesterone levels is postnatal depression (PND). Immediately after birth, progesterone levels decrease dramatically leading to the onset of PND. The symptoms of PND range from mild depression to psychosis requiring hospitalization. PND is also associated with severe anxiety and irritability. PND-associated depression is not amenable to treatment by classic antidepressants, and women experiencing PND show an increased incidence of PMS (Dalton, K., Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy, 2nd edition, Chicago Yearbook, Chicago (1984)). Collectively, these observations imply a crucial role for progesterone and deoxycorticosterone and more specifically their metabolites in the homeostatic regulation of brain excitability, which is manifested as an increase in seizure activity or symptoms associated with catamenial epilepsy, PMS, and PND. The correlation between reduced levels of progesterone and the symptoms associated with PMS, PND, and catamenial epilepsy (Backstrom, T. et al., J Psychosom. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2:8-20 (1983)); Dalton, K., Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy, 2nd edition, Chicago Yearbook, Chicago (1984)) has prompted the use of progesterone in their treatment (Mattson et al., “Medroxyprogesterone therapy of catamenial epilepsy,” in Advances in Epileptology: XVth Epilepsy International Symposium, Raven Press, New York (1984), pp. 279-282, and Dalton, K., Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy, 2nd edition, Chicago Yearbook, Chicago (1984)). However, progesterone is not consistently effective in the treatment of the aforementioned syndromes. For example, no dose-response relationship exists for progesterone in the treatment of PMS (Maddocks et al., Obstet. Gynecol. 154:573-581 (1986); Dennerstein et al., Brit. Med J 290:16-17 (1986)). New and improved neuroactive steroids are needed that act as modulating agents for brain excitability, as well as agents for the prevention and treatment of CNS-related diseases. The compounds, compositions, and methods described herein are directed toward this end. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Provided herein are C17-substituted neuroactive steroids designed, for example, to act as GABA modulators. In certain embodiments, such compounds are envisioned to be useful as therapeutic agents for the inducement of anesthesia and/or sedation in a subject. In some embodiments, such compounds are envisioned to be useful as therapeutic agents for treating a CNS-related disorder (e.g., sleep disorder, a mood disorder, a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, a convulsive disorder, a disorder of memory and/or cognition, a movement disorder (e.g., tremor, for example essential tremor), a personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, pain, traumatic brain injury, a vascular disease, a substance abuse disorder and/or withdrawal syndrome, or tinnitus) in a subject in need (e.g., a subject with Rett syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, or Angelman syndrome). In one aspect, provided is a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-a): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and Ra is alkyl (e.g., —CH2OH). In some embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH3. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-a) is selected from: In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-b): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-b) is a compound of Formula (I-b-i), (I-b-ii), (I-b-iii), or (I-b-iv): In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and Ra is alkyl (e.g., —CH2OH). In some embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH3. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH2CH3. In some embodiments, R1 is substituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is C1-3 haloalkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CHF2, —CH2F, or —CF3. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH2OCH3. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-b) is selected from: In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-c): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-c) is a compound of Formula (I-c-i), (I-c-ii), (I-c-iii), or (I-c-iv): In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and Ra is alkyl (e.g., —CH2OH). In some embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH3. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH2CH3. In some embodiments, R1 is substituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is C1-3 haloalkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CHF2, —CH2F, or —CF3. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH2OCH3. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-c) is selected from: In one aspect, provided is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of any one of the preceding claims and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In one aspect, provided is a method of inducing sedation and/or anesthesia in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In one aspect, provided is a method of administering an effective amount of a compound, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or pharmaceutical composition of a compound described herein (e.g., a compound of Formula (I)), to a subject in need thereof, wherein the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia within two hours of administration. In some embodiments, the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia within one hour of administration. In some embodiments, the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia instantaneously. In some embodiments, the compound is administered by intravenous administration. In some embodiments, the compound is administered chronically. In some embodiments, the subject is a mammal. In some embodiments, the subject is a human. In some embodiments, the compound is administered in combination with another therapeutic agent. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating seizure in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating epilepsy or status or status epilepticus in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating disorders related to GABA function in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or pharmaceutical composition of one of a compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating a CNS-related disorder in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound described herein (e.g., a compound of Formula (I)), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, the CNS-related disorder is a sleep disorder, a mood disorder, a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, a convulsive disorder, a disorder of memory and/or cognition, a movement disorder (e.g., tremor, for example essential tremor), a personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, pain, traumatic brain injury, a vascular disease, a substance abuse disorder and/or withdrawal syndrome, or tinnitus. In some embodiments, the compound is administered orally. In some embodiments, the compound is administered intramuscularly. In some embodiments, the subject is a subject with Rett syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, or Angelman syndrome. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating a human subject suffering from postpartum depression, the method comprising intravenously administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl, wherein administering occurs by continuous intravenous infusion. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In some embodiments, the subject is a female. In some embodiments, the subject is an adult. In some embodiments, the subject is from 18 to 45 years of age. In some embodiments, the subject is suffering from (e.g., has been diagnosed with) postpartum depression (e.g., severe postpartum depression). In some embodiments, the subject has experienced a Major Depressive Episode in the postpartum period. In some embodiments, the period begins within the first 4 weeks following delivery of a baby. In one aspect, provided is a method of treating a human subject suffering from tremor, the method comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In some embodiments, the tremor is essential tremor. In some embodiments, the administering is performed parenterally. In some embodiments, the administering is performed intravenously. In some embodiments, the administering is performed orally. In one aspect, provided is a kit comprising a solid composition comprising a compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound of the present invention and methods of use and treatment, e.g., such as for inducing sedation and/or anesthesia, for treating a CNS-related disorder. Steroids of Formula (I), sub-genera thereof, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof are collectively referred to herein as “compounds of the present invention.” In another aspect, provided is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of the present invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In certain embodiments, the compound of the present invention is provided in an effective amount in the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the compound of the present invention is provided in a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the compound of the present invention is provided in a prophylactically effective amount. Compounds of the present invention as described herein, act, in certain embodiments, as GABA modulators, e.g., effecting the GABAA receptor in either a positive or negative manner. As modulators of the excitability of the central nervous system (CNS), as mediated by their ability to modulate GABAA receptor, such compounds are expected to have CNS-activity. Thus, in another aspect, provided are methods of treating a CNS-related disorder in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In certain embodiments, the CNS-related disorder is selected from the group consisting of a sleep disorder, a mood disorder, a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, a convulsive disorder, a disorder of memory and/or cognition, a movement disorder (e.g., tremor, for example essential tremor), a personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, pain, traumatic brain injury, a vascular disease, a substance abuse disorder and/or withdrawal syndrome, and tinnitus. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered orally, subcutaneously, intravenously, or intramuscularly. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered chronically. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered continuously, e.g., by continuous intravenous infusion. Other objects and advantages will become apparent to those skilled in the art from a consideration of the ensuing Detailed Description, Examples, and Claims. Definitions Chemical Definitions Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms are described in more detail below. The chemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75th Ed., inside cover, and specific functional groups are generally defined as described therein. Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry, as well as specific functional moieties and reactivity, are described in Thomas Sorrell, Organic Chemistry, University Science Books, Sausalito, 1999; Smith and March, March's Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001; Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1989; and Carruthers, Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, 3rd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987. Compounds described herein can comprise one or more asymmetric centers, and thus can exist in various isomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/or diastereomers. For example, the compounds described herein can be in the form of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer or geometric isomer, or can be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemic mixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer. Isomers can be isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art, including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the formation and crystallization of chiral salts; or preferred isomers can be prepared by asymmetric syntheses. See, for example, Jacques et al., Enantiomers, Racemates and Resolutions (Wiley Interscience, New York, 1981); Wilen et al., Tetrahedron 33:2725 (1977); Eliel, Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (McGraw-Hill, N Y, 1962); and Wilen, Tables of Resolving Agents and Optical Resolutions p. 268 (E. L. Eliel, Ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Ind. 1972). The invention additionally encompasses compounds described herein as individual isomers substantially free of other isomers, and alternatively, as mixtures of various isomers. As used herein a pure enantiomeric compound is substantially free from other enantiomers or stereoisomers of the compound (i.e., in enantiomeric excess). In other words, an “S” form of the compound is substantially free from the “R” form of the compound and is, thus, in enantiomeric excess of the “R” form. The term “enantiomerically pure” or “pure enantiomer” denotes that the compound comprises more than 75% by weight, more than 80% by weight, more than 85% by weight, more than 90% by weight, more than 91% by weight, more than 92% by weight, more than 93% by weight, more than 94% by weight, more than 95% by weight, more than 96% by weight, more than 97% by weight, more than 98% by weight, more than 98.5% by weight, more than 99% by weight, more than 99.2% by weight, more than 99.5% by weight, more than 99.6% by weight, more than 99.7% by weight, more than 99.8% by weight or more than 99.9% by weight, of the enantiomer. In certain embodiments, the weights are based upon total weight of all enantiomers or stereoisomers of the compound. In the compositions provided herein, an enantiomerically pure compound can be present with other active or inactive ingredients. For example, a pharmaceutical composition comprising enantiomerically pure R-compound can comprise, for example, about 90% excipient and about 10% enantiomerically pure R-compound. In certain embodiments, the enantiomerically pure R-compound in such compositions can, for example, comprise, at least about 95% by weight R-compound and at most about 5% by weight S-compound, by total weight of the compound. For example, a pharmaceutical composition comprising enantiomerically pure S-compound can comprise, for example, about 90% excipient and about 10% enantiomerically pure S-compound. In certain embodiments, the enantiomerically pure S-compound in such compositions can, for example, comprise, at least about 95% by weight S-compound and at most about 5% by weight R-compound, by total weight of the compound. In certain embodiments, the active ingredient can be formulated with little or no excipient or carrier. Compound described herein may also comprise one or more isotopic substitutions. For example, H may be in any isotopic form, including 1H, 2H (D or deuterium), and 3H (T or tritium); C may be in any isotopic form, including 12C, 13C, and 14C; O may be in any isotopic form, including 160 and 18O; and the like. The articles “a” and “an” may be used herein to refer to one or to more than one (i.e. at least one) of the grammatical objects of the article. By way of example “an analogue” means one analogue or more than one analogue. When a range of values is listed, it is intended to encompass each value and sub-range within the range. For example “C1-6 alkyl” is intended to encompass, C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6, C1-6, C1-5, C1-4, C1-3, C1-2, C2-6, C2-5, C2-4, C2-3, C3-6, C3-5, C3-4, C4-6, C4-5, and C5-6 alkyl. The following terms are intended to have the meanings presented therewith below and are useful in understanding the description and intended scope of the present invention. “Alkyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 20 carbon atoms (“C1-20 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 12 carbon atoms (“C1-12 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C18 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C1-6 alkyl”, also referred to herein as “lower alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C1-5 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C1-4 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C1-3 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C1-2 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C1 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C2-6 alkyl”). Examples of C1-6 alkyl groups include methyl (C1), ethyl (C2), n-propyl (C3), isopropyl (C3), n-butyl (C4), tert-butyl (C4), sec-butyl (C4), iso-butyl (C4), n-pentyl (C5), 3-pentanyl (C5), amyl (C5), neopentyl (C5), 3-methyl-2-butanyl (C5), tertiary amyl (C5), and n-hexyl (C6). Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C7), n-octyl (C8) and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkyl”) with one or more substituents; e.g., for instance from 1 to 5 substituents, 1 to 3 substituents, or 1 substituent. In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is unsubstituted C1-10 alkyl (e.g., —CH3). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is substituted C1-10alkyl. Common alkyl abbreviations include Me (—CH3), Et (—CH2CH3), iPr (—CH(CH3)2), nPr (—CH2CH2CH3), n-Bu (—CH2CH2CH2CH3), or i-Bu (—CH2CH(CH3)2). “Alkenyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 20 carbon atoms, one or more carbon-carbon double bonds, and no triple bonds (“C2-20 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 10 carbon atoms (“C2-10 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C2-8 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C2-6 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C2-5 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C2-4 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C2-3 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C2 alkenyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butenyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butenyl). Examples of C2-4 alkenyl groups include ethenyl (C2), 1-propenyl (C3), 2-propenyl (C3), 1-butenyl (C4), 2-butenyl (C4), butadienyl (C4), and the like. Examples of C2-6 alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C2-4 alkenyl groups as well as pentenyl (C5), pentadienyl (C5), hexenyl (C6), and the like. Additional examples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C7), octenyl (C8), octatrienyl (C8), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkenyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkenyl”) with one or more substituents e.g., for instance from 1 to 5 substituents, 1 to 3 substituents, or 1 substituent. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is unsubstituted C2-10 alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is substituted C2-10 alkenyl. “Alkynyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 20 carbon atoms, one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds, and optionally one or more double bonds (“C2-20 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 10 carbon atoms (“C2-10 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C2-8 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C2-6 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C2-5 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C2-4 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C2-3 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C2 alkynyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butynyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butynyl). Examples of C2-4 alkynyl groups include, without limitation, ethynyl (C2), 1-propynyl (C3), 2-propynyl (C3), 1-butynyl (C4), 2-butynyl (C4), and the like. Examples of C2-6 alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C2-4 alkynyl groups as well as pentynyl (C5), hexynyl (C6), and the like. Additional examples of alkynyl include heptynyl (C7), octynyl (C8), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkynyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkynyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents; e.g., for instance from 1 to 5 substituents, 1 to 3 substituents, or 1 substituent. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is unsubstituted C2-10 alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is substituted C2-10 alkynyl. “Aryl” refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 π electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6-14 ring carbon atoms and zero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system (“C6-14 aryl”). In some embodiments, an aryl group has six ring carbon atoms (“C6 aryl”; e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has ten ring carbon atoms (“C10 aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1-naphthyl and 2-naphthyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has fourteen ring carbon atoms (“C14 aryl”; e.g., anthracyl). “Aryl” also includes ring systems wherein the aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on the aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system. Aryl groups include, but are not limited to, phenyl, naphthyl, indenyl, and tetrahydronaphthyl. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted aryl”) or substituted (a “substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is unsubstituted C6-14 aryl. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is substituted C6-14 aryl. In certain embodiments, an aryl group substituted with one or more of groups selected from halo, C1-C8 alkyl, C1-C8 haloalkyl, cyano, hydroxy, C1-C8 alkoxy, and amino. Examples of representative substituted aryls include the following wherein one of R56 and R57 may be hydrogen and at least one of R56 and R57 is each independently selected from C1-C8 alkyl, C1-C8 haloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, alkanoyl, C1-C8 alkoxy, heteroaryloxy, alkylamino, arylamino, heteroarylamino, NR58COR59, NR58SOR59 NR58SO2R59, COOalkyl, COOaryl, CONR58R59, CONR58OR59, NR58R59 SO2NR58R59, S-alkyl, SOalkyl, SO2alkyl, Saryl, SOaryl, SO2aryl; or R56 and R57 may be joined to form a cyclic ring (saturated or unsaturated) from 5 to 8 atoms, optionally containing one or more heteroatoms selected from the group N, O, or S. R60 and R61 are independently hydrogen, C1-C8 alkyl, C1-C4 haloalkyl, C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, substituted C6-C10 aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, or substituted 5-10 membered heteroaryl. Other representative aryl groups having a fused heterocyclyl group include the following: wherein each W is selected from C(R66)2, NR66, O, and S; and each Y is selected from carbonyl, NR66, O and S; and R66 is independently hydrogen, C1-C8 alkyl, C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, and 5-10 membered heteroaryl. “Halo” or “halogen,” independently or as part of another substituent, mean, unless otherwise stated, a fluorine (F), chlorine (Cl), bromine (Br), or iodine (I) atom. The term “halide” by itself or as part of another substituent, refers to a fluoride, chloride, bromide, or iodide atom. In certain embodiments, the halo group is either fluorine or chlorine. “Haloalkyl” and “haloalkoxy” can include alkyl and alkoxy structures that are substituted with one or more halo groups or with combinations thereof. For example, the terms “fluoroalkyl” and “fluoroalkoxy” include haloalkyl and haloalkoxy groups, respectively, in which the halo is fluorine. “Heteroaryl” refers to a radical of a 5-10 membered monocyclic or bicyclic 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6 or 10 π electrons shared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur (“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In heteroaryl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. Heteroaryl bicyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heteroaryl” includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ring system. “Heteroaryl” also includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ring members in the fused (aryl/heteroaryl) ring system. Bicyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like) the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2-indolyl) or the ring that does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., 5-indolyl). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-10 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-8 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-6 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroaryl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroaryl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroaryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is unsubstituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is substituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, pyrrolyl, furanyl and thiophenyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, and isothiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing three heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, and thiadiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing four heteroatoms include, without limitation, tetrazolyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, pyridinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, and pyrazinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing three or four heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl and tetrazinyl, respectively. Exemplary 7-membered heteroaryl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azepinyl, oxepinyl, and thiepinyl. Exemplary 5,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiophenyl, isobenzothiophenyl, benzofuranyl, benzoisofuranyl, benzimidazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, benzthiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzthiadiazolyl, indolizinyl, and purinyl. Exemplary 6,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, naphthyridinyl, pteridinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, and quinazolinyl. Examples of representative heteroaryls include the following formulae: wherein each Y is selected from carbonyl, N, NR65, O, and S; and R65 is independently hydrogen, C1-C8 alkyl, C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, and 5-10 membered heteroaryl. “Carbocyclyl” or “carbocyclic” refers to a radical of a non-aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C3-10 carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the non-aromatic ring system. In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C3-8 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C3-6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C3-6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C5-10 carbocyclyl”). Exemplary C3-6 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl (C3), cyclopropenyl (C3), cyclobutyl (C4), cyclobutenyl (C4), cyclopentyl (C5), cyclopentenyl (C5), cyclohexyl (C6), cyclohexenyl (C6), cyclohexadienyl (C6), and the like. Exemplary C38 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C3-6 carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C7), cycloheptenyl (C7), cycloheptadienyl (C7), cycloheptatrienyl (C7), cyclooctyl (C8), cyclooctenyl (C8), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C7), bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C8), and the like. Exemplary C3-10 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C3-8 carbocyclyl groups as well as cyclononyl (C9), cyclononenyl (C9), cyclodecyl (C10), cyclodecenyl (C10), octahydro-1H-indenyl (C9), decahydronaphthalenyl (C10), spiro[4.5]decanyl (C10), and the like. As the foregoing examples illustrate, in certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is either monocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or contain a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic carbocyclyl”) and can be saturated or can be partially unsaturated. “Carbocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the carbocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the carbocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbons continue to designate the number of carbons in the carbocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a carbocyclyl group is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is unsubstituted C3-10 carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is a substituted C3-10 carbocyclyl. In some embodiments, “carbocyclyl” is a monocyclic, saturated carbocyclyl group having from 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C3-10 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C3-8 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C3-6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C5-6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C5-10 cycloalkyl”). Examples of C56 cycloalkyl groups include cyclopentyl (C5) and cyclohexyl (C5). Examples of C3-6 cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C5-6 cycloalkyl groups as well as cyclopropyl (C3) and cyclobutyl (C4). Examples of C3-8 cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C3-6 cycloalkyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C7) and cyclooctyl (C8). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a cycloalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted cycloalkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted cycloalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is unsubstituted C3-10 cycloalkyl. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is substituted C3-10 cycloalkyl. “Heterocyclyl” or “heterocyclic” refers to a radical of a 3- to 10-membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1 to 4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, boron, phosphorus, and silicon (“3-10 membered heterocyclyl”). In heterocyclyl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. A heterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic (“monocyclic heterocyclyl”) or a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”), and can be saturated or can be partially unsaturated. Heterocyclyl bicyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl ring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the point of attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heterocyclyl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of heterocyclyl is independently optionally substituted, i.e., unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is unsubstituted 3-10 membered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is substituted 3-10 membered heterocyclyl. In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-10 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, boron, phosphorus, and silicon (“5-10 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-8 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-6 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has one ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Exemplary 3-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azirdinyl, oxiranyl, thiorenyl. Exemplary 4-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azetidinyl, oxetanyl and thietanyl. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl, dihydrothiophenyl, pyrrolidinyl, dihydropyrrolyl and pyrrolyl-2,5-dione. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, dioxolanyl, oxasulfuranyl, disulfuranyl, and oxazolidin-2-one. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing three heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolinyl, oxadiazolinyl, and thiadiazolinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, piperidinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyridinyl, and thianyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, piperazinyl, morpholinyl, dithianyl, dioxanyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing two heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinanyl. Exemplary 7-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azepanyl, oxepanyl and thiepanyl. Exemplary 8-membered heterocyclyl groups containing one heteroatom include, without limitation, azocanyl, oxecanyl and thiocanyl. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups fused to a C6 aryl ring (also referred to herein as a 5,6-bicyclic heterocyclic ring) include, without limitation, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl, dihydrobenzothienyl, benzoxazolinonyl, and the like. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups fused to an aryl ring (also referred to herein as a 6,6-bicyclic heterocyclic ring) include, without limitation, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, and the like. Particular examples of heterocyclyl groups are shown in the following illustrative examples: wherein each W is selected from CR67, C(R67)2, NR67, O, and S; and each Y is selected from NR67, O, and S; and R67 is independently hydrogen, C1-C8 alkyl, C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, and 5-10-membered heteroaryl. These heterocyclyl rings may be optionally substituted with one or more groups selected from the group consisting of acyl, acylamino, acyloxy, alkoxy, alkoxycarbonyl, alkoxycarbonylamino, amino, substituted amino, aminocarbonyl (e.g., amido), aminocarbonylamino, aminosulfonyl, sulfonylamino, aryl, aryloxy, azido, carboxyl, cyano, cycloalkyl, halogen, hydroxy, keto, nitro, thiol, —S-alkyl, —S-aryl, —S(O)-alkyl, —S(O)-aryl, —S(O)2-alkyl, and —S(O)2-aryl. Substituting groups include carbonyl or thiocarbonyl which provide, for example, lactam and urea derivatives. “Acyl” refers to a radical —C(O)R20, where R20 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, as defined herein. “Alkanoyl” is an acyl group wherein R20 is a group other than hydrogen. Representative acyl groups include, but are not limited to, formyl (—CHO), acetyl (—C(═O)CH3), cyclohexylcarbonyl, cyclohexylmethylcarbonyl, benzoyl (—C(═O)Ph), benzylcarbonyl (—C(═O)CH2Ph), —C(O)—C1-C5 alkyl, —C(O)—(CH2)t(C6-C10 aryl), —C(O)—(CH2)t(5-10 membered heteroaryl), —C(O)—(CH2)t(C3-C10 cycloalkyl), and —C(O)—(CH2)t(4-10 membered heterocyclyl), wherein t is an integer from 0 to 4. In certain embodiments, R21 is C1-C8 alkyl, substituted with halo or hydroxy; or C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, arylalkyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, each of which is substituted with unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, halo, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkoxy, unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, or unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkoxy or hydroxy. “Acylamino” refers to a radical —NR22C(O)R23, where each instance of R22 and R23 is independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, as defined herein, or R22 is an amino protecting group. Exemplary “acylamino” groups include, but are not limited to, formylamino, acetylamino, cyclohexylcarbonylamino, cyclohexylmethyl-carbonylamino, benzoylamino and benzylcarbonylamino. Particular exemplary “acylamino” groups are —NR24C(O)—C1-C8 alkyl, —NR24C(O)—(CH2)t(C6-C1 aryl), —NR24C(O)—(CH2)t(5-10 membered heteroaryl), —NR24C(O)—(CH2)t(C3-C10 cycloalkyl), and —NR24C(O)—(CH2)t(4-10 membered heterocyclyl), wherein t is an integer from 0 to 4, and each R24 independently represents hydrogen or C1-C8 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R25 is H, C1-C8 alkyl, substituted with halo or hydroxy; C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, arylalkyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, each of which is substituted with unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, halo, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkoxy, unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, or unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkoxy or hydroxy; and R26 is H, C1-C8 alkyl, substituted with halo or hydroxy; C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10-membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, arylalkyl, 5-10-membered heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, each of which is substituted with unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, halo, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkoxy, unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, or unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkoxy or hydroxy; provided at least one of R25 and R26 is other than H. “Acyloxy” refers to a radical —OC(O)R27, where R27 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, as defined herein. Representative examples include, but are not limited to, formyl, acetyl, cyclohexylcarbonyl, cyclohexylmethylcarbonyl, benzoyl, and benzylcarbonyl. In certain embodiments, R28 is C1-C8 alkyl, substituted with halo or hydroxy; C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10-membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, arylalkyl, 5-10-membered heteroaryl or heteroarylalkyl, each of which is substituted with unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, halo, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkoxy, unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, or unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkoxy or hydroxy. “Alkoxy” refers to the group —OR29 where R29 is substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, or substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl. Particular alkoxy groups are methoxy, ethoxy, n-propoxy, isopropoxy, n-butoxy, tert-butoxy, sec-butoxy, n-pentoxy, n-hexoxy, and 1,2-dimethylbutoxy. Particular alkoxy groups are lower alkoxy, i.e., with between 1 and 6 carbon atoms. Further particular alkoxy groups have between 1 and 4 carbon atoms. In certain embodiments, R29 is a group that has 1 or more substituents, for instance from 1 to 5 substituents, and particularly from 1 to 3 substituents, in particular 1 substituent, selected from the group consisting of amino, substituted amino, C6-C10 aryl, aryloxy, carboxyl, cyano, C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, halogen, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, hydroxy, nitro, thioalkoxy, thioaryloxy, thiol, alkyl—S(O)—, aryl—S(O)—, alkyl—S(O)2— and aryl—S(O)2—. Exemplary “substituted alkoxy” groups include, but are not limited to, —O—(CH2)t(C6-C10 aryl), —O—(CH2)t(5-10 membered heteroaryl), —O—(CH2)t(C3-C10 cycloalkyl), and —O—(CH2)t(4-10 membered heterocyclyl), wherein t is an integer from 0 to 4 and any aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl or heterocyclyl groups present, may themselves be substituted by unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, halo, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkoxy, unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, or unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkoxy or hydroxy. Particular exemplary ‘substituted alkoxy’ groups are —OCF3, —OCH2CF3, —OCH2Ph, —OCH2-cyclopropyl, —OCH2CH2OH, and —OCH2CH2NMe2. “Amino” refers to the radical —NH2. “Substituted amino” refers to an amino group of the formula —N(R38)2 wherein R38 is hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, or an amino protecting group, wherein at least one of R38 is not a hydrogen. In certain embodiments, each R38 is independently selected from hydrogen, C1-C8 alkyl, C3-C8 alkenyl, C3-C8 alkynyl, C6-C10 aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, or C3-C10 cycloalkyl; or C1-C8 alkyl, substituted with halo or hydroxy; C3-C8 alkenyl, substituted with halo or hydroxy; C3-C8 alkynyl, substituted with halo or hydroxy, or —(CH2)t(C6-C10 aryl), —(CH2)t(5-10 membered heteroaryl), —(CH2)t(C3-C10 cycloalkyl), or —(CH2)t(4-10 membered heterocyclyl), wherein t is an integer between 0 and 8, each of which is substituted by unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, halo, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkoxy, unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, or unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkoxy or hydroxy; or both R38 groups are joined to form an alkylene group. Exemplary “substituted amino” groups include, but are not limited to, —NR39—C1-C8 alkyl, —NR39—(CH2)t(C6-C10 aryl), —NR39—(CH2)t(5-10 membered heteroaryl), —NR39—(CH2)t(C3-C10 cycloalkyl), and —NR39—(CH2)t(4-10 membered heterocyclyl), wherein t is an integer from 0 to 4, for instance 1 or 2, each R39 independently represents hydrogen or C1-C8 alkyl; and any alkyl groups present, may themselves be substituted by halo, substituted or unsubstituted amino, or hydroxy; and any aryl, heteroaryl, cycloalkyl, or heterocyclyl groups present, may themselves be substituted by unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, halo, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkoxy, unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, or unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkoxy or hydroxy. For the avoidance of doubt the term ‘substituted amino’ includes the groups alkylamino, substituted alkylamino, alkylarylamino, substituted alkylarylamino, arylamino, substituted arylamino, dialkylamino, and substituted dialkylamino as defined below. Substituted amino encompasses both monosubstituted amino and disubstituted amino groups. “Azido” refers to the radical —N3. “Carbamoyl” or “amido” refers to the radical —C(O)NH2. “Substituted carbamoyl” or “substituted amido” refers to the radical —C(O)N(R62)2 wherein each R62 is independently hydrogen, substituted or unsubstituted alkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkenyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl, substituted or unsubstituted carbocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted heterocyclyl, substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, or an amino protecting group, wherein at least one of R62 is not a hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R62 is selected from H, C1-C8 alkyl, C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, and 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or C1-C8 alkyl substituted with halo or hydroxy; or C3-C10 cycloalkyl, 4-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-C10 aryl, or 5-10 membered heteroaryl, each of which is substituted by unsubstituted C1-C4 alkyl, halo, unsubstituted C1-C4 alkoxy, unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkyl, unsubstituted C1-C4 hydroxyalkyl, or unsubstituted C1-C4 haloalkoxy or hydroxy; provided that at least one R62 is other than H. “Carboxy” refers to the radical —C(O)OH. “Cyano” refers to the radical —CN. “Hydroxy” refers to the radical —OH. “Nitro” refers to the radical —NO2. “Ethenyl” refers to substituted or unsubstituted —(C≡C)—. “Ethylene” refers to substituted or unsubstituted —(C—C)—. “Ethynyl” refers to —(C≡C)—. “Nitrogen-containing heterocyclyl” group means a 4- to 7-membered non-aromatic cyclic group containing at least one nitrogen atom, for example, but without limitation, morpholine, piperidine (e.g. 2-piperidinyl, 3-piperidinyl and 4-piperidinyl), pyrrolidine (e.g. 2-pyrrolidinyl and 3-pyrrolidinyl), azetidine, pyrrolidone, imidazoline, imidazolidinone, 2-pyrazoline, pyrazolidine, piperazine, and N-alkyl piperazines such as N-methyl piperazine. Particular examples include azetidine, piperidone and piperazone. Alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups, as defined herein, are optionally substituted (e.g., “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkynyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” carbocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heterocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” aryl or “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroaryl group). In general, the term “substituted”, whether preceded by the term “optionally” or not, means that at least one hydrogen present on a group (e.g., a carbon or nitrogen atom) is replaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., a substituent which upon substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, or other reaction. Unless otherwise indicated, a “substituted” group has a substituent at one or more substitutable positions of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure is substituted, the substituent is either the same or different at each position. The term “substituted” is contemplated to include substitution with all permissible substituents of organic compounds, any of the substituents described herein that results in the formation of a stable compound. The present invention contemplates any and all such combinations in order to arrive at a stable compound. For purposes of this invention, heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituent as described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms and results in the formation of a stable moiety. Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen, —CN, —NO2, —N3, —SO2H, —SO3H, —OH, —ORaa, —ON(Rbb)2, —N(Rbb)2, —N(Rbb)3+X−, —N(ORcc)Rbb, —SH, —SRaa, —SSRcc, —C(═O)Raa, —CO2H, —CHO, —C(ORcc)2, —CO2Raa, —OC(═O)Raa, —OCO2Raa, —C(═O)N(Rbb)2, —OC(═O)N(Rbb)2, —NRbbC(═O)Raa, —NRbbCO2Raa, —NRbbC(═O)N(Rbb)2, —C(═NRbb)Raa, —C(═NRbb)ORaa, —OC(═NRbb)Raa, —OC(═NRbb)ORaa, —C(═NRbb)N(Rbb)2, —OC(═NRbb)N(Rbb)2, —NRbbC(═NRbb)N(Rbb)2, —C(═O)NRbbSO2Raa, —NRbbSO2Raa, —SO2N(Rbb)2, —SO2Raa, —SO2OR, —OSO2R, —S(═O)Raa, —OS(═O)Raa, —Si(Raa)3, —OSi(Raa)3, —C(═S)N(Rbb)2, —C(═O)SRaa, —C(═S)SRaa, —SC(═S)SRaa, —SC(═O)SRaa, —OC(═O)SRaa, —SC(═O)ORaa, —SC(═O)Raa, —P(═O)2R, —OP(═O)2R, —P(═O)(Raa)2, —OP(═O)(Raa)2, —OP(═O)(ORcc)2, —P(═O)2N(Rbb)2, —OP(═O)2N(Rbb)2, —P(═O)(NRbb)2, —OP(═O)(NRbb)2, —NRbbP(═O)(ORcc)2, —NRbbP(═O)(NRbb)2, —P(Rcc)2, —P(Rcc)3, —OP(Rcc)2, —OP(Rcc)3, —B(Raa)2, —B(ORcc)2, —BRaa(ORcc), C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 perhaloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups; each instance of Raa is, independently, selected from C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 perhaloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two Raa groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups; each instance of Rbb is, independently, selected from hydrogen, —OH, —ORaa, —N(Rcc)2, —CN, —C(═O)Raa, —C(═O)N(Rcc)2, —CO2Raa, —SO2Raa, —C(═NRcc)ORaa, —C(═NRcc)N(Rcc)2, —SO2N(Rcc)2, —SO2Rcc, —SO2ORcc, —SORaa, —C(═S)N(Rcc)2, —C(═O)SRcc, —C(═S)SRcc, —P(═O)2R, —P(═O)(Raa)2, —P(═O)2N(Rcc)2, —P(═O)(NRcc)2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 perhaloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two Rbb groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups; each instance of Rcc is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C1-10alkyl, C1-10 perhaloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two Rcc groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups; each instance of Rdd is, independently, selected from halogen, —CN, —NO2, —N3, —SO2H, —SO3H, —OH, —ORee, —ON(Rff)2, —N(Rff)2, —N(Rff)3+X−, —N(ORee)Rff, —SH, —SRee, —SSRee, —C(═O)Ree, —CO2H, —CO2Ree, —OC(═O)Ree, —OCO2Ree, —C(═O)N(Rff)2, —OC(═O)N(Rff)2, —NRffC(═O)Ree, —NRffCO2Ree, —NRffC(═O)N(R)2, —C(═NRff)ORee, —OC(═NRff)Ree, —OC(═NRff)ORee, —C(═NRff)N(Rff)2, —OC(═NRff)N(Rff)2, —NRffC(═NRff)N(Rff)2, —NRffSO2Ree, SO2N(Rff)2, —SO2Ree, —SO2ORee, —OSO2Ree, —S(═O)Ree, —Si(Ree)3, —OSi(Ree)3, —C(═S)N(Rff)2, —C(═O)SRee, —C(═S)SRee, —SC(═S)SRee, —P(═O)2Ree, —P(═O)(Ree)2, —OP(═O)(Ree)2, —OP(═O)(ORee)2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 perhaloalkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-10 aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rgg groups; each instance of Ree is, independently, selected from C1-6 alkyl, C1— perhaloalkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, C6-10 aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, and 3-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rgg groups; each instance of Rff is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 perhaloalkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C6-10 aryl and 5-10 membered heteroaryl, or two Rff groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rgg groups; and each instance of Rgg is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO2, —N3, —SO2H, —SO3H, —OH, —OC1-6 alkyl, —ON(C1-6 alkyl)2, —N(C1-6 alkyl)2, —N(C1-6 alkyl)3+X−, —NH(C1-6 alkyl)2+X−, —NH2(C1-6 alkyl)+X−, —NH3+X−, —N(OC1-6 alkyl)(C1-6 alkyl), —N(OH)(C1-6 alkyl), —NH(OH), —SH, —SC1-6 alkyl, —SS(C1-6 alkyl), —C(═O)(C1-6 alkyl), —CO2H, —CO2(C1-6 alkyl), —OC(═O)(C1-6 alkyl), —OCO2(C1-6 alkyl), —C(═O)NH2, —C(═O)N(C1-6 alkyl)2, —OC(═O)NH(C1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)(C1-6 alkyl), —N(C1-6 alkyl)C(═O)(C1-6 alkyl), —NHCO2(C1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C1-6 alkyl)2, —NHC(═O)NH(C1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)NH2, —C(═NH)O(C1-6 alkyl), —OC(═NH)(C1-6 alkyl), —OC(═NH)OC1-6 alkyl, —C(═NH)N(C1-6 alkyl)2, —C(═NH)NH(C1-6 alkyl), —C(═NH)NH2, —OC(═NH)N(C1-6 alkyl)2, —OC(NH)NH(C1-6 alkyl), —OC(NH)NH2, —NHC(NH)N(C1-6 alkyl)2, —NHC(═NH)NH2, —NHSO2(C1-6 alkyl), —SO2N(C1-6 alkyl)2, —SO2NH(C1-6 alkyl), —SO2NH2, —SO2C1-6alkyl, —SO2OC1-6 alkyl, —OSO2C1-6alkyl, —SOC1-6 alkyl, —Si(C1-6 alkyl)3, —OSi(C1-6 alkyl)3-C(═S)N(C1-6 alkyl)2, C(═S)NH(C1-6 alkyl), C(═S)NH2, —C(═O)S(C1-6 alkyl), —C(═S)SC1-6 alkyl, —SC(═S)SC1-6 alkyl, —P(═O)2(C1-6 alkyl), —P(═O)(C1-6 alkyl)2, —OP(═O)(C1-6 alkyl)2, —OP(═O)(OC1-6 alkyl)2, C1-6 alkyl, C1-6 perhaloalkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, C6-10 aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; wherein X is a counterion. A “counterion” or “anionic counterion” is a negatively charged group associated with a cationic quaternary amino group in order to maintain electronic neutrality. Exemplary counterions include halide ions (e.g., F−, C−, Br−, I−), NO3−, ClO4−, OH−, H2PO4−, HSO4−, sulfonate ions (e.g., methansulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate, benzenesulfonate, 10-camphor sulfonate, naphthalene-2-sulfonate, naphthalene-1-sulfonic acid-5-sulfonate, ethan-1-sulfonic acid-2-sulfonate, and the like), and carboxylate ions (e.g., acetate, ethanoate, propanoate, benzoate, glycerate, lactate, tartrate, glycolate, and the like). Nitrogen atoms can be substituted or unsubstituted as valency permits, and include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quarternary nitrogen atoms. Exemplary nitrogen atom substitutents include, but are not limited to, hydrogen, —OH, —ORaa, —N(Rcc)2, —CN, —C(═O)Raa, —C(═O)N(Rcc)2, —CO2Raa, —SO2Raa, —C(═NRbb)Raa, —C(═NRcc)ORaa, —C(═NRcc)N(Rcc)2, —SO2N(Rcc)2, —SO2Rcc, —SO2ORcc, —SORaa, —C(═S)N(Rcc)2, —C(═O)SRcc, —C(═S)SRcc, —P(═O)2R, —P(═O)(Raa)2, —P(═O)2N(Rcc)2, —P(═O)(NRcc)2, C1-10 alkyl, C1-10 perhaloalkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14-membered heteroaryl, or two Rcc groups attached to a nitrogen atom are joined to form a 3-14-membered heterocyclyl or 5-14-membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups, and wherein Raa, Rbb, Rcc and Rdd are as defined above. In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a nitrogen atom is an amino protecting group (also referred to herein as a nitrogen protecting group). Amino protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —OH, —OR, —N(Rcc)2, —C(═O)Raa, —C(═O)ORaa, C(═O)N(Rcc)2, —S(═O)2Raa, —C(═NRcc)Raa, —C(═NRcc)ORaa, —C(═NRcc)N(Rcc)2, —SO2N(Rcc)2, —SO2Rcc, —SO2ORcc, —SORaa, —C(═S)N(Rcc)2, —C(═O)SRcc, —C(═S)SRcc, C1-10alkyl, C2-10 alkenyl, C2-10 alkynyl, C3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14-membered heterocyclyl, C6-14 aryl, and 5-14-membered heteroaryl groups, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rdd groups, and wherein Raa, Rbb Rcc and Rdd are as defined herein. Amino protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference. Exemplary amino protecting groups include, but are not limited to amide groups (e.g., —C(═O)Raa), which include, but are not limited to, formamide and acetamide; carbamate groups (e.g., —C(═O)ORaa), which include, but are not limited to, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc), t-butyl carbamate (BOC), and benzyl carbamate (Cbz); sulfonamide groups (e.g., —S(═O)2Raa), which include, but are not limited to, p-toluenesulfonamide (Ts), methanesulfonamide (Ms), and N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methylamine (SEM). In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an oxygen atom is an oxygen protecting group (also referred to as a hydroxyl protecting group). Oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —Raa, —N(Rbb)2, —C(═O)SRaa, —C(═O)Raa, —CO2Raa, —C(═O)N(Rbb)2, —C(═NRbb)Raa, —C(═NRbb)OR, —C(═NRbb)N(Rbb)2, —S(═O)Raa, —SO2Raa, —Si(Raa)3, —P(Rcc)2, —P(Rcc)3, —P(═O)2Raa, —P(═O)(Raa)2, —P(═O)(ORcc)2, —P(═O)2N(Rbb)2, and —P(═O)(NRbb)2, wherein Raa, Rbb, and Rcc are as defined herein. Oxygen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference. Exemplary oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), 2-methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), benzyl (Bn), triisopropylsilyl (TIPS), t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), t-butylmethoxyphenylsilyl (TBMPS), methanesulfonate (mesylate), and tosylate (Ts). In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an sulfur atom is an sulfur protecting group (also referred to as a thiol protecting group). Sulfur protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —Raa, —N(Rbb)2, —C(═O)SRaa, —C(═O)Raa, —CO2Raa, —C(═O)N(Rbb)2, —C(═NRbb)Raa, —C(═NRbb)ORaa, —C(═NRbb)N(Rbb)2, —S(═O)Raa, —SO2R, —Si(Raa)3, —P(Rcc)2, —P(Rcc)3, —P(═O)2Raa, —P(═O)(Raa)2, —P(═O)(ORcc)2, —P(═O)2N(Rbb)2, and —P(═O)(NRbb)2, wherein Raa, Rbb and Rcc are as defined herein. Sulfur protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference. These and other exemplary substituents are described in more detail in the Detailed Description, Examples, and Claims. The invention is not intended to be limited in any manner by the above exemplary listing of substituents. Other Definitions As used herein, the term “modulation” refers to the inhibition or potentiation of GABA receptor function. A “modulator” (e.g., a modulator compound) may be, for example, an agonist, partial agonist, antagonist, or partial antagonist of the GABA receptor. “Pharmaceutically acceptable” means approved or approvable by a regulatory agency of the Federal or a state government or the corresponding agency in countries other than the United States, or that is listed in the U.S. Pharmacopoeia or other generally recognized pharmacopoeia for use in animals, and more particularly, in humans. “Pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to a salt of a compound of the invention that is pharmaceutically acceptable and that possesses the desired pharmacological activity of the parent compound. In particular, such salts are non-toxic may be inorganic or organic acid addition salts and base addition salts. Specifically, such salts include: (1) acid addition salts, formed with inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, nitric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like; or formed with organic acids such as acetic acid, propionic acid, hexanoic acid, cyclopentanepropionic acid, glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, lactic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, malic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, 3-(4-hydroxybenzoyl) benzoic acid, cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid, 1,2-ethane-disulfonic acid, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonic acid, 4-chlorobenzenesulfonic acid, 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid, 4-toluenesulfonic acid, camphorsulfonic acid, 4-methylbicyclo[2.2.2]-oct-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid, glucoheptonic acid, 3-phenylpropionic acid, trimethylacetic acid, tertiary butylacetic acid, lauryl sulfuric acid, gluconic acid, glutamic acid, hydroxynaphthoic acid, salicylic acid, stearic acid, muconic acid, and the like; or (2) salts formed when an acidic proton present in the parent compound either is replaced by a metal ion, e.g., an alkali metal ion, an alkaline earth ion, or an aluminum ion; or coordinates with an organic base such as ethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, N-methylglucamine and the like. Salts further include, by way of example only, sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium, tetraalkylammonium, and the like; and when the compound contains a basic functionality, salts of non-toxic organic or inorganic acids, such as hydrochloride, hydrobromide, tartrate, mesylate, acetate, maleate, oxalate and the like. The term “pharmaceutically acceptable cation” refers to an acceptable cationic counter-ion of an acidic functional group. Such cations are exemplified by sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, ammonium, tetraalkylammonium cations, and the like. See, e.g., Berge, et al., J. Pharm. Sci. (1977) 66(1): 1-79. “Solvate” refers to forms of the compound that are associated with a solvent or water (also referred to as “hydrate”), usually by a solvolysis reaction. This physical association includes hydrogen bonding. Conventional solvents include water, ethanol, acetic acid, and the like. The compounds of the invention may be prepared e.g. in crystalline form and may be solvated or hydrated. Suitable solvates include pharmaceutically acceptable solvates, such as hydrates, and further include both stoichiometric solvates and non-stoichiometric solvates. In certain instances the solvate will be capable of isolation, for example when one or more solvent molecules are incorporated in the crystal lattice of the crystalline solid. “Solvate” encompasses both solution-phase and isolable solvates. Representative solvates include hydrates, ethanolates and methanolates. As used herein, the term “isotopic variant” refers to a compound that contains unnatural proportions of isotopes at one or more of the atoms that constitute such compound. For example, an “isotopic variant” of a compound can contain one or more non-radioactive isotopes, such as for example, deuterium (2H or D), carbon-13 (13C), nitrogen-15 (15N), or the like. It will be understood that, in a compound where such isotopic substitution is made, the following atoms, where present, may vary, so that for example, any hydrogen may be 2H/D, any carbon may be 13C, or any nitrogen may be 15N, and that the presence and placement of such atoms may be determined within the skill of the art. Likewise, the invention may include the preparation of isotopic variants with radioisotopes, in the instance for example, where the resulting compounds may be used for drug and/or substrate tissue distribution studies. The radioactive isotopes tritium, i.e., 3H, and carbon-14, i.e., 14C, are particularly useful for this purpose in view of their ease of incorporation and ready means of detection. Further, compounds may be prepared that are substituted with positron emitting isotopes, such as 11C, 18F, 15O, and 13N, and would be useful in Positron Emission Topography (PET) studies for examining substrate receptor occupancy. All isotopic variants of the compounds provided herein, radioactive or not, are intended to be encompassed within the scope of the invention. “Stereoisomers”: It is also to be understood that compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the nature or sequence of bonding of their atoms or the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed “isomers.” Isomers that differ in the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed “stereoisomers.” Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are termed “diastereomers” and those that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other are termed “enantiomers.” When a compound has an asymmetric center, for example, it is bonded to four different groups, a pair of enantiomers is possible. An enantiomer can be characterized by the absolute configuration of its asymmetric center and is described by the R- and S-sequencing rules of Cahn and Prelog, or by the manner in which the molecule rotates the plane of polarized light and designated as dextrorotatory or levorotatory (i.e., as (+) or (−)-isomers respectively). A chiral compound can exist as either individual enantiomer or as a mixture thereof. A mixture containing equal proportions of the enantiomers is called a “racemic mixture”. “Tautomers” refer to compounds that are interchangeable forms of a particular compound structure, and that vary in the displacement of hydrogen atoms and electrons. Thus, two structures may be in equilibrium through the movement of π electrons and an atom (usually H). For example, enols and ketones are tautomers because they are rapidly interconverted by treatment with either acid or base. Another example of tautomerism is the aci- and nitro-forms of phenylnitromethane, that are likewise formed by treatment with acid or base. Tautomeric forms may be relevant to the attainment of the optimal chemical reactivity and biological activity of a compound of interest. A “subject” to which administration is contemplated includes, but is not limited to, humans (i.e., a male or female of any age group, e.g., a pediatric subject (e.g, infant, child, adolescent) or adult subject (e.g., young adult, middle-aged adult or senior adult)) and/or a non-human animal, e.g., a mammal such as primates (e.g., cynomolgus monkeys, rhesus monkeys), cattle, pigs, horses, sheep, goats, rodents, cats, and/or dogs. In certain embodiments, the subject is a human. In certain embodiments, the subject is a non-human animal. The terms “human,” “patient,” and “subject” are used interchangeably herein. Disease, disorder, and condition are used interchangeably herein. As used herein, and unless otherwise specified, the terms “treat,” “treating” and “treatment” contemplate an action that occurs while a subject is suffering from the specified disease, disorder or condition, which reduces the severity of the disease, disorder or condition, or retards or slows the progression of the disease, disorder or condition (“therapeutic treatment”), and also contemplates an action that occurs before a subject begins to suffer from the specified disease, disorder or condition (“prophylactic treatment”). In general, the “effective amount” of a compound refers to an amount sufficient to elicit the desired biological response, e.g., to treat a CNS-related disorder, is sufficient to induce anesthesia or sedation. As will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in this art, the effective amount of a compound of the invention may vary depending on such factors as the desired biological endpoint, the pharmacokinetics of the compound, the disease being treated, the mode of administration, and the age, weight, health, and condition of the subject. An effective amount encompasses therapeutic and prophylactic treatment. As used herein, and unless otherwise specified, a “therapeutically effective amount” of a compound is an amount sufficient to provide a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of a disease, disorder or condition, or to delay or minimize one or more symptoms associated with the disease, disorder or condition. A therapeutically effective amount of a compound means an amount of therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with other therapies, which provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of the disease, disorder or condition. The term “therapeutically effective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overall therapy, reduces or avoids symptoms or causes of disease or condition, or enhances the therapeutic efficacy of another therapeutic agent. As used herein, and unless otherwise specified, a “prophylactically effective amount” of a compound is an amount sufficient to prevent a disease, disorder or condition, or one or more symptoms associated with the disease, disorder or condition, or prevent its recurrence. A prophylactically effective amount of a compound means an amount of a therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with other agents, which provides a prophylactic benefit in the prevention of the disease, disorder or condition. The term “prophylactically effective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overall prophylaxis or enhances the prophylactic efficacy of another prophylactic agent. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION As generally described herein, the present invention provides C17-substituted neuroactive steroids designed, for example, to act as GABA modulators. In certain embodiments, such compounds are envisioned to be useful as therapeutic agents for the inducement of anesthesia and/or sedation in a subject. In certain embodiments, such compounds are envisioned to be useful as therapeutic agents for treating a CNS-related disorder. Compounds In one aspect, provided is a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R1 is hydrogen, C1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH3, —CH2CH3) or substituted C1-3 alkyl (e.g., C1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF2, —CH2F, —CF3), —CH2OCH3)), C2-6 alkenyl, or C3-6 carbocylyl; R2 is absent or hydrogen; R3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH2OR3A, wherein R3A is hydrogen, C1-6 alkyl, C2-6 alkenyl, C2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R1 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R3 is —CH3, then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R3 is —CH3, R2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-a): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and Ra is alkyl (e.g., —CH2OH). In some embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH3. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-a) is selected from: In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-b): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-b) is a compound of Formula (I-b-i), (I-b-ii), (I-b-iii), or (I-b-iv): In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and Ra is alkyl (e.g., —CH2OH). In some embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH3. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH2CH3. In some embodiments, R1 is substituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is C1-3 haloalkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CHF2, —CH2F, or —CF3. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH2OCH3. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-b) is selected from: In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-c): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; Ra is halogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, —S(O)2RD, or —ORY, wherein RY is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, C2-C6 alkenyl, C2-C6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)RA, —C(O)ORA, —C(O)NRBRC, or —S(O)2RD; RA is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of RB and RC is independently hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and RD is hydrogen, C1-C6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-c) is a compound of Formula (I-c-i), (I-c-ii), (I-c-iii), or (I-c-iv): In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and Ra is alkyl. In some embodiments, Ra is —CH3 or —CH2CH3. In some embodiments, Ra is —CH2OH. In some embodiments, Ra is —CH2—Z; wherein Z is a substituted or unsubstituted 5-12-membered ring. In some embodiments, Z is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, Z is a nitrogen-containing heterocyclyl or heteroaryl ring. In some aspects of these embodiments, Z is attached through a nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, Z is a heteroaryl. In some embodiments, Z is pyrazole, triazole, tetrazole, benzopyrazole, benzotriazole. In some embodiments, Z is heterocyclyl. In some embodiments, Z is pyrrolidine, morpholine, piperidine. In some embodiments, R1 is unsubstituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH3. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH2CH3. In some embodiments, R1 is substituted C1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is C1-3 haloalkyl. In some embodiments, R1 is —CHF2, —CH2F, or —CF3. In some embodiments, R1 is —CH2OCH3. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-c) is selected from: Pharmaceutical Compositions In one aspect, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of the present invention (also referred to as the “active ingredient”) and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises an effective amount of the active ingredient. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises a therapeutically effective amount of the active ingredient. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition comprises a prophylactically effective amount of the active ingredient. The pharmaceutical compositions provided herein can be administered by a variety of routes including, but not limited to, oral (enteral) administration, parenteral (by injection) administration, rectal administration, transdermal administration, intradermal administration, intrathecal administration, subcutaneous (SC) administration, intravenous (IV) administration, intramuscular (IM) administration, and intranasal administration. Generally, the compounds provided herein are administered in an effective amount. The amount of the compound actually administered will typically be determined by a physician, in the light of the relevant circumstances, including the condition to be treated, the chosen route of administration, the actual compound administered, the age, weight, and response of the individual patient, the severity of the patient's symptoms, and the like. When used to prevent the onset of a CNS-disorder, the compounds provided herein will be administered to a subject at risk for developing the condition, typically on the advice and under the supervision of a physician, at the dosage levels described above. Subjects at risk for developing a particular condition generally include those that have a family history of the condition, or those who have been identified by genetic testing or screening to be particularly susceptible to developing the condition. The pharmaceutical compositions provided herein can also be administered chronically (“chronic administration”). Chronic administration refers to administration of a compound or pharmaceutical composition thereof over an extended period of time, e.g., for example, over 3 months, 6 months, 1 year, 2 years, 3 years, 5 years, etc, or may be continued indefinitely, for example, for the rest of the subject's life. In certain embodiments, the chronic administration is intended to provide a constant level of the compound in the blood, e.g., within the therapeutic window over the extended period of time. The pharmaceutical compostions of the present invention may be further delivered using a variety of dosing methods. For example, in certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition may be given as a bolus, e.g., in order to raise the concentration of the compound in the blood to an effective level. The placement of the bolus dose depends on the systemic levels of the active ingredient desired throughout the body, e.g., an intramuscular or subcutaneous bolus dose allows a slow release of the active ingredient, while a bolus delivered directly to the veins (e.g., through an IV drip) allows a much faster delivery which quickly raises the concentration of the active ingredient in the blood to an effective level. In other embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition may be administered as a continuous infusion, e.g., by IV drip, to provide maintenance of a steady-state concentration of the active ingredient in the subject's body. Furthermore, in still yet other embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition may be administered as first as a bolus dose, followed by continuous infusion. The compositions for oral administration can take the form of bulk liquid solutions or suspensions, or bulk powders. More commonly, however, the compositions are presented in unit dosage forms to facilitate accurate dosing. The term “unit dosage forms” refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human subjects and other mammals, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active material calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect, in association with a suitable pharmaceutical excipient. Typical unit dosage forms include prefilled, premeasured ampules or syringes of the liquid compositions or pills, tablets, capsules or the like in the case of solid compositions. In such compositions, the compound is usually a minor component (from about 0.1 to about 50% by weight or preferably from about 1 to about 40% by weight) with the remainder being various vehicles or excipients and processing aids helpful for forming the desired dosing form. With oral dosing, one to five and especially two to four and typically three oral doses per day are representative regimens. Using these dosing patterns, each dose provides from about 0.01 to about 20 mg/kg of the compound provided herein, with preferred doses each providing from about 0.1 to about 10 mg/kg, and especially about 1 to about 5 mg/kg. Transdermal doses are generally selected to provide similar or lower blood levels than are achieved using injection doses, generally in an amount ranging from about 0.01 to about 20% by weight, preferably from about 0.1 to about 20% by weight, preferably from about 0.1 to about 10% by weight, and more preferably from about 0.5 to about 15% by weight. Injection dose levels range from about 0.1 mg/kg/hour to at least 20 mg/kg/hour, all for from about 1 to about 120 hours and especially 24 to 96 hours. A preloading bolus of from about 0.1 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg or more may also be administered to achieve adequate steady state levels. The maximum total dose is not expected to exceed about 5 g/day for a 40 to 80 kg human patient. Liquid forms suitable for oral administration may include a suitable aqueous or nonaqueous vehicle with buffers, suspending and dispensing agents, colorants, flavors and the like. Solid forms may include, for example, any of the following ingredients, or compounds of a similar nature: a binder such as microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin; an excipient such as starch or lactose, a disintegrating agent such as alginic acid, Primogel, or corn starch; a lubricant such as magnesium stearate; a glidant such as colloidal silicon dioxide; a sweetening agent such as sucrose or saccharin; or a flavoring agent such as peppermint, methyl salicylate, or orange flavoring. Injectable compositions are typically based upon injectable sterile saline or phosphate-buffered saline or other injectable excipients known in the art. As before, the active compound in such compositions is typically a minor component, often being from about 0.05 to 10% by weight with the remainder being the injectable excipient and the like. Transdermal compositions are typically formulated as a topical ointment or cream containing the active ingredient(s). When formulated as a ointment, the active ingredients will typically be combined with either a paraffinic or a water-miscible ointment base. Alternatively, the active ingredients may be formulated in a cream with, for example an oil-in-water cream base. Such transdermal formulations are well-known in the art and generally include additional ingredients to enhance the dermal penetration of stability of the active ingredients or Formulation. All such known transdermal formulations and ingredients are included within the scope provided herein. The compounds provided herein can also be administered by a transdermal device. Accordingly, transdermal administration can be accomplished using a patch either of the reservoir or porous membrane type, or of a solid matrix variety. The above-described components for orally administrable, injectable or topically administrable compositions are merely representative. Other materials as well as processing techniques and the like are set forth in Part 8 of Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 17th edition, 1985, Mack Publishing Company, Easton, Pa., which is incorporated herein by reference. The compounds of the present invention can also be administered in sustained release forms or from sustained release drug delivery systems. A description of representative sustained release materials can be found in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences. The present invention also relates to the pharmaceutically acceptable acid addition salt of a compound of the present invention. The acid which may be used to prepare the pharmaceutically acceptable salt is that which forms a non-toxic acid addition salt, i.e., a salt containing pharmacologically acceptable anions such as the hydrochloride, hydroiodide, hydrobromide, nitrate, sulfate, bisulfate, phosphate, acetate, lactate, citrate, tartrate, succinate, maleate, fumarate, benzoate, para-toluenesulfonate, and the like. In another aspect, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of the present invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient, e.g., a composition suitable for injection, such as for intravenous (IV) administration. Pharmaceutically acceptable excipients include any and all diluents or other liquid vehicles, dispersion or suspension aids, surface active agents, isotonic agents, preservatives, lubricants and the like, as suited to the particular dosage form desired, e.g., injection. General considerations in the formulation and/or manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions agents can be found, for example, in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sixteenth Edition, E. W. Martin (Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa., 1980), and Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy, 21st Edition (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005). For example, injectable preparations, such as sterile injectable aqueous suspensions, can be formulated according to the known art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. Exemplary excipients that can be employed include, but are not limited to, water, sterile saline or phosphate-buffered saline, or Ringer's solution. In certain embodiments, the pharmaceutical composition further comprises a cyclodextrin derivative. The most common cyclodextrins are α-, β- and γ-cyclodextrins consisting of 6, 7 and 8 α-1,4-linked glucose units, respectively, optionally comprising one or more substituents on the linked sugar moieties, which include, but are not limited to, substituted or unsubstituted methylated, hydroxyalkylated, acylated, and sulfoalkylether substitution. In certain embodiments, the cyclodextrin is a sulfoalkyl ether 3-cyclodextrin, e.g., for example, sulfobutyl ether β-cyclodextrin, also known as Captisol®. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,376,645. In certain embodiments, the composition comprises hexapropyl-β-cyclodextrin. In a more particular embodiment, the composition comprises hexapropyl-β-cyclodextrin (10-50% in water). The injectable composition can be sterilized, for example, by filtration through a bacterial-retaining filter, or by incorporating sterilizing agents in the form of sterile solid compositions which can be dissolved or dispersed in sterile water or other sterile injectable medium prior to use. Generally, the compounds provided herein are administered in an effective amount. The amount of the compound actually administered will typically be determined by a physician, in the light of the relevant circumstances, including the condition to be treated, the chosen route of administration, the actual compound administered, the age, weight, response of the individual patient, the severity of the patient's symptoms, and the like. The compositions are presented in unit dosage forms to facilitate accurate dosing. The term “unit dosage forms” refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for human subjects and other mammals, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active material calculated to produce the desired therapeutic effect, in association with a suitable pharmaceutical excipient. Typical unit dosage forms include pre-filled, pre-measured ampules or syringes of the liquid compositions. In such compositions, the compound is usually a minor component (from about 0.1% to about 50% by weight or preferably from about 1% to about 40% by weight) with the remainder being various vehicles or carriers and processing aids helpful for forming the desired dosing form. The compounds provided herein can be administered as the sole active agent, or they can be administered in combination with other active agents. In one aspect, the present invention provides a combination of a compound of the present invention and another pharmacologically active agent. Administration in combination can proceed by any technique apparent to those of skill in the art including, for example, separate, sequential, concurrent, and alternating administration. Although the descriptions of pharmaceutical compositions provided herein are principally directed to pharmaceutical compositions which are suitable for administration to humans, it will be understood by the skilled artisan that such compositions are generally suitable for administration to animals of all sorts. Modification of pharmaceutical compositions suitable for administration to humans in order to render the compositions suitable for administration to various animals is well understood, and the ordinarily skilled veterinary pharmacologist can design and/or perform such modification with ordinary experimentation. General considerations in the formulation and/or manufacture of pharmaceutical compositions can be found, for example, in Remington: The Science and Practice of Pharmacy 21st ed., Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2005. Methods of Use and Treatment As generally described herein, the present invention is directed to C17-substituted neuroactive steroids designed, for example, to act as GABA modulators. In certain embodiments, such compounds are envisioned to be useful as therapeutic agents for the inducement of anesthesia and/or sedation in a subject. In some embodiments, such compounds are envisioned to be useful as therapeutic agents for treating a CNS-related disorder (e.g., sleep disorder, a mood disorder (e.g., depression, for example severe depression or postpartum depression; or anxiety disorders), a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, a convulsive disorder, a disorder of memory and/or cognition, a movement disorder (e.g., tremor, for example essential tremor), a personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, pain, traumatic brain injury, a vascular disease, a substance abuse disorder and/or withdrawal syndrome, or tinnitus) in a subject in need (e.g., a subject with Rett syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, or Angelman syndrome). Thus, in one aspect, the present invention provides a method of inducing sedation and/or anesthesia in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the present invention or a composition thereof. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered by intravenous administration. Earlier studies (see, e.g., Gee et al., European Journal of Pharmacology, 136:419-423 (1987)) demonstrated that certain 3α-hydroxylated steroids are orders of magnitude more potent as modulators of the GABA receptor complex (GRC) than others had reported (see, e.g., Majewska et al., Science 232:1004-1007 (1986); Harrison et al., J Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 241:346-353 (1987)). Majewska et al. and Harrison et al. taught that 3α-hydroxylated-5-reduced steroids are only capable of much lower levels of effectiveness. In vitro and in vivo experimental data have now demonstrated that the high potency of these steroids allows them to be therapeutically useful in the modulation of brain excitability via the GRC (see, e.g., Gee et al., European Journal of Pharmacology, 136:419-423 (1987); Wieland et al., Psychopharmacology 118(1):65-71 (1995)). Various synthetic steroids have also been prepared as neuroactive steroids. See, for example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,232,917, which discloses neuroactive steroid compounds useful in treating stress, anxiety, insomnia, seizure disorders, and mood disorders, that are amenable to GRC-active agents, such as depression, in a therapeutically beneficial manner. Furthermore, it has been previously demonstrated that these steroids interact at a unique site on the GRC which is distinct from other known sites of interaction (e.g., barbiturates, benzodiazepines, and GABA) where therapeutically beneficial effects on stress, anxiety, sleep, mood disorders and seizure disorders have been previously elicited (see, e.g., Gee, K. W. and Yamamura, H. I., “Benzodiazepines and Barbiturates: Drugs for the Treatment of Anxiety, Insomnia and Seizure Disorders,” in Central Nervous System Disorders, Horvell, ed., Marcel-Dekker, New York (1985), pp. 123-147; Lloyd, K. G. and Morselli, P. L., “Psychopharmacology of GABAergic Drugs,” in Psychopharmacology: The Third Generation of Progress, H. Y. Meltzer, ed., Raven Press, N.Y. (1987), pp. 183-195; and Gee et al., European Journal of Pharmacology, 136:419-423 (1987). These compounds are desirable for their duration, potency, and oral activity (along with other forms of administration). Compounds of the present invention, as described herein, are generally designed to modulate GABA function, and therefore to act as neuroactive steroids for the treatment and prevention of CNS-related conditions in a subject. Modulation, as used herein, refers to the inhibition or potentiation of GABA receptor function. Accordingly, the compounds and pharmaceutical compositions provided herein find use as therapeutics for preventing and/or treating CNS conditions in mammals including humans and non-human mammals. Thus, and as stated earlier, the present invention includes within its scope, and extends to, the recited methods of treatment, as well as to the compounds for such methods, and to the use of such compounds for the preparation of medicaments useful for such methods. Exemplary CNS conditions related to GABA-modulation include, but are not limited to, sleep disorders [e.g., insomnia], mood disorders [e.g., depression, dysthymic disorder (e.g., mild depression), bipolar disorder (e.g., I and/or II), anxiety disorders (e.g., generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), social anxiety disorder), stress, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), compulsive disorders (e.g., obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD))], schizophrenia spectrum disorders [e.g., schizophrenia, schizoaffective disorder], convulsive disorders [e.g., epilepsy (e.g., status epilepticus (SE)), seizures], disorders of memory and/or cognition [e.g., attention disorders (e.g., attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)), dementia (e.g., Alzheimer's type dementia, Lewis body type dementia, vascular type dementia], movement disorders [e.g., Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease, tremor (e.g., essential tremor)], personality disorders [e.g., anti-social personality disorder, obsessive compulsive personality disorder], autism spectrum disorders (ASD) [e.g., autism, monogenetic causes of autism such as synaptophathy's, e.g., Rett syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, Angelman syndrome], pain [e.g., neuropathic pain, injury related pain syndromes, acute pain, chronic pain], traumatic brain injury (TBI), vascular diseases [e.g., stroke, ischemia, vascular malformations], substance abuse disorders and/or withdrawal syndromes [e.g., addition to opiates, cocaine, and/or alcohol], and tinnitus. In yet another aspect, provided is a combination of a compound of the present invention and another pharmacologically active agent. The compounds provided herein can be administered as the sole active agent or they can be administered in combination with other agents. Administration in combination can proceed by any technique apparent to those of skill in the art including, for example, separate, sequential, concurrent and alternating administration. In another aspect, provided is a method of treating or preventing brain excitability in a subject susceptible to or afflicted with a condition associated with brain excitability, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the present invention to the subject. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of treating or preventing stress or anxiety in a subject, comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment an effective amount of a compound of the present invention, or a composition thereof. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of alleviating or preventing movement disorder (e.g., tremor, for example essential tremor) in a subject, comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment an effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In certain embodiments the movement disorder is tremor. In certain embodiments the tremor is essential tremor. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of alleviating or preventing seizure activity in a subject, comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment an effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of alleviating or preventing insomnia in a subject, comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment an effective amount of a compound of the present invention, or a composition thereof. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of inducing sleep and maintaining substantially the level of REM sleep that is found in normal sleep, wherein substantial rebound insomnia is not induced, comprising administering an effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of alleviating or preventing PMS or PND in a subject, comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment an effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of treating or preventing mood disorders in a subject, comprising administering to the subject in need of such treatment an effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In certain embodiments the mood disorder is an anxiety disorder. In certain embodiments the mood disorder is depression. In certain embodiments the depression is severe depression. In certain embodiment the depression is post-partum depression. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of inducing anesthesia in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of cognition enhancement or treating memory disorder by administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In certain embodiments, the disorder is Alzheimer's disease. In certain embodiments, the disorder is Rett syndrome. In yet another aspect, provided is a method of treating attention disorders by administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In certain embodiments, the attention disorder is ADHD. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered to the subject chronically. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered to the subject orally, subcutaneously, intramuscularly, or intravenously. Anesthesia/Sedation Anesthesia is a pharmacologically induced and reversible state of amnesia, analgesia, loss of responsiveness, loss of skeletal muscle reflexes, decreased stress response, or all of these simultaneously. These effects can be obtained from a single drug which alone provides the correct combination of effects, or occasionally with a combination of drugs (e.g., hypnotics, sedatives, paralytics, analgesics) to achieve very specific combinations of results. Anesthesia allows patients to undergo surgery and other procedures without the distress and pain they would otherwise experience. Sedation is the reduction of irritability or agitation by administration of a pharmacological agent, generally to facilitate a medical procedure or diagnostic procedure. Sedation and analgesia include a continuum of states of consciousness ranging from minimal sedation (anxiolysis) to general anesthesia. Minimal sedation is also known as anxiolysis. Minimal sedation is a drug-induced state during which the patient responds normally to verbal commands. Cognitive function and coordination may be impaired. Ventilatory and cardiovascular functions are typically unaffected. Moderate sedation/analgesia (conscious sedation) is a drug-induced depression of consciousness during which the patient responds purposefully to verbal command, either alone or accompanied by light tactile stimulation. No interventions are usually necessary to maintain a patent airway. Spontaneous ventilation is typically adequate. Cardiovascular function is usually maintained. Deep sedation/analgesia is a drug-induced depression of consciousness during which the patient cannot be easily aroused, but responds purposefully (not a reflex withdrawal from a painful stimulus) following repeated or painful stimulation. Independent ventilatory function may be impaired and the patient may require assistance to maintain a patent airway. Spontaneous ventilation may be inadequate. Cardiovascular function is usually maintained. General anesthesia is a drug-induced loss of consciousness during which the patient is not arousable, even to painful stimuli. The ability to maintain independent ventilatory function is often impaired and assistance is often required to maintain a patent airway. Positive pressure ventilation may be required due to depressed spontaneous ventilation or drug-induced depression of neuromuscular function. Cardiovascular function may be impaired. Sedation in the intensive care unit (ICU) allows the depression of patients' awareness of the environment and reduction of their response to external stimulation. It can play a role in the care of the critically ill patient, and encompasses a wide spectrum of symptom control that will vary between patients, and among individuals throughout the course of their illnesses. Heavy sedation in critical care has been used to facilitate endotracheal tube tolerance and ventilator synchronization, often with neuromuscular blocking agents. In some embodiments, sedation (e.g., long-term sedation, continuous sedation) is induced and maintained in the ICU for a prolonged period of time (e.g., 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 5 days, 1 week, 2 week, 3 weeks, 1 month, 2 months). Long-term sedation agents may have long duration of action. Sedation agents in the ICU may have short elimination half-life. Procedural sedation and analgesia, also referred to as conscious sedation, is a technique of administering sedatives or dissociative agents with or without analgesics to induce a state that allows a subject to tolerate unpleasant procedures while maintaining cardiorespiratory function. Neuroendocrine Disorders and Dysfunction Provided herein are methods that can be used for treating neuroendocrine disorders and dysfunction. As used herein, “neuroendocrine disorder” or “neuroendocrine dysfunction” refers to a variety of conditions caused by imbalances in the body's hormone production directly related to the brain. Neuroendocrine disorders involve interactions between the nervous system and the endocrine system. Because the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are two areas of the brain that regulate the production of hormones, damage to the hypothalamus or pituitary gland, e.g., by traumatic brain injury, may impact the production of hormones and other neuroendocrine functions of the brain. Symptoms of neuroendocrine disorder include, but are not limited to, behavioral, emotional, and sleep-related symptoms, symptoms related to reproductive function, and somatic symptoms; including but not limited to fatigue, poor memory, anxiety, depression, weight gain or loss, emotional lability, lack of concentration, attention difficulties, loss of lipido, infertility, amenorrhea, loss of muscle mass, increased belly body fat, low blood pressure, reduced heart rate, hair loss, anemia, constipation, cold intolerance, and dry skin. Neurodegenerative Diseases and Disorders Provided herein are methods that can be used for treating neurodegenerative diseases and disorders. The term “neurodegenerative disease” includes diseases and disorders that are associated with the progressive loss of structure or function of neurons, or death of neurons. Neurodegenerative diseases and disorders include, but are not limited to, Alzheimer's disease (including the associated symptoms of mild, moderate, or severe cognitive impairment); amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS); anoxic and ischemic injuries; ataxia and convulsion (including for the treatment and prevention and prevention of seizures that are caused by schizoaffective disorder or by drugs used to treat schizophrenia); benign forgetfulness; brain edema; cerebellar ataxia including McLeod neuroacanthocytosis syndrome (MLS); closed head injury; coma; contusive injuries (e.g., spinal cord injury and head injury); dementias including multi-infarct dementia and senile dementia; disturbances of consciousness; Down syndrome; drug-induced or medication-induced Parkinsonism (such as neuroleptic-induced acute akathisia, acute dystonia, Parkinsonism, or tardive dyskinesia, neuroleptic malignant syndrome, or medication-induced postural tremor); epilepsy; fragile X syndrome; Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome; head trauma; hearing impairment and loss; Huntington's disease; Lennox syndrome; levodopa-induced dyskinesia; mental retardation; movement disorders including akinesias and akinetic (rigid) syndromes (including basal ganglia calcification, corticobasal degeneration, multiple system atrophy, Parkinsonism-ALS dementia complex, Parkinson's disease, postencephalitic parkinsonism, and progressively supranuclear palsy); muscular spasms and disorders associated with muscular spasticity or weakness including chorea (such as benign hereditary chorea, drug-induced chorea, hemiballism, Huntington's disease, neuroacanthocytosis, Sydenham's chorea, and symptomatic chorea), dyskinesia (including tics such as complex tics, simple tics, and symptomatic tics), myoclonus (including generalized myoclonus and focal cyloclonus), tremor (such as rest tremor, postural tremor, essential tremor and intention tremor) and dystonia (including axial dystonia, dystonic writer's cramp, hemiplegic dystonia, paroxysmal dystonia, and focal dystonia such as blepharospasm, oromandibular dystonia, and spasmodic dysphonia and torticollis); neuronal damage including ocular damage, retinopathy or macular degeneration of the eye; neurotoxic injury which follows cerebral stroke, thromboembolic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral vasospasm, hypoglycemia, amnesia, hypoxia, anoxia, perinatal asphyxia and cardiac arrest; Parkinson's disease; seizure; status epilecticus; stroke; tinnitus; tubular sclerosis, and viral infection induced neurodegeneration (e.g., caused by acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and encephalopathies). Neurodegenerative diseases also include, but are not limited to, neurotoxic injury which follows cerebral stroke, thromboembolic stroke, hemorrhagic stroke, cerebral ischemia, cerebral vasospasm, hypoglycemia, amnesia, hypoxia, anoxia, perinatal asphyxia and cardiac arrest. Methods of treating or preventing a neurodegenerative disease also include treating or preventing loss of neuronal function characteristic of neurodegenerative disorder. Epilepsy Epilepsy is a brain disorder characterized by repeated seizures over time. Types of epilepsy can include, but are not limited to generalized epilepsy, e.g., childhood absence epilepsy, juvenile nyoclonic epilepsy, epilepsy with grand-mal seizures on awakening, West syndrome, Lennox-Gastaut syndrome, partial epilepsy, e.g., temporal lobe epilepsy, frontal lobe epilepsy, benign focal epilepsy of childhood. Status epilepticus (SE) Status epilepticus (SE) can include, e.g., convulsive status epilepticus, e.g., early status epilepticus, established status epilepticus, refractory status epilepticus, super-refractory status epilepticus; non-convulsive status epilepticus, e.g., generalized status epilepticus, complex partial status epilepticus; generalized periodic epileptiform discharges; and periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges. Convulsive status epilepticus is characterized by the presence of convulsive status epileptic seizures, and can include early status epilepticus, established status epilepticus, refractory status epilepticus, super-refractory status epilepticus. Early status epilepticus is treated with a first line therapy. Established status epilepticus is characterized by status epileptic seizures which persist despite treatment with a first line therapy, and a second line therapy is administered. Refractory status epilepticus is characterized by status epileptic seizures which persist despite treatment with a first line and a second line therapy, and a general anesthetic is generally administered. Super refractory status epilepticus is characterized by status epileptic seizures which persist despite treatment with a first line therapy, a second line therapy, and a general anesthetic for 24 hours or more. Non-convulsive status epilepticus can include, e.g., focal non-convulsive status epilepticus, e.g., complex partial non-convulsive status epilepticus, simple partial non-convulsive status epilepticus, subtle non-convulsive status epilepticus; generalized non-convulsive status epilepticus, e.g., late onset absence non-convulsive status epilepticus, atypical absence non-convulsive status epilepticus, or typical absence non-convulsive status epilepticus. Compositions described herein can also be administered as a prophylactic to a subject having a CNS disorder e.g., a traumatic brain injury, status epilepticus, e.g., convulsive status epilepticus, e.g., early status epilepticus, established status epilepticus, refractory status epilepticus, super-refractory status epilepticus; non-convulsive status epilepticus, e.g., generalized status epilepticus, complex partial status epilepticus; generalized periodic epileptiform discharges; and periodic lateralized epileptiform discharges; prior to the onset of a seizure. Seizure A seizure is the physical findings or changes in behavior that occur after an episode of abnormal electrical activity in the brain. The term “seizure” is often used interchangeably with “convulsion.” Convulsions are when a person's body shakes rapidly and uncontrollably. During convulsions, the person's muscles contract and relax repeatedly. Based on the type of behavior and brain activity, seizures are divided into two broad categories: generalized and partial (also called local or focal). Classifying the type of seizure helps doctors diagnose whether or not a patient has epilepsy. Generalized seizures are produced by electrical impulses from throughout the entire brain, whereas partial seizures are produced (at least initially) by electrical impulses in a relatively small part of the brain. The part of the brain generating the seizures is sometimes called the focus. There are six types of generalized seizures. The most common and dramatic, and therefore the most well known, is the generalized convulsion, also called the grand-mal seizure. In this type of seizure, the patient loses consciousness and usually collapses. The loss of consciousness is followed by generalized body stiffening (called the “tonic” phase of the seizure) for 30 to 60 seconds, then by violent jerking (the “clonic” phase) for 30 to 60 seconds, after which the patient goes into a deep sleep (the “postictal” or after-seizure phase). During grand-mal seizures, injuries and accidents may occur, such as tongue biting and urinary incontinence. Absence seizures cause a short loss of consciousness (just a few seconds) with few or no symptoms. The patient, most often a child, typically interrupts an activity and stares blankly. These seizures begin and end abruptly and may occur several times a day. Patients are usually not aware that they are having a seizure, except that they may be aware of “losing time.” Myoclonic seizures consist of sporadic jerks, usually on both sides of the body. Patients sometimes describe the jerks as brief electrical shocks. When violent, these seizures may result in dropping or involuntarily throwing objects. Clonic seizures are repetitive, rhythmic jerks that involve both sides of the body at the same time. Tonic seizures are characterized by stiffening of the muscles. Atonic seizures consist of a sudden and general loss of muscle tone, particularly in the arms and legs, which often results in a fall. Seizures described herein can include epileptic seizures; acute repetitive seizures; cluster seizures; continuous seizures; unremitting seizures; prolonged seizures; recurrent seizures; status epilepticus seizures, e.g., refractory convulsive status epilepticus, non-convulsive status epilepticus seizures; refractory seizures; myoclonic seizures; tonic seizures; tonic-clonic seizures; simple partial seizures; complex partial seizures; secondarily generalized seizures; atypical absence seizures; absence seizures; atonic seizures; benign Rolandic seizures; febrile seizures; emotional seizures; focal seizures; gelastic seizures; generalized onset seizures; infantile spasms; Jacksonian seizures; massive bilateral myoclonus seizures; multifocal seizures; neonatal onset seizures; nocturnal seizures; occipital lobe seizures; post traumatic seizures; subtle seizures; Sylvan seizures; visual reflex seizures; or withdrawal seizures. Movement Disorders Also described herein are methods for treating a movement disorder. As used herein, “movement disorders” refers to a variety of diseases and disorders that are associated with hyperkinetic movement disorders and related abnormalities in muscle control. Exemplary movement disorders include, but are not limited to, Parkinson's disease and parkinsonism (defined particularly by bradykinesia), dystonia, chorea and Huntington's disease, ataxia, tremor (e.g., essential tremor), myoclonus and startle, tics and Tourette syndrome, Restless legs syndrome, stiff person syndrome, and gait disorders. Tremor The methods described herein can be used to treat tremor, for example cerebellar tremor or intention tremor, dystonic tremor, essential tremor, orthostatic tremor, parkinsonian tremor, physiological tremor, psychogenic tremor, or rubral tremor. Tremor includes hereditary, degenerative, and idiopathic disorders such as Wilson's disease, Parkinson's disease, and essential tremor, respectively; metabolic diseases (e.g., thyoid-parathyroid-, liver disease and hypoglycemia); peripheral neuropathies (associated with Charcot-Marie-Tooth, Roussy-Levy, diabetes mellitus, complex regional pain syndrome); toxins (nicotine, mercury, lead, CO, Manganese, arsenic, toluene); drug-induced (narcoleptics, tricyclics, lithium, cocaine, alcohol, adrenaline, bronchodilators, theophylline, caffeine, steroids, valproate, amiodarone, thyroid hormones, vincristine); and psychogenic disorders. Clinical tremor can be classified into physiologic tremor, enhanced physiologic tremor, essential tremor syndromes (including classical essential tremor, primary orthostatic tremor, and task- and position-specific tremor), dystonic tremor, parkinsonian tremor, cerebellar tremor, Holmes' tremor (i.e., rubral tremor), palatal tremor, neuropathic tremor, toxic or drug-induced tremor, and psychogenic tremor. Tremor is an involuntary, at times rhythmic, muscle contraction and relaxation that can involve oscillations or twitching of one or more body parts (e.g., hands, arms, eyes, face, head, vocal folds, trunk, legs). Cerebellar tremor or intention tremor is a slow, broad tremor of the extremities that occurs after a purposeful movement. Cerebellar tremor is caused by lesions in or damage to the cerebellum resulting from, e.g., tumor, stroke, disease (e.g., multiple sclerosis, an inherited degenerative disorder). Dystonic tremor occurs in individuals affected by dystonia, a movement disorder in which sustained involuntary muscle contractions cause twisting and repetitive motions and/or painful and abnormal postures or positions. Dystonic tremor may affect any muscle in the body. Dystonic tremors occurs irregularly and often can be relieved by complete rest. Essential tremor or benign essential tremor is the most common type of tremor. Essential tremor may be mild and nonprogressive in some, and may be slowly progressive, starting on one side of the body but affect both sides within 3 years. The hands are most often affected, but the head, voice, tongue, legs, and trunk may also be involved. Tremor frequency may decrease as the person ages, but severity may increase. Heightened emotion, stress, fever, physical exhaustion, or low blood sugar may trigger tremors and/or increase their severity. Symptoms generally evolve over time and can be both visible and persistent following onset. Orthostatic tremor is characterized by fast (e.g., greater than 12 Hz) rhythmic muscle contractions that occurs in the legs and trunk immediately after standing. Cramps are felt in the thighs and legs and the patient may shake uncontrollably when asked to stand in one spot. Orthostatic tremor may occurs in patients with essential tremor. Parkinsonian tremor is caused by damage to structures within the brain that control movement. Parkinsonian tremor is often a precursor to Parkinson's disease and is typically seen as a “pill-rolling” action of the hands that may also affect the chin, lips, legs, and trunk. Onset of parkinsonian tremor typically begins after age 60. Movement starts in one limb or on one side of the body and can progress to include the other side. Physiological tremor can occur in normal individuals and have no clinical significance. It can be seen in all voluntary muscle groups. Physiological tremor can be caused by certain drugs, alcohol withdrawal, or medical conditions including an overactive thyroid and hypoglycemia. The tremor classically has a frequency of about 10 Hz. Psychogenic tremor or hysterical tremor can occur at rest or during postural or kinetic movement. Patient with psychogenic tremor may have a conversion disorder or another psychiatric disease. Rubral tremor is characterized by coarse slow tremor which can be present at rest, at posture, and with intention. The tremor is associated with conditions that affect the red nucleus in the midbrain, classical unusual strokes. Parkinson's Disease affects nerve cells in the brain that produce dopamine. Symptoms include muscle rigidity, tremors, and changes in speech and gait. Parkinsonism is characterized by tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, and postural instability. Parkinsonism shares symptoms found in Parkinson's Disease, but is a symptom complex rather than a progressive neurodegenerative disease. Dystonia is a movement disorder characterized by sustained or intermittent muscle contractions causing abnormal, often repetitive movements or postures. Dystonic movements can be patterned, twisting, and may be tremulous. Dystonia is often initiated or worsened by voluntary action and associated with overflow muscle activation. Chorea is a neurological disorder characterized by jerky involuntary movements typically affecting the shoulders, hips, and face. Huntington's Disease is an inherited disease that causes nerve cells in the brain to waste away. Symptoms include uncontrolled movements, clumsiness, and balance problems. Huntington's disease can hinder walk, talk, and swallowing. Ataxia refers to the loss of full control of bodily movements, and may affect the fingers, hands, arms, legs, body, speech, and eye movements. Myloclonus and Startle is a response to a sudden and unexpected stimulus, which can be acoustic, tactile, visual, or vestibular. Tics are an involuntary movement usually onset suddenly, brief, repetitive, but non-rhythmical, typically imitating normal behavior and often occurring out of a background of normal activity. Tics can be classified as motor or vocal, motor tics associated with movements while vocal tics associated with sound. Tics can be characterized as simple or complex. For example simple motor tics involve only a few muscles restricted to a specific body part. Tourette Syndrome is an inherited neuropsychiatric disorder with onset in childhood, characterized by multiple motor tics and at least one vocal tic. Restless Legs Syndrome is a neurologic sensorimotor disorder characterized by an overwhelming urge to move the legs when at rest. Stiff Person Syndrome is a progressive movement disorder characterized by involuntary painful spasms and rigidity of muscles, usually involving the lower back and legs. Stiff-legged gait with exaggerated lumbar hyperlordosis typically results. Characteristic abnormality on EMG recordings with continuous motor unit activity of the paraspinal axial muscles is typically observed. Variants include “stiff-limb syndrome” producing focal stiffness typically affecting distal legs and feet. Gait disorders refer to an abnormalitiy in the manner or style of walking, which results from neuromuscular, arthritic, or other body changes. Gait is classified according to the system responsible for abnormal locomotion, and include hemiplegic gait, diplegic gait, neuropathic gait, myopathic gait, parkinsonian gait, choreiform gait, ataxic gait, and sensory gait. Mood Disorders Clinical depression is also known as major depression, major depressive disorder (MDD), unipolar depression, unipolar disorder, and recurrent depression, and refers to a mental disorder characterized by pervasive and persistent low mood that is accompanied by low self-esteem and loss of interest or pleasure in normally enjoyable activities. Some people with clinical depression have trouble sleeping, lose weight, and generally feel agitated and irritable. Clinical depression affects how an individual feels, thinks, and behaves and may lead to a variety of emotional and physical problems. Individuals with clinical depression may have trouble doing day-to-day activities and make an individual feel as if life is not worth living. Postnatal depression (PND) is also referred to as postpartum depression (PPD), and refers to a type of clinical depression that affects women after childbirth. Symptoms can include sadness, fatigue, changes in sleeping and eating habits, reduced sexual desire, crying episodes, anxiety, and irritability. Atypical depression (AD) is characterized by mood reactivity (e.g., paradoxical anhedonia) and positivity, significant weight gain or increased appetite. Patients suffering from AD also may have excessive sleep or somnolence (hypersomnia), a sensation of limb heaviness, and significant social impairment as a consequence of hypersensitivity to perceived interpersonal rejection. Melancholic depression is characterized by loss of pleasure (anhedonia) in most or all activities, failures to react to pleasurable stimuli, depressed mood more pronounced than that of grief or loss, excessive weight loss, or excessive guilt. Psychotic major depression (PMD) or psychotic depression refers to a major depressive episode, in particular of melancholic nature, where the individual experiences psychotic symptoms such as delusions and hallucinations. Catatonic depression refers to major depression involving disturbances of motor behavior and other symptoms. An individual may become mute and stuporose, and either is immobile or exhibits purposeless or bizarre movements. Seasonal affective disorder (SAD) refers to a type of seasonal depression wherein an individual has seasonal patterns of depressive episodes coming on in the fall or winter. Dysthymia refers to a condition related to unipolar depression, where the same physical and cognitive problems are evident. They are not as severe and tend to last longer (e.g., at least 2 years). Double depression refers to fairly depressed mood (dysthymia) that lasts for at least 2 years and is punctuated by periods of major depression. Depressive Personality Disorder (DPD) refers to a personality disorder with depressive features. Recurrent Brief Depression (RBD) refers to a condition in which individuals have depressive episodes about once per month, each episode lasting 2 weeks or less and typically less than 2-3 days. Minor depressive disorder or minor depression refers to a depression in which at least 2 symptoms are present for 2 weeks. Bipolar disorder or manic depressive disorder causes extreme mood swings that include emotional highs (mania or hypomania) and lows (depression). During periods of mania the individual may feel or act abnormally happy, energetic, or irritable. They often make poorly thought out decisions with little regard to the consequences. The need for sleep is usually reduced. During periods of depression there may be crying, poor eye contact with others, and a negative outlook on life. The risk of suicide among those with the disorder is high at greater than 6% over 20 years, while self harm occurs in 30-40%. Other mental health issues such as anxiety disorder and substance use disorder are commonly associated with bipolar disorder. Depression caused by chronic medical conditions refers to depression caused by chronic medical conditions such as cancer or chronic pain, chemotherapy, chronic stress. Treatment-resistant depression refers to a condition where the individuals have been treated for depression, but the symptoms do not improve. For example, antidepressants or physchological counseling (psychotherapy) do not ease depression symptoms for individuals with treatment-resistant depression. In some cases, individuals with treatment-resistant depression improve symptoms, but come back. Refractory depression occurs in patients suffering from depression who are resistant to standard pharmacological treatments, including tricyclic antidepressants, MAOIs, SSRIs, and double and triple uptake inhibitors and/or anxiolytic drugs, as well as non-pharmacological treatments (e.g., psychotherapy, electroconvulsive therapy, vagus nerve stimulation and/or transcranial magnetic stimulation). Suicidality, suicidal ideation, suicidal behavior refers to the tendency of an individual to commit suicide. Suicidal ideation concerns thoughts about or an unusual preoccupation with suicide. The range of suicidal ideation varies greatly, from e.g., fleeting thoughts to extensive thoughts, detailed planning, role playing, incomplete attempts. Symptoms include talking about suicide, getting the means to commit suicide, withdrawing from social contact, being preoccupied with death, feeling trapped or hopeless about a situation, increasing use of alcohol or drugs, doing risky or self-destructive things, saying goodbye to people as if they won't be seen again. Symptoms of depression include persistent anxious or sad feelings, feelings of helplessness, hopelessness, pessimism, worthlessness, low energy, restlessness, difficulty sleeping, sleeplessness, irritability, fatigue, motor challenges, loss of interest in pleasurable activities or hobbies, loss of concentration, loss of energy, poor self-esteem, absence of positive thoughts or plans, excessive sleeping, overeating, appetite loss, insomnia, self-harm, thoughts of suicide, and suicide attempts. The presence, severity, frequency, and duration of symptoms may vary on a case to case basis. Symptoms of depression, and relief of the same, may be ascertained by a physician or psychologist (e.g., by a mental state examination). Anxiety Disorders Provided herein are methods for treating anxiety disorders. Anxiety disorder is a blanket term covering several different forms of abnormal and pathological fear and anxiety. Current psychiatric diagnostic criteria recognize a wide variety of anxiety disorders. Generalized anxiety disorder is a common chronic disorder characterized by long-lasting anxiety that is not focused on any one object or situation. Those suffering from generalized anxiety experience non-specific persistent fear and worry and become overly concerned with everyday matters. Generalized anxiety disorder is the most common anxiety disorder to affect older adults. In panic disorder, a person suffers from brief attacks of intense terror and apprehension, often marked by trembling, shaking, confusion, dizziness, nausea, difficulty breathing. These panic attacks, defined by the APA as fear or discomfort that abruptly arises and peaks in less than ten minutes, can last for several hours and can be triggered by stress, fear, or even exercise; although the specific cause is not always apparent. In addition to recurrent unexpected panic attacks, a diagnosis of panic disorder also requires that said attacks have chronic consequences: either worry over the attacks' potential implications, persistent fear of future attacks, or significant changes in behavior related to the attacks. Accordingly, those suffering from panic disorder experience symptoms even outside of specific panic episodes. Often, normal changes in heartbeat are noticed by a panic sufferer, leading them to think something is wrong with their heart or they are about to have another panic attack. In some cases, a heightened awareness (hypervigilance) of body functioning occurs during panic attacks, wherein any perceived physiological change is interpreted as a possible life threatening illness (i.e. extreme hypochondriasis). Obsessive compulsive disorder is a type of anxiety disorder primarily characterized by repetitive obsessions (distressing, persistent, and intrusive thoughts or images) and compulsions (urges to perform specific acts or rituals). The OCD thought pattern may be likened to superstitions insofar as it involves a belief in a causative relationship where, in reality, one does not exist. Often the process is entirely illogical; for example, the compulsion of walking in a certain pattern may be employed to alleviate the obsession of impending harm. And in many cases, the compulsion is entirely inexplicable, simply an urge to complete a ritual triggered by nervousness. In a minority of cases, sufferers of OCD may only experience obsessions, with no overt compulsions; a much smaller number of sufferers experience only compulsions. The single largest category of anxiety disorders is that of phobia, which includes all cases in which fear and anxiety is triggered by a specific stimulus or situation. Sufferers typically anticipate terrifying consequences from encountering the object of their fear, which can be anything from an animal to a location to a bodily fluid. Post-traumatic stress disorder or PTSD is an anxiety disorder which results from a traumatic experience. Post-traumatic stress can result from an extreme situation, such as combat, rape, hostage situations, or even serious accident. It can also result from long term (chronic) exposure to a severe stressor, for example soldiers who endure individual battles but cannot cope with continuous combat. Common symptoms include flashbacks, avoidant behaviors, and depression. EQUIVALENTS AND SCOPE In the claims articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the” may mean one or more than one unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. Claims or descriptions that include “or” between one or more members of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. The invention includes embodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. The invention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, and permutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, and descriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introduced into another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on another claim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in any other claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements are presented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of the elements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from the group. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention, or aspects of the invention, is/are referred to as comprising particular elements and/or features, certain embodiments of the invention or aspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, such elements and/or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodiments have not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is also noted that the terms “comprising” and “containing” are intended to be open and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Where ranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwise indicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of one of ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges can assume any specific value or sub-range within the stated ranges in different embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. This application refers to various issued patents, published patent applications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any of the incorporated references and the instant specification, the specification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment of the present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodiments are deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may be excluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Any particular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim, for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art. Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodiments described herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description, but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modifications to this description may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims. EXAMPLES In order that the invention described herein may be more fully understood, the following examples are set forth. The synthetic and biological examples described in this application are offered to illustrate the compounds, pharmaceutical compositions and methods provided herein and are not to be construed in any way as limiting their scope. Materials and Methods The compounds provided herein can be prepared from readily available starting materials using the following general methods and procedures. For example, synthesis of starting materials may be described in WO2014/169831 and WO2015/027227. It will be appreciated that where typical or preferred process conditions (i.e., reaction temperatures, times, mole ratios of reactants, solvents, pressures, etc.) are given, other process conditions can also be used unless otherwise stated. Optimum reaction conditions may vary with the particular reactants or solvent used, but such conditions can be determined by one skilled in the art by routine optimization. Additionally, as will be apparent to those skilled in the art, conventional protecting groups may be necessary to prevent certain functional groups from undergoing undesired reactions. The choice of a suitable protecting group for a particular functional group as well as suitable conditions for protection and deprotection are well known in the art. For example, numerous protecting groups, and their introduction and removal, are described in T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, Second Edition, Wiley, New York, 1991, and references cited therein. The compounds provided herein may be isolated and purified by known standard procedures. Such procedures include (but are not limited to) recrystallization, column chromatography, HPLC, or supercritical fluid chromatography (SFC). The following schemes are presented with details as to the preparation of representative heteroaryls and heterocyclyls that have been listed herein. The compounds provided herein may be prepared from known or commercially available starting materials and reagents by one skilled in the art of organic synthesis. Exemplary chiral columns available for use in the separation/purification of the enantiomers/diastereomers provided herein include, but are not limited to, CHIRALPAK® AD-10, CHIRALCEL® OB, CHIRALCEL® OB—H, CHIRALCEL® OD, CHIRALCEL® OD-H, CHIRALCEL® OF, CHIRALCEL® OG, CHIRALCEL® OJ and CHIRALCEL® OK. 1H-NMR reported herein (e.g., for intermediates) may be a partial representation of the full NMR spectrum of a compound, e.g., a compound described herein. For example, the reported 1H NMR may exclude or partially represent the region between δ (ppm) of about 1 to about 2.5 ppm. For example, the reported 1H NMR may include an overestimated count of protons due to the presence of residual solvent or water. Exemplary general method for preparative HPLC: Column: Waters RBridge prep 10 μm C18, 19*250 mm. Mobile phase: acetonitrile, water (NH4HCO3) (30 L water, 24 g NH4HCO3, 30 mL NH3.H2O). Flow rate: 25 mL/min Exemplary general method for LCMS: Gradient 10-80AB 2MIN (10% B at 0 min, 80% B at 0.9 min, 80% B at 1.5 min, 10% B at 1.51 min, 10% B at 2 min) on a Xtimate C18 2.1*30 mm, 3 um with A: water(4 L)+TFA(1.5 mL) and B: acetonitrile(4 L)+TFA(0.75 mL). Flow rate: 1.2 mL/min, wavelength UV 220 nm, oven temp 50° C. MS ionization MSI, Detector PDA, ELSD. Gradient 5-95AB 1.5MIN (5% B at 0 min, 95% B at 0.7 min, 95% B at 1.1 min, 5% B at 1.11 min, 5% B at 1.5 min) on a MERCK, RP-18e 25-2 mm column with A: water(4 L)+TFA(1.5 mL) and B: acetonitrile(4 L)+TFA(0.75 mL). Flow rate: 1.5 mL/min, wavelength UV 220 nm, oven temp 50° C. MS ionization ESI. Exemplary general method for analytical HPLC: Mobile phase: A: water (10 mM NH4HCO3), B: acetonitrile, Gradient: 5%-95% B in 1.6 or 2 min Flow rate: 1.8 or 2 mL/min; Column: XBridge C18, 4.6*50 mm, 3.5 μm at 45 C. ABBREVIATON LIST THF: tetrahydrofuran; PE: petroleum ether; DCM: dichloromethane; EtOAc: ethylacetate; PCC: pyridinium chlorochromate; t-BuOK: potassium tert-butoxide; TBAF: tetra-n-butylammonium fluoride; TBSCl: tert-Butyl(chloro)dimethylsilane; DMP: Dess-Martin periodinane; (i-PrO)4Ti: titanium tetraisopropoxide; LAH: lithium aluminium hydride; MAD: methyl aluminum bis(2,6-di-t-butyl-4-methylphenoxide); BHT: 2,6-di-t-butyl-p-cresol (butylated hydroxytoluene); DIEA: diisopropylethylamine; NCS: N-chlorosuccinimide. Synthetic Methods Example 1. Synthesis of Compounds 1 and 2 Step 1. To a solution of PPh3MeBr (26.7 g, 74.8 mmol) in THF (120 mL) was added a solution of t-BuOK (8.38 g, 74.8 mmol) in THF (50 mL) at 20° C. After stirring at 60° C. for 1 h, a solution of compound A-1 (6.0 g, 18.7 mmol) in THF (30 mL) was added dropwise at 60° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at the same temperature for 8 hrs. The reaction mixture was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuum to remove most of the solvent. The residue was separated between EtOAc (300 mL) and water (2×200 mL). The organic layer was washed with brine (200 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum. The crude product was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE/EtOAc=20/1 to 10/1) to afford A-2 (9.0 g, crude, contain PPh3) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 4.60 (d, J=6.0 Hz, 2H), 3.87 (d, J=4.0 Hz, 1H), 3.72 (d, J=4.4 Hz, 1H), 2.07-2.03 (m, 1H), 1.80-1.78 (m, 1H), 1.53-1.40 (m, 10H), 1.39-0.85 (m, 14H), 0.82-0.79 (m, 4H). Step 2. To a solution of A-2 (7.7 g, 1.00 mmol, 32%) in THF (20 mL) was added NaH (960 mg, 24.0 mmol, 60%) at 15° C. and stirred at this temperature for 30 mins. Me2SO4 (1.01 g, 8.03 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was quenched with saturated aqueous NH4Cl (50 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (2×100 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (100 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE/EtOAc=20/1) to afford A-3 (1.2 g, 45%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 4.62-4.60 (m, 2H), 3.49 (d, J=9.6 Hz, 1H), 3.38 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 3.29 (s, 3H), 2.48-2.47 (m, 1H), 2.24-2.22 (m, 1H), 2.05-2.02 (m, 1H), 1.72-1.51 (m, 5H), 150-1.49 (m, 5H), 1.21-0.82 (m, 12H), 0.79-0.77 (m, 4H) Step 3. To a solution of A-3 (1.2 g, 3.60 mmol) in THF (10 mL) was added dropwise BH3.Me2S (3.60 mL, 36.0 mmol, 10 N) at 0° C. The solution was stirred at 15° C. for 12 hrs. After cooling to 0° C., a solution of NaOH (12.0 mL, 3M) was added very slowly. After the addition was complete, H2O2(10 mL, 33%) was added slowly and the inner temperature was maintained below 15° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 5° C. for 3 hrs. The reaction mixture was quenched with citric acid (20 mL, 1 M). The resulting solution was extracted with EtOAc (3×100 mL). The combined organic solution was washed with saturated aqueous Na2S2O3(50 mL), brine (150 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give the crude product, which was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE: EtOAc=10/1) to afford A-4 (1.2 g, 95%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.72-3.71 (m, 1H), 3.69-3.46 (m, 2H), 3.38-3.35 (m, 1H), 3.28 (s, 3H), 2.04-1.49 (m, 12H), 1.21-0.81 (m, 16H), 0.66 (s, 3H). Step 4. To a solution of A-4 (1.1 g. 3.13 mmol) in DCM (20 mL) was added PCC (1.34 g, 6.26 mmol) at 15°. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 1 h. The reaction mixture was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE/EtOAc=10/1) to afford A-5 (1.2 g) as light yellow solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 9.76 (s, 1H), 3.47 (d, J=10.8 Hz, 1H), 3.36 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 3.28 (s, 3H), 2.29-1.48 (m, 10H), 1.25-0.73 (m, 20H). Step 5. To a solution of A-5 (1.2 g, 3.44 mmol) in DCM (10 ml) was added Et3N (695 mg, 6.88 mmol) and NH2OH.HCl (355 mg, 5.15 mmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was treated with water (30 mL), extracted with CH2Cl2 (50 mL×2). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, concentrated in vacuum to give A-6 (900 mg, crude) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 7.40-7.37 (m, 1H), 3.47 (d, J=9.6 Hz, 1H), 3.36 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 3.28 (s, 3H), 2.16-1.49 (m, 12H), 1.2-0.70 (m, 19H). Step 6. To a solution of A-6 (200 mg, 0.55 mmol) in 3 mL of DCM was added pyridine (86.1 mg, 1.09 mmol) and NCS (87.6 mg, 0.659 mmol). After stirring for 50 min, the reaction was treated with prop-2-yn-1-ol (302 mg, 5.39 mmol) followed by DIEA (140 mg, 1.09 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was treated with water (20 mL), extracted with CH2Cl2 (2×30 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (30 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, concentrated in vacuum to afford the crude product, which was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 1 (84 mg, 37%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 6.09 (s, 1H), 4.73 (s, 2H), 3.47 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 3.37 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 3.27 (s, 3H), 2.72-2.69 (m, 1H), 2.03-1.78 (m, 4H), 1.75-1.57 (m, 9H), 1.53-0.85 (m, 14H), 0.58 (s, 3H) LCMS Rt=0.86 min in 1.5 min chromatography, 5-95 AB, MS ESI calcd. for C25H40NO4 [M+H]+ 418, found 418 Step 7. To a solution of A-6 (200 mg, 550 μmol) in 3 mL of DCM was added pyridine (86.1 mg, 1.09 mmol) and NCS (87.6 mg 659 μmol). After stirring for 50 mins, the reaction was treated with ethynyltrimethylsilane (270 mg, 2.75 mmol), followed by DIEA (140 mg, 1.09 mmol). The reaction mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was treated with water (20 mL), extracted with DCM (30 mL×2). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (30 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to afford A-7 (300 mg, crude) as light yellow oil. LCMS Rt=1.104 min in 1.5 min chromatography, 5-95 AB, MS ESI calcd. for C27H46NO3Si [M+H]+ 460, found 460 Step 8. To a solution of A-7 (200 mg, 435 μmol) in CH3CN (6 mL) and EtOH (3 mL) was added CsF (72.6 mg, 478 μmol) at 15° C. and stirred for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 2 (71.8 mg, 43%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.30 (s, 1H), 6.17 (s, 1H), 3.47 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 3.37 (d, J=10.0 Hz, 1H), 3.26 (s, 3H), 2.76-2.72 (m, 1H), 2.04-1.78 (m, 3H), 1.75-1.57 (m, 7H), 1.53-1.46 (m, 6H), 1.34-0.86 (m, 10H), 0.56 (s, 3H) LCMS Rt=0.950 min in 1.5 min chromatography, 5-95 AB, MS ESI calcd. for C24H38NO3 [M+H]+ 388, found 388. Example 2. Synthesis of Compound 3 Step 1. To a solution of B-1 (53.75 g, 131.1 mmol) in THF (500 mL) was added MeMgBr (131 mL, 3M in ether, 393 mmol) dropwise to keep inner temperature below −70° C. The mixture was stirred at −78° C. for 4 hrs. To the mixture was added saturated aqueous NH4Cl (262 mL) and the inner temperature was raised to −20° C. Saturated aqueous citric acid (131 mL) was added at −20° C. The mixture was warmed to 20° C. The organic layer was separated and extracted with EtOAc (3×300 mL). The combined organic layer was dried over Na2SO4, concentrated under vacuum to give B-2 (78.1 g, crude) as an off-white solid. Step 2. To a mixture of B-2 (145 g, 341 mmol) in THF (300 mL) and MeOH (200 mL) was added a solution of LiOH (57.0 g, 1.36 mol) in water (100 mL). The mixture was stirred at 35° C. for 40 hrs. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×1500 mL). The organic layer was dried over Na2SO4, concentrated under vacuum to give a residue, which was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=5:1 to 3:1) to give A-1 (25 g pure and 129 g impure) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.99-3.66 (m, 2H), 2.44 (dd, J=8.5, 19.1 Hz, 1H), 2.22-1.42 (m, 13H), 1.39-0.97 (m, 12H), 0.95-0.78 (m, 4H) Step 3. To a suspension of PPh3EtBr (34.7 g, 93.5 mmol) in THF (150 mL) was added t-BuOK (10.4 g, 93.5 mmol) at 25° C. under N2. The resulting mixture was stirred at 65° C. for 1 hour. A-1 (10 g, 31.2 mmol) in THF (50 mL) was added at 65° C. The mixture was stirred at 65° C. for 16 hrs. Water (200 mL) was added at 25° C. The resulting mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×150 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with water (200 mL), brine (200 mL), and concentrated under vacuum to give a residue, which was purified by chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=6/1) to afford B-4 (8.6 g, 83%) as an off-white solid 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 5.35-5.02 (m, 1H), 3.98-3.63 (m, 2H), 2.42-1.99 (m, 4H), 1.83-1.69 (m, 2H), 1.67-1.42 (m, 11H), 1.32 (d, J=13.1 Hz, 1H), 1.26-0.94 (m, 11H), 0.91 (s, 3H), 0.87-0.72 (m, 1H). Step 4. To a suspension of B-4 (3.5 g, 10.5 mmol) in THF (40 mL) was added NaH (1.66 g, 60% w/w in mineral oil, 42.0 mmol) at 0° C. under N2 atmosphere. The mixture was stirred at 45° C. for 1 h. MeI (1.63 g, 11.5 mmol) was added in portions at 45° C. during 6 hrs. The reaction mixture was quenched by water (40 mL) at 0° C. The mixture was extracted with DCM (3×120 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (100 mL), dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and the filtrate was concentrated under vacuum to give a residue. The residue was purified by chromatography on silica gel (PE/EtOAc=6/1) to afford B-5 (1.2 g, 33%) as an off-white solid. Step 5. To a solution of B-5 (1.3 g, 3.75 mmol) in THF (15 mL) was added dropwise a solution of BH3.Me2S (3.75 mL, 10 M, 37.5 mmol) at 0° C. The solution was stirred at 25° C. for 16 hrs. After cooling to 0° C., aqueous NaOH (12.4 mL, 3.0 M, 37.5 mmol) was added very slowly. H2O2(3.84 g, 33% w/w in water, 37.5 mmol) was added slowly and the inner temperature was maintained below 10° C. The resulting mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs and extracted with EtOAc (3×100 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with saturated aqueous Na2S2O3 (100 mL), brine (100 mL), dried over Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated in vacuum to give B-6 (1.42 g, crude) as an off-white solid, which was used in the next reaction directly. Step 6. A mixture of B-6 (1.2 g, 75%, 2.46 mmol), PCC (793 mg, 3.68 mmol) and silica gel (880 mg) in DCM (50 mL) was stirred at 25° C. for 3 hrs. The reaction mixture was filtered and the filtered cake was washed with DCM (3×30 mL). The combined filtrate was concentrated in vacuum to give a residue, which was purified by chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=5/1) to give B7 (600 mg, 67%) as yellow solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.51-3.33 (m, 2H), 3.28 (s, 3H), 2.54 (t, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 2.26-2.13 (m, 1H), 2.11 (s, 3H), 2.07-1.95 (m, 2H), 1.76-1.44 (m, 8H), 1.40-1.28 (m, 2H), 1.26-0.68 (m, 13H), 0.63 (s, 3H). Step 7. To solution of B-7 (600 mg, 1.65 mmol) in ethyl formate (10 mL) was added NaOMe (266 mg, 4.94 mmol) at 25° C. The resulting mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 4 hrs. The reaction mixture was concentrated under vacuum to give B-8 (850 mg, crude) as yellow solid, which was used in the next reaction directly. Step 8. To a suspension of B-8 (550 mg, 60% percent weight, 876 μmol) and hydroxylamine hydrochloride (303 mg, 4.37 mmol) in EtOH (25 mL) was added AcOH (2 mL), followed by water (1 mL). The resulting mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 4 hrs. The reaction mixture was concentrated under vacuum to give an off-white solid, which was purified by preparative HPLC (0.05% ammonia additive) to afford 3 (80.1 mg, 24%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.14 (d, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 5.96 (s, 1H), 3.50-3.32 (m, 2H), 3.26 (s, 3H), 2.80 (t, J=9.8 Hz, 1H), 2.15-1.96 (m, 3H), 1.95-1.85 (m, 1H), 1.84-1.42 (m, 8H), 1.41-0.92 (m, 13H), 0.91-0.77 (m, 1H), 0.54 (s, 3H) LCMS Rt=1.29 min in 2.0 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. for C24H38NO3 [M+H]+ 388, found 388. Example 3. Synthesis of Compound 4 Step 1. A mixture of C4 (40 g, 127 mmol) and Pd/C (4 g) in EtOAc (200 mL) and THF (200 mL) was stirred at 25° C. under H2 (15 psi) for 4 hrs. The reaction mixture was filtrated through a pad of celite and the filter cake was washed with EtOAc (5×40 mL). The combined organic phase was concentrated under vacuum to give C5 (41 g, crude) as an off white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 2.69 (t, J=14.0 Hz, 1H), 2.61-2.48 (m, 1H), 2.43-2.25 (m, 1H), 2.24-1.96 (m, 8H), 1.95-1.78 (m, 2H), 1.75-1.07 (m, 13H), 1.03 (s, 3H), 0.64 (s, 3H). Step 2. To a solution of BHT (170 g, 774 mmol) in toluene (150 mL) was added AlMe3 (193 mL, 387 mmol, 2.0 M in toluene) drop-wise blew 25° C. under N2 atmosphere. The resulting mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 hour. C5 (41 g, 129 mmol) in toluene (50 mL) was added at −78° C. Then the mixture was stirred at −78° C. for 1 hour. MeMgBr (129 mL, 387 mmol, 3.0 M in diethyl ether) was added at −78° C. The reaction mixture was stirred at −78° C. for 4 hours. The mixture was quenched by saturated aqueous NH4Cl (20 mL), extracted with ethyl acetate (2×150 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (150 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4. The ethyl acetate solvent was evaporated to afford a crude solid, which was purified by chromatography on silica gel (PE/EtOAc=7/1) to afford product C6 (36 g, impure) as a light yellow solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 2.58-2.46 (m, 1H), 2.22-2.09 (m, 4H), 2.06-1.79 (m, 3H), 1.78-0.99 (m, 22H), 0.94 (s, 3H), 0.59 (s, 3H). Step 3. Liquid bromine (5.76 g, 36.0 mmol) was added slowly to a vigorously stirred aqueous solution of NaOH (48.0 mL, 3 M, 144 mmol) at 0° C. When all the bromine had dissolved, the mixture was diluted with cold dioxane (10 mL) and the ice-cold hypobromite solution was added slowly to a stirring solution of C6 (4 g, 12.0 mmol) in dioxane (15 mL) and water (10 mL). The homogeneous yellow solution slowly became colorless and a white precipitate formed. The reaction mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 16 hours. The remaining oxidizing agent was destroyed by aqueous Na2S2O3 (30 mL) and the mixture was then heated at 80° C. until the solid material dissolved. Acidification of the solution to pH=6 with hydrochloric acid (3 N) furnished a white precipitate, which was collected by filtration, washed with water (3×100 mL) and dried under vacuum to afford C7 (4.01 g, 100%) as an off white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ 11.90 (s, 1H), 4.24 (s, 1H), 2.28 (t, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 2.01-1.54 (m, 8H), 1.50-1.28 (m, 5H), 1.26-0.92 (m, 12H), 0.91 (s, 3H), 0.61 (s, 3H). Step 4. To a suspension of C7 (4.01 g, 11.9 mmol) and N,O-dimethylhydroxylamine hydrochloride (4.64 g, 47.6 mmol) in DMF (40 mL) was added HATU (9.04 g, 23.8 mmol) at 25° C. Then DIPEA (15.3 g, 119 mmol) was added to the resulting mixture. The reaction mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hours. Water (500 mL) was added to the reaction mixture at 25° C. A precipitate in the mixture was filtrated to give a light yellow solid, which was washed with water (3×40 mL) and dried under vacuum to afford C1 (4.31 g, 96%) as light yellow solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ 4.23 (s, 1H), 3.61 (s, 3H), 3.09 (br. s., 3H), 2.77-2.74 (m, 1H), 2.07-1.93 (m, 1H), 1.91-1.53 (m, 5H), 1.51-1.27 (m, 7H), 1.26-0.93 (m, 12H), 0.90 (s, 3H), 0.61 (s, 3H). Step 5. To a stirred solution of C-1 (100 mg, 264 μmol) in 3 mL of THF was added LiAlH4 (20 mg, 0.528 mmol) in 2 mL of THF dropwise at −45° C. The reaction mixture was quenched with aqueous NH4Cl (20 mL), extracted with EtOAc (2×50 mL), washed with brine (2×30 mL), dried over Na2SO4, filtered, and evaporated to give crude product (90 mg) as a yellow oil. Step 6. To a stirred solution of C-2 (90 mg, 282 μmol) in 3 mL of DCM was added hydroxylamine hydrochloride (29.3 mg, 0.423 mmol) and triethylamine (154 μL, 1.12 mmol) at 25° C. The reaction mixture was poured into ice-cold water and extracted with EtOAc (2×50 mL), washed with brine (2×30 mL), dried over Na2SO4, filtered and evaporated to give crude product (100 mg) as yellow oil. Step 7. To a solution of C-3 (100 mg, 299 μmol) in DCM (3 mL) was added pyridine (0.1 mL) and 1-chloropyrrolidine-2,5-dione (39.7 mg, 299 μmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 h. The reaction was treated with neat prop-2-yn-1-ol (50.2 mg, 897 μmol) followed by DIEA (0.1 mL). After stirring 3 hrs, the residue was purified by preparative HPLC separation (column: Phenomenex Synergi C18 150*30 mm*4 um, gradient: 52-82% B (A=0.05% HCl-ACN, B=acetonitrile), flow rate: 30 mL/min) to obtain 4 (19 mg, 17%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ=6.09 (s, 1H), 4.74 (s, 2H), 2.71 (t, J=9.8 Hz, 1H), 1.90-2.19 (m, 4H), 1.66-1.88 (m, 4H), 1.37-1.63 (m, 10H), 1.21-1.29 (m, 7H), 1.16 (d, J=13.6 Hz, 1H), 1.05 (td, J=14.4, 3.8 Hz, 1H), 0.95 (s, 3H), 0.55 (s, 3H) LCMS Rt=2.656 min in 4 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. for C24H38NO3 [M+H]+ 388, found 388. Example 4. Synthesis of Compound 5 Step 1. To a solution of D-1 (50 g, 165 mmol) in MeOH (1000 mL) was added Pd/C (wet, 10%, 10.0 g) and HBr (2 mL, 40%) at 25° C. The reaction mixture was hydrogenated under H2 (15 psi). After stirring at 25° C. for 16 hrs, the reaction mixture was filtered through a pad of celite and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuum to afford the crude compound, which was recrystallized from acetone (100 mL) to give compound D-2 (45 g, 45%) as an off white powder 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.98 (dd, J=10.79, 5.02 Hz, 1H), 3.72 (dd, J=10.79, 5.52 Hz, 1H), 2.74-2.62 (m, 1H), 2.49 (dd, J=19.20, 8.66 Hz, 1H), 2.43-2.26 (m, 3H), 2.21-2.06 (m, 2H), 2.04-1.82 (m, 5H), 1.76-1.16 (m, 11H), 0.90 (s, 3H). Step 2. To a solution of D-2 (23.0 g, 75.5 mmol) and 1H-imidazole (10.2 g, 151 mmol) in anhydrous DCM (310 mL) was added tert-butylchlorodimethylsilane (16.9 g, 113 mmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 16 hrs. Water (200 mL) was added and extracted with EtOAc (3×200 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (3×100 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:DCM:EtOAc=1:1:20) to give D-3 (51 g) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.83 (d, J=9.79 Hz, 1H), 3.61 (d, J=9.54 Hz, 1H), 2.70-2.59 (m, 1H), 2.49 (dd, J=19.32, 8.78 Hz, 1H), 2.41-2.24 (m, 3H), 2.21-2.05 (m, 2H), 2.04-1.94 (m, 1H), 1.94-1.79 (m, 4H), 1.77-1.13 (m, 10H), 0.93-0.82 (m, 12H), 0.07 (d, J=1.76 Hz, 6H). Step 3. To a solution of butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) (157 g, 714 mmol) in anhydrous toluene (500 mL) was added AlMe3 (178 mL, 2 M in toluene, 357 mmol) dropwise at 10° C. under N2. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 h. To the mixture was added a solution of D-3 (50 g, 119 mmol) in anhydrous toluene (100 mL) dropwise at −70° C. under N2. The mixture was stirred at −70° C. for 1 hour. A solution of MeMgBr (102 mL, 3 M in ether, 309 mmol) was added dropwise at −70° C. The mixture was stirred at −70° C. for another 3 hrs under N2. To the mixture was added saturated citric acid solution (100 mL) dropwise. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×800 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (3×800 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=10:1-3:1) to give D-4 (50 g). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.77 (d, J=9.54 Hz, 1H), 3.41 (d, J=9.54 Hz, 1H), 2.44 (dd, J=19.20, 8.66 Hz, 1H), 2.08 (dt, J=18.82, 9.16 Hz, 1H), 2.01-1.72 (m, 5H), 1.66-1.39 (m, 10H), 1.34-1.14 (m, 9H), 0.93-0.82 (m, 12H), 0.05 (d, J=3.01 Hz, 6H). Step 4. To a solution of PPh3PEtBr (138.35 g, 345 mmol) in anhydrous THF (100 mL) at 25° C. was added t-BuOK (38.64 g, 345 mmol) dropwise under N2. After stirring at 60° C. for 1 h, D-4 (30 g, 69.0 mmol) in anhydrous THF (100 mL) was added to the above mixture dropwise. The mixture was stirred at 60° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was quenched with saturated NH4Cl (30 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (3×150 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (3×200 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=10:1) to give D-5 (45 g, impure) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 5.13 (d, J=6.78 Hz, 1H), 3.94-3.70 (m, 2H), 3.50-3.34 (m, 1H), 2.49-2.11 (m, 3H), 2.06-1.72 (m, 4H), 1.71-1.38 (m, 11H), 1.35-1.07 (m, 10H), 1.01-0.81 (m, 12H), 0.07 (s, 6H). Step 5. To a solution of D-5 (44.6 g, 99.9 mmol) in THF (300 mL) was added dropwise a solution of BH3-Me2S (100 mL, 1000 mmol) at 0° C. The solution was stirred 25° C. for 3 hrs. After cooling to 0° C., a solution of NaOH (403 mL, 3M) was added very slowly. After the addition, H2O2(123 g, 33%) was added slowly and the inner temperature was maintained below 10° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The resulting solution was extracted with EtOAc (3×300 mL). The combined organic solution was washed with saturated aqueous Na2S2O3 (3×100 mL), brine (100 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give the crude product (70 g) as a solid. The crude product was used for the next step without further purification. Step 6. A mixture of D-6 (70 g, crude), PCC (32.4 g, 150 mmol) and silica gel (35.7 g, w/w=1/1.1) in DCM (500 mL) was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hrs. The solution was filtered and the filtered cake was washed with DCM. The combined filtrate was concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by silica gel column eluted with PE/EtOAc=15/1 to 8:1 to give D-7 (31 g, impure) as an off-white solid. Step 7. To a solution of D-7 (30.0 g, 64.8 mmol) in anhydrous THF (150 mL) was added H2SO4 (64.5 mL, 129 mmol, 2M in H2O) at 10° C. dropwise. After stirring at 50° C. for 27 hrs, the reaction mixture was quenched with saturated NH4Cl (20 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (3×25 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (3×20 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=10:1-2:1) to give D-8 (16 g) as an off white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.95-3.83 (m, 1H), 3.51 (d, J=11.04 Hz, 1H), 2.51 (t, J=8.78 Hz, 1H), 2.20-2.07 (m, 4H), 2.06-1.84 (m, 4H), 1.83-1.34 (m, 11H), 1.32-1.05 (m, 11H), 0.62-0.53 (m, 3H). Step 8. Br2 (1.37 g, 8.58 mmol) was added slowly to a vigorously stirred solution of NaOH (11.4 mL, 3M in H2O) in an ice bath. When all the bromine had dissolved, the mixture was diluted with 4 mL of cold dioxane and the ice-cold hypobromite solution was added slowly to a stirred solution of 1.0 g of D-8 in 6 mL of dioxane and 1 mL of water. The homogeneous yellow solution slowly became colorless and a white precipitate formed. After stirring for 15 hrs at 25° C., the remaining oxidizing agent was destroyed by the addition of excess Na2S2O3 solution and the mixture was heated at 80° C. until the solid material dissolved. The mixture was acidified with concentrated HCl. The solid was collected, washed with water and dried to give 1.0 g of a brown solid (100% yield). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.65 (d, J=10.54 Hz, 1H), 3.22 (d, J=10.54 Hz, 1H), 2.27 (t, J=9.29 Hz, 1H), 0.99-2.04 (m, 28H), 0.59 (s, 3H). Step 9. To a solution of D-9 (7.0 g, 19.9 mmol) in MeOH (28 mL) and toluene (7 mL) was added TMSCHN2 (30 mL) at 0° C. The mixture was warmed to 15° C. and stirred at the same temperature for 12 hrs. The mixture was quenched with AcOH (25 mL). The resulting solution was extracted with EtOAc (3×150 mL). The combined organic layers was washed with saturated NaCl (100 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4 and evaporated in vacuo to give crude product, which was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE/EtOAc=10/1-3:1) to afford D-10 (5.2 g) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.94-3.87 (m, 1H), 3.69-3.63 (m, 3H), 3.52 (d, J=11.04 Hz, 1H), 2.29-2.39 (m, 1H), 2.06-2.20 (m, 1H), 1.36-2.01 (m, 12H), 1.09-1.33 (m, 14H), 0.63 (s, 3H). Step 10. To a solution of D-10 (2.0 g, 5.48 mmol) in THF (15 mL) was added NaH (0.76 g, 19.1 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 0.5 h. Me2SO4 (694 mg, 5.5 mmol) was added. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 15 hrs. To the reaction mixture was added water (50 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (3×20 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (3×20 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=10:1-4:1) to give D-11 (3.5 g) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.75-3.64 (m, 3H), 3.61-3.47 (m, 1H), 3.35 (s, 3H), 3.24-3.13 (m, 1H), 2.41-2.30 (m, 1H), 2.21-2.08 (m, 1H), 2.03-1.37 (m, apparent 17H, residual ethyl acetate), 1.32 (m, apparent 12H, residual ethyl acetate), 0.66 (s, 3H). Step 11. To a solution of D-11 (580 mg, 1.53 mmol) in THF (8 mL) was added LiAlH4 (174 mg, 4.59 mmol) at 0° C. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 0.5 h. To the reaction mixture was added water (1.8 mL), NaOH (5.4 mL, 10% aq) and water (1.8 mL). The mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×35 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (3×10 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. Crude D-12 (0.75 g) was used as is in the next step. Step 12. A mixture of D-12 (750 mg, crude), PCC (915 mg, 4.26 mmol) and silica gel (1000 mg, w/w=1/1.1) in DCM (8 mL) was stirred at 15° C. for 12 hrs. The solution was filtered and the filtered cake was washed with DCM. The combined filtrate was concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by silica gel column eluted with PE/EtOAc=2:1 to give D-13 (740 mg) as an off-white solid. Step 13. To a solution of D-13 (770 mg, 2.2 mmol) in anhydrous DCM (8 mL) was added hydroxylamine hydrochloride (229 mg, 3.3 mmol) and TEA (666 mg, 6.6 mmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 2 h rs. Water (10 mL) was added and extracted with EtOAc (3×20 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (3×10 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=1:1) to give D-14 (0.8 g) as an off-white solid. Step 14. To a solution of D-14 (150 mg, 0.4 mmol) in anhydrous DCM (3 mL) was added pyridine (32 mg, 0.4 mmol) and NCS (55 mg, 0.4 mmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 1.5 h rs. DIEA (53 mg, 0.4 mmol) and prop-2-yn-1-ol (69 mg, 1.23 mmol) was added. Water (10 mL) was added and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×20 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (3×10 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC (0.5% HCl additive) to give 5 (18 mg, 10% yield) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 6.11 (s, 1H), 4.77 (s, 2H), 3.60 (d, J=9.03 Hz, 1H), 3.41-3.29 (m, 3H), 3.20 (d, J=9.03 Hz, 1H), 2.73 (t, J=9.66 Hz, 1H), 2.23-1.99 (m, 2H), 1.98-1.89 (m, 2H), 1.88-1.74 (m, 2H), 1.68-1.42 (m, 10H), 1.37-1.09 (m, 10H), 0.58 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=1.116 min in 2 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. for C25H39NO4 [M+H]+ 418, found 418. Example 5. Synthesis of Compounds 6 and 7 Step 1. To a solution of E-1 (400 mg, 1.1 mmol) in THF (5 mL) was added a solution LAH (83.6 mg, 2.2 mmol) in THF (3 mL) dropwise below −30° C. The solution was stirred at −30° C. for 3 hrs. The reaction was quenched by saturated aqueous NH4Cl (5 mL) at −30° C. The resulting mixture was extracted with EtOAc (2×30 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (2×30 mL) and concentrated in vacuum to afford E-2 (380 mg, crude) as a light yellow solid. Step 2. To a solution of E-2 (380 mg, 1.24 mmol) in DCM (8 mL) was added TEA (375 mg, 3.72 mmol) and hydroxylamine hydrochloride (172 mg, 2.48 mmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 16 hrs. The mixture was poured into water (50 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×50 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (30 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give E-3 (360 mg, crude) as an off-white solid. Step 3. A solution of E-3 (180 mg, 563 umol) in DCM (5 mL) was added pyridine (0.2 mL) and 1-chloropyrrolidine-2,5-dione (75.1 mg, 563 μmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 20 mins. The reaction was treated with neat prop-2-yn-1-ol (94.1 mg, 1.68 mmol), followed by DIEA (0.2 mL). After stirring for 1 h, the reaction was concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 6 (138.8 mg, 66%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 6.10 (s, 1H), 4.74 (s, 2H), 2.72 (t, J=9.7 Hz, 1H), 2.12-1.98 (m, 2H), 1.89-1.73 (m, 5H), 1.72-1.60 (m, 3H), 1.52-1.36 (m, 6H), 1.36-1.22 (m, 9H), 1.16-0.96 (m, 3H), 0.57 (s, 3H). Step 4. A solution of E-3 (180 mg, 563 μmol) in DCM (8 mL) was added pyridine (0.2 mL) and 1-chloropyrrolidine-2,5-dione (75.1 mg, 563 μmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 h. The reaction was treated with neat ethynyltrimethylsilane (165 mg, 1.68 mmol) followed by neat DIEA (0.2 mL). After stirring for 16 hrs at 25° C., the reaction was poured into water (50 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×15 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (30 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give E-4 (200 mg, crude) as a light yellow solid. Step 5. To a mixture of E-4 (200 mg, 481 μmol) in acetonitrile (6 mL) and EtOH (3 ml) was added CsF (80.3 mg, 529 μmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 16 hrs. The reaction was poured into water (30 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×30 mL). The combined organic layer was washed with brine (50 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated to afford the crude product. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC (0.5% HCl can additive) to afford 7 (40 mg, 24%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.34-8.28 (d, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 6.18 (d, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 2.82-2.72 (m, 1H), 2.20-1.99 (m, 2H), 1.90-1.75 (m, 5H), 1.73-1.59 (m, 2H), 1.50-1.38 (m, 6H), 1.35-1.27 (m, 9H), 1.21-0.95 (m, 3H), 0.56 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=1.111 min in 2 min chromatography, 30-90AB, MS ESI calcd. for C22H34NO2 [M+H] 344, found 344. Example 6. Synthesis of 8 Step 1. Under nitrogen atmosphere, anhydrous THF (400 mL) was cooled to 10° C. and anhydrous LiCl (12.8 g, 304 mmol) was added in one portion. The mixture was stirred for 30 min after which a clear solution was obtained. To this mixture was added anhydrous FeCl3 (25.7 g, 159 mmol) in one portion. The resulting mixture was stirred for additional 30 min. The reaction mixture was cooled to −35° C. and MeMgBr (3 M in diethyl ether, 193 mL, 580 mmol) was added dropwise maintaining the internal temperature between −35° C. and −30° C. The above mixture was stirred for 30 min at −30° C. F-4 (40 g, 145 mmol) was added in one portion. The internal temperature was allowed to −20° C. and held between −15° C. and −20° C. for 2 hours. The reaction mixture was quenched with aqueous HCl (2 M, 200 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×500 mL). The combined organic layer was washed with aqueous NaOH (10%, 2×300 mL) and brine (300 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was triturated from EtOAc to give F-5 (25.0 g, 59%) as an off white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 2.44-2.40 (m, 1H), 2.09-2.00 (m, 1H), 1.89-1.57 (m, 7H), 1.54-1.03 (m, 16H), 0.87 (s, 3H), 0.73-0.70 (m, 2H). Step 2. To a solution of ethyltriphenylphosphonium bromide (152 g, 412 mmol) in THF (600 mL), was added a solution of t-BuOK (46.1 g, 412 mmol) at 25° C. The mixture was heated to 60° C. and stirred for 1 h and then F-5 (30.0 g, 103 mmol) was added. The mixture was stirred at 60° C. for 2 hrs. The mixture was poured into sat.aq NH4Cl (500 mL), extracted with EtOAc (2×300 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (300 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered, concentrated. The residue was purified by silica gel column (PE/EtOAc=100/1) to afford F-6 (30 g, 96%) as an off white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 5.12-5.09 (m, 1H), 2.34-2.21 (m, 3H), 1.86-1.58 (m, 8H), 1.56-0.99 (m, 17H), 0.87 (s, 3H), 0.75-0.68 (m, 2H). Step 3. To a solution of F-6 (40.0, 132 mmol) in THF (300 mL) was added di-methylsulfide borane (132 mL, 1.32 mol) dropwise at 0° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hrs. After cooling to 0° C., a solution of NaOH (220 mL, 3M) was added very slowly. After the addition was complete, H2O2(150 mL, 33%) was added slowly and the inner temperature was maintained below 10° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The resulting solution was filtered, and the filtrate was extract with EtOAc (3×500 mL). The combined organic solution was washed with saturated aqueous Na2S2O3 (2×500 mL), brine (500 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give F-7 (40 g, crude) as a white solid. The crude product was used for the next step without further purification. Step 4. To a solution of F-7 (40 g, 124 mmol) and silica gel (44 g) in DCM (400 mL) was added pyridinium chlorochromate (53.4 g, 248 mmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The mixture was filtered and the filter cake was washed with DCM (2×200 mL). The combined filtrate was concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by silica gel column (eluted with PE/EtOAc=10/1 to 1/1) to afford F-8 (34 g, 86%) as an off white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 2.55-2.51 (m, 1H), 2.20-2.10 (m, 4H), 2.00-1.64 (m, 4H), 1.60-0.99 (m, 20H), 0.75-0.69 (m, 3H), 0.60 (s, 3H). Step 5. To a solution of F-8 (10.0 g, 31.3 mmol) in dioxane/H2O (400 mL/120 mL) at 0° C. was added sodium hypobromide (1500 mL) [prepared from NaOH (163 g), dibromine (54.1 mL), dioxane (600 mL) and H2O (800 mL)]. The resulting mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 24 hours. Sat.aq Na2S2O3 (400 mL) was added followed by adding HCl (450 mL, IM). The mixture was adjusted to pH=6 and a white precipitate appeared. The precipitate was filtered and the filter cake was washed with water (2×300 mL), dried in vacuum to give F-9 (9.5 g, 95%) as a white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, DMSO-d6) δ 11.89 (br, 1H), 3.87 (s, 1H), 2.29-2.26 (m, 1H), 2.00-1.93 (m, 2H), 1.65-1.15 (m, 9H), 1.13-0.91 (m, 13H), 0.85-0.75 (m, 5H). Step 6. A mixture of F-9 (12.2 g, 38.0 mmol), N,O-dimethylhydroxylamine hydrochloride (7.41 g, 76.0 mmol), HATU (17.3 g, 45.5 mmol) and Et3N (21.0 mL, 152 mmol) in 300 mL anhydrous DCM was stirred for 18 hrs at 25° C. The mixture was treated with water (200 mL), extracted with DCM (2×300 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with aqueous HCl (200 mL, IM), saturated aqueous NaHCO3 (200 mL), brine (300 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by silica gel column (PE/EtOAc=5/1) to afford F-1 (13.0 g, 94%) as an off white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.64 (s, 3H), 3.20 (s, 3H), 2.80 (br, 1H), 2.25-2.15 (m, 1H), 1.81-1.57 (m, 8H), 1.33-1.00 (m, 16H), 0.74 (s, 3H), 0.69-0.60 (m, 2H). Step 7. To a solution of F-1 (200 mg, 550 μmol) in THF (3 mL) was added LiAlH4 (41.3 mg, 1.09 mmol) at −45° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The mixture was quenched with NH4Cl (20 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (2×30 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (30 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give F-2 (180 mg, crude) as an off-white solid. Step 8. To a solution of F-2 (180 mg, 591 μmol) in DCM (3 mL) was added triethylamine (0.326 mL, 2.36 mmol) and hydroxylamine hydrochloride (61.5 mg, 886 mmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hrs. The mixture was poured into water (50 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×30 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (30 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give F-3 (200 mg, crude) as an off-white solid. Step 10. A solution of F-3 (200 mg, μmol) in DCM (3 mL) was added pyridine (0.1 mL) and 1-chloropyrrolidine-2,5-dione (83.2 mg, 626 μmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 h. The reaction was treated with prop-2-yn-1-ol (104 mg, 1.87 mmol), followed by DIEA (0.1 mL). After stirring for 3 hrs, the reaction was concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC separation (column: Phenomenex Synergi C18 150*30 mm*4 um, gradient: 52-82% B (A=0.05% HCl-ACN,B=acetonitrile), flow rate: 30 mL/min) to obtain 8 (28 mg, 12%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 6.10 (s, 1H), 4.74 (s, 2H), 2.72 (t, J=9.8 Hz, 1H), 2.21-1.88 (m, 3H), 1.82-1.73 (m, 4H), 1.72-1.62 (m, 3H), 1.54 (d, J=2.8 Hz, 2H), 1.39-1.23 (m, 5H), 1.20 (s, 3H), 1.16-0.93 (m, 6H), 0.80-0.65 (m, 2H), 0.58 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=0.984 min in 2 min chromatography, 30-90AB, MS ESI calcd. for C23H36NO3 [M+H]+ 374, found 374. Example 7. Synthesis of Compound 9. PP-85,C3 Step 1. To a solution of F-3 (300 mg, 0.939 mmol) in DCM (5 mL) was added pyridine (0.3 mL) and 1-chloropyrrolidine-2,5-dione (125 mg, 0.939 mmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 h. The reaction was treated with ethynyltrimethylsilane (275 mg, 2.81 mmol), followed by DIEA (0.3 mL). After stirring 2 hrs at 25° C., the reaction was poured into water (50 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×15 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (30 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give F-4 (250 mg, crude) as a light yellow solid. Step 2. To a mixture of F-4 (250 mg, 601 μmol) in acetonitrile (6 mL) and EtOH (3 mL) was added CsF (100 mg, 661 μmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The reaction was poured into water (30 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×30 mL). The combined organic layer was washed with brine (50 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated to afford the crude product. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC (column: Phenomenex Synergi C18 150*30 mm*4 um, gradient: 65-95% B (A=0.05% HCl-ACN, B=acetonitrile), flow rate: 30 mL/min) to afford 9 (42.1 mg, 20%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (CDCl3, 400 MHz): δ 8.33 (s, 1H), 6.21 (d, J=1.4 Hz, 1H), 2.79 (t, J=9.8 Hz, 1H), 2.21-2.20 (m, 3H), 1.87-1.75 (m, 4H), 1.75-1.66 (m, 2H), 1.64-1.58 (m, 2H), 1.40-1.27 (m, 5H), 1.23 (s, 3H), 1.19-1.10 (m, 6H), 0.81-0.65 (m, 2H), 0.59 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=2.071 min in 3 min chromatography, 30-90AB, MS ESI calcd. for C22H34NO2 [M+H]+ 344.25, found 344.2. Example 8. Synthesis of Compound 10 Step 1. To a solution of C-3 (260 mg, 0.779 mmol) in DCM (5 mL) was added pyridine (0.3 mL) and 1-chloropyrrolidine-2,5-dione (104 mg, 0.779 mmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 1 h. The reaction was treated with ethynyltrimethylsilane (228 mg, 2.33 mmol), followed by DIEA (0.3 mL). After stirring 2 hrs at 25° C., the reaction was poured into water (50 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×15 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (30 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give C-4 (250 mg, crude) as a light yellow solid. Step 2. To a mixture of C-4 (250 mg, 581 μmol) in acetonitrile (6 mL) and EtOH (3 mL) was added CsF (97 mg, 639 μmol) at 25° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 2 hrs. The reaction was poured into water (30 mL) and extracted with DCM (2×30 mL). The combined organic layer was washed with brine (50 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated to afford crude product. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC (column: Phenomenex Synergi C18 150*30 μm*4 um, gradient: 65-95% B (A=0.05% HCl-ACN, B=acetonitrile), flow rate: 30 mL/min) to afford 10 (15.1 mg, 7%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): δ 8.34 (s, 1H), 6.20 (d, J=1.4 Hz, 1H), 2.78 (t, J=9.8 Hz, 1H), 2.23-1.73 (m, 8H), 1.55-1.40 (m, 7H), 1.39-1.14 (m, 10H), 1.08 (td, J=14.4, 3.5 Hz, 1H), 0.97 (s, 3H), 0.56 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=1.980 min in 3 min chromatography, 30-90AB, MS ESI calcd. for C23H36NO2 [M+H]+ 358.27, found 358.3. Example 9. Synthesis of Compound 11 Step 1. To a solution of E-5 (CAS 162882-77-1; 0.4 g, 1.25 mmol) in ethyl formate (10 mL) was added NaOMe (337 mg, 6.25 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 30 mins. The mixture was heated at 50° C. for 16 hrs. The reaction solution was concentrated to give a residue (400 mg, crude), which was used in next step directly. Step 2. To a solution of D-15 (0.4 g, 1.15 mmol) in EtOH (5 mL) and H2O (2 mL) was added NH2OH.HCl (240 mg, 3.44 mmol) and AcOH (2 mL). The reaction solution was stirred at 15° C. for 10 mins and was stirred at 80° C. for 16 hrs. The mixture was concentrated to give a residue, which was purified by preparative HPLC to give 11 (107 mg, 27%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.14 (s, 1H), 5.96 (s, 1H), 2.84-2.79 (m, 1H), 2.10-0.85 (m, 27H), 0.52 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=1.355 min in 2 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. for C22H32NO [M+H−H2O]+326, found 326. Example 10. Synthesis of Compound 12 Step 1. To a solution of D-5 (16 g, 35.8 mmol) in THF (150 mL) was added aqueous sulfuric acid (2 M, 71.5 mL, 143 mmol). The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 48 hrs. The reaction mixture was neutralized with aqueous sodium bicarbonate (250 mL), extracted with EtOAc (2×200 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (200 mL), dried over anhydrous sodium sulfate, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=3:1) to give D-15 (9.5 g, 80%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 5.14-5.07 (m, 1H), 3.92 (d, J=10.8 Hz, 1H), 3.54 (d, J=10.4 Hz, 1H), 2.39-2.23 (m, 3H), 1.96-1.85 (m, 2H), 1.83-1.72 (m, 1H), 1.66-1.57 (m, 5H), 1.54-1.36 (m, 8H), 1.34-1.13 (m, 11H), 0.84 (s, 3H). Step 2. To a solution of D-15 (5.0 g, 15.0 mmol) in THF (50 mL) was added NaH (1.80 g, 45.0 mmol, 60%) at 0° C. and stirred for 30 mins. Me2SO4 (1.87 g, 14.8 mmol) was added and the reaction mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was quenched with saturated aqueous NH4Cl (100 mL) and extracted with EtOAc (2×100 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (100 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE/EtOAc=20/1) to afford D-16 (3.2 g, 62%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 5.11-5.07 (m, 1H), 3.57 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 3.33 (s, 3H), 3.19 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 2.32-2.22 (m, 3H), 1.92-1.51 (m, 12H), 1.47-1.19 (m, 14H), 0.85 (s, 3H). Step 3. To a solution of D-16 (3.2 g, 9.23 mmol) in THF (50 mL) was added dropwise BH3.Me2S (9.22 mL, 92.3 mmol) at 0° C. The solution was stirred at 15° C. for 12 hrs. After cooling to 0° C., a solution of NaOH (40 mL) was added very slowly. After the addition was complete, H2O2(30 mL, 33%) was added slowly and the inner temperature was maintained below 15° C. The resulting solution was stirred at 15° C. for 3 hrs. The reaction mixture was quenched with citric acid (20 mL, IM) and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×100 mL). The combined organic solution was washed with saturated aqueous Na2S2O3 (50 mL), brine (150 mL), dried over Na2SO4 and concentrated in vacuum to give the crude product, which was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE: EtOAc=10/1) to afford crude D-17 (2.0 g, 60%) as an off-white solid. Step 4. To a solution of D-17 (2.0 g, 5.48 mmol) in DCM (30 mL) was added PCC (2.34 g, 10.9 mmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 1 h and the reaction mixture was filtered and the filtrate was concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE/EtOAc=10/1) to afford D-18 (1.8 g, 91%) as light yellow solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.54 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 3.33 (s, 3H), 3.18 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 2.54-2.52 (m, 1H), 2.13-1.91 (m, 7H), 1.66-1.27 (m, 13H), 1.25-1.18 (m, 9H), 0.59 (s, 3H). Step 5. To a stirred solution of D-18 (500 mg, 1.37 mmol) in MeOH (5 mL) was added HBr (68.3 mg, 411 μmol, 48%), then Br2 (100 L, 2.05 mmol) was added dropwise. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 5 hrs. The mixture was quenched by a saturated aqueous NaHCO3 and adjusted to pH=7, extracted with DCM (2×20 mL). The combined organic phase was concentrated in vacuum to give D-19 (650 mg) as light yellow solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 3.90-3.89 (m, 2H), 3.53 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 3.32 (s, 3H), 3.18 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 2.82-2.81 (m, 1H), 2.18-2.15 (m, 1H), 1.92-1.23 (m, 25H), 0.62 (s, 3H). Step 6. To a solution of D-19 (100 mg, 226 μmol) in t-BuOH (3 mL) was added pyridin-2-amine (25.5 mg, 271 umol) and K2CO3 (62.4 mg, 452 umol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 5 hrs. The reaction mixture was extracted with EtOAc (2×30 mL). The combined organic phase was concentrated to give the crude product, which was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 12 (21.5 mg, 22%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.06 (d, J=6.8 Hz, 1H), 7.65 (br, 1H), 7.35 (s, 1H), 7.16 (br, 1H), 6.77 (br, 1H), 3.59 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 3.33 (s, 3H), 3.16 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 2.86-2.84 (m, 1H), 2.16-2.10 (m, 1H), 1.96-1.55 (m, 8H), 1.53-1.20 (m, 17H), 0.53 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=0.760 min in 1.5 min chromatography, 5-95 AB, MS ESI calcd. for C28H41N2O2 [M+H]+ 437, found 437. Example 11. Synthesis of Compound 13 Step 1. To a suspension of D-18 (100 mg, 275 μmol) in ethyl formate (5 mL) was added NaOMe.MeOH (5 mL, 25%) at 15° C. The reaction was stirred at 50° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was concentrated to get the crude product D-21 (300 mg, crude) as yellow solid, which was used directly in next step without further purification. Step 2. To a suspension of D-21 (100 mg, 256 μmol) and hydroxylamine hydrochloride (21.3 mg, 307 umol) in EtOH (5 mL) was added AcOH (2 mL), followed by water (10 mL) at 15° C. The resulting mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 4 hrs. The reaction mixture was concentrated to remove EtOH. The mixture was extracted with EtOAc (2×50 mL). The combined organic phase was washed with brine (50 ml) and concentrated in vacuum. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 13 (102.7 mg, 50% over two steps) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.14 (d, J=1.2 Hz, 1H), 5.96 (s, 1H), 3.56 (d, J=9.2 Hz, 1H), 3.31 (s, 3H), 3.16 (d, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 2.81-2.77 (m, 1H), 2.01-1.91 (m, 5H), 1.85-1.19 (m, 21H), 0.49 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=0.914 min in 1.5 min chromatography, 5-95 AB, MS ESI calcd. for 2C24H36NO2 [M+H−H2O]+370, found 370. Example 12. Synthesis of Compound 14 To a solution of E-7 (CAS 1430063-93-6; 100 mg, 251 μmol) in t-BuOH (5 mL) was added pyridin-2-amine (23.6 mg, 251 μmol) and K2CO3 (69.2 mg, 502 μmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 4 hrs. The mixture was diluted by DCM (15 mL) and filtered. The filtrate was concentrated to give the crude product, which was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 14 (25.3 mg, 26%). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) 16.02 (br. s., 1H), 8.45 (d, J=7.8 Hz, 1H), 8.30 (br. s., 1H), 7.70 (br. s., 1H), 7.48 (br. s., 1H), 7.34-7.28 (m, 1H), 3.05 (br. s., 1H), 2.21 (br. s., 2H), 1.92-0.90 (m, 24H), 0.70-0.59 (m, 3H) LCMS Rt=1.507 min in 3 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. for C26H37N2O [M+H]+ 393, found 393. Example 13. Synthesis of Compound 15 To a solution of C-5 (100 mg, 243 μmol) in t-BuOH (5 mL) was added pyridin-2-amine (22.8 mg, 243 μmol) and K2CO3 (67.0 mg, 486 μmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 4 hrs. The mixture was diluted by DCM (15 mL) and filtered. The filtrate was concentrated to get the crude product, which was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 15 (16.7 mg, 17%). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 16.14 (br. s., 1H), 8.44 (d, J=8.28 Hz, 1H), 8.29 (br. s., 1H), 7.70 (br. s., 1H), 7.47 (br. s., 1H), 3.04 (t, J=9.03 Hz, 1H), 2.20 (br. s., 2H), 1.99-1.82 (m, 5H), 1.81-1.42 (m, 12H), 1.25 (s, 3H), 1.24-1.01 (m, 2H), 0.93 (s, 3H), 6.64 (s, 3H). —LCMS Rt=1.542 min in 3 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. for C27H39N2O [M+H]+ 407 found 407. Example 14. Synthesis of Compound 16 To a solution of F-5 (CAS 1430063-60-7; 150 mg, 377 μmol) in t-BuOH (5 mL) was added pyridin-2-amine (35.4 mg, 377 μmol) and K2CO3 (104 mg, 754 μmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 4 h. The mixture was diluted with DCM (15 mL), filtered. The filtrate was concentrated to afford the crude product, which was purified by preparative HPLC to give 16 (46.2 mg, yield 31%). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 16.05 (br. s., 1H), 8.40-8.35 (m, 2H), 7.69 (br s, 1H), 7.70 (br s, 1H), 7.52 (br s, 1H), 7.26 (br s under chloroform peak, 1H), 3.05-3.04 (m, 1H), 2.30-2.20 (m, 2H), 1.67-0.68 (multiple m, apparent 26H), 0.65 (m and s, 4H).LCMS Rt=1.511 min in 3 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. for C26H37N2O [M+H]+ 393, found 393. Example 15. Synthesis of Compound 17 Step 1. To a solution of D-14 (250 mg, 0.69 mmol) in anhydrous DCM (3 mL) was added pyridine (53 mg, 0.69 mmol) and NCS (91 mg, 0.69 mmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 1.5 hrs. DIEA (89 mg, 0.69 mmol) and ethynyltrimethylsilane (202 mg, 2.06 mmol) was added. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 15 hrs. Water (10 mL) was added and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×20 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with brine (3×10 mL),dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by column chromatography on silica gel (PE:EtOAc=1:1) to give D-15 (130 mg, impure) as an off-white solid. Step 2. To a solution of D-20 (130 mg, 0.28 mmol) in anhydrous MeCN (2 mL) and EtOH (1 mL) was added CsF (47 mg, 0.31 mmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 15° C. for 15 hrs. Water (10 mL) was added and the mixture was extracted with EtOAc (3×20 mL). The combined organic layers were washed with saturated brine (3×10 mL), dried over anhydrous Na2SO4, filtered and concentrated. The residue was purified by preparative HPLC (0.5% NH4HCO3 additive) to give 17 (36 mg, 33%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.32 (d, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 6.18 (d, J=1.8 Hz, 1H), 3.57 (d, J=9.3 Hz, 1H), 3.33 (s, 3H), 3.23-3.13 (m, 1H), 2.76 (t, J=9.8 Hz, 1H), 2.22-1.88 (m, 4H), 1.85-1.70 (m, 3H), 1.67-1.40 (m, 9H), 1.35-1.07 (m, 10H), 0.54 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=0.914 min in 1.5 min chromatography, 5-95 AB, purity 97%, MS ESI calcd. for C24H36NO2 [M+H−H2O]+370, found 370. Example 16. Synthesis of Compound 18 Step 1. To a solution of C-6 (580 mg, 1.74 mmol) in ethyl formate (50 mL, 618 mmol) was added CH3ONa (282 mg, 5.22 mmol) at 25° C. The reaction was stirred at 25° C. for 16 hrs. The reaction solution was concentrated in vacuum and the residue was added ethyl formate (20 mL, 247.2 mmol) and CH3ONa (640 mg, 11.85 mmol) at 25° C. The reaction was stirred at 60° C. for 16 hrs. The reaction solution was concentrated in vacuum to give crude C-8 (600 mg, crude), which was used for next step directly without further purification. LCMS Rt=1.278 min in 2 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. For C23H37O3 [M+H]+ 361, found 361. Step 2. To a solution of C-8 (600 mg, 1.66 mmol) in EtOH (20 mL) and H2O (2 mL) was added hydroxylamine hydrochloride (345 mg, 4.97 mmol) and AcOH (3 mL). The reaction solution was stirred at 15° C. for 1 h and then stirred at 80° C. for 16 hrs. The mixture was concentrated to give a residue, which was purified by preparative HPLC and then purified by SFC to give 18 (17 mg, 3%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.14 (d, J=1.5 Hz, 1H), 6.00-5.90 (m, 1H), 2.80 (t, J=9.8 Hz, 1H), 2.16-0.76 (m, 29H), 0.50 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=0.979 min in 1.5 min chromatography, 5-95AB, MS ESI calcd. for C23H34NO [M+H−H2O]+340, found 340. Example 17. Synthesis of Compound 19 Step 1. To a solution of F-8 (250 mg, 0.784 mmol) in HCO2Et (4 mL) was added NaOMe (211 mg, 3.92 mmol) at 50° C. The mixture was stirred at 25° C. for 12 hrs. The reaction mixture was concentrated to get the crude product F-10 (800 mg, crude) as yellow solid, which was used directly in next step without further purification. Step 2. To a suspension of F-10 (800 mg, 2.30 mmol) and hydroxylamine hydrochloride (175 mg, 2.53 mmol) in EtOH (2 mL) was added AcOH (5 mL), followed by water (8 mL). The resulting mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 4 hrs. The reaction mixture was concentrated to give an off-white solid, which was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 19 (60 mg, 8%) as an off-white solid. 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ 8.14 (s, 1H), 5.96 (s, 1H), 2.80 (t, J=8.8 Hz, 1H), 2.06-2.01 (m, 2H), 2.06-2.01 (m, 2H), 1.95-1.90 (m, 1H), 1.80-1.75 (m, 4H), 1.70-1.50 (m, 5H), 1.41-1.29 (m, 4H), 1.28-1.01 (m, 7H), 0.71-0.68 (m, 2H), 0.53 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=1.350 min in 2 min chromatography, 10-80 AB, MS ESI calcd. For C22H34NO2 [M+H]+ 344, found 344. Example 18. Synthesis of Compound 20 To a solution of A-8 (300 mg, 679 μmol) in t-BuOH (5 mL) was added pyridin-2-amine (63.9 mg, 679 μmol) and K2CO3 (186 mg, 1.35 mmol) at 15° C. The mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 4 hrs. The mixture was diluted by DCM (20 mL) and filtered, the filtrate was concentrated to get the crude product, which was purified by preparative HPLC to afford 20 (26 mg, 8%). 1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3) δ ppm 8.05 (d, J=6.52 Hz, 1H), 7.61 (br. s., 1H), 7.35 (s, 1H), 7.12 (br. s., 1H), 6.74 (br. s., 1H), 3.50-3.44 (m, 1H), 3.41-3.35 (m, 1H), 3.26 (s, 3H), 2.86 (t, J=9.79 Hz, 1H), 2.25-1.99 (m, 4H), 1.90-0.82 (m, 22H), 0.57 (s, 3H). LCMS Rt=1.518 min in 3 min chromatography, 10-80AB, MS ESI calcd. for C28H41N2O2 [M+H]+ 437, found 437. Assay Methods Compounds provided herein can be evaluated using various assays; examples of which are described below. Steroid Inhibition of TBPS Binding TBPS binding assays using rat brain cortical membranes in the presence of 5 μM GABA has been described (Gee et al, J. Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 1987, 241, 346-353; Hawkinson et al, Mol. Pharmacol. 1994, 46, 977-985; Lewin, A. H et al., Mol. Pharmacol. 1989, 35, 189-194). Briefly, cortices are rapidly removed following decapitation of carbon dioxide-anesthetized Sprague-Dawley rats (200-250 g). The cortices are homogenized in 10 volumes of ice-cold 0.32 M sucrose using a glass/teflon homogenizer and centrifuged at 1500×g for 10 min at 4° C. The resultant supernatants are centrifuged at 10,000×g for 20 min at 4° C. to obtain the P2 pellets. The P2 pellets are resuspended in 200 mM NaCl/50 mM Na—K phosphate pH 7.4 buffer and centrifuged at 10,000×g for 10 min at 4° C. This washing procedure is repeated twice and the pellets are resuspended in 10 volumes of buffer. Aliquots (100 μL) of the membrane suspensions are incubated with 3 nM [35S]-TBPS and 5 μL aliquots of test drug dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) (final 0.5%) in the presence of 5 μM GABA. The incubation is brought to a final volume of 1.0 mL with buffer. Nonspecific binding is determined in the presence of 2 μM unlabeled TBPS and ranged from 15 to 25%. Following a 90 min incubation at room temp, the assays are terminated by filtration through glass fiber filters (Schleicher and Schuell No. 32) using a cell harvester (Brandel) and rinsed three times with ice-cold buffer. Filter bound radioactivity is measured by liquid scintillation spectrometry. Non-linear curve fitting of the overall data for each drug averaged for each concentration is done using Prism (GraphPad). The data are fit to a partial instead of a full inhibition model if the sum of squares is significantly lower by F-test. Similarly, the data are fit to a two component instead of a one component inhibition model if the sum of squares is significantly lower by F-test. The concentration of test compound producing 50% inhibition (IC50) of specific binding and the maximal extent of inhibition (Imax) are determined for the individual experiments with the same model used for the overall data and then the means±SEM.s of the individual experiments are calculated. Picrotoxin serves as the positive control for these studies as it has been demonstrated to robustly inhibit TBPS binding. Various compounds are or can be screened to determine their potential as modulators of [35S]-TBPS binding in vitro. These assays are or can be performed in accordance with the above discussed procedures. For Table 1, “A” indicates an IC50<20 nM, “B” indicates an IC50 of 20 nM to 200 nM, “C” indicates an IC50>200 nM to 500 nM, and “D” indicates IC50>500 nM. TABLE 1 35S-TBPS Radioligand Displacement Compound (IC50) 1 B 2 A 3 C 4 B 5 B 6 B 7 B 8 C 9 C 10 B 11 B 12 D 13 B 14 D 15 D 16 D 17 B 18 B 19 D 20 D | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Brain excitability is defined as the level of arousal of an animal, a continuum that ranges from coma to convulsions, and is regulated by various neurotransmitters. In general, neurotransmitters are responsible for regulating the conductance of ions across neuronal membranes. At rest, the neuronal membrane possesses a potential (or membrane voltage) of approximately −70 mV, the cell interior being negative with respect to the cell exterior. The potential (voltage) is the result of ion (K + , Na + , Cl − , organic anions) balance across the neuronal semipermeable membrane. Neurotransmitters are stored in presynaptic vesicles and are released under the influence of neuronal action potentials. When released into the synaptic cleft, an excitatory chemical transmitter such as acetylcholine will cause membrane depolarization, e.g., a change of potential from −70 mV to −50 mV. This effect is mediated by postsynaptic nicotinic receptors which are stimulated by acetylcholine to increase membrane permeability to Na + ions. The reduced membrane potential stimulates neuronal excitability in the form of a postsynaptic action potential. In the case of the GABA receptor complex (GRC), the effect on brain excitability is mediated by GABA, a neurotransmitter. GABA has a profound influence on overall brain excitability because up to 40% of the neurons in the brain utilize GABA as a neurotransmitter. GABA regulates the excitability of individual neurons by regulating the conductance of chloride ions across the neuronal membrane. GABA interacts with its recognition site on the GRC to facilitate the flow of chloride ions down an electrochemical gradient of the GRC into the cell. An intracellular increase in the levels of this anion causes hyperpolarization of the transmembrane potential, rendering the neuron less susceptible to excitatory inputs, i.e., reduced neuron excitability. In other words, the higher the chloride ion concentration in the neuron, the lower the brain excitability and level of arousal. It is well-documented that the GRC is responsible for the mediation of anxiety, seizure activity, and sedation. Thus, GABA and drugs that act like GABA or facilitate the effects of GABA (e.g., the therapeutically useful barbiturates and benzodiazepines (BZs), such as Valium®) produce their therapeutically useful effects by interacting with specific regulatory sites on the GRC. Accumulated evidence has now indicated that in addition to the benzodiazepine and barbiturate binding site, the GRC contains a distinct site for neuroactive steroids. See, e.g., Lan, N. C. et al., Neurochem. Res. (1991) 16:347-356. Neuroactive steroids can occur endogenously. The most potent endogenous neuroactive steroids are 3α-hydroxy-5-reduced pregnan-20-one and 3α-21-dihydroxy-5-reduced pregnan-20-one, metabolites of hormonal steroids progesterone and deoxycorticosterone, respectively. The ability of these steroid metabolites to alter brain excitability was recognized in 1986 (Majewska, M. D. et al., Science 232:1004-1007 (1986); Harrison, N. L. et al., J Pharmacol. Exp. Ther. 241:346-353 (1987)). The ovarian hormone progesterone and its metabolites have been demonstrated to have profound effects on brain excitability (Backstrom, T. et al., Acta Obstet. Gynecol. Scand. Suppl. 130:19-24 (1985); Pfaff, D. W and McEwen, B. S., Science 219:808-814 (1983); Gyermek et al., J Med Chem. 11: 117 (1968); Lambert, J. et al., Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 8:224-227 (1987)). The levels of progesterone and its metabolites vary with the phases of the menstrual cycle. It has been well documented that the levels of progesterone and its metabolites decrease prior to the onset of menses. The monthly recurrence of certain physical symptoms prior to the onset of menses has also been well documented. These symptoms, which have become associated with premenstrual syndrome (PMS), include stress, anxiety, and migraine headaches (Dalton, K., Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy, 2nd edition, Chicago Yearbook, Chicago (1984)). Subjects with PMS have a monthly recurrence of symptoms that are present in premenses and absent in postmenses. In a similar fashion, a reduction in progesterone has also been temporally correlated with an increase in seizure frequency in female epileptics, i.e., catamenial epilepsy (Laidlaw, J., Lancet, 1235-1237 (1956)). A more direct correlation has been observed with a reduction in progesterone metabolites (Rosciszewska et al., J. Neurol. Neurosurg. Psych. 49:47-51 (1986)). In addition, for subjects with primary generalized petit mal epilepsy, the temporal incidence of seizures has been correlated with the incidence of the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome (Backstrom, T. et al., J. Psychosom. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2:8-20 (1983)). The steroid deoxycorticosterone has been found to be effective in treating subjects with epileptic spells correlated with their menstrual cycles (Aird, R. B. and Gordan, G., J. Amer. Med. Soc. 145:715-719 (1951)). A syndrome also related to low progesterone levels is postnatal depression (PND). Immediately after birth, progesterone levels decrease dramatically leading to the onset of PND. The symptoms of PND range from mild depression to psychosis requiring hospitalization. PND is also associated with severe anxiety and irritability. PND-associated depression is not amenable to treatment by classic antidepressants, and women experiencing PND show an increased incidence of PMS (Dalton, K., Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy, 2nd edition, Chicago Yearbook, Chicago (1984)). Collectively, these observations imply a crucial role for progesterone and deoxycorticosterone and more specifically their metabolites in the homeostatic regulation of brain excitability, which is manifested as an increase in seizure activity or symptoms associated with catamenial epilepsy, PMS, and PND. The correlation between reduced levels of progesterone and the symptoms associated with PMS, PND, and catamenial epilepsy (Backstrom, T. et al., J Psychosom. Obstet. Gynaecol. 2:8-20 (1983)); Dalton, K., Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy, 2nd edition, Chicago Yearbook, Chicago (1984)) has prompted the use of progesterone in their treatment (Mattson et al., “Medroxyprogesterone therapy of catamenial epilepsy,” in Advances in Epileptology: XVth Epilepsy International Symposium , Raven Press, New York (1984), pp. 279-282, and Dalton, K., Premenstrual Syndrome and Progesterone Therapy, 2nd edition, Chicago Yearbook, Chicago (1984)). However, progesterone is not consistently effective in the treatment of the aforementioned syndromes. For example, no dose-response relationship exists for progesterone in the treatment of PMS (Maddocks et al., Obstet. Gynecol. 154:573-581 (1986); Dennerstein et al., Brit. Med J 290:16-17 (1986)). New and improved neuroactive steroids are needed that act as modulating agents for brain excitability, as well as agents for the prevention and treatment of CNS-related diseases. The compounds, compositions, and methods described herein are directed toward this end. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Provided herein are C17-substituted neuroactive steroids designed, for example, to act as GABA modulators. In certain embodiments, such compounds are envisioned to be useful as therapeutic agents for the inducement of anesthesia and/or sedation in a subject. In some embodiments, such compounds are envisioned to be useful as therapeutic agents for treating a CNS-related disorder (e.g., sleep disorder, a mood disorder, a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, a convulsive disorder, a disorder of memory and/or cognition, a movement disorder (e.g., tremor, for example essential tremor), a personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, pain, traumatic brain injury, a vascular disease, a substance abuse disorder and/or withdrawal syndrome, or tinnitus) in a subject in need (e.g., a subject with Rett syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, or Angelman syndrome). In one aspect, provided is a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R 1 is hydrogen, C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 ) or substituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., C 1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, —CF 3 ), —CH 2 OCH 3 )), C 2-6 alkenyl, or C 3-6 carbocylyl; R 2 is absent or hydrogen; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH 2 OR 3A , wherein R 3A is hydrogen, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C 3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R 1 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R 3 is —CH 3 , then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R 3 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-a): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; R a is halogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 2 -C 6 alkenyl, C 2 -C 6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)R A , —C(O)OR A , —C(O)NR B R C , —S(O) 2 R D , or —OR Y , wherein R Y is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 2 -C 6 alkenyl, C 2 -C 6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)R A , —C(O)OR A , —C(O)NR B R C , or —S(O) 2 R D ; R A is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of R B and R C is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and R D is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and R a is alkyl (e.g., —CH 2 OH). In some embodiments, R 1 is unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 is —CH 3 . In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-a) is selected from: In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-b): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; R a is halogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 2 -C 6 alkenyl, C 2 -C 6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)R A , —C(O)OR A , —C(O)NR B R C , —S(O) 2 R D , or —OR Y , wherein R Y is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 2 -C 6 alkenyl, C 2 -C 6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)R A , —C(O)OR A , —C(O)NR B R C , or —S(O) 2 R D ; R A is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of R B and R C is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and R D is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-b) is a compound of Formula (I-b-i), (I-b-ii), (I-b-iii), or (I-b-iv): In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and R a is alkyl (e.g., —CH 2 OH). In some embodiments, R 1 is unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 is —CH 3 . In some embodiments, R 1 is —CH 2 CH 3 . In some embodiments, R 1 is substituted C 1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 is C 1-3 haloalkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 is —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, R 1 is —CH 2 OCH 3 . In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-b) is selected from: In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is a compound of Formula (I-c): wherein: n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5; R a is halogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 2 -C 6 alkenyl, C 2 -C 6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)R A , —C(O)OR A , —C(O)NR B R C , —S(O) 2 R D , or —OR Y , wherein R Y is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, C 2 -C 6 alkenyl, C 2 -C 6 alkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, —C(O)R A , —C(O)OR A , —C(O)NR B R C , or —S(O) 2 R D ; R A is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; each of R B and R C is independently hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or taken together with the atom to which they are attached form a ring (e.g., a 3-7-membered ring, e.g., a 5-7-membered ring; a ring containing at least one heteroatom, e.g., a nitrogen, oxygen, or sulfur atom); and R D is hydrogen, C 1 -C 6 alkyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, or heteroaryl. In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-c) is a compound of Formula (I-c-i), (I-c-ii), (I-c-iii), or (I-c-iv): In some embodiments, A is a 5-7-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic or bicyclic. In some embodiments, A is monocyclic. In some embodiments, A is bicyclic. In some embodiments, A contains at least one nitrogen atom. In some embodiments, A contains two nitrogen atoms. In some embodiments, A is a 5-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is oxazole, pyrazole, or thiazole. In some embodiments, A is a 6-membered ring. In some embodiments, A is an aryl ring. In some embodiments, A is phenyl. In some embodiments, A is a heteroaryl ring. In some embodiments, A is pyridine or pyrimidine. In some embodiments, n is 0 or 1. In some embodiments, n is 0. In some embodiments, n is 1, and R a is alkyl (e.g., —CH 2 OH). In some embodiments, R 1 is unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 is —CH 3 . In some embodiments, R 1 is —CH 2 CH 3 . In some embodiments, R 1 is substituted C 1-3 alkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 is C 1-3 haloalkyl. In some embodiments, R 1 is —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, or —CF 3 . In some embodiments, R 1 is —CH 2 OCH 3 . In some embodiments, the compound of Formula (I-c) is selected from: In one aspect, provided is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of any one of the preceding claims and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In one aspect, provided is a method of inducing sedation and/or anesthesia in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R 1 is hydrogen, C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 ) or substituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., C 1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, —CF 3 ), —CH 2 OCH 3 )), C 2-6 alkenyl, or C 3-6 carbocylyl; R 2 is absent or hydrogen; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH 2 OR 3A , wherein R 3A is hydrogen, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C 3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R 1 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R 3 is —CH 3 , then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R 3 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In one aspect, provided is a method of administering an effective amount of a compound, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or pharmaceutical composition of a compound described herein (e.g., a compound of Formula (I)), to a subject in need thereof, wherein the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia within two hours of administration. In some embodiments, the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia within one hour of administration. In some embodiments, the subject experiences sedation and/or anesthesia instantaneously. In some embodiments, the compound is administered by intravenous administration. In some embodiments, the compound is administered chronically. In some embodiments, the subject is a mammal. In some embodiments, the subject is a human. In some embodiments, the compound is administered in combination with another therapeutic agent. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating seizure in a subject, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R 1 is hydrogen, C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 ) or substituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., C 1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, —CF 3 ), —CH 2 OCH 3 )), C 2-6 alkenyl, or C 3-6 carbocylyl; R 2 is absent or hydrogen; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH 2 OR 3A , wherein R 3A is hydrogen, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C 3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R 1 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R 3 is —CH 3 , then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R 3 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating epilepsy or status or status epilepticus in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R 1 is hydrogen, C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 ) or substituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., C 1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, —CF 3 ), —CH 2 OCH 3 )), C 2-6 alkenyl, or C 3-6 carbocylyl; R 2 is absent or hydrogen; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH 2 OR 3A , wherein R 3A is hydrogen, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C 3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R 1 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R 3 is —CH 3 , then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R 3 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating disorders related to GABA function in a subject in need thereof, the method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of a compound, a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or pharmaceutical composition of one of a compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R 1 is hydrogen, C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 ) or substituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., C 1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, —CF 3 ), —CH 2 OCH 3 )), C 2-6 alkenyl, or C 3-6 carbocylyl; R 2 is absent or hydrogen; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH 2 OR 3A , wherein R 3A is hydrogen, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C 3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R 1 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R 3 is —CH 3 , then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R 3 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating a CNS-related disorder in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound described herein (e.g., a compound of Formula (I)), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In some embodiments, the CNS-related disorder is a sleep disorder, a mood disorder, a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, a convulsive disorder, a disorder of memory and/or cognition, a movement disorder (e.g., tremor, for example essential tremor), a personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, pain, traumatic brain injury, a vascular disease, a substance abuse disorder and/or withdrawal syndrome, or tinnitus. In some embodiments, the compound is administered orally. In some embodiments, the compound is administered intramuscularly. In some embodiments, the subject is a subject with Rett syndrome, Fragile X syndrome, or Angelman syndrome. In one aspect, provided is a method for treating a human subject suffering from postpartum depression, the method comprising intravenously administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R 1 is hydrogen, C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 ) or substituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., C 1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, —CF 3 ), —CH 2 OCH 3 )), C 2-6 alkenyl, or C 3-6 carbocylyl; R 2 is absent or hydrogen; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH 2 OR 3A , wherein R 3A is hydrogen, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C 3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R 1 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R 3 is —CH 3 , then A is aryl, wherein administering occurs by continuous intravenous infusion. In some embodiments, when R 3 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In some embodiments, the subject is a female. In some embodiments, the subject is an adult. In some embodiments, the subject is from 18 to 45 years of age. In some embodiments, the subject is suffering from (e.g., has been diagnosed with) postpartum depression (e.g., severe postpartum depression). In some embodiments, the subject has experienced a Major Depressive Episode in the postpartum period. In some embodiments, the period begins within the first 4 weeks following delivery of a baby. In one aspect, provided is a method of treating a human subject suffering from tremor, the method comprising administering a therapeutically effective amount of a compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R 1 is hydrogen, C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 ) or substituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., C 1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, —CF 3 ), —CH 2 OCH 3 )), C 2-6 alkenyl, or C 3-6 carbocylyl; R 2 is absent or hydrogen; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH 2 OR 3A , wherein R 3A is hydrogen, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C 3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R 1 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R 3 is —CH 3 , then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R 3 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. In some embodiments, the tremor is essential tremor. In some embodiments, the administering is performed parenterally. In some embodiments, the administering is performed intravenously. In some embodiments, the administering is performed orally. In one aspect, provided is a kit comprising a solid composition comprising a compound of Formula (I): or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein: Ring A is aryl or heteroaryl; R 1 is hydrogen, C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., unsubstituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., —CH 3 , —CH 2 CH 3 ) or substituted C 1-3 alkyl (e.g., C 1-3 haloalkyl (e.g., —CHF 2 , —CH 2 F, —CF 3 ), —CH 2 OCH 3 )), C 2-6 alkenyl, or C 3-6 carbocylyl; R 2 is absent or hydrogen; R 3 is hydrogen, alkyl, or —CH 2 OR 3A , wherein R 3A is hydrogen, C 1-6 alkyl, C 2-6 alkenyl, C 2-6 alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, or C 3-6 carbocyclyl; represents a single or double bond, wherein when one is a double bond, the other is a single bond; wherein when R 1 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the alpha configuration, and R 3 is —CH 3 , then A is aryl. In some embodiments, when R 3 is —CH 3 , R 2 is hydrogen in the beta configuration. The present invention also provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound of the present invention and methods of use and treatment, e.g., such as for inducing sedation and/or anesthesia, for treating a CNS-related disorder. Steroids of Formula (I), sub-genera thereof, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof are collectively referred to herein as “compounds of the present invention.” In another aspect, provided is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of the present invention and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. In certain embodiments, the compound of the present invention is provided in an effective amount in the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the compound of the present invention is provided in a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the compound of the present invention is provided in a prophylactically effective amount. Compounds of the present invention as described herein, act, in certain embodiments, as GABA modulators, e.g., effecting the GABA A receptor in either a positive or negative manner. As modulators of the excitability of the central nervous system (CNS), as mediated by their ability to modulate GABA A receptor, such compounds are expected to have CNS-activity. Thus, in another aspect, provided are methods of treating a CNS-related disorder in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of the present invention. In certain embodiments, the CNS-related disorder is selected from the group consisting of a sleep disorder, a mood disorder, a schizophrenia spectrum disorder, a convulsive disorder, a disorder of memory and/or cognition, a movement disorder (e.g., tremor, for example essential tremor), a personality disorder, autism spectrum disorder, pain, traumatic brain injury, a vascular disease, a substance abuse disorder and/or withdrawal syndrome, and tinnitus. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered orally, subcutaneously, intravenously, or intramuscularly. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered chronically. In certain embodiments, the compound is administered continuously, e.g., by continuous intravenous infusion. Other objects and advantages will become apparent to those skilled in the art from a consideration of the ensuing Detailed Description, Examples, and Claims. | A61K4506 | 20170726 | 20171109 | 72050.0 | A61K4506 | 0 | BADIO, BARBARA P | COMPOSITIONS AND METHODS FOR TREATING CNS DISORDERS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,660,677 | PENDING | AUTOMATED PIXEL SHIFTING WITHIN A DIGITAL IMAGE | Automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image comprises a processor receiving an indication of a starting point through a user interface. The starting point is received through a user selection of a particular portion of the digital image. Additionally, the processor receives, through the user interface, a direction associated with the starting point. The processor also selects a set of pixels extending in the direction away from the starting point. Further, the processor shifts the set of pixels in the first direction. Shifting the set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the set of pixels being shifted. | 1. A computer system for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image, comprising: one or more processors; and one or more computer-readable media having stored thereon executable instructions that when executed by the one or more processors configure the computer system to perform at least the following: access, from memory, a digital image file, wherein the digital image file comprises information that corresponds to individual pixels within the digital image; identify a particular portion of the digital image to mask, wherein the mask prevents pixels covered by the mask from being shifted; receive a first starting point through a user interface, wherein the first starting point is received through a user selection of a first beginning portion of the digital image; receive a first ending point through the user interface, wherein the first ending point is received through a user selection of a first ending portion of the user interface; create a first link between the first starting point and the first ending point, wherein the first link comprises: a first direction extending from the first starting point to the first ending point; and a first length between the first starting point and the first ending point; identify a first set of pixels that lie between the first starting point and the first ending point; and shift the first set of pixels in the first direction, wherein shifting the first set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the first set of pixels being shifted. 2. The computer system of claim 1, wherein receiving an indication of a particular portion of the digital image to mask comprises receiving through a user interface a selection of a particular pixel within the digital image. 3. The computer system of claim 2, wherein the executable instructions include instructions that are executable to configure the computer system to generate the mask by: identifying one or more edges that form a boundary around the particular pixel; and generating the mask to cover area within the boundary. 4. The computer system of claim 1, wherein the executable instructions include instructions that are executable to configure the computer system to: receive a second starting point through the user interface, wherein the second starting point is received through a user selection of a second beginning portion of the digital image; receive a second ending point through the user interface, wherein the second ending point is received through a user selection of a second beginning portion of the user interface; create a second link between the second starting point and the second ending point, wherein the second link comprises: a second direction extending from the second starting point to the second ending point; and a second length between the second starting point and the second ending point; identify a second set of pixels that lie between the second starting point and the second ending point; and shift the second set of pixels in the second direction, wherein shifting the second set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the second set of pixels being shifted. 5. The computer system of claim 4, wherein the first direction is different from the second direction. 6. The computer system of claim 4, wherein the magnitude of the shifting of the first set of pixels is proportionally related to the first length and the magnitude of the shifting of the second set of pixels is proportionally related to the second length. 7. A method for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image, comprising: receiving a first indication of a first starting point through a user interface, wherein the first starting point is received through a user selection of a portion of the digital image; receiving, through the user interface, a first direction associated with the first starting point; selecting a first set of pixels extending in the first direction away from the first starting point; and shifting the first set of pixels in the first direction, wherein shifting the first set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the first set of pixels being shifted. 8. The method as recited in claim 7, further comprising receiving an indication of an ending point through a user interface, wherein the ending point is received through a user selection of a different portion of the digital image. 9. The method as recited in claim 8, further comprising when a pixel selected from the first set of pixels reaches the ending point, rendering and re-rendering in the loop the pixel being shifted from the first starting point to the ending point. 10. The method as recited in claim 7, further comprising receiving an indication to generate a mask over a portion of the digital image, wherein pixels under the mask are prevented from shifting. 11. The method as recited in claim 10, further comprising receiving through a user interface a selection of a particular pixel within the digital image from which the mask should be generated. 12. The method of claim 11, further comprising: identifying one or more edges that form a boundary around the particular pixel; and generating the mask to cover area within the boundary. 13. The method as recited in claim 7, further comprising: receiving a second indication of a second starting point through a user interface, wherein the second starting point is received through a user selection of a portion of the digital image; receiving, through the user interface, a second direction associated with the second starting point; selecting a second set of pixels extending in the second direction away from the second starting point; and shifting the second set of pixels in the second direction, wherein shifting the second set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the second set of pixels being shifted. 14. The method as recited in claim 13, wherein the first direction is different from the second direction. 15. A method for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image, comprising: accessing, from memory, a digital image file, wherein the digital image file comprises information that corresponds to individual pixels within the digital image; identifying a particular portion of the digital image to mask, wherein the mask prevents pixels covered by the mask from being shifted; receiving a first starting point through a user interface, wherein the first starting point is received through a user selection of a first beginning portion of the digital image; receiving a first ending point through the user interface, wherein the first ending point is received through a user selection of a first ending portion of the user interface; creating a first link between the first starting point and the first ending point, wherein the first link comprises: a first direction extending from the first starting point to the first ending point; and a first length between the first starting point and the first ending point; identifying a first set of pixels that lie between the first starting point and the first ending point; and shifting the first set of pixels in the first direction, wherein shifting the first set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the first set of pixels being shifted. 16. The method of claim 15, wherein receiving an indication of a particular portion of the digital image to mask comprises receiving through a user interface a selection of a particular pixel within the digital image. 17. The method of claim 15, further comprising: generating the mask, wherein generating the mask comprises: identifying one or more edges that form a boundary around the particular pixel; and generating the mask to cover area within the boundary. 18. The method of claim 15, further comprising: receiving a second starting point through the user interface, wherein the second starting point is received through a user selection of a second beginning portion of the digital image; receiving a second ending point through the user interface, wherein the second ending point is received through a user selection of a second beginning portion of the user interface; creating a second link between the second starting point and the second ending point, wherein the second link comprises: a second direction extending from the second starting point to the second ending point; and a second length between the second starting point and the second ending point; identifying a second set of pixels that lie between the second starting point and the second ending point; and shifting the second set of pixels in the second direction, wherein shifting the second set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the second set of pixels being shifted. 19. The method of claim 18, wherein the first direction is different from the second direction. 20. The method of claim 18, wherein the magnitude of the shifting of the first set of pixels is proportionally related to the first length and the magnitude of the shifting of the second set of pixels is proportionally related to the second length. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application claims priority to and the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application 62/514,703 entitled “Automated Pixel Shifting Within A Digital Image”, filed on Jun. 2, 2017, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/368,017 entitled “Automated Pixel Shifting Within A Digital Image”, filed on Jul. 28, 2016. The entire contents of each of the aforementioned applications and/or patents are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. BACKGROUND Computers and computing systems have affected nearly every aspect of modern living. Computers are generally involved in work, recreation, healthcare, transportation, entertainment, household management, etc. Computers, and in particular the fairly recent boom of digital photography, have changed the entire photography industry. For example, instead of taking pictures and then waiting for film to develop before viewing the images, with modern digital cameras, high quality photographs can be captured and immediately viewed. The increase in digital photography has been accompanied with a related increase in digital image software tools. Digital image software tools include compression algorithms that dramatically reduce the size of digital images with little or no loss of image quality. Additional, digital image software tools also include tools to edit or otherwise manipulate digital images. For example, many digital image editing tools and digital image sharing tools include filters that can be applied to images to generate desired effects and appearances within an image. While in some cases the use of digital image tools can appear seamless and quick to an end-user, many of these tools utilize extremely complex computer-based technological solutions. For example, properly applying a filter to an image can involve complex mathematical equations necessary to consistently adjust the color of individual pixels within a digital image. Adjusting relatively simple aspects of a digital image, such as color, provides many users with highly desirable tools for editing their digital images. Additional, tools are desirable for improving digital images, such as the ability to incorporate movement within a digital image. The subject matter claimed herein is not limited to embodiments that solve any disadvantages or that operate only in environments such as those described above. Rather, this background is only provided to illustrate one exemplary technology area where some embodiments described herein may be practiced. BRIEF SUMMARY Embodiments disclosed herein comprise a computer system for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. The system comprises one or more processors and one or more computer-readable media having stored thereon executable instructions that when executed by the one or more processors configure the computer system to perform various steps. For example, the system accesses, from memory, a digital image file. The digital image file comprises information that corresponds to individual pixels within the digital image. The system also identifies a particular portion of the digital image to mask. The mask prevents pixels covered by the mask from being shifted. The system also received a first starting point through a user interface. The first starting point is received through a user selection of a first beginning portion of the digital image. Additionally, the system receives a first ending point through the user interface. The first starting point is received through a user selection of a first ending portion of the user interface. The system then creates a first link between the first starting point and the first ending point. The first link comprises a first direction extending from the first starting point to the first ending point. The first link also comprises a first length between the first starting point and the first ending point. In addition, the system identifies a first set of pixels that lie between the first starting point and the first ending point. The system shifts the first set of pixels in the first direction. Shifting the first set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the first set of pixels being shifted. Disclosed embodiments include automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image by using a processor to receive an indication of a starting point through a user interface. The starting point is received through a user selection of a particular portion of the digital image. Additionally, the processor receives, through the user interface, a direction associated with the starting point. The processor also selects a set of pixels extending in the direction away from the starting point. Further, the processor shifts the set of pixels in the first direction. Shifting the set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the set of pixels being shifted. Additional disclosed embodiments comprise a method for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. The method comprises receiving a first indication of a first starting point through a user interface. The first starting point is received through a user selection of a portion of the digital image. The method also comprises receiving, through the user interface, a first direction associated with the first starting point. Additionally, the method comprises selecting a first set of pixels extending in the first direction away from the first starting point. The method also comprises shifting the first set of pixels in the first direction, wherein shifting the first set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the first set of pixels being shifted. This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter. Additional features and advantages will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by the practice of the teachings herein. Features and advantages of the invention may be realized and obtained by means of the instruments and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. Features of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, or may be learned by the practice of the invention as set forth hereinafter. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In order to describe the manner in which the above-recited and other advantages and features can be obtained, a more particular description of the subject matter briefly described above will be rendered by reference to specific embodiments which are illustrated in the appended drawings. Understanding that these drawings depict only typical embodiments and are not therefore to be considered to be limiting in scope, embodiments will be described and explained with additional specificity and detail through the use of the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of a computer system for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of a software architecture for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. FIGS. 3A-3C illustrate embodiments of a photo that has received beginning and ending points. FIG. 4 illustrates an embodiment of a photo that has formed a mesh from received beginning and ending points. FIGS. 5A-5D illustrates embodiments of individual pixels being shifted. FIG. 6A illustrates an embodiment of a mask. FIG. 6B illustrates another embodiment of a mask FIG. 7 illustrates a flow chart of an embodiment of a method for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. FIG. 8 illustrates a flow chart of another embodiment of a method for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Embodiments disclosed herein comprise systems, methods, and computer-readable media that automate the shifting of pixels within a digital image. Disclosed embodiments provide interfaces and tools for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. For example, disclosed embodiments automate the shifting of pixels within a digital photograph of water such that the water appears to be flowing. In at least one embodiment, a user, through simple interface actions, selects portions of a digital image to automate the shifting of pixels. The user controls the speed of the pixel shifting, the magnitude of the pixel shifting, the direction of pixel shifting, and various other attributes of the pixel movement. Additionally, the user applies masks to the digital image to prevent pixels within specific portions of the digital image from moving. As such, disclosed embodiments provide technical solutions for automating the manipulation of pixels within a digital image. For example, FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of a computer system 100 for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. The depicted computer system 100 comprises a variety of different components, including one or more client applications 120, load balancers 110, application servers 130(a-c), databases 140, and workers 150(a-b). In the depicted embodiment, the computer system 100 comprises a network-based or cloud-based system that allows a user to manipulate a digital photograph over a network connection. One will understand, however, that alternate or additional embodiments may be otherwise configured such that the system is otherwise distributed or localized. For instance, in at least one embodiment, the system 100 is executed by a single local computer. In at least one embodiment, a client application 120 is executed within a web browser at a user's computer. The client application 120 comprises a user interface for uploading, or otherwise selecting, a digital image and issuing commands to cause one or more pixels within the digital image to shift. At least a portion of the processing and actual manipulation of the digital image occurs on an application server 130(a-c) within the cloud. A load balancer 110 balances the processing load of one or more users between multiple application servers 130(a-c). For example, the load balancer 110 may ensure that each application server 130(a-c) is, on average, under the same processing load. The application servers 130(a-c) and the client application 120 are in communication with one or more web storage services 160, such as AMAZON™ S3 storage. Additionally, the application servers 1430(a-c) may be in communication with various backend databases 140. The various storage services 160 and databases 140 may store the digital images and software components used within the computer system 100. FIG. 2 illustrates a schematic of an embodiment of a software architecture 200 for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. In particular, FIG. 2 depicts various screen interfaces 210, actions 220, and dialog/context dependent controls 230 that are present within the software architecture 200. In at least one embodiment, a user is presented with a Home/List Projects screen interface. 210a The Home/List Projects 210a provide the user with a selection of previously saved projects and/or the option to select a digital image and initiate a new project. Once a user selects a project of choice, the software architecture 200 accesses, from memory, a digital image file of interest. As used herein, a digital image file comprises information that corresponds to individual pixels within a digital image. A view/edit project screen interface 210b provides the user with various editing options, both manual and automated. For example, the editing screen provides the user with actions for uploading a base image 220a, selecting a transformation mask 210c, generating points 210d, adjusting animation duration and FPS rate 220b, selecting a mask type 220c, generating a static preview 220d, and editing a point selection 230a. In at least one embodiment, a user is presented with options to select between various different types of transformation mask operations. For example, the user can choose a select area option 220e that allows a user to draw boundaries around an area. A mask is then automatically generated within that area. Additionally, a user may select an automated mask by edge-detection option 220f that scans a digital image and automatically identifies distinct areas within the image based upon edge detection. A user may also select a manual mask painting option 220g that allows a user to manually draw a mask on the digital image. A mask defines a static portion of the image with respect to shifting. In at least one embodiment, the mask is created by using a combination of two tools—automatic and manual. The automatic tool lets the user define masked and shifted areas by drawing lines in them. Any changes along those lines trigger an automatic edge detection using a watershed transformation on the image gradient. This generates a binary mask image that the user can later modify via a simple brush tool. The final mask image is then once again passed through edge detection so it can be saved in vector format. In at least one embodiment, a mask is later applied in one of two ways. In the first application method, the mask is fixed and is applied by adding static (unmovable) point on all mask edges. In the second application method, the mask is an overlay that cuts-and-pastes the masked portions of the image on top of the animation. For example, FIG. 3A depicts a user utilizing the automated mask by edge-detection option 220f. In particular, the user has drawn two lines 300a, 300b across the house and mountain behind the house. The software architecture 200 interprets the lines as indicating the area that the user wishes to mask. In at least one embodiment, a user may only select a single pixel within the area that should be masked. Various different embodiments may accept a variety of different input interfaces. For example, a user may draw the lines using a computer mouse, a touch interface, a stylus interface, a keyboard interface, or any number of other user interfaces. Upon receiving the selection, the software architecture 200 performs an edge detections method to identify edges that form boundaries around the selected area. After identifying a boundary, the software architecture 200 generates a mask to cover the area within the boundary. For instance, FIG. 3B illustrates a mask 310 covering the house and the mountain behind the house, but excluding the sky and the grass in front of the house. As such, a user is provided with tools for identifying a particular portion of the digital image to mask. The mask prevents pixels covered by the mask from being shifted. In at least one embodiments, methods other than generating a mask are used to prevent portions of a digital from moving. For example, in at least one embodiment, a user selects the manual mask painting option 220g and manually places stabilizer points around a portion of the digital image that should not move. The stabilizer points indicate to the architecture software that pixels associated with the stationary points should be not be shifted or otherwise moved. In at least one embodiment, the stabilizer points are useable for creating a fence around an area that should not be shifted. For example, placing the stabilizer points causes the architecture software to stop shifting pixels at a boundary that is made up of the stabilizer points. The software architecture 200 also provides a user with a point generation display 210 that comprises options 220h, 220i for generating points. For example, the user may be provided with an automatic feature point detection option 220h that generate points through automatic feature point detection or a manual feature point addition/removal option 220i. When generating points through automatic feature point detection the software architecture 200 identifies areas outside the mask that are associated with directional texture, directional patterns, that otherwise comprise a visually detectable pattern of motion. For example, FIG. 3C depicts the picture of the house and landscape with points drawn throughout the foreground grass 320a and points drawn throughout the clouds in the sky 320b. In at least one embodiment, the software architecture 200 places the points within the grass based upon identified lines and edges within the grass that extend outward from the ground or from the user generated mask 310. Based upon the lines and textures associated with the grass extending upwards and away from the ground, the software architecture 200 determines that the grass is associated with movement away from the ground. As such, the software architecture 200 automatically places points through the grass. In at least one embodiment, a user can alternatively or additionally manually add or remove points. For example, a user can manually add all of the points depicted in FIG. 3C or a user can direct the software architecture 200 to automatically add a portion of the points and then the user can add additional points. In at least one embodiment, points are added to a digital image in two different stages. During the first stage, the software architecture 200 receives a first starting point through a user interface. A starting point is received through a user selection of a beginning portion of the digital image. The beginning portion of the digital image comprises a starting pixel, or area, from which the user wishes pixels to shift. For example, in FIG. 3C, various beginning points (also referred to herein as “starting points”) comprise the points nearest to the base of the grass and represented by crosses comprise starting points. In at least one embodiment, a beginning point comprise a particular pixel that is selected by a user or automatically selected by the software architecture 200. During the second stage of the point generation, the software architecture 200 receives an ending point through the user interface. The ending point is received through a user selection of an ending portion of the user interface. The ending portion of the digital image comprises an ending pixel, or area, to which the user wishes pixels to shift. For example, in FIG. 3C various ending points are selected on the outer periphery of the grass and are represented by arrows. In at least one embodiment, each starting point is paired with a specific ending point and vice versa. Additionally, the software architecture creates a link between the starting point and first ending point. In at least one embodiment, a link is a vector extending from the starting point to the ending point. A link comprises a direction extending from the first starting point to the first ending point and a length between the first starting point and the first ending point. A user is capable of choosing the direction of a link and length of a link at will. For example, upon placing a starting point, the user can place an associated ending point at any other location within the user interface—even outside the edges of the digital image. As such, in at least one embodiment, a single digital image can be associated with a multitude of different starting points, ending points, and associated links going in different directions and comprising different lengths. In the case the points are generated automatically by the software architecture 200, a user is free to move and adjust the points in any way that is desirable. In at least one embodiment, the software architecture 200 generates a starting mesh from the collective starting points. Similarly, the software architecture 200 generates an ending mesh from the collective ending points. For example, FIG. 4 depicts a starting mesh and ending mesh overlaid on the digital image of the house and landscape. In at least one embodiment, the software architecture provides the user with the option of viewing one or both of the meshes. Visualizing the meshes may assist a user in viewing the inputs that cause the pixels to shift. Once a user has established one or more starting and ending point pairs, the software architecture identifies sets of pixels that lie between the respective starting points and the respective ending points. In at least one embodiment, a first set of pixel may comprise a group of pixels that intersect with a link between a starting point and an ending point and that are not covered by a mask. The size of the group of pixels may be user selectable or automatically determined. For example, a user may increase the threshold distances that the set of pixels extend beyond the link. As such at one extreme, the set of pixels may comprise a line of individual pixels extending from the starting point to the ending point, or at another extreme the set of pixels may comprise a relatively wide swatch of pixels that are parallel to the link that extends between the starting point and the ending point. After identifying the appropriate set of pixels associated with each starting point and ending point pair, the software architecture 200 shifts the respective sets of pixels in the direction determined by their relative links. In at least one embodiment, shifting the sets of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the sets of pixels being shifted. Additionally, as described above, different sets of pixels may be associated with different directions. As such, sets of pixels may travel in different directions within the digital image. In at least one embodiment once pixels begin to shift, the user may notice that a particular portion of the digital image that the user desired to not move is in fact being shifted. To correct this error, the user can edit the mask such that it covers the portion of interest. Additionally, in at least one embodiment, to correct the error, the user executes a feather tool that blurs the portion of interest such that the shifting pixels are no longer noticeable. In a further embodiment, the user places stabilizer points along the portion of interest. The stabilizer points may be placed with a simple click along the particular portion of the digital image. The stabilizer point cause pixels within the particular portion of the digital image to not be shifted. By way of example, FIGS. 5A-5D depict embodiments of individual pixels being shifted. In particular, FIG. 5A depicts a starting point 550, an ending point 530, and an associated link 540. Additionally, FIGS. 5A depicts exemplary pixels 500, 510, and 520. One will understand that the pixels 500, 510, 520 are provided only for the sake of clarity and explanation and that in various embodiments the pixels may comprise a variety of different colors. FIG. 5A depicts the pixels 500, 510, 520 in their original state within the digital image. Once the software architecture 200 begins shifting the set of pixels in the direction of the link (extending from the starting point to the ending point), the pixels 500, 510, 520 are moved. For example, FIG. 5B depicts the pixels 500, 510, 520 after the initial movement. As compared to FIG. 5A the set of pixels are shifted left, along the direction of the link, one space. In various embodiments, a user is provided with an animation duration and FPS rate option 220b for determining the step size within the shift and/or the speed at which the shift occurs. For example, while the embodiment depicted in FIGS. 5A-5D have a step size of a single pixel space, in various embodiments, the pixels may shift multiple pixels at a time. Additionally, in at least one embodiment the step size is time constrained. For example, a user may indicate that each respective loop in the pixel shifting only take 2 seconds. In such a case, the step size may be determined by the length of the link and the frame rate of the shifting. In other words, one set of pixels may need to travel a link length of 20 pixels within the 2 seconds, while another set of pixels may only need to travel a link length of 6 pixels within two seconds. As such, based upon the frame rate at which the steps occur, the two sets of pixels would operate at different step sizes. In at least one embodiment, a user can set a particular desired framerate to be associated with a digital image. Additionally, in at least one embodiment, the magnitude of the shifting of a set of pixels is proportionally related to the length of an associated link. In contrast in at least one embodiment, the step size of each set of pixels is consistent such that sets of pixels along longer links take more time to complete a loop than sets of pixels along shorter links. Accordingly, a user can create a particularly long link to indicate a long, or more extended, motion within a digital image. In contrast, the user can create a particular short link to indicate a short, or faster, motion within the digital image. FIG. 5C depicts pixels 500, 510, 520 another step along the shift. In FIG. 5D the pixels 500, 510, 520 are shown at yet another step along the shift, but in this step the pixels 500, 510, 520 are beginning to loop around. For example, pixel 500a is at the left of the shift, while corresponding pixel 500b is reappearing at the right of the shift to begin the shifting loop. In various additional or alternative embodiments, the set of pixels only begins to loop as pixels 500, 510, 520 leave the screen. For example, once pixel 500a reaches the end of the link (i.e., ending point 530), pixel 500a disappears on the next step. Upon disappearing, pixel 500b then reappears at the beginning of the link (i.e., starting point 550) to start the loop. Additionally, in at least one additional or alternative embodiment, the pixels 500, 510, 520 fade in and out at the beginning and ending of each loop. For example, upon reaching the end of the link, pixel 500a fades out of the image by slowing growing transparent, such that the disappearance of pixel 500a is not abrupt or jarring. Similarly, pixel 500b can fade in such that its appearance is not abrupt of jarring. In various alternative or additional embodiments, different methods of pixel shifting and blending can be used to similar effect. For example, in at least one embodiment, the pixels immediately begin cycling as soon as the shifting begins. For example, instead of what is shown in FIGS. 5A-5D, as soon as pixel 500 shifted to its new position depicted in FIG. 5B, pixel 500B would appear in the position depicted in FIG. 5D. As such, the pixels begin looping and blending into each other immediately. In at least one embodiment, the software architecture 200 uses alpha blending when shifting the pixels from the starting point to the ending point. For example, the software application 200 may utilize a sin, cosine, or linear alpha blend to shift the set of pixels. Additionally, in at least one embodiment, the software architecture uses a warping function, such as a Shepard's distortion. When using a mesh algorithm, the software architecture 200 triangulates the mesh using defined points and then calculates an affine transformation for every triangle. Further, the software architecture 200 supports animation blending in order to achieve the seaming effect of a continuous motion. This is achieved by blending animated frames two by two using one of a few predefined blend functions. Similarly, a user is provided with a mask type option 220c to select between different types of masks. Each different mask type may use different mask configurations. In at least one embodiments, mask types also vary by the color that is used to depict the mask within the image. For example, FIGS. 6A and 6B illustrate an embodiment of a mask 600. In the depicted embodiment, a strip of points 610 on the edge of the mask (“edge strip”) is used to generate the flow of points simulating an animation. The dimensions and shape of the edge strip depend on properties of the mask and the user selected flow. In at least one embodiment, the width of the edge strip 610 is determined as a linear function of the dimensions of the target image. Further, the shape of the edge strip 610 may be a result of sliding the shape of the mask 600 in the direction of the vector flow. As such, a user is able to customize the mask. When in use, the mask 600 assists in generating pixel flow. For example, as depicted in FIG. 6B the points 632, 642, 652 on the edge strip 610 are being stretched in order to generate a flow of points in the desired direction. For example, the points 632, 642, 652 are shown as being stretched to strips 630, 640, 650 that are stretched from the edge 610 of the mask 600. The stretching motion is performed continuously such that the points 632, 642, 652 are continuously reset and stretched such that the pixel shifting is continuous and results in the impression of motion. In various additional or alternative embodiments, a user has the ability to further manipulate a digital image. For example, instead of the straight links depicted in FIGS. 5A-5D, the use can view an edit point selection dialog 230a as depicted in FIG. 2. The edit point selection provides a user with the options of changing a movement direction and path 220j or selecting a predefined movement 220k. For example, instead of straight links extending between a starting point and ending point, the user can create a custom path between any two starting and ending points. In such a case, the associated set of pixels would travel along the path of the link. Similarly, the user may select a predefined path (i.e., movement) that is defined within the software architecture 200. For example, the predefined paths may include a curved path. Using the curved path option, the user can cause a set of pixels to travel along a curved path (i.e., link) between a starting and ending point. Once a user is satisfied with their work on an image, a preview output screen 210e allows a user to view the image while the pixels are being shifted. Such a view may give the impression that at least a portion of the static image is animated. In contrast, a user is also give a static preview option 220d that allows the user to view the un-animated image. If the user is satisfied with the final product, the user is provided with a format selection and export action 220. This action generates a variety of different formats that are configured for viewing. For example, an animated GIF may be produced. Additionally, in at least one embodiment, a user is able to save all of the masking work, point generation work, and animation duration and FPS rate work separate from the underlying image. For example, the user may perform the above discussed steps on a particular photo. The user may then decide to manipulate the photo within a photo editor application. In such a case, instead of having to restart the animation process with the modified photo, the user applies the previously saved animation work to the modified photo. The following discussion now refers to a number of methods and method acts that may be performed. Although the method acts may be discussed in a certain order or illustrated in a flow chart as occurring in a particular order, no particular ordering is required unless specifically stated, or required because an act is dependent on another act being completed prior to the act being performed. One will appreciate that embodiments disclosed herein can also be described in terms of flowcharts comprising one or more acts for accomplishing a particular result. For example, FIG. 7 and the corresponding text describe acts in various methods and systems for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. The acts of FIG. 7 are described below. For example, FIG. 7 illustrates that a flow chart of an exemplary method 700 for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image includes an act 710 of receiving a starting point. Act 710 comprises receiving an indication of a starting point through a user interface, wherein the starting point is received through a user selection of a particular portion of the digital image. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIG. 5A, a user selects a starting point 550. Similarly, FIG. 3C depicts various user-selected starting points surrounding the grass in the digital image. Additionally, FIG. 7 illustrates that the method includes an act 720 of receiving a direction. Act 720 comprises receiving, through the user interface, a direction associated with the starting point. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIG. 5A, the use can select an ending point 530. A link 540 is then formed between the starting point 550 and the ending point 530. The link 540 is associated with a direction extending from the starting point 550 to the ending point 530. As such, the software architecture 200 receives a direction from the link 540. In contrast, in additional or alternative embodiments, the software architecture 200 can receive a direction without the use of an ending point 530 or a link 540. For example, the software architecture 200 may receive the direction from a default setting stored within memory or explicitly from the user. Further, in at least one embodiment, the software architecture 200 identifies a direction from line and edge detection. For example, the software architecture 200 may identify a direction that follow the blades of grass depicted in FIG. 3A. In any case, in at least one embodiment, a user may only need to enter a starting point and the direction is identified either automatically or through user interaction other than the creation of an ending point. FIG. 7 also illustrates that the method includes an act 730 of selecting a set of pixels. Act 730 comprises selecting a set of pixels extending in the direction away from the starting point. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIG. 5A, the software architecture 200 selects a set of pixels 500, 510, 520 that extend in the direction of the link 540 away from the starting point 550. The computer architecture 200 may define the set of pixels 500, 510, 520 as being every pixel that extends in the direction away from the starting point and that is within a user or computer-defined threshold distance from the link 540. Further, FIG. 7 illustrates that the method includes an act 740 of shifting the set of pixels. Act 740 comprises shifting the set of pixels in the first direction. Shifting the set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the set of pixels being shifted. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIGS. 5A-5D, a shifting loop is described where pixels 500, 510, 520 are shifted upward and then re-looped. Additionally, FIG. 8 depicts an embodiment of a method 800 for shifting pixels comprises a step 810 of accessing a digital file. Act 810 includes accessing, from memory, a digital image file, wherein the digital image file comprises information that corresponds to individual pixels within the digital image. For example, as depicted and described with respect to FIG. 1, a user can upload a digital image through a client application 120. The computer system 100 then receives the digital image. FIG. 8 also illustrates that the method 800 includes an act 820 of identifying a portion of an image to mask 820. Act 820 comprises identifying a particular portion of the digital image to mask, wherein the mask prevents pixels covered by the mask from being shifted. For example, as depicted and described with respect to FIGS. 3A-3C, a user is able to mask a particular portion of the digital image. The masked portion of the image is held static, such that the pixels do not shift. Additionally, FIG. 8 illustrates that the method 800 includes an act 830 of receiving a starting point. Act 830 comprises receiving a first starting point through a user interface, wherein the first starting point is received through a user selection of a first beginning portion of the digital image. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIG. 5A, a user selects a starting point 550. Similarly, FIG. 3C depicts various user-selected starting points surrounding the grass in the digital image. FIG. 8 also illustrates that the method 800 includes an act 840 of receiving an ending point. Act 840 comprises receive a first ending point through the user interface, wherein the first ending point is received through a user selection of a first ending portion of the user interface. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIG. 5A, a user selects an ending point 530. Similarly, FIG. 3C depicts various user-selected starting ending surrounding the grass in the digital image. In addition, FIG. 8 illustrates that the method 800 includes an act 850 of creating a link between the beginning and the ending points. Act 850 comprises create a first link between the first starting point and the first ending point, wherein the first link comprises a first direction extending from the first starting point to the first ending point and a first length between the first starting point and the first ending point. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIG. 5A, a link 540 is created between beginning points 550 and ending points 530. Similarly, FIG. 3C depicts various links connecting beginning points and ending points. Further, FIG. 8 illustrates that the method 800 includes an act 860 of identifying a set of pixels. Act 860 comprises identifying a first set of pixels that lie between the first starting point and the first ending point. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIG. 5A, the software architecture 200 identifies a set of pixels 500, 510, 520 that extend in the direction of the link 540 away from the starting point 550. The computer architecture 200 may define the set of pixels 500, 510, 520 as being every pixel that extends in the direction away from the starting point and that is within a user or computer-defined threshold distance from the link 540. Further still, FIG. 8 illustrates that the method 800 includes an act 870 of shifting the set of pixels 870. Act 870 comprises shifting the second set of pixels in the second direction, wherein shifting the second set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the second set of pixels being shifted. For example, as depicted and explained with respect to FIGS. 5A-5D, a shifting loop is described where pixels 500, 510, 520 are shifted upward and then re-looped. Accordingly, disclosed embodiments provide novel and innovative technical methods for automatically shifting pixels within a digital image. The shifted pixels may give a digital image the perception of movement. At least one disclosed embodiment requires only a single digital image to create a perception of movement within the digital image. Disclosed embodiments also provide novel and innovative technical solutions for receiving user input through a computer interface to simply and efficiently manipulate a digital image by shifting pixels. Further, the methods may be practiced by a computer system including one or more processors and computer-readable media such as computer memory. In particular, the computer memory may store computer-executable instructions that when executed by one or more processors cause various functions to be performed, such as the acts recited in the embodiments. In various embodiments, disclosed methods and systems may comprises software executed within the cloud. For example, a user may access the software through a web browser. In additional or alternative embodiments, the software is executed locally at a device. For example, the software may be executed on a mobile computing device such as a smart phone or tablet. Embodiments of the present invention may comprise or utilize a special purpose or general-purpose computer including computer hardware, as discussed in greater detail below. Embodiments within the scope of the present invention also include physical and other computer-readable media for carrying or storing computer-executable instructions and/or data structures. Such computer-readable media can be any available media that can be accessed by a general purpose or special purpose computer system. Computer-readable media that store computer-executable instructions are physical storage media. Computer-readable media that carry computer-executable instructions are transmission media. Thus, by way of example, and not limitation, embodiments of the invention can comprise at least two distinctly different kinds of computer-readable media: physical computer-readable storage media and transmission computer-readable media. Further, computing system functionality can be enhanced by a computing system's ability to be interconnected to other computing systems via network connections. Network connections may include, but are not limited to, connections via wired or wireless Ethernet, cellular connections, or even computer to computer connections through serial, parallel, USB, or other connections. The connections allow a computing system to access services at other computing systems and to quickly and efficiently receive application data from other computing systems. Interconnection of computing systems has facilitated distributed computing systems, such as so-called “cloud” computing systems. In this description, “cloud computing” may be systems or resources for enabling ubiquitous, convenient, on-demand network access to a shared pool of configurable computing resources (e.g., networks, servers, storage, applications, services, etc.) that can be provisioned and released with reduced management effort or service provider interaction. A cloud model can be composed of various characteristics (e.g., on-demand self-service, broad network access, resource pooling, rapid elasticity, measured service, etc.), service models (e.g., Software as a Service (“SaaS”), Platform as a Service (“PaaS”), Infrastructure as a Service (“IaaS”), and deployment models (e.g., private cloud, community cloud, public cloud, hybrid cloud, etc.). Cloud and remote based service applications are prevalent. Such applications are hosted on public and private remote systems such as clouds and usually offer a set of web based services for communicating back and forth with clients. Many computers are intended to be used by direct user interaction with the computer. As such, computers have input hardware and software user interfaces to facilitate user interaction. For example, a modern general-purpose computer may include a keyboard, mouse, touchpad, camera, etc. for allowing a user to input data into the computer. In addition, various software user interfaces may be available. Examples of software user interfaces include graphical user interfaces, text command line based user interface, function key or hot key user interfaces, and the like. Physical computer-readable storage media includes RAM, ROM, EEPROM, CD-ROM or other optical disk storage (such as CDs, DVDs, etc.), magnetic disk storage or other magnetic storage devices, or any other medium which can be used to store desired program code means in the form of computer-executable instructions or data structures and which can be accessed by a general purpose or special purpose computer. A “network” is defined as one or more data links that enable the transport of electronic data between computer systems and/or modules and/or other electronic devices. When information is transferred or provided over a network or another communications connection (either hardwired, wireless, or a combination of hardwired or wireless) to a computer, the computer properly views the connection as a transmission medium. Transmissions media can include a network and/or data links which can be used to carry or desired program code means in the form of computer-executable instructions or data structures and which can be accessed by a general purpose or special purpose computer. Combinations of the above are also included within the scope of computer-readable media. Further, upon reaching various computer system components, program code means in the form of computer-executable instructions or data structures can be transferred automatically from transmission computer-readable media to physical computer-readable storage media (or vice versa). For example, computer-executable instructions or data structures received over a network or data link can be buffered in RAM within a network interface module (e.g., a “NIC”), and then eventually transferred to computer system RAM and/or to less volatile computer-readable physical storage media at a computer system. Thus, computer-readable physical storage media can be included in computer system components that also (or even primarily) utilize transmission media. Computer-executable instructions comprise, for example, instructions and data which cause a general-purpose computer, special purpose computer, or special purpose processing device to perform a certain function or group of functions. The computer-executable instructions may be, for example, binaries, intermediate format instructions such as assembly language, or even source code. Although the subject matter has been described in language specific to structural features and/or methodological acts, it is to be understood that the subject matter defined in the appended claims is not necessarily limited to the described features or acts described above. Rather, the described features and acts are disclosed as example forms of implementing the claims. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that the invention may be practiced in network computing environments with many types of computer system configurations, including, personal computers, desktop computers, laptop computers, message processors, hand-held devices, multi-processor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, network PCs, minicomputers, mainframe computers, mobile telephones, PDAs, pagers, routers, switches, and the like. The invention may also be practiced in distributed system environments where local and remote computer systems, which are linked (either by hardwired data links, wireless data links, or by a combination of hardwired and wireless data links) through a network, both perform tasks. In a distributed system environment, program modules may be located in both local and remote memory storage devices. Alternatively, or in addition, the functionality described herein can be performed, at least in part, by one or more hardware logic components. For example, and without limitation, illustrative types of hardware logic components that can be used include Field-programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs), Program-specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), Program-specific Standard Products (ASSPs), System-on-a-chip systems (SOCs), Complex Programmable Logic Devices (CPLDs), etc. The present invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from its spirit or characteristics. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects only as illustrative and not restrictive. The scope of the invention is, therefore, indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description. All changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are to be embraced within their scope. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Computers and computing systems have affected nearly every aspect of modern living. Computers are generally involved in work, recreation, healthcare, transportation, entertainment, household management, etc. Computers, and in particular the fairly recent boom of digital photography, have changed the entire photography industry. For example, instead of taking pictures and then waiting for film to develop before viewing the images, with modern digital cameras, high quality photographs can be captured and immediately viewed. The increase in digital photography has been accompanied with a related increase in digital image software tools. Digital image software tools include compression algorithms that dramatically reduce the size of digital images with little or no loss of image quality. Additional, digital image software tools also include tools to edit or otherwise manipulate digital images. For example, many digital image editing tools and digital image sharing tools include filters that can be applied to images to generate desired effects and appearances within an image. While in some cases the use of digital image tools can appear seamless and quick to an end-user, many of these tools utilize extremely complex computer-based technological solutions. For example, properly applying a filter to an image can involve complex mathematical equations necessary to consistently adjust the color of individual pixels within a digital image. Adjusting relatively simple aspects of a digital image, such as color, provides many users with highly desirable tools for editing their digital images. Additional, tools are desirable for improving digital images, such as the ability to incorporate movement within a digital image. The subject matter claimed herein is not limited to embodiments that solve any disadvantages or that operate only in environments such as those described above. Rather, this background is only provided to illustrate one exemplary technology area where some embodiments described herein may be practiced. | <SOH> BRIEF SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments disclosed herein comprise a computer system for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. The system comprises one or more processors and one or more computer-readable media having stored thereon executable instructions that when executed by the one or more processors configure the computer system to perform various steps. For example, the system accesses, from memory, a digital image file. The digital image file comprises information that corresponds to individual pixels within the digital image. The system also identifies a particular portion of the digital image to mask. The mask prevents pixels covered by the mask from being shifted. The system also received a first starting point through a user interface. The first starting point is received through a user selection of a first beginning portion of the digital image. Additionally, the system receives a first ending point through the user interface. The first starting point is received through a user selection of a first ending portion of the user interface. The system then creates a first link between the first starting point and the first ending point. The first link comprises a first direction extending from the first starting point to the first ending point. The first link also comprises a first length between the first starting point and the first ending point. In addition, the system identifies a first set of pixels that lie between the first starting point and the first ending point. The system shifts the first set of pixels in the first direction. Shifting the first set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the first set of pixels being shifted. Disclosed embodiments include automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image by using a processor to receive an indication of a starting point through a user interface. The starting point is received through a user selection of a particular portion of the digital image. Additionally, the processor receives, through the user interface, a direction associated with the starting point. The processor also selects a set of pixels extending in the direction away from the starting point. Further, the processor shifts the set of pixels in the first direction. Shifting the set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the set of pixels being shifted. Additional disclosed embodiments comprise a method for automating the shifting of pixels within a digital image. The method comprises receiving a first indication of a first starting point through a user interface. The first starting point is received through a user selection of a portion of the digital image. The method also comprises receiving, through the user interface, a first direction associated with the first starting point. Additionally, the method comprises selecting a first set of pixels extending in the first direction away from the first starting point. The method also comprises shifting the first set of pixels in the first direction, wherein shifting the first set of pixels comprises rendering and re-rendering in a loop the first set of pixels being shifted. This Summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts in a simplified form that are further described below in the Detailed Description. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in determining the scope of the claimed subject matter. Additional features and advantages will be set forth in the description which follows, and in part will be obvious from the description, or may be learned by the practice of the teachings herein. Features and advantages of the invention may be realized and obtained by means of the instruments and combinations particularly pointed out in the appended claims. Features of the present invention will become more fully apparent from the following description and appended claims, or may be learned by the practice of the invention as set forth hereinafter. | G06F304845 | 20170726 | 20180201 | 92544.0 | G06F30484 | 1 | LIU, GORDON G | AUTOMATED PIXEL SHIFTING WITHIN A DIGITAL IMAGE | SMALL | 0 | ACCEPTED | G06F | 2,017 |
|
15,660,685 | PENDING | SYSTEM AND METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT OF MOBILE FIELD ASSETS VIA WIRELESS HANDHELD DEVICES | Communication from enterprise servers to handheld devices in the field supports dispatch, data synchronization, logistics and personnel. Bi-directional data delivery from enterprise-based servers over wireless data networks is enabled using wireless capabilities resident in handheld personal computing devices. Real time communications facilitates real-time access to remote programs, assistance and/or information related to the field operations and asset (personnel and inventory) resource management. Management is facilitated for at least one of: construction industry project analysis, HVAC system analysis, project management, equipment readiness inspection, troubleshooting, inventory tracking, inventory ordering, sales (e.g., providing cost estimates to customers), customer invoicing, conducting legal investigations, field data collection, and multi-user remote function coordination. | 1. A method, comprising: accessing a template stored on a server located remotely from a handheld device, the template listing a first set of tasks to be completed in a first predetermined time period; reporting, after a time of the accessing, a status of each of the tasks of the first set of tasks by synchronizing the handheld device to the server; and updating the template responsive to the status, the updated template including a second set of tasks to be completed in a second predetermined time period. 2. The method of claim 1, wherein the updated template lists ones of the tasks of the first set that are completed during the first predetermined time period. 3. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one task of the first set of tasks is associated with a first person, and at least one task of the second set of task is associated with a second person that is different than the first person. 4. The method of claim 1, further comprising: wirelessly synchronizing the handheld device to the server. 5. A device, comprising: a memory device configured to store instructions; and a processing device configured to execute the instructions stored in the memory device to: access a template stored on a server located remotely from the device, the template listing a first set of tasks to be completed in a first predetermined time period; report, after a time of the accessing, a status of each of the tasks by synchronizing the device to the server; and update the template responsive to the status, the updated template including a second set of tasks to be completed in a second predetermined time period. 6. The device of claim 5, wherein the second set of tasks includes at least one unfinished task from the first set of tasks. 7. The device of claim 5, wherein at least one task of the first set of tasks is associated with a first person, and at least one task of the second set of task is associated with a second person that is different than the first person. 8. The device of claim 5, wherein the processing device is configured to execute the instructions stored in the memory device further to wirelessly synchronize the device to the server. 9. A non-transitory computer-readable medium having instructions stored thereon that, in response to execution by a processing device, cause the processing device to: access a template stored on a server located remotely from the device, the template listing a first set of tasks to be completed in a first predetermined time period; report, after a time of the accessing, a status of each of the tasks by synchronizing the device to the server; and update the template responsive to the status, the updated template including a second set of tasks to be completed in a second predetermined time period. 10. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 9, wherein the second set of tasks includes at least one unfinished task from the first set of tasks. 11. (canceled) 12. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 9, wherein at least one task of the first set of tasks is associated with a first person, and at least one task of the second set of task is associated with a second person that is different than the first person. 13. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 9, wherein the updated template lists ones of the tasks of the first set that are completed during the first predetermined time period. 14. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 9, wherein the processing device is configured to execute the instructions stored in the non-transitory computer-readable medium further to wirelessly synchronize the device to the server. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the time of the accessing corresponds to a beginning of the first time predetermined period, and a time of the reporting corresponds to an end of the first time predetermined time period. 16. The method of claim 1, wherein the first and second predetermined time periods are assigned to different persons. 17. The device of claim 5, wherein the time of the accessing corresponds to a beginning of the first time predetermined period, and a time of the reporting corresponds to an end of the first time predetermined time period. 18. The device of claim 5, wherein the first and second predetermined time periods are assigned to different persons. 19. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 9, wherein the time of the accessing corresponds to a beginning of the first time predetermined period, and a time of the reporting corresponds to an end of the first time predetermined time period. 20. The non-transitory computer-readable medium of claim 9, wherein the first and second predetermined time periods are assigned to different persons. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/071,003, filed Mar. 15, 2016, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/480,297, filed Sep. 8, 2014, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,299,044, which is a division of pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/925,692, filed Jun. 24, 2013, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,862,184, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/547,363 filed Aug. 25, 2009, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 8,494,581, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/262,699, filed Oct. 31, 2005, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,593,751, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/955,543, filed Sep. 17, 2001, now issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,961,586, which claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application Ser. No. 60/233,120, filed Sep. 18, 2000, each of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is generally related to systems and methods of managing mobile assets in the field such as personnel, equipment and inventory via communications with handheld data management devices (e.g., personal digital assistants, handheld computers, two-way pagers, Web/WAP-enabled telephony, etc.) located in the field. More particularly, the present invention is related to systems and methods in the management of mobile field assets via wireless handheld devices. BACKGROUND Limitations that have been experienced with the growth of services in many of the professions, trades and industries can be attributed to the expansion of remote or distributed field activities, such as situation/location assessments, estimates or appraisals. New technology and less experienced personnel may be undertaking the initial tasks of customer interaction, sales, data collection and/or the analysis and troubleshooting of problems in the field. Personnel in field are usually required to collect data regarding a field situation that is generally be used later by more senior, experienced and/or responsible personnel to make decisions (business, technical, administrative and/or political). Even the most experienced professionals may find themselves lacking access to critical information or support that would be helpful in undertaking field operations. Efficiency in the remote dispatching of personnel given personnel vs. customer or field locations, as well as asset and inventory control can also be improved. As an example of a field situation, individuals in the construction industry are often responsible for carrying out field assessments and providing estimates. The consequences of under bidding a project in the construction field can be very costly and/or can affect performance and quality of services/activities related to the underbid project. In cases where a project cost estimate, or bid, must be provided for a construction project, a business owner or senior journeymen can oftentimes be compelled to personally go to the field and collect information regarding a project in order to render a realistic and profitable bid because an inexperienced estimator might render an inaccurate appraisal. Construction project estimates require an accurate assessment and analysis of a job-site/projects in order to develop the data/facts necessary for an estimate to be rendered regarding use of labor, materials and completion time for a project. If an operator in the field was provided with guidance, access to supplemental information and/or years of experience (e.g., lessons learned by senior personnel), field operations might proceed more accurately and professionally. Field operators, however, are unlikely to have reasonable means to efficiently access the information or the information can not be updated. Materials typically used in the field can include reference materials such as codes, regulations, inventory and price lists. Personal digital assistant (PDA) is a generic name used for a device belonging to a family of portable handheld data managing devices well known in the art. Another word used to refer to such devices is the word “Smartphone.” Currently, handheld data management devices such as PDAs or Palm PCs can have as much computing power as desktop personal computers and can be used in a wide variety of applications, including wireless communication (infrared and radio frequency), GPS (global positioning system) mapping, Internet access and database storage. Web-phones are also being introduced into the wireless marketplaces that have PDA-like capabilities. Handheld data management devices are generally enabled with wireless connectivity to data sources over, for example, the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) or message oriented TME/X protocol. Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) is a TCP/IP based technology that supports Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) wireless connections to mobile devices. Cellular service is generally available throughout the world from major service providers. With CDPD, data can be transferred over switched Public Switched telephone Network (PSTN) circuits or packet-switched networks. Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and Personal Communications Systems (PCS) networks operate in the 800 MHz, 900 MHz, and 1900 MHz range. PCS provides narrowband digital communications in the 900 MHz range for paging, and broadband digital communications in the 1900 MHz band for cellular telephone service. In the U.S. as of the priority date for the present embodiments, PCS 1900 is identical to GSM 1900. GSM operates in the 900 MHz, 1800-1900 MHz frequency bands. GSM 1800 is widely used throughout Europe and throughout many parts of the world. In the U.S., GSM 1900 is the same as PCS 1900; thus, these two technologies are compatible. The Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) network is a digital wireless network that defines how a single channel can be segmented into multiple channels using a pseudo random signal (or code) to identify each user's information. Because CDMA spreads each call over more than 4.4 trillion channels across the entire frequency band, it is more immune to interference than TDMA or other current wireless networks and can support more users per channel in some situations. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) cellular/wireless systems are currently deployed throughout the wireless communication markets. Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA), which is called CDMA 2000 in North America, will be implemented in the U.S.A. in the near future. W-CDMA is a true 3G wireless technology. W-CDMA increases transfer rates by using multiple 1.25 MHz cellular channels compared to the single channel currently used by CDMA 1. The General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) network is a 2.5G technology that bridges the gap between the current wireless technologies and the next generation of wireless technologies known as 3G wireless technologies. GPRS is a packet-data transmission technology. GPRS will work with CDMA and TDMA, and it supports X.25 and IP communications protocols. It will also enable features like Voice over IP (VOIP) and multimedia services. Bluetooth is a Personal Area Network (PAN) technology. Adopted by a consortium of wireless equipment manufacturers called the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (BSIG), it is emerging as a global standard for low cost wireless data and voice communication. The current specification for this standard is the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band. Bluetooth technology is based on a short-range radio transmitter/receiver built into small application specific circuits (ASICs) and embedded into support devices. Initially, Bluetooth enabled devices will have 1 mw of transmitter power and will be capable of asymmetrical data transfers of up to 721 Mbps over distances of 10 M. The Bluetooth specification permits up to 100 mw of power, which will increase the range to 100 M. In addition, it can support up to three voice channels. Using short data packets and frequency hopping of up to 1600 hops per second, it is a true 3G wireless technology that will enable a host of new applications and possibilities for wireless data communication. Wireless application protocol (WAP) and Extensible Markup Language (XML) are examples of current technology being used in wireless devices and system to provide Web-based (Internet) content on wireless devices. Despite the growing power and popularity of portable data management devices and the diverse telecommunications alternatives for data communication, few applications were available as of September 2000 (the priority date for the embodiments herein) that directly relate to interactive or industry-specific programs providing management of associated data and providing users with access to daily business practices and procedures related to a particular industry. As of the priority date of the present embodiments (Sep. 18, 2000), what was, and continue to be, needed in business, government and industry where field operators are utilized is a system and method for managing assets in the field via wireless handheld devices. Systems were, and remain, needed by businesses that could enable their field operators (e.g., users, operators, estimators, investigators, salesmen, and the like) to more efficiently and accurately operate in the field. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION It is an object of the present invention to provide a system and methods for managing asset in the field (e.g., personnel, equipment and/or inventory) via handheld devices. It is an aspect of the present invention to provide field operators portable access to industry-specific field data management programs (“programs”) and data useful in carrying out field operations. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a handheld data management device and solutions for assisting personnel in finding and conducting field operations. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide methods for field operations data synchronization and/or delivery using wireless capabilities resident in handheld personal computing devices. Data can be synchronized from handhelds with a server operating as their manager over a network using wireless radio transmission. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide for two-way communication between remote computing means (e.g., servers, desktop computers) and handheld data management devices to facilitate real-time access to remote programs, assistance and/or information related to the field operations being undertaken by handheld data management device users. A handheld device for use in the management of assets and data during operations in the field can include a server for operating at least one field data management program and managing remote assets in the field and field data; a microprocessor for executing said at least one field data management program; at least one field data management program stored within said memory and including instructions for enabling users to: find a field location, collect data at the field location, communicate with a remote server while at the field location, retrieve new data from the server that is associated with the collected data; a wireless communication module for providing access to the remote server by said handheld data management device; and a user interface adapted for enabling the handheld data management device user to interact with said at least one field data management program. A programming module containing field data management software can include software used to accomplish at least one of: construction industry project analysis, HVAC system analysis, project management, equipment readiness inspection, troubleshooting, inventory tracking, inventory ordering, sales (e.g., providing cost estimates to customers), customer invoicing, conducting legal investigations, field data collection, and multi-user remote function coordination. A method of conducting a field operation using a handheld data management device can include the steps of providing access to an industry-specific field operations program module; executing said program module to conduct a field operation; providing field-specific information required by said program module for said program module to render data from said module useful in support of said operations; and retrieving data from said handheld data management device in support of said operations. The method can further include providing data to a remote resource (e.g., server or live expert) for analysis, and retrieving enhanced data from said remote resource for use in conducting the field operations. A method of conducting operations in the field utilizing a handheld data management device, can also include the steps of obtaining directions to a field location using positioning and navigation means provided through said handheld data management device; starting a program associated with the field problem; providing specific information required by the field data management program and related to the field problem; analysis of said specific information by said handheld data management device; and rendering output by said handheld data management device for use in support of said field problem. The foregoing has outlined some of the more pertinent features of the present invention. These features should be construed to be merely illustrative of some of the more prominent features and applications of the invention. Many other beneficial results can be attained by applying the disclosed invention in a different manner or modifying the invention as will be described. Accordingly, other aspects and a fuller understanding of the invention can be had by referring to the following Detailed Description of the preferred embodiment. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS A more complete appreciation of the invention and many of the attendant advantages thereof will become readily apparent with reference to the following detailed description, particularly when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a portable electronic device usable in accordance with methods of the present invention; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of various components of the device; FIG. 3 is a block diagram of a device including a communication module to facilitate communication of the device. FIG. 4 is a block diagram showing an infrared communications link between the device and a personal computer; FIG. 5 is a block diagram showing a GPS module associated with the device; FIG. 6 is an illustration of a basic operational environment for the handheld device and methods of the present invention; FIG. 7 illustrates a flow chart related to a construction industry in accordance with a method of the present invention; FIG. 8 illustrates a flow chart illustrating a more specific operation relating to the HVAC industry; FIG. 9 illustrates a flow chart of a method relating to project management; FIG. 10 illustrates a flow chart outlining a method relating to equipment readiness; FIG. 11 illustrates a flow chart outlining a method relating to inventory tracking/ordering; FIG. 12 illustrates a flow chart illustrating a field operation relating to conducting a criminal investigation; and FIG. 13 illustrates a flow chart directed to multi-user functions in accordance with carrying out aspects of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention now is described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which preferred embodiments of the invention are shown. Like numbers refer to like elements throughout. This invention can, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. Aspects of the present invention are directed to assisting people in the field with operating in the field and, for example, rendering accurate assessments of a field situation, job, environment, customer contact, project, etc. Reference to a particular field environment (e.g., projects within the construction industry) made throughout the description are provided for exemplary purposes only and should not be taken as a limitation of the present invention. The present invention provides portable, handheld data management devices (e.g., handheld or palm computer/PC, PDA, smart phone, mobile telephony devices) with access to industry/profession-specific processes and applications that can enable users to be more productive while operating in the field. A handheld data management device in accordance with the present invention can be in the form of any one of a number of commercially available hand-held devices such as personal digital assistants (PDAs), two-way pagers, and Web/WAP-enabled mobile phones. Referring to FIG. 1, a device 10 exemplary of a prior art PDA that could implement software and/or communication methods in accordance with carrying out methods of the invention is illustrated. The device 10 includes an outer housing 12 sufficiently small to be easily portable such that it substantially fit within the palm of a users hand, a display 14 that can also preferably include touch-screen technology to operate in combination with control buttons 16 to provide a User Interface (UI) for operating, controlling and/or otherwise interacting with the device 10. Not shown on the device 10, but well known in the art to be incorporated in such devices are communication ports (wired and wireless). FIG. 2 is a block diagram of various components of the device 10. The device 10 includes a system bus or plurality of system buses 20 to which various resident components are coupled and by which communication between the various components is accomplished. A processor 22 is connected to the system bus 20 and is supported by a read only memory (ROM) 24 and a random access memory (RAM) 26. The ROM 24 contains among other code the code controlling basic hardware operations. The RAM 26 is the main memory into which the operating system and application programs are loaded. Also connected to this system bus 20 are various I/O controllers, including a controller 28 providing the hardware interface for the control buttons 16, and a controller 30 providing the hardware interface for the display 14. A controller 32 provides the hardware interface for a speaker 34. One of the preferred implementations of the invention is as a set of instructions in a code module resident in the RAM 26 of the device. The set of instructions can however be stored in some other computer memory such as a hard disk drive of a personal computer (PC) or even downloaded from a server via the Internet until required by the device 10. As shown in FIG. 3, the device 10 can also include an integrated communication module 42 to facilitate wired and wireless communication. Communication can be had with remote resources 44 (e.g., servers) through network and to enable monitoring and feedback of field assessment operations. Wireless communication module 42 can include digital communication technology and/or wireless modem for facilitating local area communication. The module 42 can also use cellular wireless technology such as Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD). CDPD is a method of transmitting data in small packets of information over existing cellular phone networks. CDPD is a fully digital network overlay, providing all the benefits of digital service, including lower error rates and lower costs. Communications module 42 provides wireless real-time access to servers and personnel in support of assessments, and can also provide more traditional information available over networks, (e.g., e-mail, chat, Intranet and Internet information). As shown in FIG. 4, the device 10 can also communicate with a PC 36 through an infrared communications link 38 to exchange and update information both ways. This feature makes it particularly easy to update and change personal schedules as needed. The device 10 can include an integrated modem 40 to provide data transfer functions and for remote connectivity. This feature allows a person (such as a supervisor, counselor or service representative) remote from the user to provide tasks, answers to queries, notes and other information for use and display on the users device 10 using standard telecommunications technology (e.g., wired and wireless GSM, CDMA, CDPD, and paging networks). Referring to FIG. 5, the handheld device can also be equipped within a position module 46 to enable the handheld device to utilize positioning systems or methods known in the art such as satellite position (e.g., Global Positioning System (GPS)) or signal triangulation techniques. A GPS compatible system, for example, can be used to determine device location information and can also provide navigational assistance to users (e.g., to find a field problem/job) when used in combination with navigation software or resources, such as Internet mapping resources available from the World Wide Web. A navigation module can include positioning and navigational capabilities. Commercially available navigation technology will allow users to download a door-to-door route from any two locations in the U.S. The device can constantly update the user's current position and provide updated directions. This feature allows point to point navigational instructions to be provided to users in the field. In accordance with the present invention, a handheld device 10 can be interactive with the field operator when programs operated by the microprocessor ask questions or provide guidance related to a particular field problem. An interactive question and answer session can also include the provision of checklists and relevant data in support of a user dialogue with the device. Interactivity can also be provided to remote resources when two-way data communication is provided between the device and a remote server and/or support representative. As mentioned above, the present invention can be effectively practiced together with a client/server programming environment. As is known by those skilled in this art, client/server is a model for a relationship between two computer programs in which one program, the client, makes a service request from another program, the server, which fulfills the request. Although the client/server model can be used by programs within a single computer, it is more commonly used in a network where computing functions and data can more efficiently be distributed among many client and server programs at different network locations. With a client/server relationship, multiple client programs can share the services of a common server. Client programs and Server programs are often part of a larger program or application. Relative to the Internet, a Web browser is a client program that requests services (the sending of Web pages or files) from a Web server (which technically is called a Hypertext Transport Protocol or HTTP server) in another computer somewhere on the Internet. Similarly, a computer with TCP/IP installed allows client requests for files from File Transfer Protocol (FTP) servers in other computers on the Internet. Referring to FIG. 6, an environment for extended operation/communication between a handheld device 10 (client) and remote management system 58 (e.g., server, desktop PC) is illustrated. At least one device 10/10′ can be remotely linked to a management system that can provide instructions (e.g., templates, task/punch lists) and/or programs to a group of users. Instruction can be stored on a program locally on a user's personal digital assistant (PDA). Job templates and/or programs can also be centrally stored within one or more databases 61/59 accessible to the management system or directly by the handheld device 10/10′. Accordingly, users can access a central template through a private or public computer network in a conventional manner via wireline or wireless communications. By maintaining a template in a central location, such as a management system, updates can be made to the template as procedures, best practices, and/or laws are added, amended or deleted. Accordingly, users can be provided with up-to-date information on assessment activities. A user operating in the field can utilize a handheld device 10 for the assessment of a field problem. The user can execute an industry-specific program (e.g., field data management program) on the handheld device 10 related to the problem being addressed. The user interacts with the handheld executed program to obtain an initial field assessment. The program would prompt the user for input of data related to the problem. During program execution, the user can access remote resources (e.g., information, data, and expert assistance) via wireless communication systems 51 and networks 55. Information can be obtained from a server 58 located at the user's enterprise, or from other network 55 resources available to the user (e.g., Web pages provided/obtained over the Internet). Real-time analysis of data obtained can also be undertaken by remote processor (e.g., server, desktop PC). At completion of data processing by a handheld device remote processor 10 a final output, such as a report, bid, recommendation, or the like can be provided to the user. The user can use the information to interact with a third party, render a final output for the third party, or to troubleshoot equipment. The remote processor (e.g., 58) can also be used as a collection point for data provided from multiple users (e.g., 10, 10′). The data would then be analyzed by the remote processor and a comprehensive report can result and be provided to the remote user/device location and data can also be provided via satellite 57. Location is determinable using, for example, GPS. A handheld device user can be provided with directions to a requested location, based on the user's position, either textually or through known mapping programs (e.g., mapping programs available over the Internet). It should be appreciated that data collected with the device 10 can be processed without the assistance of remote resources and can be directly utilized to render output to the user via the device user interface, printed using data rendering devices, or can be stored in local memory for subsequent use (e.g., synchronization with a desktop, rendering, remote computation, compilation for use with input from other sources). Data provided to remote systems can generally undergo computing operations beyond the resident capabilities of the handheld device. A limited software program can be used for gathering of data during a field assessment, where after a larger software application and computing resources may be necessary to render a comprehensive analysis relating to the particular field problem. A smaller handheld executed program, for example, may only provide a device user with a more abbreviated list of questions needed to address a field problem. For example, a larger computing capability can utilize data collected by several handheld devices deployed to assess field problems. Methods of the present invention are now described more fully hereinafter with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which preferred embodiments of the invention are shown. Methods of the invention can, however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construed as limited to the embodiments (e.g., method step sequences) set forth herein; rather, these embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will be thorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the invention to those skilled in the art. It will be understood after the teachings herein provided that each block of the flowchart illustrations, and combinations of blocks in the flowchart illustrations, can be implemented by computer program instructions. These computer program instructions can be provided to a processor of a handheld device (e.g., PDA, pager, WAP phone, Smartphone), general purpose computer (e.g., desktop), special purpose computer (e.g., server), or other programmable data processing apparatus to produce a machine, such that the instructions, which execute via the processor of the handheld device, remote computer, server or other programmable data processing apparatus, create means for implementing the functions specified in the flowchart block or blocks. It is generally known that servers or desktop computers have more processing capability than handheld devices. Furthermore, a server or desktop can be used as a centralized data collection and analysis facility for input received from more than one handheld device/user and as the manager of assets in the field. Referring to FIG. 7, a flow chart related to a construction industry application will now be described. Again, the construction industry application is only exemplary of one type of field operation that can be facilitated with the present invention, and should not be taken as a limitation of the scope of the appended claims. A user can initially be directed to the prospective job site 701 through GPS navigation means on the handheld device relevant to a particular field problem. Once at the job site, the operator would start (for example) an appraisal program 702. The program can start by asking for the identification of a client or matter 703 (e.g., customer, or job site). The program can next ask the representative to identify the problem or type of operation or assessment 704 (e.g., service call, sales call, HVAC, plumbing, electrical, landscaping, etc.). This should enable only the most relevant questions and/or interaction to be invoked by the program. The program would then start asking the user specific questions, or provide initial information, related to the identified subject matter 705. The user would respond to program questions by providing specific answers/data 706, which would generally be provided in a format understandable by the program. It is assumed that operators/users would have the requisite training to utilize field data management programs. Interaction, however, would preferably be kept to a level that is reasonably intuitive to any reasonably experienced computer and handheld device user. At completion of the series of questions, the handheld device can automatically compile collected data 707 provided by user. The data can then be analyzed by the handheld device 708 or provide the data to a remote processor 709 via a network where the data will be analyzed. Data can be provided to the remote resource within a template recognizable by the remote processor/program. After the data is analyzed, the handheld device can provide output to the operator 710 (which may have been received from the remote processor) that can be in the form of an estimate or analysis and can be provided to the client or utilized by the operator to provide additional services. In an industry-specific application, a field operator in the construction industry can be required to provide job cost estimates, status reports and/or complete a punch list of items. Programs for estimating a job and rendering bids can be more detailed and interactive than the mere provision of task/punch lists. For example, a job estimation program tailored for the heating and air conditioning industry can determine cooling load requirements based on data collected regarding a floor plan (square footage, duct work, number of vents, position of vents), currently used equipment (furnace, air compressor, valves, coil, tubing, etc.), condition of equipment and insulation. Load calculations can also be rendered on-site based on available building plans where input to program questions is based on data written on a set of architectural plans. In the heating and air conditioning (HVAC) industry for example, an inexperienced technician would greatly benefit from the provision of guidelines for troubleshooting HVAC equipment, such as a series of questions related to identified failure symptoms or the identified problem. The handheld device can also provide a technician with an outline of known systematic procedures. In the case where an inexperienced operator, such as the inexperienced HVAC technician described above, is unable to properly assess a field problem, a transcript of the operator's interaction with the handheld (e.g., questions and responses) can be transmitted to remote resources for further analysis. The user can be provided, at the handheld device with additional assessment guidelines (e.g., another program, suggestions/advice, or targeted questions not asked by the handheld device program) from a remote processor or source. The operator can also be provided with, for example, a link to third party information relevant to the problem available on the Internet (e.g., information from an equipment manufacturer's site regarding the equipment being assessed by the technician). Referring to FIG. 8, a detailed flow chart illustrating a more specific assessment relating to the HVAC industry is described. The flow chart is directed to information useful in obtaining data needed to render an estimate for a HVAC project. Once a program is opened on the handheld device, the operator can be asked (e.g., prompted) to identify the job 801 (e.g., location, customer name, date, type of job). The current date may already be available from the handheld device, but in this case the projected start date can be provided for project scheduling (conflict checking) purposes. The operator can then select the type of program 802 to be utilized (e.g., HVAC sales estimating, problem trouble-shooting, and efficiency determination). The operator can next be asked for the approximate size of the building 803 being assessed (generally based on heated/cooled square footage for HVAC applications). A operator can then be asked to provide structural characteristics of the building 804 (e.g., glass-type and location, the direction a building faces for determining solar exposure, ceiling height and ceiling type). Other categories not shown but which may be relevant to assessing a building are wall type, insulation type/rating, duct work type/insulation, pre-existing equipment type/rating. Use of the building can also be determined by the operator 805 (e.g., how the building occupied and typical traffic patterns). The type of business, if applicable, can have an impact on the assessment regarding accessibility for equipment and commercial operation patterns. Finally, location (e.g., Dallas/Fort Worth factor) can have an impact on the market price for an estimate. It may make a difference whether a job is being performed in a particular part of town or what the immediate surroundings of the property are like. Project location information can be provided by the hand held device automatically via a resident GPS module as described in FIG. 5 and throughout the disclosure; however, location-based marketing information 806 (e.g., street access, landscaping that may be disturbed, new construction issues) can also impact the project and overall assessment. Payment information 807 can also be obtained to complete information needed to render, for example, a job estimate. Compilation 808, analysis 809/810, and useful output 811 aspects of the method are carried out and rendered after all data is collected by the operator. Other construction related fields that would benefit from a series of questions similar to the last example include, remodeling, plumbing, inspections, surveying, landscaping, windows sales and installation, floor covering contractors, etc. It should be appreciated that estimates can also be provided in non-construction sales using the present method. Referring to FIG. 9, a flow chart of a method relating to project management is described. Oftentimes, large projects in, for example, a manufacturing or design environment can have job aspects that are shared by members belonging to different work shifts. In accordance with the present invention, a program managed by a central computer/server can track every aspect of a project and provide worker with tasks via a template. A worker's handheld device (or device assigned to the worker for the shift) can be synchronized 901 with a server to receive an updated template containing tasks for the worker at the beginning of every work shift. A project member beginning a workday at a job site or on a shared project would generally be expected to ascertain the status of the project and attempt to complete tasks embodied within a template. The projects tasks and template (or program instructions) are generally expected to be completed by the worker 902 during and before the end of a shift. The worker reports 903 on the status of tasks at the end of the workday via synchronization with a server through wired and/or wireless means as described at the beginning of the disclosure. An updated template is created by the server 904 for a subsequent worker based on the project's updated status, needs and prior worker input. Unfinished business recorded by a prior worker and new tasks can be prepared within a template 905 for provision to the subsequent device/worker. The process is repeated for the duration of assigned projects 906, and for subsequent (new) projects. It is an advantage of the present invention to provide for project tracking, updated progress, and focused task lists to projects members. Project efficiency would increase with the present method. Workers utilizing a synchronized project task list to carry out their daily input into a project can insure that tasks completed task are not repeated (wasting time) and that unfinished tasks are addressed by a subsequent project member, possibly avoiding project delays and/or damages (e.g., monetary loss based on inefficiency). Referring to FIG. 10, a flow chart outlining a method relating to equipment readiness is described. An example relating to equipment readiness in the airline industry will be used, but is not meant to be limiting. Airline pilots generally work through a manual checklist prior to the operation of aircraft. In accordance with the present invention, a pilot can utilize a program executed on a handheld device to be guided through an equipment readiness checklist. The operator (pilot) selects the operational readiness program associated with the equipment being checked 1001. The program provides the operator with step-by-step instructions for checking the status of the equipment 1002. The checklist can be provided in the form of questions or statement (e.g., provide X gauge reading). Upon completion of the checklist, the user can run a report 1003 (or synchronized with a remote server for use by the system or monitors) describing the readiness (pass/fail) of the equipment. The report can include recommendations 1004 (e.g., troubleshooting criteria). Trouble shooting information together with a template of field test procedures can be provided to equipment technicians for repairing disorders. The report can be transmitted to a remote server 1005 for reporting/analysis. For example, the report (which preferably contains quantitative readings) can be synchronized with a black box located on an airplane. If there would ever be an issue as to whether equipment was properly checked out or if certain readings are indicative of causing equipment failures, the recorded information of the checklist would be useful in analyzing such issues. Referring to FIG. 11, a flow chart outlining a method relating to inventory tracking/ordering is described. Field technicians can utilize a handheld device to ensure that the proper inventory will be provided prior to embarking on a daily service schedule. The operator can start an inventory program 1101, identify a service schedule 1102, and synchronize the schedule 1103 with an inventory manager. The inventory manager assesses the schedule requirements and provides the technician with an inventory availability status 1104. The technician can coordinate inventory needs with the company automatically using this method so that no more inventory than is needed is taken to the field. Referring to FIG. 12, a flow chart illustrating an assessment relating to criminal investigation is described. Once the program opened 1201 on the handheld device, it can ask the operator to identify legal issues (e.g., crime) 1202. The operator can then select the type of investigation being undertaken (e.g., crime scene, witness interviews, forensics, etc.). Instructions can be provided regarding the legal elements of a specific crime and exemplary evidence needed to prove the elements. The checklist and legal elements can be tailored to a particular legal jurisdiction. The investigator can complete instructions by entering data relating to the investigation 1203. The checklist and/or data can be stored at the handheld 1204 for future reference, can be transmitted 1205 to a server for analysis (verification), and/or synchronized with computer for use in furtherance of an investigation. The ability to manage data from several investigators on large-scaled cases can be enhanced through the present invention, wherein comprehensive data from different sources can be analyzed, updated and reformatted for representation and distribution to plural case workers. Updated templates associated to a particular type of case can identify information shortfalls in a case. Referring to FIG. 13, a flow chart directed to multi-user functions in accordance with the teaching of the present invention is provided. As an example to describe a multi-user field assessment, assume several field operators/investigators are deployed to investigate and collect data over a broad area of land affected by an environmental catastrophe. Operators equipped with handheld devices are assigned/deployed to specific positions of the affected environment. An operator can first be provided initial instruction from a remote server 1301. Initial instructions can include summary information regarding the problem, required equipment, and Pinpoint directions to the assigned positions, which can be provided to operators utilizing GPS. In cases where an operator may already be deployed, the operator may only be provided with initial information/instructions. At their respective positions, remote operators are provided instruction from a portable device 1301. Communication is established between device and remote resource 1302 comprising unique/updated instructions for their respective assessment of the position (e.g., data collection instructions). The template/instructions can operate in combination with programs resident in the handheld computer or can be accompanied by a computer program transmitted from the server (e.g., in the form of a JAVA applet). During data collection, the operator can gain support 1303, via communicates with remote resource (e.g., server, exert personnel). With a live expert, communication can be via chat or voice. Procedural guidance can be provided through two-way communication with remote representatives. After the data has been collected in accordance with the template/programs, the data can be transmitted to the resource 1304, wherein the data can be quickly and more accurately analyzed together with input from other personnel (e.g., experts, other field users). In the case where initial GPS information was not provided to/or obtained from the operator, GPS coordinates associated with the collected data can also be transmitted to the server with the collected data. The collected data and GPS coordinate associated with the collection of data would generally be the two most important attributes for the given scenario. As will be appreciated by one of skill in the art, the present invention can be embodied as methods, data processing system, or computer program product. Accordingly, the present invention can take the form of an entirely hardware embodiment, an entirely software embodiment or an embodiment combining software and hardware aspects. Furthermore, the present invention can take the form of a computer program product on a computer-usable storage medium having computer-usable program code means embodied in the medium. Any suitable computer readable medium can be utilized including hard disks, CD-ROMs, optical storage devices, or magnetic storage devices. Computer program code for carrying out operations of the present invention can be written in an object oriented programming language such as Java, Smalltalk or C++. The computer program code for carrying out operations of the present invention, however, can also be written in conventional procedural programming languages, such as the “C” programming language. The program code can be executed entirely on the user's computer, as a standalone software package, or it can execute partly on the user's computer and partly on a remote computer. In the latter scenario, the remote computer can be connected to the user's computer through a LAN or a WAN, or the connection can be made to an external computer (for example, through the Internet using an Internet Service Provider). Personnel that can benefit from the assessment solutions provided herein include members of the construction, legal, medical, technical, hospitality, military and educational communities. The use of words such as “assessments” as used herein is not meant to limit the invention. Facilitating user “operations” in the field, remote from his/her enterprise is the focus of the present invention. Examples of field assessments include job estimates/bids, crime scene investigations, medical procedures, daily punch/task list management, equipment/system testing/troubleshooting, customer interaction, sales, cost estimates, and third-party status/feedback collection. Accomplishment of an assessment can include methods for guided, interactive data collection by handheld computing device users, and storage and/or transmission of collected data for computer analysis. Data, once analyzed by a computer, can result in a complete assessment of or a request for additional data collection by the user. The foregoing is illustrative of the present invention and is not to be construed as limiting thereof. Although a few exemplary embodiments of this invention have been described, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that many modifications are possible in the exemplary embodiments without materially departing from the novel teachings and advantages of this invention. Accordingly, all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of this invention as defined in the claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Limitations that have been experienced with the growth of services in many of the professions, trades and industries can be attributed to the expansion of remote or distributed field activities, such as situation/location assessments, estimates or appraisals. New technology and less experienced personnel may be undertaking the initial tasks of customer interaction, sales, data collection and/or the analysis and troubleshooting of problems in the field. Personnel in field are usually required to collect data regarding a field situation that is generally be used later by more senior, experienced and/or responsible personnel to make decisions (business, technical, administrative and/or political). Even the most experienced professionals may find themselves lacking access to critical information or support that would be helpful in undertaking field operations. Efficiency in the remote dispatching of personnel given personnel vs. customer or field locations, as well as asset and inventory control can also be improved. As an example of a field situation, individuals in the construction industry are often responsible for carrying out field assessments and providing estimates. The consequences of under bidding a project in the construction field can be very costly and/or can affect performance and quality of services/activities related to the underbid project. In cases where a project cost estimate, or bid, must be provided for a construction project, a business owner or senior journeymen can oftentimes be compelled to personally go to the field and collect information regarding a project in order to render a realistic and profitable bid because an inexperienced estimator might render an inaccurate appraisal. Construction project estimates require an accurate assessment and analysis of a job-site/projects in order to develop the data/facts necessary for an estimate to be rendered regarding use of labor, materials and completion time for a project. If an operator in the field was provided with guidance, access to supplemental information and/or years of experience (e.g., lessons learned by senior personnel), field operations might proceed more accurately and professionally. Field operators, however, are unlikely to have reasonable means to efficiently access the information or the information can not be updated. Materials typically used in the field can include reference materials such as codes, regulations, inventory and price lists. Personal digital assistant (PDA) is a generic name used for a device belonging to a family of portable handheld data managing devices well known in the art. Another word used to refer to such devices is the word “Smartphone.” Currently, handheld data management devices such as PDAs or Palm PCs can have as much computing power as desktop personal computers and can be used in a wide variety of applications, including wireless communication (infrared and radio frequency), GPS (global positioning system) mapping, Internet access and database storage. Web-phones are also being introduced into the wireless marketplaces that have PDA-like capabilities. Handheld data management devices are generally enabled with wireless connectivity to data sources over, for example, the connection-oriented Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) or message oriented TME/X protocol. Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) is a TCP/IP based technology that supports Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) or Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP) wireless connections to mobile devices. Cellular service is generally available throughout the world from major service providers. With CDPD, data can be transferred over switched Public Switched telephone Network (PSTN) circuits or packet-switched networks. Global System for Mobile Communication (GSM) and Personal Communications Systems (PCS) networks operate in the 800 MHz, 900 MHz, and 1900 MHz range. PCS provides narrowband digital communications in the 900 MHz range for paging, and broadband digital communications in the 1900 MHz band for cellular telephone service. In the U.S. as of the priority date for the present embodiments, PCS 1900 is identical to GSM 1900 . GSM operates in the 900 MHz, 1800-1900 MHz frequency bands. GSM 1800 is widely used throughout Europe and throughout many parts of the world. In the U.S., GSM 1900 is the same as PCS 1900 ; thus, these two technologies are compatible. The Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) network is a digital wireless network that defines how a single channel can be segmented into multiple channels using a pseudo random signal (or code) to identify each user's information. Because CDMA spreads each call over more than 4.4 trillion channels across the entire frequency band, it is more immune to interference than TDMA or other current wireless networks and can support more users per channel in some situations. Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) cellular/wireless systems are currently deployed throughout the wireless communication markets. Wideband CDMA (W-CDMA), which is called CDMA 2000 in North America, will be implemented in the U.S.A. in the near future. W-CDMA is a true 3G wireless technology. W-CDMA increases transfer rates by using multiple 1.25 MHz cellular channels compared to the single channel currently used by CDMA 1. The General Packet Radio Service (GPRS) network is a 2.5G technology that bridges the gap between the current wireless technologies and the next generation of wireless technologies known as 3G wireless technologies. GPRS is a packet-data transmission technology. GPRS will work with CDMA and TDMA, and it supports X.25 and IP communications protocols. It will also enable features like Voice over IP (VOIP) and multimedia services. Bluetooth is a Personal Area Network (PAN) technology. Adopted by a consortium of wireless equipment manufacturers called the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (BSIG), it is emerging as a global standard for low cost wireless data and voice communication. The current specification for this standard is the 2.4 GHz ISM frequency band. Bluetooth technology is based on a short-range radio transmitter/receiver built into small application specific circuits (ASICs) and embedded into support devices. Initially, Bluetooth enabled devices will have 1 mw of transmitter power and will be capable of asymmetrical data transfers of up to 721 Mbps over distances of 10 M. The Bluetooth specification permits up to 100 mw of power, which will increase the range to 100 M. In addition, it can support up to three voice channels. Using short data packets and frequency hopping of up to 1600 hops per second, it is a true 3G wireless technology that will enable a host of new applications and possibilities for wireless data communication. Wireless application protocol (WAP) and Extensible Markup Language (XML) are examples of current technology being used in wireless devices and system to provide Web-based (Internet) content on wireless devices. Despite the growing power and popularity of portable data management devices and the diverse telecommunications alternatives for data communication, few applications were available as of September 2000 (the priority date for the embodiments herein) that directly relate to interactive or industry-specific programs providing management of associated data and providing users with access to daily business practices and procedures related to a particular industry. As of the priority date of the present embodiments (Sep. 18, 2000), what was, and continue to be, needed in business, government and industry where field operators are utilized is a system and method for managing assets in the field via wireless handheld devices. Systems were, and remain, needed by businesses that could enable their field operators (e.g., users, operators, estimators, investigators, salesmen, and the like) to more efficiently and accurately operate in the field. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>It is an object of the present invention to provide a system and methods for managing asset in the field (e.g., personnel, equipment and/or inventory) via handheld devices. It is an aspect of the present invention to provide field operators portable access to industry-specific field data management programs (“programs”) and data useful in carrying out field operations. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide a handheld data management device and solutions for assisting personnel in finding and conducting field operations. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide methods for field operations data synchronization and/or delivery using wireless capabilities resident in handheld personal computing devices. Data can be synchronized from handhelds with a server operating as their manager over a network using wireless radio transmission. It is another aspect of the present invention to provide for two-way communication between remote computing means (e.g., servers, desktop computers) and handheld data management devices to facilitate real-time access to remote programs, assistance and/or information related to the field operations being undertaken by handheld data management device users. A handheld device for use in the management of assets and data during operations in the field can include a server for operating at least one field data management program and managing remote assets in the field and field data; a microprocessor for executing said at least one field data management program; at least one field data management program stored within said memory and including instructions for enabling users to: find a field location, collect data at the field location, communicate with a remote server while at the field location, retrieve new data from the server that is associated with the collected data; a wireless communication module for providing access to the remote server by said handheld data management device; and a user interface adapted for enabling the handheld data management device user to interact with said at least one field data management program. A programming module containing field data management software can include software used to accomplish at least one of: construction industry project analysis, HVAC system analysis, project management, equipment readiness inspection, troubleshooting, inventory tracking, inventory ordering, sales (e.g., providing cost estimates to customers), customer invoicing, conducting legal investigations, field data collection, and multi-user remote function coordination. A method of conducting a field operation using a handheld data management device can include the steps of providing access to an industry-specific field operations program module; executing said program module to conduct a field operation; providing field-specific information required by said program module for said program module to render data from said module useful in support of said operations; and retrieving data from said handheld data management device in support of said operations. The method can further include providing data to a remote resource (e.g., server or live expert) for analysis, and retrieving enhanced data from said remote resource for use in conducting the field operations. A method of conducting operations in the field utilizing a handheld data management device, can also include the steps of obtaining directions to a field location using positioning and navigation means provided through said handheld data management device; starting a program associated with the field problem; providing specific information required by the field data management program and related to the field problem; analysis of said specific information by said handheld data management device; and rendering output by said handheld data management device for use in support of said field problem. The foregoing has outlined some of the more pertinent features of the present invention. These features should be construed to be merely illustrative of some of the more prominent features and applications of the invention. Many other beneficial results can be attained by applying the disclosed invention in a different manner or modifying the invention as will be described. Accordingly, other aspects and a fuller understanding of the invention can be had by referring to the following Detailed Description of the preferred embodiment. | G06Q10063114 | 20170726 | 20180222 | 96978.0 | G06Q1006 | 2 | RAMAKRISHNAIAH, MELUR | SYSTEM AND METHODS FOR MANAGEMENT OF MOBILE FIELD ASSETS VIA WIRELESS HANDHELD DEVICES | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06Q | 2,017 |
|
15,660,785 | PENDING | METHODS OF LOWERING THE ERROR RATE OF MASSIVELY PARALLEL DNA SEQUENCING USING DUPLEX CONSENSUS SEQUENCING | Next Generation DNA sequencing promises to revolutionize clinical medicine and basic research. However, while this technology has the capacity to generate hundreds of billions of nucleotides of DNA sequence in a single experiment, the error rate of approximately 1% results in hundreds of millions of sequencing mistakes. These scattered errors can be tolerated in some applications but become extremely problematic when “deep sequencing” genetically heterogeneous mixtures, such as tumors or mixed microbial populations. To overcome limitations in sequencing accuracy, a method Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS) is provided. This approach greatly reduces errors by independently tagging and sequencing each of the two strands of a DNA duplex. As the two strands are complementary, true mutations are found at the same position in both strands. In contrast, PCR or sequencing errors will result in errors in only one strand. | 1-36. (canceled) 37. A method of generating an error corrected sequence read of a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule, comprising: ligating the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule to at least one adapter molecule, to form an adapter-target nucleic acid complex, wherein the at least one adapter molecule comprises— (a) a degenerate or semi-degenerate single molecule identifier (SMI) sequence that alone or in combination with the target nucleic acid fragment ends uniquely labels the double stranded target nucleic acid molecule, and (b) a nucleotide sequence that distinguishes each strand of the adapter-target nucleic acid complex such that each strand of the adapter-target nucleic acid complex has a distinctly identifiable nucleotide sequence relative to its complementary strand; amplifying each strand of the adapter-target nucleic acid complex to produce a plurality of first strand adapter-target nucleic acid complex amplicons and a plurality of second strand adapter-target nucleic acid complex amplicons; sequencing the adapter-target nucleic acid complex amplicons to produce a plurality of first strand sequence reads and plurality of second strand sequence reads; confirming the presence of at least one first strand sequence read and at least one second strand sequence read; comparing the at least one first strand sequence read with the at least one second strand sequence read; and generating an error corrected sequence read of the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule by discounting nucleotide positions that do not agree, or alternatively removing compared first and second strand sequence reads having one or more nucleotide positions where the compared first and second strand sequence reads are non-complementary. 38. The method of claim 37, wherein the confirming step includes (i) grouping the sequenced adapter-target nucleic acid complex amplicons into families of paired first and second strand sequence reads based on a common set of SMI sequences alone or in combination with the target nucleic acid fragment ends, (ii) separating each individual family of paired first and second strand sequence reads into a set of first strand sequence reads and a set of second strand sequence reads, and (iii) confirming the presence of at least one member in each of the sets of the first and second strand sequence reads. 39. The method of claim 37, wherein the confirming step includes confirming the presence of at least 2 first strand sequence reads and at least 2 second strand sequence reads. 40. The method of claim 37, wherein generating an error corrected sequence read of the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule includes identifying one or more nucleotide positions that disagree between the at least one first strand sequence read and the at least one second strand sequence read. 41. The method of claim 37, wherein each position in the error corrected sequence read is identified as true if the particular position in both the first strand sequence read and the second strand sequence read is complementary. 42. The method of claim 37, wherein a mutation occurring at a particular position in the error corrected sequence read is identified as a true mutation. 43. The method of claim 37, wherein a variation that occurs at a particular position in only one of the first strand sequence read or the second strand sequence read is identified as a potential artifact. 44. The method of claim 37, wherein the error corrected sequence read is used to identify a cancer, a cancer risk, a cancer metabolic state, a mutator phenotype, a carcinogen exposure, a chronic inflammation exposure, an age, a neurodegenerative disease, or a combination thereof in an organism from which the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule is derived. 45. The method of claim 37, wherein the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule is a double-stranded DNA or other nucleic acid fragment. 46. The method of claim 37, wherein the adapter-target nucleic acid complex comprises at least two primer binding sites. 47. The method of claim 37, wherein the adapter-target nucleic acid complex comprises a Y-shape, a U-shape, or a combination thereof. 48. The method of claim 37, wherein the adapter-target nucleic acid complex comprises an SMI sequence in each of its strands. 49. The method of claim 37, wherein the adapter-target nucleic acid complex comprises a degenerate or semi-degenerate SMI sequence in each of its strands, and wherein the degenerate or semi-degenerate SMI sequence in one strand comprises a first degenerate or semi-degenerate sequence and in the other strand comprises a second degenerate or semi-degenerate sequence. 50. The method of claim 49, wherein the first and second degenerate or semi-degenerate sequences are at least partially complementary. 51. The method of claim 37, wherein the adapter-target nucleic acid complex comprises an SMI sequence at each terminus. 52. The method of claim 37, wherein the degenerate of semi-degenerate SMI sequence comprises from about 3 to about 20 nucleotides. 53. A method of generating an error corrected sequence read of a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule, comprising: ligating the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule to at least one adapter molecule, to form an adapter-target nucleic acid complex, wherein the at least one adapter molecule comprises a nucleotide sequence that distinguishes each strand of the adapter-target nucleic acid complex such that each strand of the adapter-target nucleic acid complex has a distinctly identifiable nucleotide sequence relative to its complementary strand; amplifying each strand of the adapter-target nucleic acid complex to produce a plurality of first strand adapter-target nucleic acid complex amplicons and a plurality of second strand adapter-target nucleic acid complex amplicons; sequencing the adapter-target nucleic acid complex amplicons to produce a plurality of first strand sequence reads and plurality of second strand sequence reads; pairing the first and second strand sequence reads based on one or more fragment features shared by each strand of the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule and confirming the presence of at least one first strand sequence read and at least one second strand sequence read; comparing the at least one first strand sequence read with the at least one second strand sequence read; and generating an error corrected sequence read of the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule by discounting nucleotide positions that do not agree, or alternatively removing paired first and second strand sequence reads having one or more nucleotide positions where the paired first and second strand sequence reads are non-complementary. 54. The method of claim 53, wherein the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule is a double-stranded DNA or other nucleic acid fragment. 55. The method of claim 53, wherein the one or more fragment features includes a shear point or other fragment region, or a combination thereof. 56. The method of claim 53, wherein the adapter-target nucleic acid complex comprises at least two primer binding sites. 57. The method of claim 53, wherein the adapter-target nucleic acid complex comprises a Y-shape, a U-shape, or a combination thereof. | PRIORITY CLAIM This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/613,413, filed Mar. 20, 2012; U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/625,623, filed Apr. 17, 2012; and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/625,319, filed Apr. 17, 2012; the subject matter of all of which are hereby incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. STATEMENT OF GOVERNMENT INTEREST The present invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. RO1 CA115802 and RO1 CA102029 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government has certain rights in the invention. BACKGROUND The advent of massively parallel DNA sequencing has ushered in a new era of genomic exploration by making simultaneous genotyping of hundreds of billions of base-pairs possible at small fraction of the time and cost of traditional Sanger methods [1]. Because these technologies digitally tabulate the sequence of many individual DNA fragments, unlike conventional techniques which simply report the average genotype of an aggregate collection of molecules, they offer the unique ability to detect minor variants within heterogeneous mixtures [2]. This concept of “deep sequencing” has been implemented in a variety fields including metagenomics [3, 4], paleogenomics [5], forensics [6], and human genetics [7, 8] to disentangle subpopulations in complex biological samples. Clinical applications, such prenatal screening for fetal aneuploidy [9, 10], early detection of cancer [11] and monitoring its response to therapy [12, 13] with nucleic acid-based serum biomarkers, are rapidly being developed. Exceptional diversity within microbial [14, 15] viral [16-18] and tumor cell populations [19, 20] has been characterized through next-generation sequencing, and many low-frequency, drug-resistant variants of therapeutic importance have been so identified [12, 21, 22]. Previously unappreciated intra-organismal mosasism in both the nuclear [23] and mitochondrial [24, 25] genome has been revealed by these technologies, and such somatic heterogeneity, along with that arising within the adaptive immune system [13], may be an important factor in phenotypic variability of disease. Deep sequencing, however, has limitations. Although, in theory, DNA subpopulations of any size should be detectable when deep sequencing a sufficient number of molecules, a practical limit of detection is imposed by errors introduced during sample preparation and sequencing. PCR amplification of heterogeneous mixtures can result in population skewing due to stoichastic and non-stoichastic amplification biases and lead to over- or under-representation of particular variants [26]. Polymerase mistakes during pre-amplification generate point mutations resulting from base mis-incorporations and rearrangements due to template switching [26, 27]. Combined with the additional errors that arise during cluster amplification, cycle sequencing and image analysis, approximately 1% of bases are incorrectly identified, depending on the specific platform and sequence context [2, 28]. This background level of artifactual heterogeneity establishes a limit below which the presence of true rare variants is obscured [29]. A variety of improvements at the level of biochemistry [30-32] and data processing [19, 21, 28, 32, 33] have been developed to improve sequencing accuracy. The ability to resolve subpopulations below 0.1%, however, has remained elusive. Although several groups have attempted to increase sensitivity of sequencing, several limitations remain. For example techniques whereby DNA fragments to be sequenced are each uniquely tagged [34, 35] prior to amplification [36-41] have been reported. Because all amplicons derived from a particular starting molecule will bear its specific tag, any variation in the sequence or copy number of identically tagged sequencing reads can be discounted as technical error. This approach has been used to improve counting accuracy of DNA [38, 39, 41] and RNA templates [37, 38, 40] and to correct base errors arising during PCR or sequencing [36, 37, 39]. Kinde et. al. reported a reduction in error frequency of approximately 20-fold with a tagging method that is based on labeling single-stranded DNA fragments with a primer containing a 14 bp degenerate sequence. This allowed for an observed mutation frequency of ˜0.001% mutations/bp in normal human genomic DNA [36]. Nevertheless, a number of highly sensitive genetic assays have indicated that the true mutation frequency in normal cells is likely to be far lower, with estimates of per-nucleotide mutation frequencies generally ranging from 10−9 to 10−11 [42]. Thus, the mutations seen in normal human genomic DNA by Kinde et al. are likely the result of significant technical artifacts. Traditionally, next-generation sequencing platforms rely upon generation of sequence data from a single strand of DNA. As a consequence, artifactual mutations introduced during the initial rounds of PCR amplification are undetectable as errors—even with tagging techniques—if the base change is propagated to all subsequent PCR duplicates. Several types of DNA damage are highly mutagenic and may lead to this scenario. Spontaneous DNA damage arising from normal metabolic processes results in thousands of damaging events per cell per day [43]. In addition to damage from oxidative cellular processes, further DNA damage is generated ex vivo during tissue processing and DNA extraction [44]. These damage events can result in frequent copying errors by DNA polymerases: for example a common DNA lesion arising from oxidative damage, 8-oxo-guanine, has the propensity to incorrectly pair with adenine during complementary strand extension with an overall efficiency greater than that of correct pairing with cytosine, and thus can contribute a large frequency of artifactual G→T mutations [45]. Likewise, deamination of cytosine to form uracil is a particularly common event which leads to the inappropriate insertion of adenine during PCR, thus producing artifactual C→T mutations with a frequency approaching 100% [46]. It would be desirable to develop an approach for tag-based error correction, which reduces or eliminates artifactual mutations arising from DNA damage, PCR errors, and sequencing errors; allows rare variants in heterogeneous populations to be detected with unprecedented sensitivity; and which capitalizes on the redundant information stored in complexed double-stranded DNA. SUMMARY In one embodiment, a single molecule identifier (SMI) adaptor molecule for use in sequencing a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule is provided. Said SMI adaptor molecule includes a single molecule identifier (SMI) sequence which comprises a degenerate or semi-degenerate DNA sequence; and an SMI ligation adaptor that allows the SMI adaptor molecule to be ligated to the double-stranded target nucleic acid sequence. The SMI sequence may be single-stranded or double-stranded. In some embodiments, the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule is a double-stranded DNA or RNA molecule. In another embodiment, a method of obtaining the sequence of a double-stranded target nucleic acid is provided (also known as Duplex Consensus Sequencing or DCS) is provided. Such a method may include steps of ligating a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule to at least one SMI adaptor molecule to form a double-stranded SMI-target nucleic acid complex; amplifying the double-stranded SMI-target nucleic acid complex, resulting in a set of amplified SMI-target nucleic acid products; and sequencing the amplified SMI-target nucleic acid products. In some embodiments, the method may additionally include generating an error-corrected double-stranded consensus sequence by (i) grouping the sequenced SMI-target nucleic acid products into families of paired target nucleic acid strands based on a common set of SMI sequences; and (ii) removing paired target nucleic acid strands having one or more nucleotide positions where the paired target nucleic acid strands are non-complementary (or alternatively removing individual nucleotide positions in cases where the sequence at the nucleotide position under consideration disagrees among the two strands). In further embodiments, the method confirms the presence of a true mutation by (i) identifying a mutation present in the paired target nucleic acid strands having one or more nucleotide positions that disagree; (ii) comparing the mutation present in the paired target nucleic acid strands to the error corrected double-stranded consensus sequence; and (iii) confirming the presence of a true mutation when the mutation is present on both of the target nucleic acid strands and appears in all members of a paired target nucleic acid family. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 illustrates an overview of Duplex Consensus Sequencing. Sheared double-stranded DNA that has been end-repaired and T-tailed is combined with A-tailed SMI adaptors and ligated according to one embodiment. Because every adaptor contains a unique, double-stranded, complementary n-mer random tag on each end (n-mer=12 bp according to one embodiment), every DNA fragment becomes labeled with two distinct SMI sequences (arbitrarily designated α and β in the single capture event shown). After size-selecting for appropriate length fragments, PCR amplification with primers containing Illumina flow-cell-compatible tails is carried out to generate families of PCR duplicates. By virtue of the asymmetric nature of adapted fragments, two types of PCR products are produced from each capture event. Those derived from one strand will have the α SMI sequence adjacent to flow-cell sequence 1 and the β SMI sequence adjacent to flow cell sequence 2. PCR products originating from the complementary strand are labeled reciprocally. FIG. 2 illustrates Single Molecule Identifier (SMI) adaptor synthesis according to one embodiment. Oligonucleotides are annealed and the complement of the degenerate lower arm sequence (N's) plus adjacent fixed bases is produced by polymerase extension of the upper strand in the presence of all four dNTPs. After reaction cleanup, complete adaptor A-tailing is ensured by extended incubation with polymerase and dATP. FIG. 3 illustrates error correction through Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS) analysis according to one embodiment. (a-c) shows sequence reads (brown) sharing a unique set of SMI tags are grouped into paired families with members having strand identifiers in either the αβ or βα orientation. Each family pair reflects one double-stranded DNA fragment. (a) shows mutations (spots) present in only one or a few family members representing sequencing mistakes or PCR-introduced errors occurring late in amplification. (b) shows mutations occurring in many or all members of one family in a pair representing mutations scored on only one of the two strands, which can be due to PCR errors arising during the first round of amplification such as might occur when copying across sites of mutagenic DNA damage. (c) shows true mutations (* arrow) present on both strands of a captured fragment appear in all members of a family pair. While artifactual mutations may co-occur in a family pair with a true mutation, these can be independently identified and discounted when producing (d) an error-corrected consensus sequence (i.e., single stranded consensus sequence) (+ arrow) for each duplex. (e) shows consensus sequences from all independently captured, randomly sheared fragments containing a particular genomic site are identified and (f) compared to determine the frequency of genetic variants at this locus within the sampled population. FIG. 4 illustrates an example of how a SMI sequence with n-mers of 4 nucleotides in length (4-mers) are read by Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS) according to some embodiments. (A) shows the 4-mers with the PCR primer binding sites (or flow cell sequences) 1 and 2 indicated at each end. (B) shows the same molecules as in (A) but with the strands separated and the lower strand now written in the 5′-3′ direction. When these molecules are amplified with PCR and sequenced, they will yield the following sequence reads: The top strand will give a read 1 file of TAAC--- and a read 2 file of GCCA---. Combining the read 1 and read 2 tags will give TAACCGGA as the SMI for the top strand. The bottom strand will give a read 1 file of CGGA---- and a read 2 file of TAAC---. Combining the read 1 and read 2 tags will give CGGATAAC as the SMI for the bottom strand. (C) illustrates the orientation of paired strand mutations in DCS. In the initial DNA duplex shown in FIGS. 4A and 4B, a mutation “x” (which is paired to a complementary nucleotide “y”) is shown on the left side of the DNA duplex. The “x” will appear in read 1, and the complementary mutation on the opposite strand, “y,” will appear in read 2. Specifically, this would appear as “x” in both read 1 and read 2 data, because “y” in read 2 is read out as “x” by the sequencer owing to the nature of the sequencing primers, which generate the complementary sequence during read 2. FIG. 5 illustrates duplex sequencing of human mitochondrial DNA. (A) Overall mutation frequency as measured by a standard sequencing approach, SSCS, and DCS. (B) Pattern of mutation in human mitochondrial DNA by a standard sequencing approach. The mutation frequency (vertical axis) is plotted for every position in the ˜16-kb mitochondrial genome. Due to the substantial background of technical error, no obvious mutational pattern is discernible by this method. (C) DCS analysis eliminates sequencing artifacts and reveals the true distribution of mitochondrial mutations to include a striking excess adjacent to the mtDNA origin of replication. (D) SSCS analysis yields a large excess of G→T mutations relative to complementary C→A mutations, consistent with artifacts from damaged-induced 8-oxo-G lesions during PCR. All significant (P<0.05) differences between paired reciprocal mutation frequencies are noted. (E) DCS analysis removes the SSCS strand bias and reveals the true mtDNA mutational spectrum to be characterized by an excess of transitions. FIG. 6 shows that consensus sequencing removes artifactual sequencing errors as compared to Raw Reads. Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS) results in an approximately equal number of mutations as the reference and single strand consensus sequencing (SSCS). FIG. 7 illustrates duplex sequencing of M13mp2 DNA. (A) Single-strand consensus sequences (SSCSs) reveal a large excess of G→A/C→T and G→T/C→A mutations, whereas duplex consensus sequences (DCSs) yield a balanced spectrum. Mutation frequencies are grouped into reciprocal mispairs, as DCS analysis only scores mutations present in both strands of duplex DNA. All significant (P<0.05) differences between DCS analysis and the literature reference values are noted. (B) Complementary types of mutations should occur at approximately equal frequencies within a DNA fragment population derived from duplex molecules. However, SSCS analysis yields a 15-fold excess of G→T mutations relative to C→A mutations and an 11-fold excess of C→T mutations relative to G→A mutations. All significant (P<0.05) differences between paired reciprocal mutation frequencies are noted. FIG. 8 shows the effect of DNA damage on the mutation spectrum. DNA damage was induced by incubating purified M13mp2 DNA with hydrogen peroxide and FeSO4. (A) SSCS analysis reveals a further elevation from baseline of G→T mutations, indicating these events to be the artifactual consequence of nucleotide oxidation. All significant (P<0.05) changes from baseline mutation frequencies are noted. (B) Induced DNA damage had no effect on the overall frequency or spectrum of DCS mutations. FIG. 9 shows duplex sequencing results in accurate recovery of spiked-control mutations. A series of variants of M13mp2 DNA, each harboring a known single-nucleotide substitution, were mixed in together at known ratios and the mixture was sequenced to ˜20,000-fold final depth. Standard sequencing analysis cannot accurately distinguish mutants present at a ratio of less than 1/100, because artifactural mutations occurring at every position obscure the presence of less abundant true mutations, rendering apparent recovery greater than 100%. Duplex consensus sequences, in contrast, accurately identify spiked-in mutations down to the lowest tested ratio of 1/10,000. FIG. 10 is a Python Code that may used to carry out methods described herein according to one embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION Single molecule identifier adaptors and methods for their use are provided herein. According to the embodiments described herein, a single molecule identifier (SMI) adaptor molecule is provided. Said SMI adaptor molecule is double stranded, and may include a single molecule identifier (SMI) sequence, and an SMI ligation adaptor (FIG. 2). Optionally, the SMI adaptor molecule further includes at least two PCR primer binding sites, at least two sequencing primer binding sites, or both. The SMI adaptor molecule may form a “Y-shape” or a “hairpin shape.” In some embodiments, the SMI adaptor molecule is a “Y-shaped” adaptor, which allows both strands to be independently amplified by a PCR method prior to sequencing because both the top and bottom strands have binding sites for PCR primers FC1 and FC2 as shown in the examples below. A schematic of a Y-shaped SMI adaptor molecule is also shown in FIG. 2. A Y-shaped SMI adaptor requires successful amplification and recovery of both strands of the SMI adaptor molecule. In one embodiment, a modification that would simplify consistent recovery of both strands entails ligation of a Y-shaped SMI adaptor molecule to one end of a DNA duplex molecule, and ligation of a “U-shaped” linker to the other end of the molecule. PCR amplification of the hairpin-shaped product will then yield a linear fragment with flow cell sequences on either end. Distinct PCR primer binding sites (or flow cell sequences FC1 and FC2) will flank the DNA sequence corresponding to each of the two SMI adaptor molecule strands, and a given sequence seen in Read 1 will then have the sequence corresponding to the complementary DNA duplex strand seen in Read 2. Mutations are scored only if they are seen on both ends of the molecule (corresponding to each strand of the original double-stranded fragment), i.e. at the same position in both Read 1 and Read 2. This design may be accomplished as described in the examples relating to double stranded SMI sequence tags. In other embodiments, the SMI adaptor molecule is a “hairpin” shaped (or “U-shaped”) adaptor. A hairpin DNA product can be used for error correction, as this product contains both of the two DNA strands. Such an approach allows for reduction of a given sequencing error rate N to a lower rate of N*N*(1/3), as independent sequencing errors would need to occur on both strands, and the same error among all three possible base substitutions would need to occur on both strands. For example, the error rate of 1/100 in the case of Illumina sequencing [32] would be reduced to (1/100)*(1/100)*(1/3)=1/30,000. An additional, more remarkable reduction in errors can be obtained by inclusion of a single-stranded SMI in either the hairpin adaptor or the “Y-shaped” adaptor will also function to label both of the two DNA strands. Amplification of hairpin-shaped DNA may be difficult as the polymerase must synthesize through a product containing significant regions of self-complementarity, however, amplification of hairpin-shaped structures has already been established in the technique of hairpin PCR, as described below. Amplification using hairpin PCR is further described in detail in U.S. Pat. No. 7,452,699, the subject matter of which is hereby incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. According to the embodiments described herein, the SMI sequence (or “tag”) may be a double-stranded, complementary SMI sequence or a single-stranded SMI sequence. In some embodiments, the SMI adaptor molecule includes an SMI sequence (or “tag”) of nucleotides that is degenerate or semi-degenerate. In some embodiments, the degenerate or semi-degenerate SMI sequence may be a random degenerate sequence. A double-stranded SMI sequence includes a first degenerate or semi-degenerate nucleotide n-mer sequence and a second n-mer sequence that is complementary to the first degenerate or semi-degenerate nucleotide n-mer sequence, while a single-stranded SMI sequence includes a first degenerate or semi-degenerate nucleotide n-mer sequence. The first and/or second degenerate or semi-degenerate nucleotide n-mer sequences may be any suitable length to produce a sufficiently large number of unique tags to label a set of sheared DNA fragments from a segment of DNA. Each n-mer sequence may be between approximately 3 to 20 nucleotides in length. Therefore, each n-mer sequence may be approximately 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20 nucleotides in length. In one embodiment, the SMI sequence is a random degenerate nucleotide n-mer sequence which is 12 nucleotides in length. A 12 nucleotide SMI n-mer sequence that is ligated to each end of a target nucleic acid molecule, as described in the Example below, results in generation of up to 424 (i.e., 2.8×1014) distinct tag sequences. In some embodiments, the SMI tag nucleotide sequence may be completely random and degenerate, wherein each sequence position may be any nucleotide. (i.e., each position, represented by “X,” is not limited, and may be an adenine (A), cytosine (C), guanine (G), thymine (T), or uracil (U)) or any other natural or non-natural DNA or RNA nucleotide or nucleotide-like substance or analog with base-pairing properties (e.g., xanthosine, inosine, hypoxanthine, xanthine, 7-methylguanine, 7-methylguanosine, 5,6-dihydrouracil, 5-methylcytosine, dihydouridine, isocytosine, isoguanine, deoxynucleosides, nucleosides, peptide nucleic acids, locked nucleic acids, glycol nucleic acids and threose nucleic acids). The term “nucleotide” as described herein, refers to any and all nucleotide or any suitable natural or non-natural DNA or RNA nucleotide or nucleotide-like substance or analog with base pairing properties as described above. In other embodiments, the sequences need not contain all possible bases at each position. The degenerate or semi-degenerate n-mer sequences may be generated by a polymerase-mediated method described in the Example below, or may be generated by preparing and annealing a library of individual oligonucleotides of known sequence. Alternatively, any degenerate or semi-degenerate n-mer sequences may be a randomly or non-randomly fragmented double stranded DNA molecule from any alternative source that differs from the target DNA source. In some embodiments, the alternative source is a genome or plasmid derived from bacteria, an organism other than that of the target DNA, or a combination of such alternative organisms or sources. The random or non-random fragmented DNA may be introduced into SMI adaptors to serve as variable tags. This may be accomplished through enzymatic ligation or any other method known in the art. In some embodiments, the SMI adaptor molecules are ligated to both ends of a target nucleic acid molecule, and then this complex is used according to the methods described below. In certain embodiments, it is not necessary to include n-mers on both adapter ends, however, it is more convenient because it means that one does not have to use two different types of adaptors and then select for ligated fragments that have one of each type rather than two of one type. The ability to determine which strand is which is still possible in the situation wherein only one of the two adaptors has a double-stranded SMI sequence. In some embodiments, the SMI adaptor molecule may optionally include a double-stranded fixed reference sequence downstream of the n-mer sequences to help make ligation more uniform and help computationally filter out errors due to ligation problems with improperly synthesized adaptors. Each strand of the double-stranded fixed reference sequence may be 4 or 5 nucleotides in length sequence, however, the fixed reference sequence may be any suitable length including, but not limited to 3, 4, 5 or 6 nucleotides in length. The SMI ligation adaptor may be any suitable ligation adaptor that is complementary to a ligation adaptor added to a double-stranded target nucleic acid sequence including, but not limited to a T-overhang, an A-overhang, a CG overhang, a blunt end, or any other ligatable sequence. In some embodiments, the SMI ligation adaptor may be made using a method for A-tailing or T-tailing with polymerase extension; creating an overhang with a different enzyme; using a restriction enzyme to create a single or multiple nucleotide overhang, or any other method known in the art. According to the embodiments described herein, the SMI adaptor molecule may include at least two PCR primer or “flow cell” binding sites: a forward PCR primer binding site (or a “flow cell 1” (FC1) binding site); and a reverse PCR primer binding site (or a “flow cell 2” (FC2) binding site). The SMI adaptor molecule may also include at least two sequencing primer binding sites, each corresponding to a sequencing read. Alternatively, the sequencing primer binding sites may be added in a separate step by inclusion of the necessary sequences as tails to the PCR primers, or by ligation of the needed sequences. Therefore, if a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule has an SMI adaptor molecule ligated to each end, each sequenced strand will have two reads—a forward and a reverse read. Double-Stranded SMI Sequences Adaptor 1 (shown below) is a Y-shaped SMI adaptor as described above (the SMI sequence is shown as X's in the top strand (a 4-mer), with the complementary bottom strand sequence shown as Y's): Adaptor 2 (shown below) is a hairpin (or “U-shaped”) linker: Following ligation of both adaptors to a double-stranded target nucleic acid, the following is structure is obtained: When melted, the product will be of the following form (where “linker” is the sequence of adaptor 2): FC1-------XXXX------DNA---------linker---------DNA′----------YYYY--------FC2 This product is then PCR amplified. The reads will yield: Read 1: XXXX-----DNA---- Read 2 (note that read 2 is seen as the complement of the bases sequenced:) XXXX-----DNA---- The sequences of the two duplex strands seen in the two sequence reads may then be compared, and sequence information and mutations will be scored only if the sequence at a given position matches in both of the reads. This approach does not strictly require the use of an SMI tag, as the sheared ends can be used as identifiers to differentiate unique individual molecules from PCR duplicates. Thus the same concept would apply if one used any standard sequencing adaptor as “Adaptor 1” and the U-shaped linker as “Adaptor 2.” However described below, there are a limited number of shear points flanking any given genomic position and thus the power to sequence deeply is increased via inclusion of the SMI tag. A hybrid method using a combination of sheared ends and a shorter n-mer tag (such as 1 or 2 or 3 or 4 or more degenerate or semi-degenerate bases) in the adaptor may also serve as unique molecular identifiers. Another design may include use of any sequencing adaptor (such as one lacking an n-mer tag) in conjunction with an n-mer tag that is incorporated into the U-shaped linker molecule. Such a design would be of the following form (where X and Y represent complementary degenerate or semi-degenerate nucleotides): Synthesis of such a design may be obtained in a number of ways, for example synthesizing a set of hairpin oligonucleotides in which each individual oligonucleotide encodes a complementary n-mer sequence, or alternatively by using a DNA polymerase to carry out extension from the following product (where X's represent degenerate nucleotides): Inclusion of the SMI tag is also extremely useful for identifying correct ligation products, as the assay uses two distinct adaptors. This will yield multiple possible ligation products: Product I. Adaptor 1---------DNA---------Adaptor 2, which yields the desired product: Product II. Adaptor 1---------DNA---------Adaptor 1. This will result in the DNA being amplified as two separate strands, i.e. as occurs in the DCS approach described elsewhere in this document (the second copy of Adaptor 1 is shown below with the SMI as AAA-BBB to emphasize that every DCS adaptor has a distinct SMI sequence) Product III. Adaptor 2---------DNA---------Adaptor 2. This will result in a non-amplifiable circular product shown below: Product III is non-amplifiable, given the absence of primer binding sites and thus will not be present in the final DNA sequences. Thus only Product II needs to be avoided. The formation of Product II can be minimized in the ligation step by using an excess of Adaptor 2 (relative to Adaptor 1). Then primarily Products I and III will be obtained, with minimal formation of Product II. Additionally, a variety of biochemical means of enriching for products containing adaptor 2 are possible such as using affinity probes that are complementary to the hairpin loop sequence itself. Product I results in the same SMI sequence in both the Read 1 and Read 2 sequence reads. In the example depicted above, Product I sequences can thus be identified by virtue of having matching SMIs of the form XXXX in Read 1 and XXXX in Read 2. By contrast, in the case of Product II, the SMI sequences on either end of the sequenced molecule will arise from distinct DCS adaptors having different SMI sequences. In the example shown above, Product II sequences yield SMIs of the form XXXX (Read 1)-BBB (Read 2) upon sequencing of the top strand, and BBBB (Read 1)-XXXX (Read 2) upon sequencing of the bottom strand. Thus Product II sequences can be easily identified and computationally removed from the final sequence data. Data resulting from Product II is useful, because Product II corresponds to the product analyzed under the approach detailed in the Example below. Product I contains a self--complementary hairpin sequence that can impair polymerase extension during amplification, however, this type of amplification has already been enabled in the technique of “Hairpin PCR” [50] which involves linking of the two strands followed by amplification with gene-specific primers. Amplification conditions that are compatible with amplification of hairpin DNA are thus already established. Moreover, ligation and amplification with circularizing “linkers” (i.e. hairpin linkers affixed to both ends of a fragment) has been demonstrated as a step in the Pacific Biosciences sample preparation workflow [49]. As the sequence of the linker itself does not matter in the workflow, the published linker sequences from either of these references would be adequate for use in the assay. In some aspects of some embodiments, deliberate ligation of “U-shaped” adaptors or hairpin linkers containing 1) a double-stranded n-mer (or other form of degenerate or semi-degenerate double-stranded tag as enumerated above) plus 2) primer binding sites to both ends of a captured fragment may be desireable. Producing closed circles of captured material may help facilitate removal of non-captured DNA by exonuclease digestion given that circularized DNA will be protected from digestion by such enzymes. Additionally, closed circles may be pre-amplified using rolling circle amplification or serve as the substrate for continuous loop sequencing [49]. Recognition sites for restriction endonuclease digestion could be engineered into these adaptors to render closed loops open once again if more convenient for subsequent steps. In another embodiment, flow cell sequences or PCR binding sites, again denoted as FC1 and FC2, may be included in both the PCR primers and the hairpin linker adaptor, as well as a ligatable sequence on the end of the hairpin linker (denoted as L below). The hairpin linker adaptor may additionally include one or more cleavable sequences, denoted as R in the example below (the R may be any appropriate restriction enzyme target sequence, or any other cleavable sequence). Such a hairpin linker design is shown below: The target DNA with ligation site denoted as L is as follows: --------------DNA--------L --------------DNA′-------L Following ligation of the linker, the product may be amplified with PCR primers as follows: The resultant product will be of the form: FC1--------DNA--------XXXX--FC2-R-----R-FC1--YYYY--------DNA′-------FC2 After amplification of the product, the cleavage sites R may be cleaved to result in the following sequencable products: FC1--------DNA--------XXXX--FC2 and FC1--YYYY--------DNA′-------FC2 These products may then be sequenced directly. This design has the advantage of allowing for targeted sequencing of a specific region of the genome, and furthermore avoids the need to sequence a hairpin product, as sequencing of a hairpin will be less efficient due to the self-complementarity present within the hairpin molecule. Single-Stranded SMI Sequences In one embodiment, a single-stranded SMI sequence is incorporated into the single-stranded portion of the hairpin loop (regions of sequence complementarity are denoted as “=”). The SMI sequence is shown as four nucleotides in length in the following examples, but in practice an Nmer of any length, including approximately 3 to 20 nucleotides, will suffice. Ligation of the hairpin linker and a Y-shaped sequencing adaptor (with PCR primer binding sites labeled as FC1 and FC2) yields the following product: Melting and PCR amplification of this product yields the following DNA product: FC1-------DNA-----NNNN------hairpin sequence------DNA′-------FC2 Following PCR duplication of the product and formation of consensus reads based upon the shared SMI sequence among all the PCR duplicates, the sequences of the two strands (denoted DNA and DNA′) can then be compared to form a duplex consensus sequence. In another embodiment, a single-stranded SMI is incorporated into a modified “Y-shaped” sequencing adaptor in which PCR primer binding sites are located at the sites labeled FC1 and FC2 (regions of sequence complementarity are depicted as “=”) It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that a single-stranded SMI sequence tag can be located in any of several positions within either the sequencing adaptor or the hairpin linker. The single-stranded SMI sequence tag can be synthesized as a random oligonucleotide sequence, or can be sequenced as a set of fixed sequences by synthesis on an array, or by any other suitable method known in the art. Methods for Synthesis of Complementary or Partially Complementary Double Stranded SMI Tags SMI adaptors molecules containing a double-stranded, complementary, degenerate or semi-degenerate SMI tag can be made by any of a number of methods, including copying of a single-stranded SMI sequence by a DNA polymerase as described above or synthesis and annealing of two oligonucleotides containing complementary SMI sequences. An additional method involves synthesizing a set of linear oligonucleotides which will self-anneal into the appropriate form. Inclusion of a cleavable linker in each oligonucleotide will then allow for conversion of a “hairpin shaped” SMI adaptor molecule into a “Y-shaped” SMI adaptor molecule. For example, an oligonucleotide may be prepared of the following form: 5′---------YYYY-------U-------XXXX----------3′ In this schematic, X and Y represent complementary nucleotides, and U indicates a cleavable linker, such as uracil (which can be cleaved by combined treatment with uracil DNA glycosylase and apurinic endonuclease), although any other cleavable linker will suffice. The oligonucleotide may be designed with appropriate regions of self-complementarity to anneal into the following form: The linker (e.g. uracil) may then be cleaved, yielding a DCS adaptor: A double-stranded SMI hairpin linker can be constructed by an analogous method but without the need for a cleavable linker. For example, a set of nucleotides of known sequence where X and Y represent the complementary SMI sequences can be synthesized on an array, or by any other suitable method known in the art: 5′====XXXX-------------YYYY=====3′ This oligonucleotide can then self-anneal to form a hairpin linker with complementary SMI sequences. Any of the oligonucleotides described above can also include any ligatable sequence as overhangs on either the 5′ or 3′ end, or can be used for blunt end ligation. DCS SMI Adaptor Molecules May Include Sequences to Allow for Targeted DNA Capture DCS SMI adaptor molecules contain ligatable ends to allow attachment of the adaptor to a target DNA molecule. In some embodiments, the ligatable end may be complementary to a DNA overhang on the target DNA, for example, one generated by digestion of target DNA with a restriction endonuclease. Selective ligation of the adaptor to the targeted DNA containing the matching Single-stranded overhanging DNA sequence will then allow for partial purification of the targeted DNA. A non-limiting example of this embodiment is shown above in paragraphs [0048]-[0053]. In some embodiments, the DCS SMI adaptor molecule, or a hairpin linker SMI adaptor molecule, may additionally contain modifications such as biotin to facilitate affinity purification of target DNA that has ligated to the adaptor. In another embodiments, specific PCR primers can selectively amplify specific regions of genome when the adaptor that is ligated to the other end of the molecule is a hairpin (or “U-shape”). Alternatively, this method may be used with or without the need for this cleavable hairpin sequence. Preparation of DNA for Duplex Consensus Sequencing May be Performed by PCR Amplification in a Hairpin Structure Another embodiment involves fragmentation of DNA at defined regions, for example by treatment of DNA with a site-specific restriction endonuclease or a mixture of such endonucleases, followed by annealing of a hairpin oligonucleotide linker, and amplification of the hairpin complex with PCR primers sufficient for amplification of the desired DNA sequence. Annealing of the hairpin linker to only one of the two ends of the DNA duplex could be accomplished by using different restriction enzymes to cut on either end of the target duplex, and then having the hairpin linker ligation adaptor being ligatable to only one of the two resultant ligatable ends. The example shown below indicates forward and reverse PCR primers (labeled 1 and 2) in conjunction with a hairpin linker to allow linked amplification of both complementary strands of duplex DNA. Such amplification, in conjunction with a single-stranded or double-stranded SMI sequence, would allow for targeted amplification and high accuracy deep sequencing of a specific sequence of interest. In the schematic shown below, a single-stranded SMI sequence is incorporated into PCR primer FC1. It would be apparent to one skilled in the art that the SMI sequence could also be incorporated in primer FC2, or in the hairpin linker. Amplified Product: FC1NNNN DNA----hairpin sequence----DNA′FC2 This product can then be subjected to consensus sequencing analysis. The SMI sequence allows one to group together products of PCR amplification arising from a single molecule of duplex DNA. The sequences of the two DNA strands can then be compared for error correction. Uses of SMI Adapter Molecules The SMI adaptor molecules described herein have several uses. In some embodiments, the SMI adaptor molecules described herein may be used in methods to obtain the sequence or other sequence-related information of a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule. According to the embodiments described herein, the term “double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule” includes a double-stranded DNA molecule or a double-stranded RNA molecule. Thus, the SMI adaptor molecules and methods of use described herein are applicable to genotyping and other applications related to sequencing of DNA molecules, but are also applicable to RNA sequencing applications such as for sequencing of double-stranded RNA viruses. Methods for sequencing RNA may include any of the embodiments described herein with respect to DNA sequencing, and vice-versa. For example, any double stranded target nucleic acid molecule may be ligated to an SMI adaptor molecule which includes a double-stranded RNA or DNA n-mer tag and an RNA or DNA ligation adapter as described above. Methods exist for directly sequencing RNA [51]; alternatively, the ligated product may be reverse transcribed into DNA, and then sequenced as a double-stranded target DNA molecule. In one embodiment, the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule may be a sheared double-stranded DNA or RNA fragment. The sheared target DNA or RNA molecule may be end repaired and a double-stranded target nucleic acid sequence ligation adaptor may be added to each end of the sheared target DNA or RNA molecule. The double-stranded target nucleic acid sequence ligation adaptor may be any suitable ligation adaptor that is complementary to the SMI ligation adaptor described above including, but not limited to a T-overhang, an A-overhang, a CG overhang, blunt end or any other ligatable sequence. In some embodiments, the double-stranded target nucleic acid sequence ligation adaptor may be made using a method for A-tailing or T-tailing with polymerase extension; adding an overhang with a different enzyme; using a restriction enzyme to create a ligatable overhang; or any other method known in the art. Methods to obtain the sequence or other sequence-related information of a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule may include a step of ligating the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule to at least one SMI adaptor molecule, such as those described above, to form a double-stranded target nucleic acid complex. In one embodiment, each end of the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule is ligated to an SMI adaptor molecule. The double-stranded target nucleic acid complex is then amplified by a method known in the art (e.g., a PCR or non-PCR method known in the art), resulting in a set of uniquely labeled, amplified SMI-target nucleic acid products. These products are then sequenced using any suitable method known in the art including, but not limited to, the Illumina sequencing platform, ABI SOliD sequencing platform, Pacific Biosciences sequencing platform, 454 Life Sciences sequencing platform, Ion Torrent sequencing platform, Helicos sequencing platform, and nanopore sequencing technology. In certain embodiments, a method of generating an error corrected double-stranded consensus sequence is provided. Such a method, also referred to as duplex consensus sequencing (DCS), allows for a quantitative detection of sites of DNA damage. DCS analysis facilitates the detection of DNA damage signatures, in that single stranded DNA mutations that are not present in the complementary strand can be inferred to be artifactual mutations arising from damaged nucleotides. Not only can one correct for these erroneous mutations, but the ability to indirectly infer that damage is present on the DNA could be a useful biomarker (e.g. for cancer risk, cancer metabolic state, mutator phenotype related to defective damage repair, carcinogen exposure, chronic inflammation exposure, individual-specific aging, neurodegenerative diseases etc). The ability to use different polymerases during the first round(s) of PCR to mis-incorporate at damage sites could potentially add even more information. Besides polymerases, other DNA modifying/repair enzymes could be used prior to amplification to convert damage of one sort that doesn't give a specific mutagenic signature into another sort that does with whatever polymerase is used. Alternatively, DNA modifying/repair enzymes could be used to remove damaged bases, and one could sequence both strands of DNA both with and without the enzymatic treatment. Mutations in single-stranded DNA that are seen to be removed by the enzymatic treatment can thus be inferred to be arising due to DNA damage. This could be useful on human nuclear or mtDNA but also might also be useful with model organisms (mice, yeast, bacteria etc), treated with different new damaging agents, facilitating a screen for DNA damaging compounds that would be analogous to the widely used Ames test [52]. The method of generating an error corrected double-stranded consensus sequence may include a first stage termed “single strand consensus sequencing” (SSCS) followed by a second stage of duplex consensus sequencing (DCS). Therefore, the method includes steps of tagging individual duplex DNA molecules with an SMI adaptor molecule, such as those described above; generating a set of PCR duplicates of the tagged DNA molecules by performing a suitable PCR method; creating a single strand consensus sequence from all of the PCR duplicates which arose from an individual molecule of single-stranded DNA. Each DNA duplex should result in two single strand consensus sequences. The work through these three steps conclude the first stage and is termed SSCS. The method of generating an error corrected double-stranded consensus sequence further comprises the second stance that is termed DCS. The DCS stage includes steps of comparing the sequence of the two single strand consensus sequences arising from a single duplex DNA molecule, and further reducing sequencing or PCR errors by considering only sites at which the sequences of both single-stranded DNA molecules are in agreement. The method that includes the first stage and the second stage termed Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS). The step of tagging of both strands of individual duplex DNA may be accomplished by ligation of degenerate or semi-degenerate complementary DNA sequences; as the complementary nature of the two strands of such a tag sequence allows the two molecules to be grouped together for error correction. Alternatively, as described above, the two duplex DNA strands may be linked by ligation of a U-shaped SMI adaptor molecule, and the two DNA strands can thus both be tagged with a single-stranded SMI tag. In the method described above, a set of sequenced SMI-DNA products generated in the methods described above may be grouped into families of paired target nucleic acid strands based on a common set of SMI sequences. Then, the paired target nucleic acid strands can be filtered to remove nucleotide positions where the sequences seen on both of the paired partner DNA strands are not complementary. This error corrected double-stranded consensus sequence may be used in a method for confirming the presence of a true mutation (as opposed to a PCR error or other artifactual mutation) in a target nucleic acid sequence. According to certain embodiments, such a method may include identifying one or more mutations present in the paired target nucleic acid strands that have one or more nucleotide positions that disagree between the two strands, then comparing the mutation present in the paired target nucleic acid strands to the error corrected double-stranded consensus sequence. The presence of a true mutation is confirmed when the mutation is present on both of the target nucleic acid strands and also appear in all members of a pared target nucleic acid family. The accuracy of current approaches to next-generation sequencing is limited due to their dependence on interrogating single-stranded DNA. This dependence makes potential sources of error such as PCR amplification errors and DNA damage fundamentally limiting. However, the complementary strands of a double-stranded DNA molecule (or “DNA duplex”) contain redundant sequencing information (i.e., one molecule reciprocally encoding the sequence information of its partner) which can be utilized to eliminate such artifacts. Limitations related to sequencing single-stranded DNA (e.g., sequencing errors) may therefore be overcome using the methods described herein. This is accomplished by individually tagging and sequencing each of the two strands of a double-stranded (or duplex) target nucleic acid molecule and comparing the individual tagged amplicons derived from one half of a double-stranded complex with those of the other half of the same molecule. Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS), significantly lowers the error rate of sequencing. In some embodiments, the DCS method may be used in methods for high sensitivity detection of rare mutant and variant DNA as described further below. As described above, one approach that has previously been reported for DNA sequencing involves incorporation of a random tag sequence into a PCR primer [36]. This approach results in an improvement in accuracy relative to standard Illumina sequencing, but is fundamentally limited in that it is based upon amplification and sequencing of single-stranded DNA and thus cannot overcome limitations in sensitivity owing to single-stranded DNA damage events. In the methods described herein, PCR duplicates are generated from a single strand of DNA, and the sequences of the duplicates are compared. Mutations are scored only when they are present in multiple replicates of a single starting molecule. The DCS approach overcomes the limitation of previous approaches by considering both DNA strands. DNA damage should not be a limiting factor in DCS, because miscoding damage events at a single base-pair position occur essentially exclusively on only one of the two DNA strands. For DNA damage to result in an artifactual mutation in DCS, damage would need to be present at the same nucleotide position on both strands. Even if complementary nucleotides in a duplex were both damaged, the damage would need to result in complementary sequencing errors to result in mis-scoring of a mutation. Likewise, spontaneous PCR errors would need to result in complementary mutations at the same position on both strands; with a first-round mutation frequency of Taq polymerase of approximately 10−5 and three possible incorrect bases that could be mis-inserted, the probability of two complementary PCR errors occurring would be 10−5×10−5×1/3=3.3×10−11 According to some embodiments, the sequencing method may be performed using the Illumina or similar platforms including those enumerated above without the use of SMI adaptor molecules, but instead by using the random shear points of DNA as identifiers. For a given DNA sequence seen in sequencing read 1 with a specific set of shear points, the partner strand will be seen as a matching sequence in read two with identical shear points. In practice, this approach is limited by the limited number of possible shear points that overlap any given DNA position. However, according to some embodiments, shear points of a target nucleic acid molecule may be used as unique identifiers to identify double-stranded (or duplex) pairs, resulting in an apparent error frequency at least as low as that seen with traditional sequencing methods, but with a significantly lower loss of sequence capacity. In other embodiments, DCS based on shear points alone may have a role for confirmation that specific mutations of interest are true mutations which were indeed present in the starting sample (i.e. present in both DNA strands), as opposed to being PCR or sequencing artifacts. Overall, however, DCS is most generally applicable when randomized, complementary double-stranded SMI sequences are used. A 24 nucleotide double-stranded SMI sequence was used in the Example described below, which may yield up to 424=2.8×1014 distinct double-stranded SMI sequences. Combining information regarding the shear points of DNA with the SMI tag sequence would allow a shorter SMI to be used, thus minimizing loss of sequencing capacity due to sequencing of the SMI itself. In certain embodiments, the SMI adaptor molecules may also be used in methods of single-molecule counting for accurate determination of DNA or RNA copy number [38]. Again, since the SMI tags are present in the adaptors, there are no altered steps required in library preparation, which is in contrast to other methods for using random tags for single-molecule counting. Single-molecule counting has a large number of applications including, but not limited to, accurate detection of altered genomic copy number (e.g., for sensitive diagnosis of genetic conditions such as trisomy 21 [47]), for accurate identification of altered mRNA copy number in transcriptional sequencing and chromatin immunoprecipitation experiments, quantification of circulating microRNAs, quantification of viral load of DNA or RNA viruses, quantification of microorganism abundance, quantification of circulating neoplastic cells, counting of DNA-labeled molecules of any variety including tagged antibodies or aptamers, and quantification of relative abundances of different individual's genomes in forensic applications. In another embodiment, the SMI adaptor molecules may be used in methods for unambiguous identification of PCR duplicates. In order to restrict sequencing analysis to uniquely sequenced DNA fragments, many sequencing studies include a step to filter out PCR duplicates by using the shear points at the ends of DNA molecules to identify distinct molecules. When multiple molecules exhibit identical shear points, all but one of the molecules are discarded from analysis under the assumption that the molecules represent multiple PCR copies of the same starting molecule. However sequence reads with identical shear points can also reflect distinct molecules because there are a limited number of possible shear points at any given genomic location, and with increasing sequencing depth, recurrent shear points are increasingly likely to be seen [48]. Because the use of SMI tags (or “double-stranded SMI sequences”) allows every molecule to be uniquely labeled prior to PCR duplication, true PCR duplicates may be unambiguously identified by virtue of having a common (i.e., the same or identical) SMI sequence. This approach would thereby minimize the loss of data by overcoming the intrinsic limitations of using shear points to identify PCR duplicates. Importantly, once SMI-containing adaptors are synthesized by a straightforward series of enzymatic steps or are produced through synthesis of a set of oligonucleotides containing complementary tag sequences, they may be substituted for standard sequencing adaptors. Thus, use of DCS does not require any significant deviations from the normal workflow of sample preparation for Illumina DNA sequencing. Moreover, the DCS approach can be generalized to nearly any sequencing platform because a double-stranded SMI tag can be incorporated into other existing adaptors, or for sequencing approaches that do not require adaptors, a double-stranded SMI tag can be ligated onto duplex DNA sample prior to sequencing. The compatibility of DCS with existing sequencing workflows, the potential for greatly reducing the error rate of DNA sequencing, and the multitude of applications for the double-stranded SMI sequences validate DCS as a technique that may play a general role in next generation DNA sequencing. The following examples are intended to illustrate various embodiments of the invention. As such, the specific embodiments discussed are not to be construed as limitations on the scope of the invention. It will be apparent to one skilled in the art that various equivalents, changes, and modifications may be made without departing from the scope of invention, and it is understood that such equivalent embodiments are to be included herein. Further, all references cited in the disclosure are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety, as if fully set forth herein. Examples Example 1: Generation of SMI Adaptor Molecules and their Use in Sequencing Double-Stranded Target DNA Materials and Methods Materials. Oligonucleotides were from IDT and were ordered as PAGE purified. Klenow exo- was from NEB. T4 ligase was from Enzymatics. DNA Isolation. Genomic DNA was isolated from normal human colonic mucosa by sodium iodide extraction (Wako Chemicals USA). Adaptor Synthesis. The adaptors were synthesized from two oligos, designated as: the primer strand: (SEQ ID NO: 1) AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAGATCTACACTCTTTCCCTACACGACGCTCT TCCGATCT; and the template strand: (SEQ ID NO: 2) /5phos/ACTGNNNNNNNNNNNNAGATCGGAAGAGCACACGTCTGAACTC CAGTCAC. The two adaptor strands were annealed by combining equimolar amounts of each oligo to a final concentration of 50 micromolar and heating to 95° C. for 5 minutes. The oligo mix was allowed to cool to room temperature for over 1 hour. The annealed primer-template complex was extended in a reaction consisting of 40 micromolar primer-template, 25 units Klenow exo-DNA polymerase (New England Biolabs), 250 micromolar each dNTP, 50 mM NaCl, 10 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.9, 10 mM MgCl2, and 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) for 1 hour at 37° C. The product was isolated by ethanol precipitation. Due to the partial A-tailing property of Klenow exo-, this protocol results in a mixture of blunt-ended adapters and adapters with a single-nucleotide A hverhang. A single-nucleotide A overhang was added to residual blunt fragments by incubating the adapters with 25 units Klenow exo-, 1 mM dATP, 50 mM NaCl, 10 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.9, 10 mM MgCl2, and 1 mM dithiothreitol (DTT) for 1 hour at 37° C. The product was again ethanol precipitated and resuspended to a final concentration of 50 micromolar. Sequencing Library Preparation. 3 micrograms of DNA was diluted into 130 microliters of TE buffer (10 mM tris-HCl, pH 8.0, 0.1 M EDTA) and was sheared on the Covaris AFA system with duty cycle 10%, intensity 5, cycles/burst 200, time 20 seconds×6, temperature 4° C. DNA was purified with 2 volumes of Agencourt AMPure XP beads per the manufacturer's protocol. After end-repair with the NEB end-repair kit per the manufacturer's protocol, DNA fragments larger than the optimal range of ˜200-500 bp were removed by adding 0.7 volumes of AMPure XP beads and transferring the supernatant to a separate tube (fragments larger than 500 bp bind to the beads and are discarded). An additional 0.65 volumes of AMPure XP beads were added (this step allows fragments of approximately 200 bp or greater to bind to the beads). The beads were washed and DNA eluted. DNA was then T-tailed in a reaction containing 5 units Klenow exo-, 1 mM dTTP, 50 mM NaCl, 10 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.9, 10 mM MgCl2, 1 mM. The reaction proceeded for 1 hour at 37 C. DNA was purified with 1.2 volumes of AMPure XP beads. The custom adaptors were ligated by combining 750 ng of T-tailed DNA with 250 pmol adaptors in a reaction containing 3000 units T4 DNA ligase, 50 mM Tris-HCl pH 7.6, 10 mM MgCl2, 5 mM DTT, 1 mM ATP. The reaction was incubated 25 C for 15 minutes, and purified with 1.2 volumes of AMPure XP beads. Pre-Capture Amplification. 375 ng adaptor-ligated DNA was PCR amplified with primers AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAG (SEQ ID NO:3) and GTGACTGGAGTTCAGACGTGTGC (SEQ ID NO:4) using the Kappa high-fidelity PCR kit for 8 cycles with an annealing temperature of 60 C. The product was purified with 1.2 volumes of AMPure XP beads. DNA Capture. Target capture was performed with the Agilent SureSelect system per the manufacturer's recommendations, except that capture volumes were performed at one-half of the standard volume. The capture set targeted an arbitrary 758 kb region of the genome consisting of both coding and noncoding sequences. Capture baits were 120 nt in length, and were prepared with the Agilent eArray tool with 3× tiling. Post-Capture Amplification. Captured DNA was amplified with PCR primers AATGATACGGCGACCACCGAG (SEQ ID NO:3) and CAAGC AGAAGACGGCATACGAGATXXXXXXGTGACTGGAGTTCAGACGTGTGC (SEQ ID NO:5) where XXXXXX indicates the position of a fixed multiplexing barcode sequence). 2 0 fmol of DNA was used per lane for sequencing on an Illumina HiSeq 2000. Data Processing. Reads with intact SMI adaptors include a 12 nucleotide random sequence, followed by a 5 nucleotide fixed sequence. These reads were identified by filtering out reads that lack the expected fixed sequence at positions 13-17. The SMI sequence from both the forward and reverse sequencing reads (i.e., the first and second degenerate n-mer sequences) was computationally added to the read header, and the fixed sequence removed. The first 4 nucleotides located following the adaptor sequence were also removed due to the propensity for ligation and end-repair errors to result in an elevated error rate near the end of the DNA fragments. Reads having common (i.e., identical) SMI sequences were grouped together, and were collapsed to generate a consensus read. Sequencing positions were discounted if the consensus group covering that position consisted of fewer than 3 members, or if fewer than 90% of the sequences at that position in the consensus group had the identical sequence. Reads were aligned to the human genome with the Burrows-Wheeler Aligner (BWA). The consensus sequences were then paired with their strand-mate by grouping each 24 nucleotide tag of form AB in read 1 with its corresponding tag of form BA in read 2. Resultant sequence positions were considered only when information from both DNA strands was in perfect agreement. An overview of the data processing workflow is as follows: 1. Discard reads that do not have the 5 nt fixed reference (or “spacer”) sequence (CAGTA; SEQ ID NO:6) present after 12 random nucleotides. 2. Combine the 12 nt SMI tags from read 1 and read 2, and transfer the combined 24 nt SMI sequence into the read header. 3. Discard SMIs with inadequate complexity (i.e., those with >10 consecutive identical nucleotides). 4. Remove the 5 nt fixed reference sequence. 5. Trim an additional 4 nt from the 5′ ends of each read pair (sites of error prone end repair). 6. Group together reads which have identical 24 nt SMIs. 7. Collapse to SMI consensus reads, scoring only positions with 3 or more SMI duplicates and >90% sequence identity among the duplicates. 8. For each read in read 1 file having SMI of format AB, group with corresponding DCS partner in read 2 with SMI of format BA. 9. Only score positions with identical sequence among both DCS partners. 10. Align reads to the human genome. Code for carrying out the workflow may be pre-existing or may involve programming within the skill of those in the art. In some embodiments, however, the Python code, which is illustrated in FIG. 10, may be used for carrying out the pairing and scoring of partner strands according to steps 8 and 9 of the workflow described above. Overview To overcome limitations in the sensitivity of variant detection by single-stranded next-generation DNA sequencing, an alternative approach to library preparation and analysis was designed, which is known herein as Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS) (FIG. 1). The DCS method described herein involves tagging both strands of duplex DNA with a random, yet complementary double-stranded nucleotide sequence, which is known herein as a double-stranded single molecule identifier (SMI) sequence. The SMI sequences (in this case, double stranded SMI sequences) are incorporated into the SMI adaptor molecules by introducing a single-stranded randomized nucleotide sequence into one adapter strand and the extending the opposite strand with a DNA polysmerase to yield a complementary, double-stranded SMI sequence (FIG. 2). The individually tagged strands are then PCR amplified. Every duplicate that arises from a single strand of DNA will have the same SMI, and thus each strand in a DNA duplex pair generates a distinct, yet related population of PCR duplicates after amplification owing to the complementary nature of the SMIs on the two strands of the duplex. Comparing the sequence obtained from each of the two strands comprising a single molecule of duplex DNA facilitates differentiation of sequencing errors from true mutations. When an apparent mutation is, due to a PCR or sequencing error, the substitution will only be seen on a single strand. In contrast, with a true DNA mutation, complementary substitutions will be present on both strands (see FIG. 4C). Following tagging with a double-stranded SMI and PCR amplification, a family of molecules is obtained that arose from a single DNA molecule; members of the same PCR “family” are then grouped together by virtue of having a common (i.e., the same) SMI tag sequence. The sequences of uniquely tagged PCR duplicates are subsequently compared in order to create a PCR consensus sequence. Only DNA positions that yield the same DNA sequence in a specified proportion of the PCR duplicates in a family, such as 90% of the duplicates in one embodiment, are used to create the PCR consensus sequence. This step filters out random errors introduced during sequencing or PCR to yield the PCR consensus sequences, each of which derives from an individual molecule of single-stranded DNA. This set of PCR consensus sequences are called single strand consensus sequences (SSCSs). Next, PCR consensus sequences arising from two complementary strands of duplex DNA can be identified by virtue of the complementary SMIs (FIG. 3) to identify the “partner SMI.” Specifically, a 24-nucleotide SMI consists of two 12-nucleotide sequences that can be designated XY. For an SMI of form XY in read 1, the partner SMI will be of form YX in read 2. An example to illustrate this point is given in FIG. 4. Following partnering of two strands by virtue of their complementary SMIs, the sequences of the strands are compared. Sequence reads at a given position are kept only if the read data from each of the two paired strands is in agreement. Results In order to label or tag each of the strands of duplex DNA with unique complementary tags, adaptors which contain the standard sequences required for the Illumina HiSeq system were synthesized, but with addition of a double-stranded, complementary SMI sequence (or “tag”) of 12 random nucleotides (or a random “degenerate sequence”) per strand. Target DNA molecules having a random SMI sequence n-mer that is 12 nucleotides in length on each end will therefore have a unique 24 nucleotide SMI sequence. The adaptors were prepared (FIG. 2) from two partially complementary oligonucleotides, one of which has a single-stranded 12 nucleotide random nucleotide sequence (i.e. a first random degenerate nucleotide n-mer sequence) followed by a single stranded fixed reference sequence that is 4 nucleotides in length. The single-stranded random nucleotide tag was converted to a double-stranded, complementary SMI tag by extension with Klenow exo- DNA polymerase and the extended adaptor was purified by ethanol precipitation. Due to the partial A-tailing property of Klenow exo-, this protocol results in a mixture of blunt-ended adaptors and adaptors with a single-nucleotide A overhang (data not shown). A single-nucleotide A-overhang was added to the residual blunt fragments by incubating the adaptors with Klenow exo- DNA polymerase and a high concentration of dATP (1 mM), and purified the adaptors again by ethanol precipitation. DNA for sequencing was sheared and end-repaired by standard methods, with size-selection for fragments in the range of ˜200-500 bp by size-selective binding to Ampure XP beads. Standard Illumina library preparation protocols involve ligating A-tailed DNA to T-tailed adaptors. However, because A-tailed adaptors were used, the DNA was T-tailed by incubating the end-repaired DNA with Klenow exo- DNA polymerase and 1 mM dTTP. The adaptor-ligated library was PCR amplified and subjected to SureSelect capture, with targeting of an arbitrary 758 kb portion of the genome (DNA coordinates available upon request). The efficiency of adaptor ligation, PCR amplification, DNA capture, and sequencing were comparable to those seen with standard library preparation methods (data not shown). Although Agilent Sure Select probes are used in this example, any suitable method of DNA selection may be used to capture particular target double-stranded DNA sequences. For example, selection and capture may be accomplished by any selection by hybridization method (e.g., Agilent SureSelect, Primer Extension Capture, exploitation of biotinylated PCR amplicons as bait, Agilent HaloPlex) wherein probes that target the desired double-stranded DNA sequence may be recovered by an in-array capture (using probes immobilized on glass slides) or by affinity using magnetic beads in an in-solution capture. In addition, mitochondrial and some other forms of DNA may be isolated by size selection. Alternatively, in some embodiments, no enrichment is performed. This protocol was used to sequence DNA isolated from normal colonic mucosa. Mutations were initially scored without consideration of the SMI sequences. PCR duplicates were filtered out with samtools rmdup, a standard tool which uses the shear points of DNA molecules to identify PCR duplicates, as molecules arising from duplicated DNA will have shared shear points. In order to focus specifically on non-clonal mutations, only those positions in the genome with at least 20× coverage and at which fewer than 5% of reads differed from the hg19 reference sequence were considered. This approach resulted in 70.9 million nucleotides of sequence data and 56,890 mutations, indicating an overall mutation frequency of 8.03×10−4, in accord with the error rate of Illumina next-generation sequencing of ˜0.1-1% [32]. Next, the SMI tags were used to group together PCR duplicates that arose from individual single-stranded DNA molecules and to create a consensus sequence from the family of duplicates. At least 3 PCR duplicates were required, with at least 90% agreement in sequence among all duplicates, to consider a site for mutations. Scoring the mutation frequency as above, again considering only sites with a minimum of 20× coverage and with <5% of reads differing from reference, resulted in 145 million nucleotides of sequence with 6,508 mutations and an overall mutation frequency of 4.47×10−5, consistent with prior reports [36]. Notably, far more nucleotides of DNA sequence were obtained in this approach (145 million) than in the standard Illumina sequencing approach (70 million) detailed above which is dependent on use of the shear points of single-ended reads to identify PCR duplicates. The improved sequence coverage arose from use of the SMI to identify PCR duplicates, because identifying PCR duplicates by consideration of uniquely sheared DNA ends is fundamentally limited by the small number of possible shear points that overlap a given position of the genome and the propensity for specific genomic regions to be more readily undergo shearing. Thus filtering PCR duplicates by using shear points resulted in discarding a large portion of the reads. Finally, the complementary nature of the double-stranded SMI sequences was used to identify pairs of consensus groups that arose from complementary DNA strands. Sequence reads were considered only when the read data from each of the two strands is in perfect agreement. In a pilot experiment, after grouping of PCR duplicates as above, 29,409 SMI partner pairs were found, indicative that fewer than 1 of tags had their corresponding partner tag present in the library. The low recovery of tag pairs was most likely due to inadequate amplification of the starting DNA library. Among these tag-pairs, 24,772 duplex consensus strands were identified with an average strand length of 82 nucleotides, resulting in 2 million nucleotides of DNA consensus sequence. The sequences of the paired duplex strands disagreed at 3,585 of the nucleotide positions, indicative of single-stranded errors (i.e. PCR or sequencing errors); these sites of disagreement were removed, leaving only bases at which the sequence of both duplex strands were in perfect agreement. Next, as above, analysis of mutation frequencies was restricted to sites with at least 10× coverage and at which fewer than 10% of reads disagreed from the hg19 reference sequence. Because the 2 million nucleotides of read data were spread across a 758 kb target, our average depth was only ˜3×. Thus only 14,464 nucleotides of DNA sequence corresponded to sites with at least 10× depth. Among these sites, zero mutations were seen. To increase the number of tag pairs considered, analysis described above was repeated, but PCR duplicates were grouped with a minimum of only 1 duplicate per site. This resulted in 28,359 nucleotides of DNA sequence with at least 10× depth. Again, no mutations were detected. Current experiments are being performed on vastly smaller target DNA molecules (ranging from ˜300 bp to ˜20 kb in size). Use of smaller DNA targets will allow for much greater sequencing depth, and far more accurate assessment of the background mutation rate of the assay. In addition, the protocol has been modified to incorporate a greater number of PCR cycles initiated off a smaller number of genome equivalents, which will increase the fraction of tags for which both of the partner tag strands have been sufficiently amplified to be represented in the final sequence data. Indeed, among the 3.6 million SMIs present in our initial library which underwent PCR duplication, 1.5 million of the SMIs were present only once, indicating insufficient amplification of the DNA due in part to the low number of PCR cycles used. Example 2: Duplex Sequencing of Human Mitochondrial DNA Materials and Methods In addition to those described in Example 1 above, the following materials and methods were also used. DNA Isolation. Mitochondrial DNA was isolated as previously described (4). Data Processing. The entire human genome sequence (hg19) was used as reference for the mitochondrial DNA experiment, and reads that mapped to chromosomal DNA were removed. Reads sharing identical tag sequences were then grouped together and collapsed to consensus reads. Sequencing positions were discounted if the consensus group covering that position consisted of fewer than three members or if fewer than 90% of the sequences at that position in the consensus group had the identical sequence. A minimum group size of three was selected because next-generation sequencing systems have an average base calling error rate of ˜1/100. Requiring the same base to be identified in three distinct reads decreases the frequency of single-strand consensus sequence (SSCS) errors arising from base-call errors to (1/100)3=1×10−6, which is below the frequency of spontaneous PCR errors that fundamentally limit the sensitivity of SSCSs. The requirement for 90% of sequences to agree to score a position is a highly conservative cutoff. For example, with a group size of eight, a single disagreeing read will lead to 87.5% agreement and the position will not be scored. If all groups in an experiment are of size nine or less, this cutoff will thus require perfect agreement at any given position to score the position. Further development of our protocol may allow for less stringent parameters to be used to maximize the number of SSCS and duplex consensus sequence (DCS) reads that can be obtained from a given experiment. Results Having established the methodology for Duplex Sequencing with M13mp2 DNA, which is a substrate for which the mutation frequency and spectrum are fairly well established, it was desired to apply the approach to a human DNA sample. Thus, mitochondrial DNA was isolated from human brain tissue and sequenced the DNA after ligation of Duplex Sequencing adapters. A standard sequencing approach with quality filtering for a Phred score of 30 resulted in a mutation frequency of 2.7×10-3, and SSCS analysis yielded a mutation frequency of 1.5×10-4. In contrast, DCS analysis revealed a much lower overall mutation frequency of 3.5×10-5 (FIG. 5A). The frequency of mutations in mitochondrial DNA has previously been difficult to measure directly due in part to sources of error in existing assays that can result in either overestimation or underestimation of the true value. An additional confounder has been that most approaches are limited to interrogation of mutations within a small fraction of the genome [56]. The method of single-molecule PCR, which has been proposed as an accurate method of measuring mitochondrial mutation frequency [56] and is considered resistant to damage-induced background errors [57], has resulted in a reported mitochondrial mutation frequency in human colonic mucosa of 5.9×10-5±3.2×10-5 [56], which is in excellent agreement with our result. Likewise, mitochondrial DNA sequence divergence rates in human pedigrees are consistent with a mitochondrial mutation frequency of 3-5×10-5 [58, 59]. When the distribution of mutations throughout the mitochondrial genome is considered, the quality filtered reads (analyzed without consideration of the tags) have many artifactual errors, such that identification of mutational hotspots is difficult or impossible (FIG. 5B). DCS analysis removed these artifacts (FIG. 5C) and revealed striking hypermutability of the region of replication initiation (D loop), which is consistent with prior estimates of mutational patterns in mitochondrial DNA based upon sequence variation at this region within the population [60]. SSCS analysis produced a strong mutational bias, with a 130-fold excess of G→T relative to C→A mutations (FIG. 5D), consistent with oxidative damage of the DNA leading to first-round PCR mutations as a significant source of background error. A high level of oxidative damage is expected in mitochondrial DNA, due to extensive exposure of mitochondria to free radical species generated as a byproduct of metabolism [61]. DCS analysis (FIG. 5E) removed the mutational bias and revealed that transition mutations are the predominant replication errors in mitochondrial DNA. The DCS mutation spectrum is in accord with prior estimates of deamination events [62] and T-dGTP mispairing by the mitochondrial DNA polymerase [63] as primary mutational forces in mitochondrial DNA. Furthermore, the mutation spectrum of our mitochondrial data are consistent with previous reports of heteroplasmic mutations in human brain showing an increased load of A→G/T→C and G→A/C→T transitions, relative to transversions [64, 65]. A similar spectral bias has also been reported in mice [62, 66] and in population studies of Drosophila melanogaster [67]. Example 3: Demonstration of Error-Correction by DCS Using Randomly Sheared DNA Ends as Single Molecule Identifiers Materials and Methods In addition to those described in the Examples above, the following materials and methods were also used to demonstrate the capability of DCS analysis to remove sequencing errors Sequencing Library Preparation. Genomic DNA was isolated from a derivative of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain SC288 by standard methods. The DNA was randomly sheared by the Covaris AFA system, followed by end-repair, A-tailing, and ligation of Illumina TruSeq DNA sequencing adaptors, all by standard library preparation methods. The resultant sequence data consisted of an average 32.5 fold depth of the 12 megabase S. cerevisiae genome. Data Analysis. The first 10 nucleotides of each sequencing read pair, corresponding to the randomly sheared DNA ends, were combined, such that the first 10 nucleotides of read 1, referred to as A, was combined with the first 10 nucleotides of read 2, referred to as B, to yield an SMI tag of form AB. Reads were grouped according to SMI sequence, and nucleotide reads were considered only if they agreed among at least 90% of family members sharing a given tag sequence. For DCS analysis, a tag of form AB1 is partnered with the corresponding tag of form BA2, and nucleotide positions are considered only when the sequence is in agreement among read pairs with matching tags AB1 and BA2. Results In order to demonstrate the capability of DCS analysis to remove sequencing errors, a sequencing library was prepared under standard conditions with commercially available sequencing adaptors, and the randomly sheared DNA ends were used as SMI's. First, reads were grouped by SMI with a minimum family size of 1 member. Considering only sites with a minimum of 20× coverage and with <5% of reads differing from reference, this analysis resulted in 644.8 million nucleotides of sequence data and 2,381,428 mutations, yielding an overall mutation frequency of 3.69×103. The data was then subjected to DCS analysis with the SMI tags, searching for tags of form AB1 that have partner tags of form BA2, and considered only positions at which the sequence from the two strands was in perfect agreement. 3.1% of the tags had a matching partner present in the library, resulting in 2.9 million nucleotides of sequence data. The sequences of the duplex strands were not complementary at 40,874 nucleotide positions; these disagreeing positions, representing likely sequencing or PCR errors, were removed from analysis. Again considering positions with at least 20× coverage and <5% of reads differing from reference, 3.0 million nucleotides of sequence data and 157 mutations were obtained, with an overall mutation frequency of 5.33×10−5, indicative of removal of >98% of mutations seen in raw analysis and thereby demonstrating the capability of DCS to lower the error rate of DNA sequencing. To compare this result to the method of Kinde et al. [36], reads were grouped into families by SMI tag as before but filtered for families with a minimum of 3 members. This resulted in 1.4 million nucleotides of sequence data and 61 mutations, with an overall mutation frequency of 4.25×10−5. Thus, the method of Kinde et al., with a minimum family size of 3, resulted in less than half as much resultant sequence data after filtering than was obtained by DCS with a minimum family size of 1. Thus, DCS lowered the error rate of sequencing to a comparable degree to a method considered state-of-the-art, but with less loss of sequencing capacity. Discussion It was demonstrated that DCS analysis, using sheared DNA ends as unique molecular identifiers, results in a lowering of the apparent error rate of DNA sequencing. As this proof-of-concept experiment was performed on a library that was not optimized to maximize recovery of both strands, there were not sufficient strand-pairs recovered to perform DCS analysis with a minimum family size of >1 member. Requiring family sizes >1 is expected to further reduce sequencing errors. Moreover, this analysis was limited in that it did not include ligation of degenerate SMI tag sequences; owing to the limited number of shear points flanking any given nucleotide position, use of shear points as SMIs limits the number of unique molecules that can be sequenced in a single experiment. The use of shear points as SMIs in conjunction with an exogenously ligated SMI tag sequence would allow for increased depth of sequencing at any given nucleotide position. Example 4: Demonstrations of Duplex Consensus Sequencing In addition to those described in Examples 1 and 2 above, the following materials and methods were also used. Materials and Methods Construction of M13mp2 Variants. M13mp2 gapped DNA encoding the LacZ a fragment was extended by human DNA polymerase 6 [2] and the resultant products were transformed into Escherichia coli and subjected to blue-white color screening as previously described [3]. Mutant plaques were sequenced to determine the location of the mutation resulting in the color phenotype. A series of mutants, each differing from wild type by a single nucleotide change, were then mixed together with wild-type M13mp2 DNA to result in a single final mixture with distinct mutants represented at ratios of 1/10 (G6267A), 1/100 (T6299C), 1/1,000 (G6343A), and 1/10,000 (A6293T). Oxidative Damage of M13mp2 DNA. Induction of DNA damage was performed by minor modifications to a published protocol [5]: 300 ng of M13mp2 double-stranded DNA was incubated in 10 mM sodium phosphate buffer, pH 7.0, in the presence of 10 μM iron sulfate and 10 μM freshly diluted hydrogen peroxide. Incubation proceeded for 30 min at 37° C. in open 1.5-mL plastic microcentrifuge tubes. DNA Isolation. M13mp2 DNA was isolated from E. coli strain MC1061 by Qiagen Miniprep. To allow for greater sequencing depth at a defined region of the M13mp2 genome, an 840-bp fragment was enriched by complete digestion with the restriction enzymes Bsu36I and NaeI (New England Biolabs), followed by isolation of the fragment on an agarose gel by the Recochip system (Takara Bio). Duplex Consensus Sequencing of M13 DNA Removes Artifactual Sequencing Errors. The spontaneous mutation rate of M13mp2 DNA has been well established by a number of exquisitely sensitive genetic assays to be 3.0E-6 [53], that is, an average of one spontaneous base substitution error for every 330,000 nucleotides. Thus this substrate is well suited as a control for determining the background error frequency of DNA sequencing. M13mp2 DNA was sheared and ligated to adaptors containing double-stranded complementary SMI sequences by standard protocols, and was subjected to deep sequencing on an Illumina HiSeq 2000 followed by Consensus Sequencing analysis (FIG. 6). Analysis of the data by standard methods (i.e., without consideration of the double stranded SMI sequences) resulted in an error frequency of 3.8E-03, more than one thousand fold higher than the true mutation frequency of M13mp2 DNA. This indicates that >99.9% of the apparent mutations identified by standard sequencing are in fact artifactual errors. The data were then analyzed by Single Strand Consensus Sequencing (SSCS), using the unique SMI tag affixed to each molecule to group PCR products together in order to create a consensus of all PCR products that came from an individual molecule of single-stranded DNA. This resulted in a mutation frequency of 6.4E-OS, suggesting that −98% of sequencing errors are corrected by SSCS. Next, the data were subjected to Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS), which further corrects errors by using the complementary SMI tags to compare the DNA sequence arising from both of the two strands of a single molecule of duplex DNA. This approach resulted in a mutation frequency of 2.SE-06, in nearly perfect agreement with the true mutation frequency of M13mp2 DNA of 3.0E-06. The number of nucleotides of DNA sequence obtained by a standard sequencing approach, and after SSCS and DCS analysis, may be found in Table 1 below. TABLE 1 Data yield from Duplex Sequencing M13mp2 DNA Mitochondrial DNA Initial nucleotides 6.5 × 109 6.2 × 109 SSCS nucleotides 8.7 × 107 4.1 × 108 DCS nucleotides 2.2E × 107 9.7 × 107 Initial reads per SSCS read 75 15 Initial reads per DCS read 295 64 SSCS reads per DCS read 4 4 Initial nucleotides represent raw reads that contain the expected fixed adapter sequence following 12 degenerate nucleotides and map to the reference genome. Apparent nucleotide loss in converting initial reads to SSCSs occurs because many of the initial reads intentionally represent identical PCR duplicates of single-stranded DNA molecules to allow for removal of sequencing and PCR errors by comparison of the sequence among the duplicates. A minimum of three initial reads are required to produce one SSCS; however, a greater average number is necessary to ensure that most DNA fragments have at least this number of duplicates. Under fully optimized conditions, each DCS read would arise from exactly two SSCS reads (one arising from each strand of the initial molecule of duplex DNA). An SSCS:DCS ratio greater than 2 indicates that the strand partner of some SSCSs was not recovered. For an artifactual error to be scored by DCS, complementary artifactual errors must occur on both strands of a molecule of duplex DNA. Thus the background (artifactual) error frequency of DCS may be calculated as: (probability of error on one strand)*(probability of error on other strand)*(probability that both errors are complementary). As the background error frequency of SSCS in this experiment was −6E-S, the background error frequency of DCS can be calculated as 6E-S*6E-S*(1/3)=1.2E-9. This represents a greater than 3 million fold improvement over the error rate of 3.SE-03 that was obtained by a standard sequencing approach. Consensus Sequencing Reveals Likely Sites of DNA Damage M13mp2 DNA was sequenced as detailed above, with DCS adaptors containing double-stranded complementary SMIs. The spectrum of mutations obtained with SSCS was determined. Data was filtered to consist of forward-mapping reads from Read 1, i.e. sequencing of the reference strand, and reverse-mapping reads from Read 1, i.e. sequencing of the anti-reference strand. True mutations would result in an equal balance between mutations on the reference strand and their complementary mutation on the anti-reference strand. However, SSCS analysis revealed a large number of single-stranded G→T mutations on reads mapping in the forward orientation to the reference genome, with a much smaller number of C→A mutations mapping to the reverse orientation. The spectrum of mutations identified by both SSCS and DCS analysis were examined relative to literature reference values [53] for the M13mp2 substrate (FIG. 7A). SSCS analysis revealed a large excess of G→A/C→T and G→T/C→A mutations relative to reference (P<10-6, two-sample t test). In contrast, DCS analysis was in excellent agreement with the literature values with the exception of a decrease relative to reference of these same mutational events: G→A/C→T and G→T/C→A (P<0.01). To probe the potential cause of these spectrum deviations, the SSCS data were filtered to consist of forward-mapping reads from read 1 (i.e., direct sequencing of the reference strand) and the reverse complement of reverse-mapping reads from read 1 (i.e., direct sequencing of the antireference strand.) True double-stranded mutations should result in an equal balance of complementary mutations observed on the reference and antireference strand. However, SSCS analysis revealed a large number of single-stranded G→T mutations, with a much smaller number of C→A mutations (FIG. 7B). A similar bias was seen with a large excess of C→T mutations relative to G→A mutations. Base-specific mutagenic DNA damage is a likely explanation of these imbalances. Excess G→T mutations are consistent with the oxidative product 8-oxo-guanine (8-oxo-G) causing first round PCR errors and artifactual G→T mutations. DNA polymerases, including those commonly used in PCR, have a strong tendency to insert adenine opposite 8-oxo-G [45, 54], and misinsertion of A opposite 8-oxo-G would result in erroneous scoring of a G→T mutation. Likewise, the excess C→T mutations are consistent with spontaneous deamination of cytosine to uracil [47], a particularly common DNA damage event that results in insertion during PCR of adenine opposite uracil and erroneous scoring of a C→T mutation. To determine whether the excess G→T mutations seen in SSCSs might reflect oxidative DNA damage at guanine nucleotides, before sequencing library preparation M13mp2 DNA was incubated with the free radical generator hydrogen peroxide in the presence of iron, a protocol that induces DNA damage [55]. This treatment resulted in a substantial further increase in G→T mutations by SSCS analysis (FIG. 8A), consistent with PCR errors at sites of DNA damage as the likely mechanism of this biased mutation spectrum. In contrast, induction of oxidative damage did not alter the mutation spectrum seen with DCS analysis (FIG. 8B), indicating that duplex consensus sequences are not similarly susceptible to DNA damage artifacts. Furthermore, relative to the literature reference values, DCS analysis results in a lower frequency of G→T/C→A and C→T/G→A mutations (FIG. 7A), which are the same mutations elevated in SSCS analysis as a probable result of DNA damage. Notably, the M13mp2 LacZ assay, from which reference values have been derived, is dependent upon bacterial replication of a single molecule of M13mp2 DNA. Thus, the presence of oxidative damage within this substrate could cause an analogous first-round replication error by Escherichia coli, converting a single-stranded damage event into a fixed, double-stranded mutation during replication. The slight reduction in the frequency of these two types of mutations measured by DCS analysis may, therefore, reflect the absence of damage-induced errors that are scored by the in vivo LacZ assay. Consensus Sequencing Accurately Recovers Spiked-in Control Mutations. A series of M13mp2 variants were constructed which contain known single base substitutions. These variants were then mixed together at known ratios, and the mixture was prepared for sequencing with DCS adaptors with double-stranded complementary SMIs and was sequenced on an Illumina HiSeq 2000. The data was then analyzed by consensus sequencing (FIG. 9). With conventional analysis of the data (i.e. without consideration of the SMI tags), variants present at a level of <1/100 could not be accurately identified. This limitation occurs because at any given position, artifactual mutations are seen at a level of nearly 1/100. In contrast, when the data is analyzed by Single Strand Consensus Sequencing (SSCS) with −20,000 fold depth, accurate recovery of mutant sequence is seen down to one mutant molecule per 10,000 wild type molecules. Duplex Consensus Sequencing (DCS), which was not performed on this sample, would allow for detection of even rarer mutations. REFERENCES The references, patents and published patent applications listed below, and all references cited in the specification above are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety, as if fully set forth herein. [1] Metzker M L. Sequencing technologies—the next generation. Nat Rev Genet. 2010; 11:31-46. [2] Shendure J, Ji H. Next-generation DNA sequencing. Nat Biotechnol. 2008; 26:1135-45. [3] Lecroq B, Lejzerowicz F, Bachar D, Christen R, Esling P, Baerlocher L, et al. Ultra-deep sequencing of foraminiferal microbarcodes unveils hidden richness of early monothalamous lineages in deep-sea sediments. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011; 108:13177-82. [4] Mackelprang R, Waldrop M P, DeAngelis K M, David M M, Chavarria K L, Blazewicz S J, et al. Metagenomic analysis of a permafrost microbial community reveals a rapid response to thaw. Nature. 2011; 480:368-71. [5] Garcia-Garcerà M, Gigli E, Sanchez-Quinto F, Ramirez O, Calafell F, Civit S, et al. Fragmentation of contaminant and endogenous DNA in ancient samples determined by shotgun sequencing; prospects for human palaeogenomics. PLoS ONE. 2011; 6:e24161. [6] Fordyce S L, Ávila-Arcos M C, Rockenbauer E, Børsting C, Frank-Hansen R, Petersen F T, et al. High-throughput sequencing of core STR loci for forensic genetic investigations using the Roche Genome Sequencer FLX platform. BioTechniques. 2011; 51:127-33. [7] Druley T E, Vallania F L M, Wegner D J, Varley K E, Knowles O L, Bonds J A, et al. Quantification of rare allelic variants from pooled genomic DNA. Nat Methods. 2009; 6:263-5. [8] Out A A, van Minderhout I J H M, Goeman J J, Ariyurek Y, Ossowski S, Schneeberger K, et al. Deep sequencing to reveal new variants in pooled DNA samples. Hum Mutat. 2009; 30:1703-12. [9] Fan H C, Blumenfeld Y J, Chitkara U, Hudgins L, Quake S R. Noninvasive diagnosis of fetal aneuploidy by shotgun sequencing DNA from maternal blood. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008; 105:16266-71. [10] Chiu R W K, Akolekar R, Zheng Y W L, Leung T Y, Sun H, Chan K C A, et al. Non-invasive prenatal assessment of trisomy 21 by multiplexed maternal plasma DNA sequencing: large scale validity study. BMJ. 2011; 342:c7401. [11] Mitchell P S, Parkin R K, Kroh E M, Fritz B R, Wyman S K, Pogosova-Agadjanyan E L, et al. Circulating microRNAs as stable blood-based markers for cancer detection. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008; 105:10513-8. [12] Ding L, Ley T J, Larson D E, Miller C A, Koboldt D C, Welch J S, et al. Clonal evolution in relapsed acute myeloid leukaemia revealed by whole-genome sequencing. Nature. 2105; 481:506-9. [13] Boyd S D, Marshall E L, Merker J D, Maniar J M, Zhang L N, Sahaf B, et al. Measurement and Clinical Monitoring of Human Lymphocyte Clonality by Massively Parallel V-D-J Pyrosequencing. Science Translational Medicine. 2009; 1:12ra23-12ra23. [14] Hyman R W, Herndon C N, Jiang H, Palm C, Fukushima M, Bernstein D, et al. The dynamics of the vaginal microbiome during infertility therapy with in vitro fertilization-embryo transfer. J Assist Reprod Genet. 2012; 29:105-15. [15] LaTuga M S, Ellis J C, Cotton C M, Goldberg R N, Wynn J L, Jackson R B, et al. Beyond bacteria: a study of the enteric microbial consortium in extremely low birth weight infants. PLoS ONE. 2011; 6:e27858. [16] Minot S, Sinha R, Chen J, Li H, Keilbaugh S A, Wu G D, et al. The human gut virome: interindividual variation and dynamic response to diet. Genome Res. 2011; 21:1616-25. [17] Yang J, Yang F, Ren L, Xiong Z, Wu Z, Dong J, et al. Unbiased parallel detection of viral pathogens in clinical samples by use of a metagenomic approach. J Clin Microbiol. 2011; 49:3463-9. [18] Nasu A, Marusawa H, Ueda Y, Nishijima N, Takahashi K, Osaki Y, et al. Genetic heterogeneity of hepatitis C virus in association with antiviral therapy determined by ultra-deep sequencing. PLoS ONE. 2011; 6:e24907. [19] Campbell P J, Pleasance E D, Stephens P J, Dicks E, Rance R, Goodhead I, et al. Subclonal phylogenetic structures in cancer revealed by ultra-deep sequencing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2008; 105:13081-6. [20] De Grassi A, Segala C, lannelli F, Volorio S, Bertario L, Radice P, et al. Ultradeep Sequencing of a Human Ultraconserved Region Reveals Somatic and Constitutional Genomic Instability. PLoS Biol. 2010; 8:e1000275. [21] Zagordi O, Klein R, Däumer M, Beerenwinkel N. Error correction of next-generation sequencing data and reliable estimation of HIV quasispecies. Nucleic Acids Research. 2010; 38:7400-9. [22] Wang C, Mitsuya Y, Gharizadeh B, Ronaghi M, Shafer R W. Characterization of mutation spectra with ultra-deep pyrosequencing: application to HIV-1 drug resistance. Genome Res. 2007; 17:1195-201. [23] Carlson C A, Kas A, Kirkwood R, Hays L E, Preston B D, Salipante S J, et al. Decoding cell lineage from acquired mutations using arbitrary deep sequencing. Nat Methods. 2012; 9:78-80. [24] He Y, Wu J, Dressman D C, Iacobuzio-Donahue C, Markowitz S D, Velculescu V E, et al. Heteroplasmic mitochondrial DNA mutations in normal and tumour cells. Nature. 2010; 464:610-4. [25] Ameur A, Stewart J B, Freyer C, Hagström E, Ingman M, Larsson N-G, et al. Ultra-Deep Sequencing of Mouse Mitochondrial DNA: Mutational Patterns and Their Origins. PLoS Genet. 2011; 7:e1002028. [26] Kanagawa T. Bias and artifacts in multitemplate polymerase chain reactions (PCR). J Biosci Bioeng. 2003; 96:317-23. [27] Meyerhans A, Vartanian J P, Wain-Hobson S. DNA recombination during PCR. Nucleic Acids Research. 1990; 18:1687-91. [28] Quail M A, Kozarewa I, Smith F, Scally A, Stephens P J, Durbin R, et al. A large genome center's improvements to the IIlumina sequencing system. Nat Methods. 2008; 5:1005-10. [29] Salk J, Fox E, Loeb L. Mutational heterogeneity in human cancers: origin and consequences. Annual Review of Pathology. 2009; 5:51-75. [30] Kozarewa I, Ning Z, Quail M A, Sanders M J, Berriman M, Turner D J. Amplification-free Illumina sequencing-library preparation facilitates improved mapping and assembly of (G+C)-biased genomes. Nat Methods. 2009; 6:291-5. [31] Vandenbroucke I, Van Marck H, Verhasselt P, Thys K, Mostmans W, Dumont S, et al. Minor variant detection in amplicons using 454 massive parallel pyrosequencing: experiences and considerations for successful applications. BioTechniques. 2011; 51:167-77. [32] Flaherty P, Natsoulis G, Muralidharan O, Winters M, Buenrostro J, Bell J, et al. Ultrasensitive detection of rare mutations using next-generation targeted resequencing. Nucleic Acids Research. 2012; 40:e2-e. [33] Shen Y, Wan Z, Coarfa C, Drabek R, Chen L, Ostrowski E A, et al. A SNP discovery method to assess variant allele probability from next-generation resequencing data. Genome Res. 2010; 20:273-80. [34] Miner B E, Stöger R J, Burden A F, Laird C D, Hansen R S. Molecular barcodes detect redundancy and contamination in hairpin-bisulfite PCR. Nucleic Acids Research. 2004; 32:e135. [35] McCloskey M L, Stöger R, Hansen R S, Laird C D. Encoding PCR products with batch-stamps and barcodes. Biochem Genet. 2007; 45:761-7. [36] Kinde I, Wu J, Papadopoulos N, Kinzler K W, Vogelstein B. Detection and quantification of rare mutations with massively parallel sequencing. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011; 108:9530-5. [37] Jabara C B, Jones C D, Roach J, Anderson J A, Swanstrom R. Accurate sampling and deep sequencing of the HIV-1 protease gene using a Primer ID. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011; 108:20166-71. [38] Kivioja T, Vähärautio A, Karlsson K, Bonke M, Enge M, Linnarsson S, et al. Counting absolute numbers of molecules using unique molecular identifiers. Nat Methods. 2011; 9:72-4. [39] Casbon J A, Osborne R J, Brenner S, Lichtenstein C P. A method for counting PCR template molecules with application to next-generation sequencing. Nucleic Acids Research. 2011; 39:e81-e. [40] Shiroguchi K, Jia T Z, Sims P A, Xie X S. Digital RNA sequencing minimizes sequence-dependent bias and amplification noise with optimized single-molecule barcodes. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2012; 109:1347-52. [41] Fu G K, Hu J, Wang P-H, Fodor S P A. Counting individual DNA molecules by the stochastic attachment of diverse labels. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2011; 108:9026-31. [42] Cervantes R B, Stringer J R, Shao C, Tischfield J A, Stambrook P J. Embryonic stem cells and somatic cells differ in mutation frequency and type. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2002; 99:3586-90. [43] Lindahl T, Wood R D. Quality control by DNA repair. Science. 1999; 286:1897-1905. [44] Kunkel, T A. Mutational specificity of depurination. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 1984; 81:1494-98. [45] Shibutani S, Takeshita M, Grollman A P. Insertion of specific bases during DNA synthesis past the oxidation-damaged base 8-oxodG. Nature. 1991; 349:431-4. [46] Stiller M, Green R E, Ronan M, Simons J F, Du L, He W., et al. Patterns of nucleotide misincorporations during enzymatic amplification and direct large-scale sequencing of ancient DNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 2006; 103:13578-84. [47] Ehrich M, Deciu C, Zwiefelhofer T, Tynan J A, Cagasan L, Tim R, et al. Noninvasive detection of fetal trisomy 21 by sequencing of DNA in maternal blood: a study in a clinical setting. Am J Obsbet Gynecol. 2011; 204:205e1-11. [48] Bainbridge M N, Wang M, Burgess D L, Kovar C, Rodesch M, D'Ascenzo M, et al. Whole exome capture in solution with 3 Gbp of data. Genome Biol. 2010; 11:R62:1-8. [49] Travers K J, Chin C S, Rank D R, Eid J S, Turner S W. A flexible and efficient template format for circular consensus sequencing and SNP detection. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010; 38:159e1-8. [50] Kaur M, Makrigiorgos G M. Novel amplification of DNA in a hairpin structure: towards a radical elimination of PCR errors from amplified DNA. Nucleic Acids Res. 2003; 31:26e1-7. [51] Ozsolak, F., Platt, A. R., Jones, D. R., Reifenberger, J. G., Sass, L. E., McInerney, P., Thompson, J. F., Bowers, J., Jarosz, M., and Milos, P. M. (2009). Direct RNA sequencing. Nature 461, 814-818. [52] Lynch A M, Sasaki j C, Elespuru R, Jacobson-Kram D, Thybaud V, et al. New and emerging technologies for genetic toxicity testing. Environ Mol Mutagen. 2011; 52(3):205-23. [53] Thomas D C, Roberts J D, Sabatino R D, Myers T W, et al. Fidelity of mammalian DNA replication and replicative DNA polymerases. Biochemistry. 1991; 30:11751-9. [54] Kasai H, et al. (1993) Formation, inhibition of formation, and repair of oxidative 8-hydroxyguanine DNA damage. Basic Life Sci 61:257-262. [55] McBride T J, Preston B D, Loeb L A (1991) Mutagenic spectrum resulting from DNA damage by oxygen radicals. Biochemistry 30:207-213. [56] Greaves L C, et al. (2009) Quantification of mitochondrial DNA mutation load. Aging Cell 8:566-572. [57] Kraytsberg Y, Nicholas A, Caro P, Khrapko K (2008) Single molecule PCR in mtDNA mutational analysis: Genuine mutations vs. damage bypass-derived artifacts. Methods 46:269-273. [58] Howell N, Kubacka I, Mackey D A (1996) How rapidly does the human mitochondrial genome evolve? Am J Hum Genet 59:501-509. [59] Parsons T J, et al. (1997) A high observed substitution rate in the human mitochondrial DNA control region. Nat Genet 15:363-368. [60] Stoneking M (2000) Hypervariable sites in the mtDNA control region are mutational hotspots. Am J Hum Genet 67:1029-1032. [61] Kennedy S R, Loeb L A, Herr A J (2011) Somatic mutations in aging, cancer and neurodegeneration. Mech Ageing Dev. [62] Vermulst M, et al. (2007) Mitochondrial point mutations do not limit the natural lifespan of mice. Nat Genet 39:540-543. [63] Song S, et al. (2005) DNA precursor asymmetries in mammalian tissue mitochondria and possible contribution to mutagenesis through reduced replication fidelity. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 102:4990-4995. [64] Lin M T, Simon D K, Ahn C H, Kim L M, Beal M F (2002) High aggregate burden of somatic mtDNA point mutations in aging and Alzheimer's disease brain. Hum Mol Genet 11:133-145. [65] Jazin E E, Cavelier L, Eriksson I, Oreland L, Gyllensten U (1996) Human brain contains high levels of heteroplasmy in the noncoding regions of mitochondrial DNA. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 93:12382-12387. [66] Khaidakov M, Heflich R H, Manjanatha M G, Myers M B, Aidoo A (2003) Accumulation of point mutations in mitochondrial DNA of aging mice. Mutat Res 526:1-7. [67] Haag-Liautard C, et al. (2008) Direct estimation of the mitochondrial DNA mutation rate in Drosophila melanogaster. PLoS Biol 6:e204. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The advent of massively parallel DNA sequencing has ushered in a new era of genomic exploration by making simultaneous genotyping of hundreds of billions of base-pairs possible at small fraction of the time and cost of traditional Sanger methods [1]. Because these technologies digitally tabulate the sequence of many individual DNA fragments, unlike conventional techniques which simply report the average genotype of an aggregate collection of molecules, they offer the unique ability to detect minor variants within heterogeneous mixtures [2]. This concept of “deep sequencing” has been implemented in a variety fields including metagenomics [3, 4], paleogenomics [5], forensics [6], and human genetics [7, 8] to disentangle subpopulations in complex biological samples. Clinical applications, such prenatal screening for fetal aneuploidy [9, 10], early detection of cancer [11] and monitoring its response to therapy [12, 13] with nucleic acid-based serum biomarkers, are rapidly being developed. Exceptional diversity within microbial [14, 15] viral [16-18] and tumor cell populations [19, 20] has been characterized through next-generation sequencing, and many low-frequency, drug-resistant variants of therapeutic importance have been so identified [12, 21, 22]. Previously unappreciated intra-organismal mosasism in both the nuclear [23] and mitochondrial [24, 25] genome has been revealed by these technologies, and such somatic heterogeneity, along with that arising within the adaptive immune system [13], may be an important factor in phenotypic variability of disease. Deep sequencing, however, has limitations. Although, in theory, DNA subpopulations of any size should be detectable when deep sequencing a sufficient number of molecules, a practical limit of detection is imposed by errors introduced during sample preparation and sequencing. PCR amplification of heterogeneous mixtures can result in population skewing due to stoichastic and non-stoichastic amplification biases and lead to over- or under-representation of particular variants [26]. Polymerase mistakes during pre-amplification generate point mutations resulting from base mis-incorporations and rearrangements due to template switching [26, 27]. Combined with the additional errors that arise during cluster amplification, cycle sequencing and image analysis, approximately 1% of bases are incorrectly identified, depending on the specific platform and sequence context [2, 28]. This background level of artifactual heterogeneity establishes a limit below which the presence of true rare variants is obscured [29]. A variety of improvements at the level of biochemistry [30-32] and data processing [19, 21, 28, 32, 33] have been developed to improve sequencing accuracy. The ability to resolve subpopulations below 0.1%, however, has remained elusive. Although several groups have attempted to increase sensitivity of sequencing, several limitations remain. For example techniques whereby DNA fragments to be sequenced are each uniquely tagged [34, 35] prior to amplification [36-41] have been reported. Because all amplicons derived from a particular starting molecule will bear its specific tag, any variation in the sequence or copy number of identically tagged sequencing reads can be discounted as technical error. This approach has been used to improve counting accuracy of DNA [38, 39, 41] and RNA templates [37, 38, 40] and to correct base errors arising during PCR or sequencing [36, 37, 39]. Kinde et. al. reported a reduction in error frequency of approximately 20-fold with a tagging method that is based on labeling single-stranded DNA fragments with a primer containing a 14 bp degenerate sequence. This allowed for an observed mutation frequency of ˜0.001% mutations/bp in normal human genomic DNA [36]. Nevertheless, a number of highly sensitive genetic assays have indicated that the true mutation frequency in normal cells is likely to be far lower, with estimates of per-nucleotide mutation frequencies generally ranging from 10 −9 to 10 −11 [42]. Thus, the mutations seen in normal human genomic DNA by Kinde et al. are likely the result of significant technical artifacts. Traditionally, next-generation sequencing platforms rely upon generation of sequence data from a single strand of DNA. As a consequence, artifactual mutations introduced during the initial rounds of PCR amplification are undetectable as errors—even with tagging techniques—if the base change is propagated to all subsequent PCR duplicates. Several types of DNA damage are highly mutagenic and may lead to this scenario. Spontaneous DNA damage arising from normal metabolic processes results in thousands of damaging events per cell per day [43]. In addition to damage from oxidative cellular processes, further DNA damage is generated ex vivo during tissue processing and DNA extraction [44]. These damage events can result in frequent copying errors by DNA polymerases: for example a common DNA lesion arising from oxidative damage, 8-oxo-guanine, has the propensity to incorrectly pair with adenine during complementary strand extension with an overall efficiency greater than that of correct pairing with cytosine, and thus can contribute a large frequency of artifactual G→T mutations [45]. Likewise, deamination of cytosine to form uracil is a particularly common event which leads to the inappropriate insertion of adenine during PCR, thus producing artifactual C→T mutations with a frequency approaching 100% [46]. It would be desirable to develop an approach for tag-based error correction, which reduces or eliminates artifactual mutations arising from DNA damage, PCR errors, and sequencing errors; allows rare variants in heterogeneous populations to be detected with unprecedented sensitivity; and which capitalizes on the redundant information stored in complexed double-stranded DNA. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In one embodiment, a single molecule identifier (SMI) adaptor molecule for use in sequencing a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule is provided. Said SMI adaptor molecule includes a single molecule identifier (SMI) sequence which comprises a degenerate or semi-degenerate DNA sequence; and an SMI ligation adaptor that allows the SMI adaptor molecule to be ligated to the double-stranded target nucleic acid sequence. The SMI sequence may be single-stranded or double-stranded. In some embodiments, the double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule is a double-stranded DNA or RNA molecule. In another embodiment, a method of obtaining the sequence of a double-stranded target nucleic acid is provided (also known as Duplex Consensus Sequencing or DCS) is provided. Such a method may include steps of ligating a double-stranded target nucleic acid molecule to at least one SMI adaptor molecule to form a double-stranded SMI-target nucleic acid complex; amplifying the double-stranded SMI-target nucleic acid complex, resulting in a set of amplified SMI-target nucleic acid products; and sequencing the amplified SMI-target nucleic acid products. In some embodiments, the method may additionally include generating an error-corrected double-stranded consensus sequence by (i) grouping the sequenced SMI-target nucleic acid products into families of paired target nucleic acid strands based on a common set of SMI sequences; and (ii) removing paired target nucleic acid strands having one or more nucleotide positions where the paired target nucleic acid strands are non-complementary (or alternatively removing individual nucleotide positions in cases where the sequence at the nucleotide position under consideration disagrees among the two strands). In further embodiments, the method confirms the presence of a true mutation by (i) identifying a mutation present in the paired target nucleic acid strands having one or more nucleotide positions that disagree; (ii) comparing the mutation present in the paired target nucleic acid strands to the error corrected double-stranded consensus sequence; and (iii) confirming the presence of a true mutation when the mutation is present on both of the target nucleic acid strands and appears in all members of a paired target nucleic acid family. | C12Q16876 | 20170726 | 20180524 | 70836.0 | C12Q16876 | 1 | THOMAS, DAVID C | METHODS OF LOWERING THE ERROR RATE OF MASSIVELY PARALLEL DNA SEQUENCING USING DUPLEX CONSENSUS SEQUENCING | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | C12Q | 2,017 |
|
15,663,080 | PENDING | High Flow Drain Control | A lockable plug device for sanitary ware comprises a closure member operable to engage with an outlet or drain of the sanitary ware product to stop water emptying from the sanitary ware product, for example a bath. The lockable plug device also includes a closure mechanism, which is linked to the closure member and is operable to displace the closure member relative to the outlet or drain such that the outlet can be open or closed. The closure mechanism comprises a lock feature, which is operable to lock the closure member in an open position. | 1. A lockable plug device for sanitary ware, the lockable plug device comprises: a closure member operable to sealingly engage with an outlet or drain of a sanitary ware product; and a closure mechanism, wherein the closure mechanism is linked to the closure member and is operable to displace the closure member relative to the outlet to open and close the outlet; and wherein the closure mechanism comprises a lock feature, which is operable to lock the closure member in an open position; wherein the closure mechanism comprises a primary lever and a secondary lever, each comprising an upper end and a lower end; wherein the upper end of the primary lever engages with the upper end of the secondary lever to control movement of the closure member via the lower end of the secondary lever, wherein the lower end of the primary lever provides a load point, which is operable to rotate the primary lever about a pivot point thereby creating displacement of the upper end of the primary lever and consequential displacement of the upper end of the secondary lever wherein the primary and secondary levers are operable to move to a locked open position, wherein the upper ends of the primary and secondary levers are locked against rotational displacement unless a load applied to the closure member exceeds a predetermined applied load, wherein the predetermined applied load is the load created by water exiting through the outlet to which the lockable plug device is connected. 2. The lockable plug device according to claim 1, wherein the upper end of the secondary lever comprises a slot and the upper end of the primary lever comprises a pin, wherein the pin engages with the slot such that upon rotation of the primary lever relative to the secondary lever the pin is displaced translationally along the slot to an extremity of the slot, wherein rotation of the secondary lever relative to the primary lever displaces the closure member to a locked open position when the pin reaches an extremity of the slot. 3. The lockable plug device according to claim 2, wherein the slot is J-shaped comprising a leg portion and a foot portion, wherein the pin locates in the leg portion of the slot when the closure member is in a closed or partially open/closed position and wherein the pin locates in the foot portion of the slot in a locked open position. 4. The lockable plug device according to claim 3, wherein when the pin is located in the extremity of the foot portion of the slot in a locked open position, an action of applying a load on the closure member acts to rotate the secondary lever in a direction opposite to the direction in which the lock is effective such that the pin locking engagement is ensured under normal operating conditions. 5. The lockable plug device according to claim 2, further comprising a recess adjacent to the slot, wherein the recess is shallower than the slot, such that a step is defined to one side of the slot, wherein the step acts as a guide for the upper end of the primary lever to adopt a position associated with the closure member being fully open and an edge of the recess acts as a guide for the upper end of the primary lever in the event that excessive load is applied to the closure member whilst in the locked open position. 6. The lockable plug device according to claim 5, wherein the upper end of the primary lever is configured to flex relative to the pivot point in the event that an excessive load is applied to the closure member. 7. The lockable plug device according to claim 6, wherein the primary lever is moulded plastic. 8. The lockable plug device according to claim 6, wherein the secondary lever is moulded plastic. 9. The lockable plug device according to claim 5, wherein, in response to an event of excessive load being applied to the closure member when in the locked open position, the upper end of the primary lever flexes, which causes the pin to jump from the slot into the recess, wherein the recess comprises an edge that extends between the extremities of the slot, and wherein moving the closure member from a locked open position to a closed position the pin is guided against the edge. 10. The lockable plug device according to claim 1, wherein the pivot point is located centrally between the upper end and lower end of the primary lever, and wherein the pivot point divides the primary lever into a first arm and a second arm. 11. The lockable plug device according to claim 10, wherein the first arm extends between the upper end and the pivot point and the second arm extends between the lower end and the pivot point, wherein the first arm is longer than the second arm. 12. The lockable plug device according to claim 1, wherein the secondary lever is straight. 13. The lockable plug device according to any claim 1, wherein the primary lever comprises a bend, wherein the pivot point is located at the bend. 14. The lockable plug device according to claim 1, wherein the primary lever comprises a pivotal member coincident with the lower end of the secondary lever. 15. The lockable plug device according to claim 14, wherein the pivotal member comprises a shaft configured to rotate upon rotation of the secondary lever relative to the primary lever, wherein an extension member extends from the shaft, wherein the extension member is operable to interact with the closure member to displace the closure member between open and closed positions. 16. The lockable plug device according to claim 15, wherein the extension member extends, substantially perpendicular to a rotational axis of the shaft such that upon rotation of the secondary lever about the pivot point the shaft rotates and the extension member traces an arc and thereby interacts with the closure member to provide directional displacement of the closure member. 17. The lockable plug device according to claim 16, wherein the extension member is a rod. 18. The lockable plug device according to claim 1, wherein the primary and secondary levers are arranged relative to each other such that intentional closure of the closure member is controlled by applying a load to the lower end of the primary lever to rotate the upper end relative to the pivot point. 19. The lockable plug device according to claim 1, wherein the primary lever and the secondary lever are configured and connected to each other at the upper ends such that maximum leverage to move the closure member is realised when the closure member is moved from a closed to an open position. 20. A drain shoe for sanitary ware, the drain shoe comprises: a pop-up plug, comprising a stem extending downwards into a hollow body defining a disposal channel between a drain hole of the sanitary ware and an outlet from the hollow body, wherein the pop-up plug is configured open and close the drain hole; and a housing, which houses a closure mechanism which is operable to control displacement of the pop-up plug by interaction with the stem, wherein the closure mechanism is operable to displace the pop-up plug relative to the drain hole between an open and a closed position, where the drain hole is open and closed respectively; the closure mechanism comprises a lock feature, which is operable to lock the pop-up plug in an open position. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The invention relates to a lockable plug for sanitary ware, wherein the plug can be locked in an open position to prevent inadvertent closure. In particular, the invention relates to a lockable plug in a high flow drain situation such as in a walk in bath. BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION Walk in bathtubs are generally equipped with an outlet or drain to facilitate high-flow drainage such that the contents of the bathtub can be emptied as quick as possible to avoid the user remaining in the bathtub for an unnecessary period of time. A walk in bathtub typically includes an access door for ease of entry and exit, which eliminates the need for a user to straddle the edge of the bathtub to step into or out of the bathtub. Upon entering the bathtub, the access door closes and seals relative to the side of the bathtub such that the bathtub can be filled with water. Typically, the bathtub needs to be emptied, almost fully, before the door can be opened to avoid water spilling onto the bathroom floor. Modern bathtubs and sanitary-ware generally include substantially integral plug units which involve closing the outlet/drain from the bath by mechanical means. For example, a pop-up plug, which remains in contact with the outlet at all times. This type of plug changes position or orientation relative to the outlet to close and open the outlet. In the situation of a high-flow drain these types of plug inserts have the problem that as water exits the bath, the volume of water is capable of generating sufficient force to cause the plug unit to engage with the outlet and therefore halt the draining process. It will be appreciated, in the context of a walk-in bath, this situation is not desirable because the user generally needs to remain in the bath until all or most of the water has drained away. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a lockable plug device for sanitary ware, the lockable plug device comprises: a closure member operable to sealingly engage with an outlet or drain of the sanitary ware product; and a closure mechanism, wherein the closure mechanism is linked to the closure member and is operable to displace the closure member relative to the outlet or drain to open and close the outlet; and wherein the closure mechanism comprises a lock feature, which is operable to lock the closure member in an open position. The closure mechanism may comprise a primary lever and a secondary lever, each comprising an upper end and a lower end; wherein the upper end of the primary lever engages within the upper end of the secondary lever to control movement of the closure member via the lower end of the secondary lever, wherein a lower end of the primary lever provides a load point, which is operable to rotate the primary lever about a pivot point thereby creating displacement of the upper end of the primary lever and consequential displacement of the upper end of the secondary lever wherein the levers are operable to move to a locked open position, wherein the upper ends of the primary and secondary levers are locked against rotational displacement unless a load applied to the closure member exceeds a predetermined applied load, wherein the predetermined applied load is the load created by water exiting through the drain hole to which the device is connected. An example of a load that exceeds the predetermined applied load may be when a user inadvertently steps on the closure member and forces the closure member to move downwards to a closed position due to the weight of the user typically being greater than the load generated by water exiting through the drain to which the closure member is attached. The upper end of the secondary lever may comprise a slot and upper end of the primary lever may comprise a pin, wherein the pin engages with the slot such that upon rotation of the primary lever relative to the secondary lever the pin is displaced translationally along the slot to an extremity of the slot, wherein the action of the primary lever relative to the secondary lever displaces the closure member to a locked open position when the pin reaches an extremity of the slot. The arrangement of the primary and secondary levers is such that when the closure member, for example a pop-up plug, is locked in the open position unintentional closure of the closure member, due to a predetermined applied load is avoided due to the configuration of the levers acting together to prevent the pin from moving along the slot. The slot may be J-shaped comprising a leg portion and a foot portion, wherein the pin locates in the upstanding leg portion of the slot when the closure member is in a closed or partially open/closed position and wherein the pin locates in the foot portion of the J-shaped slot in a locked open position. Accordingly, to move the closure member between an open and closed position or a closed and open position the pin travels along the slot. The primary lever may comprise a pivot point located between the upper end and the lower end of the primary lever, wherein the pivot point divides the primary lever into a first arm and a second arm. The first arm may extend between the upper end and the pivot and the second arm may extend between the lower end and the pivot, wherein the first arm may be longer than the second arm. The secondary lever may be straight. The primary lever may comprise a bend, wherein the pivot point is located at the bend. The bend may be located between the lower end and half way along the lever. The primary lever may comprise a pivotal member coincident with the lower end of the secondary lever. The pivotal member may comprise a shaft configured to rotate upon action of the secondary lever relative to the primary lever, wherein an extension member may extend from the shaft, wherein the extension member may be operable to interact with the closure member to displace the closure member between open and closed positions. The extension member may extend, substantially perpendicular to the rotational axis of the shaft such that upon rotation of the secondary lever about the pivot point the shaft rotates and the extension member traces an arc and thereby interacts with the closure member to provide directional displacement of the closure member. The extension member may be a rod. The rod may be attached to the shaft and extends, substantially perpendicular to the axis of the shaft such that upon rotation of the primary lever about the pivot point the shaft rotates and the rod traces an arc up or down and thereby interacts with the closure member to provide directional displacement of the closure member. The closure mechanism is configured such that intentional closure of the closure member is controlled by applying a load to the lower end of the primary lever to rotate the upper end relative to the pivot point, wherein the primary and secondary levers are engaged and move relative to each other by applying a load to the lower end of the primary lever to rotate the upper end such that intentional closure of the closure member is controlled. The arrangement and configuration of the primary lever and the secondary lever is such that maximum leverage is attainable when moving the closure member from the closed position because the act of opening requires the application of a load to the lower end of the primary lever to overcome the weight of water on the closure member when, for example a bathtub is full of water. The locking feature is configured, in a locked open position, to withstand a closing force generated by water flowing through the drain, in particular in a high flow drain arrangement. As such unintentional closure of the closure member can be prevented. However, there may be situation where the load applied to the closure member exceeds the load associated with water draining through the drain hole or outlet, for example if someone steps on the closure member and forces it downwards into a closed position. In the event that the load applied to the closure member exceeds the load associated with water draining through the system the closure mechanism may comprise a failsafe component or override feature, which is operable to allow the closure member to close, but ensures continued engagement of the upper ends of the primary lever and the secondary lever. The failsafe component or override feature may comprise a recess adjacent to the slot, wherein the recess is shallower than the slot, such that a step is defined to one side of the slot, wherein the step acts as a guide for the upper end of the primary lever to adopt the position associated with the closure member being fully open and an edge of the recess acts as a guide for the upper end of the primary lever in the event that excessive load is applied to the closure member whilst in the locked open position. The upper end of the primary lever may be configured to flex relative to the pivot point in the event that an excessive load is applied to the closure member. The primary lever may be moulded plastic. The secondary lever may be moulded plastic. In response to an event of excessive load being applied to the closure member, when in the locked open state, the first arm of the primary lever may flex, which causes the upper end and the pin to jump from the slot into the recess, wherein the recess comprises an edge that extends between the extremities of the slot, and wherein the pin is guided against the edge whilst the closure member moves from a locked open position to a closed position. Therefore, in the normal desired operation the presence of the recessed section has no effect on the movement of the upper ends of the primary and secondary levers relative to each other. Only, in the event that an excessive load is applied to the closure member shall the recessed portion become active and effective in ensuring full functionality of the closure mechanism. As such there should be little or no requirement to disassemble the closure mechanism to reset the levers relative to each other. The recessed section may define an edge that extends between the extremities of the slot, wherein in moving from the locked open position to a closed position the pin will be guided against the edge. As such, in the event that the closure member is inadvertently closed from the locked open position, the orientation of the levers is corrected by the failsafe component such that normal operation of opening and closing the plug can resume. The primary lever and the secondary lever may be configured and connected to each other at the upper ends such that maximum leverage to move the closure member is realised when the closure member is moved from a closed to an open position. The pin may be located in the extremity of the foot portion of the slot in a locked open position, an action of applying a load on the closure member acts to rotate the secondary lever in a direction opposite to the direction in which the lock is effective such that the pin locking engagement is ensured under normal operating conditions. A further aspect of the present invention provides a drain shoe for sanitary ware, the drain shoe comprises: a pop-up plug, comprising a stem extending downwards into a hollow body defining a disposal channel between a drain hole of the sanitary ware and an outlet from the body, wherein the pop-up plug is configured open and close the drain hole; and a housing, which houses a closure mechanism which is operable to control displacement of the pop-up plug by interaction with the stem, wherein the closure mechanism is operable to displace the pop-up plug relative to the drain hole between an open and a closed position, where the drain hole is open and closed respectively; the closure mechanism comprises a lock feature, which is operable to lock the pop-up plug in an open position. The primary lever and the secondary lever are configured and connected to each other such that movement relative to each other achieves maximum leverage to move the closure member from a closed to an open position. It will be appreciated that the greatest load is on the closure member when in a closed position and the sanitary ware, for example a walk-in bathtub, is full of water. The shape and length, of the primary and secondary levers, whether straight or bent, may be influenced by the shape and size of a housing in which they are housed under the sanitary ware to which they are attached. However, the relative positions of the primary lever, secondary lever, upper ends, lower ends and pivot points may be such that the maximum leverage is attainable from a closed position with varying leverage during transition from closed to open. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS Embodiments of the present invention will now be described with reference to the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1a is a schematic representation of a drain shoe for a walk-in bath comprising a closure mechanism according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 1b is a schematic representation of a secondary lever of a closure mechanism according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 2a is a schematic representation of a pop-up plug and stem; FIG. 2b; is a schematic representation of a primary lever of a closure mechanism according to an embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 3 is a schematic representation of an assembled lockable plug device according to an embodiment of the present invention, the lockable plug device comprises a pop-up plug in a closed position; FIG. 4 is a schematic representation of an assembled lockable plug device according to an embodiment of the present invention, the lockable plug device comprises a pop-up plug in an open position. DESCRIPTION FIG. 1 illustrates a drain shoe 10 intended for use with a walk in bath, where high flow drainage is desirable. The drain shoe 10 includes a hollow body 11 which defines a channel between a drain port 12 and an outlet port 14. The drain port 12 is configured to connect the drain shoe 10 to the underside of a drain hole provided in a bath or the like (not illustrated). In the illustrated embodiment, the drain port 12 includes a cross member 16, which includes a hole 18 in the centre. The hole 18 is configured to receive a stem 19 (see FIG. 2a) through it. The stem 19 is attached to and extends down from a pop-up plug 20 (see FIG. 2a) into the channel. The hole 18 at the centre of the cross member 16 acts as a guide to ensure vertical translational movement of the stem 19 to raise and lower the pop-up plug 20. In a raised position the pop-up plug 20 represents the open position, which allows water to exit the bath via the outlet 14. In the lowered position, the pop-up plug 20 adopts a closed position such that the bath can be filled with water. This will be discussed further below with reference to FIGS. 3 and 4. The moulded body 11 defines a channel from the drain port 12 to the outlet port 14 and a housing 28. The outlet port 14 facilitates removal of water from the bath to waste. The housing 28 houses a closure mechanism 30 in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. In the illustrated embodiment the outlet port 14 includes a threaded end 26, which facilitates connection of the drain shoe 10 to a waste system (not illustrated). In the illustrated example, the closure mechanism 30 comprises an arrangement of two levers 32, 34 which operate together to impart a load on the stem 19 such that the pop-plug 20 can be raised and lowered. In the illustrated example, the secondary lever 32 is straight and comprises a J-shaped slot 36 at the upper end and a pivotal shaft 38 at the lower end. The J-shaped slot 36 includes a leg section 40 and a foot section 42 (see FIG. 1b), the function of which will be described further below in relation to the primary lever 34. The pivotal shaft 38 extends into the channel which defines the outlet path from the drain port 12 to the outlet port 14. A rod 46 is attached to the pivotal shaft 38. The rod 46 extends substantially perpendicular to the rotational axis of the pivotal shaft 38 and is located on the pivotal shaft 38 at a position, within the channel, that aligns with the stem 19 extending down from the pop-up plug 20. The rod 46 is operable to raise and lower the pop-up plug 20 under the controlled operation of the levers 32, 34, where rotation of the secondary lever 32 causes rotation of the pivotal shaft 38 such that the rod 46 traces an arc, which causes the end of the rod 46 to contact the end of the stem 19 to raise or lower the pop-up plug 20. In the illustrated example and with reference to FIG. 2b, the primary lever 34, the primary lever, is shaped similar to a boomerang, which includes a first arm section 48 and a second arm section 50 and a bend 52 at the junction of the two arms 48, 50. In the illustrated example, the first arm section 48 is longer than the second arm section 50. The primary lever 34 includes a pivot point 54, which is coincident with the bend 52. An upper end 56 of the primary lever 34 includes a pin 58 which, in use, extends in to the housing towards an outside wall of the channel. The pin 58 is received in the slot 36 at the upper end of the secondary lever 32 to engage the upper ends of the two levers 32, 34. A lower end 60 of the primary lever 34 is attached to a cable or the like such that the operation of the levers 32, 34 can be controlled remotely, for example from a point within the bathtub under which the drain shoe 10 is installed. It will be appreciated that, in use, the housing 28 will include a cover plate (not illustrated) to conceal the closure mechanism 30. The cover plate may be removable for maintenance or replacement of the closure mechanism 30. FIGS. 3 and 4 illustrate the operation of the closure mechanism 30. The operation of the closure mechanism is described further below with reference to the figures. FIG. 3 illustrates the relative position of the primary lever 34 and the secondary lever 34 when the pop-up plug 20 is in the closed position. This will generally be the situation where the bathtub is full of water and when the pop-up plug 20 is subject to the greatest load acting on it. This represents the status of maximum resistance (effort) and therefore it will be appreciated that this also represents the situation that will require the maximum load to overcome the resistance; the resistance is due to the pressure on the pop-up plug 20 due to the weight of water acting on the plug 20. The initial leverage L1 (pulling to the right as viewed in FIG. 3) required to lift the plug 20 to an open position will be the largest load required to operate the closure mechanism 30. The effective length of the primary and secondary levers 32, 34 and the position of the pivot points 38, 54 relative to the load point 60, which is coincident with the lower end of the primary lever 34, delivers the maximum leverage required to raise the pop-up plug 20 to the open position. To raise the pop-up plug 20, to an open position (as illustrated in FIG. 4), the pin 58 travels along the leg portion 40 of the J-shaped slot 36. The fully open position is reached when the pin 58 comes to rest in the toe section 43 (the toe section 43 acts as a stop) of the foot portion 42 of the J-shaped slot 36 (see FIGS. 1b, 3 and 4). This provides a locking function where the secondary lever 32 is locked substantially perpendicular to the axis of the first arm 48 on the primary lever 34. In normal circumstances, a slight pressure applied on top of the plug 20 would be sufficient to move the plug 20 towards the closed position. This is not the case here, because applying a load (not excessive) on top of the plug 20 acts on the secondary lever 32 via the stem 19 pushing down on the rod 46 to create a clockwise rotation of the secondary lever 32. This action actually enhances the locking function by pushing the pin 58 further towards the toe section 43 of the slot 36. The locking function can only be overridden, via an excessive load being applied to the plug 20. An excessive load is quantified as a load, which is greater than the load generated by water exiting the bath via the drain port. The override feature to safeguard the closure mechanism 30 is described further below. In the illustrated example, the primary lever 34 is turned clockwise towards the closed position such that the pin 58 moves from the toe 43 and foot 42 sections of the slot 36 to the leg portion 40 of the slot 36; this releases the lock. When the pin 58 is located in the leg portion 40 of the slot 36, minimal force is required directly on the plug 20 or via the cable to lower and close the plug 30. The locking function is designed to resist loads comparable to the pressure created due to water draining from the bath, through the drain shoe 10 to waste. As such, inadvertent closure of the plug is avoided whilst emptying the bathtub. The secondary lever 32 includes a failsafe or override feature, which is operable to allow the plug 20 to close under excessive load conditions, but maintains control of the levers 32, 34 and maintains engagement of the upper ends of the primary lever 34 and the secondary lever 32. Referring to FIGS. 3 and 4, a triangular portion 62 is evident adjacent to the slot 36. In the illustrated example, the slot 36 is defined through the full thickness of the primary lever 34. The triangular portion 62 is partial thickness and defines a recess cut into the edge of the slot 36. In the event that an excessive force is applied to the plug 20, for example the plug 20 is stood on, the primary lever 34 will be forced to move in a clockwise direction, but the foot portion 42 of the slot 36 will oppose the motion. As such, the lever 34 will flex and the pin 58 will be forced to jump from the path defined by the slot 36. The triangular portion or recess 62 provides a return track for the pin 58. The return track defines a path along which the pin 58 can travel to reach the top of the leg portion 40 of the slot 36. As described above, when the pin 58 is located at the top of the leg portion 40 this represents the plug 20 in a fully closed position. Therefore, the override facility provided by the recess 60 allows the plug 20 to close in a substantially controlled manner whilst resetting the closure mechanism 30 such that normal operation can resume. The provision of a recess 60 allows the closure mechanism 30 to be reset in a controlled and contained manner without damage to the closure mechanism 30 or to the plug 20. The arrangement and configuration of the primary lever 34 and the secondary lever 32 is such that the action of the primary lever 34 relative to secondary lever 32 provides varying leverage through the sweep of the levers 32, 34, where maximum leverage is achieved to dislodge the plug 20 from a closed position as described above with reference to FIG. 2. As the pin 58 follows the leg portion 40 of the slot 36 (mid-range sweep) the leverage or force required to move the plug 20 is reduced with greater movement. Whilst specific embodiments of the present invention have been described above, it will be appreciated that departures from the described embodiments may still fall within the scope of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND TO THE INVENTION <EOH>Walk in bathtubs are generally equipped with an outlet or drain to facilitate high-flow drainage such that the contents of the bathtub can be emptied as quick as possible to avoid the user remaining in the bathtub for an unnecessary period of time. A walk in bathtub typically includes an access door for ease of entry and exit, which eliminates the need for a user to straddle the edge of the bathtub to step into or out of the bathtub. Upon entering the bathtub, the access door closes and seals relative to the side of the bathtub such that the bathtub can be filled with water. Typically, the bathtub needs to be emptied, almost fully, before the door can be opened to avoid water spilling onto the bathroom floor. Modern bathtubs and sanitary-ware generally include substantially integral plug units which involve closing the outlet/drain from the bath by mechanical means. For example, a pop-up plug, which remains in contact with the outlet at all times. This type of plug changes position or orientation relative to the outlet to close and open the outlet. In the situation of a high-flow drain these types of plug inserts have the problem that as water exits the bath, the volume of water is capable of generating sufficient force to cause the plug unit to engage with the outlet and therefore halt the draining process. It will be appreciated, in the context of a walk-in bath, this situation is not desirable because the user generally needs to remain in the bath until all or most of the water has drained away. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>According to a first aspect of the present invention there is provided a lockable plug device for sanitary ware, the lockable plug device comprises: a closure member operable to sealingly engage with an outlet or drain of the sanitary ware product; and a closure mechanism, wherein the closure mechanism is linked to the closure member and is operable to displace the closure member relative to the outlet or drain to open and close the outlet; and wherein the closure mechanism comprises a lock feature, which is operable to lock the closure member in an open position. The closure mechanism may comprise a primary lever and a secondary lever, each comprising an upper end and a lower end; wherein the upper end of the primary lever engages within the upper end of the secondary lever to control movement of the closure member via the lower end of the secondary lever, wherein a lower end of the primary lever provides a load point, which is operable to rotate the primary lever about a pivot point thereby creating displacement of the upper end of the primary lever and consequential displacement of the upper end of the secondary lever wherein the levers are operable to move to a locked open position, wherein the upper ends of the primary and secondary levers are locked against rotational displacement unless a load applied to the closure member exceeds a predetermined applied load, wherein the predetermined applied load is the load created by water exiting through the drain hole to which the device is connected. An example of a load that exceeds the predetermined applied load may be when a user inadvertently steps on the closure member and forces the closure member to move downwards to a closed position due to the weight of the user typically being greater than the load generated by water exiting through the drain to which the closure member is attached. The upper end of the secondary lever may comprise a slot and upper end of the primary lever may comprise a pin, wherein the pin engages with the slot such that upon rotation of the primary lever relative to the secondary lever the pin is displaced translationally along the slot to an extremity of the slot, wherein the action of the primary lever relative to the secondary lever displaces the closure member to a locked open position when the pin reaches an extremity of the slot. The arrangement of the primary and secondary levers is such that when the closure member, for example a pop-up plug, is locked in the open position unintentional closure of the closure member, due to a predetermined applied load is avoided due to the configuration of the levers acting together to prevent the pin from moving along the slot. The slot may be J-shaped comprising a leg portion and a foot portion, wherein the pin locates in the upstanding leg portion of the slot when the closure member is in a closed or partially open/closed position and wherein the pin locates in the foot portion of the J-shaped slot in a locked open position. Accordingly, to move the closure member between an open and closed position or a closed and open position the pin travels along the slot. The primary lever may comprise a pivot point located between the upper end and the lower end of the primary lever, wherein the pivot point divides the primary lever into a first arm and a second arm. The first arm may extend between the upper end and the pivot and the second arm may extend between the lower end and the pivot, wherein the first arm may be longer than the second arm. The secondary lever may be straight. The primary lever may comprise a bend, wherein the pivot point is located at the bend. The bend may be located between the lower end and half way along the lever. The primary lever may comprise a pivotal member coincident with the lower end of the secondary lever. The pivotal member may comprise a shaft configured to rotate upon action of the secondary lever relative to the primary lever, wherein an extension member may extend from the shaft, wherein the extension member may be operable to interact with the closure member to displace the closure member between open and closed positions. The extension member may extend, substantially perpendicular to the rotational axis of the shaft such that upon rotation of the secondary lever about the pivot point the shaft rotates and the extension member traces an arc and thereby interacts with the closure member to provide directional displacement of the closure member. The extension member may be a rod. The rod may be attached to the shaft and extends, substantially perpendicular to the axis of the shaft such that upon rotation of the primary lever about the pivot point the shaft rotates and the rod traces an arc up or down and thereby interacts with the closure member to provide directional displacement of the closure member. The closure mechanism is configured such that intentional closure of the closure member is controlled by applying a load to the lower end of the primary lever to rotate the upper end relative to the pivot point, wherein the primary and secondary levers are engaged and move relative to each other by applying a load to the lower end of the primary lever to rotate the upper end such that intentional closure of the closure member is controlled. The arrangement and configuration of the primary lever and the secondary lever is such that maximum leverage is attainable when moving the closure member from the closed position because the act of opening requires the application of a load to the lower end of the primary lever to overcome the weight of water on the closure member when, for example a bathtub is full of water. The locking feature is configured, in a locked open position, to withstand a closing force generated by water flowing through the drain, in particular in a high flow drain arrangement. As such unintentional closure of the closure member can be prevented. However, there may be situation where the load applied to the closure member exceeds the load associated with water draining through the drain hole or outlet, for example if someone steps on the closure member and forces it downwards into a closed position. In the event that the load applied to the closure member exceeds the load associated with water draining through the system the closure mechanism may comprise a failsafe component or override feature, which is operable to allow the closure member to close, but ensures continued engagement of the upper ends of the primary lever and the secondary lever. The failsafe component or override feature may comprise a recess adjacent to the slot, wherein the recess is shallower than the slot, such that a step is defined to one side of the slot, wherein the step acts as a guide for the upper end of the primary lever to adopt the position associated with the closure member being fully open and an edge of the recess acts as a guide for the upper end of the primary lever in the event that excessive load is applied to the closure member whilst in the locked open position. The upper end of the primary lever may be configured to flex relative to the pivot point in the event that an excessive load is applied to the closure member. The primary lever may be moulded plastic. The secondary lever may be moulded plastic. In response to an event of excessive load being applied to the closure member, when in the locked open state, the first arm of the primary lever may flex, which causes the upper end and the pin to jump from the slot into the recess, wherein the recess comprises an edge that extends between the extremities of the slot, and wherein the pin is guided against the edge whilst the closure member moves from a locked open position to a closed position. Therefore, in the normal desired operation the presence of the recessed section has no effect on the movement of the upper ends of the primary and secondary levers relative to each other. Only, in the event that an excessive load is applied to the closure member shall the recessed portion become active and effective in ensuring full functionality of the closure mechanism. As such there should be little or no requirement to disassemble the closure mechanism to reset the levers relative to each other. The recessed section may define an edge that extends between the extremities of the slot, wherein in moving from the locked open position to a closed position the pin will be guided against the edge. As such, in the event that the closure member is inadvertently closed from the locked open position, the orientation of the levers is corrected by the failsafe component such that normal operation of opening and closing the plug can resume. The primary lever and the secondary lever may be configured and connected to each other at the upper ends such that maximum leverage to move the closure member is realised when the closure member is moved from a closed to an open position. The pin may be located in the extremity of the foot portion of the slot in a locked open position, an action of applying a load on the closure member acts to rotate the secondary lever in a direction opposite to the direction in which the lock is effective such that the pin locking engagement is ensured under normal operating conditions. A further aspect of the present invention provides a drain shoe for sanitary ware, the drain shoe comprises: a pop-up plug, comprising a stem extending downwards into a hollow body defining a disposal channel between a drain hole of the sanitary ware and an outlet from the body, wherein the pop-up plug is configured open and close the drain hole; and a housing, which houses a closure mechanism which is operable to control displacement of the pop-up plug by interaction with the stem, wherein the closure mechanism is operable to displace the pop-up plug relative to the drain hole between an open and a closed position, where the drain hole is open and closed respectively; the closure mechanism comprises a lock feature, which is operable to lock the pop-up plug in an open position. The primary lever and the secondary lever are configured and connected to each other such that movement relative to each other achieves maximum leverage to move the closure member from a closed to an open position. It will be appreciated that the greatest load is on the closure member when in a closed position and the sanitary ware, for example a walk-in bathtub, is full of water. The shape and length, of the primary and secondary levers, whether straight or bent, may be influenced by the shape and size of a housing in which they are housed under the sanitary ware to which they are attached. However, the relative positions of the primary lever, secondary lever, upper ends, lower ends and pivot points may be such that the maximum leverage is attainable from a closed position with varying leverage during transition from closed to open. | E03C12302 | 20170728 | 20180201 | 98804.0 | E03C123 | 0 | WILLIAMS, PATRICK C | High Flow Drain Control | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | E03C | 2,017 |
|
15,663,094 | ACCEPTED | GAME CONTROLLER WITH STRUCTURAL BRIDGE | A device directed to a combination computing and input device. The computing device providing a plurality of sides, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen and a back of the computing device. The input device communicates with the computing device and provides a pair of control modules adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides of the computing device. The input device further provides a structural bridge securing the pair of control modules one to the other, and a touch sensitive input module. The structural bridge adaptively and snugly accommodate the length of the computing device. A first of the pair of control modules features a retention mechanism communicating with the structural bridge. The retention mechanism adaptively secures the structural bridge such that the pair of control modules snugly accommodate the length of the computing device. | 1. A combination comprising: a computing device, the computing device providing an upper, lower, left and right side, collectively the sides of the computing device, and an electronic display screen, the electronic display screen having a corresponding side adjacent each of the sides of the computing device; a pair of confinement structures, the pair of confinement structures adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides, but not more than three sides of the sides of the computing device, and in which a first confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures provides a first communication link, while a second confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures provides a second communication link; a structural bridge disposed between the pair of confinement structures, the structural bridge comprising, a passageway between the pair of confinement structures, the passageway promotes communication between the first communication link and the computing device, the passageway further promotes communication between the second communication link and the computing device; fastening mechanisms, the fastening mechanisms secure the first confinement structure to a first side of the structural bridge, and further in which the fastening mechanisms secure the second confinement structure to a second side of the structural bridge; and an input device, the input device comprising a pair of control modules, each control module of the pair of control modules secured to a corresponding confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures, each control module in electronic communication with the communication link of its corresponding confinement structure, each of the pair of control modules providing input module apertures, each input module aperture secures an instructional input device, wherein said input module apertures are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the sides of the computing device, and wherein the input device is a separate and distinct structure from either of the pair of confinement structures, forming no structural portion of either of the pair of confinement structures, and in which the confinement structures are separate and distinct structures from the structural bridge, forming no structural portion of the structural bridge. 2. The combination of claim 1, in which the structural bridge is a rigid structural bridge, the rigid structural bridge supports electronics associated with the computing device. 3. The combination of claim 2, in which the computing device further comprising a back, the back provides an internal surface, an external surface, and upper, lower, left and right sides, collectively the sides of the back of the computing device, the back of the computing device cooperating with the sides of the computing device. 4. The combination of claim 3, in which the rigid structural bridge cooperates with the back of the computing device. 5. The combination of claim 4, in which the rigid structural bridge cooperating with the back of the computing device is adjacent to the external surface of the back of the computing device. 6. The combination of claim 4, in which each instructional input device passes signals through its corresponding communication link to the computing device, the signals controlling images displayed on the electronic display screen of the computing device. 7. The combination of claim 4, in which the input device is a pair of game control modules, and in which each game control module passes signals through its corresponding communication link to the computing device, the signals controlling images displayed on the electronic display screen of the computing device. 8. (canceled) 9. The combination of claim 2, in which the electronics supported by the rigid structural bridge is a communication module associated with the computing device. 10. (canceled) 11. (canceled) 12. The combination of claim 2, in which the rigid structural bridge, the pair of confinement structures, and the fastening mechanism form a communication port. 13. A combination comprising: a computing device, the computing device providing an upper, lower, left and right side, collectively the sides of the computing device, and an electronic display screen, the electronic display screen having a corresponding side adjacent each of the sides of the computing device; a pair of modules, the pair of modules adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides, but not more than three sides of the sides of the computing device, a module of the pair of modules providing a communication link; a structural bridge disposed between the pair of modules, the structural bridge includes, but is not limited to, a passageway between the pair of modules, and a fastening mechanism, the passageway promotes communication between the communication link and the computing device, while the fastening mechanism unifies the pair of modules with the structural bridge, and in which the structural bridge provides a void in the midsection of the structural bridge, the void having right, left, upper, and lower sides, each side communicating with a material of the structural bridge; and a pair of instructional input devices, each instructional input device of the pair of instructional input devices interacting with a corresponding module of the pair of modules, each instructional input device in electronic communication with the communication link, each of the pair of instructional input devices adjacent a corresponding side of the at least two opposing sides of the sides of the computing device. 14. The combination of claim 13, in which the structural bridge is a flexible structural bridge, the flexible structural bridge supports electronics associated with the computing device, and wherein the input device is a separate and distinct structure from the pair of modules, forming no structural portion of the pair of modules. 15. The combination of claim 14, in which the electronics supported by the flexible bridge is fiber optics. 16. The combination of claim 15, in which the computing device further comprising a back, the back provides an internal surface, an external surface, and upper, lower, left and right sides, collectively the sides of the back of the computing device, the back of the computing device cooperating with the sides of the computing device. 17. The combination of claim 16, in which the flexible structural bridge cooperates with the external surface of the back. 18. (canceled) 19. The combination of claim 17, in which each instructional input device of the pair of instructional input devices passes signals through the communication link to the computing device, the signals controlling images displayed on the electronic display screen of the computing device. 20. (canceled) 21. A combination comprising: a pair of confinement structures; a first communication link, the first communication link confined by a first confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures; a second communication link, the second communication link confined by a second confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures; a structural bridge disposed between the first confinement structure and the second confinement structure, the structural bridge comprising an electronics communications passageway between the first and second confinement structures; fastening mechanisms, the fastening mechanisms secure each the first confinement structure and the second confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures to the structural bridge; and a pair of control modules, a first control module of the pair of control modules attached to the first confinement structure, and a second control module of the pair of control modules attached to the second confinement structure, the first control module in electronic communication with the first communication link, the second control module in electronic communication with the second communication link, each the first and the second control modules comprising a plurality of input module apertures, each input module aperture secures an instructional input device, and in which neither the first nor the second control module from a structural portion of either the first or second confinement structures. 22. The combination of claim 16, further comprising a computing device, the computing device comprising an upper, lower, left and right side, collectively the sides of the computing device, the computing device disposed between and in contact adjacency with each the first and second confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures, the pair of confinement structures engaging the computing device on at least two opposing sides, but not more than three sides of the sides of the computing device, said pair of confinement structures are separate and distinct structures from the computing device. 23. The combination of claim 17, in which the structural bridge is a rigid structural bridge, the rigid structural bridge supports electronics associated with the computing device. 24. The combination of claim 18, in which the computing device further comprising a back, the back provides an internal surface, an external surface, and upper, lower, left and right sides, collectively the sides of the back of the computing device, the back of the computing device cooperating with the sides of the computing device, and in which the rigid structural bridge cooperates with the back of the computing device. 25. The combination of claim 17, in which the rigid structural bridge, the pair of confinement structures, and the fastening mechanism form a communication port. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/457,571 filed Mar. 13, 2017, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/840,184 filed Aug. 31, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/611,804 filed on Feb. 2, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,126,119 issued on Sep. 8, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/681,153 filed on Nov. 19, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,944,912 issued on Feb. 3, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/494,801 filed on Jun. 12, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,005,026 issued on Apr. 14, 2015, which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent application Ser. No. 61/577,709 filed on Dec. 20, 2011. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In a preferred embodiment, a combination includes at least, but is not limited to, a computing device, the computing device providing a plurality of sides, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen of the computing device and a back of the computing device, an input device interacting with the computing device, and a communication link. The input device communicates with the computing device and providing a pair of control modules adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides of the computing device. The communication link facilitating communication between the pair of control modules and the computing device. The input device further provides a structural bridge securing the pair of control modules one to the other, and a touch sensitive input module. The touch sensitive module is preferably a touch screen, which relays instructions to the computing device to alter an image displayed on the electronic display. The structural bridge adaptively and snugly accommodates the length of the computing device by way of a retention mechanism of a first of the pair of control modules. The retention mechanism adaptively secures the structural bridge such that the pair of control modules snugly accommodates the length of the computing device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an embodiment an electronic game control apparatus constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed. FIG. 2 shows a back plan view of the apparatus of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 displays a right side plan view, with partial cutaway, of the apparatus of FIG. 1, constructed in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 4 depicts a right side plan view of the apparatus of FIG. 1, constructed in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 5 illustrates a top perspective view of an embodiment of an input device of FIG. 1, constructed in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an embodiment of the apparatus of FIG. 1. FIG. 7 is a block diagram of an alternate embodiment of the apparatus of FIG. 1. FIG. 8 displays a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of a combination electronic game control and information input device constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 9 depicts a back plan view of the combination of FIG. 8. FIG. 10 illustrates a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternate embodiment of a combination electronic game control and information input device constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 11 shows a top perspective view of an embodiment of an input device with an integrated point of sale device, the input device is constructed in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 12 displays a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternate embodiment of a combination electronic game control and information input device, the information input device provides the integrated point of sale device. FIG. 13 displays a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternative embodiment of a combination computing device and electronic game control, the electronic game control includes a pair of control modules linked one to the other by a bridge member. FIG. 14 shows a back plan view of the combination computing device and electronic game control of FIG. 13. FIG. 15 illustrates a top perspective view of the alternative embodiment of the combination computing device and electronic game control of FIG. 13. FIG. 16 shows a back plan view of an alternative combination computing device with a communication port secured thereon, and an input device attached to the communication port. FIG. 17 shows a top plan view of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 18 shows a side view in elevation of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 19 shows front and back views in elevation of a first selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 20 shows front and back views in elevation of a second selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 21 shows a bottom plan view of a first control module adjacent to a selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 22 shows a bottom plan view of a first control module secured to a selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 23 shows a side views in elevation of a first control module secured to a selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 24 shows a view in perspective of a fastening mechanism of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 25 shows a back plan view of the combination computing device and electronic game control of FIG. 16 revealing, in cutout, a data storage device and an auxiliary power source. FIG. 26 shows a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternate embodiment of an electronic game control apparatus constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 27 shows an exploded view in perspective of a first control module of an input device of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26. FIG. 28 shows an exploded view in perspective of a second control module of the input device of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26. FIG. 29 shows a back perspective view of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26. FIG. 30 shows a front perspective view of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, configured to accommodate computing devices of varying size. FIG. 31 shows a back perspective view of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, configured to accommodate computing devices of varying size. FIG. 32 shows a front perspective view of the second control module of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, with a computing devices of maximum size staged to engage the first control module. FIG. 33 shows a front perspective view of the second control module of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, with the computing devices of maximum size commencing engagement with the first control module. FIG. 34 shows a front perspective view of the second control module of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, with the computing devices of maximum size fully engaged with the first control module. FIG. 35 shows a front view of an alternative embodiment of an electronic game control apparatus constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 36 shows a front view of an alternative embodiment of an electronic game control apparatus, and a front perspective view of a computing device, which interfaces with the electronic game control apparatus to form an electronic gaming system. FIG. 37 shows a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of the alternative embodiment of then electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 36, constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 38 shows an exploded view in perspective of a control module of the input device of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 37. FIG. 39 shows a front view of the alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 36, with a keyboard integrated into the control module of FIG. 38. FIG. 40 shows a front view of the alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 39, interacting with wirelessly with a display. FIG. 41 shows a back view of the alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 37, with a touch sensitive module attached to a back side of the structural bridge of the electronic gaming controller. FIG. 42 shows a back view of an alternate, alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 37, with a touch sensitive module attached to a back side of one of the control modules of the electronic gaming controller. FIG. 43 shows a back view of the alternate, alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 35, with a touch sensitive module attached to a back side of the structural bridge of the electronic gaming controller. FIG. 44 shows a back view of an alternate, alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 35, with a touch sensitive module attached to a back side of the control module of the electronic gaming controller. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present disclosure generally relates to a combination game controller and information input device directed to controlling electronic games and entry of information to a computing device, also referred to herein as video games, computer and applications games. The apparatus preferably includes a computing device, an electronic game communicating with the computing device, and an input device for controlling movement of a virtual object provided by the electronic game, and entry of information into the computing device. In a preferred embodiment, the input device includes a pair of opposing side structures adjacent opposing sides of plurality of sides of the computing device. The input device further preferably includes a plurality of input switches, wherein said input switches are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides of the computing device, and a bridge structure disposed between the pair of sides to form a three sided structure. The third structure mitigates inadvertent removal of the computing device from the three sided structure when the computing device is fully nested within the three sided structure. Turning to the drawings, FIG. 1 provides an exemplary game controller and information entry device (“G&D”) 100 capable of being used in accordance with various embodiments of the present invention. The exemplary G&D 100 has at least a computing device 102 (also referred to herein as a computing device 102), which provides a plurality of sides, such as 104, 106, 108, and 126. Each of the plurality of sides 104, 106, and 108 are disposed between an electronic display screen 110, of the computing device 102, and a back 112 (shown by FIG. 2) of the computing device 102 operates. The G&D 100 further preferably includes an input device 114. The computing device 102 may take the form of a tablet computer, smart phone, notebook computer, or other portable computing device, In a preferred embodiment, the input device 114 provides a pair of side structures, 116 and 118, with a bridge structure 115 disposed there between. One of the pair of side structures, for example 116, is adjacent to and confines the computing device 102 on a first side, such as 104 of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126 of the computing device 102. The second side structure of the pair of side structures, such as 118, is adjacent to and confines the computing device 102 on a second side, such as 108, of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126 of the computing device 102, wherein the first and second sides, such as 104 and 108, of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126 of the computing device 102 are opposing sides of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126, of the computing device 102. In a preferred embodiment, the input device 114 further provides a plurality of removable game control modules 120 and 122, wherein the removable game control modules 120 and 122 are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides 104 and 108, of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126, of the computing device 102, and a bridge structure 124, disposed between the pair of side structures 116 and 118, and adjacent the third side 126, of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126, of the computing device 102. In a preferred embodiment, the removable game control modules 120 and 122 may be removed from the input device 114, and replaced by removable keyboard modules 164 and 166, of FIG. 8. To facilitate the exchange of modules, the input device preferably provides a pair of input module apertures 170. The removable keyboard modules collectively form a full function keyboard and each provide an auxiliary electronic display screen (“ADS”) 168, each ADS 168 having at least the functionality of the electronic display screen 110. In an alternate embodiment, shown by FIG. 10, the removable keyboard modules 164 and 166 are a pair of touch responsive electronic display screens 172 and 174, each of the touch responsive electronic display screens having at least the functionality of the electronic display screen 110, include the functionality of a mouse pad portions 176 and 178, and selectively presents keys of a keyboard 180 and 182 for information entry. Preferably, the keys are virtual keys that respond to a touch by a user. Returning to FIG. 1, preferably, the bridge structure 124 in combination with the pair of side structures 116 and 118 form a three sided structure 128 (of FIG. 5) (also referred to herein as a u-shaped structure 128 of the input device 114), in which the computing device 102 nests, such that the computing device 102 is confined by the u-shaped structure 128, and the u-shaped structure 128 mitigates inadvertent removal of the computing device 102 from the u-shaped structure 128 when the computing device 102 is fully nested within the three sided structure 128. The G&D 100 of FIG. 1, further preferably includes a video game 130. Preferably, the video game 130 provides a virtual object 132 displayed by the electronic display screen 110, the virtual object 132 is responsive to input from the input device 114. An example of a response of the virtual object 132 would be movement of the virtual object 132, or the loading of an alternate computer game, based on a predetermined signal provided by the input device 114, or an appearance of a character. It is noted that FIG. 1 displays the housings of the plurality of switches, whereas at least some of the plurality of switches are shown in the partial cutaway of FIG. 3. FIG. 2 depicts and reveals the back 112 of the computing device 102. Further shown by FIG. 2, is the input device 114, which provides a pair of trigger switches 136 and 138, supported by their corresponding side structures 116 and 118 respectively. FIG. 3 shows that a predetermined number of the plurality of switches 140, collaborate with each other to form an input apparatus 142, the input apparatus 142 controls display of virtual objects displayed on the electronic display screen 110 of the computing device 102. Preferably, the input apparatus 142 is a joystick 142. FIG. 3 further shows that the input device 114 provides a plurality of buttons 144 and 119 of the removable game control modules 120, which activate corresponding switches 145 and 121. The main function of the trigger 138, the joystick 142, and the buttons 144 and 119 of the removable game control modules 120 is to govern the movement/actions of a playable body/object or otherwise influence events in a video game 130 (of FIG. 1) or an alternate computer game. FIG. 4 shows the G&D 100, further includes a second joystick 146, and a second button 148, which are provided on the side structure 116, adjacent the trigger 136. While FIG. 5 shows the central processing unit (CPU) 150, of the input device 114. FIG. 6 shows the input device 114 includes the CPU 150, interacting with the plurality of switches 152, which preferably include at least switches 119 of the removable game control modules 120 (of FIG. 1), switches 117 of the removable game control modules 122 (of FIG. 1), 136, 138, 142, 144, 146, and 148 (of FIGS. 2 and 3). FIG. 6 further shows the input device 114 includes a communications protocol 154 providing the communication link between the computing device 102, and the input device 114. In a preferred embodiment, a Universal Serial Bus (USB) communications protocol is utilized. However, as those skilled in the art will recognize, the communications protocol 154 is not limited to a USB protocol. FIG. 6 further shows that the computing device 102 preferably includes at least a CPU 156, interacting with the electronic display screen 110, the video game 130, a device driver 158, which facilitates the interaction between the computing device 102 and the input device 114, and a communications protocol 160 providing the communication link between the computing device 102, and the input device 114. In a preferred embodiment, a Universal Serial Bus (USB) communications protocol is utilized. However, as those skilled in the art will recognize, the communications protocol 160 is not limited to a USB protocol. FIG. 7 shows an alternative embodiment of an exemplary game controller 162, in which the device driver 158 and the video game 130 are located in the input device 114. FIG. 8 shows in a preferred embodiment, the G&D 100 includes a first camera 184, on a first side of the computing device 102, a second camera 186, on the back side of the computing device 102 (shown by FIG. 9), a third camera 188 on a first side of the input device 114, and a fourth camera 190 on the back side of the input device 114 (shown by FIG. 9). In a preferred embodiment, each of the four cameras may selectively function independently, or may be used in conjunction with one another, and each of the four cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190 are fully functional in capturing still and video images. Additionally, and preferably, the first and second cameras 184 and 186 are fully operative, even when the computing device 102 is detached from the input device 114, while the third and fourth cameras 188 and 190 are fully functional, even when the input device 114 is detached from the computing device 102. In a preferred embodiment, when the computing device 102 is nested in the input device 114, the first and second cameras, 184 and 186, are responsive, either independently or simultaneously, to input from either the computing device 102, or the input device 114, depending on which device is selected for control of the first and second cameras, 184 and 186. Further, in the preferred embodiment, each the computing device 102 and the input device 114, are configured with a Bluetooth protocol stack communication feature, which permits the user to operate the first and second cameras, 184 and 186, of the computing device 102 with the input device 114, even when the computing device 102 is detached from the input device 114. Likewise, when the computing device 102 and the input device 114 are configured with a Bluetooth protocol stack communication feature, the user may operate the third and fourth cameras, 188 and 190, of the input device 114, using the computing device 102. In other words, in the preferred embodiment, each of the four cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190, may be selectively operated, individually or collectively, whether or not the computing device 102 is nested within the input device 114. FIG. 9 shows that in a preferred embodiment, the input device 114 includes an auxiliary power source 192, and an auxiliary data storage device 194, which preferably includes a cache portion 196. Preferably, the auxiliary power source 192 is a lithium ion battery, which provides power to the input device 114, and the computing device 102, when the power source of the computing device 102 is depilated; and the auxiliary data storage device 194 is a solid state hard drive. In the preferred embodiment, the cache 196 is sized to buffer synchronized input from each of the cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190, such that the auxiliary data storage device 194 may store and retrieve images, still or video, for display seamlessly, including a simultaneous output of video images recorded by each of the cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190. In a non-limiting exemplary application of utilizing the cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190, the first camera 184 could be trained on an information presenter, while the second camera 186 is trained on a portion of an audience attending the presentation. The third camera 188 could be trained on a screen used by the presenter for presenting their information to the audience, while the fourth camera is trained on an alternate portion of the audience. By simultaneously replaying the recorded presentation, a response of the audience to the information, and sequence of information being presented, may be analyzed for fostering improvements to the presentation. FIG. 11 shows an alternative embodiment of a video game controller 200, which provides an integrated transaction card input feature 202. Preferably, the integrated transaction card input feature 202, includes a transaction card slot 204, and a transaction card reader 206. In a preferred embodiment, the transaction card reader 206 is a magnetic strip reader, but as those skilled in the art will recognize, the transaction card reader can be, in the alternate: is an optical character recognition reader; a barcode reader; an object recognition reader, or a pattern recognition reader. FIG. 12 shows that in a preferred embodiment, a combination computing device and electronic game controller with an integrated point of sale device 210 preferably includes a computing device 212, having a plurality of sides 214, each of the plurality of sides 214, are disposed between an electronic display screen 216, of the computing device and a back 218 of the computing device, and an input device 220, in electronic communication with the computing device 212. The input device 220 preferably provides side structures 222, adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 214 of the computing device 212. The input device 220, further preferably provides input module apertures 224, each input module aperture 224, selectively accepts either a game control module, such as 102 and 122 of FIG. 1, or a removable keyboard module, such as 226 and 228. Preferably, the input module apertures 224 are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 214 of the computing device 212. FIG. 12 further shows that in a preferred embodiment, the combination computing device and electronic game controller with an integrated point of sale device 210 preferably includes a camera 230, communicating with each the input device 220, and the computing device 212. The camera 230, selectively captures either still or video images, and that the input device 220, further provides an integrated transaction card input feature 232, which interacts with a transaction card 234, and that preferably, the input device is an electronic game controller 220. Preferably, the camera 230 is a first camera, having a lens facing the user while the user is facing the electronic display screen 216, and includes at least a second camera, such as 186 or 190 (of FIG. 9), having a lens facing in a direction opposite that of the first camera 184. FIG. 12 additionally shows an application 236, displayed on the electronic display screen 216, of the computing device 212. Preferably, the application 236, displayed on the electronic display screen 216 of the computing device 212, is a point of sale transactional computer application, which interacts with the electronic game controller 220 and the computing device 212. FIG. 13 shows an alternative embodiment of a combination computing device and electronic game control 240 (also referred to herein as a device 240). The computing device 242, preferably provides a plurality of sides 244, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen 246, of the computing device 242, and a back 248 of the computing device 242. Preferably, the electronic game controller 250 (also referred to herein as input device 250), is in electronic communication with the computing device 242. Preferably, the input device 250 provides a pair of control modules 252. The pair of control modules 252, are adjacent to and confining the computing device 242, on at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 244, of the computing device 242. The pair of control modules 252 preferably provide input module apertures 254, each input module aperture 254, secures an instructional input device 256. Preferably, the input module apertures 254 are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 244, of the computing device 242. FIG. 14 shows the back 248, of the computing device 242, and the computing device 242, partially positioned within the input device 250. FIG. 14 further shows a structural bridge 258, securing the pair of control modules 252, one to the other, and communicating with the back 248, of the computing device 242, at a mid-region 260, of the back 248, of the computing device 242. FIG. 14 further shows that the pair of control modules 252 provide a confinement boss 262, and the confinement boss 262 provides a fastening detent 264. The fastening detent 264 interacts with a retention member 266, to secure the structural bridge 258, to the pair of control modules 252. In a preferred embodiment, the retention member 266 is responsive to a catch 268, which preferably is a spring activated catch 268, and the retention member 268 is preferably a spring loaded retention member 268. Still further, FIG. 14 shows that in a preferred embodiment, the structural bridge 258 provides a communication link 270, which passing signals between the pair of control modules 252. Continuing with FIG. 14, in a preferred embodiment, the communication link 270, provides a communication module 272, and in the alternative, provides a signal pathway 274, for use in passing signals between the pair of control modules 252. In a preferred embodiment, the communication module 272 is a wireless communication module 272, which operates in a frequency range of 2.4 GHz. In an alternate preferred embodiment, the wireless communication module 272 is a personal area network. As those skilled in the art, a personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computerized devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink). A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a PAN carried over wireless network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, Wireless USB, Z-Wave, ZigBee, or even Body Area Network. The reach of a WPAN varies from a few centimeters to a few meters. A PAN may also be carried over wired computer buses such as USB and FireWire. In an embodiment that utilizes the signal pathway 274, as the communication link, the signal pathway 274 may be in the form of a metallic conductor, a fiber optic conductor, a conductive polymer, or the conductive layer of a flex circuit. The skilled artisan will further appreciate that the structural bridge 258 (of FIG. 14), or 276 (of FIG. 15) may be either formed from a ridged material, such as a ridged polymer, or from a flexible material, such as a flexible polymer. In a preferred embodiment, when a flexible material is selected, and the signal pathway 274 is a wired pathway, the signal pathway 274 may be coupled externally to the structural bridge 276, as shown by FIG. 15. FIG. 15 further shows that in a preferred embodiment, the instructional input device 256, may be an electronic game control module 278 (which may be either removable, or fixed), or a keyboard module 280 (of FIG. 13, which may be either removable, or fixed). FIG. 16 shows a back plan view of an alternative combination 300, which preferably includes, but is not limited to, a computing device 302 that provides a plurality of sides 304, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen 306 (of FIG. 13) of the computing device and a back 308 of the computing device 302. Preferably, the alternative combination 300 further includes a communication port 310, interacting with the computing device 302. In a preferred embodiment, the communication port 310 provides a communication link 312 (which for purposes of illustration is shown as a wired connection 314, but will be understood to be a wireless connection in an alternative embodiment). Preferably, the communication port 310 further provides a pair of confinement structures 316, the pair of confinement structures 316, which are preferably adjacent to and confining the computing device 302 on at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 304 of the computing device 302. The alternative combination 300, further preferably includes an input device 318 (also referred to herein as input device 114), attached to and in electronic communication with the communication port 310. The input device 318 providing a pair of control modules 252, the pair of control modules 252 providing input module apertures 224 (of FIG. 12), each input module aperture 224 secures an instructional input device 356 (of FIG. 23), or such as 120 of FIG. 11, or 256 of FIG. 13. Preferably, the input module apertures 224, are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 304, of the computing device 302, and wherein the input device 356, or such as 120 of FIG. 11, or 256 of FIG. 13, is a separate and distinct structure from the communication port 310, forming no structural portion of the communication port 310. FIG. 16 further shows that in a preferred embodiment, the communication port 310 further includes a fastening mechanism 320. In one embodiment, a soft draw latch, such as that provided by Southco, of 210 N. Brinton Lake Road Concordville, Pa. 19331, have been shown to be a useful fastening mechanism 320. FIG. 17 shows a top view of the communication port 310 that preferably includes a structural bridge 322, securing the pair of confinement structures 316, one to the other. The structural bridge 322 is preferably secured to a select confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316 by way of a solid connection 324, and to remaining confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316 by way of a slip fit 326. The fastening mechanism 320, is preferably securely fastened to to a conduit 328, of the structural bridge 322, by way of a anchor member 330, the anchor member 330 is preferably positioned in a location adjacent the slip fit 326, and by way of an attachment member 332 (shown in FIG. 18), securely attached to the remaining confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316. The attachment member 332 is preferably positioned in a location adjacent the slip fit 326. Operation of the fastening mechanism 320 facilitates an expand and contract of the distance between the pair of confinement structures 316. The expansion and contraction of the distance between the pair of confinement structures 316, facilitates placement of the computing device 302 between the pair of confinement structures 316, the application of sufficient compressive load being placed on the computing device 302 to securely hold the computing device between the pair of confinement structures 316, and an ability to remove the compressive load and allow removal of the computing device from the communication port 310. FIG. 17 further shows that each of the pair of confinement structures 316, provide a pair of controller docking pins 334, while FIG. 18 shows that each of the pair of confinement structures 316 further provide a computing device cradle 336, and that a select confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316 provides a computing device interface feature 338. The interface feature 338, facilitates at least, but not limited to, the provision of power to the computing device 302. FIG. 19 shows a front view 340, of a first selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, which reveals a plurality of signal input lands 342 for use in receiving signals from the input device 318, of FIG. 16, and the pair of controller docking pins 334. Further shown by FIG. 19, is a back view 344 of the first selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, which reveals computing device interface feature 338, the computing device cradle 336, and the slip fit 326. FIG. 20 shows a front view 346, of a second selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, which reveals a plurality of signal input lands 342 for use in receiving signals from the input device 318, of FIG. 16, and the pair of controller docking pins 334. Further shown by FIG. 20, is a back view 348 of the second selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, which reveals, the computing device cradle 336, and the solid connection 324. FIG. 21 reveals, for purposes of disclosure and for consistency of views with remaining disclosed figures of an embodiment, a bottom right hand plan view of the input device 318 adjacent the second selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, of the communication port 310. Preferably, the control module 252, provides an attachment structure 350, cooperating with the controller docking pins 334, of the communication port 310. The attachment structure 350, secures the input device 318, to the communication port 310. In a preferred embodiment, the attachment structure 350 provides a sliding locking toggle 352, and a fixed locking toggle 354. In the embodiment presented, the sliding locking toggles, 352, interact with the controller docking pins 334, to securely (but removable) fasten the input device 318 to the communication port 310. In a preferred embodiment, the sliding locking toggle 352 is selectively adjustable from an open position, shown in dashed lines, and a closed, or locked position, as shown in solid lines. FIG. 22 shows the input device 318, securely fastened to the communication port 310, by way of the attachment structure 350, while FIG. 23 shows the right control module 252, of the input device 318, with its accompanying attachment structure 350 in a locked position, and the special relationship of the control module 252, relative to the confinement structure 316. FIG. 23 further shows an instructional input device 356, such as 120 of FIG. 11, or 256 of FIG. 13, which in a preferred embodiment is a removable instructional input device 356. FIG. 24 provides a more insightful presentation of a latch portion 358, of the fastening mechanism 320, relative to the attachment member 332, of the fastening mechanism 320. FIG. 25 shows that in a preferred embodiment, the input device 318, includes an auxiliary power source 360, and an auxiliary data storage device 362, which preferably includes a cache portion 364. FIG. 26 shows a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternate embodiment an electronic game control apparatus 400 (also referred to herein as an input device 400), constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. The input device 400 includes, but is not limited to, a first control module 402, and a second control module 404. The control modules (402, 404) are adjacent to and confine a computing device 406 (of FIG. 30) on at least two opposing sides 408 and 410 (each of FIG. 30), of the plurality of sides of the computing device 406. In a preferred embodiment, the computing device 406 has a length 412, greater than its width 414, as shown by FIG. 30. The pair of control modules (408, 410) are preferably configured such that the pair of control modules (408, 410) adaptively and snugly accommodate the width 414, of the computing device 406. Alternatively the pair of control modules (408,410) adaptively and snugly accommodate a width 416 (of FIG. 30), of a second computing device 418 (of FIG. 30). Preferably, the width 416, of the second computing device 418, is greater than the width 414, of the computing device 406, and preferably, the second computing device 418, has a length 420 (of FIG. 30) greater than the width 414, of the second computing device 418. Preferably, the input device further provides a structural bridge 422, which secures the pair of control modules (402, 404), one to the other. The structural bridge 422 is preferably configured such that the structural bridge 422, adaptively and snugly accommodate the length 412, of the computing device 406. Alternatively, the structural bridge 422, adaptively and snugly accommodate the length 420, of the second computing device 418. Preferably, the length 420 of the second computing device 418 is greater than the length 412, of the computing device 406. Without limitations imposed upon the accompanying claims, in a preferred embodiment, the structural bridge 422, is formed from a flexible material, such as a flexible polymer, or alternatively, from a semi-ridge material, such as a semi-ridged polymer, fiber glass, metallic sheet material, carbon fiber, or other materials known to artisans skilled in the art. FIG. 27 shows an exploded view in perspective of the first control module 402, of the input device 400, of FIG. 26. The first control module 402, of the pair of control modules (402, 404), preferably includes at least, but is not limited to, a retention mechanism 424, communicating with the structural bridge 422 (of FIG. 26), wherein the retention mechanism 424, secures the structural bridge 422 such that the structural bridge 422, adaptively accommodates the length of the computing device 406. Alternatively, the structural bridge 422 adaptively accommodates the length 420, of the second computing device 418. In a preferred embodiment, the length 420 of the second computing device 418 is greater than the length 412, of the computing device 406. FIG. 27 further shows that the first control module 402 provides a base 426, which provides an adjustment feature 428. And preferably, the retention mechanism includes at least, but is not limited to, a boss 430, communicating with the structural bridge 422, and an adjustment structure 432, interacting with the boss 430, by way of the adjustment feature 428. In a preferred embodiment, the base 426 is disposed between the adjustment structure 432, and the boss 424. The first control module 402, preferably provides a restraint 434, cooperating with the boss 430. As shown by FIG. 29, the restraint 434, retains the structural bridge 422, in a first position 436, relative to the base 426, when the adjustment structure 432, is activated in a first direction 438, relative to the base 426. When positioned in the first position 436, the structural bridge 422, accommodates the second computing device 418, as more clearly shown in FIG. 30. The adjustment structure 432, further retains the structural bridge 422, in a second position 440, relative to the base 426, when the adjustment structure 432, is activated in a second direction 442, relative to the base 426. When positioned in the second position 440, the structural bridge 422, accommodates the first computing device 406, as shown by FIG. 30. To accommodate the first position 436, and the second position 440, preferably the boss 432 provides a constraint feature 444, which cooperates with the base 426. The constraint feature 444, maintains the structural bridge 422, in the first position 436, relative to the base 426, following an activation of the adjustment structure 432, in the first direction 438. The constraint feature 444, further maintains the structural bridge 422, in the second position 440, relative to the base 426, following an activation of the adjustment structure 432, in the second direction 442. The second direction 442 is a direction opposite that of the first direction 438, and in the preferred embodiment, the restraint 434, is a spring member. FIG. 28 shows an exploded view in perspective of the second control module 404, of the input device 400, of FIG. 26. The second control module 404, includes at least but is not limited to, a tensioning mechanism 446, communicating with the structural bridge 422, by way of a fastening mechanism 448 (also referred to herein as an attachment stay 448), of the tensioning mechanism 446 secured to the structural bridge 422, as shown by FIG. 26. The tensioning mechanism 446, secures the structural bridge 422, to a bottom cover 450, of the second control module 404, such that the structural bridge 422, cooperating with the tensioning mechanism 446, snugly accommodates the length 412 (of FIG. 30), of the computing device 406 (of FIG. 30). Alternatively, the tensioning mechanism 446, secures the structural bridge 422 to the bottom cover 450, of the second control module 404, such that the structural bridge 422, cooperating with the tensioning mechanism 446, snugly accommodates the length 420 (of FIG. 30) of the second computing device 418 (of FIG. 30). In a preferred embodiment, the length 420, of the second computing device 418, is greater than the length 412, of the computing device 406. In a preferred embodiment, the bottom cover 450, provides a position guide 454, and the tensioning mechanism 446, includes at least, but not limited to, the attachment boss 452, communicating with the structural bridge 422, an attachment support 456, cooperating with the attachment boss 452. Preferably, the attachment support 456, in cooperation with the attachment boss 452, confines the structural bridge 422 vertically, but permits lateral movement of the structural bridge 422 relative to the bottom cover 450. Preferably, the structural bridge 422, is disposed between the bottom cover 450, and a top cover 458, which cooperates with the bottom cover 450, to facilitate lateral movement of a portion of the structural bridge 422, from its position associated with the first position 432 (of FIG. 29) of the adjustment structure 432 (of FIG. 29), to its position associated with the second position 440 (of FIG. 29) of the adjustment structure 432, while a biasing structure 460, communicating with the attachment stay 448 (of FIG. 26), provides variable tension between the structural bridge 422, and the second control module 404, thereby accommodating a predetermined amount of lateral movement of the structural bridge 422, relative to the bottom cover 450, as shown by FIG. 26. In a preferred embodiment, the attachment stay 448, includes at least, but not limited to, a guide aperture 462, which is preferably slotted, interacting with a position guide 454, of the attachment boss 452. The interaction of the guide aperture 462, with the position guide 454, limits the extent of lateral alignment between the structural bridge 422, and the second control module 404. As further shown by FIG. 28, in a preferred embodiment, the attachment support 456, further supports a plurality of control switches 464, interacting with a circuit structure 466, which preferably is a flex circuit 466, the biasing structure 460, is a coiled spring 460. Preferably, each of the pair of control modules 402 of FIG. 27 and 404 of FIG. 28, include at least, but not limited to, a sizing mechanism 468, communicating with a computing device 406 (of FIG. 30), else a second computing device 418 (of FIG. 30). In a preferred embodiment, the sizing mechanism 468 is configured such that the sizing mechanism 468 adaptively accommodate the width 414, of the computing device 406. Alternatively the sizing mechanism 468, adaptively accommodate the width 416, of the second computing device 418. In a preferred embodiment, the width 416, of the second computing device 418, is greater than the width 414, of the computing device 406. As shown by FIG. 27, the control module 402 includes the base 426, which provides a sizing toggle confinement structure 470, and a slide support confinement structure 472. Preferably, the sizing mechanism 468 includes at least, but is not limited to, a sizing toggle 474, communicating with the sizing toggle confinement structure 472, a sizing toggle restraint 476, interacting with the sizing toggle confinement structure 472, the sizing restraint 476, promotes rotation of the sizing toggle 474, relative to the base 426. In a preferred embodiment, the sizing mechanism further includes a torsional force structure 478, cooperating with the base 426, and acting on the sizing toggle 474. The torsional force structure 478, facilitating the sizing toggle 474, in a first position under a first torsional force. When in the first position, the sizing toggles 474 extend vertically from the base 450, and the control module 402 is configured to accommodate the width 410, of the computing device 406. Alternatively, the torsional force structure 478, facilitating the sizing toggle 474, in a second position under a second torsional force. When in the second position, the sizing toggles 474, lies nested in the sizing toggle confinement structure 472, and horizontal the base 450, and the control module 402 is configured to accommodate the width 416, of the second computing device 418. Preferably, the second torsional force is greater than the first torsional force, and the width 416, of the second computing device 418, is greater than the width 414, of the computing device 406. In a preferred embodiment, the control module 402 further provides a computing device slide pad 480, nested in the slide support confinement structure 472. The computing device slide pad 480 is configured to deliver minimal sliding friction between the computing device 406, or the second computing device 418, and the control module 402, when inserting either computing device (406, 418) into the control module 402. Likewise, the sizing toggle 474 is configured to deliver minimal sliding friction between the computing device 406, or the second computing device 418, and the control module 402, when inserting either computing device (406, 418) into the control module 402. Preferably, the torsional force structure 478, is a coiled spring, and the sizing toggle confinement structure 470, provides a friction surface 482, which mitigates an inadvertent movement of the sizing toggle 474, from the first position to the second position when the computing device 406, is constrained by the input device 400. Turning to FIG. 31, shown therein are FIGS. 31a and 31b. As can be seen by FIG. 31a, the control modules (402, 404), and the structural bridge 422, of input device 400, are positioned, relative to one another, to accommodate the computing device 406 (of FIG. 30). While as can be seen by FIG. 31b, the control modules (402, 404), and the structural bridge 422, of input device 400, are positioned, relative to one another, to accommodate the second computing device 418, of FIG. 30. FIGS. 32, 33, and 34 collectively illustrate a preferred procedure to join the second computing device 418, with the control module 404. The first step in the procedure is to align the second computing device 418, with the control module 404, such that the corner of the second computing device 418, is adjacent the sizing toggle 474 as shown by FIG. 32. The next step in the procedure is to advance the second computing device 418, into contact with the sizing toggle 474, and continue to advance the second computing device 418, into the control module 404, which causes the sizing toggle 474, to rotate into the sizing toggle confinement structure 470, thereby permitting the second computing device 418 to be adaptively and snuggly accommodated by the control module 404. FIG. 35 shows a front view of an alternate embodiment of an electronic game control apparatus 500 (also referred to herein as an input device 500), constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. The input device 500 includes, but is not limited to, a first control module 502, and a second control module 504. The control modules (502, 504) are adjacent to and confine a computing device 506 (of FIG. 36) on at least two opposing sides 508 and 510 (each of FIG. 36), of the plurality of sides of the computing device 506. Collectively, and when joined together, by way of a structural bridge 522, the input device 500, and the computing device 506, form an electronic gaming system 511, as shown in FIG. 36. In a preferred embodiment, the control module 504, incorporates the eternal mechanisms and features of the control module 404, of FIGS. 26 and 28, including the tensioning mechanism 446, but absent the sizing mechanism 468. While the control module 502, incorporates the eternal mechanisms and features of the control module 402, of FIGS. 26 and 27, but absent the adjustment feature 428, and the sizing mechanism 468. Accordingly, the input device 500 can accommodate computing devices of varying length and width by incorporating the tensioning mechanism 446, into control module 504, to accommodate a length 513, of the computing device 560, and configuring the control modules (502, 504) to allow the sides (508, 510) of the computing device 506, to protrude, or extend beyond the confines of a length 515, of the control modules (502, 504), in a vertical direction along a width 517, of the computing device 506. In a preferred embodiment, as shown by FIG. 35, the structural bridge 522, secures the pair of control modules (502, 504) one to the other. Preferably, the structural bridge 522, is configured such that the structural bridge 522, adaptively and snugly accommodate the length 513, of the computing device 506, as shown in FIG. 36. In a preferred embodiment, as shown by FIG. 37, the control module 504, includes at least, but is not limited to, a tensioning mechanism 546, communicating with the structural bridge 522. Preferably, the tensioning mechanism 546, secures the structural bridge 522, such that the structural bridge snugly accommodate the length 513 (of FIG. 36), of the computing device 506 (of FIG. 36). In a preferred embodiment, as shown by FIG. 35, a communication link 519, is provided by the input device 500, which facilitating communication between the pair of control modules (502, 504) and the computing device 506 (of FIG. 36), and, as shown by FIG. 35, the structural bridge 522, masks a mid-portion of the back of the computing device. Continuing with FIG. 35, in a preferred embodiment, the communication link 519, provides a communication module 521, and in the alternative, provides a signal pathway 523, for use in passing signals between the pair of control modules (502, 504). In a preferred embodiment, the communication module 521, is a wireless communication module 521, which operates in a frequency range of 2.4 GHz. In an alternate preferred embodiment, the wireless communication module 521, is a personal area network. As those skilled in the art, a personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computerized devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink). A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a PAN carried over wireless network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, Wireless USB, Z-Wave, ZigBee, or even Body Area Network. The reach of a WPAN varies from a few centimeters to a few meters. A PAN may also be carried over wired computer buses such as USB and FireWire. In an embodiment that utilizes the signal pathway 523, as the communication link 519, the signal pathway 523, may be in the form of a metallic conductor, a fiber optic conductor, a conductive polymer, or the conductive layer of a flex circuit. The skilled artisan will further appreciate that the structural bridge 522, may be either formed from a ridged material, such as a ridged polymer, or from a flexible material, such as a flexible polymer. FIG. 38 shows an exploded view in perspective of the control module 504, of the input device 500, of FIG. 35. The control module 504, includes at least but is not limited to, a tensioning mechanism 546, communicating with the structural bridge 522, by way of a fastening mechanism 548 (also referred to herein as an attachment stay 548), of the tensioning mechanism 546 secured to the structural bridge 522, as shown by FIG. 37. The tensioning mechanism 546, secures the structural bridge 522, to a bottom cover 550, of the control module 504, such that the structural bridge 522, cooperating with the tensioning mechanism 546, snugly accommodates the length 513 (of FIG. 36), of the computing device 506 (of FIG. 36). In a preferred embodiment, the bottom cover 550, provides an attachment boss 552, supporting a position guide 554, and the tensioning mechanism 546, includes at least, but not limited to, the attachment boss 552, communicating with the structural bridge 522, an attachment support 556, cooperating with the attachment boss 552. Preferably, the attachment support 556, in cooperation with the attachment boss 552, confines the structural bridge 522 vertically, but permits lateral movement of the structural bridge 522, relative to the bottom cover 550. Preferably, the structural bridge 522, is disposed between the bottom cover 550, and a top cover 558, which cooperates with the bottom cover 450, to facilitate lateral movement of a portion of the structural bridge 522. Preferably, a biasing structure 560, communicating the attachment stay 548 (of FIG. 37), provides variable tension between the structural bridge 522, and the second control module 504, thereby accommodating a predetermined amount of lateral movement of the structural bridge 522, relative to the bottom cover 550, as shown by FIG. 37. As shown by FIG. 37, in a preferred embodiment, the attachment stay 548, includes at least, but not limited to, a guide aperture 562, which is preferably slotted, interacting with the position guide 554, of the attachment boss 552 (of FIG. 38). The interaction of the guide aperture 562, with the position guide 554, limits the extent of lateral alignment between the structural bridge 522, and the control modules (502, 504). As further shown by FIG. 38, in a preferred embodiment, the attachment support 556, further supports a plurality of control switches 564, interacting with a circuit structure 566, which preferably is a flex circuit 566, and the biasing structure 560, is preferably a coiled spring 460. In a preferred embodiment, the structural bridge 522, provides a width 525, less than its length 527, as shown by FIG. 37, and the back of the computing device 506, extending above and below the width 525, of the structural bridge 522. Returning to FIG. 36, in a preferred embodiment, the input device 500, includes an auxiliary power source 529, and an auxiliary data storage device 531, which preferably includes a cache portion 533. Preferably, the auxiliary power source 529, is a lithium ion battery, which provides power to the input device 500, and the computing device 506, when the power source of the computing device 506 is depilated; and the auxiliary data storage device 531 is preferably a solid state hard drive. FIG. 39 shows a further embodiment of the electronic gaming system 511, in which the input device 500, provides a keyboard module 535, and in which the keyboard module 535, passes signals to the computing device 506, the signals control images displayed on the display screen 537, of the computing device 506. FIG. 40 shows a still further embodiment of the electronic gaming system 511, in which the input device 500, provides the keyboard module 535, and in which the keyboard module 535, passes signals to the computing device 506, the signals control images displayed on the display screen 537, of the computing device 506. FIG. 40 further shows that the communication link 519, via the communication module 521, is further configured to communicate with a second display 541 wirelessly. That is the second display 541, is remote from and mechanically disassociated from the electronic display screen 537, of the computing device 506. Continuing with FIG. 40, preferably each control module (502, 504) provides a directional control device 543. In a preferred embodiment, each direction control device 543, is configured to facilitate a first position adjacent the top cover 558, of control module 504, or a first position adjacent a top cover 545, of control module 502, and a second position, the second position displaced a predetermined vertical distance away from the first position. Further in the preferred embodiment, each directional control module 543 is a joystick. FIG. 41 discloses the electronic game control apparatus 400 (also referred to herein as an input device 400), which in a preferred embodiment provides the first control module 402, the second control module 404, and the structural bridge 422, which collectively secures the computing device 418. In a preferred embodiment, a back of the structural bridge 422, supports a touch sensitive control module 544, which in a preferred embodiment is a touch screen 544. FIG. 42 discloses the electronic game control apparatus 400 (also referred to herein as an input device 400), which in a preferred embodiment provides the first control module 402, the second control module 404, and the structural bridge 422, which collectively secures the computing device 418. In a preferred embodiment, a back 427, of the second control module, supports the touch sensitive control module 544, which in a preferred embodiment is a touch screen 544. FIG. 43 discloses the electronic game control apparatus 500 (also referred to herein as an input device 500), which in a preferred embodiment provides the first control module 502, the second control module 504, and the structural bridge 522. In a preferred embodiment, a back of the structural bridge 522, supports a touch sensitive control module 546, which in a preferred embodiment is a touch screen 546. FIG. 44 discloses the electronic game control apparatus 500 (also referred to herein as an input device 500), which in a preferred embodiment provides the first control module 502, the second control module 504, and the structural bridge 522. In a preferred embodiment, a back side of the second control module 504, supports the touch sensitive control module 546, which in a preferred embodiment is a touch screen 546. It is to be understood that even though numerous characteristics and configurations of various embodiments of the present invention have been set forth in the foregoing description, together with details of the structure and function of various embodiments of the invention, this detailed description is illustrative only, and changes may be made in detail, especially in matters of structure and arrangements of parts within the principles of the present invention to the full extent indicated by the broad general meaning of the terms in which the appended claims are expressed. For example, the particular elements may vary depending on the particular computing device without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In a preferred embodiment, a combination includes at least, but is not limited to, a computing device, the computing device providing a plurality of sides, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen of the computing device and a back of the computing device, an input device interacting with the computing device, and a communication link. The input device communicates with the computing device and providing a pair of control modules adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides of the computing device. The communication link facilitating communication between the pair of control modules and the computing device. The input device further provides a structural bridge securing the pair of control modules one to the other, and a touch sensitive input module. The touch sensitive module is preferably a touch screen, which relays instructions to the computing device to alter an image displayed on the electronic display. The structural bridge adaptively and snugly accommodates the length of the computing device by way of a retention mechanism of a first of the pair of control modules. The retention mechanism adaptively secures the structural bridge such that the pair of control modules snugly accommodates the length of the computing device. | A63F1324 | 20170728 | 20171107 | 20171116 | 80700.0 | A63F1324 | 1 | YEN, JASON TAHAI | GAME CONTROLLER WITH STRUCTURAL BRIDGE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A63F | 2,017 |
|
15,663,125 | PENDING | LIGHT EMITTING DEVICE | The present invention relates to a light emitting device comprising a transparent substrate which light can pass through and at least one LED chip emitting light omni-directionally. Wherein the LED chip is disposed on one surface of the substrate and the light emitting angle of the LED chip is wider than 180° , and the light emitted by the LED chip will penetrate into the substrate and at least partially emerge from another surface of the substrate. According to the present invention, the light emitting device using LED chips can provide sufficient lighting intensity and uniform lighting performance. | 1. A light-emitting apparatus comprising: a lamp housing defining a geometric center axis; a first light-emitting device comprising a first substrate with a first front surface, a first rear surface opposite to the first front surface, and a first side surface extending between the first front surface and the first rear surface, and a first light-emitting diode chip disposed on the first front surface; and a second light-emitting device comprising a second substrate with a second front surface, a second rear surface opposite to the second front surface, and a second side surface extending between the second front surface and the second rear surface, and a second light-emitting diode chip disposed on the second front surface; wherein the first side surface and the second side surface are arranged to point toward the geometric center axis. 2. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a first wavelength conversion layer covering the first front surface and a second wavelength conversion layer covering the second front surface. 3. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 2, wherein the first substrate comprises a first end portion and a second end portion not covered by the first wavelength conversion layer. 4. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 2, wherein the first side surface is not covered by the first wavelength conversion layer, the second side surface is not covered by the second wavelength conversion layer. 5. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first light-emitting diode chip is capable of emitting light capable of penetrating into the first substrate from the first front surface and emerging from the first rear surface. 6. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 5, wherein the first rear surface is not covered by any wavelength conversion layer. 7. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 5, wherein the first rear surface and the second rear surface are arranged in substantially opposite directions. 8. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, wherein the lamp housing is transparent. 9. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, wherein the lamp housing is arranged to partially seal the light-emitting device. 10. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, wherein the lamp housing is arranged to directly contact the light-emitting device. 11. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a lamp base connected to the lamp housing. 12. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first light-emitting device further comprises a conductor formed on the first front surface and electrically connected to the first light-emitting diode chip. 13. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 12, wherein the first light-emitting diode chip is connected to the conductor by a wire. 14. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, wherein the first light-emitting device further comprises a reflector formed on the first rear surface. 15. The light-emitting apparatus of claim 1, wherein the lamp housing is a tube, a bulb or a box. | FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention relates to a light emitting device comprising semiconductor light emitting diode (LED) chips, and particularly to a light emitting device comprising at least one LED chip which emits light omni-directionally, and a light emitting apparatus using same. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION In the field of lighting technology, the development trends for light sources are low cost, environmental friendliness, and power saving in order to acquire better lighting performance under the condition of consuming less power. These trends make LEDs play an important role in the development. Practically, there are still limitations and challenges for applying LEDs or similar light emitting units to lamps for lighting. In the past, using LEDs as a light source called for depositing multiple LED chips on a plane and further providing an optical reflection mechanism to guide or broadcast the light emitted from the LED chips emitting light directionally in the beginning. This kind of arrangement described above was not appropriate to substitute for traditional lamps with wide lighting angles. Because only a portion of light generated by the LED chips propagated in the direction of lighting while the other portions were absorbed or lost during the reflection processes, the lighting efficiency was low and the number of the LED chips must be increased for compensation and meeting the brightness requirement for lighting. Therefore the cost of the tradition LED lamp was high and the benefit for saving energy was insufficient. Moreover, in traditional LED lamps, the substrates on which LED chips were deposited were planar, firm, and opaque. Thereby, the flexibility of disposing LED chips was limited. For example, when the substrates were non-planar, the light generated by the LED chips deposited on the substrates would be shielded or blocked accordingly, which was unfavorable for reducing power consumption and costs of traditional LED lamps. SUMMARY An objective of the present invention is to provide a light emitting device with high reliability, high lighting efficiency, and low cost. Another objective of the present invention is to provide a light emitting apparatus comprising multiple light emitting devices arranged symmetrically or asymmetrically for enhancing the light intensity of the light emitting apparatus. Meanwhile, the lighting uniformity for various directions can be maintained and the required light shapes can be provided. Still another objective of the present invention is to provide a light emitting apparatus comprising a lamp housing for applying to lamps, signboards or backlight units. Accordingly, for achieving the objectives described above, the present invention discloses a light emitting device comprising a transparent substrate which light can pass through and at least one LED chip comprising multiple light emitting surfaces and emitting light omni-directionally. Wherein the substrate has a support surface on which the LED chip is disposed, and one of the light emitting surfaces of the LED chip and the support surface form an illuminant first main surface. Because the light emitting angle of the LED chip is wider than 180° , the light emitted by the LED chip will penetrate into the substrate and at least partially emerge from a second main surface corresponding to the first main surface of the substrate. According to the present invention, the light emitting device using LED chips can provide sufficient lighting intensity and uniform lighting performance. Additionally, the number and the arrangement of the substrates of the present invention can be modified for adjusting brightness, so the light emitting device has more flexibility for various applications. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIGS. 1A˜1B show structural schematic diagrams of the light emitting device according to the embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 2A˜2C show schematic diagrams of the light emitting device comprising the LED chip in various forms coupled to the conductors according to the embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 3A˜3B show schematic diagrams of the light emitting device comprising the wavelength conversion layer according to the embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 4 shows a schematic diagram of the light emitting apparatus comprising the support base according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 5A˜5D show top views of the arrangement of the light emitting device deposited on the support mechanism of the light emitting apparatus point- or line-symmetrically according to the embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 6 shows a schematic diagram of the light emitting device comprising the LED chips with light emitting surfaces according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 7 shows a schematic diagram of the light emitting apparatus comprising the circuit board according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 8A˜8B show schematic diagrams of the light emitting apparatus comprising the lamp housing according to the embodiments of the present invention; FIG. 9 shows a cross-sectional view of the light emitting apparatus for application according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 shows a schematic diagram of the light emitting apparatus comprising the reflector according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 11 shows a schematic diagram of the light emitting apparatus comprising diamond-like carbon film according to one embodiment of the present invention; FIGS. 12A˜12C show schematic diagrams of the light emitting apparatus according to the embodiments of the present invention; FIGS. 13A˜13B show schematic diagrams of the light emitting apparatus according to the embodiments of the present invention; and FIGS. 14A˜14D show schematic diagrams of the light emitting apparatus for various applications according to the embodiments of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, the first embodiment of the present invention discloses a light emitting device 1 comprising a transparent substrate 2 which light can pass through, a support surface 210, a first main surface 21, a second main surface 22, and at least one LED chip 3 emitting light omni-directionally. Wherein the number of the LED chips 3 deposited on the support surface 210 of the sheet-shaped substrate 2 according to the embodiment is 9, and the embodiment arranges the LED chips 3 as a 3×3 matrix. The LED chip 3 comprises multiple light emitting surfaces, and one of the light emitting surfaces 34 and the support surface 210 form the illuminant first main surface 21 of the light emitting device 1. Because the light emitting angle of the LED chip 3 is wider than 180°, at least a portion of light emitted from the LED chip 3 will penetrate into the substrate 2 from the support surface 210 and pass through the substrate 2. Then the incident light in the substrate 2 will at least partially emerge from the second main surface 22 and/or the first main surface 21 of the light emitting device 1. The material of the substrate 2 can be aluminum oxide, sapphire containing aluminum oxide, glass, plastics, or rubber. According to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a sapphire substrate is adopted for its essentially single crystal structure and better light transmissivity. In addition, it has superior capability in heat dissipation, which can extend the lifetime of the light emitting device 1. However, traditional sapphire substrates have the problem of cracking when being assembled with other units of the light emitting apparatus. In order to solve this reliability problem, the thickness of the substrate 2 of the present invention should be greater than or equal to 200 μm as verified by experiments for practical applications. Moreover, according to the present invention, the difference between color temperatures of the light emerging from the first main surface 21 and the light emerging from the second main surface 22 is set equal to or smaller than 1500K by adjusting the parameters of the substrate 2, thickness or composition for example, or phosphor deposited thereon. Therefore, the light emitting device 1 of the present invention has an overall consistent lighting performance. According to another embodiment of the present invention, the light transmissivity of the substrate 2 is set greater than or equal to 70% when the range of the wavelength of the incident light is 420-470 nm with the thickness of the substrate 2 being the value described above. As shown in FIGS. 2A˜2C, there are further embodiments of the present invention. For acquiring power for emitting light, an LED chip 3 of a light emitting device according to the present invention includes a first electrode 31 and a second electrode 32 coupled electrically with a first conductor 23 and a second conductor 24 located on the substrate 2 respectively. More particularly, FIG. 2A shows a lateral type LED chip 3 deposited on the substrate 2 and coupled with the conductors 23, 24 by wire bonding; FIG. 2B shows a flip-chip type LED chip 3 deposited on the substrate 2 and coupled with the conductors 23, 24 by chip bonding wherein the conductors are circuit patterns on the substrate 2. FIG. 2C shows an LED chip 3 having the electrodes 31, 32 disposed on both sides of the epitaxial layers 33 respectively, and the LED chip 3 is vertically deposited on the substrate 2 with the edges of the electrodes 31, 32 connected to the conductors 23, 24. As shown in FIGS. 3A˜3B, there are further embodiments of the present invention. A light emitting device 1 according to the present invention further includes a wavelength conversion layer 4, which is disposed on a first main surface 21 or/and a second main surface 22 of the light emitting device 1. Alternatively, the wavelength conversion layer 4 can be disposed on an LED chip 3 directly (not shown in the figures). According to the embodiments of the present invention as shown in the figures, the wavelength conversion layers 4 including at least one kind of fluorescent powder receive at least a portion of light emitted from the main surfaces 21, 22 and convert to the light with different wavelength. According to one embodiment shown in FIG. 3A, one of the wavelength conversion layers 4 encapsulates and contacts the LED chip 3 directly. According to another embodiment shown in FIG. 3B, one of the wavelength conversion layers 4 covers the LED chip 3 and forms a space between the wavelength conversion layer 4 and the substrate 2 for receiving/converting at least a portion of the light emitted by the LED chip 3 to the light with different wavelength. For example, when the LED chip 3 emits blue light the wavelength conversion layer 4 converts a portion of the blue light to yellow light. Then the light emitting device 1 will eventually emit white light by mixing the blue light and the yellow light. Additionally, the space can be filled with other materials like epoxy, air, phosphor, etc., according to various optics and reliability requirements. The intensity of the light from the first main surface 21 is slightly different from the intensity of the light from the second main surface 22. In addition, as described earlier, the further embodiment of the present invention is to set the difference in color temperatures of the emerging light equal to or smaller than 1500K. Additionally, according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the ratio of the quantity of the fluorescent powder in the wavelength conversion layer 4 on the first main surface 21 to that on the second main surface 22 is 1:0.5 to 1:3, or other values in order to improve the wavelength conversion efficiency and the light emitting performance of the light emitting device 1. As shown in FIG. 4, a light emitting apparatus of the present invention comprises a light emitting device 1 as described in the previous embodiments and a support base 5. Wherein the substrate 2 couples to the support base 5 for forming a light emitting apparatus 11, and there is a first angle θ1 between the substrate 2 and the support base 5. The first angle θ1 is adjustable according to the required light shape of the light emitting apparatus. According to a preferred embodiment, the first angle θ1 ranges from 30° to 150°. As shown in FIGS. 5A˜5D, a light emitting apparatus 11 according to further embodiments of the present invention further comprises multiple light emitting devices 1 for enhancing the brightness and meeting different light shape requirements. Users can dispose the light emitting devices 1 comprising a plurality of substrates 2 on a support mechanism 50 such as the support base 5 at the same time. The arrangement can be symmetrical or asymmetrical. The preferred arrangement is to dispose the multiple substrates 2 point-symmetrically or line-symmetrically on the support mechanism 50, so that the light emission of the overall light emitting apparatus 11 can be uniform. (The LED chips 3 are omitted in the figures.) Particularly, the shape of the support mechanism 50 can be a polygon, square, rectangle or regular hexagon for example, or circle or even a hollow circle or a hollow polygon for various applications. According to another embodiment, at least a portion of multiple light emitting devices 1 is disposed concentratively or dispersively in an asymmetrical manner for meeting the requirement for the light shapes of the light emitting apparatus 11 in various applications (not shown in the figures). In the present invention, the support base 5 or the support mechanism 50 can be a multi-functional base for supporting, supplying power, connecting, and dissipating heat simultaneously. The support bases 5 or the support mechanism 50 can comprise such materials as metal, ceramic, glass, plastics, resin or PCB (printed circuit board), just like the base or the socket of a traditional commercial bulb. According to a preferred embodiment, the support base 5 or the support mechanism 50 comprise a flexible metal compound. As shown in FIG. 6, one of the light emitting surfaces 34 of the LED chip 3 is the exposed surface in the structure essentially parallel to the support surface 210 of the substrate 2. According to one of the preferred embodiments of the present invention, the area of the first main surface 21 or the second main surface 22 shall be at least five times the total area of the plurality of light emitting surfaces 34 or the single area of the light emitting surface 34. Then there will be preferred area utilization rate, light emitting and heat dissipation efficiencies of the light emitting device 1. As shown in FIG. 7, the light emitting apparatus 11 of the present invention can further comprise a circuit board 6 on the support base 5 for coupling with an internal or external power supply. The circuit board 6 couples to the first and second conductors 23, 24 on the substrate 2 (not shown in the figure) for connecting electrically with the LED chips 3 and supplying the power required for emitting light. The circuit board 6 can also be integrated with the support base 5, therefore the LED chips 3 can be connected electrically with the support base 5 through the first and second conductors 23, 24 (not shown in the figure). Thereby, power can be directly provided to the LED chips 3 via the support base 5. As shown in FIGS. 8A-9 and 14A-14D, in order to prevent pollution, corrosion, or wear on the substrate 2 and the LED chips 3 from ambient particles such as dust and moisture, the light emitting apparatus according to further embodiments of the present invention further comprises a lamp housing 7. The lamp housing 7 couples to the support base 5 or the support mechanism 50 and at least partially covers the substrate 2, wherein the form of the lamp housing 7 can be a tube, a bulb, or a box. Furthermore, the wavelength conversion layer 4 described above can be disposed optionally on the lamp housing 7. FIG. 8A shows a schematic diagram of a light emitting apparatus 11 according to an embodiment of the present invention. The light emitting apparatus 11 here is a tube, wherein the lamp housing 7 is a transparent tubular structure. Then the light emitting device 1 and the support mechanism 50 are disposed therein. In FIG. 8A, a single light emitting device 1 is disposed therein. As shown in FIG. 8B, when two or more light emitting devices 1 are disposed in the lamp housing 7, the first main surfaces 21 of the plurality of light emitting devices 1 can be arranged as mutually unparallel. In addition, at least a portion of the light emitting device 1 is disposed in the room formed by the lamp housing 7 and not tightly close to the inner walls of the lamp housing 7. According to a preferred embodiment, there is a distance D greater than 500 μm between the light emitting device 1 and the lamp housing 7. The lamp housing 7 can also be formed by molding, making the light emitting device 1 at least partially sealed and directly contacted by the lamp housing 7. According to another embodiment of the present invention, the light emitting apparatus 11 is a light box as shown in FIG. 9. The lamp housing 7, which is used as a signboard in this case, has at least one surface 71 mainly used for printing advertisements. Then the light provided by the first and second main surfaces 21, 22 of the light emitting device 1 according to the present invention form the backlight for the surface 71. The light emitting devices 1 can further be inclined or rotatable with a second angle θ2 relative to the surface 71, wherein the second angle θ2 is set between 0° to 45°. (In this case shown in FIG. 9, θ2, is 0° and hence not shown.) According to a preferred embodiment, there is a distance D greater than 500 μm between the light emitting device 1 and the lamp housing 7. As described above, the lamp housing 7 can also be formed by molding, making the light emitting device 1 at least partially sealed and directly contacted by the lamp housing 7. According to still another embodiment of the present invention, as shown in FIG. 10, the light emitting device 1 further comprises a reflector 8 disposed on the second main surface 22. The reflector 8 can reflect at least a portion of the light emitted from the second main surface 22 of the substrate 2 and increase the light emitted from the first main surface 21. This reflector 8 can include, but is not limited to, at least one metal layer or one Bragg reflector comprising stacked multiple layers of dielectric thin films with different refractive indices. As shown in FIG. 11, the light emitting device 1 can further comprise diamond-like carbon (DLC) films 9 disposed optionally on the support surface 210 and the second main surface 22 for improving heat conduction and dissipation effects. As shown in FIGS. 12A to 14D, there are some embodiments of the light emitting apparatus 11 according to the present invention. According to embodiments of the present invention shown in FIGS. 12A and 12B, the support base 5 can further comprise at least one slot or recess to form a socket or adapter 51, and correspondingly the substrate 2 can further comprise at least one guide pin or finger connector to connect with the adapter 51 on the support base 5. Wherein the conductors on the substrate 2 couple with electrodes of the support base 5 correspondingly through the mechanism described above. More particularly, when the substrate 2 comprises dual guide pins as shown in FIG. 12B, the polarity of the conductor on one of the guide pins can be different from the other conductor on another guide pin. There is also an embodiment as shown in FIG. 12C that the substrate 2 can be bonded with the support base 5 directly, wherein the bonding material used between the substrate 2 and the support base 5 can be selected from at least one element of the group comprising gold, tin, indium, bismuth, silver, conductive silicone and epoxy resin. Additionally, the substrate 2 and the top surface of the support base 5 form a first angle θ1 wherein the lighting effect of the light emitting apparatus according to the present invention can be changed accordingly. According to embodiments of the present invention shown in FIGS. 13A to 14B, the support base 5 can further comprise at least one support 52 coupling with at least one light emitting device 1 of the present invention. As shown in FIGS. 13A and 13B, there are at least two supports 52 spaced from each other wherein the support 52 can be integrated with the support base 5 or an individual component. Then the substrates 2 are coupled to the supports 52 by bonding layers 53, therefore the conductors 23, 24 on the substrate 2 can connect electrically to the power source accordingly. Further more, the substrates 2 can be disposed face-to-face as shown in FIG. 13A, back-to-back as shown in FIG. 13B, or face-to-back (not shown) for different lighting effects. Wherein the substrates 2 and the top surface of the support base 5 from the first angle θ1 wherein the lighting effect of the light emitting apparatus according to the present invention can be changed accordingly. Furthermore, the support 52 can be flexible, retractable, or rotatable therefore the lighting effect of the light emitting apparatus according to the present invention can be adapted to various applications. As shown in FIGS. 14A to 14D, the light emitting apparatus 11 according to the embodiments shown in FIGS. 13A to 13B further comprises a lamp housing 7 and a lamp base 54. Wherein the support base 5 is disposed on the lamp base 54 and covered by the lamp housing 7, and the lamp housing 7 is connected with the lamp base 54. Furthermore, the lamp base 54 can be integrated with the support base 5. More particularly, the lamp base 54 in FIG. 14A can be connected with socket for traditional bulb so that the light emitting apparatus of the present invention can directly replace the traditional bulb. More particularly, the lamp base 54 in FIG. 14B can be a board like member of the light emitting apparatus 11 for different applications like a projector, a decoration wall, or an operating lamp according to the present invention. More particularly, the light emitting apparatus 11 according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 14C further comprises a wavelength conversion layer 4 disposed on the lamp housing 7, wherein the wavelength conversion layer 4 is disposed on the inner side of the lamp housing 7. Therefore, at least a portion of the light emitted from the light emitting device 1 can be converted to the light of another wavelength before leaving the lamp housing 7. More particularly, the light emitting apparatus 11 according to the embodiment shown in FIG. 14D further comprises an additional lamp housing 7, forming a double-layer lamp housing 7 for changing the decorative patterns and colors conveniently. The foregoing description is only embodiments of the present invention, not used to limit the scope and range of the present invention. Those equivalent changes or modifications made according to the shape, structure, feature, or spirit described in the claims of the present invention are included in the appended claims of the present invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In the field of lighting technology, the development trends for light sources are low cost, environmental friendliness, and power saving in order to acquire better lighting performance under the condition of consuming less power. These trends make LEDs play an important role in the development. Practically, there are still limitations and challenges for applying LEDs or similar light emitting units to lamps for lighting. In the past, using LEDs as a light source called for depositing multiple LED chips on a plane and further providing an optical reflection mechanism to guide or broadcast the light emitted from the LED chips emitting light directionally in the beginning. This kind of arrangement described above was not appropriate to substitute for traditional lamps with wide lighting angles. Because only a portion of light generated by the LED chips propagated in the direction of lighting while the other portions were absorbed or lost during the reflection processes, the lighting efficiency was low and the number of the LED chips must be increased for compensation and meeting the brightness requirement for lighting. Therefore the cost of the tradition LED lamp was high and the benefit for saving energy was insufficient. Moreover, in traditional LED lamps, the substrates on which LED chips were deposited were planar, firm, and opaque. Thereby, the flexibility of disposing LED chips was limited. For example, when the substrates were non-planar, the light generated by the LED chips deposited on the substrates would be shielded or blocked accordingly, which was unfavorable for reducing power consumption and costs of traditional LED lamps. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>An objective of the present invention is to provide a light emitting device with high reliability, high lighting efficiency, and low cost. Another objective of the present invention is to provide a light emitting apparatus comprising multiple light emitting devices arranged symmetrically or asymmetrically for enhancing the light intensity of the light emitting apparatus. Meanwhile, the lighting uniformity for various directions can be maintained and the required light shapes can be provided. Still another objective of the present invention is to provide a light emitting apparatus comprising a lamp housing for applying to lamps, signboards or backlight units. Accordingly, for achieving the objectives described above, the present invention discloses a light emitting device comprising a transparent substrate which light can pass through and at least one LED chip comprising multiple light emitting surfaces and emitting light omni-directionally. Wherein the substrate has a support surface on which the LED chip is disposed, and one of the light emitting surfaces of the LED chip and the support surface form an illuminant first main surface. Because the light emitting angle of the LED chip is wider than 180° , the light emitted by the LED chip will penetrate into the substrate and at least partially emerge from a second main surface corresponding to the first main surface of the substrate. According to the present invention, the light emitting device using LED chips can provide sufficient lighting intensity and uniform lighting performance. Additionally, the number and the arrangement of the substrates of the present invention can be modified for adjusting brightness, so the light emitting device has more flexibility for various applications. | H01L250753 | 20170728 | 20171116 | 81909.0 | H01L25075 | 1 | PATEL, ASHOK | LIGHT EMITTING DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H01L | 2,017 |
|
15,663,171 | ACCEPTED | GAME CONTROLLER WITH STRUCTURAL BRIDGE | A device directed to a combination computing and input device. The computing device providing a plurality of sides, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen and a back of the computing device. The input device communicates with the computing device and provides a pair of control modules adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides of the computing device. The input device further provides a structural bridge securing the pair of control modules one to the other, and a touch sensitive input module. The structural bridge adaptively and snugly accommodate the length of the computing device. A first of the pair of control modules features a retention mechanism communicating with the structural bridge. The retention mechanism adaptively secures the structural bridge such that the pair of control modules snugly accommodate the length of the computing device. | 1. A combination comprising: a computing device, comprising an electronic display screen; a pair of confinement structures, the pair of confinement structures interacting with the computing device and adjacent at least two opposing sides, but not more than three sides of the sides of the computing device, the at least two opposing sides support the electronic display screen, each of the pair of confinement structures comprising a communication link, each of the communication links configured for electronic communication with the computing device; a ridged structural bridge disposed between the pair of confinement structures, the ridged structural bridge comprising a passageway between the pair of confinement structures, the passageway promotes electrical communication between the communication link of a first confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures and the computing device, the passageway further promotes electrical communication between the communication link of a second confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures and the computing device; a fastening mechanism, the fastening mechanism secures the first confinement structure to the ridged structural bridge, the fastening mechanism further secures the second confinement structure to the ridged structural bridge; and a pair of control modules, each control module of the pair of control modules interacting with a corresponding confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures, each control module in electronic communication with the communication link of its corresponding confinement structure, each of the pair of control modules providing input module apertures, each input module aperture secures an instructional input device, wherein said input module apertures are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the computing device, and wherein the input device is a separate and distinct structure from the pair of confinement structures, forming no structural portion of the pair of confinement structures, and in which each of the pair of confinement structures are separate and distinct structures from the structural bridge, forming no structural portion of the structural bridge. 2. The combination of claim 1, in which the rigid structural bridge supports electronics associated with the computing device. 3. The combination of claim 2, in which the computing device further comprising a back, the back provides an internal surface, an external surface cooperates with the least two opposing sides of the computing device. 4. The combination of claim 3, in which the rigid structural bridge cooperates with the back of the computing device. 5. The combination of claim 4, in which the rigid structural bridge cooperating with the back of the computing device is adjacent to the external surface of the back of the computing device. 6. The combination of claim 4, in which each control module of the pair of control modules passes signals through its corresponding communication link to the computing device, the signals passed to the computing device controlling images displayed on the electronic display screen of the computing device. 7. The combination of claim 6, in which each control module of the pair of control modules is a game control module, and in which each game control module passes signals through its corresponding communication link to the computing device, the signals control images displayed on the electronic display screen of the computing device. 8. (canceled) 9. The combination of claim 2, in which the electronics supported by the rigid structural bridge is a communication module associated with the computing device. 10. (canceled) 11. (canceled) 12. The combination of claim 2, in which the rigid structural bridge, the pair of confinement structures, and the fastening mechanism form a communication port. 13. A combination comprising: a computing device, the computing device provides an electronic display screen, the computing device having a length greater than its width; an input device in electronic communication with the computing device, the input device providing a pair of control modules, the pair of control modules adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides, the at least two opposing sides adjacent the electronic display screen and define end points of the length of the computing device, the pair of control modules adapt to and are in pressing contact with said end points of the length of the computing device, while the width of the computing device extends above and below the confines of the pair of control modules; a structural bridge securing the pair of control modules one to the other, the structural bridge configured such that the structural bridge adapts to and is adjacent a back of the computing device, wherein a first of the pair of control modules comprising a retention mechanism communicating with the structural bridge, and wherein the retention mechanism secures the structural bridge to the first of the pair of control modules, such that the structural bridge accommodates the length of the computing device, and in which the structural bridge provides a void in the mid-section of the structural bridge, the void having right, left, upper, and lower sides, each side communicating with a material of the structural bridge; and a communication link, the communication link facilitates communication between the pair of control modules and the computing device, and wherein the structural bridge masks a mid-portion of the back of the computing device. 14. The device of claim 13, in which the first of the pair of control modules further comprises a bottom cover, the bottom cover provides a position guide, and in which the retention mechanism comprises: a attachment boss communicating with the structural bridge; an attachment support cooperating with the attachment boss, the attachment support in cooperation with the attachment boss secures the structural bridge, the structural bridge disposed between the attachment boss and the attachment support; and a biasing structure communicating with the attachment support, the biasing structure provides tension between the structural bridge and the second of the pair of control modules. 15. The device of claim 14, in which the attachment support comprises a guide aperture interacting with the position guide, the interaction of the guide aperture with the position guide maintains alignment between the structural bridge and the second of the pair of control modules. 16. (canceled) 17. (canceled) 18. The device of claim 14, in which the input device is a game control module, and in which the game control module passes signals to the computing device, the signals control images displayed on the electronic display screen of the computing device. 19. The device of claim 14, in which the input device provides a keyboard module, and in which the keyboard module passes signals to the computing device, the signals control images displayed on the electronic display screen of the computing device. 20. The device of claim 14, in which the structural bridge is a flexible structure. 21. A combination comprising: a first control module of a pair of control modules, and a second control module of the pair of control modules each the first and the second control modules comprising a plurality of input module apertures, each input module aperture supports an instructional input device, each the first and the second control modules further comprising a fastening detent; and a structural bridge disposed between said first and second control module, said structural bridge comprising a first side, said first side of said structural bridge in contact adjacency with said first control module, said structural bridge further comprising a second side, said second side of said structural bridge in contact adjacency with said first control module, said structural bridge still further comprising a retention member, the retention member interacts with the fastening detent, the interaction of the fastening detent with the retention member secures the structural bridge to the pair of control modules. 22. The combination of claim 21, further comprising a computing device, the computing device comprising an upper, lower, left and right side, collectively the sides of the computing device, the computing device disposed between and in contact adjacency with each the first and second control modules of the pair of control modules, the pair of control modules engaging the computing device on at least two opposing sides, but not more than three sides of the sides of the computing device, said pair of control modules are separate and distinct structures from the computing device. 23. The combination of claim 22, in which the structural bridge is a rigid structural bridge, the rigid structural bridge comprising a signal pathway for use in passing signals from each said first and second control modules. 24. The combination of claim 23, in which the computing device further comprising a back, the back provides an internal surface, an external surface, and upper, lower, left and right sides, collectively the sides of the back of the computing device, the back of the computing device cooperating with the sides of the computing device, and in which the rigid structural bridge cooperates with the back of the computing device. 25. The combination of claim 24, in which said signal pathway of said rigid structural bridge is an optical conductor. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/457,571 filed Mar. 13, 2017, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/840,184 filed Aug. 31, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/611,804 filed on Feb. 2, 2015, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,126,119 issued on Sep. 8, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/681,153 filed on Nov. 19, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,944,912 issued on Feb. 3, 2015, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/494,801 filed on Jun. 12, 2012, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,005,026 issued on Apr. 14, 2015, which in turn claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent application Ser. No. 61/577,709 filed on Dec. 20, 2011. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In a preferred embodiment, a combination includes at least, but is not limited to, a computing device, the computing device providing a plurality of sides, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen of the computing device and a back of the computing device, an input device interacting with the computing device, and a communication link. The input device communicates with the computing device and providing a pair of control modules adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides of the computing device. The communication link facilitating communication between the pair of control modules and the computing device. The input device further provides a structural bridge securing the pair of control modules one to the other, and a touch sensitive input module. The touch sensitive module is preferably a touch screen, which relays instructions to the computing device to alter an image displayed on the electronic display. The structural bridge adaptively and snugly accommodates the length of the computing device by way of a retention mechanism of a first of the pair of control modules. The retention mechanism adaptively secures the structural bridge such that the pair of control modules snugly accommodates the length of the computing device. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an embodiment an electronic game control apparatus constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed. FIG. 2 shows a back plan view of the apparatus of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 displays a right side plan view, with partial cutaway, of the apparatus of FIG. 1, constructed in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 4 depicts a right side plan view of the apparatus of FIG. 1, constructed in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 5 illustrates a top perspective view of an embodiment of an input device of FIG. 1, constructed in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an embodiment of the apparatus of FIG. 1. FIG. 7 is a block diagram of an alternate embodiment of the apparatus of FIG. 1. FIG. 8 displays a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of a combination electronic game control and information input device constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 9 depicts a back plan view of the combination of FIG. 8. FIG. 10 illustrates a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternate embodiment of a combination electronic game control and information input device constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 11 shows a top perspective view of an embodiment of an input device with an integrated point of sale device, the input device is constructed in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 12 displays a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternate embodiment of a combination electronic game control and information input device, the information input device provides the integrated point of sale device. FIG. 13 displays a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternative embodiment of a combination computing device and electronic game control, the electronic game control includes a pair of control modules linked one to the other by a bridge member. FIG. 14 shows a back plan view of the combination computing device and electronic game control of FIG. 13. FIG. 15 illustrates a top perspective view of the alternative embodiment of the combination computing device and electronic game control of FIG. 13. FIG. 16 shows a back plan view of an alternative combination computing device with a communication port secured thereon, and an input device attached to the communication port. FIG. 17 shows a top plan view of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 18 shows a side view in elevation of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 19 shows front and back views in elevation of a first selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 20 shows front and back views in elevation of a second selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 21 shows a bottom plan view of a first control module adjacent to a selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 22 shows a bottom plan view of a first control module secured to a selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 23 shows a side views in elevation of a first control module secured to a selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 24 shows a view in perspective of a fastening mechanism of the communication port of FIG. 16. FIG. 25 shows a back plan view of the combination computing device and electronic game control of FIG. 16 revealing, in cutout, a data storage device and an auxiliary power source. FIG. 26 shows a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternate embodiment of an electronic game control apparatus constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 27 shows an exploded view in perspective of a first control module of an input device of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26. FIG. 28 shows an exploded view in perspective of a second control module of the input device of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26. FIG. 29 shows a back perspective view of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26. FIG. 30 shows a front perspective view of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, configured to accommodate computing devices of varying size. FIG. 31 shows a back perspective view of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, configured to accommodate computing devices of varying size. FIG. 32 shows a front perspective view of the second control module of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, with a computing devices of maximum size staged to engage the first control module. FIG. 33 shows a front perspective view of the second control module of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, with the computing devices of maximum size commencing engagement with the first control module. FIG. 34 shows a front perspective view of the second control module of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 26, with the computing devices of maximum size fully engaged with the first control module. FIG. 35 shows a front view of an alternative embodiment of an electronic game control apparatus constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 36 shows a front view of an alternative embodiment of an electronic game control apparatus, and a front perspective view of a computing device, which interfaces with the electronic game control apparatus to form an electronic gaming system. FIG. 37 shows a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of the alternative embodiment of then electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 36, constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. FIG. 38 shows an exploded view in perspective of a control module of the input device of the electronic game control apparatus of FIG. 37. FIG. 39 shows a front view of the alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 36, with a keyboard integrated into the control module of FIG. 38. FIG. 40 shows a front view of the alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 39, interacting with wirelessly with a display. FIG. 41 shows a back view of the alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 37, with a touch sensitive module attached to a back side of the structural bridge of the electronic gaming controller. FIG. 42 shows a back view of an alternate, alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 37, with a touch sensitive module attached to a back side of one of the control modules of the electronic gaming controller. FIG. 43 shows a back view of the alternate, alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 35, with a touch sensitive module attached to a back side of the structural bridge of the electronic gaming controller. FIG. 44 shows a back view of an alternate, alternative embodiment of the electronic gaming system of FIG. 35, with a touch sensitive module attached to a back side of the control module of the electronic gaming controller. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present disclosure generally relates to a combination game controller and information input device directed to controlling electronic games and entry of information to a computing device, also referred to herein as video games, computer and applications games. The apparatus preferably includes a computing device, an electronic game communicating with the computing device, and an input device for controlling movement of a virtual object provided by the electronic game, and entry of information into the computing device. In a preferred embodiment, the input device includes a pair of opposing side structures adjacent opposing sides of plurality of sides of the computing device. The input device further preferably includes a plurality of input switches, wherein said input switches are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides of the computing device, and a bridge structure disposed between the pair of sides to form a three sided structure. The third structure mitigates inadvertent removal of the computing device from the three sided structure when the computing device is fully nested within the three sided structure. Turning to the drawings, FIG. 1 provides an exemplary game controller and information entry device (“G&D”) 100 capable of being used in accordance with various embodiments of the present invention. The exemplary G&D 100 has at least a computing device 102 (also referred to herein as a computing device 102), which provides a plurality of sides, such as 104, 106, 108, and 126. Each of the plurality of sides 104, 106, and 108 are disposed between an electronic display screen 110, of the computing device 102, and a back 112 (shown by FIG. 2) of the computing device 102 operates. The G&D 100 further preferably includes an input device 114. The computing device 102 may take the form of a tablet computer, smart phone, notebook computer, or other portable computing device, In a preferred embodiment, the input device 114 provides a pair of side structures, 116 and 118, with a bridge structure 115 disposed there between. One of the pair of side structures, for example 116, is adjacent to and confines the computing device 102 on a first side, such as 104 of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126 of the computing device 102. The second side structure of the pair of side structures, such as 118, is adjacent to and confines the computing device 102 on a second side, such as 108, of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126 of the computing device 102, wherein the first and second sides, such as 104 and 108, of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126 of the computing device 102 are opposing sides of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126, of the computing device 102. In a preferred embodiment, the input device 114 further provides a plurality of removable game control modules 120 and 122, wherein the removable game control modules 120 and 122 are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides 104 and 108, of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126, of the computing device 102, and a bridge structure 124, disposed between the pair of side structures 116 and 118, and adjacent the third side 126, of the plurality of sides 104, 106, 108, and 126, of the computing device 102. In a preferred embodiment, the removable game control modules 120 and 122 may be removed from the input device 114, and replaced by removable keyboard modules 164 and 166, of FIG. 8. To facilitate the exchange of modules, the input device preferably provides a pair of input module apertures 170. The removable keyboard modules collectively form a full function keyboard and each provide an auxiliary electronic display screen (“ADS”) 168, each ADS 168 having at least the functionality of the electronic display screen 110. In an alternate embodiment, shown by FIG. 10, the removable keyboard modules 164 and 166 are a pair of touch responsive electronic display screens 172 and 174, each of the touch responsive electronic display screens having at least the functionality of the electronic display screen 110, include the functionality of a mouse pad portions 176 and 178, and selectively presents keys of a keyboard 180 and 182 for information entry. Preferably, the keys are virtual keys that respond to a touch by a user. Returning to FIG. 1, preferably, the bridge structure 124 in combination with the pair of side structures 116 and 118 form a three sided structure 128 (of FIG. 5) (also referred to herein as a u-shaped structure 128 of the input device 114), in which the computing device 102 nests, such that the computing device 102 is confined by the u-shaped structure 128, and the u-shaped structure 128 mitigates inadvertent removal of the computing device 102 from the u-shaped structure 128 when the computing device 102 is fully nested within the three sided structure 128. The G&D 100 of FIG. 1, further preferably includes a video game 130. Preferably, the video game 130 provides a virtual object 132 displayed by the electronic display screen 110, the virtual object 132 is responsive to input from the input device 114. An example of a response of the virtual object 132 would be movement of the virtual object 132, or the loading of an alternate computer game, based on a predetermined signal provided by the input device 114, or an appearance of a character. It is noted that FIG. 1 displays the housings of the plurality of switches, whereas at least some of the plurality of switches are shown in the partial cutaway of FIG. 3. FIG. 2 depicts and reveals the back 112 of the computing device 102. Further shown by FIG. 2, is the input device 114, which provides a pair of trigger switches 136 and 138, supported by their corresponding side structures 116 and 118 respectively. FIG. 3 shows that a predetermined number of the plurality of switches 140, collaborate with each other to form an input apparatus 142, the input apparatus 142 controls display of virtual objects displayed on the electronic display screen 110 of the computing device 102. Preferably, the input apparatus 142 is a joystick 142. FIG. 3 further shows that the input device 114 provides a plurality of buttons 144 and 119 of the removable game control modules 120, which activate corresponding switches 145 and 121. The main function of the trigger 138, the joystick 142, and the buttons 144 and 119 of the removable game control modules 120 is to govern the movement/actions of a playable body/object or otherwise influence events in a video game 130 (of FIG. 1) or an alternate computer game. FIG. 4 shows the G&D 100, further includes a second joystick 146, and a second button 148, which are provided on the side structure 116, adjacent the trigger 136. While FIG. 5 shows the central processing unit (CPU) 150, of the input device 114. FIG. 6 shows the input device 114 includes the CPU 150, interacting with the plurality of switches 152, which preferably include at least switches 119 of the removable game control modules 120 (of FIG. 1), switches 117 of the removable game control modules 122 (of FIG. 1), 136, 138, 142, 144, 146, and 148 (of FIGS. 2 and 3). FIG. 6 further shows the input device 114 includes a communications protocol 154 providing the communication link between the computing device 102, and the input device 114. In a preferred embodiment, a Universal Serial Bus (USB) communications protocol is utilized. However, as those skilled in the art will recognize, the communications protocol 154 is not limited to a USB protocol. FIG. 6 further shows that the computing device 102 preferably includes at least a CPU 156, interacting with the electronic display screen 110, the video game 130, a device driver 158, which facilitates the interaction between the computing device 102 and the input device 114, and a communications protocol 160 providing the communication link between the computing device 102, and the input device 114. In a preferred embodiment, a Universal Serial Bus (USB) communications protocol is utilized. However, as those skilled in the art will recognize, the communications protocol 160 is not limited to a USB protocol. FIG. 7 shows an alternative embodiment of an exemplary game controller 162, in which the device driver 158 and the video game 130 are located in the input device 114. FIG. 8 shows in a preferred embodiment, the G&D 100 includes a first camera 184, on a first side of the computing device 102, a second camera 186, on the back side of the computing device 102 (shown by FIG. 9), a third camera 188 on a first side of the input device 114, and a fourth camera 190 on the back side of the input device 114 (shown by FIG. 9). In a preferred embodiment, each of the four cameras may selectively function independently, or may be used in conjunction with one another, and each of the four cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190 are fully functional in capturing still and video images. Additionally, and preferably, the first and second cameras 184 and 186 are fully operative, even when the computing device 102 is detached from the input device 114, while the third and fourth cameras 188 and 190 are fully functional, even when the input device 114 is detached from the computing device 102. In a preferred embodiment, when the computing device 102 is nested in the input device 114, the first and second cameras, 184 and 186, are responsive, either independently or simultaneously, to input from either the computing device 102, or the input device 114, depending on which device is selected for control of the first and second cameras, 184 and 186. Further, in the preferred embodiment, each the computing device 102 and the input device 114, are configured with a Bluetooth protocol stack communication feature, which permits the user to operate the first and second cameras, 184 and 186, of the computing device 102 with the input device 114, even when the computing device 102 is detached from the input device 114. Likewise, when the computing device 102 and the input device 114 are configured with a Bluetooth protocol stack communication feature, the user may operate the third and fourth cameras, 188 and 190, of the input device 114, using the computing device 102. In other words, in the preferred embodiment, each of the four cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190, may be selectively operated, individually or collectively, whether or not the computing device 102 is nested within the input device 114. FIG. 9 shows that in a preferred embodiment, the input device 114 includes an auxiliary power source 192, and an auxiliary data storage device 194, which preferably includes a cache portion 196. Preferably, the auxiliary power source 192 is a lithium ion battery, which provides power to the input device 114, and the computing device 102, when the power source of the computing device 102 is depilated; and the auxiliary data storage device 194 is a solid state hard drive. In the preferred embodiment, the cache 196 is sized to buffer synchronized input from each of the cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190, such that the auxiliary data storage device 194 may store and retrieve images, still or video, for display seamlessly, including a simultaneous output of video images recorded by each of the cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190. In a non-limiting exemplary application of utilizing the cameras 184, 186, 188, and 190, the first camera 184 could be trained on an information presenter, while the second camera 186 is trained on a portion of an audience attending the presentation. The third camera 188 could be trained on a screen used by the presenter for presenting their information to the audience, while the fourth camera is trained on an alternate portion of the audience. By simultaneously replaying the recorded presentation, a response of the audience to the information, and sequence of information being presented, may be analyzed for fostering improvements to the presentation. FIG. 11 shows an alternative embodiment of a video game controller 200, which provides an integrated transaction card input feature 202. Preferably, the integrated transaction card input feature 202, includes a transaction card slot 204, and a transaction card reader 206. In a preferred embodiment, the transaction card reader 206 is a magnetic strip reader, but as those skilled in the art will recognize, the transaction card reader can be, in the alternate: is an optical character recognition reader; a barcode reader; an object recognition reader, or a pattern recognition reader. FIG. 12 shows that in a preferred embodiment, a combination computing device and electronic game controller with an integrated point of sale device 210 preferably includes a computing device 212, having a plurality of sides 214, each of the plurality of sides 214, are disposed between an electronic display screen 216, of the computing device and a back 218 of the computing device, and an input device 220, in electronic communication with the computing device 212. The input device 220 preferably provides side structures 222, adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 214 of the computing device 212. The input device 220, further preferably provides input module apertures 224, each input module aperture 224, selectively accepts either a game control module, such as 102 and 122 of FIG. 1, or a removable keyboard module, such as 226 and 228. Preferably, the input module apertures 224 are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 214 of the computing device 212. FIG. 12 further shows that in a preferred embodiment, the combination computing device and electronic game controller with an integrated point of sale device 210 preferably includes a camera 230, communicating with each the input device 220, and the computing device 212. The camera 230, selectively captures either still or video images, and that the input device 220, further provides an integrated transaction card input feature 232, which interacts with a transaction card 234, and that preferably, the input device is an electronic game controller 220. Preferably, the camera 230 is a first camera, having a lens facing the user while the user is facing the electronic display screen 216, and includes at least a second camera, such as 186 or 190 (of FIG. 9), having a lens facing in a direction opposite that of the first camera 184. FIG. 12 additionally shows an application 236, displayed on the electronic display screen 216, of the computing device 212. Preferably, the application 236, displayed on the electronic display screen 216 of the computing device 212, is a point of sale transactional computer application, which interacts with the electronic game controller 220 and the computing device 212. FIG. 13 shows an alternative embodiment of a combination computing device and electronic game control 240 (also referred to herein as a device 240). The computing device 242, preferably provides a plurality of sides 244, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen 246, of the computing device 242, and a back 248 of the computing device 242. Preferably, the electronic game controller 250 (also referred to herein as input device 250), is in electronic communication with the computing device 242. Preferably, the input device 250 provides a pair of control modules 252. The pair of control modules 252, are adjacent to and confining the computing device 242, on at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 244, of the computing device 242. The pair of control modules 252 preferably provide input module apertures 254, each input module aperture 254, secures an instructional input device 256. Preferably, the input module apertures 254 are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 244, of the computing device 242. FIG. 14 shows the back 248, of the computing device 242, and the computing device 242, partially positioned within the input device 250. FIG. 14 further shows a structural bridge 258, securing the pair of control modules 252, one to the other, and communicating with the back 248, of the computing device 242, at a mid-region 260, of the back 248, of the computing device 242. FIG. 14 further shows that the pair of control modules 252 provide a confinement boss 262, and the confinement boss 262 provides a fastening detent 264. The fastening detent 264 interacts with a retention member 266, to secure the structural bridge 258, to the pair of control modules 252. In a preferred embodiment, the retention member 266 is responsive to a catch 268, which preferably is a spring activated catch 268, and the retention member 268 is preferably a spring loaded retention member 268. Still further, FIG. 14 shows that in a preferred embodiment, the structural bridge 258 provides a communication link 270, which passing signals between the pair of control modules 252. Continuing with FIG. 14, in a preferred embodiment, the communication link 270, provides a communication module 272, and in the alternative, provides a signal pathway 274, for use in passing signals between the pair of control modules 252. In a preferred embodiment, the communication module 272 is a wireless communication module 272, which operates in a frequency range of 2.4 GHz. In an alternate preferred embodiment, the wireless communication module 272 is a personal area network. As those skilled in the art, a personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computerized devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink). A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a PAN carried over wireless network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, Wireless USB, Z-Wave, ZigBee, or even Body Area Network. The reach of a WPAN varies from a few centimeters to a few meters. A PAN may also be carried over wired computer buses such as USB and FireWire. In an embodiment that utilizes the signal pathway 274, as the communication link, the signal pathway 274 may be in the form of a metallic conductor, a fiber optic conductor, a conductive polymer, or the conductive layer of a flex circuit. The skilled artisan will further appreciate that the structural bridge 258 (of FIG. 14), or 276 (of FIG. 15) may be either formed from a ridged material, such as a ridged polymer, or from a flexible material, such as a flexible polymer. In a preferred embodiment, when a flexible material is selected, and the signal pathway 274 is a wired pathway, the signal pathway 274 may be coupled externally to the structural bridge 276, as shown by FIG. 15. FIG. 15 further shows that in a preferred embodiment, the instructional input device 256, may be an electronic game control module 278 (which may be either removable, or fixed), or a keyboard module 280 (of FIG. 13, which may be either removable, or fixed). FIG. 16 shows a back plan view of an alternative combination 300, which preferably includes, but is not limited to, a computing device 302 that provides a plurality of sides 304, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen 306 (of FIG. 13) of the computing device and a back 308 of the computing device 302. Preferably, the alternative combination 300 further includes a communication port 310, interacting with the computing device 302. In a preferred embodiment, the communication port 310 provides a communication link 312 (which for purposes of illustration is shown as a wired connection 314, but will be understood to be a wireless connection in an alternative embodiment). Preferably, the communication port 310 further provides a pair of confinement structures 316, the pair of confinement structures 316, which are preferably adjacent to and confining the computing device 302 on at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 304 of the computing device 302. The alternative combination 300, further preferably includes an input device 318 (also referred to herein as input device 114), attached to and in electronic communication with the communication port 310. The input device 318 providing a pair of control modules 252, the pair of control modules 252 providing input module apertures 224 (of FIG. 12), each input module aperture 224 secures an instructional input device 356 (of FIG. 23), or such as 120 of FIG. 11, or 256 of FIG. 13. Preferably, the input module apertures 224, are adjacent each of the at least two opposing sides of the plurality of sides 304, of the computing device 302, and wherein the input device 356, or such as 120 of FIG. 11, or 256 of FIG. 13, is a separate and distinct structure from the communication port 310, forming no structural portion of the communication port 310. FIG. 16 further shows that in a preferred embodiment, the communication port 310 further includes a fastening mechanism 320. In one embodiment, a soft draw latch, such as that provided by Southco, of 210 N. Brinton Lake Road Concordville, Pa. 19331, have been shown to be a useful fastening mechanism 320. FIG. 17 shows a top view of the communication port 310 that preferably includes a structural bridge 322, securing the pair of confinement structures 316, one to the other. The structural bridge 322 is preferably secured to a select confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316 by way of a solid connection 324, and to remaining confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316 by way of a slip fit 326. The fastening mechanism 320, is preferably securely fastened to to a conduit 328, of the structural bridge 322, by way of a anchor member 330, the anchor member 330 is preferably positioned in a location adjacent the slip fit 326, and by way of an attachment member 332 (shown in FIG. 18), securely attached to the remaining confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316. The attachment member 332 is preferably positioned in a location adjacent the slip fit 326. Operation of the fastening mechanism 320 facilitates an expand and contract of the distance between the pair of confinement structures 316. The expansion and contraction of the distance between the pair of confinement structures 316, facilitates placement of the computing device 302 between the pair of confinement structures 316, the application of sufficient compressive load being placed on the computing device 302 to securely hold the computing device between the pair of confinement structures 316, and an ability to remove the compressive load and allow removal of the computing device from the communication port 310. FIG. 17 further shows that each of the pair of confinement structures 316, provide a pair of controller docking pins 334, while FIG. 18 shows that each of the pair of confinement structures 316 further provide a computing device cradle 336, and that a select confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316 provides a computing device interface feature 338. The interface feature 338, facilitates at least, but not limited to, the provision of power to the computing device 302. FIG. 19 shows a front view 340, of a first selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, which reveals a plurality of signal input lands 342 for use in receiving signals from the input device 318, of FIG. 16, and the pair of controller docking pins 334. Further shown by FIG. 19, is a back view 344 of the first selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, which reveals computing device interface feature 338, the computing device cradle 336, and the slip fit 326. FIG. 20 shows a front view 346, of a second selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, which reveals a plurality of signal input lands 342 for use in receiving signals from the input device 318, of FIG. 16, and the pair of controller docking pins 334. Further shown by FIG. 20, is a back view 348 of the second selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, which reveals, the computing device cradle 336, and the solid connection 324. FIG. 21 reveals, for purposes of disclosure and for consistency of views with remaining disclosed figures of an embodiment, a bottom right hand plan view of the input device 318 adjacent the second selected confinement structure of the pair of confinement structures 316, of the communication port 310. Preferably, the control module 252, provides an attachment structure 350, cooperating with the controller docking pins 334, of the communication port 310. The attachment structure 350, secures the input device 318, to the communication port 310. In a preferred embodiment, the attachment structure 350 provides a sliding locking toggle 352, and a fixed locking toggle 354. In the embodiment presented, the sliding locking toggles, 352, interact with the controller docking pins 334, to securely (but removable) fasten the input device 318 to the communication port 310. In a preferred embodiment, the sliding locking toggle 352 is selectively adjustable from an open position, shown in dashed lines, and a closed, or locked position, as shown in solid lines. FIG. 22 shows the input device 318, securely fastened to the communication port 310, by way of the attachment structure 350, while FIG. 23 shows the right control module 252, of the input device 318, with its accompanying attachment structure 350 in a locked position, and the special relationship of the control module 252, relative to the confinement structure 316. FIG. 23 further shows an instructional input device 356, such as 120 of FIG. 11, or 256 of FIG. 13, which in a preferred embodiment is a removable instructional input device 356. FIG. 24 provides a more insightful presentation of a latch portion 358, of the fastening mechanism 320, relative to the attachment member 332, of the fastening mechanism 320. FIG. 25 shows that in a preferred embodiment, the input device 318, includes an auxiliary power source 360, and an auxiliary data storage device 362, which preferably includes a cache portion 364. FIG. 26 shows a front perspective view, with partial cutaway, of an alternate embodiment an electronic game control apparatus 400 (also referred to herein as an input device 400), constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. The input device 400 includes, but is not limited to, a first control module 402, and a second control module 404. The control modules (402, 404) are adjacent to and confine a computing device 406 (of FIG. 30) on at least two opposing sides 408 and 410 (each of FIG. 30), of the plurality of sides of the computing device 406. In a preferred embodiment, the computing device 406 has a length 412, greater than its width 414, as shown by FIG. 30. The pair of control modules (408, 410) are preferably configured such that the pair of control modules (408, 410) adaptively and snugly accommodate the width 414, of the computing device 406. Alternatively the pair of control modules (408,410) adaptively and snugly accommodate a width 416 (of FIG. 30), of a second computing device 418 (of FIG. 30). Preferably, the width 416, of the second computing device 418, is greater than the width 414, of the computing device 406, and preferably, the second computing device 418, has a length 420 (of FIG. 30) greater than the width 414, of the second computing device 418. Preferably, the input device further provides a structural bridge 422, which secures the pair of control modules (402, 404), one to the other. The structural bridge 422 is preferably configured such that the structural bridge 422, adaptively and snugly accommodate the length 412, of the computing device 406. Alternatively, the structural bridge 422, adaptively and snugly accommodate the length 420, of the second computing device 418. Preferably, the length 420 of the second computing device 418 is greater than the length 412, of the computing device 406. Without limitations imposed upon the accompanying claims, in a preferred embodiment, the structural bridge 422, is formed from a flexible material, such as a flexible polymer, or alternatively, from a semi-ridge material, such as a semi-ridged polymer, fiber glass, metallic sheet material, carbon fiber, or other materials known to artisans skilled in the art. FIG. 27 shows an exploded view in perspective of the first control module 402, of the input device 400, of FIG. 26. The first control module 402, of the pair of control modules (402, 404), preferably includes at least, but is not limited to, a retention mechanism 424, communicating with the structural bridge 422 (of FIG. 26), wherein the retention mechanism 424, secures the structural bridge 422 such that the structural bridge 422, adaptively accommodates the length of the computing device 406. Alternatively, the structural bridge 422 adaptively accommodates the length 420, of the second computing device 418. In a preferred embodiment, the length 420 of the second computing device 418 is greater than the length 412, of the computing device 406. FIG. 27 further shows that the first control module 402 provides a base 426, which provides an adjustment feature 428. And preferably, the retention mechanism includes at least, but is not limited to, a boss 430, communicating with the structural bridge 422, and an adjustment structure 432, interacting with the boss 430, by way of the adjustment feature 428. In a preferred embodiment, the base 426 is disposed between the adjustment structure 432, and the boss 424. The first control module 402, preferably provides a restraint 434, cooperating with the boss 430. As shown by FIG. 29, the restraint 434, retains the structural bridge 422, in a first position 436, relative to the base 426, when the adjustment structure 432, is activated in a first direction 438, relative to the base 426. When positioned in the first position 436, the structural bridge 422, accommodates the second computing device 418, as more clearly shown in FIG. 30. The adjustment structure 432, further retains the structural bridge 422, in a second position 440, relative to the base 426, when the adjustment structure 432, is activated in a second direction 442, relative to the base 426. When positioned in the second position 440, the structural bridge 422, accommodates the first computing device 406, as shown by FIG. 30. To accommodate the first position 436, and the second position 440, preferably the boss 432 provides a constraint feature 444, which cooperates with the base 426. The constraint feature 444, maintains the structural bridge 422, in the first position 436, relative to the base 426, following an activation of the adjustment structure 432, in the first direction 438. The constraint feature 444, further maintains the structural bridge 422, in the second position 440, relative to the base 426, following an activation of the adjustment structure 432, in the second direction 442. The second direction 442 is a direction opposite that of the first direction 438, and in the preferred embodiment, the restraint 434, is a spring member. FIG. 28 shows an exploded view in perspective of the second control module 404, of the input device 400, of FIG. 26. The second control module 404, includes at least but is not limited to, a tensioning mechanism 446, communicating with the structural bridge 422, by way of a fastening mechanism 448 (also referred to herein as an attachment stay 448), of the tensioning mechanism 446 secured to the structural bridge 422, as shown by FIG. 26. The tensioning mechanism 446, secures the structural bridge 422, to a bottom cover 450, of the second control module 404, such that the structural bridge 422, cooperating with the tensioning mechanism 446, snugly accommodates the length 412 (of FIG. 30), of the computing device 406 (of FIG. 30). Alternatively, the tensioning mechanism 446, secures the structural bridge 422 to the bottom cover 450, of the second control module 404, such that the structural bridge 422, cooperating with the tensioning mechanism 446, snugly accommodates the length 420 (of FIG. 30) of the second computing device 418 (of FIG. 30). In a preferred embodiment, the length 420, of the second computing device 418, is greater than the length 412, of the computing device 406. In a preferred embodiment, the bottom cover 450, provides a position guide 454, and the tensioning mechanism 446, includes at least, but not limited to, the attachment boss 452, communicating with the structural bridge 422, an attachment support 456, cooperating with the attachment boss 452. Preferably, the attachment support 456, in cooperation with the attachment boss 452, confines the structural bridge 422 vertically, but permits lateral movement of the structural bridge 422 relative to the bottom cover 450. Preferably, the structural bridge 422, is disposed between the bottom cover 450, and a top cover 458, which cooperates with the bottom cover 450, to facilitate lateral movement of a portion of the structural bridge 422, from its position associated with the first position 432 (of FIG. 29) of the the adjustment structure 432 (of FIG. 29), to its position associated with the second position 440 (of FIG. 29) of the adjustment structure 432, while a biasing structure 460, communicating with the attachment stay 448 (of FIG. 26), provides variable tension between the structural bridge 422, and the second control module 404, thereby accommodating a predetermined amount of lateral movement of the structural bridge 422, relative to the bottom cover 450, as shown by FIG. 26. In a preferred embodiment, the attachment stay 448, includes at least, but not limited to, a guide aperture 462, which is preferably slotted, interacting with a position guide 454, of the attachment boss 452. The interaction of the guide aperture 462, with the position guide 454, limits the extent of lateral alignment between the structural bridge 422, and the second control module 404. As further shown by FIG. 28, in a preferred embodiment, the attachment support 456, further supports a plurality of control switches 464, interacting with a circuit structure 466, which preferably is a flex circuit 466, the biasing structure 460, is a coiled spring 460. Preferably, each of the pair of control modules 402 of FIGS. 27 and 404 of FIG. 28, include at least, but not limited to, a sizing mechanism 468, communicating with a computing device 406 (of FIG. 30), else a second computing device 418 (of FIG. 30). In a preferred embodiment, the sizing mechanism 468 is configured such that the sizing mechanism 468 adaptively accommodate the width 414, of the computing device 406. Alternatively the sizing mechanism 468, adaptively accommodate the width 416, of the second computing device 418. In a preferred embodiment, the width 416, of the second computing device 418, is greater than the width 414, of the computing device 406. As shown by FIG. 27, the control module 402 includes the base 426, which provides a sizing toggle confinement structure 470, and a slide support confinement structure 472. Preferably, the sizing mechanism 468 includes at least, but is not limited to, a sizing toggle 474, communicating with the sizing toggle confinement structure 472, a sizing toggle restraint 476, interacting with the sizing toggle confinement structure 472, the sizing restraint 476, promotes rotation of the sizing toggle 474, relative to the base 426. In a preferred embodiment, the sizing mechanism further includes a torsional force structure 478, cooperating with the base 426, and acting on the sizing toggle 474. The torsional force structure 478, facilitating the sizing toggle 474, in a first position under a first torsional force. When in the first position, the sizing toggles 474 extend vertically from the base 450, and the control module 402 is configured to accommodate the width 410, of the computing device 406. Alternatively, the torsional force structure 478, facilitating the sizing toggle 474, in a second position under a second torsional force. When in the second position, the sizing toggles 474, lies nested in the sizing toggle confinement structure 472, and horizontal the base 450, and the control module 402 is configured to accommodate the width 416, of the second computing device 418. Preferably, the second torsional force is greater than the first torsional force, and the width 416, of the second computing device 418, is greater than the width 414, of the computing device 406. In a preferred embodiment, the control module 402 further provides a computing device slide pad 480, nested in the slide support confinement structure 472. The computing device slide pad 480 is configured to deliver minimal sliding friction between the computing device 406, or the second computing device 418, and the control module 402, when inserting either computing device (406, 418) into the control module 402. Likewise, the sizing toggle 474 is configured to deliver minimal sliding friction between the computing device 406, or the second computing device 418, and the control module 402, when inserting either computing device (406, 418) into the control module 402. Preferably, the torsional force structure 478, is a coiled spring, and the sizing toggle confinement structure 470, provides a friction surface 482, which mitigates an inadvertent movement of the sizing toggle 474, from the first position to the second position when the computing device 406, is constrained by the input device 400. Turning to FIG. 31, shown therein are FIGS. 31a and 31b. As can be seen by FIG. 31a, the control modules (402, 404), and the structural bridge 422, of input device 400, are positioned, relative to one another, to accommodate the computing device 406 (of FIG. 30). While as can be seen by FIG. 31b, the control modules (402, 404), and the structural bridge 422, of input device 400, are positioned, relative to one another, to accommodate the second computing device 418, of FIG. 30. FIGS. 32, 33, and 34 collectively illustrate a preferred procedure to join the second computing device 418, with the control module 404. The first step in the procedure is to align the second computing device 418, with the control module 404, such that the corner of the second computing device 418, is adjacent the sizing toggle 474 as shown by FIG. 32. The next step in the procedure is to advance the second computing device 418, into contact with the sizing toggle 474, and continue to advance the second computing device 418, into the control module 404, which causes the sizing toggle 474, to rotate into the sizing toggle confinement structure 470, thereby permitting the second computing device 418 to be adaptively and snuggly accommodated by the control module 404. FIG. 35 shows a front view of an alternate embodiment of an electronic game control apparatus 500 (also referred to herein as an input device 500), constructed and operated in accordance with various embodiments disclosed and claimed herein. The input device 500 includes, but is not limited to, a first control module 502, and a second control module 504. The control modules (502, 504) are adjacent to and confine a computing device 506 (of FIG. 36) on at least two opposing sides 508 and 510 (each of FIG. 36), of the plurality of sides of the computing device 506. Collectively, and when joined together, by way of a structural bridge 522, the input device 500, and the computing device 506, form an electronic gaming system 511, as shown in FIG. 36. In a preferred embodiment, the control module 504, incorporates the eternal mechanisms and features of the control module 404, of FIGS. 26 and 28, including the tensioning mechanism 446, but absent the sizing mechanism 468. While the control module 502, incorporates the eternal mechanisms and features of the control module 402, of FIGS. 26 and 27, but absent the adjustment feature 428, and the sizing mechanism 468. Accordingly, the input device 500 can accommodate computing devices of varying length and width by incorporating the tensioning mechanism 446, into control module 504, to accommodate a length 513, of the computing device 560, and configuring the control modules (502, 504) to allow the sides (508, 510) of the computing device 506, to protrude, or extend beyond the confines of a length 515, of the control modules (502, 504), in a vertical direction along a width 517, of the computing device 506. In a preferred embodiment, as shown by FIG. 35, the structural bridge 522, secures the pair of control modules (502, 504) one to the other. Preferably, the structural bridge 522, is configured such that the structural bridge 522, adaptively and snugly accommodate the length 513, of the computing device 506, as shown in FIG. 36. In a preferred embodiment, as shown by FIG. 37, the control module 504, includes at least, but is not limited to, a tensioning mechanism 546, communicating with the structural bridge 522. Preferably, the tensioning mechanism 546, secures the structural bridge 522, such that the structural bridge snugly accommodate the length 513 (of FIG. 36), of the computing device 506 (of FIG. 36). In a preferred embodiment, as shown by FIG. 35, a communication link 519, is provided by the input device 500, which facilitating communication between the pair of control modules (502, 504) and the computing device 506 (of FIG. 36), and, as shown by FIG. 35, the structural bridge 522, masks a mid-portion of the back of the computing device. Continuing with FIG. 35, in a preferred embodiment, the communication link 519, provides a communication module 521, and in the alternative, provides a signal pathway 523, for use in passing signals between the pair of control modules (502, 504). In a preferred embodiment, the communication module 521, is a wireless communication module 521, which operates in a frequency range of 2.4 GHz. In an alternate preferred embodiment, the wireless communication module 521, is a personal area network. As those skilled in the art, a personal area network (PAN) is a computer network used for communication among computerized devices, including telephones and personal digital assistants. PANs can be used for communication among the personal devices themselves (intrapersonal communication), or for connecting to a higher level network and the Internet (an uplink). A wireless personal area network (WPAN) is a PAN carried over wireless network technologies such as IrDA, Bluetooth, Wireless USB, Z-Wave, ZigBee, or even Body Area Network. The reach of a WPAN varies from a few centimeters to a few meters. A PAN may also be carried over wired computer buses such as USB and FireWire. In an embodiment that utilizes the signal pathway 523, as the communication link 519, the signal pathway 523, may be in the form of a metallic conductor, a fiber optic conductor, a conductive polymer, or the conductive layer of a flex circuit. The skilled artisan will further appreciate that the structural bridge 522, may be either formed from a ridged material, such as a ridged polymer, or from a flexible material, such as a flexible polymer. FIG. 38 shows an exploded view in perspective of the control module 504, of the input device 500, of FIG. 35. The control module 504, includes at least but is not limited to, a tensioning mechanism 546, communicating with the structural bridge 522, by way of a fastening mechanism 548 (also referred to herein as an attachment stay 548), of the tensioning mechanism 546 secured to the structural bridge 522, as shown by FIG. 37. The tensioning mechanism 546, secures the structural bridge 522, to a bottom cover 550, of the control module 504, such that the structural bridge 522, cooperating with the tensioning mechanism 546, snugly accommodates the length 513 (of FIG. 36), of the computing device 506 (of FIG. 36). In a preferred embodiment, the bottom cover 550, provides an attachment boss 552, supporting a position guide 554, and the tensioning mechanism 546, includes at least, but not limited to, the attachment boss 552, communicating with the structural bridge 522, an attachment support 556, cooperating with the attachment boss 552. Preferably, the attachment support 556, in cooperation with the attachment boss 552, confines the structural bridge 522 vertically, but permits lateral movement of the structural bridge 522, relative to the bottom cover 550. Preferably, the structural bridge 522, is disposed between the bottom cover 550, and a top cover 558, which cooperates with the bottom cover 450, to facilitate lateral movement of a portion of the structural bridge 522. Preferably, a biasing structure 560, communicating the attachment stay 548 (of FIG. 37), provides variable tension between the structural bridge 522, and the second control module 504, thereby accommodating a predetermined amount of lateral movement of the structural bridge 522, relative to the bottom cover 550, as shown by FIG. 37. As shown by FIG. 37, in a preferred embodiment, the attachment stay 548, includes at least, but not limited to, a guide aperture 562, which is preferably slotted, interacting with the position guide 554, of the attachment boss 552 (of FIG. 38). The interaction of the guide aperture 562, with the position guide 554, limits the extent of lateral alignment between the structural bridge 522, and the control modules (502, 504). As further shown by FIG. 38, in a preferred embodiment, the attachment support 556, further supports a plurality of control switches 564, interacting with a circuit structure 566, which preferably is a flex circuit 566, and the biasing structure 560, is preferably a coiled spring 460. In a preferred embodiment, the structural bridge 522, provides a width 525, less than its length 527, as shown by FIG. 37, and the back of the computing device 506, extending above and below the width 525, of the structural bridge 522. Returning to FIG. 36, in a preferred embodiment, the input device 500, includes an auxiliary power source 529, and an auxiliary data storage device 531, which preferably includes a cache portion 533. Preferably, the auxiliary power source 529, is a lithium ion battery, which provides power to the input device 500, and the computing device 506, when the power source of the computing device 506 is depilated; and the auxiliary data storage device 531 is preferably a solid state hard drive. FIG. 39 shows a further embodiment of the electronic gaming system 511, in which the input device 500, provides a keyboard module 535, and in which the keyboard module 535, passes signals to the computing device 506, the signals control images displayed on the display screen 537, of the computing device 506. FIG. 40 shows a still further embodiment of the electronic gaming system 511, in which the input device 500, provides the keyboard module 535, and in which the keyboard module 535, passes signals to the computing device 506, the signals control images displayed on the display screen 537, of the computing device 506. FIG. 40 further shows that the communication link 519, via the communication module 521, is further configured to communicate with a second display 541 wirelessly. That is the second display 541, is remote from and mechanically disassociated from the electronic display screen 537, of the computing device 506. Continuing with FIG. 40, preferably each control module (502, 504) provides a directional control device 543. In a preferred embodiment, each direction control device 543, is configured to facilitate a first position adjacent the top cover 558, of control module 504, or a first position adjacent a top cover 545, of control module 502, and a second position, the second position displaced a predetermined vertical distance away from the first position. Further in the preferred embodiment, each directional control module 543 is a joystick. FIG. 41 discloses the electronic game control apparatus 400 (also referred to herein as an input device 400), which in a preferred embodiment provides the first control module 402, the second control module 404, and the structural bridge 422, which collectively secures the computing device 418. In a preferred embodiment, a back of the structural bridge 422, supports a touch sensitive control module 544, which in a preferred embodiment is a touch screen 544. FIG. 42 discloses the electronic game control apparatus 400 (also referred to herein as an input device 400), which in a preferred embodiment provides the first control module 402, the second control module 404, and the structural bridge 422, which collectively secures the computing device 418. In a preferred embodiment, a back 427, of the second control module, supports the touch sensitive control module 544, which in a preferred embodiment is a touch screen 544. FIG. 43 discloses the electronic game control apparatus 500 (also referred to herein as an input device 500), which in a preferred embodiment provides the first control module 502, the second control module 504, and the structural bridge 522. In a preferred embodiment, a back of the structural bridge 522, supports a touch sensitive control module 546, which in a preferred embodiment is a touch screen 546. FIG. 44 discloses the electronic game control apparatus 500 (also referred to herein as an input device 500), which in a preferred embodiment provides the first control module 502, the second control module 504, and the structural bridge 522. In a preferred embodiment, a back side of the second control module 504, supports the touch sensitive control module 546, which in a preferred embodiment is a touch screen 546. It is to be understood that even though numerous characteristics and configurations of various embodiments of the present invention have been set forth in the foregoing description, together with details of the structure and function of various embodiments of the invention, this detailed description is illustrative only, and changes may be made in detail, especially in matters of structure and arrangements of parts within the principles of the present invention to the full extent indicated by the broad general meaning of the terms in which the appended claims are expressed. For example, the particular elements may vary depending on the particular computing device without departing from the spirit and scope of the present invention. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In a preferred embodiment, a combination includes at least, but is not limited to, a computing device, the computing device providing a plurality of sides, each of the plurality of sides are disposed between an electronic display screen of the computing device and a back of the computing device, an input device interacting with the computing device, and a communication link. The input device communicates with the computing device and providing a pair of control modules adjacent to and confining the computing device on at least two opposing sides of the computing device. The communication link facilitating communication between the pair of control modules and the computing device. The input device further provides a structural bridge securing the pair of control modules one to the other, and a touch sensitive input module. The touch sensitive module is preferably a touch screen, which relays instructions to the computing device to alter an image displayed on the electronic display. The structural bridge adaptively and snugly accommodates the length of the computing device by way of a retention mechanism of a first of the pair of control modules. The retention mechanism adaptively secures the structural bridge such that the pair of control modules snugly accommodates the length of the computing device. | A63F1324 | 20170728 | 20180102 | 20171116 | 80700.0 | A63F1324 | 1 | YEN, JASON TAHAI | GAME CONTROLLER WITH STRUCTURAL BRIDGE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A63F | 2,017 |
|
15,663,316 | PENDING | POLYAXIAL BONE ANCHOR WITH NON-PIVOTABLE RETAINER AND POP-ON SHANK, SOME WITH FRICTION FIT | A polyaxial bone screw assembly includes a threaded shank body having an integral upper portion receivable in a receiver, the receiver having an upper channel for receiving a longitudinal connecting member and a lower cavity cooperating with a lower opening. The upper portion expands a retaining member in the receiver cavity to capture the shank upper portion in the receiver. In some embodiment either the retaining member or an insert provide for a friction fit of the shank upper portion in the receiver resulting in non-floppy placement of the shank with respect to the receiver. Some retainers and inserts have a lock-and-release feature. Final locking of the polyaxial mechanism is provided by frictional engagement between the shank upper portion and the retaining member. A pre-assembled receiver, retaining member and optional insert may be popped-on or snapped-on to the shank upper portion prior to or after implantation of the shank into a vertebra. | 1. A pivotal bone anchor assembly for anchoring to patient bone and coupling with an elongated implant via a closure, the pivotal bone anchor assembly comprising: a) a shank including a head and a bone engagement portion below the head; b) a receiver including a longitudinal axis, a front surface and a back surface opposite the front surface, the receiver coupled with, or configured to couple with, the head and including: i) first and second upright arms, each upright arm including a radially outward facing surface; ii) a channel between the arms and extending transverse to the longitudinal axis between the front surface and back surface, the channel configured to receive the elongated implant, the channel configured for threaded engagement with the closure in coupling the elongated implant with the pivotal bone anchor assembly; iii) a break-off extension extending from each upright arm; and iv) a tool engagement groove extending horizontally and circumferentially along the radially outward facing surface of each upright arm, each tool engagement groove being located below a top surface of the respective upright arm that exists at least subsequent to the break-off extension having been removed from the respective upright arm; and c) a compression insert that is inside the receiver and is compressed between the elongated implant and the shank when the elongated implant is coupled with the pivotal bone anchor assembly via the closure. 2. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein the threaded engagement with the closure employs a square-shaped thread. 3. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein the threaded engagement with the closure employs a reverse angle thread. 4. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein the tool engagement grooves are undercut. 5. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein the shank is cannulated. 6. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein the compression insert engages the head of the shank when the compression insert is compressed between the elongated implant and shank. 7. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, further comprising a retainer that is located in the receiver and in frictional engagement with the head of the shank prior to the compression insert being compressed between the elongated implant and the shank, the frictional engagement being sufficient to result in non-floppy placement of the shank with respect to the receiver yet allow angular adjustment of the shank with respect to the receiver prior to the compression insert being compressed between the elongated implant and the shank. 8. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 7, wherein the retainer and compression insert are spaced apart from each other in a non-contacting arrangement within the receiver prior to the compression insert being compressed between the elongated implant and the shank. 9. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 7, wherein the retainer is disposed within an internal recess of the receiver before the shank is received in the receiver. 10. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 7, wherein the retainer is resilient. 11. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 10, wherein the retainer includes a slit or slot. 12. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 10, wherein the retainer frictionally engages the head of the shank above a spherical hemisphere of the head. 13. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, further comprising the closure and wherein, when the elongated implant is coupled with the pivotal bone anchor assembly via the closure, the closure engages the elongated implant but does not contact the compression insert. 14. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, further comprising the closure and wherein, when the elongated implant is coupled with the pivotal bone anchor assembly via the closure, the closure engages both the elongated implant and the compression insert. 15. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein the receiver has a cylindrical shape. 16. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein the compression insert is top-loaded into the receiver. 17. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein, when the break-off extensions have been removed from the upright arms and the compression insert is fully compressed between the elongated implant and the shank by application of the closure against the elongated implant, each top surface and each tool engagement groove is uncovered. 18. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein the receiver has an external surface immediately adjacent above and below each tool engagement groove, the external surfaces being cylindrical. 19. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 1, wherein each upright arm has an upper portion and a lower portion below the upper portion, the upper portion having a first length between the front surface and back surface, and the lower portion having a second length between the front surface and back surface, the first length being less than the second length. 20. The pivotal bone anchor assembly of claim 19, wherein the first length extends the top surface of each upright arm. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/924,802, filed Oct. 5, 2010, now U.S. patent Ser. No. ______, which claims the benefit of the following U.S. Provisional patent application Ser. Nos. 61/278,240, filed Oct. 5, 2009; 61/336,911, filed Jan. 28, 2010; 61/343,737 filed May 3, 2010; 61/395,564 filed May 14, 2010; 61/395,752 filed May 17, 2010; 61/396,390 filed May 26, 2010; 61/398,807 filed Jul. 1, 2010; 61/400,504 filed Jul. 28, 2010; 61/402,959 filed Sep. 8, 2010; 61/403,696 filed Sep. 20, 2010; and 61/403,915 filed Sep. 23, 2010, all of which are incorporated by reference herein. This application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/802,849 filed Jun. 15, 2010 that claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/268,708 filed Jun. 15, 2009, both of which are incorporated by reference herein. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to polyaxial bone screws for use in bone surgery, particularly spinal surgery. Bone screws are utilized in many types of spinal surgery in order to secure various implants to vertebrae along the spinal column for the purpose of stabilizing and/or adjusting spinal alignment. Although both closed-ended and open-ended bone screws are known, open-ended screws are particularly well suited for connections to rods and connector arms, because such rods or arms do not need to be passed through a closed bore, but rather can be laid or urged into an open channel within a receiver or head of such a screw. Typical open-ended bone screws include a threaded shank with a pair of parallel projecting branches or arms which form a yoke with a U-shaped slot or channel to receive a rod. Hooks and other types of connectors, as are used in spinal fixation techniques, may also include open ends for receiving rods or portions of other structure. A common mechanism for providing vertebral support is to implant bone screws into certain bones which then in turn support a longitudinal structure such as a rod, or are supported by such a rod. Bone screws of this type may have a fixed head or receiver relative to a shank thereof. In the fixed bone screws, the rod receiver head cannot be moved relative to the shank and the rod must be favorably positioned in order for it to be placed within the receiver head. This is sometimes very difficult or impossible to do. Therefore, polyaxial bone screws are commonly preferred. Open-ended polyaxial bone screws typically allow for a loose or floppy rotation of the head or receiver about the shank until a desired rotational position of the head is achieved by fixing such position relative to the shank during a final stage of a medical procedure when a rod or other longitudinal connecting member is inserted into the head or receiver, followed by a locking screw or other closure. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION A polyaxial bone anchor assembly according to the invention includes a receiver defining a chamber communicating with a channel, the channel sized and shaped for receiving a portion of a longitudinal connecting member. The bone anchor further includes a shank having an upper portion and a retainer located in the chamber, the retainer being expandable in the chamber about the shank upper portion and receiving the upper portion therethrough to capture the upper portion in the chamber. The retainer is in a non-tapered locking engagement with the shank upper portion when the shank is in a locked orientation with respect to the receiver. The bone anchor assembly may include a variety of inserts, including compression inserts that may or may not have a lock and release feature as well as inserts having a super structure to provide a non-floppy friction fit between the insert and the shank upper portion when the shank is not otherwise locked in place with respect to the receiver. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the retainer may have super structure to provide a friction-fit insert. A pre-assembled receiver, retainer and alternative insert may be “pushed-on”, “snapped-on” or “popped-on” to the shank head prior to or after implantation of the shank into a vertebra. Such a “snapping on” procedure includes the steps of uploading the shank head into the receiver lowerer opening, the shank head pressing against the retainer and expanding the resilient retainer portion out into an expansion portion of the receiver cavity followed by return of the retainer back to an original neutral shape thereof after the hemisphere of the shank head or upper portion passes through an open body portion of the retainer. The shank head may also enter into a friction fit super structure of either the retainer or an insert, panels or surfaces of the friction fit portion of the retainer or insert snapping or gripping onto the shank head as or after the retainer returns to a neutral or close to neutral orientation, providing a non-floppy connection between the retainer or insert and the shank head. The friction fit between the shank head and the retainer or insert is temporary. In several of illustrated embodiments, when the shank is ultimately locked between the compression insert and the retainer non-tapered body, the friction fit portions of the retainer or insert typically are no longer in a friction fit engagement with the shank head. The final fixation typically occurs as a result of locking expansion type of contact between the shank head and the expandable retainer and expansion type of engagement between the retainer and the receiver cavity. In some embodiments, when the polyaxial mechanism is locked, an insert or a retainer portion is wedged against a surface of the receiver, allowing for adjustment or removal of the rod or other connecting member without loss of a desired angular relationship between the shank and the receiver. Objects of the invention include providing apparatus and methods that are easy to use and especially adapted for the intended use thereof and wherein the tools are comparatively inexpensive to produce. Other objects and advantages of this invention will become apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein are set forth, by way of illustration and example, certain embodiments of this invention. The drawings constitute a part of this specification and include exemplary embodiments of the present invention and illustrate various objects and features thereof. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an enlarged and partial exploded perspective view of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, a retainer in the form of a spring ring and a compression insert and also shown with a closure top and a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod. FIG. 2 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 1. FIG. 3 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 3-3 of FIG. 2. FIG. 4 is an enlarged top plan view of the receiver of FIG. 1. FIG. 5 is a bottom plan view of the receiver of FIG. 4. FIG. 6 is a side elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 4. FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 7-7 of FIG. 4. FIG. 8 is an enlarged perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 1. FIG. 9 is a top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 8. FIG. 10 is a bottom plan view of the retainer of FIG. 8. FIG. 11 is a front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 8. FIG. 12 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 12-12 of FIG. 9. FIG. 13 is an enlarged perspective view of the compression insert of FIG. 1. FIG. 14 is a front elevational view of the compression insert of FIG. 13. FIG. 15 is a top plan view of the compression insert of FIG. 13. FIG. 16 is a bottom plan view of the compression insert of FIG. 13. FIG. 17 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 17-17 of FIG. 14. FIG. 18 is an enlarged and partial perspective view of the receiver and compression insert of FIG. 1 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in an early stage of assembly. FIG. 19 is an enlarged an partial front elevational view of the receiver, compression insert and retainer of FIG. 1 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to that shown in FIG. 18. FIG. 20 is a partial front elevational view, similar to FIG. 19, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and showing the receiver, compression insert and retainer in a pre-assembled orientation with the compression insert and retainer captured within the receiver. FIG. 21 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 20, illustrating capture of the compression insert within the receiver when the receiver is rotated or otherwise moved. FIG. 22 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the shank of FIG. 1 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof, shown with a driving tool in a stage of implantation in a vertebra. FIG. 23 is a partial front elevational view, similar to FIG. 22 and further showing an early stage of assembly of the shank with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer of FIGS. 20 and 21. FIG. 24 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the shank, receiver, compression insert and retainer of FIG. 1, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to that shown in FIG. 23. FIG. 25 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 24, showing a subsequent stage of assembly. FIG. 26 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 25, showing the shank fully assembled with the receiver, compression insert and retainer and in a position ready to receive the longitudinal connecting member shown in FIG. 1 and further shown with a driving tool in phantom. FIG. 27 is a partial side elevational view of the shank, receiver, compression insert and retainer of FIG. 26, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and further shown with the shank disposed at an angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 28 is an enlarged perspective view of the entire assembly of FIG. 1 shown with the shank at an angle with respect to the receiver as shown in FIG. 27. FIG. 29 is an enlarged and partial side elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 28 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 30 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the entire assembly of FIG. 1 shown with the shank disposed axially aligned with the receiver as shown in FIG. 26 and further shown with a vertebra with portions broken away. FIG. 31 is a partial front elevational view, similar to FIG. 30, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 32 is an enlarged and partial exploded front elevational view of another polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, a retainer in the form of a spring ring and a compression insert. FIG. 33 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 32. FIG. 34 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 34-34 of FIG. 33. FIG. 35 is an enlarged perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 32. FIG. 36 is another perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 32. FIG. 37 is a top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 35. FIG. 38 is a bottom plan view of the retainer of FIG. 35. FIG. 39 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 39-39 of FIG. 37. FIG. 40 is an enlarged perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 32. FIG. 41 is a side elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 40. FIG. 42 is an enlarged cross-sectional view taken along the line 42-42 of FIG. 32. FIG. 43 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 43-43 of FIG. 41. FIG. 44 is a reduced perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 40 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 45 is an enlarged perspective view of the compression insert of FIG. 32. FIG. 46 is a top plan view of the compression insert of FIG. 45. FIG. 47 is a bottom plan view of the compression insert of FIG. 45. FIG. 48 is a front elevational view of the compression insert of FIG. 45. FIG. 49 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 49-49 of FIG. 48. FIG. 50 is an enlarged and partial perspective view of the receiver and compression insert of FIG. 32 with portions of the receiver broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in an early stage of assembly. FIG. 51 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the receiver, compression insert and retainer (shown in a compressed position) of FIG. 32 with portions of the receiver and compression insert broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to that shown in FIG. 50. FIG. 52 is a partial front elevational view, similar to FIG. 50, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and showing the receiver, compression insert and retainer in a pre-assembled orientation with the compression insert and retainer captured within the receiver. FIG. 53 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the shank of FIG. 32 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof, shown with a driving tool in a stage of implantation in a vertebra. FIG. 54 is a reduced and partial front elevational view of the implanted shank of FIG. 53 and further showing an early stage of assembly of the shank with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer of FIG. 52, also with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 55 is a partial front elevational view of the shank, receiver, compression insert and retainer of FIG. 54, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to that shown in FIG. 54. FIG. 56 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 55, showing a subsequent stage of assembly. FIG. 57 is a reduced and partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 56, showing the shank fully assembled with the receiver, compression insert and retainer and further including a longitudinal connecting member and a closure top. FIG. 58 is a partial side elevational view of the shank, receiver, compression insert and retainer of FIG. 57, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and further shown with the shank disposed at an angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 59 is a partial side elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 58 showing the shank disposed at an alternative angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 60 is an exploded perspective view of a another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, a retainer in the form of a spring ring and a compression insert. FIG. 61 is an enlarged perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 60. FIG. 62 is a reduced side elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 61 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 63 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 63-63 of FIG. 62. FIG. 64 is an enlarged perspective view of the insert of FIG. 60. FIG. 65 is a front elevational view of the insert of FIG. 64 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 66 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 64. FIG. 67 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 64. FIG. 68 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 60 shown in a stage of assembly with the insert of FIG. 60, shown in enlarged side elevational view. FIG. 69 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 60 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof shown in a stage of assembly with the insert subsequent to that shown in FIG. 68, the insert in enlarged side elevational view with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 70 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 60 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof shown in a stage of assembly with the insert subsequent to that shown in FIG. 69, the insert in enlarged side elevational view with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 71 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 60 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof shown in a stage of assembly with the insert subsequent to that shown in FIG. 70, the insert in enlarged front elevational view. FIG. 72 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver, insert and retainer of FIG. 60 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof shown in a pre-assembled orientation with the insert and retainer captured within the receiver. FIG. 73 is a partial front elevational view of the receiver, insert and retainer with portions broken away to show the detail thereof, similar to FIG. 72, and further showing a stage of assembly with the shank of FIG. 60, shown in partial enlarged front elevational view. FIG. 74 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 73 and showing a friction fit stage of assembly subsequent to that shown in FIG. 73. FIG. 75 is a partial front elevational view of the receiver, shank, retainer and insert with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 74, further showing the rod and closure top of FIG. 60, also in front elevational view with portions broken away, the assembly being in a locking stage of assembly subsequent to that shown in FIG. 74. FIG. 76 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the assembly shown in FIG. 74 with different portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 77 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the assembly shown in FIG. 75 with different portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 78 is a partial perspective view of the assembly of FIG. 75 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 79 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 75 but showing the closure top and rod in a loosened position while the insert, shank, retainer and receiver remain in the locked position shown in FIG. 75. FIG. 80 is an enlarged and partial side elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 60 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and the shank shown at an angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 81 is an enlarged perspective view of an alternative compression insert for use with the assembly of FIG. 60. FIG. 82 is a front elevational view of the insert of FIG. 81 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 83 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 60 shown with the alternative insert of FIG. 81 and with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 84 is a reduced and partial side elevational view of two bone screw assemblies according to FIG. 60, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown with a multi-piece longitudinal connecting member, also shown with portions broken away, the connecting member having an inner cord and outer sleeves and spacers, also shown attached to a solid rod. FIG. 85 is an enlarged front elevational view of an alternative closure top also shown in FIG. 84. FIG. 86 is a front elevational view of the closure top of FIG. 85 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 87 is an enlarged front elevational view of another alternative closure top (not shown in FIG. 84). FIG. 88 is a front elevational view of the closure top of FIG. 87 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 89 is an enlarged front elevational view of another closure top also shown in FIG. 84. FIG. 90 is a front elevational view of the closure top of FIG. 89 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 91 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, a retainer in the form of a spring ring and a compression insert and shown with a closure top and a deformable rod. FIG. 92 is an enlarged perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 91. FIG. 93 is a side elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 92. FIG. 94 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 94-94 of FIG. 93. FIG. 95 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 95-95 of FIG. 94. FIG. 96 is an enlarged perspective view of the insert of FIG. 91. FIG. 97 is a second perspective view of the insert of FIG. 96. FIG. 98 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 96. FIG. 99 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 96. FIG. 100 is a front elevational view of the insert of FIG. 96. FIG. 101 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 101-101 of FIG. 98. FIG. 102 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver and an enlarged side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 91 shown in a stage of assembly. FIG. 103 is a front elevational view, similar to FIG. 102 showing a later stage of assembly. FIG. 104 is a perspective view showing the assembly step of FIG. 103. FIG. 105 is a front elevational view, similar to FIG. 103 showing a later stage of assembly. FIG. 106 is an enlarged and partial perspective view of the receiver, insert and retainer of FIG. 91 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 107 is an enlarged and partial perspective view of the receiver, insert and retainer and shown assembled with the shank of FIG. 91 and with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 108 is a reduced perspective view similar to FIG. 107 showing the shank at an angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 109 is an enlarged side elevational view similar to FIG. 108 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 110 is an enlarged front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 91 with portions broken away showing a penultimate stage of assembly. FIG. 111 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 110, showing a final locked down stage of assembly. FIG. 112 is an enlarged and partial view of the assembly as in FIG. 110 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 113 is an enlarged and partial view of the assembly fully locked down as in FIG. 111 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 114 is an enlarged and partial view, similar to FIG. 113 showing a loosened closure top with a fully locked down assembly. FIG. 115 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, upper and lower open retainer rings and a friction fit crown compression insert, further shown with a portion of a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod and a closure top. FIG. 116 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 115. FIG. 117 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 117-117 of FIG. 116. FIG. 118 is an enlarged perspective view of the lower retainer of FIG. 115. FIG. 119 is another perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 118. FIG. 120 is a top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 118. FIG. 121 is a bottom plan view of the retainer of FIG. 118. FIG. 122 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 122-122 of FIG. 120. FIG. 123 is an enlarged perspective view of the friction fit crown insert of FIG. 115. FIG. 124 is a reduced front elevational view of the insert of FIG. 123. FIG. 125 is a reduced bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 123. FIG. 126 is a reduced top plan view of the insert of FIG. 123. FIG. 127 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 127-127 of FIG. 126. FIG. 128 is an enlarged perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 115. FIG. 129 is a second perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 128. FIG. 130 is a top plan view of the receiver of FIG. 128. FIG. 131 is a bottom plan view of the receiver of FIG. 128. FIG. 132 is an enlarged cross-sectional view taken along the line 132-132 of FIG. 130. FIG. 133 is an enlarged cross-sectional view taken along the line 133-133 of FIG. 130. FIG. 134 is an enlarged perspective view of the upper retainer of FIG. 115. FIG. 135 is an enlarged top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 134. FIG. 136 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 136-136 of FIG. 135. FIG. 137 is an enlarged top plan view of the closure top of FIG. 115. FIG. 138 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 138-138 of FIG. 137. FIG. 139 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver and upper retainer of FIG. 115 with portions of the receiver broken away to show the detail thereof, the upper retainer being shown in a compressed insertion stage of assembly. FIG. 140 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 139, showing the upper retainer in a neutral position, assembled within the receiver. FIG. 141 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 140 and further showing the friction fit compression insert of FIG. 115 in an initial stage of assembly with the receiver. FIG. 142 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 141, showing the compression insert uploaded into the receiver and in engagement with the upper retainer, the upper retainer in an expanded position. FIG. 143 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 142 and further showing the lower retainer of FIG. 115 in front elevation and in a compressed state, the lower retainer being shown in a stage of uploading into the receiver. FIG. 144 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 143 showing the lower retainer within the receiver and in a neutral non-compressed state. FIG. 145 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 144 and further showing a shank of FIG. 115 in partial front elevation. FIG. 146 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 145 showing the shank in a stage of assembly with the lower retainer ring, the lower retainer ring being pushed up into engagement with the compression insert. FIG. 147 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 146, showing the lower retainer in an expanded state about an upper portion of the shank, the shank upper portion in a stage of assembly with the compression insert. FIG. 148 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 147, the shank upper portion in frictional engagement with the compression insert and the lower retainer in a substantially neutral state. FIG. 149 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 148, the shank upper portion and attached compression insert being in a downward, fully assembled position, the upper retainer being in a substantially neutral state. FIG. 150 is a reduced partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 149, shown with the shank pivoted at an angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 151 is a front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 150, shown in a vertebra and in a locked position with the rod portion and closure top of FIG. 115. FIG. 152 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 151 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 153 is a partial front elevational view of an alternative embodiment of a bone screw assembly, substantially similar to the bone screw assembly shown in FIG. 115, shown with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 154 is another partial front elevational view of the bone screw assembly of FIG. 153, shown with the shank disposed at an angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 155 is a reduced front elevational view, similar to FIG. 154, showing the bone screw assembly with a rod and closure top. FIG. 156 is an enlarged front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 155 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 157 is an exploded perspective view of another polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, a retainer in the form of an open ring and a friction fit crown compression insert, further shown with a portion of a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod and a closure top. FIG. 158 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 157. FIG. 159 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 159-159 of FIG. 158. FIG. 160 is an enlarged perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 157. FIG. 161 is another perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 160. FIG. 162 is a top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 160. FIG. 163 is a bottom plan view of the retainer of FIG. 160. FIG. 164 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 164-164 of FIG. 162. FIG. 165 is an enlarged perspective view of the friction fit crown insert of FIG. 157. FIG. 166 is another perspective view of the insert of FIG. 165. FIG. 167 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 165. FIG. 168 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 165. FIG. 169 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 169-169 of FIG. 167. FIG. 170 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 170-170 of FIG. 167. FIG. 171 is an enlarged perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 157. FIG. 172 is a side elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 171 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 173 is a top plan view of the receiver of FIG. 171. FIG. 174 is a bottom plan view of the receiver of FIG. 171. FIG. 175 is an enlarged side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 157 and a front elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 157 with portions of the receiver broken away to show the detail thereof, the insert being shown downloaded into the receiver in an insertion stage of assembly. FIG. 176 is a reduced front elevational view of the receiver, with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 175, showing the insert of FIG. 175 also in reduced front elevational view, the insert having been lowered into the receiver and rotated there-within during an assembly stage subsequent to that shown in FIG. 175. FIG. 177 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 176 and further showing the retainer of FIG. 157 in front elevation and in a compressed state, the retainer being shown in a stage of uploading into the receiver. FIG. 178 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 177 showing the retainer within the receiver and in a neutral non-compressed state and further showing a shank of FIG. 157 in partial front elevation being uploaded into the receiver. FIG. 179 is a reduced front elevational view similar to FIG. 178 showing an alternative assembly stage in which the shank of FIG. 157 is first implanted in a vertebra, followed by assembly with the receiver, retainer and insert. FIG. 180 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 178 showing the shank in a stage of assembly with the retainer, the retainer being pushed up into engagement with the crown insert. FIG. 181 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 180, showing the retainer in an expanded state about an upper portion of the shank, the shank upper portion in a stage of assembly with the insert. FIG. 182 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 181, the shank upper portion in frictional engagement with the insert and the retainer in a substantially neutral state. FIG. 183 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 182, the shank upper portion with attached insert being shown pulled down slightly from the position shown in FIG. 182, the insert being placed into frictional engagement with the receiver. FIG. 184 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 183, the shank upper portion and attached insert being in a downward, fully assembled position, the insert being further wedged against inner surfaces of the receiver. FIG. 185 is a partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 184 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and further shown in a locked position with a rod and closure top of FIG. 157. FIG. 186 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 185 showing the assembly remaining in the locked position of FIG. 185 when the rod and closure top are removed. FIG. 187 is a reduced and partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 185, showing a locked assembly wherein the shank is disposed at an angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 188 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, a retainer in the form of a top-loadable open ring and a friction fit crown compression insert, the assembly further shown with a portion of a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod and a closure top. FIG. 189 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 188. FIG. 190 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 190-190 of FIG. 189. FIG. 191 is an enlarged perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 188. FIG. 192 is another perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 191. FIG. 193 is a top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 191. FIG. 194 is a bottom plan view of the retainer of FIG. 191. FIG. 195 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 195-195 of FIG. 193. FIG. 196 is an enlarged perspective view of the friction fit crown insert of FIG. 188. FIG. 197 is another perspective view of the insert of FIG. 196. FIG. 198 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 196. FIG. 199 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 196. FIG. 200 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 200-200 of FIG. 198. FIG. 201 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 201-201 of FIG. 198. FIG. 202 is an enlarged perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 188. FIG. 203 is an enlarged side elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 202 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 204 is a top plan view of the receiver of FIG. 202. FIG. 205 is a bottom plan view of the receiver of FIG. 202. FIG. 206 is an enlarged cross-sectional view taken along the line 206-206 of FIG. 203. FIG. 207 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 188 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof, shown with the retainer of FIG. 188 in perspective view being top loaded into the receiver during an early stage of assembly. FIG. 208 is an enlarged side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 188 and a front elevational view of the receiver and retainer of FIG. 207 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof, the insert being shown top loaded into the receiver. FIG. 209 is a front elevational view of the receiver and retainer, with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 208, showing the insert of FIG. 208 in side elevation lowered into the receiver. FIG. 210 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver, retainer and insert, with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 209, the insert having been rotated into an assembled position within the receiver. FIG. 211 is an enlarged and partial perspective view of the receiver, retainer and insert of FIG. 210. FIG. 212 is a partial perspective view, similar to FIG. 211 showing holding tabs of the receiver bent against the insert to prohibit further rotation thereof. FIG. 213 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 213-213 of FIG. 212. FIG. 214 is a reduced front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 210 shown subsequent to the assembly step shown in FIGS. 212 and 213 and further showing the shank of FIG. 188 in partial front elevation being uploaded into the receiver. FIG. 215 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 214 showing the shank in a stage of assembly with the retainer, the retainer being pushed up into engagement with the crown insert. FIG. 216 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 215, showing the retainer in an expanded state about an upper portion of the shank, the shank upper portion in a stage of assembly with the insert. FIG. 217 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 216, the shank upper portion in frictional engagement with the insert and the retainer in a substantially neutral state. FIG. 218 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 217, the shank upper portion with attached insert being shown pulled down slightly from the position shown in FIG. 217. FIG. 219 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 218, the shank upper portion and attached insert being in a downward, fully assembled position, the insert being allowed to expand under a ledge surface of the receiver. FIG. 220 is a partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 219 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and further shown in a locked position with a rod and closure top of FIG. 188. FIG. 221 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 220, showing a locked assembly wherein the shank is disposed at an angle with respect to the receiver. FIG. 222 is an exploded front elevational view with portions broken away of another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, a retainer in the form of a top-loadable open ring and a lock and release friction fit crown compression insert, the assembly further shown with a portion of a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod and a closure top. FIG. 223 is an enlarged front elevational view, with portions broken away of the receiver and retainer of FIG. 222 showing stages of assembly of the retainer in phantom and with the insert of FIG. 222 shown in side elevational view prior to insertion and rotation into place within the receiver. FIG. 224 is a front elevational view of the retainer and receiver of FIG. 223 with portions broken away and a side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 223 in a stage of assembly just prior to rotation within the receiver. FIG. 225 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 224, showing the insert after rotation thereof within the receiver. FIG. 226 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 225 further showing the shank of FIG. 222 in partial front elevation and in an assembly step with the receiver and retainer. FIG. 227 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away showing an assembly step subsequent to that shown in FIG. 226. FIG. 228 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away showing an assembly step subsequent to that shown in FIG. 227 with the rod and closure of FIG. 222, also in front elevation. FIG. 229 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 228, showing the shank being retained and locked in place by the insert when the rod and closure top are removed. FIG. 230 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 228, showing the rod and closure top being replaced by an alternative deformable rod and cooperating alternative closure top. FIG. 231 is an enlarged perspective view of an alternative locking insert for use with the assembly of FIG. 222 in lieu of the insert that is shown in FIG. 222. FIG. 232 is a reduced bottom plan view of the insert shown in FIG. 231. FIG. 233 is an enlarged cross-sectional view taken along the line 233-233 of FIG. 232. FIG. 234 is an enlarged perspective view of another alternative non-locking insert for use with the assembly of FIG. 222 in lieu of the insert shown in FIG. 222. FIG. 235 is an exploded perspective view of a receiver, retainer ring and insert of another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the invention that is substantially similar to the assembly shown in FIG. 222. FIG. 236 is a front elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 235 shown with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 237 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 237-237 of FIG. 236. FIG. 238 is a front elevational view of the retainer and receiver of FIG. 235 with portions broken away and a side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 235 in a stage of assembly just prior to rotation within the receiver. FIG. 239 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 238, showing the insert being rotated within the receiver. FIG. 240 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 239, shown subsequent to rotation of the insert within the receiver. FIG. 241 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 240 and further showing assembly with a shank, a rod and a closure top of FIG. 222. FIG. 242 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 241, showing the rod and closure top removed and further showing unlocking of the insert from the receiver with a two-piece tool having an inner insert engaging portion and an outer tubular holding portion. FIG. 243 is a reduced and partial front elevational view of the two-piece tool of FIG. 242, holding prongs of the inner insert engaging portion being shown in phantom. FIG. 244 is a partial front elevational view of the inner insert engaging portion of the tool shown in FIG. 242 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 245 is an exploded front elevational view of another polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, an open friction fit retainer and a compression insert, further shown with a portion of a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod and a closure top. FIG. 246 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 245. FIG. 247 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 247-247 of FIG. 246. FIG. 248 is an enlarged side elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 245. FIG. 249 is a reduced perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 248. FIG. 250 is a reduced top plan view of the receiver of FIG. 248. FIG. 251 is a reduced bottom plan view of the receiver of FIG. 248. FIG. 252 is a reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 252-252 of FIG. 250. FIG. 253 is an enlarged cross-sectional view taken along the line 253-253 of FIG. 250. FIG. 254 is an enlarged perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 245. FIG. 255 is an enlarged side elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 254. FIG. 256 is an enlarged front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 254. FIG. 257 is an enlarged top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 254. FIG. 258 is an enlarged bottom plan view of the retainer of FIG. 254. FIG. 259 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 259-259f FIG. 257. FIG. 260 is an enlarged perspective view of the insert of FIG. 245. FIG. 261 is an enlarged side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 260. FIG. 262 is an enlarged top plan view of the insert of FIG. 260. FIG. 263 is an enlarged bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 260. FIG. 264 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 264-264 of FIG. 262. FIG. 265 is an enlarged front elevational view of an alternative insert according to the invention for use in lieu of the insert shown in FIG. 245, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 266 is an enlarged front elevational view of the retainer and receiver of FIG. 245 with portions of the receiver broken away (as illustrated in FIG. 271) to show the detail thereof, the retainer being shown downloaded into the receiver (in phantom) to a partially inserted stage of assembly. FIG. 267 is a front elevational view of the retainer and receiver with portions broken away, similar to that shown in FIG. 266, further showing the retainer seated within the receiver and also showing the insert of FIG. 245 in side elevation (in phantom) above the receiver and then being downloaded into the receiver to a partially inserted stage of assembly. FIG. 268 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 267, showing the insert rotated into a position in alignment with the receiver. FIG. 269 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 268 showing arms of the retainer being pinched (with a tool not shown) towards one another and the retainer partially moved upwardly within the receiver. FIG. 270 is a front elevational view similar to FIG. 269 showing the retainer arms placed in a desired upward position within the receiver and the pinching tool removed so that the retainer pushes outwardly against the receiver and is held against the receiver during shipping. FIG. 271 is a reduced perspective view with portions broken away of the assembly as shown in FIG. 270. FIG. 272 is a perspective view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 271, showing a portion of the receiver crimped against the insert. FIG. 273 is an enlarged front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 270, also including the crimping of FIG. 272 and further showing an enlarged and partial shank of FIG. 245 in a first stage of assembly with the retainer, a hemisphere of the shank head and a vertebra portion are both shown in phantom. FIG. 274 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 273, showing the retainer lower portion in an expanded state about a mid-portion of the shank head, the head hemisphere shown in phantom. FIG. 275 is a reduced partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 274, the shank upper portion or head in frictional engagement with an upper portion of the retainer. FIG. 276 is a partial side elevational view with portions broken away of the assembly in a stage as shown in FIG. 275. FIG. 277 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 275, the shank upper portion with attached retainer being shown pulled down into a seated position within the lower receiver cavity. FIG. 278 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view with portions broken away of the entire assembly of FIG. 245, the assembly shown in a locked position with the insert wedged against surfaces of the receiver. FIG. 279 is an enlarged and partial side elevational view with portions broken away of the entire assembly of FIG. 245, shown locked into position with the shank disposed at an angle with respect to the receiver, the rod being shown in phantom. FIG. 280 is a reduced and partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 278, showing the insert retaining the assembly in a locked position when the closure top and the rod are removed. FIG. 281 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view with portion broken away, similar to FIG. 280, further showing the assembly with a replacement deformable rod and alternative closure top. FIG. 282 is an enlarged perspective view of an alternative non-locking insert according to the invention for use with the assembly of FIG. 245. FIG. 283 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 245 shown in a fully assembled locked position with the non-locking insert of FIG. 282 in lieu of the locking insert shown in FIG. 245, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 284 is an exploded perspective view of another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver and a retainer ring, further shown with a portion of a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod and a closure top. FIG. 285 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 284. FIG. 286 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 286-286 of FIG. 285. FIG. 287 is an enlarged perspective view of the lower retainer of FIG. 284. FIG. 288 is another perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 287. FIG. 289 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 289-289 of FIG. 287. FIG. 290 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 284. FIG. 291 is a side elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 290. FIG. 292 is a top plan view of the receiver of FIG. 290. FIG. 293 is a bottom plan view of the receiver of FIG. 290. FIG. 294 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 294-294 of FIG. 292. FIG. 295 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 295-295 of FIG. 292. FIG. 296 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver and retainer of FIG. 284 with portions of the receiver broken away to show the detail thereof, the retainer being shown in a compressed insertion stage of assembly. FIG. 297 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 296, showing the retainer in a neutral position, assembled with the receiver. FIG. 298 is a front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 297 and further showing the shank of FIG. 284 in partial front elevation and implanted in a vertebra. FIG. 299 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 298 showing the shank in a stage of assembly with the lower retainer ring, the lower retainer ring being pushed up into engagement with the receiver. FIG. 300 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 299, showing the lower retainer in an expanded state about an upper portion of the shank. FIG. 301 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 300, the shank upper portion in engagement with a portion of the receiver and the retainer in a substantially neutral state. FIG. 302 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 301, the shank upper portion being in a downward, fully assembled position, the retainer being in a substantially neutral or slightly contracted state. FIG. 303 is a partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 302, with portions broken away and shown in a locked position with the rod portion and closure top of FIG. 284. FIG. 304 is a partial perspective view of the assembly of FIG. 303 with the rod shown in phantom. FIG. 305 is a perspective view of an alternative shank according to the invention that may be used with the assembly of FIG. 284 in lieu of the shank shown in FIG. 284. FIG. 306 is a perspective view of another alternative shank according to the invention that may be used with the assembly of FIG. 284 in lieu of the shank shown in FIG. 284. FIG. 307 is an exploded front elevational view of another polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver and a friction fit retainer, further shown with a portion of a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod and a closure top. FIG. 308 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 307. FIG. 309 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 309-309 of FIG. 308. FIG. 310 is an enlarged perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 307. FIG. 311 is side elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 310. FIG. 312 is a front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 310. FIG. 313 is a top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 310. FIG. 314 is a bottom plan view of the retainer of FIG. 310. FIG. 315 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 315-315 of FIG. 313. FIG. 316 is an enlarged perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 307. FIG. 317 is a top plan view of the receiver of FIG. 316. FIG. 318 is a bottom plan view of the receiver of FIG. 316. FIG. 319 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 319-319 if FIG. 317. FIG. 320 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 320-320 of FIG. 317. FIG. 321 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver. FIG. 322 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 321. FIG. 323 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 322. FIG. 324 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 323. FIG. 325 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 324. FIG. 326 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 325. FIG. 327 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 326. FIG. 328 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 327. FIG. 329 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 320 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 312 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 328. FIG. 330 is an enlarged cross-sectional view of the receiver and front elevational view of the retainer, similar to FIG. 329 and further showing a partial front elevational view of the shank of FIG. 307 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver and retainer. FIG. 331 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view, similar to FIG. 330, with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and showing the shank in a stage of assembly with the receiver and retainer subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 330. FIG. 332 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 331, showing the shank in a stage of assembly with the receiver and retainer subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 331. FIG. 333 is a reduced and partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 332, showing the retainer in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 332. FIG. 334 is a partial front elevational view with portions broken away, similar to FIG. 333, showing the retainer in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 333. FIG. 335 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view, similar to FIG. 334, with further portions broken away to shown the detail thereof. FIG. 336 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of a fully assembled shank, retainer, receiver, rod and closure top of FIG. 307 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 337 is a partial side elevational view of the shank of FIG. 307 shown implanted in a vertebra and in an early stage of assembly with a retainer and receiver of FIG. 307, also shown in side elevation. FIG. 338 is a partial side elevational view of the shank, retainer and receiver of FIG. 337, shown fully assembled and further shown assembled with the rod and closure top of FIG. 307, also in side elevation. FIG. 339 is an enlarged and partial side elevational view of the shank, retainer, receiver, rod and closure top of FIG. 338 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 340 is an exploded front elevational view of another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw assembly according to the present invention including a shank, a receiver, a friction fit retainer and a lock and release insert, further shown with a portion of a longitudinal connecting member in the form of a rod and a closure top. FIG. 341 is an enlarged top plan view of the shank of FIG. 340. FIG. 342 is reduced cross-sectional view taken along the line 342-342 of FIG. 341. FIG. 343 is an enlarged perspective view of the retainer of FIG. 340. FIG. 344 is side elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 343. FIG. 345 is a front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 343. FIG. 346 is a top plan view of the retainer of FIG. 343. FIG. 347 is a bottom plan view of the retainer of FIG. 343. FIG. 348 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 348-348 of FIG. 346. FIG. 349 is an enlarged perspective view of the receiver of FIG. 340. FIG. 350 is a top plan view of the receiver of FIG. 349. FIG. 351 is a bottom plan view of the receiver of FIG. 349. FIG. 352 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 352-352 of FIG. 350. FIG. 353 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 353-353 of FIG. 350. FIG. 354 is an enlarged side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 340. FIG. 355 is a front elevational view of the insert of FIG. 354. FIG. 356 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 354. FIG. 357 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 354. FIG. 358 is an enlarged perspective view of the insert of FIG. 354. FIG. 359 is another perspective view of the insert of FIG. 354. FIG. 360 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 360-360 of FIG. 356. FIG. 361 is a cross-sectional view taken along the line 361-361 of FIG. 356. FIG. 362 is a reduced front-elevational view of the receiver of FIG. 349 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 345 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver. FIG. 363 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver as in FIG. 353 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 345 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 362. FIG. 364 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 353 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 345 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 363. FIG. 365 is a reduced cross-sectional view of the receiver of FIG. 353 and a reduced front elevational view of the retainer of FIG. 345 shown in a stage of assembly with the receiver subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 364 and further shown in a first stage of loading with the insert of FIG. 354, also in reduced front elevational view. FIG. 366 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver, retainer and insert of FIG. 365 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in an initial stage of assembly of the insert into the receiver. FIG. 367 is a front elevational view of the receiver, retainer and insert of FIG. 366 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 366. FIG. 368 is an enlarged front elevational view of the receiver, retainer and insert of FIG. 367 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 367. FIG. 369 is a front elevational view of the receiver, retainer and insert of FIG. 368 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 368. FIG. 370 is a reduced front elevational view of the receiver, retainer and insert of FIG. 369 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a first stage of assembly with a shank of FIG. 340, in reduced and partial front elevational view and shown implanted in a vertebra. FIG. 371 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the receiver, retainer, insert and shank of FIG. 370 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 370. FIG. 372 is a partial front elevational view of the receiver, retainer, insert and shank of FIG. 371 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 371. FIG. 373 is a reduced and partial front elevational view of the receiver, retainer, insert and shank of FIG. 372 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to what is shown in FIG. 372. FIG. 374 is an enlarged and partial perspective view of the assembly of FIG. 373. FIG. 375 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the receiver, retainer, insert and shank of FIG. 373 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof and shown in a stage of assembly subsequent to what is shown in FIGS. 373 and 374. FIG. 376 is an enlarged and partial perspective view of the assembly of FIG. 375. FIG. 377 is an enlarged and partial perspective view, similar to FIG. 376 and further showing the rod (in phantom) and closure of FIG. 340 in a stage of assembly and also in enlarged perspective view. FIG. 378 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 377, with a portion of the receiver broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 379 is a reduced and partial front elevational view, similar to FIG. 378, with a portion of the receiver broken away to show the detail thereof, and shown in a final stage of assembly subsequent to that shown in FIGS. 377 and 378. FIG. 380 is a reduced and partial side elevational view of the final assembly of FIG. 379. FIG. 381 is an enlarged and partial cross-sectional view taken along the line 381-381 of FIG. 379. FIG. 382 is a partial cross-sectional view, similar to FIG. 381, showing an alternative position of the shank with respect to the receiver. FIG. 383 is a reduced and partial perspective and partially exploded view of the assembly of FIG. 382, showing the closure and rod being removed from the receiver and the insert retaining the shank in a locked position. FIG. 384 is a partial perspective and partially exploded view similar to FIG. 383, showing the closure and hard rod of FIG. 383 being replaced by an alternative closure and a deformable rod. FIG. 385 is an enlarged and partial side elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 384 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 386 is an exploded and partial perspective view of an alternative bone screw assembly according to the invention including a shank, a receiver, a retainer and a non-locking insert, and further shown with a rod and a closure top. FIG. 387 is an enlarged front elevational view of the insert of FIG. 386. FIG. 388 is a side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 387. FIG. 389 is a top plan view of the insert of FIG. 387. FIG. 390 is a bottom plan view of the insert of FIG. 387. FIG. 391 is a perspective view of the insert of FIG. 387. FIG. 392 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view of the receiver, the shank, the retainer and the insert of FIG. 386 shown in a stage of assembly. FIG. 393 is an enlarged and partial perspective view of the assembly of FIG. 386 shown fully assembled and with the rod in phantom. FIG. 394 is an enlarged and partial front elevational view if the assembly of FIG. 393 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 395 is a reduced perspective view, similar to FIG. 393, showing an alternative angular position of the shank with respect to the receiver. FIG. 396 is an enlarged and partial side elevational view of the assembly as shown in FIG. 395 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 397 is a reduced and partial front elevational view of the assembly of FIG. 394 with further portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 398 is a perspective view of an alternative insert for use with the assembly of FIG. 91. FIG. 399 is a front elevational view of the insert of FIG. 398. FIG. 400 is a side elevational view of the insert of FIG. 398. FIG. 401 is a front elevational view, similar to FIG. 399 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. FIG. 402 is a side elevational view, similar to FIG. 400 with portions broken away to show the detail thereof. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION As required, detailed embodiments of the present invention are disclosed herein; however, it is to be understood that the disclosed embodiments are merely exemplary of the invention, which may be embodied in various forms. Therefore, specific structural and functional details disclosed herein are not to be interpreted as limiting, but merely as a basis for the claims and as a representative basis for teaching one skilled in the art to variously employ the present invention in virtually any appropriately detailed structure. It is also noted that any reference to the words top, bottom, up and down, and the like, in this application refers to the alignment shown in the various drawings, as well as the normal connotations applied to such devices, and is not intended to restrict positioning of the bone attachment structures in actual use. With reference to FIGS. 1-31 the reference number 1 generally represents a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 1 includes a shank 4, that further includes a body 6 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or capture structure 8; a receiver 10; a retainer structure 12 and a compression or pressure insert 14. The receiver 10, retainer 12 and compression insert 14 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 4 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 6 into a vertebra 13, as will be described in greater detail below. FIG. 1 further shows a closure structure 18 of the invention for capturing a longitudinal member, for example, a rod 21 which in turn engages the compression insert 14 that presses against the shank upper portion 8 into fixed frictional contact with the retainer 12, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 21 within the receiver 10 and thus fix the member 21 relative to the vertebra 13. The illustrated rod 21 is hard, stiff, non-elastic and cylindrical, having an outer cylindrical surface 22. It is foreseen that in other embodiments, the rod 21 may be elastic, deformable and/or of a different cross-sectional geometry. The receiver 10 and the shank 4 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 10 and the shank 4 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 10 with the shank 4 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 4, best illustrated in FIGS. 1-3 and 22, is elongate, with the shank body 6 having a helically wound bone implantable thread 24 (single or dual lead thread form) extending from near a neck 26 located adjacent to the upper portion or capture structure 8, to a tip 28 of the body 6 and extending radially outwardly therefrom. During use, the body 6 utilizing the thread 24 for gripping and advancement is implanted into the vertebra 13 leading with the tip 28 and driven down into the vertebra with an installation or driving tool 29, so as to be implanted in the vertebra to near the neck 26, as more fully described in the paragraphs below. The shank 4 has an elongate axis of rotation generally identified by the reference letter A. The neck 26 extends axially upward from the shank body 6. The neck 26 may be of the same or is typically of a slightly reduced radius as compared to an adjacent upper end or top 32 of the body 6 where the thread 24 terminates. Further extending axially and outwardly from the neck 26 is the shank upper portion 8 that provides a connective or capture apparatus disposed at a distance from the upper end 32 and thus at a distance from the vertebra 13 when the body 6 is implanted in such vertebra. The shank upper portion 8 is configured for a pivotable connection between the shank 4 and the retainer 12 and receiver 10 prior to fixing of the shank 4 in a desired position with respect to the receiver 10. The shank upper portion 8 has an outer, convex and substantially spherical surface 34 that extends outwardly and upwardly from the neck 26 and terminates at a substantially planar top surface 38. The spherical surface 34 has an outer radius configured for sliding cooperation and ultimate frictional mating with a concave surface of the compression insert 14 having a substantially similar radius, and also a flat or, in some embodiments, curved surface of the retainer 12, discussed more fully in the paragraphs below. The top surface 38 is substantially perpendicular to the axis A. The spherical surface 34 shown in the present embodiment is substantially smooth with the exception of a stepped or graduated upper surface portion 40 located adjacent to the top surface 38 and sized and shaped for cooperation and ultimate frictional engagement with the compression insert 14. In the illustrated embodiment the surface portion 40 includes at least three graduated cylindrical surfaces disposed substantially parallel to the axis A and adjacent perpendicular step surfaces that are disposed generally perpendicular to the axis A. It is foreseen that the surface portion 40 may include greater or fewer number of stepped surfaces. It is foreseen that the surface portion 40 and also the rest of the surface 34 may additionally or alternatively include a roughened or textured surface or surface finish, or may be scored, knurled, or the like, for enhancing frictional engagement with the retainer 12 and/or the compression insert 14. A counter sunk substantially planar base or seating surface 45 partially defines an internal drive feature or imprint 46. The illustrated internal drive feature 46 is an aperture formed in the top surface 38 and has a hex shape designed to receive the hex tool 29 of an Allen wrench type, into the aperture for rotating and driving the bone screw shank 4. It is foreseen that such an internal tool engagement structure may take a variety of tool-engaging forms and may include one or more apertures of various shapes, such as a pair of spaced apart apertures or a multi-lobular or star-shaped aperture, such as those sold under the trademark TORX, or the like. The seat or base 45 of the drive feature 46 is disposed perpendicular to the axis A with the drive feature 46 otherwise being coaxial with the axis A. In operation, the driving tool 29 is received in the internal drive feature 46, being seated at the base 45 and engaging the six faces of the drive feature 46 for both driving and rotating the shank body 6 into the vertebra 13, either before the shank 4 is attached to the receiver 10 as shown in FIG. 22 or after the shank 4 is attached to the receiver 10 as shown in FIG. 26, with the shank body 6 being driven into the vertebra 13 with the driving tool extending into the receiver 10 as shown in phantom. The shank 4 shown in the drawings is cannulated, having a small central bore 50 extending an entire length of the shank 4 along the axis A. The bore 50 is defined by an inner cylindrical wall of the shank 4 and has a circular opening at the shank tip 28 and an upper opening communicating with the external drive 46 at the surface 45. The bore 50 is coaxial with the threaded body 6 and the upper portion 8. The bore 50 provides a passage through the shank 4 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted into the vertebra 13 prior to the insertion of the shank body 6, the wire providing a guide for insertion of the shank body 6 into the vertebra 13. To provide a biologically active interface with the bone, the threaded shank body 6 may be coated, perforated, made porous or otherwise treated. The treatment may include, but is not limited to a plasma spray coating or other type of coating of a metal or, for example, a calcium phosphate; or a roughening, perforation or indentation in the shank surface, such as by sputtering, sand blasting or acid etching, that allows for bony ingrowth or ongrowth. Certain metal coatings act as a scaffold for bone ingrowth. Bio-ceramic calcium phosphate coatings include, but are not limited to: alpha-tri-calcium phosphate and beta-tri-calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2, tetra-calcium phosphate (Ca4P2O9), amorphous calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2). Coating with hydroxyapatite, for example, is desirable as hydroxyapatite is chemically similar to bone with respect to mineral content and has been identified as being bioactive and thus not only supportive of bone ingrowth, but actively taking part in bone bonding. With particular reference to FIGS. 1 and 4-7, the receiver 10 has a generally U-shaped appearance with a partially discontinuous substantially cylindrical inner and outer profile. The receiver 10 has an axis of rotation B that is shown in FIG. 1 as being aligned with and the same as the axis of rotation A of the shank 4, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 10 with the shank 4. After the receiver 10 is pivotally attached to the shank 4, either before or after the shank 4 is implanted in a vertebra 13, the axis B is typically disposed at an angle with respect to the axis A, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 27-29. The receiver 10 includes a substantially cylindrical base 60 integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 62 forming a cradle and defining a channel 64 between the arms 62 with an upper opening, generally 66, and a U-shaped lower seat 68, the channel 64 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 21 between the arms 62. Each of the arms 62 has an interior surface, generally 70, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 72 located adjacent top surfaces 73 of each of the arms 62. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 72 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 18, as described more fully below. However, it is foreseen that the guide and advancement structure 72 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structure for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 18 downward between the arms 62, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 18 abuts against the rod 21. An opposed pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 74 are formed on outer surfaces 76 of the arms 62. Furthermore, two pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 77 are formed in front and rear surfaces 78 of the arms 62. Some or all of the apertures 74 and 77 may be used for holding the receiver 10 during assembly with the shank 4 and the retainer 12, during the implantation of the shank body 6 into a vertebra when the shank is pre-assembled with the receiver 10, and during assembly of the bone anchor assembly 1 with the rod 21 and the closure structure 18. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 62. Returning to the interior surface 70 of the receiver arms 62, located below the guide and advancement structure 72 is a cylindrical surface 82 partially defining a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 72. The cylindrical surface 82 has a diameter equal to or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 72. Moving downwardly, in a direction toward the base 60, adjacent the cylindrical surface 82 is a run-out seat or surface 84 that extends inwardly toward the axis B and runs perpendicular to the axis B. Adjacent to and located below the surface 84 is another cylindrical surface 86 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 82. A discontinuous annular surface 88 that provides an abutment surface or stop for capturing the compression insert 14 in the receiver 10 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 86. The abutment surface 88 is disposed substantially perpendicular to the axis B. Another cylindrical surface 90 is located below and adjacent to the surface 88. The cylindrical surface 90 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to slidingly receive the compression insert 14 as will be described in greater detail below. The surface 90 surrounds the U-shaped channel seat 68 and extends downwardly into the base 60. Thus, a portion of the surface 90 extends upwardly into the arms 62. The cylindrical surface 90 has a diameter greater than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 86. A continuous annular surface 92 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 90. The surface 92 is disposed in the base 60 and forms a stop for the resilient retainer 12, prohibiting the retainer 12 (when in an uncompressed configuration) from moving upwardly into a space or cavity 91 defined by the cylindrical surface 90 that holds the compression insert 14. Another cylindrical surface 94 is located below and adjacent to the surface 92. The cylindrical surface 94 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to receive an expanded retainer 12 as will be described in greater detail below. The surfaces 92 and 94 partially define a circumferential recess or expansion chamber 95 that is sized and shaped to receive the retainer 12 as it expands around the shank upper portion 8 as the shank 8 moves upwardly toward the channel 64 during assembly, as well as form a restriction to prevent the expanded retainer 12 from moving upwardly with the shank portion 8, the surface 92 preventing the retainer 12 from passing from the chamber 95 into the cavity 91 whether the retainer 12 is in an expanded position as shown in FIG. 24, or in a neutral or original operative position as shown in FIG. 25. A cylindrical surface 96 located below the cylindrical surface 94 of the expansion chamber is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 12 when the retainer is in a neutral interim position as shown in FIG. 26, for example, or expanded operative position as shown in FIG. 29, for example. Thus, the cylindrical surface 96 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 94 that defines the expansion chamber 95. The surface 96 also has a diameter larger than an outside diameter of the retainer 12 so that the retainer may expand outwardly into contact with the surface 96 when the bone screw shank upper portion 8 presses downwardly during locking of the shank 4 against the retainer 12. The surface 96 is joined or connected to the surface 94 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 97. The surfaces 97 allow for sliding gradual movement and/or contraction of the retainer 12 into the space defined by the surface 96 and ultimate seating of the retainer 12 on a lower annular seating surface 99 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 96. The surfaces 96 and 99 provide a seating chamber for the retainer 12 wherein the retainer expands out to the surface 96 when in a locked position as shown, for example, in FIG. 29. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 99 is another cylindrical surface 100 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 102, the surface 102 communicating with an exterior base surface 104 of the base 60, defining a lower opening, generally 106, of the receiver 10. The illustrated surface 100 has a diameter that is substantially the same as the diameter of the surface 90, allowing for slidable uploading of the compression insert 14 while requiring compression or squeezing of the retainer 12 during uploading of the retainer 12 through the lower opening 106 (see FIGS. 18 and 19). With particular reference to FIGS. 1 and 8-12, the retainer 12 that operates to capture the shank upper portion 8 and the compression insert 14 within the receiver 10 has a central axis C that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 10 when the shank upper portion 8 and the retainer 12 are installed within the receiver 10. The retainer 12 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 12 may be both compressed and expanded during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The retainer 12 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 121, that passes entirely through the structure 12 from a top surface 122 to a bottom surface 124 thereof. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 121 include a discontinuous inner cylindrical surface 125 adjacent the top surface 122 and a discontinuous frusto-conical or beveled surface 127 adjacent the surface 125, both surfaces coaxial with the axis C when the retainer 12 is in a neutral non-compressed, non-expanded orientation. The retainer 12 further includes an outer cylindrical surface 130 located adjacent the top surface 122 and an outer beveled or frusto-conical surface 132 adjacent the bottom surface 124. The surface 130 is oriented parallel to the axis C. Two or more evenly spaced notches 133 are formed in the cylindrical surface 130 to more evenly distribute stress across the entire retainer during contraction and expansion thereof. In other embodiments of the invention, the notches 133 may be on the inside of the ring or they may be omitted. The resilient retainer 12 further includes first and second end surfaces, 134 and 135 disposed in spaced relation to one another when the retainer is in a neutral non-compressed state. Both end surfaces 134 and 135 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the top surface 122 and the bottom surface 124. A width X between the surfaces 134 and 135 is determined by a desired amount of compressibility of the open retainer 12 when loaded into the receiver 10. The space X shown in FIG. 8 provides adequate space between the surfaces 134 and 135 for the retainer 12 to be pinched, with the surfaces 134 and 135 compressed toward one another (as shown by arrows P and Q in FIG. 19) to a closely spaced or even touching configuration, if necessary, to an extent that the compressed retainer 12 is up or bottom loadable through the receiver opening 106 as shown in FIG. 19. After passing through the opening 106 and along a portion of the lower inner surface, the retainer 12 expands or springs back to an original uncompressed, rounded or collar-like configuration of FIGS. 8-12, see, e.g., FIG. 21. The embodiment shown in FIGS. 8-12 illustrates the surfaces 134 and 135 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle depending upon the amount of compression desired during loading of the retainer 12 into the receiver 10. With reference to FIGS. 1 and 13-17, the compression insert 14 is illustrated that is sized and shaped to be received by and up-loaded into the receiver 10 at the lower opening 106. The compression insert 14 has an operational central axis that is the same as the central axis B of the receiver 10. The compression insert 14 has a central channel or through bore substantially defined by an inner cylindrical surface 141 coaxial with an inner partially spherical surface 142. The compression insert 14 through bore is sized and shaped to receive the driving tool 29 therethrough that engages the shank drive feature 46 when the shank body 6 is driven into bone with the receiver 10 attached. The surface 142 is sized and shaped to slidingly receive and ultimately frictionally engage the substantially spherical or domed surface 34 of the shank upper portion 8, in particular the stepped or ridged surface 40 such that the surface 142 initially slidingly and pivotally mates with the spherical surface 34 to create a ball-and-socket type joint. The surface 142 may include a roughening or surface finish to aid in frictional contact between the surface 142 and the surfaces 34 and/or 40, once a desired angle of articulation of the shank 4 with respect to the receiver 10 is reached. The compression insert 14 also includes an outer cylindrical surface 144 terminating at a top surface 145. The top surface 145 engages the rod 21 or other longitudinal connecting member during operation of the assembly 1 and locates the rod above the lower seat 68 of the receiver. The top surface 145 may further include an outer bevel 147 that is located adjacent the outer cylindrical surface 144. A bottom surface 149 extends between the spherical surface 142 and the outer cylindrical surface 144. It is foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention the compression insert 14 may further include upstanding arms that cradle the rod 21 or other connecting member. Such arms may be located spaced from the closure top 18 in some embodiments and may be sized and shaped to contact the closure top 18 in other embodiments in order to provide locking of the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly with capture but without fixing of the rod 21 or other longitudinal connecting member with respect to the closure top 18. The compression or pressure insert 14 ultimately seats on the shank upper portion 8 and is disposed substantially within the upper cylindrical wall 90. In operation, the insert 14 extends at least partially in the channel 64 of the receiver 10 such that the top surface 145 substantially contacts and engages the outer surface 22 of the rod 21 when such rod is placed in the receiver 10 and the closure structure or top 18 is tightened thereon. With reference to FIGS. 1 and 28-31, the illustrated elongate rod or longitudinal connecting member 21 can be any of a variety of implants utilized in reconstructive spinal surgery, but is typically a cylindrical, elongate structure having the outer substantially smooth, cylindrical surface 22 of uniform diameter. The rod 21 may be made from a variety of metals, metal alloys and deformable and less compressible plastics, including, but not limited to rods made of elastomeric, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and other types of materials. Longitudinal connecting members for use with the assembly 1 may take a variety of shapes, including but not limited to rods or bars of oval, rectangular or other curved or polygonal cross-section. The shape of the insert 14 may be modified so as to closely hold, and if desired, fix or slidingly capture the longitudinal connecting member to the assembly 1. Some embodiments of the assembly 1 may also be used with a tensioned cord. Such a cord may be made from a variety of materials, including polyester or other plastic fibers, strands or threads, such as polyethylene-terephthalate. Furthermore, the longitudinal connector may be a component of a longer overall dynamic stabilization connecting member, with cylindrical or bar-shaped portions sized and shaped for being received by the compression insert 14 of the receiver having a U-shaped channel (or rectangular- or other-shaped channel) for closely receiving the longitudinal connecting member. The longitudinal connecting member may be integral or otherwise fixed to a bendable or damping component that is sized and shaped to be located between adjacent pairs of bone screw assemblies 1, for example. A damping component or bumper may be attached to the longitudinal connecting member at one or both sides of the bone screw assembly 1. A rod or bar (or rod or bar component) of a longitudinal connecting member may be made of a variety of materials ranging from deformable plastics to hard metals, depending upon the desired application. Thus, bars and rods of the invention may be made of materials including, but not limited to metal and metal alloys including but not limited to stainless steel, titanium, titanium alloys and cobalt chrome; or other suitable materials, including plastic polymers such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK), ultra-high-molecular weight-polyethylene (UHMWP), polyurethanes and composites, including composites containing carbon fiber, natural or synthetic elastomers such as polyisoprene (natural rubber), and synthetic polymers, copolymers, and thermoplastic elastomers, for example, polyurethane elastomers such as polycarbonate-urethane elastomers. With reference to FIGS. 1 and 28-31, the closure structure or closure top 18 shown with the assembly 1 is rotatably received between the spaced arms 62. It is noted that the closure 18 can be any of a variety of different types of closure structures for use in conjunction with the present invention with suitable mating structure on the upstanding arms 62. It is also foreseen that the closure top could be a twist-in or slide-in closure structure. The illustrated closure structure 18 is substantially cylindrical and includes an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 162 in the form of a flange form that operably joins with the guide and advancement structure 72 disposed on the arms 62 of the receiver 10. The flange form utilized in accordance with the present invention may take a variety of forms, including those described in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689, which is incorporated herein by reference. It is also foreseen that according to the invention the closure structure guide and advancement structure could alternatively be a buttress thread, a square thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread like or non-thread like helically wound advancement structure for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 18 downward between the arms 62 and having such a nature as to resist splaying of the arms 62 when the closure structure 18 is advanced into the U-shaped channel 64. The illustrated closure structure 18 also includes a top surface 164 with an internal drive 166 in the form of an aperture that is illustrated as a star-shaped internal drive such as that sold under the trademark TORX, or may be, for example, a hex drive, or other internal drives such as slotted, tri-wing, spanner, two or more apertures of various shapes, and the like. A driving tool (not shown) sized and shaped for engagement with the internal drive 166 is used for both rotatable engagement and, if needed, disengagement of the closure 18 from the receiver arms 62. It is also foreseen that the closure structure 18 may alternatively include a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 70 to 140 inch pounds. Such a closure structure would also include a base having an internal drive to be used for closure removal. A base or bottom surface 168 of the closure is planar and further includes a point 169 and a rim 170 for engagement and penetration into the surface 22 of the rod 21 in certain embodiments of the invention. The closure top 18 may further include a cannulation through bore (not shown) extending along a central axis thereof and through the top and bottom surfaces thereof. Such a through bore provides a passage through the closure 18 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for insertion of the closure top into the receiver arms 62. Preferably, the receiver 10, the retainer 12 and the compression insert 14 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainer 12. In some circumstances, the shank 4 is also assembled with the receiver 10, retainer 12 and compression insert 14 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 4, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver, retainer and compression insert at the insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 4, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. Pre-assembly of the receiver 10, retainer 12 and compression insert 14 is shown in FIGS. 18-20. First, the compression insert 14 is uploaded into the receiver 10 through the lower opening 106 with the insert top surface 145 facing the receiver bottom surface 104. The insert 14 is slid upwardly toward the channel seat 68 until the insert is within the cylindrical wall 90. If pressed further upwardly, the insert top surface 145 abuts against the receiver surface 88. Then, the resilient open retainer 12 is prepared for insertion into the receiver 10 by squeezing or pressing the retainer end surfaces 134 and 135 toward one another as shown by the arrows P and Q in FIG. 19. The compressed retainer 12 is inserted into the lower opening 106 with the top surface 122 facing the receiver bottom surface 104. The retainer 12 is typically moved upwardly into the receiver 10 and past the cylindrical surface 96 and allowed to expand to a neutral uncompressed state within the cylindrical surface 94 as shown in FIG. 21. Also as shown in FIG. 21, at this time, both the compression insert 14 and the retainer 12 are captured within the receiver 10. The insert 14 is captured by the retainer 12 at the bottom surface 149 thereof and the top surface 145 abuts against the receiver 88 if the receiver 10 is tipped upside down as shown in FIG. 21. The retainer 12 cannot move beyond the receiver surface 92 at the top 122 thereof and cannot move beyond the receiver surface 99 at the bottom 124 thereof when in a neutral, non-compressed state. At this time the receiver 10, compression insert 14 and retainer 12 combination is pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 4 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 4 as will be described herein. As illustrated in FIG. 22, the bone screw shank 4 (or as shown in FIG. 26, an entire assembly 1 made up of the assembled shank 4, receiver 10, retainer 12 and compression insert 14) is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 13, by rotation of the shank 4 using a suitable driving tool 29 that operably drives and rotates the shank body 6 by engagement thereof at the internal drive 46. Specifically, the vertebra 13 may be pre-drilled to minimize stressing the bone and have a guide wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for the placement and angle of the shank 4 with respect to the vertebra. A further tap hole may be made using a tap with the guide wire as a guide. Then, the bone screw shank or assembly is threaded onto the guide wire utilizing the cannulation bore 50 by first threading the wire into the opening at the bottom 28 and then out of the top opening at the drive feature 46. The shank 4 is then driven into the vertebra using the wire as a placement guide. It is foreseen that the shank and other bone screw assembly parts, the rod 21 (also having a central lumen in some embodiments) and the closure top 18 (also with a central bore) can be inserted in a percutaneous or minimally invasive surgical manner, utilizing guide wires. Again with respect to FIGS. 22 and 23, when the shank 4 is driven into the vertebra 13 without the remainder of the assembly 1, the shank 4 may either be driven to a desired final location or may be driven to a location slightly above or proud to provide for ease in assembly with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer. With reference to FIGS. 23-26, the pre-assembled receiver, insert and retainer are placed above the shank upper portion 8 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 106. As the shank is moved into the interior of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 8 presses the retainer 12 upwardly into the groove 95 (if the retainer is not already located within such groove). As the portion 8 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 64, the retainer top surface 122 abuts against the annular surface 92 stopping upward movement of the retainer 12 and forcing outward movement of the retainer 12 towards the cylindrical surface 94 defining the expansion groove 95 as the spherical surface 34 continues in an upward direction. The retainer 12 begins to contract about the spherical surface 34 as the center of the sphere passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion groove 95 (see FIG. 25). The retainer 12 is then moved down into a final operative position shown in FIG. 26 by either an upward pull on the receiver 10 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 4 further into the vertebra 13 as shown in phantom in FIG. 26. Also, in some embodiments, when the receiver 10 is pre-assembled with the shank 4, the entire assembly 1 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool 20 into the receiver and the shank drive 46 as shown in FIG. 26 and rotating and driving the shank 4 into a desired location of the vertebra 13. At this time, the receiver 10 may be articulated to a desired position with respect to the shank 4 as shown, for example, in FIG. 27. With reference to FIGS. 28-31, the rod 21 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 1. The closure structure 18 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 62 of each of the receivers 10. The closure structure 18 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 166 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 21 engages the flat top surface 145 of the compression insert 14, biasing the insert spherical surface 142 against the shank spherical surface 34. As shown in FIG. 29, when the shank 4 is articulated at an angle with respect to the receiver 10 both smooth and stepped 40 surface portions of the spherical surface 34 are in frictional engagement with the spherical surface 142 of the compression insert. When the shank 4 is axially aligned with the receiver 10 as shown in FIGS. 30 and 31, the surface 142 primarily engages the stepped surface portion 40 of the shank upper portion 8. As the closure structure 18 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 10, the point 169 and rim 170 engage and penetrate the rod surface 22, the closure structure 18 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 21 (in a direction illustrated by the arrow M in FIG. 29) into engagement with the insert 14 that urges the shank upper portion 8 toward the retainer 12 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 12 frictionally abutting the surface 99 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 96. For example, about 80 to about 120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 6 with respect to the receiver 10. If removal of the rod 21 from any of the bone screw assemblies 1 is necessary, or if it is desired to release the rod 21 at a particular location, disassembly is accomplished by using the driving tool (not shown) that mates with the internal drive 166 on the closure structure 18 to rotate and remove such closure structure from the cooperating receiver 10. Disassembly is then accomplished in reverse order to the procedure described previously herein for assembly. With reference to FIGS. 32-59 the reference number 1001 generally represents a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 1001 includes a shank 1004, that further includes a body 1006 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or capture structure 1008; a receiver 1010; a retainer structure 1012 and a compression or pressure insert 1014. The receiver 1010, retainer 1012 and compression insert 1014 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 1004 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 1006 into a vertebra 1013. FIGS. 57-59 further show a closure structure 1018 of the invention for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 1021 which in turn engages the compression insert 1014 that presses against the shank upper portion 1008 into fixed frictional contact with the retainer 1012, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 1021 within the receiver 1010 and thus fix the member 1021 relative to the vertebra 1013. The illustrated rod 1021 is hard, stiff, non-elastic and cylindrical, having an outer cylindrical surface 1022. It is foreseen that in other embodiments, the rod 1021 may be elastic, deformable and/or of a different cross-sectional geometry as previously described herein with respect to the rod 21 of the assembly 1. The receiver 1010 and the shank 1004 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 1010 and the shank 1004 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 1010 with the shank 1004 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 1004, best illustrated in FIGS. 32-34 is substantially similar to the shank 4 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 1. Thus, the shank 1004 includes the shank body 1006, upper portion or head 1008, a shank thread 1024, a neck 1026, a tip 1028, a top of thread 1032, an upper portion spherical surface 1034 a top surface 1038, an internal drive 1046 with a base surface 1045 and an cannulation bore 1050 the same or substantially similar to the respective body 6, upper portion or head 8, shank thread 24, neck 26, tip 28, top of thread 32, spherical surface 34, top surface 38, internal drive 46 with base surface 45 and cannulation bore 50 previously described herein with respect to the shank 4 of the assembly 1. Unlike the shank 4, the shank 1004 does not include ridges 40 on the spherical surface 1034. Rather ridges or gripping surfaces are located on the insert 1014 as will be described in greater detail below. To provide a biologically active interface with the bone, the threaded shank body 1006 may be coated, perforated, made porous or otherwise treated as previously discussed herein with respect to the shank body 6 of the assembly 1. With particular reference to FIGS. 32 and 40-44, the receiver 1010 has a generally squared-off U-shaped appearance with partially discontinuous and partially cylindrical inner and outer profiles. The receiver 1010 has an axis of rotation B that is shown in FIG. 32 as being aligned with and the same as an axis of rotation A of the shank 1004, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 1010 with the shank 1004. After the receiver 1010 is pivotally attached to the shank 1004, either before or after the shank 1004 is implanted in a vertebra 1013, the axis B is typically disposed at an angle with respect to the axis A, as shown, for example, in FIGS. 58 and 59. The receiver 1010 includes a substantially cylindrical base 1060 defining an inner cavity 1061, the base 1060 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 1062 forming a cradle and defining a channel 1064 between the arms 1062 with an upper opening, generally 1066, and a squared-off U-shaped lower seat 1068, the channel 1064 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 1021 between the arms 1062, the channel 1064 communicating with the base cavity 1061. The squared-off geometry of the channel 1064 and lower seat 1068 allow for use with a variety of longitudinal connecting members, including, but not limited to those with circular, oblong, oval, square and rectangular cross-sections. As compared to a U-shaped channel that includes a lower seat having a surface with a radius the same or slightly larger than a cooperating cylindrical rod or other connecting member, the squared-off seat 1068 of the present invention provides improved stress management, moving stress risers outwardly toward the two arms 1062 rather than being focused primarily at a center base line of the radiused lower seat. Furthermore, outer front and rear opposed substantially planar base surfaces 1069 that partially define the squared-off lower seat 1068 advantageously reduce the run on the rod (i.e., provide a more narrow receiver that in turn provides more space and thus more access between bone anchors along the rod or other connecting member) and provide a planar surface for flush or close contact with other connecting member components in certain embodiments, such as for bumpers or spacers that surround a hard or deformable rod or provide support for cord-type connecting members. Each of the arms 1062 has an interior surface, generally 1070, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 1072 located adjacent top surfaces 1073 of each of the arms 1062. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 1072 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 1018. However, it is foreseen that the guide and advancement structure 1072 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structure for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 1018 downward between the arms 1062, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 1018 abuts against the rod 1021 or other longitudinal connecting member. An opposed pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 1074 are formed on outer surfaces 1076 of the arms 1062. Furthermore, two pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 1077 are formed in front and rear surfaces 1078 of the arms 1062. Some or all of the apertures 1074 and 1077 may be used for holding the receiver 1010 during assembly with the insert 1014, the retainer 1012 and the shank 1004, during the implantation of the shank body 1006 into a vertebra when the shank is pre-assembled with the receiver 1010, and during assembly of the bone anchor assembly 1001 with the rod 1021 and the closure structure 1018. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 1062. Returning to the interior surface 1070 of the receiver arms 1062, located below the guide and advancement structure 1072 is a discontinuous cylindrical surface 1082 partially defining a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 1072. The cylindrical surface 1082 has a diameter equal to or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 1072. Moving downwardly, in a direction toward the base 1060, adjacent the cylindrical surface 1082 is a run-out seat or surface 1084 that extends inwardly toward the axis B and runs perpendicular to the axis B. Adjacent to and located below the surface 1084 is another cylindrical surface 1086 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 1082. A discontinuous annular surface 1088 that provides an upper abutment surface or stop for capturing the compression insert 1014 in the receiver 1010 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 1086. The abutment surface 1088 is disposed substantially perpendicular to the axis B. As shown in FIG. 51 and discussed in greater detail below, the assembly 1001 is typically provided to a user with the insert 1014 being held within the receiver by a pair of spring tabs, generally 1090, that resiliently hold the insert 1014 and keep the insert stationary with respect to the receiver 1010 and slightly spaced from the upper stop 1088 until the insert 1014 is pressed down by the user into a friction fit working position wherein the insert 1014 is in frictional contact with the shank upper portion 1008, the shank still movable with respect to the insert 1014, but not in a loose or floppy manner. Each spring tab 1090 generally extends from a location spaced from the surface 1088 and along one of the arms 1062 downwardly to the base 1060; each spring tab 1090 being integral with the base 1060. The opposed spring tabs 1090 include various surfaces for contacting the insert 1014 at different stages of assembly and will be discussed in greater detail in the paragraphs below. A continuous annular surface 1092 is located below and adjacent to the spring tabs 1090. The surface 1092 is disposed in the base 1060, partially forming the base cavity 1061 and forms a stop for the resilient retainer 1012, prohibiting the retainer 1012 (when in an uncompressed configuration) from moving upwardly into a space or cavity 1091 defined by the spring tab 1090 inner surfaces that hold the compression insert 1014. Another cylindrical surface 1094 is located below and adjacent to the surface 1092. The cylindrical surface 1094 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to receive an expanded retainer 1012. The surfaces 1092 and 1094 define a circumferential recess, groove or chamber 1095 that is sized and shaped to receive the retainer 1012 as it expands around the shank upper portion 1008 as the shank 1008 moves upwardly toward the channel 1064 during assembly, as well as form a restriction to prevent the expanded retainer 1012 from moving upwardly with the shank portion 1008, the surface 1092 preventing the retainer 1012 from passing from the groove 1095 into the cavity 1091 whether the retainer 1012 is in a partially or fully expanded position, or in a neutral or original or operative position (see, e.g., FIG. 54). A cylindrical surface 1096 located below the cylindrical surface 1094 is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 1012 when the retainer is in a neutral or slightly expanded position as shown in FIG. 57, for example. Thus, the cylindrical surface 1096 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 1094 that defines the expansion chamber 1095. The surface 1096 is joined or connected to the surface 1094 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 1097. The surfaces 1097 allow for sliding gradual movement and/or contraction of the retainer 1012 into the space defined by the surface 1096 and ultimate seating and slight expansion of the retainer 1012 on a lower annular surface 1099 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 1096. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 1099 is another cylindrical surface 1100 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 1102, the surface 1102 communicating with an exterior base surface 1104 of the base 1060, defining a lower opening, generally 1106, into the base cavity 1061 of the receiver 1010. The illustrated surface 1100 has a diameter that is substantially the same as an inner diameter of the spring tabs 1090, when in a neutral, unsprung position as will be described in greater detail below, allowing for slidable uploading of the compression insert 1014 while requiring compression or squeezing of the retainer 1012 during uploading of the retainer 1012 through the lower opening 1106 (see FIGS. 50 and 51, for example). Returning to the spring tabs 1090, each spring tab includes a top surface 1110 and a first radiused inner surface 1111 perpendicular to a lower lip or abutment surface 1112. The abutment surface 1112 extends from the surface 1111 to another radiused surface 1114 having a radius larger than a radius of the surface 1111. The surface 1114 is integral with a cylindrical surface 1115 that extends into the base 1060 defining an upper portion of the base cavity 1061, the surface 1115 terminating at the annular abutment surface 1092. Each spring tab 1090 is further defined by diverging side surfaces 1117 and an outer surface 1118. The surfaces 1117 diverge at the inner surfaces 1111 and 1114 and converge toward the outer surface 1118, the illustrated pairs of surfaces 1117 being at an acute angle with respect to one another. The top surface 1110 is spaced from the annular abutment surface 1088 and is substantially parallel thereto when the spring tabs 1090 are in a neutral, non-sprung state. Also, as will be described in greater detail below, when the tabs 1090 are in a neutral, non-spring state, the surfaces 1111 form a discontinuous cylindrical surface having a diameter smaller than an outer diameter of the insert 1014, while the inner surfaces 1114 form a discontinuous cylindrical surface having a diameter slightly larger than a largest outer diameter of the insert 1014, the insert 1014 being snugly held thereby under the lip surface 1112 when in a fully assembled, friction fit position within the receiver 1010. When the tabs 1090 are in an outwardly directed sprung state as shown on FIGS. 51 and 52, for example, the surfaces 1111 frictionally engage the insert 1014, prohibiting both upward and downward movement of the insert 1014 within the receiver 1010, advantageously keeping the insert 1014 clear of other tools and components prior to assembly with other components and during the insertion of the retainer 1012 into the receiver 1010 and the bone screw shank upper portion 1008 into the retainer 1012 within the receiver 1010. As best shown in FIG. 54, the somewhat trapezoidal spring tabs 1090 are created by a machining process in which at least two cuts, at an acute angle to one another, are made in each receiver arm 1062. The angular cuts advantageously create spring tabs 1090 having greater surface contact area with the insert 1014 than would occur with spring tabs having parallel side surfaces formed by parallel cuts. A further advantage of angular cuts over parallel cuts is that angular cuts advantageously provide access to and removal of material from the inner receiver arms 1062 that then allow for the arms to receive the insert 1014 during the assembly step of springing the tabs 1090 outwardly and pushing the insert 1014 upwardly into frictional engagement with the surfaces 1111 that was mentioned above and will be described in greater detail below. With particular reference to FIGS. 32, 35-39 and 51-52, the retainer 1012 that operates to capture the shank upper portion 1008 and the compression insert 1014 within the receiver 1010 has a central axis C that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 1010 when the shank upper portion 1008 and the retainer 1012 are installed within the receiver 1010. The retainer 1012 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 1012 may be both compressed and expanded during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The retainer 1012 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 1121, that passes entirely through the structure 1012 from a top surface 1122 to a bottom surface 1124 thereof. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 1121 include a discontinuous inner cylindrical surface 1125 adjacent the top surface 1122 and a discontinuous frusto-conical or beveled surface 1127 adjacent the surface 1125, both surfaces coaxial with the axis C when the retainer 1012 is in a neutral non-compressed, non-expanded orientation. The retainer 1012 further includes an outer cylindrical surface 1130 located adjacent the top surface 1122 and an outer beveled or frusto-conical surface 1132 adjacent the bottom surface 1124. The surface 130 is oriented parallel to the axis C. A pair of spaced notches 1133 are formed in the cylindrical surface 1130. The notches 1130 receive a holding and manipulation tool (not shown) used for contraction and insertion of the retainer 1012 into the receiver. In some embodiments further notches may be made to evenly distribute stress across the entire retainer during contraction and expansion thereof. In other embodiments of the invention, such notches may be on the inside of the ring. In some embodiments, the ring can have no notches. The resilient retainer 1012 further includes first and second end surfaces, 1134 and 1135 disposed in spaced relation to one another when the retainer is in a neutral non-compressed state. Both end surfaces 1134 and 1135 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the top surface 1122 and the bottom surface 1124. A width X between the surfaces 1134 and 1135 is determined by a desired amount of compressibility of the open retainer 1012 when loaded into the receiver 1010. The space X shown in FIG. 35 provides adequate space between the surfaces 1134 and 1135 for the retainer 1012 to be pinched, with the surfaces 1134 and 1135 compressed toward one another (as shown in FIG. 51) to a closely spaced or even touching configuration, if necessary, to an extent that the compressed retainer 1012 is up or bottom loadable through the receiver opening 1106 as shown in FIGS. 51 and 52. After passing through the opening 1106 and along a portion of the lower inner surface, the retainer 1012 expands or springs back to an original uncompressed, rounded or collar-like configuration of FIGS. 35-39, see, e.g., FIG. 52. The embodiment shown in FIGS. 35-39 illustrates the surfaces 1134 and 1135 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle depending upon the amount of compression desired during loading of the retainer 1012 into the receiver 1010. With reference to FIGS. 32 and 45-51, the compression insert 1014 is illustrated that is sized and shaped to be received by and up-loaded into the receiver 1010 at the lower opening 1106. The compression insert 1014 has an operational central axis that is the same as the central axis B of the receiver 1010. The compression insert 1014 has a central channel or through bore defined by an inner cylindrical surface 1141, an inner partially spherical surface 1142 and a shank gripping surface portion, generally 1143, extending between the surface 1141 and the surface 1142. The gripping surface portion 1143 preferably includes two or more graduated cylindrical surfaces disposed substantially parallel to the axis B and adjacent perpendicular step surfaces that are disposed generally perpendicular to the axis B. It is foreseen that the stepped surface portion 1143 may include greater or fewer number of stepped surfaces. It is foreseen that the shank gripping surface portion 1143 and also the surface 1142 may additionally or alternatively include a roughened or textured surface or surface finish, or may be scored, knurled, or the like, for enhancing frictional engagement with the shank upper portion 1008. The compression insert 1014 through bore is sized and shaped to receive the driving tool 1029 therethrough that engages the shank drive feature 1046 when the shank body 1006 is driven into bone with the receiver 1010 attached. The surfaces 1142 and 1143 are sized and shaped to initially slidingly receive and ultimately frictionally engage the substantially spherical or domed surface 1034 of the shank upper portion 1008, in particular the stepped or ridged surface 1143 that will initially frictionally but slidingly and pivotally mate with the spherical surface 1034 to create a ball-and-socket type joint, but ultimately dig into and thus be securely fixed with the domed surface 1034. The compression insert 1014 also includes a first outer and upper cylindrical surface 1144 adjacent to a top surface 1145. The top surface 1145 engages the rod 1021 or other longitudinal connecting member during operation of the assembly 1001 and locates the rod above the lower seat 1068 of the receiver. The insert 1014 also includes an outer lower cylindrical surface 1148 adjacent to a bottom surface 1149. The cylindrical surfaces 1144 and 1148 have the same or substantially the same outer diameter, sized to be received by the receiver surface 1100 when loaded into the receiver 1010 and also be snugly received by spring tab 1090 surfaces 1114 when the spring tabs are in a neutral or relaxed state. Located between the surfaces 1144 and 1148 is a frusto-conical surface 1152 that extends from the surface 1144 inwardly toward the axis B and terminates at an annular ledge 1154. The ledge 1154 extends from the frusto-conical surface 1152 to the surface 1148 and is substantially perpendicular to the surface 1148. As will be described in greater detail below, during early stages of assembly, the insert 1014 outer surfaces 1144 and 1152 are resiliently gripped by the spring tab surfaces 1111 with the spring tab lower lip 1112 engaging the ledge 1154 to hold the insert 1014 in a desired stationary position with respect to the receiver 1010. When the insert 1014 is lowered into a second or friction fit position in frictional engagement with the bone screw shank, the lower lip 1112 extends over the insert top surface 1145. It is foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention the compression insert 1014 may further include upstanding arms that cradle the rod 1021 or other connecting member. Such arms may be located spaced from the closure top 1018 in some embodiments and may be sized and shaped to contact the closure top 1018 in other embodiments in order to provide locking of the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly with capture but without fixing of the rod 1021 or other longitudinal connecting member with respect to the closure top 1018. The compression or pressure insert 1014 ultimately seats on the shank upper portion 1008 and is disposed substantially within the spring tab cylindrical wall 1114. In operation, the insert 1014 extends at least partially in the channel 1064 of the receiver 1010 such that the top surface 1145 substantially contacts and engages the outer surface 1022 of the rod 1021 when such rod is placed in the receiver 1010 and the closure structure or top 1018 is tightened thereon. With reference to FIGS. 57-59, the illustrated elongate rod or longitudinal connecting member 1021 is the same or substantially similar to the rod 21 previously described herein and thus can be any of a variety of implants utilized in reconstructive spinal surgery, but is typically a cylindrical, elongate structure having the outer substantially smooth, cylindrical surface 1022 of uniform diameter. The rod 1021 may be made from a variety of metals, metal alloys and deformable and less compressible plastics, including, but not limited to rods made of elastomeric, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and other types of materials. Longitudinal connecting members for use with the assembly 1001 may take a variety of shapes as previously described with respect to the assembly 1, including outer sleeve and inner cord connecting member assemblies as shown and described, for example, in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/802,849 filed Jun. 15, 2010 that is incorporated by reference herein. With reference to FIGS. 57-59, the closure structure or closure top 1018 shown with the assembly 1001 is the same or substantially similar in form and function to the closure top 18 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 1 and can be any of a variety of different types of closure structures for use in conjunction with the present invention with suitable mating structure on the upstanding arms 1062. The illustrated closure structure 1018 is substantially cylindrical and includes a an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 1162 in the form of a flange form that operably joins with the guide and advancement structure 1072 disposed on the arms 1062 of the receiver 1010. The illustrated closure structure 1018 also includes a top surface 1164 with an internal drive 1166 in the form of an aperture that is illustrated as a star-shaped internal drive such as that sold under the trademark TORX, or may be, for example, a hex drive, or other internal drives such as slotted, tri-wing, spanner, two or more apertures of various shapes, and the like. A driving tool (not shown) sized and shaped for engagement with the internal drive 1166 is used for both rotatable engagement and, if needed, disengagement of the closure 1018 from the receiver arms 1062. It is also foreseen that the closure structure 1018 may alternatively include a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 70 to 140 inch pounds. Such a closure structure would also include a base having an internal drive to be used for closure removal. A base or bottom surface 1168 of the closure is planar and further includes a point 1169 and a rim 1170 for engagement and penetration into the surface 1022 of the rod 1021 in certain embodiments of the invention. The closure top 1018 may further include a cannulation through bore (not shown) extending along a central axis thereof and through the top and bottom surfaces thereof. Such a through bore provides a passage through the closure 18 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for insertion of the closure top into the receiver arms 1062. Preferably, the receiver 1010, the retainer 1012 and the compression insert 1014 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainer 1012 as well as spreading of the spring tabs 1090. As described herein with respect to the assembly 1, similarly, the shank 1004 may be assembled with the receiver 1010, retainer 1012 and compression insert 1014 at the factory or it may be desirable to “pop” the shank 1004 into the receiver assembly at a later time, either before or after implantation of the shank 1004 in the vertebra 1013. Pre-assembly of the receiver 1010, retainer 1012 and compression insert 1014 is shown in FIGS. 50-52. First, the compression insert 1014 is uploaded into the receiver 1010 through the lower opening 1106 with the insert top surface 1145 facing the receiver bottom surface 1104. The insert 1014 is slid upwardly toward the channel seat 1068 until the insert is within the cylindrical walls 1114 of the spring tabs 1090. If pressed further upwardly without expanding the spring tabs 1090, the insert top surface 1145 would simply abut against the surface 1112. A tool or tools (not shown) are used to pull or otherwise spread the spring tabs 1090 away from one another and allow the insert 1014 to be placed therebetween at the outer surfaces 1144 and/or 1152. Then the resilient tabs 1090 are released and the surfaces 1111 of the tabs 1090 engage the surface 1144 or 1152, preferably engaging the surface 1152 adjacent to the ledge 1154. The surface 1112 advantageously abuts against the ledge 1154, stopping the insert 1014 from any further upward movement towards the surface 1088 and providing adequate clearance for the later step of pushing the bone screw shank upper portion 1008 through the spring ring retainer 1112. Although the surface 1088 would prohibit the insert 1014 from moving out the upper opening 1066, engagement with the resilient spring tabs 1090 also prohibits downward movement of the insert 1014 and keeps the insert 1014 away from the lower opening 1106 during assembly with the retainer 1012 and subsequent assembly with the shank 1004. Then, the resilient open retainer 1012 is prepared for insertion into the receiver 1010 by squeezing or pressing the retainer end surfaces 1134 and 1135 toward one another as shown in FIG. 51. The compressed retainer 1012 is inserted into the lower opening 1106 with the top surface 1122 facing the receiver bottom surface 1104. The retainer 1012 is typically moved upwardly into the receiver 1010 and past the cylindrical surface 1096 and allowed to expand to a neutral uncompressed state within the cylindrical surface 1096 as shown in FIG. 52. Also as shown in FIG. 52, at this time, both the compression insert 1014 and the retainer 1012 are captured within the receiver 1010. The receiver 1010, compression insert 1014 and the retainer 1012 combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 1004 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 1004. As illustrated in FIG. 53, the bone screw shank 1004 (or an entire assembly 1001 made up of the assembled shank 1004, receiver 1010, retainer 1012 and compression insert 1014) is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 1013, by rotation of the shank 1004 using a suitable driving tool 1029 that operably drives and rotates the shank body 1006 by engagement thereof at the internal drive 1046. It is foreseen that the shank and other bone screw assembly parts, the rod 2021 (also having a central lumen in some embodiments) and the closure top 2018 (also with a central bore) can be inserted in a percutaneous or minimally invasive surgical manner, utilizing guide wires. Again with respect to FIGS. 53 and 54, when the shank 1004 is driven into the vertebra 1013 without the remainder of the assembly 1001, the shank 1004 may either be driven to a desired final location or may be driven to a location slightly above or proud to provide for ease in assembly with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer. With reference to FIGS. 54-57, the pre-assembled receiver, insert and retainer are placed above the shank upper portion 1008 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 1106. As the shank is moved into the interior of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 1008 presses the retainer 1012 upwardly into the chamber 1095 (if the retainer is not already located within such chamber). As the portion 1008 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 1064, the retainer top surface 1122 abuts against the annular surface 1092 stopping upward movement of the retainer 1012 and forcing outward movement of the retainer 1012 towards the cylindrical surface 1094 defining the expansion chamber or groove 1095 as the spherical surface 1034 continues in an upward direction. The retainer 1012 begins to contract about the spherical surface 1034 as the center of the sphere passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion chamber 1095 (see FIG. 55). The retainer 1012 can then move down into a final operative location within the seating chamber or groove, shown in FIGS. 56 and 57 by either gravity and/or an upward pull on the receiver 1010 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 1004 further into the vertebra 1013. Also, in some embodiments, when the receiver q010 is pre-assembled with the shank q004, the entire assembly 1001 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool 1020 into the receiver and the shank drive 1046 and rotating and driving the shank 1004 into a desired location of the vertebra 1013. With reference to FIG. 56, at this time, the compression insert 1014 is pressed downwardly with a tool (not shown), or with the rod, toward the shank upper portion 1008 and out of engagement with the spring tab surfaces 1111. Once the insert surface 1144 clears the tab surfaces 1111, the insert snaps into place and the spring tabs 1090 return to an original, relaxed orientation with the surfaces 1112 located over the insert top surface 1145 and frictionally engaging such surface. The spring tabs 1090 are sized such that when the surfaces 1112 frictionally engage the top surface 1145 of the insert, the insert 1014 surfaces 1142 and 1143 in turn press against the shank upper portion 1008 at the spherical surface 1034. The friction fit between the compression insert 1014 and the shank upper portion 1008 is not totally locked or fixed, but at the same time not loose or floppy either, advantageously allowing the user to articulate the shank 1004 with respect to the receiver 1010, but with some resistance, so that when the shank 1004 is placed in a desired orientation with respect to the receiver 1010, the assembly 1001 remains substantially frictionally set in such desired orientation unless purposefully manipulated into another position. For example, at this time, the receiver 1010 may be articulated to a desired position with respect to the shank 1004, for example, as shown in FIG. 58 or FIG. 59, but prior to locking of such position that is shown in those drawings. With reference to FIGS. 57-59, the rod 1021 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 1001. The closure structure 1018 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 1062 of each of the receivers 1010. The closure structure 1018 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 1166 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 1021 engages the flat top surface 1145 of the compression insert 1014, further pressing the insert spherical surface 1142 and stepped surfaces 1143 against the shank spherical surface 1034, the edges of the stepped surfaces penetrating into the spherical surface 1034. As the closure structure 1018 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 1010, the point 1169 and rim 1170 engage and penetrate the rod surface 1022, the closure structure 1018 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 1021 into engagement with the insert 1014 that urges the shank upper portion 1008 toward the retainer 1012 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 1012 frictionally abutting the surface 1099 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 1096. For example, about 80 to about 120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 1006 with respect to the receiver 1010. If removal of the rod 1021 from any of the bone screw assemblies 1001 is necessary, or if it is desired to release the rod 1021 at a particular location, disassembly is accomplished by using the driving tool (not shown) that mates with the internal drive 1166 on the closure structure 1018 to rotate and remove such closure structure from the cooperating receiver 1010. Disassembly is then accomplished in reverse order to the procedure described previously herein for assembly. With reference to FIGS. 60-83, the reference numeral 1201 generally represents another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw according to the invention. The assembly 1201 includes a shank 1204, that further includes a body 1206 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or capture structure 1208; a receiver 1210; a retainer structure 1212 and a compression or pressure insert 1214. The receiver 1210, retainer 1212 and compression insert 1214 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 1204 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 1206 into a vertebra, as will be described in greater detail below. FIG. 60 further shows a closure structure 1218 of the invention for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 1221 which in turn engages the compression insert 1214 that presses against the shank upper portion 1208 into fixed frictional contact with the retainer 1212, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 1221 within the receiver 1210 and thus fix the member 1221 relative to the vertebra. The illustrated rod 1221 is hard, stiff, non-elastic and cylindrical, having an outer cylindrical surface 1222. It is foreseen that in other embodiments, the rod 1221 may be elastic, deformable and/or of a different cross-sectional geometry. The receiver 1210 and the shank 1204 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 1210 and the shank 1204 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 1210 with the shank 1204 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 1204 is the same or substantially similar in form and function to the shank 1004 previously described herein and includes the body 1206, upper portion or head 1208 having a spherical surface 1234 and an internal drive feature 1246 the same or similar to the respective body 1006, upper portion 1008, spherical surface 1034 and drive feature 1046 previously described herein with respect to the shank 1004 of the assembly 1001. The receiver 1210 is also substantially similar in form and function to the receiver 1010 previously described herein. However, there are differences between the two receivers as the receiver 1210 cooperates with the insert 1214 that varies in many respects from the insert 1014 previously described herein. Therefore, the receiver 1210 and the insert 1214 will be described in greater detail below. With particular reference to FIGS. 60-63 and 72, the receiver 1210 has a generally squared-off U-shaped appearance with partially discontinuous and partially cylindrical inner and outer profiles. The receiver 1210 has an axis of rotation that is shown in FIG. 60 as being aligned with and the same as an axis of rotation of the shank 1204, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 1210 with the shank 1204. The receiver 1210 includes a substantially cylindrical base 1260 defining an inner cavity 1261, the base 1260 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 1262 forming a cradle and defining a channel 1264 between the arms 1262 with an upper opening, generally 1266, and a squared-off U-shaped lower seat 1268, the channel 1264 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 1221 between the arms 1262, the channel 1264 communicating with the base inner cavity 1261. The squared-off geometry of the channel 1264 and lower seat 1268 allow for use with a variety of longitudinal connecting members, including, but not limited to those with circular, square and rectangular cross-sections. As compared to a U-shaped channel that includes a lower seat having a surface with a radius the same or slightly larger than a cooperating cylindrical rod or other connecting member, the squared-off seat 1268 of the present invention provides improved stress management, moving stress risers outwardly toward the two arms 1262 rather than being focused primarily at a center base line of the radiused lower seat. Furthermore, outer front and rear opposed substantially planar base surfaces 1269 that partially define the squared-off lower seat 1268 advantageously reduce the run on the rod (i.e., provide a more narrow receiver that in turn provides more space and thus more access between bone anchors along the rod or other connecting member) and provide a planar surface for flush or close contact with other connecting member components in certain embodiments, such as for bumpers or spacers that surround a hard or deformable rod or provide support for cord-type connecting members. The planar surfaces can also better cooperate with compression and distraction tools. Each of the arms 1262 has an interior surface, generally 1270, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 1272 located adjacent top surfaces 1273 of each of the arms 1262. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 1272 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 1218. However, it is foreseen that the guide and advancement structure 1272 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structure for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 1018 downward between the arms 1262, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 1218 abuts against the rod 1221 or other longitudinal connecting member. An opposed pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 1274 are formed on outer surfaces 1276 of the arms 1262. Furthermore, two pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 1277 are formed in front and rear surfaces 1278 of the arms 1262. Some or all of the apertures 1274 and 1277 may be used for holding the receiver 1210 during assembly with the insert 1214, the retainer 1212 and the shank 1204, during the implantation of the shank body 1206 into a vertebra when the shank is pre-assembled with the receiver 1210, and during assembly of the bone anchor assembly 1201 with the rod 1221 and the closure structure 1218. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 1262. Returning to the interior surface 1270 of the receiver arms 1262, located below the guide and advancement structure 1272, adjacent a bottom surface 1280 thereof, is a discontinuous cylindrical surface 1282 partially defining a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 1272. The cylindrical surface 1282 has a diameter equal to or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 1272. Moving downwardly, in a direction toward the base 1260, adjacent the cylindrical surface 1282 is a run-out seat or surface 1284 that extends inwardly toward the central axis of the receiver and is perpendicular thereto. Adjacent to and located below the surface 1284 is another discontinuous cylindrical surface 1285 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 1282. The surface 1285 terminates at a narrow ledge 1286 that in turn partially defines another discontinuous cylindrical surface 1287 having a diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the surface 1285. With particular reference to FIGS. 76 and 77 an edge or rim 1288 that defines the junction of the ledge 286 and the cylindrical surface 287 is shown cooperating with the insert 214 as will be described in greater detail below, providing an advantageous shank lock and release feature of the assembly 201. As discussed in greater detail below, the assembly 1201 is typically provided to a user with the insert 1214 being held within the receiver by a pair of spring tabs, generally 1290, that resiliently hold the insert 1214 and keep the insert stationary with respect to the receiver 1210 in an upward position between the arms 1262 until the insert 1214 is pressed by the user into a friction fit working position wherein the insert 1214 is in frictional contact with the shank upper portion 1208, the shank still movable with respect to the insert 1214, but not in a loose or floppy manner. In a later stage of assembly, the spring tabs 1290 advantageously hold the insert 1214 in a centered position (the insert arms being held in alignment with the receiver arms) during rotation and torquing of the closure top 1218 onto the rod 1221 or other connecting member. Each spring tab 1290 generally extends from a location spaced from the surface 1287 and along one of the arms 1262 downwardly to the base 1260; each spring tab 1290 being integral with the base 1260. The opposed spring tabs 1290 include various surfaces for contacting the insert 1214 at different stages of assembly and will be discussed in greater detail in the paragraphs below. Returning to FIGS. 62 and 63, the lower cavity 1261 within the base 1260 includes an inner cylindrical surface 1291, portions of which extend up into and partially form the spring tabs 1290. A continuous annular surface 1292 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 1291. The surface 1292 is disposed in the base 1260, partially defining the base cavity 1261 and providing a stop for the resilient retainer 1212, prohibiting the retainer 1212 (when in an uncompressed configuration) from moving upwardly into a space or cavity defined by the cylindrical surface 1291 and the spring tab 1290 inner surfaces that hold the compression insert 1214. Another cylindrical surface 1294 is located below and adjacent to the surface 1292. The cylindrical surface 1294 is oriented substantially parallel to the receiver central axis and is sized and shaped to receive an expanded retainer 1212. The surfaces 1292 and 1294 define a circumferential recess, groove or chamber 1295 that is sized and shaped to receive the retainer 1212 as it expands around the shank upper portion 1208 as the shank 1208 moves upwardly toward the channel 1264 during assembly, as well as form a restriction to prevent the expanded retainer 1212 from moving upwardly with the shank portion 1208, the surface 1292 preventing the retainer 1212 from passing from the groove 1295 into the cavity defined by the surface 1291 whether the retainer 1212 is in a partially or fully expanded position, or in a neutral or original operative position. A cylindrical surface 1296 located below the cylindrical surface 1294 is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 1212 when the retainer is in a neutral or operative position, for example. Thus, the cylindrical surface 1296 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 1294 that defines the expansion groove 1295. The surface 1296 is joined or connected to the surface 1294 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 1297. The surfaces 1297 allow for sliding gradual movement and/or contraction of the retainer 1212 into the space defined by the surface 1296 and ultimate seating of the retainer 1212 on a lower annular surface 1299 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 1296. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 1299 is another cylindrical surface 1300 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 1302, the surface 1302 communicating with an exterior base surface 1304 of the base 1260, defining a lower opening, generally 1306, of the receiver 1210. The illustrated surface 1300 has a diameter that is substantially the same as an inner diameter of the surface 1291 that extends up into the spring tabs 1290, when in a neutral, unsprung position as will be described in greater detail below, allowing for slidable uploading of the compression insert 1214 (with minor squeezing of the insert arms toward one another) while requiring substantial compression or squeezing of the retainer 1212 during uploading of the retainer 1212 through the lower opening 1306. Returning to the spring tabs 1290, each spring tab includes a top surface 1310 and a first radiused inner surface 1311 perpendicular to a lower lip or abutment surface 1312. The abutment surface 1312 extends from the surface 1311 to the inner cylindrical surface 1291 that has a radius larger than a radius of the surface 1311. Each spring tab 1290 is further defined by a pair of opposed parallel side surfaces 1314, a pair of angled or diverging side surfaces 1315 and an outer surface 1317. The parallel surfaces 1314 are located on either side of the inner surface 1311 and the top surface 1310. The diverging side surfaces 1315 each run from the outer surface 1317 outwardly toward an adjacent surface 1314, the illustrated pairs of surfaces 1317 being at an acute angle with respect to one another. The top surface 1310 is spaced from the cylindrical surface 1287. When the tabs 1290 are in a neutral, non-sprung state, the surfaces 1311 define a diameter smaller than an outer diameter of the insert 1214, while the inner surface 1291 forms a discontinuous cylindrical surface having a diameter slightly larger than a lower outer diameter of the insert 1214, the insert 1214 being snugly held thereby and centered by the spring tabs 1290 that are positioned within a groove of the insert 1214 as will be discussed in greater detail below. When the tabs 1290 are in an outwardly sprung state as shown on FIG. 72, for example, the surfaces 1311 frictionally engage the insert 1214, prohibiting both upward and downward movement of the insert 1214 within the receiver 1210, advantageously keeping the insert 1214 clear of other tools and components prior to assembly with other components and during the insertion of the retainer 1212 into the receiver 1210 and the bone screw shank upper portion 1208 into the retainer 1212 within the receiver 1210. When the spring tabs 1290 are later placed back into a neutral un-spring state, the lip surface 1312 of the tabs 1290 press downwardly on the insert 1214, holding the insert 1214 in a friction fit orientation with respect to the shank upper portion 1208. As best shown in FIG. 78, the somewhat trapezoidal spring tabs 1290 are created by a machining process in which at least two cuts, at an acute angle to one another, are made into each receiver arm 1262. In order for the spring tabs 1290 to fit within grooves of the compression insert 1214, two parallel cuts are also made to form the opposed side surfaces 1314 of the spring tab 1290. Similar to that described with respect to the receiver 1010, an advantage of making angular cuts into the receiver 1210 to create the spring tabs 1290 is that angular cuts advantageously provide access to and removal of material from the inner receiver arms 1262 that then allow for the arms 1262 to receive the insert 1214 during the assembly step of springing the tabs 1290 outwardly and pushing the insert 1214 upwardly into frictional engagement with the surfaces 1311. This material clearing step is of special interest when the insert 1214 rather than the insert 1014 is being used according to the invention as the insert 1214 includes a pair of opposed arms that are taller than, and thus take up greater space within the receiver than the substantially cylindrical insert 1014. With reference to FIGS. 60, 72-75 and 79, the retainer 1212 is substantially similar in form and function to the retainer 1012 previously described herein. Therefore, the retainer 1212 includes a top surface 1322, a bottom surface 1324, an inner cylindrical surface 1325, an inner frusto-conical surface 1327, an outer cylindrical surface 1330 and opposed ends 1334 and 1335 that are the same or substantially similar to the respective top surface 1122, bottom surface 1124, inner cylindrical surface 1125, inner frusto-conical surface 1127, outer cylindrical surface 1130 and opposed ends 1134 and 1135 of the retainer 1012 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 1001. With reference to FIGS. 60 and 64-72, the compression insert 1214 is illustrated that is sized and shaped to be received by and up-loaded into the receiver 1210 at the lower opening 1306. The compression insert 1214 has an operational central axis that is the same as the central axis of the receiver 1210. The compression insert 1214 has a central channel or through bore defined by an inner cylindrical surface 1341, an inner partially spherical surface 1342 and a shank gripping surface portion, generally 1343, extending between the surface 1341 and the surface 1342. The gripping surface portion 1343 preferably includes two or more graduated cylindrical surfaces disposed substantially parallel to the insert central axis and adjacent perpendicular step surfaces that are disposed generally perpendicular to the insert central axis. It is foreseen that the stepped surface portion 1343 may include greater or fewer number of stepped surfaces. It is foreseen that the shank gripping surface portion 1343 and also the surface 1342 may additionally or alternatively include a roughened or textured surface or surface finish, or may be scored, knurled, or the like, for enhancing frictional engagement with the shank upper portion 1208. The compression insert 1214 through bore is sized and shaped to receive a driving tool (such as the driving tool 1029 shown with the assembly 1001) therethrough that engages the shank drive feature 1246 when the shank body 1206 is driven into bone with the receiver 1210 attached. The surfaces 1342 and 1343 are sized and shaped to initially frictionally but slidingly receive and ultimately frictionally engage and fix onto the substantially spherical or domed surface 1234 of the shank upper portion 1208, in particular the stepped or ridged surface 1343 that will initially frictionally but slidingly and pivotally mate with the spherical surface 1234 to create a ball-and-socket type joint, but ultimately dig or penetrate into and thus be securely fixed with the domed surface 1234. The compression insert 1214 also includes an outer and upper cylindrical surface 1344 that further extends upwardly on either side of the insert to form a pair of opposed arms 1345. Each arm 1345 further includes a top surface 1346 and an outer frusto-conical surface portion 1348 terminating at a lower surface or lip 1350. The frusto-conical surface portion 1348 flares outwardly and upwardly, having a largest radius thereof at the juncture of the surface 1348 with the top surface 1346. As will be described in greater detail below, frictional engagement between the surface portion 1348 and the cylindrical surface 1287 associated with the driving and downward movement of the closure top 1218 on the rod 1221 results in a locking of the polyaxial screw mechanism of the assembly 1201 that remains locked even if the closure top 1218 and the rod 1221 are subsequently loosened, allowing for all type and manner of manipulation of the bone screw and/or the rod 1221 by the surgeon while the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly 1201 remains rigidly fixed in the desired orientation previously chosen and locked down by the surgeon. However, if it is desired to loosen the polyaxial mechanism, the surgeon may do so by squeezing the arms 1345 toward one another with a tool (not shown) and moving the insert 1214 away from the shank 1204, thereby releasing the frusto-conical surface 1348 from the receiver cylindrical surface 1287 and thus loosening the polyaxial mechanism. Extending between the insert arms 1345 is a U-shaped, saddle like surface 1352 that forms a seat for the rod 1221 or other longitudinal connecting member. Portions of the saddle surface 1352 communicate with the bore defined by the cylindrical surface 1341. The surface 1352 is sized and shaped to closely receive the cylindrical rod 1221 at a location spaced from the lower seat 1268 of the receiver 1210. A bottom surface 1354 communicates with the inner spherical surface 1342, the insert 1214 being sized and shaped such that the surface 1354 is always spaced from the retainer 1212 as shown, for example, in FIGS. 75 and 80. The insert 1214 also includes an outer lower cylindrical surface 1356 adjacent to the bottom surface 1354. The cylindrical surfaces 1344 and 1356 have the same or substantially the same outer diameter, sized to be received by the receiver surface 1300 when loaded into the receiver 1210 and also be snugly received by spring tab 1290 and receiver base inner surfaces 1291 when the spring tabs 1290 are in a neutral or relaxed state. Located between the surfaces 1344 and 1356 is a frusto-conical surface 1357 that extends from the surface 1344 inwardly toward the insert central axis and terminates at an annular ledge 1358. The ledge 1358 extends from the frusto-conical surface 1357 to the surface 1356 and is substantially perpendicular to the surface 1356. As will be described in greater detail below, during early stages of assembly, the insert 1214 outer surface 1357 is resiliently gripped by the spring tab surfaces 1311 with the spring tab lower lip 1312 engaging the ledge 1358 to hold the insert 1214 in a desired stationary position with respect to the receiver 1210. When the insert 1214 is lowered into a second or friction fit position in frictional engagement with the bone screw shank, the lower lip 1312 extends into one of a pair of opposed grooves 1359 as described below. The grooves 1359 are formed in the arm surfaces 1344 and extend upwardly into the upper frusto-conical surface 1348 and are located centrally with respect to each arm 1345. Each illustrated groove 1359 is sized and shaped to cooperate with the spring tabs 1290 at the surfaces 1311. The grooves 1359 are elongate, running parallel to a central axis of the insert 1214. Each groove 1359 has a lower seat or shelf 1360 positioned to engage the spring tab surface 1312 when the insert 1214 is in friction fit working engagement with the shank upper portion 1208 as will be described in greater detail below. In operation, the insert 1214 extends at least partially in the channel 1264 of the receiver 1210 such that the saddle 1352 surface substantially contacts and engages the outer surface 1222 of the rod 1221 when such rod is placed in the receiver 1210 and the closure structure or top 1218 is tightened thereon. As will also be described below, the cooperation between the insert grooves 1359 and the spring tabs 1290 prohibits additional rotation of the insert 1214 with respect to the receiver 1210 during rotation and torquing of the closure top 1218 against the rod 1221 within the receiver arms 1262. The compression or pressure insert 1214 ultimately seats on the shank upper portion 1208 and is disposed partially within the spring tab cylindrical wall 1291 and partially between the receiver arms 1262. With reference to FIGS. 60 and 75-80, the illustrated closure top 1218 and illustrated elongate rod or longitudinal connecting member 1221 are the same or substantially similar to the closure top 1018 and the rod 1021 previously described herein, and or alternatives also previously described herein. Thus, with respect to the closure top 218, components of such closure top 1218 include a guide and advancement structure 1362, a top surface 1364, an internal drive 1366, a bottom surface 1368, a point 1369 and a rim 1370 that are the same or substantially similar to the respective guide and advancement structure 1162, top surface 1164, internal drive 1166, bottom surface 1168, point 1169 and rim 1170 of the closure top 1018 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 1001. Preferably, the receiver 1210, the retainer 1212 and the compression insert 1214 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainer 1212 and pinching the insert 1214 as well as spreading of the spring tabs 1290. In some circumstances, the shank 1204 is also assembled with the receiver 1210, retainer 1212 and compression insert 1214 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 1204, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver 1210, retainer 1212 and compression insert 1214 at the insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 1204, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. Furthermore, the assembly 1201 allows for manipulation of the rod 1221 subsequent to a complete lock down of the insert 1214 on the bone screw shank upper portion 1208 that completely locks the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly 1201, as will be described in greater detail below. In other instances, it is desirable for the surgical staff to pre-assemble a shank of a desired size with the receiver 1210, retainer 1212 and compression insert 1214. Allowing the surgeon to choose the appropriately sized shank 1204 advantageously reduces inventory requirements, thus reducing overall cost. Pre-assembly of the receiver 1210, retainer 1212 and compression insert 1214 is shown in FIGS. 68-72. First, the compression insert 1214 is prepared for uploading into the receiver 1210 through the lower opening 3106 using a holding tool (not shown) that squeezes or presses the insert arms 1345 toward one another at the upper frusto-conical surfaces 3148 so that the surfaces 1348 are received within the cylindrical surface 1300 during insertion of the insert 1214 into the receiver opening 1306. As illustrated in FIG. 68, the insert 1214 (in squeezed orientation) is inserted into the opening 1306 with the arms 1345 being aligned with the receiver channel 1264. During insertion, the spring tabs 2190 are also pulled apart as shown, for example in FIG. 70 until the spring tab surfaces 1311 are located adjacent the frusto-conical surface 1357. At this time, the insert 1214, no longer in a squeezed state, is rotated as illustrated by an arrow K in FIG. 70 about the central axis thereof until the insert arms 1345 are located within the receiver run-out defined by the cylindrical surface 1282 located directly below the guide and advancement structure 1272 as shown in FIG. 71. As shown in FIG. 71, the guide and advancement structure 1272 prohibits further upward movement of the insert 1214. The spring tabs 1290 are allowed to resiliently move into contact with the insert surface 1357, preferably engaging such surface 1357 adjacent to the ledge 1358. The surface 1312 advantageously abuts against the ledge 1358, stopping the insert 1214 from any further upward movement towards the guide and advancement structure 1272 and providing adequate clearance for the later step of pushing the bone screw shank upper portion 1208 through the spring ring retainer 1212. Although the guide and advancement structure 1272 would prohibit the insert 1214 from moving out the upper opening 1266, engagement with the resilient spring tabs 1290 also prohibits rotational and downward movement of the insert 1214 and keeps the insert 1214 away from the lower opening 1306 during assembly of the retainer 1212. With reference to FIGS. 72-75, the resilient open retainer 1212 is prepared for insertion into the receiver 1210 by squeezing or pressing the retainer end surfaces 1334 and 1335 toward one another. The compressed retainer 1212 is inserted into the lower opening 1306 with the top surface 1322 facing the receiver bottom surface 1304. The retainer 1212 is typically moved upwardly into the receiver 1210 and past the cylindrical surface 1296 and allowed to expand to a neutral uncompressed state within the cylindrical surface 1296 as shown in FIG. 72. Also as shown in FIG. 72, at this time, both the compression insert 1214 and the retainer 1212 are captured within the receiver 1210. The receiver 1210, compression insert 1214 and the retainer 1212 combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 1204 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 1204. The bone screw shank 1204 (or an entire assembly 1201 made up of the assembled shank 1204, receiver 1210, retainer 1212 and compression insert 1214) is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 1013 as previously described herein with respect to the shank 1004 and cooperating assembly 1001 and the shank 4 and assembly 1. The pre-assembled receiver, insert and retainer are placed above the shank upper portion 1208 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 1306. As the shank is moved into the interior of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 1208 presses the retainer 1212 upwardly into the chamber 1295 (if the retainer is not already located within such chamber). As the portion 1208 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 1264, the retainer top surface 1322 abuts against the annular surface 1292 stopping upward movement of the retainer 1212 and forcing outward movement of the retainer 1212 towards the cylindrical surface 1294 defining the expansion chamber 1295 as the spherical surface 1234 continues in an upward direction. The retainer 1212 begins to contract about the spherical surface 1234 as the center of the sphere passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion groove 1295 (see FIG. 73). The retainer 1212 is then free to be moved down into an operative position by either gravity and/or an upward pull on the receiver 1210 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 1204 further into the vertebra 1013. Also, in some embodiments, when the receiver 1210 is pre-assembled with the shank 1204, the entire assembly 1201 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool into the receiver and the shank drive 1246 and rotating and driving the shank 1204 into a desired location of the vertebra. With reference to FIG. 74, at this time, the compression insert 1214 is pressed downwardly manually, with a rod or with a tool (not shown) toward the shank upper portion 1208, the insert surfaces 1357 and 1344 being moved out of engagement with the spring tab surfaces 1311 when the surfaces 1311 enter into the insert grooves 1359. Once the spring tabs 1290 move into the grooves 1359, the insert 1214 snaps into place and the spring tabs 1290 return to an original, relaxed or only slightly expanded orientation with the surfaces 1312 located over the groove seat 1360 and frictionally engaging such surface. The spring tabs 1290 are sized such that when the surfaces 1312 frictionally engage the surfaces 1360 of the insert, the insert 1214 surfaces 1342 and 1343 in turn press against the shank upper portion 1208 at the spherical surface 1234. The friction fit between the compression insert 1214 and the shank upper portion 1208 is not fixed but at the same time not loose or floppy either, advantageously allowing the user to articulate the shank 1204 with respect to the receiver 1210, but with some resistance, so that when the shank is placed in a desired orientation with respect to the receiver, the assembly 1201 remains substantially frictionally set in such desired orientation unless purposefully manipulated into another position. For example, at this time, the receiver 1210 may be articulated to a desired position with respect to the shank 1204 as shown, for example, as shown in FIG. 80, but prior to locking of such position that is shown in those drawings. With reference to FIGS. 75-78, the rod 1221 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 1201. The closure structure 1218 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 1262 of the receiver 1210. The closure structure 1218 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 1366 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 1221 engages the insert saddle 1352, further pressing the insert spherical surface 1342 and stepped surfaces 1343 against the shank spherical surface 1234, the edges of the stepped surfaces penetrating into the spherical surface 1234. As the closure structure 1218 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 1210, the point 1369 and rim 1370 engage and penetrate the rod surface 1222, the closure structure 1218 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 1221 into full engagement with the insert 1214 that urges the shank upper portion 1208 toward the retainer 1212 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 1212 frictionally abutting the surface 1299 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 1296. For example, about 80 to about 120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 1206 with respect to the receiver 1210. As shown in FIG. 78, during rotation and downward movement of the closure top 1218, the insert 1214 arms 1345 are retained in alignment with the receiver arms 1262 and thus the saddle surface 1352 is retained in alignment within the receiver channel 1264 by the spring tabs 1290 located within the insert grooves 1359. Also, as shown in FIGS. 76 and 77, during rotation and downward movement of the closure top 1218, the rod 1221 presses the insert 1214 in a direction towards the receiver base 1260, pressing the frusto-conical insert surfaces 1348 into engagement with the cylindrical receiver surfaces 1287, thereby wedging and compression locking the insert 1214 into and against the receiver 1210. If the closure top 1218 is then loosened and rotated to an upward unlocked position, for example as shown in FIG. 79, the rod 1221 is also loosened, but the insert 1214 remains in a downward position, wedged against the receiver walls 1287. This advantageously allows the surgeon to slide or otherwise manipulate the bone anchor and/or the rod 1221 with respect to the assembly 1201 while the assembly 1201 is otherwise in a totally locked position with the shank 1204 in a desired fixed, unmovable angular orientation with respect to the receiver 1210. Once any desirable movement or manipulation of the rod 1221 is completed, the closure top 1218 is simply rotated back into the position shown in FIG. 75, locking the rod 1221 back into place. Furthermore, if the polyaxial mechanism needs to be unlocked, the insert surfaces 1348 are squeezed toward one another using a tool (not shown) that is inserted into the insert grooves 1359 at a location above the spring tabs 1290. The squeezed insert 1214 is then pulled or moved slightly upwardly toward the opening 1266 disengaging the surfaces 1348 from the receiver walls 1287 and unlocking the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly 1201. With reference to FIGS. 81-83, an alternative compression insert 1214′ is shown that is substantially similar to the insert 1214 with the exception that the insert 1214′ does not include the compression lock and squeeze release feature of the frusto-conical upper surfaces 1348. Thus, the insert 1214′ may be utilized in embodiments wherein the lock and release feature is not desired. The insert 1214′ advantageously does not require any squeezing or other manipulation when uploaded into the receiver 1210 as it includes a cylindrical outer surface 1344′ that is receivable within the receiver lower opening cylindrical surface 1300. With reference to FIG. 84 and to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/802,849 filed Jun. 15, 2010 (hereafter the '849 application) that is incorporated by reference herein, polyaxial bone screws 1, 1001 and 1010 according to the invention (as well as the other polyaxial screws described later in this application) may be attached to a dynamic stabilization longitudinal connecting member assembly according to the present invention, generally 1401. The connecting member assembly 1401 is elongate, having a substantially central axis. With particular reference to FIG. 84, the connecting member assembly 1401 more fully described in the '849 application is illustrated that generally includes at least one inelastic sleeve, that may be flanged or not, such as, for example, the sleeves 1406 and 1406′ with spacers 1415 or spacer/liner 1416 combinations located between the bone screws and attached sleeves. The illustrated connector 1401 is further shown with a hard rod 1121′ and a rod cord connector 1424 as well as a cord 1422. Two bone screws 1001 are shown, one of which is attached to the sleeve 1406′ and the other to the hard rod 1121′. As more fully discussed in the '849 application, either a slide or slip closure top, such as the tops 18 and 1018 previously described herein or the break-off head closure tops 1430 and 1432 shown in FIGS. 87-90 (and shown in phantom in FIG. 84) engage a respective sleeve (or a hard rod) but not the cord 1422, allowing the cord to slip or slide within the polyaxial screw; or a grip closure top 1431 is used that extends through the sleeve and grips and fixes the cord 1422 against a surface of the sleeve and thus fixes the cord in relation to the polyaxial screw 1001. The closure tops 1430, 1431 and 1432 are shown in greater detail in FIGS. 85-90. With further reference to FIGS. 85-90, various closure tops for use with the bone screw assemblies according to the invention and the connecting assembly 1401 are shown. The bone screw 1432 shown in FIGS. 89 and 90 is identical to the closure tops 18 and 1018 previously described herein with the exception that it includes a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 70 to 140 inch pounds. Thus, the closure structure 1432 includes an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 1502, a top surface 1504 of the guide and advancement structure, an internal drive 1506, a bottom surface 1508, a point 1509 and a rim 1510, the same or similar to the respective guide and advancement structure 1162, top surface 1164, internal drive 1166, bottom surface 1168, point 1169 and rim 1170 previously discussed herein with respect to the closure structure 1018. Located above the guide and advancement structure top surface is a break-off head 1512. With reference to FIGS. 85 and 86, also cooperating with the bone anchors 1 and 1001 is the closure top 1431 having an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 1522, a top surface 1524 of the guide and advancement structure, an internal drive 1526 and a break-off head 1532, the same or similar to the respective guide and advancement structure 1502, top surface 1504, internal drive 1506 and break-off head 1512 previously discussed herein with respect to the closure top 1432. In lieu of the point and rim of the closure top 1432, the closure top 1431 has a lower cylindrical portion 1527 having a substantially planar bottom surface 1528. The portion 1527 is sized and shaped to be received by a bore of the cooperating sleeve, for example, the sleeve 1406′, the bottom surface 1528 pressing the cord 1422 into fixed engagement with the sleeve. With reference to FIGS. 87 and 88, also cooperating with the bone anchors 1 and 1001 is the closure top 1430 having a an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 1542, a top surface 1544 of the guide and advancement structure, an internal drive 1546 and a break-off head 1552, the same or similar to the respective guide and advancement structure 1522, top surface 1524, internal drive 1526 and break-off head 1532 previously discussed herein with respect to the closure top 1431. The closure top 1430 includes a planar bottom surface 1548 adjacent the guide and advancement structure 1542. The planar bottom surface 1548 remains flush with a corresponding sleeve surface and does not enter into the bore of the sleeve, allowing sliding movement of the cord 1422 with respect to the bone screw receivers 1010 cooperating with the closure tops 1430. With reference to FIGS. 91-114, the reference numeral 1601 generally represents another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw according to the invention. The assembly 1601 includes a shank 1604, that further includes a body 1606 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or capture structure 1608; a receiver 1610; a retainer structure 1612 and a compression or pressure insert 1614. The receiver 1610, retainer 1612 and compression insert 1614 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 1604 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 1606 into a vertebra. The shank 1604 and the retainer 1612 are substantially the same in form and function as the respective shank 1204 and retainer 1212 previously discussed herein. With particular reference to FIGS. 106-109, the receiver 1610 is also similar in form and function to the receiver 1210 and other receivers previously discussed herein in that the receiver 1610 provides an expansion chamber 1695 for the retainer to expand about the shank upper portion 1608 allowing the shank to “pop” or “snap” on to the assembly, and a receiver lower seat 1696 for the retainer 1612 to slightly expand into when the shank upper portion 1608 is locked against the retainer 1612. The receiver 1610 differs from the receiver 1210 in that the receiver 1610 does not include spring tabs, but rather has a blocking feature 1623 as will be described below and crimping walls 1625. Furthermore, the receiver 1610 includes surfaces 1640 and 1641 for engagement with the insert 1614, first to hold the insert 1614 in an upper portion of the receiver during shipping and assembly with the shank 1604, the surfaces facilitating a friction fit between the insert 1614 and the shank head 1608 during manipulation of the bone screw 1601 and then locking of the shank 1604 with respect to the receiver by the insert 1614 even if a rod and closure top is loosened or removed from the assembly 1601. FIGS. 91 and 110-114 further show a closure structure 1618 that is the same as the closure 1018 previously described herein with the exception that the point and rim have been replaced by a bottom outer planar annular rim 1768, a central point or knob 1769 and a domed surface 1770 running from the point 1769 to the rim 1768, the closure 1618 for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a deformable rod 1621 in the form of a PEEK rod which in turn engages the compression insert 1614 that presses against the shank upper portion 1608 into fixed frictional contact with the retainer 1612, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 1621 within the receiver 1610 and thus fix the member 1621 relative to the vertebra. Furthermore, the insert 1614 includes top surfaces 1620 of arms thereof that engage the closure top 1618 at an annular bottom rim 1768, providing for a locked polyaxial mechanism in the event that the deformable rod 1621 loosens within the receiver 1610. The receiver 1610 and the shank 1604 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 1610 and the shank 1604 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 1610 with the shank 1604 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. Features of the assembly 1601 include, but are not limited to the downloaded lock and release insert 1614 that includes a rotation block feature 1622 that abuts against the stop or wall 1623 of the receiver 1610 upon insertion, placing the insert 1614 into alignment with the receiver 1610. With reference to FIGS. 102-105, the block feature 1622 and the drop-down insertion of the insert into the receiver followed rotation thereof until the insert feature 1622 abuts the wall 1623 of the receiver is described in greater detail in the '849 patent application that is fully incorporated by reference herein. With reference to FIG. 106, thereafter, thin crimp walls 1625 of the receiver 1610 are pressed inwardly into grooves 1626 of the insert 1614 to block reverse rotation of the insert 1614 out of the receiver and to also frictionally hold the receiver in a desired location, including an upward location shown in FIG. 106 during shipping and early assembly and a down, shank engaging location shown in FIG. 109, for example. Furthermore, in some embodiments of the invention, the insert arms have some flexibility and the arm surfaces 1630 abutting against surfaces 1640 of the receiver may also aid in keeping the insert in the upward location shown in FIG. 106 until the insert is pushed downwardly toward the receiver base in a later stage of assembly. With further particular reference to FIGS. 110-114, the insert 1614 upper surface 1630 is frusto-conical or otherwise tapered, sized and shaped for wedging against the receiver cylindrical surface 1640 and the insert further includes a lower frusto-conical surface 1631 sized and shaped for wedging into the lower cylindrical surface 1641 of the receiver 1610. Similar to the assembly 1200, as the closure top is advanced downwardly, the frusto-conical surfaces of the insert 1614 wedge into the cylindrical surfaces of the receiver 1610, locking the insert against the shank 1604 and thus locking the polyaxial mechanism, even if the closure top 1618 is later backed out as shown in FIG. 114, allowing for manipulation of the rod 1621 with an advantageously fully locked polyaxial mechanism. If it is desired to loosen the polyaxial mechanism, a tool, not shown may be inserted into the receiver 1610 to push arms of the insert 1614 toward one another and upwardly, loosening the surfaces 1630 and 1631 from the respective receiver surfaces 1640 and 1641. Furthermore, prior to locking of the insert 1614 against the receiver 1610, the insert may be pressed downwardly into engagement with the shank upper portion 1608 to provide a friction fit between the insert 1615 and the upper portion 1608, either one or both of the upper and lower receiver engagement surfaces 1640 and 1641 engaging with the respective insert surfaces 1630 and 1631 to provide enough downward force or frictional fit between the insert inner stepped surfaces 1643 and/or spherical surface 1644 to provide a non-floppy friction fit with the shank spherical upper portion or head 1608 when the surgeon is manipulating the unlocked assembly 1601 during surgery. Upon locking of the shank in place the stepped surfaces 1643 engage and penetrate the shank spherical head 1608. A squeeze release feature or aperture 1632 located on each insert arm may be accessed through the receiver 1610 apertures to press the insert arms toward one another to lift the insert away from the shank upper portion 1608 and thus unlock the polyaxial mechanism if desired. With reference to FIGS. 398-402, an alternative insert 1614′ for use with the assembly 1601 is substantially identical to the insert 1614 (having the same reference numerals marked with a “′” to indicate features the same or similar to the features identified on the insert 1614). The insert 1614′ further includes optional lower slots or slits 1650 for enhancing friction fit with the shank upper portion 1608 and for ease of removal from a locking fit with the receiver 1610, if required. With reference to FIGS. 115-152 the reference number 2001 generally represents a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 2001 includes a shank 2004, that further includes a body 2006 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or head-like capture structure 2008; a receiver 2010; a lower retainer structure illustrated as a resilient open ring 2012, a friction fit crown collet compression or pressure insert 2014, and an upper retainer structure illustrated as an open resilient snap ring 2016. The receiver 2010, retainer structures 2012 and 2016 and compression insert 2014 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 2004 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 2006 into a vertebra 2017, as will be described in greater detail below. FIGS. 115 and 151-152 further show a closure structure 2018 for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 2021 which in turn engages the compression insert 2014 that presses against the shank upper portion 2008 into fixed frictional contact with the lower retainer 2012, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 2021 within the receiver 2010 and thus fix the member 2021 relative to the vertebra 2017. The illustrated rod 2021 is hard, stiff, non-elastic and cylindrical, having an outer cylindrical surface 2022. It is foreseen that in other embodiments, the rod 2021 may be elastic, deformable and/or of a different cross-sectional geometry. The receiver 2010 and the shank 2004 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 2010 and the shank 2004 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 2010 with the shank 2004 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 2004, best illustrated in FIGS. 115-117 is substantially similar to the shank 1004 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 1000. Thus, the shank 2004 includes the shank body 2006, upper portion or head 2008, a shank thread 2024, a neck 2026, a tip 2028, a top of thread 2032, an upper portion spherical surface 2034 a top surface 2038, an internal drive 2046 with a base surface 2045 and an cannulation bore 2050 the same or substantially similar to the respective body 1006, upper portion or head 1008, shank thread 1024, neck 1026, tip 1028, top of thread 1032, spherical surface 1034, top surface 1038, internal drive 1046 with base surface 1045 and cannulation bore 1050 previously described herein with respect to the shank 1004 of the assembly 1001. To provide a biologically active interface with the bone, the threaded shank body 2006 may be coated, perforated, made porous or otherwise treated as previously discussed herein with respect to the shank body 6 of the assembly 1. The shank spherical surface 2034 has an outer radius configured for frictional, non-floppy, sliding cooperation with a discontinuous concave surface 2142 of the compression insert 2014 having a substantially similar or slightly smaller radius, as well as ultimate frictional engagement and penetration by a stepped, gripping portion 2143 of the insert 2014, as will be discussed more fully in the paragraphs below. The spherical surface 2034 shown in the present embodiment is substantially smooth, but in some embodiments may include a roughening or other surface treatment and is sized and shaped for cooperation and ultimate frictional engagement with the compression insert 2014 as well as ultimate frictional engagement with the lower retainer 2012. The shank spherical surface is locked into place exclusively by the insert 2014 and the retainer 2012 and not by inner surfaces defining the receiver cavity. With particular reference to FIGS. 115 and 128-133, the receiver 2010 has a generally squared-off U-shaped appearance with partially discontinuous and partially cylindrical inner and outer profiles. The receiver 2010 has an axis of rotation B that is shown in FIG. 115 as being aligned with and the same as an axis of rotation A of the shank 2004, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 2010 with the shank 2004. The receiver 2010 includes a substantially cylindrical base 2060 defining a bore or inner cavity 2061, the base 2060 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 2062 forming a cradle and defining a channel 2064 between the arms 2062 with an upper opening, generally 2066, and a squared off lower channel portion including a substantially planar lower seat 2068, the channel 2064 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 2021 or portion of another longitudinal connector between the arms 2062, the channel 2064 communicating with the base cavity 2061. The squared-off geometry of the channel 2064 and lower seat 2068 allow for use with a variety of longitudinal connecting members, including, but not limited to those with circular, square and rectangular cross-sections. As compared to a U-shaped channel that includes a lower seat having a surface with a radius the same or slightly larger than a cooperating cylindrical rod or other connecting member, the squared-off seat 2068 of the present invention provides improved stress management, moving stress risers outwardly toward the two arms 2062 rather than being focused primarily at a center base line of the radiused lower seat. Furthermore, outer front and rear opposed substantially planar base surfaces 2069 that partially define the squared-off lower seat 2068 advantageously reduce the run on the rod (i.e., provide a more narrow receiver that in turn provides more space and thus more access between bone anchors along the rod or other connecting member) and provide the planar surface 2069 for flush or close contact with other connecting member components in certain embodiments, such as for bumpers or spacers that surround a hard or deformable rod or provide support for cord-type connecting members. Each of the arms 2062 has an interior surface, generally 2070, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 2072 located adjacent top surfaces 2073 of each of the arms 2062. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 2072 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 2018, as described more fully below. However, it is foreseen that for certain embodiments of the invention, for example, when the receiver 2010 includes a thicker body having a U-shaped channel (as compared to the squared-off channel of the illustrated receiver), the guide and advancement structure 2072 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structures, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 2018 downward between the arms 2062, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 2018 abuts against the rod 2021 or other longitudinal connecting member. It is foreseen that the arms could have break-off extensions. As an example of an alternative closure mechanism, with reference to FIGS. 153-156, an alternative embodiment or assembly 2001′ cooperating with a reverse-angle thread form closure top 2018′ is shown that is substantially similar to the assembly 2001 with the exception that reverse angle threads 2072′ are used in lieu of the flange form 2072 with a receiver 2010′ that is substantially similar to the receiver 2010 with the exception of having a U-shaped channel 2064′. The assembly 2001′ otherwise includes a shank 2004′, a receiver 2010′, a lower retainer structure illustrated as a resilient open ring 2012′, a friction fit crown collet compression or pressure insert 2014′, and an upper retainer structure illustrated as an open resilient snap ring 2016′ that are the same or substantially similar in form and function to the respective shank 2004, receiver 2010, lower retainer 2012′, friction fit insert 2014 and upper retainer 2016 of the assembly 2001. The assembly 2001′ is shown with a rod 2021′ that is the same or substantially similar to the rod 2021 shown with the assembly 2001. A more detailed description of the assembly 2001′ utilizing the reverse angle thread closure top 2018′ is provided in Applicants' Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/343,737 filed May 3, 2010 that is incorporated herein by reference. Returning to the assembly 2001 shown in FIGS. 115-152, and in particular to FIGS. 128-133, an opposed pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 2074 are formed on outer surfaces 2076 of the arms 2062. Furthermore, two pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 2077 are formed in front and rear surfaces 2078 of the arms 2062. Transition base surfaces 2079 span between the surfaces 2078 and the planar base surfaces 2069, the surfaces 2069 and 2078 both running substantially parallel to the receiver axis B, the surfaces 2079 sloping downwardly toward the base 2060 at an angle with respect to the axis B. Some or all of the apertures 2074 and 2077 may be used for holding the receiver 2010 during assembly with the insert 2014, the retainers 2012 and 2016 and the shank 2004, during the implantation of the shank body 2006 into a vertebra when the shank is pre-assembled with the receiver 2010, and during assembly of the bone anchor assembly 2001 with the rod 2021 and the closure structure 2018. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 2062. Returning to the interior surface 2070 of the receiver arms 2062, located below the guide and advancement structure 2072 is a discontinuous cylindrical surface 2082 partially defining a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 2072. The cylindrical surface 2082 has a diameter equal to or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 2072. Moving downwardly, in a direction toward the base 2060, adjacent the cylindrical surface 2082 of each arm is a run-out seat or surface 2084 that extends inwardly toward the axis B and runs perpendicular to the axis B. Adjacent to and located below the surface 2084 is another cylindrical surface 2086 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 2082. A discontinuous annular surface 2088 that provides an upper abutment surface or stop for capturing the compression insert 2014 in the receiver 2010 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 2086. The abutment surface 2088 is disposed substantially perpendicular to the axis B. As shown in FIG. 144 and discussed in greater detail below, the assembly 2001 is typically provided to a user with the insert 2014 being held within the receiver by the upper snap-ring retainer 2016 that resiliently holds the insert 2014 and keeps the insert stationary with respect to the receiver 2010 and abutting against or slightly spaced from the upper stop 2088 until the insert 2014 is friction fitted about the shank upper portion 2008, also described in greater detail below. The insert 2014 and the shank 2004 are then moved downwardly toward the base 2060 into a working position shown in FIGS. 149 and 150 wherein the insert 2014 is in frictional contact with the shank upper portion 2008, the shank still being movable, with some force, with respect to the insert 2014, and thus advantageously placeable and then held in a selected angular position with respect to the insert 2014 and the receiver 2010, due to the friction fit between the insert 2014 and the shank upper portion 2008. The inner surfaces 2070 of the arms 2062 include an additional discontinuous cylindrical surface 2090 adjacent the annular surface 2088 and extending downwardly toward the receiver base 2060. The surface 2090 is disposed parallel to the receiver axis B. The surface 2090 has a diameter greater than the diameter of the surface 2086 but less than the diameter of the surface 2082. In some embodiments of the invention, the surface 2090 terminates near a discontinuous annular surface 2092. In the present invention, another cylindrical surface 2093 spans between the surface 2090 and the annular surface 2092, the surface 2093 having a diameter slightly larger than the diameter of the surface 2090. The surfaces 2090 and 2093 are sized and shaped to receive the compression insert 2014 as shown, for example, in FIGS. 144 and 145 when in a pre-assembled configuration, and also during assembly with the shank 2004 as shown in FIGS. 146-148. The surface 2092 is perpendicular to the receiver axis B. A cylindrical surface 2094 adjacent and perpendicular to the surface 2092 is formed in the arm surfaces 2070 and also partially extends into the base 2060. The surface 2094 has a diameter greater than the diameters of the surfaces 2090 and 2093 and also greater than the diameter of the surface 2082. The surface 2094 terminates at a continuous annular seating surface 2095 formed in the receiver base 2060. The surface 2095 is substantially parallel to the surface 2092. The surfaces 2092, 2094 and 2095 form a recess in each arm 2062 for holding the open retainer 2016. As shown in FIGS. 139-149 and discussed in greater detail below, the open snap ring 2016 of the assembly 2001 is compressed and inserted into the channel 2064 from the top opening 2066 and then allowed to expand to a neutral state at a location beneath the surface 2092 and above the surface 2095, the retainer having room to expand outwardly to or near the cylindrical surface 2094 when required. As the compression insert 2014 is placed in different stages of assembly with the shank 2004 (see, e.g., FIGS. 148 and 149), the retainer 2016 expands into the discontinuous recess formed by the surfaces 2092, 2094 and 2095 in the arm surfaces 2070 and then returns to a neutral state during operation of the assembly 2001, the surface 2092 serving as an upper stop, capturing the retainer 2016 in the lower portion of the arms 2062 near the channel seat 2068 and the continuous surface 2095 serving as a stable lower seat for the open retainer 2016. A cylindrical surface 2096 formed in the base 2060 and partially defining the base cavity 2061 is adjacent to the annular surface 2095 and perpendicular thereto. A diameter of the surface 2096 is smaller than the diameter of the surface 2094. A continuous annular upper rim or stop 2098 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 2096. The surface 2098 is disposed in the base 2060, partially forming the base cavity 2061 and forms an abutment stop for the resilient retainer 2012, prohibiting the retainer 2012 (when in an uncompressed configuration) from moving upwardly into the space defined by the cylindrical surface 2096 and the channel 2064. Another cylindrical surface 2099 is located below and adjacent to the surface 2098. The cylindrical surface 2099 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to provide an expansion chamber for receiving an expanded retainer 2012. The surfaces 2098 and 2099 define a circumferential recess that is sized and shaped to receive the retainer 2012 as it expands around the shank upper portion 2008 as the shank 2008 moves upwardly toward the channel 2064 during assembly, as well as form a restriction to prevent the expanded retainer 2012 from moving upwardly with the shank portion 2008, the surface 2098 preventing the retainer 2012 from passing upwardly out of the cavity 2061 whether the retainer 2012 is in a partially or fully expanded position or state, or in a neutral or original or operative position or state (see, e.g., FIGS. 146 and 147). A cylindrical surface 2101 located below the cylindrical surface 2099 is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 2012 when the retainer is in a neutral or slightly expanded operative position as shown in FIG. 152, for example. Thus, the cylindrical surface 2101 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 2099 that defines the expansion area for the retainer 2012. The surface 2101 is joined or connected to the surface 2099 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 2102. The surfaces 2102 allow for sliding gradual movement and/or contraction of the retainer 2012 into the space defined by the surface 2101 and ultimate seating of the retainer 2012 on a lower annular surface 2104 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 2101. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 2104 is another substantially cylindrical surface 2106 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 2107, the surface 2107 communicating with an exterior base surface 2108 of the base 2060, defining a lower opening, generally 2110, into the base cavity 2061 of the receiver 2010. The illustrated surface 2100 has a diameter allowing for slidable uploading of the compression insert 2014 (with some compression of a portion of the insert 2014 as will be described below) while requiring compression or squeezing of the retainer 2012 during uploading of the retainer 2012 through the lower opening 2110 (see FIGS. 141 and 143, for example). With particular reference to FIGS. 115 and 118-122, the lower open retainer ring 2012 that operates to capture the shank upper portion 2008 and attached compression insert 2014 within the receiver 2010 has a central axis that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 2010 when the shank upper portion 2008 and the retainer 2012 are installed within the receiver 2010. The retainer ring 2012 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 2012 may be both compressed and expanded during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The lower retainer 2012 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 2121, that passes entirely through the ring 2012 from a top surface 2122 to a bottom surface 2124 thereof. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 2121 include a discontinuous inner cylindrical surface 2125 adjacent the top surface 2122 and a discontinuous frusto-conical or beveled surface 2127 adjacent the surface 2125, both surfaces coaxial when the retainer 2012 is in a neutral non-compressed, non-expanded orientation. The retainer 2012 further includes an outer cylindrical surface 2130 located adjacent the top surface 2122 and an outer beveled or frusto-conical surface 2132 adjacent the bottom surface 2124. The surface 2130 is oriented parallel to the central axis of the retainer 2012. In some embodiments of the invention spaced notches (not shown) may be formed in the cylindrical surface 2130 to receive a holding and manipulation tool (not shown) used for contraction and insertion of the retainer 2012 into the receiver 2010. In some embodiments further notches may be made to evenly distribute stress across the entire retainer 2012 during contraction and expansion thereof. In other embodiments of the invention, such notches may be on the inside of the retainer 2012 ring. The resilient retainer 2012 further includes first and second end surfaces, 2134 and 2135 disposed in spaced relation to one another when the retainer is in a neutral non-compressed state. Both end surfaces 2134 and 2135 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the top surface 2122 and the bottom surface 2124. A width X between the surfaces 2134 and 2135 is determined by a desired amount of compressibility of the open retainer 2012 when loaded into the receiver 2010. The space X shown in FIG. 118 provides adequate space between the surfaces 2134 and 2135 for the retainer 2012 to be pinched, with the surfaces 2134 and 2135 compressed toward one another (as shown in FIG. 143) to a closely spaced or even touching configuration, if necessary, to an extent that the compressed retainer 2012 is up or bottom loadable through the receiver opening 2110. After passing through the opening 2110 and along a portion of the lower inner surface 2106, the retainer 2012 expands or springs back to an original uncompressed, rounded or collar-like configuration of FIGS. 118-122, see, e.g., FIG. 144. The embodiment shown in FIGS. 118-122 illustrates the surfaces 2134 and 2135 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle depending upon the amount of compression desired during loading of the retainer 2012 into the receiver 2010. With particular reference to FIGS. 115 and 123-127, the friction fit crown compression insert 2014 is illustrated that is sized and shaped to be received by and up-loaded into the receiver 2010 at the lower opening 2110. The compression insert 2014 has an operational central axis that is the same as the central axis B of the receiver 2010. In operation, the insert advantageously frictionally engages the bone screw shank upper portion 2008, allowing for un-locked but non-floppy placement of the angle of the shank 2004 with respect to the receiver 2010 during surgery prior to locking of the shank with respect to the receiver near the end of the procedure. The insert 2014 is thus preferably made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that portions of the insert may be expanded about and then contracted, snapped or popped onto the shank upper portion 2008. Furthermore, in operation, the insert 2014 is suspended within the receiver 2010, being frictionally held in place by the shank upper portion at a lower end thereof and prohibited from moving upward by the upper resilient retainer 2016. As will be explained in greater detail below, after initial assembly and during operation of the assembly 2001, neither the retainer 2016 nor the inner surfaces of the receiver 2010 that define the cavity 2061 place any compressive force on the insert 2014 to hold the shank portion 2008 therein. The crown collet compression insert 2014 has a central channel or through bore, generally 2138 running from an annular planar top surface 2139 to an annular planar and discontinuous bottom surface 2140 thereof, the bore 2138 defined by an inner cylindrical surface 2141, an inner partially spherical surface 2142 and a shank gripping surface portion, generally 2143, extending between the surface 2141 and the surface 2142. The gripping surface portion 2143 preferably includes two or more graduated cylindrical surfaces disposed substantially parallel to the axis B and adjacent perpendicular step surfaces that are disposed generally perpendicular to the axis B when the insert 2014 is mounted within the receiver 2010. It is foreseen that the stepped surface portion 2143 may include greater or fewer number of stepped surfaces. It is foreseen that the shank gripping surface portion 2143 and also the surface 2142 may additionally or alternatively include a roughened or textured surface or surface finish, or may be scored, knurled, or the like, for enhancing frictional engagement with the shank upper portion 2008. A plurality of slits or slots 2145 are formed in the spherical surface 2142, running through the bottom surface 2140 and terminating near or slightly extending into the graduated surface portion 2143. The illustrated embodiment includes six slots 2145. It is foreseen that other embodiments of the invention may include more or fewer slots 2145. Each pair of slots 2145 forms a distinct resilient, partially spherical finger, tab or panel 2146 that extends from the shank gripping portion 2143 to the bottom surface 2140. In other words, the inner spherical surface 2142 is separated into six surface portions 2146, each being partially spherical and sized and shaped to resiliently expand about the spherical surface 2034 of the shank upper portion 2008 and then snap on and frictionally grip the surface 2034. Preferably, the spherical surface 2142 is designed such that the gripping tabs or panels 2146 have a neutral or non-expanded radius that is slightly smaller than a radius of the shank surface 2034 so that when the tabs or panels 2146 are gripping the surface 2034, the insert is in a slightly expanded state. When the shank 2004 is locked into position by a rod 2021 or other connecting member being pressed downwardly on the insert top surface 2139 by the closure top 2018, the insert 2014 shank gripping portion 2143 that is initially slidable along the shank surface 2034 then digs or penetrates into the surface 2034 and thus securely fixes the shank upper portion 2008 to the insert at the portion 2143. The compression insert 2014 through bore 2138 is sized and shaped to receive the driving tool (not shown) therethrough that engages the shank drive feature 2046 when the shank body 2006 is driven into bone with the receiver 2010 attached. The compression insert 2014 also includes a first outer and upper cylindrical surface 2148 adjacent to the top surface 2139. The top surface 2139 engages the rod 2021 or other longitudinal connecting member during operation of the assembly 2001 and locates the rod above the lower seat 2068 of the receiver. The insert 2014 also includes an outer lower and discontinuous cylindrical surface 2150 adjacent to the bottom surface 2140. A discontinuous annular ledge 2151 extends between and connects the upper and lower cylindrical surfaces 2148 and 2150. The cylindrical surface 2148 is sized and shaped to be received within the receiver surface 2106 when loaded through the receiver bottom opening 2110 as shown, for example, in FIG. 141. The surface 2150, on the other hand, has a neutral diameter that is larger than the diameter of the receiver surface 2106. Therefore, during assembly, the resilient insert fingers or panels 2146 are pressed inwardly toward the receiver axis B to allow for insertion of the entire insert 2014 into the receiver opening 2110. As best shown in FIG. 152, the outer cylindrical surface 2150 is sized and shaped so that once the insert 2014 is in an operational position, and the panels 2146 are frictionally mated about the shank upper portion 2008, the outer cylindrical surface 2150 is in slidable engagement or slightly spaced from the receiver inner cylindrical wall 2096. The location of the ledge or lip 2151 is designed such that the upper open retainer 2016 seats on the ledge 2151 when in an operational position as also shown in FIG. 152, for example. As will be described in greater detail below, during early stages of assembly, the insert 2014 outer surface 2150 is gripped by the resilient retainer 2016 pre-assembled within the receiver 2010, the retainer 2016 holding the insert 2014 in a desired stationary position in the receiver for ultimate assembly with the shank upper portion 2008. It is foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention the compression insert 2014 may further include upstanding arms that cradle the rod 2021 or other connecting member. Such arms may be located spaced from the closure top 2018 in some embodiments and may be sized and shaped to contact the closure top 2018 in other embodiments in order to provide locking of the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly with capture but without fixing of the rod 2021 or other longitudinal connecting member with respect to the closure top 2018. With particular reference to FIGS. 125 and 134-136, the open upper resilient, ring-like retainer 2016 that operates to capture the compression inert 2014 within the receiver 2010 has a central axis that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 2010 when the retainer 2016, the insert 2014, the shank upper portion 2008 and the retainer 2012 are installed within the receiver 2010. The retainer 2016 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 2016 may be both compressed and expanded during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The upper retainer 2016 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 2153, that passes entirely through the structure 2016 from a top surface 2154 to a bottom surface 2156 thereof. The channel or bore 2153 is defined by a discontinuous inner cylindrical surface 2157 adjacent to both the top surface 2154 and the bottom surface 2156. A discontinuous outer cylindrical surface 2158 is also adjacent to both the top surface 2154 and the bottom surface 2156. In some embodiments of the invention spaced notches (not shown) may be formed in the cylindrical surfaces to receive a holding and manipulation tool (not shown) used for contraction and insertion of the retainer 2016 into the receiver 2010. In some embodiments further notches may be made to evenly distribute stress across the entire retainer 2016 during contraction and expansion thereof. In other embodiments of the invention, such notches may be on the inside of the retainer 2016 ring. It is further noted that the geometry of the retainer 2016 (as well as that of the retainer 2012) is not limited to the particular cylindrical or planar surface shapes shown in the drawings figures. The retainers 2016 and 2012 may be of a rounded ring-shape, for example, or include more or fewer planar surfaces. The resilient retainer 2016 further includes first and second end surfaces, 2159 and 2160 disposed in spaced relation to one another when the retainer is in a neutral non-compressed state. Both end surfaces 2159 and 2160 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the top surface 2154 and the bottom surface 2156. A width X′ between the surfaces 2159 and 2160 is determined by a desired amount of compressibility of the open retainer 2016 when loaded into the receiver 2010. The space X′ shown in FIG. 134 provides adequate space between the surfaces 2159 and 2160 for the retainer 2016 to be pinched, with the surfaces 2159 and 2160 compressed toward one another (as shown in FIG. 139) to a closely spaced or even touching configuration, if necessary, to an extent that the compressed retainer 2016 is top loadable through the receiver channel opening 2066. After passing through the opening 2066 and along the channel 2064, the retainer 2016 is allowed to expand or spring back to an original uncompressed, rounded or collar-like configuration in the receiver arm recess formed in part by the cylindrical surface 2094, see, e.g., FIG. 140. The embodiment of the retainer 2016 shown in FIGS. 134-136 illustrates the surfaces 2159 and 2160 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle depending upon the amount of compression desired during loading of the retainer 2016 into the receiver 2010. With reference to FIGS. 115, 151 and 152, the illustrated elongate rod or longitudinal connecting member 2021 (of which only a portion has been shown) can be any of a variety of implants utilized in reconstructive spinal surgery, but is typically a cylindrical, elongate structure having the outer substantially smooth, cylindrical surface 2022 of uniform diameter. The rod 2021 is the same or substantially similar to the rods previously described herein, such as the rods 21 and 1021. With reference to the '849 patent application, polyaxial bone screw assemblies 2001 according to the invention may be used with soft or dynamic stabilization longitudinal connecting member assemblies that may include, but are not limited to one or more sleeves with cooperating, spacers, bumpers and an inner tensioned cord. With reference to FIGS. 115, 137 and 138, the closure structure or closure top 2018 shown with the assembly 2001 is rotatably received between the spaced arms 2062 of the receiver 2010. It is noted that the closure 2018 top could be a twist-in or slide-in closure structure. The illustrated closure structure 2018 is substantially cylindrical and includes a an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 2162 in the form of a flange that operably joins with the guide and advancement structure 2072 disposed on the arms 2062 of the receiver 2010. Although it is foreseen that the closure structure guide and advancement structure could alternatively be a buttress thread, a square thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread like or non-thread like helically wound advancement structure, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 2018 downward between the arms 2062 and having such a nature as to resist splaying of the arms 2062 when the closure structure 2018 is advanced into the channel 2064, the flange form illustrated herein as described more fully in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689 is preferred as the added strength provided by such flange form beneficially cooperates with and counters any reduction in strength caused by the squared off U-shape channel of the illustrated receiver 2010 and reduced profile of the receiver 2010 that advantageously engages longitudinal connecting member components as will be further described below. The illustrated closure structure 2018 also includes a top surface 2164 with an internal drive 2166 in the form of an aperture that is illustrated as a star-shaped internal drive such as that sold under the trademark TORX, or may be, for example, a hex drive, or other internal drives such as slotted, tri-wing, spanner, two or more apertures of various shapes, and the like. A driving tool (not shown) sized and shaped for engagement with the internal drive 2166 is used for both rotatable engagement and, if needed, disengagement of the closure 2018 from the receiver arms 2062. It is also foreseen that the closure structure 2018 may alternatively include a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 70 to 140 inch pounds. Such a closure structure would also include a base having an internal drive to be used for closure removal. A base or bottom surface 2168 of the closure is planar and further includes a point 2169 and a rim 2170 for engagement and penetration into the surface 2022 of the rod 2021 in certain embodiments of the invention. The closure top 2018 may further include a cannulation through bore (not shown) extending along a central axis thereof and through the top and bottom surfaces thereof. Such a through bore provides a passage through the closure 2018 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for insertion of the closure top into the receiver arms 2062. Preferably, the receiver 2010, the retainers 2012 and 2016 and the compression insert 2014 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainers 2012 and 2016 as well as compressing or expanding the insert 2014 panels 2146. In some circumstances, the shank 2004 is also assembled with the receiver 2010, the retainers 2012 and 2016 and the compression insert 2014 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 2004, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver, retainers and compression insert at the insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 2004, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. In other instances, it is desirable for the surgical staff to pre-assemble a shank of a desired size with the receiver, retainer and compression insert. Allowing the surgeon to choose the appropriately sized shank advantageously reduces inventory requirements, thus reducing overall cost. Pre-assembly of the receiver 2010, retainers 2012 and 2016 and compression insert 2014 is shown in FIGS. 139-144. First, the retainer 2016 is top loaded into the receiver 2010 through the opening 2066 of the channel 2064. The resilient open retainer 2016 is prepared for insertion into the receiver 2010 by squeezing or pressing the retainer end surfaces 2159 and 2160 toward one another as shown in FIG. 139. The compressed retainer 2016 is inserted into the upper opening 2066 with the bottom surface 2156 facing the receiver cavity 2061. However, in the present embodiment, as the top and bottom surfaces are identical, either surface 2154 or 2156 may serve as a bottom or top surface. The retainer 2016 is typically moved downwardly into the channel 2064 and past the cylindrical surface 2090 and allowed to expand to a neutral uncompressed state within the cylindrical surface 2094 of each of the arms 2062 as shown in FIG. 140. Then, the compression insert 2014 is uploaded into the receiver 2010 through the lower opening 2110 with the insert top surface 2139 facing the receiver bottom surface 2108. The insert 2014 is slid upwardly toward the channel seat 2068 until the ledge 2151 nears the receiver bottom 2108. Then, the insert panels 2146 are pressed radially inwardly toward the axis B to compress the insert slightly so that the outer lower cylindrical surface 2150 clears the receiver surface 2106 at the opening 2110. With reference to FIG. 142, the insert 2014 is pressed upwardly within the inner surface 2157 of the open retainer 2016, expanding the retainer into the arm recesses formed by the cylindrical surfaces 2094. The surface 2092 prohibits upward movement of the retainer 2016 as the insert 2014 is moved upwardly to a desired pre-assembly position with the insert bottom surface 2140 being substantially aligned with the annular receiver surface 2098, the insert 2014 being located above the receiver cylindrical surface 2099 that functions as an expansion recess or chamber for the lower retainer 2012. As the insert lower cylindrical surface 2150 has a diameter in a neutral state that is greater than an inner diameter of the retainer 2016, also in a neutral state, the resilient retainer 2016 expands about and grips the insert 2014 within the receiver 2010. The cylindrical surface 2096 of the receiver, now located about the insert 2014 is sized slightly larger than the outer diameter of the insert cylindrical surface 2150, in a neutral state, so the surface 2096 does not function to compress or otherwise engage the insert panels 2146, but the surface 2096 does block the retainer 2016 from moving in a downward direction. Also, the receiver upper stop 2088 abuts the insert top surface 2139, prohibiting the pre-assembled insert from traveling any further up the receiver channel 2064. With reference to FIGS. 143 and 144, the retainer 2012 is then prepared for insertion into the receiver 2010 by squeezing or pressing the retainer end surfaces 2134 and 2135 toward one another as shown in FIG. 143. The compressed retainer 2012 is inserted into the lower opening 2110 with the planar top surface 2122 facing the receiver bottom surface 2108. The retainer 2012 is typically moved upwardly into the receiver 2010 and past the cylindrical surface 2106 and allowed to expand to an almost neutral or slightly compressed state within the cylindrical surface 2101 as shown in FIG. 144. Also as shown in FIG. 144, at this time, both the compression insert 2014 and the retainer 2012 are captured within the receiver 2010 in a manner that substantially prevents movement or loss of such parts out of the receiver 2010. The receiver 2010, compression insert 2014 (held by the retainer 2012) and the retainer 2012 (held by the cylindrical surface 2101) combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 2004 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 2004 as will be described herein. As illustrated in FIG. 151, the bone screw shank 2004 or an entire assembly 2001 made up of the assembled shank 2004, receiver 2010, retainers 2012 and 2016 and compression insert 2014, is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 2017, by rotation of the shank 2004 using a suitable driving tool (not shown) that operably drives and rotates the shank body 2006 by engagement thereof at the internal drive 2046. When the shank 2004 is driven into the vertebra 2017 without the remainder of the assembly 2001, the shank 2004 may either be driven to a desired final location or may be driven to a location slightly above or proud to provide for ease in assembly with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer. With reference to FIGS. 145-150 the pre-assembled receiver, insert and retainers are placed above the shank upper portion 2008 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 2110. With particular reference to FIGS. 146 and 147, as the shank is moved into the interior of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 2008 presses the retainer 2012 upwardly into the recess or expansion chamber partially defined by the cylindrical surface 2099 (if the retainer is not already located within such recess). As the portion 2008 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 2064, the top surface 2122 of the retainer 2012 abuts against the insert bottom surface 2140 as well as the annular rim stop 2098 of the receiver 2010, stopping upward movement of the retainer 2012 and forcing outward movement of the retainer 2012 towards the cylindrical surface 2099 defining the receiver expansion recess as the spherical surface 2034 continues in an upward direction. The retainer 2012 begins to contract about the spherical surface 2034 as the center of the sphere passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion recess defined by the surface 2099 (see FIG. 148). At this time also (back to FIG. 147), the spherical surface 2034 moves into engagement with the insert 2014 spherical surface 2142 with the panels 2146 expanding slightly outwardly to receive the surface 2034 and pushing outwardly against the resilient upper retainer 2016. The panels 2146 press outwardly against the surface 2096 that provides enough clearance for the spherical surface 2034 to enter into full frictional engagement with the panels 2146 as shown in FIG. 148. At this time, the insert 2014 and the surface 2034 are in a fairly tight friction fit, the surface 2034 being pivotable with respect to the insert 2014 with some force. Thus, a tight, non-floppy ball and socket joint is now created between the insert 2014 and the shank upper portion 2008. With reference to FIG. 149, the retainer 2012 and attached insert 2014 are then moved down into a final operative position shown in FIGS. 149-152 by either an upward pull on the receiver 2010 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 2004 further into the vertebra 2017. Also, in some embodiments, when the receiver 2010 is pre-assembled with the shank 2004, the entire assembly 2001 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool into the receiver and the shank drive 2046 and rotating and driving the shank 2004 into a desired location of the vertebra 2017. Also with reference to FIG. 149, at this time, the compression insert 2014 lower cylindrical surface 2150 is located below the open retainer 2016 and the retainer 2016 is disposed at or near the insert ledge 2151 and about the substantially non-compressible cylindrical surface 2148. The insert 2014 is thus prohibited from moving upwardly at the ledge 2151 by the retainer 2016, but the retainer 2016 is otherwise in a neutral state and does not place a compressive force on the insert 2014. With reference to FIG. 150, at this time, the receiver 2010 may be articulated to a desired angular position with respect to the shank 2004, that will be held, but not locked, by the frictional engagement between the insert 2014 and the shank upper portion 2008. With reference to FIGS. 151-152, the rod 2021 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 2001. The closure structure 2018 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 2062 of each of the receivers 2010. The closure structure 2018 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 2166 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 2021 engages the flat top surface 2139 of the compression insert 2014, further pressing the insert stepped surfaces 2143 against the shank spherical surface 2034, the edges of the stepped surfaces penetrating into the spherical surface 2034 and also pressing the shank upper portion 2008 into locked frictional engagement with the retainer 2012. Specifically, as the closure structure 2018 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 2010, the point 2169 and rim 2170 engage and penetrate the rod surface 2022, the closure structure 2018 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 2021 into compressive engagement with the insert 2014 that urges the shank upper portion 2008 toward the retainer 2012 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 2012 frictionally abutting the surface 2104 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical seating surface 2101. For example, about 80 to about 120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 2006 with respect to the receiver 2010. If removal of the rod 2021 from any of the bone screw assemblies 2001 is necessary, or if it is desired to release the rod 2021 at a particular location, disassembly is accomplished by using the driving tool (not shown) that mates with the internal drive 2166 on the closure structure 2018 to rotate and remove such closure structure from the cooperating receiver 2010. Disassembly is then accomplished in reverse order to the procedure described previously herein for assembly. With reference to FIGS. 157-187 the reference number 3001 generally represents a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 3001 includes a shank 3004, that further includes a body 3006 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or head-like capture structure 3008; a receiver 3010; a retainer structure illustrated as a resilient open ring 3012, and a friction fit crown collet compression or pressure insert 3014. The receiver 3010, retainer 3012 and compression insert 3014 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 3004 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 3006 into a vertebra 3017, as will be described in greater detail below. FIGS. 157 and 185-187 further show a rod 3021 and closure structure 3018 the same or similar to rods and closures previously described herein, for example, the rod 2021 and the closure 2018 described with reference to the assembly 2001. As with other assemblies of the invention, the receiver 3010 and the shank 3004 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 3010 and the shank 3004 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 3010 with the shank 3004 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 3004, best illustrated in FIGS. 157-159 is substantially similar to the shank 1004 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 1000. Thus, the shank 3004 includes the shank body 3006, upper portion or head 3008, a shank thread 3024, a neck 3026, a tip 3028, a top of thread 3032, an upper portion spherical surface 3034 a top surface 3038, an internal drive 3046 with a base surface 3045 and an cannulation bore 3050 the same or substantially similar to the respective body 1006, upper portion or head 1008, shank thread 1024, neck 1026, tip 1028, top of thread 1032, spherical surface 1034, top surface 1038, internal drive 1046 with base surface 1045 and cannulation bore 1050 previously described herein with respect to the shank 1004 of the assembly 1001. To provide a biologically active interface with the bone, the threaded shank body 3006 may be coated, perforated, made porous or otherwise treated as previously discussed herein with respect to the shank body 6 of the assembly 1. The shank spherical surface 3034 has an outer radius configured for frictional, non-floppy, sliding cooperation with a discontinuous concave surface 3152 of the compression insert 3014 having a substantially similar or slightly smaller or slightly larger radius, as well as ultimate frictional engagement and penetration by a stepped, gripping portion 3150 of the insert 3014, as will be discussed more fully in the paragraphs below. The top surface 3038 is substantially perpendicular to a central axis A. The spherical surface 3034 shown in the present embodiment is substantially smooth, but in some embodiments may include a roughening or other surface treatment and is sized and shaped for cooperation and ultimate frictional engagement with the compression insert 3014 as well as ultimate frictional engagement with the retainer 3012. The shank spherical surface 3034 is locked into place exclusively by the insert 3014 and the retainer 3012 and not by inner surfaces defining the receiver cavity. With particular reference to FIGS. 157 and 171-175, the receiver 3010 has a generally U-shaped appearance with partially discontinuous and partially cylindrical inner and outer profiles. The receiver 3010 has an axis of rotation B that is shown in FIG. 157 as being aligned with and the same as the axis of rotation A of the shank 3004, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 3010 with the shank 3004 (see, e.g., FIG. 179 showing a receiver 3010 being “popped on” to a shank 3006 that is implanted in a vertebra 3017 and disposed at an angle with respect to the receiver). After the receiver 3010 is pivotally attached to the shank 3004, either before or after the shank 3004 is implanted in a vertebra 3017, the axis B is typically disposed at an angle with respect to the axis A, as shown, for example, in FIG. 187. The receiver 10 includes a substantially cylindrical base 3060 defining a bore or inner cavity, generally 3061, the base 3060 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 3062 forming a cradle and defining a channel 3064 between the arms 3062 with an upper opening, generally 3066, and a U-shaped lower channel portion or seat 3068, the channel 3064 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 3021 or portion of another longitudinal connector between the arms 3062, the channel 3064 communicating with the base cavity 3061. Outer front and rear opposed substantially planar arm surfaces 3069 partially define the channel 3064 directly above the seat 3068, the surfaces 3069 advantageously reduce the run on the rod (i.e., provide a more narrow receiver portion that in turn provides more space and thus more access between bone anchors along the rod or other connecting member) and provide the planar surface 3069 for flush or close contact with other connecting member components in certain embodiments, such as for bumpers or spacers that surround a hard or deformable rod or provide support for cord-type connecting members, such as those shown in the '849 application, incorporated by reference herein. Each of the arms 3062 has an interior surface, generally 3070, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 3072 located adjacent top surfaces 3073 of each of the arms 3062. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 3072 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 3018, as described more fully below. However, it is foreseen that for certain embodiments of the invention, the guide and advancement structure 3072 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structures, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 18 downward between the arms 3062, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 3018 abuts against the rod 3021 or other longitudinal connecting member. It is foreseen that the arms could have break-off extensions. An opposed pair of key-hole like shallow tool receiving and engaging grooves or apertures 3074, each having a through bore 3075, are formed on outer surfaces 3076 of the arms 3062. Each through bore 3075 extends between the outer surface 3076 and the inner surface 3070 and is located between upper and lower shallow grooved or recessed portions that do not extend completely through the respective arm 3062. In the present embodiment, part of the grooved portion directly below the through bore 3075 is defined by a thin wall 3077 that is crimped into the insert 3014 during assembly thereof with the receiver 3010 as will be described in greater detail below. In other embodiments of the invention, other surfaces forming the groove or aperture 3074 may be inwardly crimped. Alternatively, spring tabs or other movable structure may be included on the receiver 3010 or the insert 3014 for retaining the insert 3014 in a desired position, with regard to rotation and axial movement (along the axis A) with respect to the receiver 3010. Preferably the insert and/or receiver are configured with structure for blocking rotation of the insert with respect to the receiver, but allowing some up and down movement of the insert with respect to the receiver during the assembly and implant procedure. Two additional pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 3078 are also formed in the front and rear surfaces 3069 of the receiver arms 3062. Transition base surfaces 3079 span between the planar surfaces 3069 at the U-shaped seat 3068 and the cylindrical base 3060, the surfaces 3079 sloping downwardly toward the base 3060 at an angle with respect to the axis B. Some or all of the apertures 3074 and 3077 may be used for holding the receiver 3010 during assembly with the insert 3014, the retainer 3012 and the shank 3004; during the implantation of the shank body 3006 into a vertebra when the shank is pre-assembled with the receiver 3010; during assembly of the bone anchor assembly 3001 with the rod 3021 and the closure structure 3018; and during lock and release adjustment of the insert 3014 with respect to the receiver 3010, either into or out of frictional engagement with the inner surfaces of the receiver 3010 as will be described in greater detail below. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 3062. Returning to the interior surface 3070 of the receiver arms 3062, located below the guide and advancement structure 3072 is a discontinuous cylindrical surface 3082 partially defining a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 3072. The cylindrical surface 3082 has a diameter equal to or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 3072. Moving downwardly, in a direction toward the base 3060, adjacent the cylindrical surface 3082 of each arm is a run-out seat or surface 3084 that extends inwardly toward the axis B and runs perpendicular to the axis B. Adjacent to and located below the surface 3084 is another cylindrical surface 3086 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 3082. The through bores 3075 extends through the arms at the surfaces 3086. Located directly below each bore 3075 is a surface portion 3087 that engages the insert 3014 when the thin wall 3077 is crimped toward the insert 3014 during assembly of such insert in the receiver 3010 as will be described in greater detail below. A discontinuous annular surface 3088 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 3086. The surface 3088 is disposed substantially perpendicular to the axis B. The inner surfaces 3070 of the arms 3062 include an additional partially discontinuous and partially continuous inner cylindrical surface 3090 adjacent the annular surface 3088 and extending downwardly into the receiver base 3060. The surface 3090 is disposed parallel to the receiver axis B. The surface 3090 has a diameter greater than the diameter of the surface 3082. The cylindrical surfaces 3086 and 3090 are sized to receive respective upper- and mid-portions of the insert 3014 as will be described in greater detail below. Now, with respect to the base 3060 and more specifically, the base cavity 3061, a lower portion of the surface 3090 that extends into the base and partially defines the base cavity 3061 terminates at an annular surface or ledge 3095. The ledge 3095 extends toward the axis B and is substantially perpendicular thereto. Extending downwardly from the ledge 3095 is a cylindrical surface 3096 that partially defines the base cavity 3061, the surface 3096 running parallel to the axis B and having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 3090. The surface 3096 is sized and shaped to initially closely receive a lower portion of the insert 3014 and later frictionally engage a tapered portion of the insert 3014, providing and lock and release function that will be described in greater detail below. The surface 3096 terminates at an annular surface 98 of the base cavity 3061 that functions as an upper stop for the retainer 3012, particularly when in an expanded state as shown in FIG. 181 and as will be described in greater detail below. Another cylindrical surface 3099 is located below and adjacent to the surface 3098. The cylindrical surface 3099 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to receive an expanded retainer 3012. The surfaces 3098 and 3099 define a circumferential recess or expansion chamber that is sized and shaped give clearance to and to receive the retainer 3012 as it expands around the shank upper portion 3008 as the shank 8 moves upwardly toward the channel 3064 during assembly, as well as form a restriction to prevent the expanded retainer 3012 from moving upwardly with the shank portion 3008, the surface 3098 and the insert 3014 preventing the retainer 3012 from passing upwardly out of the cavity 3061 whether the retainer 3012 is in a partially or fully expanded position or state, or in a neutral or original operative position or state. A cylindrical surface 3101 located below the cylindrical surface 3099 is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 3012 when the retainer is in a neutral or slightly compressed operative position as shown in FIGS. 184 and 185, for example. Thus, the cylindrical surface 3101 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 3099 that defines the expansion area for the retainer 3012. The surface 3101 is joined or connected to the surface 3099 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 3102. The surfaces 3102 allow for sliding gradual movement and/or contraction of the retainer 3012 into the final seating space defined by the surface 3101 and ultimate seating of the retainer 3012 on a lower annular surface 3104 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 3101. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 3104 is another substantially cylindrical surface 3106 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 3107, the surface 3107 communicating with an exterior base surface 3108 of the base 3060, defining a lower opening, generally 3110, into the base cavity 3061 of the receiver 3010. The illustrated surface 3100 has a diameter requiring compression or squeezing of the retainer 3012 during uploading of the retainer 3012 through the lower opening 3110 (see FIG. 177, for example). With particular reference to FIGS. 157, 160-164 and 177, the lower open retainer ring 3012 that operates to capture the shank upper portion 3008 and attached compression insert 3014 within the receiver 3010 has a central axis that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 3010 when the shank upper portion 3008 and the retainer 3012 are installed within the receiver 3010. The retainer ring 3012 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 3012 may be both compressed and expanded during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The retainer 3012 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 3121, that passes entirely through the ring 3012 from a top surface 3122 to a bottom surface 3124 thereof. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 3121 include a discontinuous inner cylindrical surface 3125 adjacent the top surface 3122, a discontinuous frusto-conical surface 3127 adjacent the surface 3125 and a beveled surface 3128, all three surfaces coaxial when the retainer 3012 is in a neutral non-compressed, non-expanded orientation. The retainer 3012 further includes an outer cylindrical surface 3130 located adjacent the top surface 3122 and an outer beveled or frusto-conical surface 3132 adjacent the bottom surface 3124. The surface 3130 is oriented parallel to the central axis of the retainer 3012. In some embodiments of the invention, spaced notches (not shown) may be formed in the cylindrical surface 3130 to receive a holding and manipulation tool (not shown) used for contraction and insertion of the retainer 3012 into the receiver 3010. In some embodiments further notches may be made to evenly distribute stress across the entire retainer 3012 during contraction and expansion thereof. In other embodiments of the invention, such notches may be on the inside of the retainer 3012 ring. The resilient retainer 3012 further includes first and second end surfaces, 3134 and 3135 disposed in spaced relation to one another when the retainer is in a neutral non-compressed state. Both end surfaces 3134 and 3135 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the top surface 3122 and the bottom surface 3124. A width X between the surfaces 3134 and 3135 is determined by a desired amount of compressibility of the open retainer 312 when loaded into the receiver 310 as shown in FIG. 177. The space X shown in FIG. 160 provides adequate space between the surfaces 3134 and 3135 for the retainer 3012 to be pinched, with the surfaces 3134 and 3135 compressed toward one another (as shown in FIG. 177) to a closely spaced or even touching configuration, if necessary, to an extent that the compressed retainer 3012 is up or bottom loadable through the receiver opening 3110. After passing through the opening 3110 and along a portion of the lower inner surface 3106, the retainer 3012 expands or springs back to an original uncompressed, rounded or collar-like configuration of FIGS. 160-164, see, e.g., FIG. 178. The embodiment shown in FIGS. 160-164 illustrates the surfaces 3134 and 3135 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle depending upon the amount of compression desired during loading of the retainer 3012 into the receiver 3010. With particular reference to FIGS. 157 and 165-170, the friction fit, lock and release crown compression insert 3014 is illustrated that is sized and shaped to be received by and down-loaded into the receiver 3010 at the upper opening 3066. The compression insert 3014 has an operational central axis that is the same as the central axis B of the receiver 3010. In operation, the insert advantageously frictionally engages the bone screw shank upper portion 3008, allowing for un-locked but non-floppy placement of the angle of the shank 3004 with respect to the receiver 3010 during surgery prior to locking of the shank with respect to the receiver near the end of the procedure. Furthermore, as will be described more fully below, an insert 3014 that has locked the shank 3004 in a desired angular position with respect to the receiver 3010, by, for example, compression from the rod 3021 and closure top 3018, is also wedged into engagement with the receiver 3010 at the inner surface 3096 and thus retains the shank 3006 in a locked position even if the rod 3021 and closure top 3018 are removed as shown in FIG. 186. Such locked position may also be released by the surgeon if desired. The insert 3014 is thus preferably made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that portions of the insert may be expanded about and then contracted, snapped or popped onto the shank upper portion 3008 as well as pinched and un-wedged from the receiver 3010. The lock-and-release crown collet compression insert 3014 includes a substantially cylindrical body 3136 integral with a pair of upstanding arms 3137 at an upper end thereof and integral with an opposed pair of crown collet extensions 3138 at a lower end thereof. A bore, generally 3140, is disposed primarily within and through the body 3136 and communicates with a generally U-shaped through channel 3141 that is defined by the upstanding arms 3137. The channel 3141 has a lower seat 3142 sized and shaped to closely, snugly engage the rod 3021. It is foreseen that an alternative embodiment may be configured to include planar holding surfaces that closely hold a square or rectangular bar as well as hold a cylindrical rod-shaped, cord, or sleeved cord longitudinal connecting member. The arms 3137 disposed on either side of the channel 3141 extend upwardly from the body 3136. The arms 3137 are sized and configured for ultimate placement near the cylindrical run-out surface 3082 below the receiver guide and advancement structure 3072. It is foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention, the arms may be extended and the closure top configured such the arms ultimately directly engage the closure top 3018 for locking of the polyaxial mechanism, for example, when the rod 3021 is made from a deformable material. In such embodiments, the insert 3014 would include a rotation blocking structure or feature that abuts against cooperating structure located on an inner wall of the receiver 3010, preventing rotation of the insert with respect to the receiver when the closure top is rotated into engagement with the insert. In the present embodiment, the arms 3137 include outer surfaces 3143 and top surfaces 3144 that are ultimately positioned in spaced relation with the closure top 3018, so that the closure top 3018 frictionally engages the rod 3021 only, pressing the rod 3021 downwardly against the seating surface 3142, the insert 3014 in turn pressing against the shank 3004 upper portion 3008 that presses against the retainer 3012 to lock the polyaxial mechanism of the bone screw assembly 3001 at a desired angle. As will be discussed in greater detail below, frictional engagement between the insert 3014 and the receiver 3010 maintains the upper portion 3008 in locked engagement with the retainer 3012 even if the closure top 3018 and/or rod 3021 are thereafter removed from the receiver 3010. The bore, generally 3140, is substantially defined at the body 3136 by an inner cylindrical surface 3146 that communicates with a lower collet space that extends to discontinuous bottom surfaces 3148 of the collet extensions 3138. The body 3135 (and bore 3140) is further defined by a shank gripping surface portion, generally 3150, the gripping portion 3150 being adjacent to the cylindrical surface 3146. Located below and adjacent to the gripping portion 3150 is an inner partially spherical surface 3152 that is continuous at the body 3136 and is discontinuous at the extensions 3138 wherein the surface 3152 extends downwardly, defining the inner shank holding portion of each of the collet extensions 3138 and terminating at the extension bottom surfaces 3148. The gripping surface portion 3150 preferably includes two or more graduated cylindrical surfaces disposed substantially parallel to the axis B and adjacent perpendicular step surfaces that are disposed generally perpendicular to the axis B when the insert 3014 is mounted within the receiver 3010. It is foreseen that the stepped surface portion 3150 may include greater or fewer number of stepped surfaces. It is foreseen that the shank gripping surface portion 3150 and also the spherical surface 3152 may additionally or alternatively include a roughened or textured surface or surface finish, or may be scored, knurled, or the like, for enhancing frictional engagement with the shank upper portion 3008. The two collet extensions 3138 that generally extend in a direction opposite to the two arms 3137 and have the discontinuous inner spherical surface 3152, also include through slits or slots 3153 running substantially vertically from adjacent the shank gripping surface portion 3150 through the bottom surfaces 3148. The illustrated embodiment includes one slot 3153 centrally located in each extension 3138. It is foreseen that other embodiments of the invention may include more or fewer slots 3153. The slots 3153 substantially equally partition each of the extensions 3138, forming four distinct resilient, partially spherical fingers, tab or panels 3154 that extend from the shank gripping portion 3150 to the bottom surface 3148. In other words, the discontinuous inner spherical surface 3152 is further separated into four surface portions 3154, each being partially spherical and sized and shaped to resiliently expand about the spherical surface 3034 of the shank upper portion 3008 and then snap on and frictionally grip the surface 3034. The illustrated spherical surface 3152 is designed such that the gripping tabs or panels 3154 have a neutral or non-expanded radius that is the same or in some instances may be slightly smaller than a radius of the shank surface 3034 so that when the tabs or panels 3154 are gripping the surface 3034, the insert 3014 collet extension portion 3138 is in a slightly expanded state. In other embodiments, as illustrated in the embodiment shown in FIG. 222, the non-expanded radius is the same or larger than a radius of the shank surface. The contacting surface area between the shank and the insert is sufficient to provide a non-floppy frictional fit in such instances. Furthermore, the shank surface 3034 and/or the spherical surface 3152 may include a roughened or grooved surface feature to provide for a frictional fit between the shank and the insert. In other embodiments, the resilient panels 3154 having a slightly larger pre-assembly radius than the shank surface 3034 may be bent inwardly to result in a tighter frictional fit with the shank surface. When the shank 3004 is locked into position by a rod 3021 or other connecting member being pressed downwardly on the insert seat 3142 by the closure top 3018, the insert 3014 shank gripping portion 3150 that is initially slidable along the shank surface 3034 then digs or penetrates into the surface 3034 and thus securely fixes the shank upper portion 3008 to the insert at the portion 3150. The compression insert 3014 through bore 3140 is sized and shaped to receive the driving tool (not shown) therethrough that engages the shank drive feature 3046 when the shank body 3006 is driven into bone with the receiver 3010 attached. The illustrated insert 3014 further includes features that allow for a lock and release frictional fit between the insert 3014 and the receiver 3010. These features include a shallow, substantially vertical or key-hole like slot 3155 disposed on the outer surface 3143 of each arm 3137, the slot 3155 running substantially vertically from near the top surface 3144 through the body 3136 to near one of the collet extension through slots 3153. In the illustrated embodiment, the slots 3155 and 3153 are substantially aligned and run substantially parallel to the axis B. Each slot 3155 further includes a through bore 3156 at or near a top thereof, the bore 156 running radially through each of the arms 3137 in a direction substantially perpendicular to the axis B. The through bore and slots are directly opposed from on another and are sized and shaped to receive tools for manipulating the insert 3014 with respect to the receiver 3010 as will be described herein as well as for receiving tabs or crimped material from the receiver 3010 for maintaining alignment between the insert 3014 channel 3141 and the receiver 3010 channel 3064. Directly below each arm 3137 and intersecting with a portion of each slot 3155 is a frusto-conical or otherwise outwardly flaring or tapered surface 3158 sized and shaped for engaging with the receiver 3010 at the surface 3096 as will be described more fully below. Each surface 3158 tapers inwardly toward the axis B as the surface runs toward the crown collet extensions 3138. Below and adjacent to each surface 3158 is a cylindrical surface 3159 that partially defines an outer surface of a respective crown collet extension 3138. Another frusto-conical surface 3160 is located below the surface 3159, followed by a substantially cylindrical surface 3161 that defines a lower portion of each extension 3138. The surface 3161 has a diameter smaller than a diameter of the surface 3159. The surface 3161 is sized and shaped for being closely but slidingly received by the receiver cavity 3061 at the cylindrical surface 3096. The insert body 3136 located between the arms 3137 and the collet extensions 3138 has an outer diameter slightly smaller than a diameter between crests of the guide and advancement structure 3072 of the receiver 3010, allowing for top loading of the compression insert 3014 into the receiver opening 3066, with the arms 3137 of the insert 3014 being located between the receiver arms 3062 during insertion of the insert 3014 into the receiver 3010. Once the arms 3137 of the insert 3014 are generally located beneath the guide and advancement structure 3072, the insert 3014 is rotated into place about the receiver axis B until the top surfaces 3144 are located directly below the guide and advancement structure 3072 as will be described in greater detail below. With reference to FIGS. 157 and 185-187, the illustrated elongate rod or longitudinal connecting member 3021 (of which only a portion has been shown) can be any of a variety of implants utilized in reconstructive spinal surgery, but is typically a cylindrical, elongate structure having the outer substantially smooth, cylindrical surface 3022 of uniform diameter. The rod 3021 is substantially similar to the rods previously described herein, such as the rods 21, 1021 and 2021 and may be a soft connecting member assembly as described, for example, in the '849 application incorporated by reference herein, and therefore shall not be discussed in any greater detail here. With reference to FIGS. 157 and 185-187, the closure structure or closure top 3018 shown with the assembly 3001 is rotatably received between the spaced arms 3062 of the receiver 3010. It is noted that the closure 3018 top could be a twist-in or slide-in closure structure. The illustrated closure structure 3018 is substantially cylindrical and includes a an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 3162 in the form of a flange that operably joins with the guide and advancement structure 3072 disposed on the arms 3062 of the receiver 3010. Although it is foreseen that the closure structure guide and advancement structure could alternatively be a buttress thread, a square thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread like or non-thread like helically wound advancement structure, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 3018 downward between the arms 3062 and having such a nature as to resist splaying of the arms 3062 when the closure structure 3018 is advanced into the channel 3064, the flange form illustrated herein as described more fully in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689 is preferred as the added strength provided by such flange form beneficially cooperates with and counters any reduction in strength caused by the squared off U-shape channel of the illustrated receiver 3010 and reduced profile of the receiver 3010 that advantageously engages longitudinal connecting member components as will be further described below. The illustrated closure structure 3018 also includes a top surface 3164 with an internal drive 3166 in the form of an aperture that is illustrated as a star-shaped internal drive such as that sold under the trademark TORX, or may be, for example, a hex drive, or other internal drives such as slotted, tri-wing, spanner, two or more apertures of various shapes, and the like. A driving tool (not shown) sized and shaped for engagement with the internal drive 3166 is used for both rotatable engagement and, if needed, disengagement of the closure 3018 from the receiver arms 3062. It is also foreseen that the closure structure 3018 may alternatively include a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 70 to 140 inch pounds. Such a closure structure would also include a base having an internal drive to be used for closure removal. A base or bottom surface 3168 of the closure is planar and further includes a point 3169 and a rim 3170 for engagement and penetration into the surface 3022 of the rod 3021 in certain embodiments of the invention. The closure top 3018 may further include a cannulation through bore (not shown) extending along a central axis thereof and through the top and bottom surfaces thereof. Such a through bore provides a passage through the closure 3018 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for insertion of the closure top into the receiver arms 3062. Preferably, the receiver 3010, the retainer 3012 and the compression insert 3014 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainer 3012 as well as compressing or expanding the insert 3014 arms and collet extensions, if needed, as well as crimping a portion of the receiver 3010 toward the insert 3014. In some circumstances, the shank 3004 is also assembled with the receiver 3010, the retainer 3012 and the compression insert 3014 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 3004, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver, retainer and compression insert at the insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 3004, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. In other instances, it is desirable for the surgical staff to pre-assemble a shank of a desired size and/or variety (e.g., surface treatment of roughening the upper portion 3008 and/or hydroxyapatite on the shank 3006), with the receiver, retainer and compression insert. Allowing the surgeon to choose the appropriately sized or treated shank 3004 advantageously reduces inventory requirements, thus reducing overall cost. Pre-assembly of the receiver 3010, retainer 3012 and compression insert 3014 is shown in FIGS. 175-177. First, the compression insert 3014 is downloaded into the receiver 3010 through the upper opening 3066 with the crown collet extension bottom surfaces 3148 facing the receiver arm top surfaces 3073 and the insert arms 3137 as well as the insert collet extensions 3138 located between the opposed receiver arms 3062. The insert 3014 is then lowered toward the channel seat 3068 until the insert 3014 arm upper surfaces 3144 are adjacent the run-out area below the guide and advancement structure 3072 defined in part by the cylindrical surface 3082. Thereafter, the insert 3014 is rotated in a clockwise or counter-clockwise manner about the receiver axis B until the upper arm surfaces 3144 are directly below the guide and advancement structure 3072 as illustrated in FIG. 176 with the U-shaped channel 3141 of the insert 3014 aligned with the U-shaped channel 3064 of the receiver 3010. In some embodiments, the insert arms 3137 and collet extensions 3138 may need to be compressed slightly during rotation to clear inner surfaces of the receiver arms 3062. As shown in FIGS. 176 and 177, the outer lower cylindrical surface 3161 of the insert 3014 is received with the cylindrical surface 3096 of the receiver. With reference to FIG. 177, the receiver thin walls 3077 are then crimped inwardly toward the axis B by inserting a tool (not shown) through the receiver apertures 3074, the tool pressing the walls 3077 until the wall surface 3087 engages the insert 3014 at the shallow central slot 3155 formed on the outer surface 3143 of each of the insert arms 3137. The crimping of the wall surface 3087 into the slot 3155 keeps the insert 3014 U-shaped channel 3141 aligned with the receiver U-shaped channel 3064 and also retains the insert 3014 at the upward location shown in FIG. 177 with the insert arm top surfaces 3144 adjacent the guide and advancement structure 3072 until the insert 3014 is pushed downwardly toward the receiver base 3060 after assembly with the shank 3004. Thus, the crimping of the receiver walls 3077 prohibits rotation of the insert 3014 about the receiver axis B but allows for limited axial movement of the insert 3014 with respect to the receiver 3010 along the axis B when some force is exerted to slide the crimped surface 3087 up or down along the groove 3155. The insert 3014 is fully captured within the receiver 3010 by the guide and advancement structure 3072 prohibiting movement of the insert 3014 up and out through the receiver opening 3066 as well as by the frusto-conical surface 3158 of the insert 3014 that is sized to engage and wedge against the cylindrical surface 3096 of the receiver, preventing movement of the insert 3014 out of the lower receiver opening 3110. In some embodiments of the invention, top or side surfaces of the insert 3014 may include a resilient projection or projections for temporarily frictionally engaging with an inner surface of the receiver 3010 to hold the insert 3014 in an upper portion of the receiver 3010 during some of the assembly steps, also providing a frictional but slidable fit between the insert 3014 and the receiver 3010. In some embodiments, the insert 3014 may also be freely slidable in the upper portion of the receiver 3010 in an axial direction, but preferably kept above the receiver cylindrical surface 3099 that functions as an expansion recess or chamber for the retainer 3012. Also with reference to FIG. 177, the retainer 3012 is then prepared for insertion into the receiver 3010 by squeezing or pressing the retainer end surfaces 3134 and 3135 toward one another. The compressed retainer 3012 is inserted into the lower opening 3110 with the planar top surface 3122 facing the receiver bottom surface 3108. The retainer 3012 is typically moved upwardly into the receiver 3010 and past the cylindrical surface 3106 and allowed to expand to a substantially neutral state within the cylindrical surface 3101 as shown in FIG. 178. Also as shown in FIG. 178, at this time, both the compression insert 3014 and the retainer 3012 are captured within the receiver 3010 in a manner that substantially prevents movement or loss of such parts out of the receiver 3010. The receiver 3010, compression insert 3014 and the retainer 3012 combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 3004 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 3004 as shown, for example, in FIG. 179, with the shank axis A and the receiver axis B either being aligned during assembly as shown in FIG. 178 and most of the drawings figures illustrating the assembly process, or the axes being at an angle with respect to one another as shown in FIG. 179. As illustrated in FIG. 179, the bone screw shank 3004 or an entire assembly 3001 made up of the assembled shank 3004, receiver 3010, retainer 3012 and compression insert 3014, is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 3017, by rotation of the shank 3004 using a suitable driving tool (not shown) that operably drives and rotates the shank body 3006 by engagement thereof at the internal drive 3046. With reference to FIGS. 178 and 179, the pre-assembled receiver, insert and retainers are placed above the shank upper portion 3008 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 3110. With particular reference to FIGS. 180 and 181, as the shank upper portion 3008 is moved into the interior 3061 of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 3008 presses the retainer 3012 upwardly into the recess partially defined by the cylindrical surface 3099 (if the retainer is not already located within such recess). As the portion 3008 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 3064, the top surface 3122 of the retainer 3012 abuts against the insert bottom surfaces 3148 as well as the annular rim stop 3098 of the receiver 3010, stopping upward movement of the retainer 3012 and forcing outward movement of the retainer 3012 towards the cylindrical surface 3099 defining the receiver expansion recess as the spherical surface 3034 continues in an upward direction. The retainer 3012 begins to contract about the spherical surface 3034 as the center of the sphere passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion recess defined by the surface 3099. At this time also, the spherical surface 3034 moves into engagement with the insert 3014 spherical surface 3152 with the collet panels 3154 expanding slightly outwardly to receive the surface 3034. The panels 3154 press outwardly against the surface 3096 that provides enough clearance for the spherical surface 3034 to enter into full frictional engagement with the panel inner surfaces 3152 as shown in FIG. 182. At this time, the insert 3014 and the surface 3034 are in a fairly tight friction fit, the surface 3034 being pivotable with respect to the insert 3014 with some force. Thus, a tight, non-floppy ball and socket joint is now created between the insert 3014 and the shank upper portion 3008. With reference to FIGS. 183 and 184, the shank 3004 and attached insert 3014 are then moved downwardly into a desired position for receiving the rod 3021 or other longitudinal connecting member by either an upward pull on the receiver 3010 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 3004 further into the vertebra 3017. Also, in some embodiments, when the receiver 3010 is pre-assembled with the shank 3004, the entire assembly 3001 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool (not shown) into the receiver and the shank drive 3046 and rotating and driving the shank 3004 into a desired location of the vertebra 3017. Also with reference to FIG. 184, at this time, the compression insert 3014 cylindrical surface 3159 is located within the receiver cylindrical surface 3096 with the insert frusto-conical surface 3158 at or near the surface 3096 at an edge thereof defining a juncture of the surface 3096 and the annular seat 3095. The insert 3014 is thus prohibited from moving any further downwardly at the ledge or seat 3095 unless forced downwardly by a tool or by the closure top pressing downwardly on the rod that in turn presses downwardly on the insert 3014 in a later stage of assembly as shown in FIG. 185. With further reference to FIG. 184, at this time, the receiver 310 may be articulated to a desired angular position with respect to the shank 3004, that will be held, but not locked, by the frictional engagement between the insert 3014 and the shank upper portion 3008. With reference to FIGS. 185-187, the rod 21 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 3001 (or combination of 1, 1001, 2001 and 3001, for example). The closure structure 3018 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 3062 of each of the receivers 3010. The closure structure 3018 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 3166 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 3021 engages the U-shaped seating surface 3142 of the compression insert 3014, further pressing the insert stepped shank gripping surfaces 3150 against the shank spherical surface 3034, the edges of the stepped surfaces penetrating into the spherical surface 3034 and also pressing the shank upper portion 3008 into locked frictional engagement with the retainer 3012. Specifically, as the closure structure 3018 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 3010, the point 3169 and rim 3170 engage and penetrate the rod surface 3022, the closure structure 3018 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 3021 into compressive engagement with the insert 3014 that urges the shank upper portion 3008 toward the retainer 3012 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 3012 frictionally abutting the surface 3104 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 3101. For example, about 80 to about 120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 3006 with respect to the receiver 3010. Also, as the closure structure 3018 and the rod 3021 press the insert 3014 downwardly toward the base of the receiver 3010, the insert frusto-conical surface 3158 is forced into the receiver cylindrical surface 3096, wedging the insert 3014 into fixed frictional engagement with the receiver surface 3096. With reference to FIG. 186, at this time, the closure top 3018 may be loosened or removed and/or the rod 3021 may be adjusted and/or removed and the frictional engagement between the insert 3014 and the receiver 3010 at the receiver surface 3096 will remain locked in place, advantageously maintaining a locked angular position of the shank 3004 with respect to the receiver 3010. If the user wishes to release the insert 3014 from the receiver 3010 and unlock the polyaxial mechanism, a tool (not shown) may be used that includes extensions or prongs that are received by and through the opposed through bores 3075 of the receiver 3010 and received into the through bores 3156 of the insert 3014. Such tool is then pulled upwardly in a direction along the axis B away from the receiver base 3060, thereby pulling the insert slightly upwardly and away from the receiver base 3060 and releasing the frusto-conical surface 3158 from the cylindrical surface 3096. Alternatively, if both the closure top 3018 and the rod 3021 are already removed from the receiver 3010, another manipulation tool (not shown) may be used that is inserted into the receiver at the opening 3066 and into the insert channel 3141, with prongs or extensions thereof extending outwardly into the insert through bores 3156; a piston-like portion of the tool thereafter pushing directly on the shank upper portion 3008, thereby pulling the insert 3014 surface 3158 away from the receiver surface 3096 and thus releasing the polyaxial mechanism. At such time, the shank 3004 may be articulated with respect to the receiver 3010, but the desired friction fit remains or returns between the insert 3014 and the shank surface 3034, so that an adjustable, but non-floppy relationship exists between the shank 3004 and the receiver 3010. If further disassembly if the assembly 3001 is desired, such is accomplished in reverse order to the procedure described previously herein for assembly. With reference to FIGS. 188-221 the reference number 3201 generally represents another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 3201 includes a shank 3204, that further includes a body 3206 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or head-like capture structure 3208; a receiver 3210; a retainer structure illustrated as a resilient open ring 3212, and a friction fit crown collet compression or pressure insert 3214. The receiver 3210, retainer 3212 and compression insert 3214 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 3204 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 3206 into a vertebra 3217, as will be described in greater detail below. FIGS. 188, 220 and 221 further show a closure structure 3218 for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 3221 which in turn engages the compression insert 3214 that presses against the shank upper portion 3208 into fixed frictional contact with the retainer 3212, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 3221 within the receiver 3210 and thus fix the member 3221 relative to the vertebra 3217. The illustrated rod 3221 is substantially similar to the hard, stiff rod 3021 previously described herein, having an outer cylindrical surface 3222. In other embodiments, the stiff rod 3221 may take other shapes and/or be made from other materials or be part of a longitudinal connecting member assembly that may include sleeves that are fixable to a core member or slidable with respect thereto, spacers (compressible or not) and cords, for example, all as previously described herein with respect to the rods 21, 1021, 2021 and 3021, for example, and fully incorporated by reference herein with respect to the rod 3221. The receiver 3210 and the shank 3204 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 3210 and the shank 3204 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 3210 with the shank 3204 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 3204, best illustrated in FIGS. 188-190, is the same or substantially similar to the shank 3004 previously described herein. Therefore, the shank 3204 includes the body 3206, the upper portion or head 3208, a thread 3224, a neck 3226, a shank body top 3232, an upper portion spherical surface 3234, an upper portion planar top surface 3238, an aperture with a stepped base 3245 partially defining an internal drive feature 3246 and a cannulation bore 3250, all the same or substantially similar to the respective body 3006, upper portion or head 3008, thread 3024, neck 3026, shank body top 3032, upper portion spherical surface 3034, upper portion planar top surface 3038, aperture with stepped base 3045, internal drive feature 3046 and cannulation bore 3050 of the shank 3004 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 3001. With particular reference to FIGS. 188 and 202-208, the receiver 3210 has a generally squared-off, U-shaped appearance with partially discontinuous and partially cylindrical inner and outer profiles. The receiver 3210 has an axis of rotation BB that is shown in FIG. 188 as being aligned with and the same as the axis of rotation AA of the shank 3204, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 3210 with the shank 3204. After the receiver 3210 is pivotally attached to the shank 3204, either before or after the shank 3204 is implanted in a vertebra 3217, the axis BB is typically disposed at an angle with respect to the axis AA, as shown, for example, in FIG. 221. The receiver 3210 includes a substantially cylindrical base 3260 defining a bore or inner cavity, generally 3261, the base 3260 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 3262 forming a cradle and defining a channel 3264 between the arms 3262 with an upper opening, generally 3266, and a substantially planar lower channel portion or seat 3268, the channel 3264 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 3221 or portion of another longitudinal connector between the arms 3262, the channel 3264 communicating with the base cavity 3261. Directly below each channel seat 3268, the cylindrical base 3260 is cut or truncated, forming opposed planar surfaces 3267. Outer front and rear opposed substantially planar arm surfaces 3269 partially define the channel 3264 substantially directly above the seat 3268, the arm surfaces 3269 as well as the base surfaces 3267 advantageously reducing the run on the rod (i.e., providing a more narrow receiver portion that in turn provides more space and thus more access between bone anchors along the rod or other connecting member) and providing planar contact surfaces for flush or close cooperation with other connecting member components in certain embodiments, such as for bumpers or spacers that surround a hard or deformable rod or provide support for elastic or cord-type connecting members. The squared-off geometry of the channel 3264 and lower seat 3268 allow for use with a variety of longitudinal connecting members, including, but not limited to those with circular, square and rectangular cross-sections. As compared to a U-shaped channel that includes a lower seat having a surface with a radius the same or slightly larger than a cooperating cylindrical rod or other connecting member, the squared-off seat 3268 provides improved stress management, moving stress risers outwardly toward the two arms 3262 rather than being focused primarily at a center base line of the radiused lower seat. Each of the arms 3262 has an interior surface, generally 3270, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 3272 located adjacent top surfaces 3273 of each of the arms 3262. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 3272 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 3218, the same or similar to the guide and advancement structure 3072 previously described herein with respect to the receiver 3010 of the assembly 3001. However, it is foreseen that for certain embodiments of the invention, the guide and advancement structure 3272 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structures, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 3218 downward between the arms 3262, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 3218 abuts against the rod 3221 or other longitudinal connecting member. It is foreseen that the arms could have break-off extensions. An opposed pair of substantially circular shallow tool receiving and engaging apertures 3274 are formed on outer surfaces 3276 of the arms 3262. Two additional pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 3278 are also formed in the front and rear surfaces 3269 of the receiver arms 3262. Transition base surfaces 3279 span between the planar surfaces 3269 and the planar seating surface 3268 at either side of the planar base surfaces 3267. Some or all of the apertures 3274 and 3278 may be used for holding the receiver 3210 during assembly with the insert 3214, the retainer 3212 and the shank 3204; during the implantation of the shank body 3206 into a vertebra when the shank is pre-assembled with the receiver 3210; during assembly of the bone anchor assembly 3201 with the rod 3221 and the closure structure 3218; and during disassembly of the component parts, when needed. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 3262. Returning to the interior surface 3270 of the receiver arms 3262, located below the guide and advancement structure 3272 is a discontinuous cylindrical surface 3282 partially defining a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 3272. The cylindrical surface 3282 has a diameter equal to or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 3272. Moving downwardly, in a direction toward the base 3260, adjacent the cylindrical surface 3282 of each arm is a run-out seat or surface 3284 that extends inwardly toward the axis BB and runs perpendicular to the axis BB. Adjacent to and located below the surface 3284 is another cylindrical surface 3286 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 3282. Four inner crimping structures, generally 3288, for keeping the insert 3214 in a desired alignment within the receiver 3210 are each cut or otherwise formed in the receiver 3210 below the surface 3286 and extend downwardly into the base cavity 3261. The crimping structures 3288 may be made, for example, by making electrical discharge machining (EDM) cuts below the surface 3286, creating a pair of opposed discontinuous annular surfaces 3289 and 3290, the surfaces 3290 defining upper surfaces of the structures 3288. Substantially parallel vertical EDM cuts (parallel to the axis BB) located near each channel seat 3268 create outer surfaces 3292 of each of the structures 3288. A discontinuous cylindrical surface 3293 defines a contact surface of each of the crimping structures 3288. The surfaces 3293 have a diameter smaller than the diameter of the run-out surface 3282 but larger than the diameter of the discontinuous cylindrical surface 3286. Each structure 3288 terminates in the base cavity 3261 at a partially annular surface or lower rim 3294 disposed perpendicular to the axis BB. As best shown in FIGS. 206 and 213, the crimping structures 3288 are deployed by bending each structure toward the insert 3214 at the surface 3293 as will be described in greater detail below. It is foreseen that the structures 3288 may have other geometries for cooperating with the insert 3214 and/or other structure, such as spring tabs or thin crimped walls may alternatively be utilized to retain the insert 3214 in a desired position within the receiver 3210. Each inner arm surface 3270 further includes a substantially centrally located recess or partial curvate groove, generally 3295, for receiving portions of the insert 3214 in a neutral state thereof as will be described in greater detail below. The recess 3295 is defined by an upper partially annular surface or stop 3296 disposed perpendicular to the axis BB and a curvate or partially cylindrical surface 3297 that cuts into the cylindrical surface 3293. Each recess 3295 generally terminates at or aligned with the discontinuous lower rim 3294. The EDM cuts that form the outer surfaces 3292 of the crimping structures 3288 also form planar surfaces 3298 partially defining an upper portion of the cavity 3261 located below and at either side of each channel seat 3268. A pair of opposed centrally located curved or partially cylindrical surfaces 3299 also partially define an upper portion of the cavity 3261, each surface 3299 spanning between planar surfaces 3298. A diameter of each surface 3299 is the same as the un-crimped diameter of the crimping structure 3288 inner cylindrical surfaces 3293 as best illustrated in FIG. 206. Further with respect to the base 3260 and more specifically, the base cavity 3261, located below and adjacent to the discontinuous lower rim 3294 is a cylindrical surface 3300 oriented substantially parallel to the axis BB and sized and shaped to receive an expanded retainer 3212. The surfaces 3294 and 3300 define a circumferential recess or chamber that is sized and shaped to receive the retainer 3212 as it expands around the shank upper portion 3208 as the shank 3204 moves upwardly toward the channel 3264 during assembly, the insert 3214 forming a restriction to prevent the neutral or expanding retainer 3212 from moving upwardly with the shank portion 3208. Prior to assembly of the insert 3214 with the receiver 3210, the discontinuous rim 3294 aids in keeping the retainer 3212 within the receiver cavity 3261. A cylindrical surface 3301 located below the cylindrical surface 3300 is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 3212 when the retainer is in a neutral or operative position as shown in FIGS. 219 and 220, for example. Thus, the cylindrical surface 3301 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 3300 that defines the expansion area for the retainer 3212. The surface 3301 is joined or connected to the surface 3300 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 3302. The surfaces 3302 allow for sliding gradual movement and/or contraction of the retainer 3212 into the space defined by the surface 3301 and ultimate seating of the retainer 3212 on a lower annular surface 3304 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 3301. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 3304 is another substantially cylindrical surface 3306 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 3307, the surface 3307 communicating with an exterior base surface 3308 of the base 3260, defining a lower opening, generally 3310, into the base cavity 3261 of the receiver 3210. With particular reference to FIGS. 188, 191-195 and 207, the open retainer ring 3212 that operates to capture the shank upper portion 3208 and attached compression insert 3214 within the receiver 3210 has a central axis that is operationally the same as the axis BB associated with the receiver 3210 when the shank upper portion 3208 and the retainer 3212 are installed within the receiver 3210. The retainer ring 3212 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 3212 may be expanded during assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The retainer 3212 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 3321, that passes entirely through the ring 3212 from a top surface 3322 to a bottom surface 3324 thereof. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 3321 include a discontinuous inner cylindrical surface 3325 adjacent the top surface 3322, a discontinuous frusto-conical surface 3327 adjacent the surface 3325 and a beveled surface 3328, all three surfaces coaxial when the retainer 3212 is in a neutral, non-expanded orientation. The retainer 3212 further includes an outer cylindrical surface 3330 located adjacent the top surface 3322 and an outer beveled or frusto-conical surface 3332 adjacent the bottom surface 3324. The surface 3330 is oriented parallel to the central axis of the retainer 3212. The resilient retainer 3212 further includes first and second end surfaces, 3334 and 3335 disposed in spaced relation to one another (they may also be touching) when the retainer is in a neutral state. Both end surfaces 3334 and 3335 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the top surface 3322 and the bottom surface 3324. A width XX between the surfaces 3334 and 3335 is very narrow as compared to the width X between the surfaces 3034 and 3035 of the retainer 3012 of the assembly 3001. Unlike the retainer 3012 and receiver 3010 of the assembly 3001, the retainer 3212 and the receiver 3210 are sized and shaped for top loading of the insert 3212 into the receiver 3210 which does not require compressing or pinching of the surfaces 3334 and 3335 toward one another during the loading step. Therefore, the gap between the surfaces 3334 and 3335 functions only in expansion to allow the retainer 3212 to expand about the shank upper portion 3208 and ultimately against the receiver when finally locked in place. This results in a stronger retainer that provides more surface contact with the shank upper portion 3208, resulting in a sturdier connection with less likelihood of failure than a retainer ring having a greater gap. Furthermore, because the retainer 3212 is only expanded and not compressed and expanded like the retainer 3012, the retainer 3212 does not undergo the mechanical stress that typically is placed on the retainer 3012. With particular reference to FIGS. 188 and 196-201, the friction fit crown compression insert 3214 is illustrated that is sized and shaped to be received by and down-loaded into the receiver 3210 at the upper opening 3266. The compression insert 3214 has an operational central axis that is the same as the central axis BB of the receiver 3210. In operation, the insert 3214 advantageously frictionally engages the bone screw shank upper portion 3208, allowing for un-locked but non-floppy placement of the angle of the shank 3204 with respect to the receiver 3210 during surgery prior to locking of the shank 3204 with respect to the receiver 3210 near the end of the procedure. The insert 3214 is thus preferably made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that portions of the insert may be expanded about and then contracted, snapped or popped onto the shank upper portion 3208 as well as pinched and un-wedged from the receiver 3210. The crown collet compression insert 3214 includes a partially cylindrical body 3336 having a planar top surface 3337 and being integral with an opposed pair of crown collet extensions, generally 3338 at a lower end thereof opposite the planar top surface 3337. Furthermore, extending opposite the extensions 3338 are two upwardly and outwardly extending resilient structures or prongs 3339 that engage the receiver 3210 during certain steps of the assembly process as will be described in greater detail below. A bore 3340 extends through the body 3336 with the collet extensions 3338 and the prongs 3339 being located generally on opposed sides of the bore 3340. The prongs 3339 may be formed in a variety of ways. In the illustrated embodiment, the top surface 3337 is initially substantially rectangular and opposed side surfaces taper outwardly (e.g. frusto-conical). EDM cut-outs are made near each of the tapered side surfaces, forming the prong inner curved surfaces 3342 and facing substantially planar body surfaces 3343 as well as a groove or base surface 3344 that spans between each surface 3342 and 3343. Each prong 3339 further includes an outer tapered or frusto-conical (or otherwise curved) surface 3345 and a top surface 3346. In a neutral state, the top surface 3346 is level or flush with the top surface 3337 of the body 3336. It is noted that in other embodiments of the invention, the prongs 3339 may be made into an insert having outer cylindrical surfaces, for example, by making a straight cut into the surface 3337 and then bending each prong 3339 outwardly from the body 3336 into a position wherein the prong top surfaces 3346 are spaced from the body top surface 3337 similar to what is shown in the drawings. However formed, the prongs 3339 are sized, shaped and positioned to extend outwardly from the body 3336 when in a neutral state and to fit within the central recesses 3295 of the receiver 3210 when in a deployed or operating position as shown, for example in FIGS. 219 and 220, with each prong top surface 3346 located directly beneath a respective receiver surface 3296 and each prong outer surface 3345 engaging or extending outwardly near the receiver surface 3297. The prongs 3339 have adequate resilience to be pinched or squeezed toward the insert body 3336 at the receiver arm surfaces 3293 when being rotated into an initial position in the receiver 3210 as shown, for example, in FIG. 210 in preparation for assembly with the shank upper portion 3208 as described in greater detail below. The bore 3340 is disposed generally centrally through the body 3336 and is further defined by an inner cylindrical surface 3347 that communicates with a lower collet space that extends to discontinuous bottom surfaces 3348 of the collet extensions 3338. The body 3335 (and bore 3340) is further defined by a shank gripping surface portion, generally 3350, the gripping portion 3350 being adjacent to the cylindrical surface 3347. Located below and adjacent to the gripping portion 3350 is an inner partially spherical surface 3352 that is continuous at the body 3336 and is discontinuous at the extensions 3338 wherein the surface 3352 extends downwardly, defining the inner shank holding portion of each of the collet extensions 3338 and terminating at the extension bottom surfaces 3348. The gripping surface portion 3350 preferably includes two or more graduated cylindrical surfaces disposed substantially parallel to the axis BB and adjacent perpendicular step surfaces that are disposed generally perpendicular to the axis BB when the insert 3214 is mounted within the receiver 3210. It is foreseen that the stepped surface portion 3350 may include greater or fewer number of stepped surfaces. It is foreseen that the shank gripping surface portion 3350 and also the spherical surface 3352 may additionally or alternatively include a roughened or textured surface or surface finish, or may be scored, knurled, or the like, for enhancing frictional engagement with the shank upper portion 3208. The two collet extensions 3338 that generally extend in a direction opposite to the prongs 3339 and have the discontinuous inner spherical surface 3352, also include through slits or slots 3353 running substantially vertically from adjacent the shank gripping surface portion 3350 through the bottom surfaces 3348. The illustrated embodiment includes two substantially equally spaced slots 3353 located in each extension 3338. It is foreseen that other embodiments of the invention may include more or fewer slots 3353. The slots 3353 substantially equally partition each of the extensions 3338, forming a total of six distinct resilient, partially spherical fingers, tab or panels 3354 that extend from the shank gripping portion 3350 to the bottom surface 3348. In other words, the discontinuous inner spherical surface 3352 is further separated into two opposed pairs of three surface portions 3354 each, with each portion 3354 being partially spherical and sized and shaped to resiliently expand about the spherical surface 3234 of the shank upper portion 3208 and then snap on and frictionally grip the surface 3234. Preferably, the spherical surface 3352 is designed such that the gripping tabs or panels 3354 have a neutral or non-expanded radius that is slightly smaller than a radius of the shank surface 3234 so that when the tabs or panels 3354 are gripping the surface 3234, the insert 3214 collet extension portion 3338 is in a slightly expanded state. When the shank 3204 is locked into position by a rod 3221 or other connecting member being pressed downwardly on the insert seat 3342 by the closure top 3218, the insert 3214 shank gripping portion 3350 that is initially slidable along the shank surface 3234 then digs or penetrates into the surface 3234 and thus securely fixes the shank upper portion 3208 to the insert at the portion 3350. The compression insert 3214 through bore 3340 is sized and shaped to receive the driving tool (not shown) therethrough that engages the shank drive feature 3246 when the shank body 3206 is driven into bone with the receiver 3210 attached. The illustrated insert 3214 further includes surface features located primarily on the insert body 3336 that cooperate with the receiver crimping structures 3288. Specifically, the insert body 3336 includes a centrally located substantially cylindrical portion 3356 located about and co-axial with the bore 3340. The portion 3356 includes opposed cylindrical surfaces 3357 that run from the top surface 3337 to a lower or bottom surface 3358 located substantially centrally between the collet extensions 3338. Located on either side of each surface 3357 is a curvate transition surface 3359 followed by a substantially planar surface 3360 that extends substantially to the body surface 3343 and is substantially perpendicular thereto. Each surface 3359 runs from the planar top surface 3337 to the respective bottom surface 3358. The portion of the bottom surface 3358 that is adjacent to the surface 3359 curves downwardly in a direction toward the respective collet extension bottom surface 3348. Each surface 3360 runs from the planar top surface 3337 and along each crown collet extension 3338 to bottom surfaces 3348 thereof. With particular reference to FIGS. 211-213 and as will be described in greater detail below, the four inner crimping structures 3288 of the receive 3210 are crimped or bent to a location at or near the four surfaces 3360 of the insert 3214, the structures 3288 being crimped or bent toward the insert 3214 spanning from a location near the insert top surface 3337 to a location near the collet bottom surfaces 3348, substantially limiting or prohibiting rotation of the insert 3214 with respect to the receiver 3210 about the axis BB (only a 2.5 degree collet rotation possible in the illustrated embodiment). However, the crimping structures 3288 advantageously allow for up and down movement of the insert 3214 with respect to the receiver 3210 along the axis BB. The opposed cylindrical insert body surfaces 3357 have an outer diameter slightly smaller than a diameter between crests of the guide and advancement structure 3272 of the receiver 3210, allowing for top loading of the compression insert 3214 into the receiver opening 3266, with the collet extensions 3338 and the prongs 3339 of the insert 3214 being located between the receiver arms 3262 during insertion of the insert 3214 into the receiver 3210. Once the upper prongs 3339 the insert 3214 are generally located below the discontinuous annular surface 3289, the insert 3214 is rotated into place about the receiver axis BB until the prong top surfaces 3346 are located directly beneath the surfaces 3289, the prong outer surfaces 3345 engaging the receiver discontinuous cylindrical surface 3293 during rotation of the insert 3214, the prongs 3339 being pressed inwardly toward the axis BB as will be described in greater detail below. The frictional engagement between the prong surfaces 3345 and the receiver arm surfaces 3293 advantageously maintains the insert 3214 in an upper portion of the receiver cavity 3261 prior to and during assembly with the shank 3204. The closure top 3218 illustrated in FIGS. 188, 220 and 221 is the same or substantially similar to the closure top 3018 previously described herein. Therefore, the closure top 3218 includes a guide and advancement structure 3362, a top surface 3364, an internal drive feature 3366, and a bottom surface 3368 further having a point 3369 and a rim 3370 the same or similar to the respective guide and advancement structure 3162, top surface 3164, internal drive feature 3166, and bottom surface 3168 with point 3169 and rim 3170 of the closure top 3018 of the assembly 3001 previously described herein. Preferably, the receiver 3210, the retainer 3212 and the compression insert 3214 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding, alignment, compression and expansion of the component pieces, if needed, as well as crimping the structures 3288 of the receiver 3210 toward the insert 3214. In some circumstances, the shank 3204 is also assembled with the receiver 3210, the retainer 3212 and the compression insert 3214 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 3204, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver, retainer and compression insert at the insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 3204, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. In other instances, it is desirable for the surgical staff to pre-assemble a shank of a desired size and/or variety (e.g., surface treatment of roughening the upper portion 3208 and/or hydroxyapatite on the shank 3206), with the receiver, retainer and compression insert. Allowing the surgeon to choose the appropriately sized or treated shank 3204 advantageously reduces inventory requirements, thus reducing overall cost. Pre-assembly of the receiver 3210, retainer 3212 and compression insert 3214 is shown in FIGS. 207-214. With particular reference to FIGS. 207 and 208, first the retainer 3212 is inserted into the upper receiver opening 3266 with the planar top surface 3322 facing one of the receiver guide and advancement structures 3272 (not shown), the retainer 3212 lowered into the channel 3264 and partially into the receiver cavity 3261, followed by turning the retainer 3212 such that the top surface 3322 is moved into a position within the cavity facing upwardly toward the receiver channel opening 3266. The retainer 3212 may then be pressed downwardly into a lower portion of the receiver cavity 3261, preferably to a position wherein the retainer 3212 bottom surface 3324 engages the receiver annular surface 3304, the retainer 3212 being slightly compressed with the outer cylindrical surface 3330 frictionally engaging the receiver cylindrical surface 3301. With particular reference to FIGS. 208-210, the compression insert 3214 is downloaded into the receiver 3210 through the upper opening 3266 with the crown collet extension bottom surfaces 3348 facing the receiver arm top surfaces 3273 and the insert upper prongs 3339 as well as the insert collet extensions 3338 being located between the opposed receiver arms 3262. The insert 3214 is then lowered toward the receiver base 3260 until the insert 3214 body top surface 3337 is substantially adjacent to and located slightly below the receiver arm surfaces 3289 that are located directly below the arm cylindrical surfaces 3286. Thereafter, the insert 3214 is rotated in a clockwise or counter-clockwise manner about the receiver axis BB until the prong upper surfaces 3346 are each directly below the surfaces 3289. As the insert 3214 is rotated, the prongs 3339 are squeezed toward one another so that each prong outer surface 3345 slidingly frictionally engages the receiver surfaces 3293. With reference to FIG. 210, the insert 3213 is rotated until the prongs 3339 and the collet extensions 3338 are centrally located beneath the surfaces 3289 and centrally aligned with each of the receiver arms 3262. With particular reference to FIGS. 211-213, each of the four receiver crimping structures 3288 are then crimped or bent towards the insert surfaces 3360, limiting any further rotation of the insert 3214 with respect to the receiver 3210 about the axis BB to no more than a few degrees. At this time, the surfaces 3289 prevent upward movement of the insert 3214, but with some force, the insert 3214 may be moved downwardly toward the receiver base 3260. However, it is desirable at this time to keep the insert 3214 wedged at the arm surfaces 3293 and the retainer 3212 engaged with the cavity surface 3301. The receiver 3210, compression insert 3214 and the retainer 3212 combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 3204 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 3204, with the shank axis AA and the receiver axis BB either being aligned during assembly as shown in FIG. 214 and most of the drawings figures illustrating the assembly process, or the axes being at an angle with respect to one another as shown, for example, in FIG. 221. The bone screw shank 3204 or an entire assembly 3201 made up of the assembled shank 3204, receiver 3210, retainer 3212 and compression insert 3214, is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 3217, by rotation of the shank 3204 using a suitable driving tool (not shown) that operably drives and rotates the shank body 3206 by engagement thereof at the internal drive 3246. Specifically, the vertebra 3217 may be pre-drilled to minimize stressing the bone and have a guide wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for the placement and angle of the shank 3204 with respect to the vertebra. A further tap hole may be made using a tap with the guide wire as a guide. Then, the bone screw shank 3204 or the entire assembly 3201 is threaded onto the guide wire utilizing the cannulation bore 3250 by first threading the wire into the opening at the bottom 3228 and then out of the top opening at the drive feature 3246. The shank 3204 is then driven into the vertebra using the wire as a placement guide. It is foreseen that the shank and other bone screw assembly parts, the rod 3221 (also having a central lumen in some embodiments) and the closure top 3218 (also with a central bore) can be inserted in a percutaneous or minimally invasive surgical manner, utilizing guide wires. When the shank 3204 is driven into the vertebra 3217 without the remainder of the assembly 3201, the shank 3204 may either be driven to a desired final location or may be driven to a location slightly above or proud to provide for ease in assembly with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer. With reference to FIGS. 214-219, the pre-assembled receiver, insert and retainer are placed above the shank upper portion 3208 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 3310. With particular reference to FIG. 215, as the shank upper portion 3208 is moved into the interior 3261 of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 3208 presses the retainer 3212 upwardly into the recess partially defined by the cylindrical surface 3300 (if the retainer is not already located within such recess). With particular reference to FIG. 216, as the portion 3208 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 3264, the top surface 3322 of the retainer 3212 abuts against the insert bottom surfaces 3348, stopping upward movement of the retainer 3212 and forcing outward movement of the retainer 3212 towards the cylindrical surface 3300 as the shank spherical surface 3234 continues in an upward direction. With further reference to FIG. 216, the retainer 3212 contracts about the spherical surface 3234 as the center of the sphere passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion recess. At this time also, the spherical surface 3234 moves into engagement with the insert 3214 spherical surface 3352 with the collet panels 3354 expanding slightly outwardly to receive the surface 3234. The spherical surface 3352 then enters frictional engagement with the panel inner surfaces 3352 as shown in FIG. 217. At this time, the insert 3214 and the surface 3234 are in a fairly tight friction fit, the surface 3234 being pivotable with respect to the insert 3214 with some force. Thus, a tight, non-floppy ball and socket joint is now created between the insert 3214 and the shank upper portion 3208. At this time the retainer 3212 has returned to a neutral position and is typically located within the receiver transition surface or surfaces 3302. With reference to FIGS. 218 and 219, the shank upper portion 3208 and attached insert 3214 are then moved downwardly into a desired position for receiving the rod 3221 or other longitudinal connecting member by either an upward pull on the receiver 3210 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 3204 further into the vertebra 3217. Also with reference to FIGS. 217-219, as the shank 3204 is moved downwardly toward the receiver base 3260, the insert prongs 3339 slide along the surfaces 3293 until top surfaces 3346 thereof clear the surfaces 3293, allowing the prongs 3330 to snap outwardly to a neutral position located below the surfaces 3293 and within the central recesses 3295 of each of the receiver arms 3262. The prong top surfaces 3346 now being located beneath surfaces 3296 of the central recesses 3295, thus retaining the insert 3214 in a desired location within the receiver cavity 3261, the shank upper portion 3208 pressing downwardly on the retainer 3212 and the retainer seated on the receiver surface 3304. In some embodiments, when the receiver 3210 is pre-assembled with the shank 3204, the entire assembly 3201 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool (not shown) into the receiver and the shank drive 3246 and rotating and driving the shank 3204 into a desired location of the vertebra 3217. With reference to FIG. 220, the rod 3221 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 3201 (or with other bone screws of the invention). The closure structure 3218 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 3262 of each of the receivers 3210. The closure structure 3218 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 3366 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 3221 engages the planar surface 3337 of the compression insert 3214, further pressing the insert stepped shank gripping surfaces 3350 against the shank top 3238 and/or spherical surface 3234, the edges of the stepped surfaces penetrating into the spherical surface 3234 and also pressing the shank upper portion 3208 into locked frictional engagement with the retainer 3212. Specifically, as the closure structure 3218 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 3210, the point 3369 and rim 3370 engage and penetrate the rod surface 3222, the closure structure 3218 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 3221 into compressive engagement with the insert 3214 that urges the shank upper portion 3208 toward the retainer 3212 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 3212 frictionally abutting the surface 3304 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 3301. For example, about 80 to about 120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 3206 with respect to the receiver 3210. With reference to FIGS. 222-234 the reference number 3401 generally represents another embodiment of a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 3401 includes a shank 3404, that further includes a body 3406 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or head-like capture structure 3408; a receiver 3410; a retainer structure illustrated as a resilient open ring 3412, and a lock and release friction fit compression or pressure insert 3414. The receiver 3410, retainer 3412 and compression insert 3414 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 3404 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 3406 into a vertebra, such as the vertebra 3017 or 3217 previously shown herein. FIG. 222 also shows a closure structure 3418 for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 3421 which in turn engages the compression insert 3414 that presses against the shank upper portion 3408 into fixed frictional contact with the retainer 3412, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 3421 within the receiver 3410 and thus fix the member 3421 relative to the vertebra. The illustrated rod 3421 is substantially similar to the hard, stiff rod 3021 previously described herein, having an outer cylindrical surface. In other embodiments, the stiff rod 3421 may take other shapes and/or be made from other materials or be part of a longitudinal connecting member assembly that may include rigid sleeves that are fixable to a core member or slidable with respect thereto, spacers (compressible or not) and cords, for example, all as previously described herein with respect to the rods 21, 1021, 2021 and 3021, for example, and fully incorporated by reference herein with respect to the rod 3421. The receiver 3410 and the shank 3404 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 3410 and the shank 3404 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 3410 with the shank 3404 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 3404 is identical or substantially similar to the shank 3004 previously described herein. The receiver 3410 is identical or substantially similar to the receiver 3010 previously described herein, thus having an inner bore or cavity 3461 with an insert locking inner cylindrical surface 3496 and inner arm surfaces 3470, as well as other features that are the same or similar to the cavity 3061, cylindrical surface 3096 and inner arm surfaces 3070 previously described herein with respect to the receiver 3010. The retainer 3412 is the same or substantially the same as the top loading retainer 3212 previously described herein. Thus, with reference to FIG. 223, the retainer 3412 is open, but includes a very narrow slit, providing a strong retainer that is not compressed during assembly with the receiver because it is top loaded and is only expanded about the shank head 3408 during assembly as shown in FIGS. 226 and 227 and also expands slightly within the receiver upon final locking with the shank 3404 as shown, for example in FIG. 228. The insert 3414 is substantially similar or identical to the insert 3014 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 3001. Thus, the insert 3414 includes a pair of upstanding arms 3537 and a pair of crown collet extensions 3538 the same or similar to the respective arms 3137 and extensions 3138 of the insert 3014 previously described herein. The insert 3414 extension 3538 further include panels 3554 having inner spherical gripping surfaces 3552 as well as an outer frusto-conical surface 3558 for frictional locking with the inner cylindrical surface 3496 of the receiver 3410, such features being the same or similar to the respective panels 3154, with spherical surfaces 3152 and the outer frusto-conical surface 3158 of the insert 3014. The inner spherical surfaces 3552 preferably have a pre-assembly radius that is the same or slightly larger than a radius of the shank upper portion or head 3408. As discussed above with respect to the insert 3014, the insert 3414 and/or the shank head 3408 may include surface treatments or the panels may be crimped or bent to result in a desired frictional fit between the insert 3414 and the shank head 3408 during the temporary steps of manipulating the bone screws 3401 during assembly with the rod. As with the assembly 3001, the final locking of the assembly 3401 is accomplished by frictional contact between the bone screw shank upper portion 3408 and the retainer ring 3412 when the insert 3414 presses down upon the shank upper portion 3408. Thus, the assembly 3401 includes features of both the assembly 3001 and the assembly 3201 to result in a polyaxial assembly wherein the shank 3404 may be snapped or popped onto the receiver 3410 either before or after implantation of the shank 3404 into a vertebra. As shown in FIG. 223, the retainer 3412 is initially top loaded into the receiver 3410 followed by top loading of the insert 3414 with the insert arms 3437 located between arms of the receiver 3410. With reference to FIGS. 224 and 225, the insert 3414 is rotated into place. With reference to FIGS. 226 and 227, the shank 3404 is bottom loaded by pressing the shank head or upper portion 3408 through the open retainer 3412 within an expansion area of the receiver 3410 followed by non-floppy frictional engagement between the shank upper portion 3408 and the flexible tabs or panels 3554. FIGS. 228-230 illustrate the locking of the insert 3414 frusto-conical surface 3558 against the receiver surface 3496, the same or similar to what was described above with respect to the assembly 3001. Thus, as shown in FIG. 229, the closure top 3418 and/or the hard rod 3421 may be removed without unlocking the polyaxial mechanism of the screw 3401. With reference to FIG. 230, a deformable rod 3421′, such as a PEEK rod with a cooperating alternative closure top 3418′ may be placed in the receiver 3410 and secured therein. The deformable rod 3421′ does not compromise the secure lock of a desired angle between the shank 3404 and the receiver 3410 provided by the wedging of the insert 3414 into the receiver 3410 at the respective surfaces 3496 and 3558. With reference to FIGS. 231-233, an alternative insert 3414′ for use in the assembly 3001 or the assembly 3401 in lieu of the insert 3014 or the insert 3414 is shown. The insert 3414′ is substantially similar or identical to the inserts 3014 and 3414 previously described above with the exception that the substantially curved or spherical surfaces 3152 or 3552 and been replaced by planar surfaces 3552′. Thus, the insert 3414′ includes four planar surfaces 3552′ that frictionally grip the shank upper portion 3008 or the shank upper portion 3408 to provide a friction fit between the respective shank and the insert 3414′. It is foreseen that more or fewer planar surfaces may be included to grip the shank upper portion 3008 or the shank upper portion 3408. With reference to FIG. 234, another alternative non-locking insert 3414″ is shown that is identical to the insert 3414′ with the exception that a frusto-conical outer surface 3558′ of the insert 3414′ has been replaced by a cylindrical surface 3558″. Thus, when used with the receiver 3410, for example, the cylindrical surface 3558′ is slidingly received by the inner cylindrical surface 3496 and does not wedge or lock into the receiver 3410. With reference to FIGS. 235-244 an alternative receiver 4010, open retainer 4012 and compression insert 4014 are shown that may be used with the shank 3404, rod 3421 and closure top 3418 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 3401. Furthermore, the open, top loadable retainer 4012 is identical to the retainer 3412 of the assembly 3401. The alternative receiver 4010 and cooperating insert 4014 differ only slightly from the receiver 3410 and cooperating insert 3414 of the assembly 3401. The receiver 4010 includes features of both the receiver 3410 and the receiver 1210 of the assembly 1201 previously described herein. In particular, the receiver 4010 has spring tabs 4290 with insert engaging surfaces 4311 substantially similar to the respective spring tabs 1290 with inner engaging surfaces 1311 of the receiver 1210. However, the receiver 4010 also includes an inner cylindrical surface 4096 located at a base of the spring tabs 1290, the surface 4096 sized and shaped to frictionally engage and lock a tapered or frusto-conical surface 4158 of the insert 4014 so that the insert 4014 locks against the receiver, substantially similar to the cooperation between the insert 3414 and the receiver 3410 previously described herein. The insert further includes grooves 4159 in the arms thereof for receiving the receiver spring tabs 4290 at the surfaces 4311. As shown in FIGS. 238 and 239, when the insert 4014 is dropped down into the receiver 4010 and rotated into position, the spring tabs 4290 are pushed outward and away from the insert 4014. However, once the insert 4014 completes its rotation when the insert U-shaped channel is aligned with the receiver U-shaped channel, the spring tabs 4290 snap into grooves 4159 of the insert 4014, capturing the insert 4014 in the receiver 4010, keeping the insert in alignment with the receiver and allowing only some upward and downward movement of the insert with respect to the receiver 4010. The tabs 4290 frictionally retain the insert in an upper portion of the receiver during the “pop-on” attachment to the bone screw shank 3404. As shown in FIG. 241, a downward force upon the insert 4014, such as by the rod 3421 and closure top 3418 causes the insert tapered surface 4158 to wedge up against the cylindrical surface 4096 of the receiver 4010, locking the polyaxial mechanism. With reference to FIGS. 242-244 a two-piece tool 4600 is illustrated for releasing the insert 4014 from the receiver 4010. The tool 4600 includes an inner flexible tube-like structure with opposed inwardly facing prongs 4312 located on either side of a through-channel 4616. The channel 4616 may terminate at a location spaced from the prongs 4312 or may extend further upwardly through the tool, resulting in a two-piece tool 4610. The tool 4600 includes an outer, more rigid tubular member 4620 having a smaller through channel 4622. The member 4620 slidingly fits over the tube 4610 after the flexible member 4610 prongs 4612 are fitted within opposed apertures 4074 of the receiver 4010 and aligned opposed apertures 4156 located on arms of the insert 4014. In FIG. 242, the tool 4600 is shown having unlocked the insert 4014 from the receiver 4010 with the outer member 4620 surrounding the inner member 4610 and holding the prongs 4612 within the receiver and insert apertures while the tool 4600 is pulled upwardly away from the shank 3404. It is foreseen that another tube within a tube type tool may be used for locking the lower pressure insert downward into the receiver 4010 wherein prongs of an inner flexible tubular member that are larger than the prongs 4612 drive the insert 4014 downwardly into locking engagement with the receiver 4010 as the prongs enter the larger receiver apertures 4074 and then the insert apertures 4156. With reference to FIGS. 245-283 the reference number 5001 generally represents a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 5001 includes a shank 5004, that further includes a body 5006 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or head structure 5008; a receiver 5010; a friction fit retainer 5012, and a crown-like compression or pressure insert 5014. The receiver 5010, retainer 5012 and compression insert 5014 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 5004 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 5006 into a vertebra 5017, as will be described in greater detail below. FIGS. 1 and 278-280 further show a closure structure 5018 for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 5021 which in turn engages the compression insert 5014 that presses against the shank upper portion 5008 into fixed frictional contact with the retainer 5012, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 5021 within the receiver 5010 and thus fix the member 5021 relative to the vertebra 5017. The closure top 5018 and the rod 2010 are identical or substantially similar to many of the closure tops and rods previously described herein, for example, the closure top 4018 and the rod 4021 of the assembly 4001 having the same form and function and therefore shall not be discussed any further here. The shank 5004, best illustrated in FIGS. 245-247, is substantially similar to the shank 3004 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 3001. Thus, the shank 5004 includes the shank body 5006, upper portion or head 5008, a shank thread 5024, a neck 5026, a tip 5028, a top of thread 5032, an upper portion spherical surface 5034 a top surface 5038, an internal drive 5046 with a base surface 5045 and an cannulation bore 5050 the same or substantially similar to the respective body 3006, upper portion or head 3008, shank thread 3024, neck 3026, tip 3028, top of thread 3032, spherical surface 3034, top surface 3038, internal drive 3046 with base surface 3045 and cannulation bore 3050 previously described herein with respect to the shank 3004 of the assembly 3001. To provide a biologically active interface with the bone, the threaded shank body 5006 may be coated, perforated, made porous or otherwise treated as previously discussed herein with respect to the shank body 6 of the assembly 1. In the illustrated embodiment, a frusto-conical surface 5039 extends from the spherical surface 5034 to the top surface 5038, providing additional clearance during shank angulation as best shown in FIG. 279. The spherical surface 5034 has an outer radius configured for temporary frictional, non-floppy, sliding cooperation with panels of the retainer 5012 having concave or flat surfaces, as well as ultimate frictional engagement with the insert 5014 at an inner partially spherical surface thereof, as will be discussed more fully in the paragraphs below. The top surface 5038 is substantially perpendicular to the axis A. The spherical surface 5034 shown in the present embodiment is substantially smooth, but in some embodiments may include a roughening or other surface treatment and is sized and shaped for cooperation and ultimate frictional engagement with the compression insert 5014 as well as ultimate frictional engagement with a lower ring-like portion of the retainer 5012. The shank spherical surface 5034 is locked into place exclusively by the insert 5014 and the retainer 5012 lower portion and not by inner surfaces defining the receiver cavity. The illustrated internal drive feature 5046 differs from the feature 3046 of the shank 3004 in that the feature 5046 is an aperture formed in the top surface 5038 that has a star shape designed to receive a tool (not shown) of an Allen wrench type, into the aperture for rotating and driving the bone screw shank 5004. As illustrated in FIGS. 246 and 247, the drive seat 5045 may include beveled or stepped surfaces that may further enhance gripping with the driving tool. In operation, a driving tool (not shown) is received in the internal drive feature 5046, being seated at the base 5045 and engaging the faces of the drive feature 5046 for both driving and rotating the shank body 5006 into the vertebra 5017, either before the shank 5004 is attached to the receiver 5010 or after the shank 5004 is attached to the receiver 5010, with the shank body 5006 being driven into the vertebra 5017 with the driving tool extending into the receiver 5010. With particular reference to FIGS. 245 and 248-253, the receiver 5010 has a generally U-shaped appearance with partially discontinuous and partially cylindrical inner and outer profiles. The receiver 5010 has an axis of rotation B that is shown in FIG. 245 as being aligned with and the same as an axis of rotation A of the shank 5004, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 5010 with the shank 5004. After the receiver 5010 is pivotally attached to the shank 5004, either before or after the shank 5004 is implanted in a vertebra 5017, the axis B is typically disposed at an angle with respect to the axis A, as shown, for example, in FIG. 279. The receiver 5010 includes a substantially cylindrical base 5060 defining a bore or inner cavity, generally 5061, the base 5060 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 5062 forming a cradle and defining a channel 5064 between the arms 5062 with an upper opening, generally 5066, and a U-shaped lower channel portion or seat 5068, the channel 5064 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 5021 or portion of another longitudinal connector between the arms 5062, the channel 5064 communicating with the base cavity 5061. Inner opposed substantially planar arm surfaces 5069 partially define the channel 5064 directly above the seat 5068 and are located on either side of each arm interior surface generally 5070, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 5072 located adjacent top surfaces 5073 of each of the arms 62. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 5072 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 5018, as described more fully below. However, it is foreseen that for certain embodiments of the invention, the guide and advancement structure 5072 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structures, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 5018 downward between the arms 5062, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 5018 abuts against the rod 5021 or other longitudinal connecting member. It is foreseen that the arms 5062 could have break-off extensions. An opposed pair of key-hole like tool receiving and engaging grooves or apertures, generally 5074, each having an upper arched through bore 5075, are formed on outer surfaces 5076 of the arms 5062. Each through bore 5075 extends between the outer surface 5076 and the inner surface 5070 and is located above a rectangular shaped shallow recessed arm portion or crimp wall 5077 that defines the portion of the aperture 5074 that does not extend completely through the respective arm 5062. The thin walled portion 5077 is pressed or crimped into the insert 5014 to prohibit rotation and misalignment of the insert 5014 with respect to the receiver 5010 as will be described in greater detail below. In other embodiments of the invention, other surfaces forming the groove or aperture 5074 may be inwardly crimped. Alternatively, spring tabs or other movable structure may be included on the receiver 5010 or the insert 5014 for retaining the insert 5014 in a desired position, with regard to rotation and axial movement (along the axis A) with respect to the receiver 5010. Preferably the insert and/or receiver are configured with structure for blocking rotation of the insert with respect to the receiver, but allowing some up and down movement of the insert with respect to the receiver during the assembly and implant procedure. Two additional rectangular shaped through bores 5078 are also formed in the arms 5062 and located directly below the apertures 5074. The through bores 5078 are sized and shaped for receiving portions of the retainer 5012 during top loading of the retainer 5012 into the receiver 5010 as will be described more fully below and as shown, for example, in FIG. 266. An upper surface 5079 defining each bore 5078 functions as an upper stop for a portion of the retainer 5012, during shipping and during assembly, as shown, for example, in FIG. 272, and as will be described in greater detail below. Also formed in each outer arm surface 5076 near the top surface 5073 is an undercut tool receiving and engaging groove 5081. Some or all of the apertures 5074 and 5078 and the groove 5081 may be used for holding the receiver 5010 during assembly with the insert 5014, the retainer 5012 and the shank 5004; during the implantation of the shank body 5006 into a vertebra when the shank is pre-assembled with the receiver 5010; during assembly of the bone anchor assembly 5001 with the rod 5021 and the closure structure 5018; and during lock and release adjustment of the insert 5014 with respect to the receiver 5010, either into or out of frictional engagement with the inner surfaces of the receiver 5010 as will be described in greater detail below. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 5062. Returning to the interior surface 5070 of the receiver arms 5062, located below the guide and advancement structure 5072 is a discontinuous cylindrical surface 5082 partially defining a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 5072. The cylindrical surface 5082 has a diameter equal to or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 5072. Moving downwardly, in a direction toward the base 5060, following the cylindrical surface 5082 of each arm is a cylindrical surface 5084 partially defined by a run-out seat or surface 5085 that extends inwardly toward the axis B and runs perpendicular to the axis B. The surface 5084 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 5082. The surface 5084 is sized and shaped to initially closely receive a lower portion of the insert 5014 and later frictionally engage a tapered or frusto-conical upper portion of the insert 5014, providing a lock and release function that will be described in greater detail below. A discontinuous annular surface 5086 is located below and adjacent to the surface 5084. The surface 5086 is substantially perpendicular to the axis B. Another discontinuous cylindrical surface 5088 is located below and adjacent to the surface 5086. The surface 5088 has a diameter slightly larger than the diameter of the surface 5084. A discontinuous annular surface or narrow ledge 5089 is located below the surface 5088 and is substantially perpendicular to the axis B. A partially discontinuous cylindrical surface 5090 is located one each arm below and adjacent to the surface 5089. The surface 5090 also defines an upper cylindrical surface of the base cavity 5061. The surface 5090 has a diameter slightly smaller than the diameter of the surface 5088 but larger than the diameter of the surface 5084. It is noted that in some embodiments of the invention, the surfaces 5088 and 5090 are combined and form a single smooth cylindrical surface. The through bores 5075 each extend through the arms at the surfaces 5082, 5084 and 5088. The crimping wall 5077 is located in an inner recessed surface area 5092 that is formed in both the surfaces 5088 and 5090. In the illustrated embodiment, the crimping wall 5077 has an inner surface 5093 that is primarily located at the portion of the area 5092 that is formed in the cylindrical surface 5088. Each through bore 5078 is located directly below the area 5092. An annular surface 5098 partially defining the base cavity 5061 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 5090. The surface 5098 is disposed substantially perpendicular to the axis B. Another cylindrical surface 5099 is located below and adjacent to the surface 5098. The cylindrical surface 5099 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to receive an expanded portion of retainer 5012. The surfaces 5098 and 5099 define a circumferential recess or expansion chamber that is sized and shaped to receive the retainer 5012 as it expands around the shank upper portion 5008 as the shank 5008 moves upwardly toward the channel 5064 during assembly. A cylindrical surface 5101 located below the cylindrical surface 5099 is sized and shaped to closely receive a lower portion of the retainer 5012 when the retainer is in a substantially neutral position as shown in FIG. 267, for example. Thus, the cylindrical surface 5101 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 5099 that defines the expansion area for the retainer 5012. The surface 5101 is joined or connected to the surface 5099 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 5102. The surfaces 5102 allow for sliding gradual movement and/or contraction of the retainer 5012 into the space defined by the surface 5101 and ultimate seating of the retainer 5012 on a lower annular surface 5104 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 5101. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 5104 is another substantially cylindrical surface 5106 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 5107, the surface 5107 communicating with an exterior base surface 5108 of the base 5060, defining a lower opening, generally 5110, into the base cavity 5061 of the receiver 5010. With particular reference to FIGS. 245 and 254-259, the lower open friction fit retainer 5012 that operates to capture the shank upper portion 5008 and attached compression insert 5014 within the receiver 5010 has a central axis that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 5010 when the shank upper portion 5008 and the retainer 5012 are installed within the receiver 5010. The retainer 5012 includes a substantially cylindrical discontinuous lower body 5116, a plurality of flex fingers or panels, 5117 extending upwardly from the body 5116 and a pair of opposed spring arms or tabs 5118, also extending upwardly from the body 5116. The retainer ring 5012 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 5012 body 5116 may be expanded and the fingers and tabs (5117 and 5118) of the retainer may be manipulated during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The retainer 5012 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 5121, that passes entirely through the retainer 5012 from tab 5118 top surfaces 5122 to a bottom surface 5124 of the retainer body 5116. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 5121 include an inner lower frusto-conical surface 5128 adjacent to the retainer body bottom surface 5124, a substantially cylindrical surface 5130 adjacent the frusto-conical surface 5128, a narrow frusto-conical or beveled surface 5131 adjacent the cylindrical surface 5130 and a partially continuous partially discontinuous substantially spherical surface 5132 adjacent the surface 5131, the surface 5132 being substantially continuous near the cylindrical surface 5130 with the exception of the opposed spring tabs 5118 and a through slot or slit, generally 5134. The surface 5132 is in a plurality of segments or pieces at the flex fingers 5117 wherein a plurality of substantially evenly spaced slots 5136 running outwardly and upwardly through an upper surface 5137 separate the surface 5132 into the individual flex fingers 5117. In the illustrated embodiment, the slots 5136 and the through slit 5134 form the six substantially uniform flex fingers or tabs 5117 as well as partially define the two spring tabs 5118, each finger having the inner spherical surface 5132. It is foreseen that more or fewer flex fingers may be made by the forming of more or fewer slots 5136. The discontinuous spherical surface 5132 is sized and shaped to closely fit about and snap onto the shank surface 5034 during assembly as will be described in greater detail below. Preferably the surface 5132 has a radius the same, slightly smaller or slightly larger than the radius of the spherical shank surface 5034. In operation, the discontinuous surface 5132 advantageously frictionally engages the bone screw shank upper portion 5008, allowing for un-locked but non-floppy placement of the angle of the shank 5004 with respect to the receiver 5010 during surgery prior to locking of the shank 5004 with respect to the receiver 5010 near the end of the procedure. At the time of locking engagement, as shown in FIG. 278, for example, downward and outward force placed on the retainer 5012 by the shank upper portion 5008 expands the retainer body 5116 at the slit 5134 and the individual flex fingers 5117 no longer frictionally grip the spherical surface 5034 of the upper portion 5008. To aid in bending flexibility and resiliency, certain flex fingers 5117 may have sloping outer surfaces or other geometry to gain the level of resiliency desired for expansion and gripping of the fingers 5117 about the shank upper portion 5008. The spherical surfaces 5132 may include a surface treatment or roughening to provide a desired friction fit. It is noted that the surfaces 5132 need not be spherical and may be planar or faceted or include other surface geometries that resiliently grip the shank upper portion or head 5008. In some embodiments, the flexible tabs 5117 may be bent to further enhance frictional engagement. It is noted that the fingers 5117 that are directed generally upwardly toward the receiver channel 5064 advantageously sufficiently snap about and then grip the shank surface 5034 to an extent to provide the friction fit desired for non-floppy placement of the shank body 5006 at a desired angle with respect to the receiver 5010 during manipulation of the bone screws 5001 and the rod 5021 or other longitudinal connecting member during surgery. However, as compared to bone screw inserts such as collets known in the art that include downwardly directed portions or panels that are ultimately wedged between a receiver surface and a shank surface upon final locking of the shank to the receiver, the thin upwardly directed fingers 5117 that extend away from the shank locking surface that are not as strong as the retainer body 5116 or the insert 5014, do not participate or cooperate with the final locking of the insert 5014 to the shank upper portion 5008, the shank upper portion 5008 to the retainer 5012, and the retainer 5012 to the receiver inner surfaces 5101 and 5104. For such purpose, the more substantial retainer body 5116 having only the very narrow slit 5134, used for expansion purposes only, is the component that locks the shank upper portion 5008 between the receiver 5010, the insert 5014 and the rod 5021 or other longitudinal connecting member. The retainer body 5116, the flex fingers 5117 and a portion of each of the spring tabs 5118 have an outer substantially cylindrical profile, sized and shaped to closely and slidingly fit within the receiver cavity 5061 with the exception of outward extensions or wings, generally 5140, of the spring tabs 5118 that are located adjacent to the upper surfaces 5122, each wing extending outwardly away from the respective tab body 5118 and having a projected outward surface 5142 spaced from each top surface 5122 that is sized and shaped to closely cooperate and frictionally engage upper surfaces 5079 defining the through bores 5078. Outer surfaces 5143 located directly beneath each upper surface 5122 and above the surfaces 5142 are sized and shaped to cooperate with and frictionally engage the cylindrical surface 5090 during assembly and shipping as shown, for example, in FIG. 270. The tab wings 5140 may include more or fewer projections or notches as needed for tooling to resiliently hold the retainer in an upper portion of the cavity 5061 when desired, but readily release the retainer 5012 into a lower portion of the receiver cavity 5061 once the retainer flex tabs 5117 engage the shank head 5008. The illustrated spring tabs 5118 each includes one or more planar or curved inner surfaces 5144 running from the top surface 5122 to a tab base surface or seat 5145 located adjacent to the surface 5131. The surfaces 5144 extend both outwardly and upward from the base surface 5145. It is foreseen that in other embodiments of the invention, fewer or greater number of planar or other surfaces with other geometries may extend between the top surface 5122 and the inner surfaces defining the body 5116 of the retainer 5012. The through slit 5134 of the resilient retainer 5012 is defined by first and second end surfaces, 5146 and 5147 disposed in spaced relation to one another (they may also be touching) when the retainer is in a neutral state. Both end surfaces 5146 and 5147 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the bottom surface 5124. A width X between the surfaces 5146 and 5147 is very narrow (slit may be made by EDM process) to provide stability to the retainer 5012 during operation. Because the retainer 5012 is top loadable in a neutral state and the retainer 5012 does not need to be compressed to fit within the receiver cavity 5061, the width X may be much smaller than might be required for a bottom loaded compressible retainer ring. The gap X functions only in expansion to allow the retainer 5012 to expand about the shank upper portion 5008. This results in a stronger retainer that provides more surface contact with the shank upper portion 5008 upon locking, resulting in a sturdier connection with less likelihood of failure than a retainer ring having a greater gap. Furthermore, because the retainer 5012 body 5116 is only expanded and not compressed, the retainer 5012 does not undergo the mechanical stress that typically is placed on spring ring type retainers that are both compressed and expanded during assembly. It is foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention, the retainer 5012 inner surfaces may include a roughening or additional material to increase the friction fit against the shank upper portion 5008 prior to lock down by the rod 5021 or other longitudinal connecting member. Also, the embodiment shown in FIG. 254259 illustrates the surfaces 5146 and 5147 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle. With particular reference to FIGS. 245 and 260-265, the lock and release crown compression insert 5014 is illustrated that is sized and shaped to be received by and down-loaded into the receiver 5010 at the upper opening 5066. The compression insert 5014 has an operational central axis that is the same as the central axis B of the receiver 5010. In operation, the insert advantageously frictionally engages the bone screw shank upper portion 5008. Furthermore, as will be described more fully below, an insert 5014 that has locked the shank 5004 in a desired angular position with respect to the receiver 5010, by, for example, compression from the rod 5021 and closure top 5018, is also wedged into engagement with the receiver 5010 at the inner surface 5084 and thus retains the shank 5006 in a locked position even if the rod 5021 and closure top 5018 are removed as shown in FIG. 280. Such locked position may also be released by the surgeon if desired. The insert 5014 is thus preferably made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that portions of the insert may be expanded about and then contracted, snapped or popped onto the shank upper portion 5008 as well as pinched and un-wedged from the receiver 5010. The lock-and-release compression insert 5014 includes a substantially cylindrical body 5156 integral with a pair of upstanding arms 5157. A bore, generally 5160, is disposed primarily within and through the body 5156 and communicates with a generally U-shaped through channel 5161 that is defined by the upstanding arms 5157. The channel 5161 has a lower seat 5162 sized and shaped to closely, snugly engage the rod 5021. It is foreseen that an alternative embodiment may be configured to include planar holding surfaces that closely hold a square or rectangular bar as well as hold a cylindrical rod-shaped, cord, or sleeved cord longitudinal connecting member. The arms 5157 disposed on either side of the channel 5141 extend upwardly from the body 5156. The arms 5157 are sized and configured for ultimate placement beneath the cylindrical run-out surface 5082 located below the receiver guide and advancement structure 5072. It is foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention, for example, when the insert is non-locking as the insert 5014″ shown in FIGS. 282 and 283, the arms may be extended and the closure top configured such the arms ultimately directly engage the closure top 5018 for locking of the polyaxial mechanism, for example, when the rod 5021 is made from a deformable material. In such embodiments, the insert 5014 would include a rotation blocking structure or feature that abuts against cooperating structure located on an inner wall of the receiver 5010, preventing rotation of the insert with respect to the receiver when the closure top is rotated into engagement with the insert. In the present embodiment, the arms 5157 include outer upper flared or frusto-conical surfaces 5163 and top surfaces 5164 that are ultimately positioned in spaced relation with the closure top 5018, so that the closure top 5018 frictionally engages the rod 5021 only, pressing the rod 5021 downwardly against the seating surface 5162, the insert 5014 in turn pressing against the shank 5004 upper portion 5008 that presses against the retainer 5012 to lock the polyaxial mechanism of the bone screw assembly 5001 at a desired angle. As will be discussed in greater detail below, frictional engagement between the insert 5014 and the receiver 5010, more particularly, the wedging of the tapered surfaces 5163 into the cylindrical surfaces 5084, provides independent locking of the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly 5001, maintaining the upper shank portion 5008 in locked engagement by and between the retainer 5012 and the insert 5014 even if the closure top 5018 and/or rod 5021 are thereafter removed from the receiver 5010. The bore, generally 5160, is substantially defined at the body 5156 by an inner cylindrical surface 5166 that communicates with the seat 5162 and a lower concave substantially spherical surface 5168 having a radius the same or substantially similar to a radius of the surface 5034 of the shank upper portion 5008. The surface 5168 terminates at an annular and substantially planar base surface 5169 of the body 5156. In some embodiments of the invention, located between the cylindrical surface 5166 and the spherical surface 5168 or located along the spherical surface 5168 is a shank gripping surface portion, generally 5170, illustrated in FIG. 265 on an alternative insert 5014′ that is otherwise identical to the insert 5014. The gripping surface portion 5170 includes one or more stepped surfaces or ridges sized and shaped to grip and penetrate into the shank head 5008 when the insert 5014′ is locked against the head surface 5034. It is foreseen that the stepped surface portion 5170 may include greater or fewer number of stepped surfaces. It is foreseen that the shank gripping surface portion 5170 and also the spherical surface 5168 may additionally or alternatively include a roughened or textured surface or surface finish, or may be scored, knurled, or the like, for enhancing frictional engagement with the shank upper portion 5008. The compression insert 5014 through bore 5160 is sized and shaped to receive the driving tool (not shown) therethrough that engages the shank drive feature 5046 when the shank body 5006 is driven into bone with the receiver 5010 attached. Also, the bore 5160 receives a manipulation tool (not shown) used for releasing the insert 5014 from a locked position with the receiver, the tool pressing down on the shank and also gripping the insert 5014 at through bores 5172 located in the arms 5157 or with other tool engaging features. A manipulation tool for un-wedging the insert 5014 from the receiver 5010 may also access the bores 5172 from the receiver through bores 5075 (see, e.g., FIGS. 242-244) The illustrated insert 5014 further includes other features for manipulating and holding the insert 5014 within the receiver 5010. Each insert arm 5157 includes an outer surface 5174 having a substantially vertical groove 5175 formed thereon, the groove 5175 located below the through bore 5172. The grooves 5175 cooperate with the receiver crimp wall 5077 to aid in alignment of the insert channel 5161 with the receiver channel 5064. Located beneath each groove 5175 is a recessed area or portion 5178 sized and shaped to receive the upper surface 5122 of the retainer wings 5140, as shown, for example, in FIG. 270, during assembly and shipping of the pre-assembled receiver 5010, retainer 5012 and insert 5014. The insert body 5156 has an outer diameter slightly smaller than a diameter between crests of the guide and advancement structure 5072 of the receiver 5010, allowing for top loading of the compression insert 5014 into the receiver opening 5066, with the arms 5157 of the insert 5014 being located between the receiver arms 5062 during insertion of the insert 5014 into the receiver 5010. Once the arms 5157 of the insert 5014 are generally located beneath the guide and advancement structure 5072, the insert 5014 is rotated into place about the receiver axis B until the top surfaces 5164 are located directly below the guide and advancement structure 5072 as will be described in greater detail below. With reference to FIGS. 282 and 283, an alternative non-locking insert 5014″ is identical or substantially similar to the insert 5014 with the exception of outer arm surfaces 5174″ that are substantially cylindrical and extend from a top surface 5164″ to near a bottom surface 5169″ of the insert 5014″. In other words, the insert 5014″ does not include the tapered surfaces 5163 of the insert 5014. The arm surfaces 5174″ are fully and slidingly received by the receiver surfaces 5084 as well as the other receiver 5010 inner arm surfaces and thus the insert 5014″ cannot be wedged into the receiver 5010 to independently lock the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly 5001. In all other respects, the insert 5014″ functions the same as the insert 5014. With reference to FIGS. 245 and 278-280, the closure structure or closure top 5018 shown with the assembly 5001 includes a guide and advancement structure 5182 that is a flange form as described in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689, which is incorporated herein by reference. Although it is foreseen that the closure structure guide and advancement structure could alternatively be a buttress thread, a square thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread like or non-thread like helically wound advancement structure, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 5018 downward between the arms 5062 and having such a nature as to resist splaying of the arms 5062 when the closure structure 5018 is advanced into the channel 5064, the flange form illustrated herein as described more fully in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689 is preferred as the added strength provided by such flange form beneficially cooperates with and counters any reduction in strength caused by the any reduced profile of the receiver 5010 that may more advantageously engage longitudinal connecting member components. The illustrated closure structure 5018 also includes a top surface 5184 with an internal drive 5186 in the form of an aperture that is illustrated as a star-shaped internal drive such as that sold under the trademark TORX, or may be, for example, a hex drive, or other internal drives such as slotted, tri-wing, spanner, two or more apertures of various shapes, and the like. A driving tool (not shown) sized and shaped for engagement with the internal drive 5186 is used for both rotatable engagement and, if needed, disengagement of the closure 5018 from the receiver arms 5062. It is also foreseen that the closure structure 5018 may alternatively include a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 70 to 140 inch pounds. Such a closure structure would also include a base having an internal drive to be used for closure removal. A base or bottom surface 5188 of the closure is planar and further includes a point 5189 and a rim 5190 for engagement and penetration into the surface 5022 of the rod 5021 in certain embodiments of the invention. An alternative closure top 5018′ for use with a deformable rod 5021′, such as a PEEK rod, is shown in FIG. 281. The top 5018′ is identical to the top 5018 with the exception that a point 5189′ is located on a domed surface 5190′ in lieu of the planar bottom with point and rim of the closure top 5018. Preferably, the receiver 5010, the retainer 5012 and the compression insert 5014 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainer 5012 spring tabs 5118 and rotating and otherwise manipulating the insert 5014 arms, as well as crimping a portion of the receiver 5010 toward the insert 5014. In some circumstances, the shank 5004 is also assembled with the receiver 5010, the retainer 5012 and the compression insert 5014 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 5004, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver, retainer and compression insert at the insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 5004, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. In other instances, it is desirable for the surgical staff to pre-assemble a shank of a desired size and/or variety (e.g., surface treatment of roughening the upper portion 5008 and/or hydroxyapatite on the shank 5006), with the receiver, retainer and compression insert. Allowing the surgeon to choose the appropriately sized or treated shank 5004 advantageously reduces inventory requirements, thus reducing overall cost. Pre-assembly of the receiver 5010, retainer 5012 and compression insert 5014 is shown in FIGS. 266-272. With particular reference to FIG. 266, first the retainer 5012 is inserted into the upper receiver opening 5066, leading with one of the spring tabs 5118 with both of the spring tab top surfaces 5122 facing one arm 5062 and the retainer bottom surface 5124 facing the opposing arm 5062 (shown in phantom). The retainer 5012 is then lowered in such sideways manner into the channel 5064 and partially into the receiver cavity 5061, followed by tilting the retainer 5012 such that the top surface 5122 and thereafter the outer tab or wing 5140 of the leading spring tab 5118 is moved into a nearby receiver arm through bore 5078. With reference to FIG. 267, the retainer 5012 is then further tilted or turned and manipulated within the receiver to a position within the cavity until the retainer 5012 bottom surface 5124 is directed toward the receiver cavity 5061 and the spring tab upper surfaces 5122 are facing upwardly toward the receiver channel opening 5066. To accomplish such tilting and turning of the retainer 5012, the spring tab arm 5118 located within the receiver bore 5078 is manipulated downwardly and then upwardly within the bore 5078 and finally shifted out of the bore 5078 when the opposed spring tab arm 5118 outer tab or wing 5140 moves past and clears the cylindrical surface 5084 of the receiver 5010. Once the retainer bottom surface 5124 seats on the receiver surface 5104, both of the spring tab wings 5140 are partially located in opposed receiver bores 5078. With reference to FIGS. 267 and 268, the compression insert 5014 is then downloaded into the receiver 5010 through the upper opening 5066 with the bottom surface 5169 facing the receiver arm top surfaces 5073 and the insert arms 5157 located between the opposed receiver arms 5062. The insert 5014 is then lowered toward the channel seat 5068 until the insert 5014 arm upper surfaces 5164 are adjacent the run-out area below the guide and advancement structure 5072 defined in part by the cylindrical surface 5082. Thereafter, the insert 5014 is rotated in a clockwise or counter-clockwise manner about the receiver axis B until the upper arm surfaces 5164 are directly below the guide and advancement structure 5072 as illustrated in FIG. 268 with the U-shaped channel 5161 of the insert 5014 aligned with the U-shaped channel 5064 of the receiver 5010. In some embodiments, the insert arms 5157 may need to be compressed slightly during rotation to clear inner surfaces of the receiver arms 5062. As shown in FIGS. 269 and 270, the outer lower cylindrical surface 5174 of the insert 5014 is received within the cylindrical surface 5090 of the receiver. With further reference to FIGS. 268 and 269, a tool (not shown) is then used to grip the retainer spring tab arms 5118 at outer surfaces thereof and squeeze or press the tabs 5118 toward one another while moving the retainer 5012 in an upward direction away from the surface 5104. With reference to FIG. 270, when the spring tab wing surface projections 5142 abut against the surface 5079, the tool (not shown) is released and a portion or portions 5143 of each spring tab 5118 spring out to engage the surface portion 5092 formed in the receiver cylindrical surface 5090. With reference to FIGS. 270-272, the retainer 5012 is now in a desired position for shipping and with assembly with the shank 5004. The insert 5014 recessed areas 5178 are located adjacent to the retainer spring tab top surfaces 5122. With reference to FIGS. 271 and 272, the receiver thin walls 5077 are then crimped inwardly toward the axis B by inserting a tool (not shown) through the receiver apertures 5074, the tool pressing the walls 5077 until the wall surface 5087 engages the insert 5014 at the shallow central grooves 5175 formed on the outer surface 5174 of each of the insert arms 5157. The crimping of the wall surface 5093 into the groove 5175 keeps the insert 5014 U-shaped channel 5161 aligned with the receiver U-shaped channel 5064 and also helps retain the insert 5014 at the upward location shown in FIG. 270 with the insert arm top surfaces 5164 adjacent the guide and advancement structure 5072 until the insert 5014 is pushed downwardly toward the receiver base 5060 after assembly with the shank 5004. Thus, the crimping of the receiver walls 5077 prohibits rotation of the insert 5014 about the receiver axis B but allows for limited axial movement of the insert 5014 with respect to the receiver 5010 along the axis B when some force is exerted to slide the crimped surface 5093 up or down along the groove 5175. The insert 5014 is fully captured within the receiver 5010 by the guide and advancement structure 5072 prohibiting movement of the insert 5014 up and out through the receiver opening 5066 as well as by retainer 5012 located below the insert. Typically, the receiver and retainer combination are shipped or otherwise provided to the end user with the spring tab outer wings 5140 wedged against the receiver as shown in FIG. 270. The receiver 5010, retainer 5012 and insert 5014 combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 5004 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 5004 as will be described herein. As illustrated in FIG. 273, the bone screw shank 5004 or an entire assembly 5001 made up of the assembled shank 5004, receiver 5010, retainer 5012 and compression insert 5014, is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 5017 (shown in phantom), by rotation of the shank 5004 using a suitable driving tool (not shown) that operably drives and rotates the shank body 5006 by engagement thereof at the internal drive 5046. With further reference to FIG. 273, the pre-assembled receiver, insert and retainer are placed above the shank upper portion 5008 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 5110. With particular reference to FIGS. 274 and 275, as the shank upper portion 5008 is moved into the interior 5061 of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 5008 presses upwardly against the retainer 5012 in the recess partially defined by the cylindrical surface 5099. As the portion 5008 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 5064, the surface 5034 forces outward movement of the retainer 5012 towards the cylindrical surface 5099 defining the receiver expansion recess or chamber. The retainer 5012 begins to contract about the spherical surface 5034 as the center of the sphere (shown in dotted lines) passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion recess. At this time also, the spherical surface 5034 moves into engagement with the surfaces 5132 of the retainer flex tabs 5117, the tabs 5117 expanding slightly outwardly to receive the surface 5034. With reference to FIG. 276, the spherical surface 5034 then enters into full frictional engagement with the panel inner surfaces 5132. At this time, the retainer 5012 panels and the surface 5034 are in a fairly tight friction fit, the surface 5034 being pivotable with respect to the retainer 5012 with some force. Thus, a tight, non-floppy ball and socket joint is now created between the retainer 5012 and the shank upper portion 5008. With reference to FIG. 277, the shank 5004 and attached retainer 5012 are then moved downwardly into a desired position with the retainer seated on the surface 5104. This may be accomplished by either an upward pull on the receiver 5010 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 5004 further into the vertebra 5017. The insert 5014 may be pressed downwardly by a tool or by a rod and closure top as shown in FIG. 278. Also, in some embodiments, when the receiver 5010 is pre-assembled with the shank 5004, the entire assembly 5001 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool (not shown) into the receiver and the shank drive 5046 and rotating and driving the shank 5004 into a desired location of the vertebra 5017. Also with reference to FIGS. 277 and 278, prior to assembly with the rod 5021 and the closure top 5018, the compression insert 5014 frusto-conical surface 5163 is near the surface 5084. The insert 5014 is prohibited from moving any further downwardly at the beginning of the surface 5084 unless forced downwardly by a tool or by the closure top pressing downwardly on the rod that in turn presses downwardly on the insert 5014 as shown in FIG. 278. With further reference to FIG. 277 and also to FIG. 279, at this time, the receiver 5010 may be articulated to a desired angular position with respect to the shank 5004, such as that shown in FIG. 279, that will be held, but not locked, by the frictional engagement between the retainer 5012 and the shank upper portion 5008. The rod 5021 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 5001. The closure structure 5018 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 5062 of each of the receivers 5010. The closure structure 5018 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 5186 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 5021 engages the U-shaped seating surface 5162 of the compression insert 5014, further pressing the insert spherical surface 5168 (or stepped shank gripping surfaces 5170 of the insert 5014′) against the shank spherical surface 5034, (the edges of the stepped surfaces 5170 penetrating into the spherical surface 5034), pressing the shank upper portion 5008 into locked frictional engagement with the retainer 5012. Specifically, as the closure structure 5018 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 5010, the point 5189 and rim 5190 engage and penetrate the rod surface 5022, the closure structure 5018 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 5021 into compressive engagement with the insert 5014 that urges the shank upper portion 5008 toward the retainer 5012 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 5012 frictionally abutting the surface 5104 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 5101. For example, about 80 to about 120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 5006 with respect to the receiver 5010. Also, as the closure structure 5018 and the rod 5021 press the insert 5014 downwardly toward the base of the receiver 5010, the insert frusto-conical surface 5163 is forced into the receiver cylindrical surface 5084, wedging the insert 5014 into fixed frictional engagement with the receiver surface 5084. With reference to FIG. 280, at this time, the closure top 5018 may be loosened or removed and/or the rod 5021 may be adjusted and/or removed and the frictional engagement between the insert 5014 and the receiver 5010 at the receiver surface 5084 will remain locked in place, advantageously maintaining a locked angular position of the shank 5004 with respect to the receiver 5010. If the user wishes to release the insert 5014 from the receiver 5010 and unlock the polyaxial mechanism, a tool (not shown) may be used that includes extensions or prongs that are received by and through the opposed through bores 5075 of the receiver 5010 and received into the through bores 5172 of the insert 5014. Such tool is then pulled upwardly in a direction along the axis B away from the receiver base 5060, thereby pulling the insert slightly upwardly and away from the receiver base 5060 and releasing the frusto-conical surface 5163 from the cylindrical surface 5084. Alternatively, if both the closure top 5018 and the rod 5021 are already removed from the receiver 5010, another manipulation tool (not shown) may be used that is inserted into the receiver at the opening 5066 and into the insert channel 5161, with prongs or extensions thereof extending outwardly into the insert through bores 5172; a piston-like portion of the tool thereafter pushing directly on the shank upper portion 5008, thereby pulling the insert 5014 surface 5163 away from the receiver surface 5084 and thus releasing the polyaxial mechanism. At such time, the shank 5004 may be articulated with respect to the receiver 5010, and the desired friction fit returns between the retainer 5012 and the shank surface 5034, so that an adjustable, but non-floppy relationship still exists between the shank 5004 and the receiver 5010. If further disassembly if the assembly 5001 is desired, such is accomplished in reverse order to the procedure described previously herein for assembly. With reference to FIG. 281, an alternative assembly 5001′ is shown in which the rod 5021 and closure top 5018 of the assembly 5001 of FIG. 280 are replaced with a deformable rod 5018′ and alternative closure top 5018′. Because of the lock between the insert 5014 and the receiver 5010, any loosening of the rod 5021′ from the receiver 5010 that may occur due to rod deformation does not compromise the locked polyaxial mechanism formed by the wedged in insert 5014, the shank upper portion 5008, the retainer 5012 and the receiver 5010. With reference to FIGS. 284-306 the reference number 6001 generally represents a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 6001 includes a shank 6004, that further includes a body 6006 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or head-like capture structure 6008; a receiver 6010; and a lower retainer structure illustrated as a resilient open ring 6012. The receiver 6010 and retainer structure 6012 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 6004 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 6006 into a vertebra 6017, as will be described in greater detail below. FIG. 284 further shows a closure structure 6018 for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 6021 which in turn presses against the shank upper portion 6008 into fixed frictional contact with the lower retainer 6012, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 6021 within the receiver 6010 and thus fix the member 6021 relative to the vertebra 6017. The illustrated rod 6021 is hard, stiff, non-elastic and cylindrical, having an outer cylindrical surface 6022. The rod 6021 is the same or substantially similar to the rods previously discussed herein, such as the rods 21, 1021, 2021, 3021, 4021, 5021 and 6021. It is foreseen that in other embodiments, the rod 6021 may be elastic, deformable and/or of a different cross-sectional geometry. The receiver 6010 and the shank 6004 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 6010 and the shank 6004 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 6010 with the shank 6004 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 6004, best illustrated in FIGS. 284-286, is elongate, with the shank body 6006 having a helically wound bone implantable thread 6024 (single or dual lead thread form) extending from near a neck 6026 located adjacent to the upper portion or head 6008, to a tip 6028 of the body 6006 and extending radially outwardly therefrom. During use, the body 6006 utilizing the thread 6024 for gripping and advancement is implanted into the vertebra 6017 leading with the tip 6028 and driven down into the vertebra with an installation or driving tool (not shown), so as to be implanted in the vertebra to a location at or near the neck 6026, as more fully described in the paragraphs below. The shank 6004 has an elongate axis of rotation generally identified by the reference letter A. The neck 6026 extends axially upward from the shank body 6006. The neck 6026 may be of the same or is typically of a slightly reduced radius as compared to an adjacent upper end or top 6032 of the body 6006 where the thread 6024 terminates. Further extending axially and outwardly from the neck 6026 is the shank upper portion or head 6008 that provides a connective or capture apparatus disposed at a distance from the upper end 6032 and thus at a distance from the vertebra 6017 when the body 6006 is implanted in such vertebra. The shank upper portion 6008 is configured for a pivotable connection between the shank 6004 and the retainer 6012 and receiver 6010 prior to fixing of the shank 6004 in a desired position with respect to the receiver 6010. The shank upper portion 6008 has an outer, convex and substantially spherical surface 6034 that extends outwardly and upwardly from the neck 6026 and terminates at an outer annular rim surface 6038. The spherical surface 6034 has an outer radius configured for frictional, sliding cooperation with the retainer 6012 as will be described in greater detail below. The top surface 6038 is substantially perpendicular to the axis A. The spherical surface 6034 shown in the present embodiment is substantially smooth, but in some embodiments may include a roughening or other surface treatment and is sized and shaped for cooperation and ultimate frictional engagement with the lower retainer 12. The shank spherical surface 6034 is locked into place exclusively by the rod 6021 and the retainer 6012 and not by inner surfaces defining the receiver cavity. The shank upper portion 6008 further includes a substantially spherical, curved or domed top surface 6040. In operation, the surface 6040 directly engages the rod 6021 within the channel of the receiver 6010. The domed surface 6040 is located above and is spaced from the annular rim 6038 where the surface 6034 terminates. A counter sunk feature, generally 6042 separates the domed surface 6040 from the annular rim 6038. The feature 6042 is further defined by a discontinuous cylindrical surface 6043 located about the domed surface 6040 and a frusto-conical surface 6044 extending from the rim 6038 downwardly and inwardly toward the surface 6043. The surface 6043 runs parallel to the axis A. The surface 6044 terminates at a narrow annular track 6046 that encircles the cylindrical surface 6043. Six evenly spaced cylindrical cut-outs, 6048 are formed primarily into the cylindrical surface 6043 and also partially into the frusto-conical surface 6044, each of the cutouts 6048 running parallel to the shank axis A. Cylindrical surfaces created by the cutouts 6048 and the surfaces 6043 and 6044 provide a partially external and partially internal drive feature for receiving a driving tool (not shown) for rotating and driving the bone screw shank body 6006 into the vertebra 6017. It is foreseen that the shank driving feature may take on other various shapes and forms, as for example, will be described herein with respect to the alternative bone screw shanks shown in FIGS. 6025 and 6026. Other forms may include more or fewer apertures of various shapes. As illustrated in FIGS. 285 and 386, the external and internal portions of the drive may also include beveled or stepped surfaces that may further enhance gripping with the driving tool. In operation, a driving tool (not shown) is received in the drive feature 6042, being seated at the frusto-conical surface 6044 and engaging the various curved faces at and about the cylindrical surface 6043 for both driving and rotating the shank body 6006 into the vertebra 6017, either before the shank 6004 is attached to the receiver 6010 or after the shank 6004 is attached to the receiver 6010, with the shank body 6006 being driven into the vertebra 6017 with the driving tool extending into the receiver 6010. The shank 6004 shown in the drawings is cannulated, having a small central bore 6050 extending an entire length of the shank 6004 along the axis A. The bore 6050 is defined by an inner cylindrical wall of the shank 6004 and has a circular opening at the shank tip 6028 and an upper opening communicating with the top surface 6040. The bore 6050 is coaxial with the threaded body 6006 and the upper portion 6008. The bore 6050 provides a passage through the shank 6004 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted into the vertebra 6013 prior to the insertion of the shank body 6006, the wire providing a guide for insertion of the shank body 6006 into the vertebra 6017. To provide a biologically active interface with the bone, the threaded shank body 606 may be coated, perforated, made porous or otherwise treated. The treatment may include, but is not limited to a plasma spray coating or other type of coating of a metal or, for example, a calcium phosphate; or a roughening, perforation or indentation in the shank surface, such as by sputtering, sand blasting or acid etching, that allows for bony ingrowth or ongrowth. Certain metal coatings act as a scaffold for bone ingrowth. Bio-ceramic calcium phosphate coatings include, but are not limited to: alpha-tri-calcium phosphate and beta-tri-calcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2, tetra-calcium phosphate (Ca4P2O9), amorphous calcium phosphate and hydroxyapatite (Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2). Coating with hydroxyapatite, for example, is desirable as hydroxyapatite is chemically similar to bone with respect to mineral content and has been identified as being bioactive and thus not only supportive of bone ingrowth, but actively taking part in bone bonding. With particular reference to FIGS. 284 and 290-295, the receiver 6010 has a generally cylindrical and U-shaped appearance. The receiver 6010 has an axis of rotation B that is shown in FIG. 284 as being aligned with and the same as the axis of rotation A of the shank 6004, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 6010 with the shank 6004. After the receiver 6010 is pivotally attached to the shank 6004, either before or after the shank 6004 is implanted in a vertebra 6017, the axis B is typically disposed at an angle with respect to the axis A. The receiver 6010 includes a substantially cylindrical base 6060 defining a bore or inner cavity, generally 6061, the base 6060 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 6062 forming a cradle and defining a channel 6064 between the arms 6062 with an upper opening, generally 6066, and a lower channel portion including a partially planar and partially U-shaped lower seat 6068, the channel 6064 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 6021 or portion of another longitudinal connector between the arms 6062, the channel 6064 communicating with the base cavity 6061. Each of the arms 6062 has an interior surface, generally 6070, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 6072 located adjacent top surfaces 6073 of each of the arms 6062. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 6072 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 18, as described more fully below. However, it is foreseen that for certain embodiments of the invention, the guide and advancement structure 6072 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structures, such as a flange form, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 6018 downward between the arms 6062, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 6018 abuts against the rod 6021 or other longitudinal connecting member. It is foreseen that the arms could have break-off extensions. An opposed pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures 6074 are formed on outer surfaces 6076 of the arms 62. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 6062. Returning to the interior surface 6070 of the receiver arms 6062, located below the guide and advancement structure 6072 is a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 6072 partially defined by a discontinuous cylindrical surface 6082 having a diameter approximately the same or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 6072. Below the surface 6082, moving in a direction toward the base 6060, is another cylindrical surface 6084 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 6082 and illustrated as substantially the same as an inner or lesser diameter of the guide and advancement structure 6072. The surface 6084 is initially discontinuous (at the arms 6062) and transitions into a continuous surface at the channel seat 6068. Directly above the seat 6068, located in each of the arms 6062 is a discontinuous, radially extending, rounded lip 6086 extending inwardly toward the axis B from each of the surfaces 6084. As will be described in greater detail below, the lip 6086 provides a frictional stop for the shank upper portion 6008 during pop-on assembly with the retainer 6012 within the receiver 6010. A continuous, beveled annular upper rim or stop surface 6098 is located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 6084. The surface 6098 is disposed in the base 6060, partially forming the base cavity 6061 and forms an abutment stop for the resilient retainer 6012, prohibiting the retainer 6012 (when in an uncompressed configuration) from moving upwardly into the space defined by the cylindrical surface 6084 and the channel 6064. Another cylindrical surface 6099 is located below and adjacent to the surface 6098. The cylindrical surface 6099 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to receive an expanded retainer 6012. The surfaces 6098 and 6099 define a circumferential recess that is sized and shaped to receive the retainer 6012 as it expands around the shank upper portion 6008 as the shank 6008 moves upwardly toward the channel 6064 during assembly, as well as form a restriction to prevent the expanded retainer 6012 from moving upwardly with the shank portion 6008, the surface 6098 preventing the retainer 6012 from passing upwardly out of the cavity 6061 whether the retainer 6012 is in a partially or fully expanded position or state, or in a neutral or original operative position or state (see, e.g., FIGS. 299 and 300). A cylindrical surface 6101 located below the cylindrical surface 6099 is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 6012 when the retainer is in a neutral or slightly compressed operative position as shown in FIGS. 297 and 301, for example. Thus, the cylindrical surface 6101 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 6099 that defines the expansion area for the retainer 6012. The surface 6101 is joined or connected to the surface 6099 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 6102. The surfaces 6102 allow for sliding gradual movement and/or contraction of the retainer 6012 into the space defined by the surface 6101 and ultimate seating of the retainer 6012 on a lower annular surface 6104 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 6101. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 6104 is another substantially cylindrical surface 6106 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 6107, the surface 6107 communicating with an exterior base surface 6108 of the base 6060, defining a lower opening, generally 6110, into the base cavity 6061 of the receiver 6010. The illustrated surface 6106 has a diameter requiring compression or squeezing of the retainer 6012 during uploading of the retainer 6012 through the lower opening 6110 (see FIG. 296, for example). With particular reference to FIGS. 284 and 287-289, the lower open retainer ring 6012 that operates to capture the shank upper portion 6008 within the receiver 6010 has a central axis that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 6010 when the shank upper portion 6008 and the retainer 6012 are installed within the receiver 6010. The retainer ring 6012 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 6012 may be both compressed and expanded during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The lower retainer 6012 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 6121, that passes entirely through the ring 6012 from a top surface 6122 to a bottom surface 6124 thereof. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 6121 include a discontinuous inner cylindrical surface 6125 near or adjacent the top surface 6122, a first discontinuous frusto-conical or curved surface 6127 adjacent the surface 6125 and a second frusto-conical or beveled surface 6128 adjacent the surface 6127 and also adjacent to the bottom 6124, all three surfaces 6125, 6127 and 6128 being coaxial when the retainer 6012 is in a neutral non-compressed, non-expanded orientation. The retainer 6012 further includes an outer cylindrical surface 6130 located adjacent the top surface 6122 and an outer beveled or frusto-conical surface 6132 adjacent the bottom surface 6124. The surface 6130 is oriented parallel to the central axis of the retainer 6012. In some embodiments of the invention spaced notches (not shown) may be formed in the cylindrical surface 6130 to receive a holding and manipulation tool (not shown) used for contraction and insertion of the retainer 6012 into the receiver 6010. In some embodiments further notches may be made to evenly distribute stress across the entire retainer 6012 during contraction and expansion thereof. In other embodiments of the invention, such notches may be on the inside of the retainer 6012 ring. It is also foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention, the retainer 6012 inner surfaces may include a roughening or additional material to provide a friction fit against the shank upper portion 6008 prior to lock down by the rod 6021 or other longitudinal connecting member. The resilient retainer 6012 further includes first and second end surfaces, 6134 and 6135 disposed in spaced relation to one another when the retainer is in a neutral non-compressed state. Both end surfaces 6134 and 6135 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the top surface 6122 and the bottom surface 6124. A width X between the surfaces 6134 and 6135 is determined by a desired amount of compressibility of the open retainer 6012 when loaded into the receiver 6010. The space X shown in FIG. 287 provides adequate space between the surfaces 6134 and 6135 for the retainer 6012 to be pinched, with the surfaces 6134 and 6135 compressed toward one another (as shown in FIG. 296) to a closely spaced or even touching configuration, if necessary, to an extent that the compressed retainer 6012 is up or bottom loadable (as illustrated) through the receiver opening 6110 or alternatively top loaded through the channel opening 6066 (not shown). After passing through the opening 6110 and along a portion of the lower inner surface 6106, the retainer 6012 expands or springs back to an original uncompressed, rounded or collar-like configuration of FIGS. 287-289, see, e.g., FIG. 297. The embodiment shown in FIGS. 287-289 illustrates the surfaces 6134 and 6135 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle depending upon the amount of compression desired during loading of the retainer 6012 into the receiver 6010. It is further noted that the geometry of the retainer 6012 is not limited to the particular cylindrical or planar surface shapes shown in the drawings figures. The retainer 6012 may be of a rounded ring-shape, for example, or include more or fewer planar, conical or curved surfaces. With reference to FIGS. 284, 303 and 304, the illustrated elongate rod or longitudinal connecting member 6021 (of which only a portion has been shown) can be any of a variety of implants utilized in reconstructive spinal surgery, but is typically a cylindrical, elongate structure having the outer substantially smooth, cylindrical surface 6022 of uniform diameter. The rod 6021 may be made from a variety of metals, metal alloys and deformable and less compressible plastics, including, but not limited to rods made of elastomeric, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and other types of materials. Longitudinal connecting members for use with the assembly 6001 may take a variety of shapes, including but not limited to rods or bars of oval, rectangular or other curved or polygonal cross-section. The shape of the receiver 6010 may be modified so as to closely hold, and if desired, fix or slidingly capture the longitudinal connecting member to the assembly 6001. Some embodiments of the assembly 6001 may also be used with a tensioned cord. Such a cord may be made from a variety of materials, including polyester or other plastic fibers, strands or threads, such as polyethylene-terephthalate. Furthermore, the longitudinal connector may be a component of a longer overall dynamic stabilization connecting member, with cylindrical or bar-shaped portions sized and shaped for being received by the receiver 6010 or alternative receiver having a U-shaped, rectangular- or other-shaped channel, for closely receiving the longitudinal connecting member. The longitudinal connecting member may be integral or otherwise fixed to a bendable or damping component that is sized and shaped to be located between adjacent pairs of bone screw assemblies 6001, for example. A damping component or bumper may be attached to the longitudinal connecting member at one or both sides of the bone screw assembly 6001. A rod or bar (or rod or bar component) of a longitudinal connecting member may be made of a variety of materials ranging from deformable plastics to hard metals, depending upon the desired application. Thus, bars and rods of the invention may be made of materials including, but not limited to metal and metal alloys including but not limited to stainless steel, titanium, titanium alloys and cobalt chrome; or other suitable materials, including plastic polymers such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK), ultra-high-molecular weight-polyethylene (UHMWP), polyurethanes and composites, including composites containing carbon fiber, natural or synthetic elastomers such as polyisoprene (natural rubber), and synthetic polymers, copolymers, and thermoplastic elastomers, for example, polyurethane elastomers such as polycarbonate-urethane elastomers. With reference to FIG. 284, the closure structure or closure top 6018 shown with the assembly 6001 is rotatably received between the spaced arms 6062 of the receiver 6010. It is noted that the closure 6018 top could be a twist-in or slide-in closure structure. The illustrated closure structure 6018 is substantially cylindrical and includes a an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 6162 in the form of a flange that operably joins with the guide and advancement structure 6072 disposed on the arms 6062 of the receiver 6010. Although it is foreseen that the closure structure guide and advancement structure could alternatively be a buttress thread, a square thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread like or non-thread like helically wound advancement structure, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 6018 downward between the arms 6062 and having such a nature as to resist splaying of the arms 6062 when the closure structure 6018 is advanced into the channel 6064, the flange form illustrated herein as described more fully in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689 is preferred as the added strength provided by such flange form beneficially cooperates with and counters any reduction in strength caused by the reduced profile of the receiver 6010 that advantageously engages longitudinal connecting member components as will be further described below. The illustrated closure structure 6018 also includes a top surface 6164 with an internal drive 6166 in the form of an aperture that is illustrated as a star-shaped internal drive such as that sold under the trademark TORX, or may be, for example, a hex drive, or other internal drives such as slotted, tri-wing, spanner, two or more apertures of various shapes, and the like. A driving tool (not shown) sized and shaped for engagement with the internal drive 6166 is used for both rotatable engagement and, if needed, disengagement of the closure 6018 from the receiver arms 6062. It is also foreseen that the closure structure 6018 may alternatively include a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 6070 to 6140 inch pounds. Such a closure structure would also include a base having an internal drive to be used for closure removal. A base or bottom surface 6168 of the closure is planar and further includes a point 6169 and a rim 6170 for engagement and penetration into the surface 6022 of the rod 6021 in certain embodiments of the invention. The closure top 6018 may further include a cannulation through bore (not shown) extending along a central axis thereof and through the top and bottom surfaces thereof. Such a through bore provides a passage through the closure 6018 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for insertion of the closure top into the receiver arms 6062. Preferably, the receiver 6010 and the retainers 6012 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainer 6012. In some circumstances, the shank 6004 is also assembled with the receiver 6010 and the retainer 6012 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 6004, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver and retainer at the insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 6004, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. In other instances, it is desirable for the surgical staff to pre-assemble a shank of a desired size with the already assembled receiver and retainer. Allowing the surgeon to choose the appropriately sized shank advantageously reduces inventory requirements, thus reducing overall cost. Pre-assembly of the receiver 6010 and the retainer 6012 is shown in FIGS. 296-297. The retainer 6012 is prepared for insertion into the receiver 6010 by squeezing or pressing the retainer end surfaces 6134 and 6135 toward one another as shown in FIG. 296. The compressed retainer 6012 is inserted into the lower opening 6110 with the planar top surface 6122 facing the receiver bottom surface 6108. The retainer 6012 is typically moved upwardly into the receiver 6010 and past the cylindrical surface 106 and allowed to expand to an almost neutral or slightly compressed state within the cylindrical surface 101 as shown in FIG. 297. The receiver 6010 and the retainer 6012 (held by the cylindrical surface 6101) combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 6004 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 6004 as will be described herein. As illustrated in FIG. 298, the bone screw shank 6004 alone (or an entire assembly 6001 made up of the assembled shank 6004, receiver 6010 and retainer 6012) is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 6017, by rotation of the shank 6004 using a suitable driving tool (not shown) that operably drives and rotates the shank body 6006 by engagement thereof at the drive feature 6042. Specifically, the vertebra 6017 may be pre-drilled to minimize stressing the bone and have a guide wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for the placement and angle of the shank 6004 with respect to the vertebra. A further tap hole may be made using a tap with the guide wire as a guide. Then, the bone screw shank 6004 or the assembly 6001 is threaded onto the guide wire utilizing the cannulation bore 6050 by first threading the wire into the opening at the bottom 6028 and then out of the top opening at the top surface 6040. The shank 6004 is then driven into the vertebra using the wire as a placement guide. It is foreseen that the shank and other bone screw assembly parts, the rod 6021 (also having a central lumen in some embodiments) and the closure top 18 (also with a central bore) can be inserted in a percutaneous or minimally invasive surgical manner, utilizing guide wires. When the shank 6004 is driven into the vertebra 6017 without the remainder of the assembly 6001, the shank 6004 may either be driven to a desired final location or may be driven to a location slightly above or proud to provide for ease in assembly with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer. With reference to FIG. 298, the pre-assembled receiver and retainer is placed above the shank upper portion 6008 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 6110. With particular reference to FIGS. 299-300, as the shank is moved into the interior of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 6008 presses the retainer 6012 upwardly into the recess partially defined by the cylindrical surface 6099 (if the retainer is not already located within such recess). As the portion 6008 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 6064, the top surface 6122 of the retainer 6012 abuts against the receiver surface 6098. At this time, the shank upper portion moves upwardly into the channel 6064 until the outer surface 6034 frictionally engages the lip 6086 on the receiver cylindrical surface 6084, stopping upward movement of the shank upper portion 6008. As the retainer 6012 presses up against the surface 6098, the shank upper portion 6008 forces outward movement of the retainer 6012 towards the cylindrical surface 6099 defining the receiver expansion recess as the spherical surface 6034 continues in an upward direction. The retainer 6012 begins to contract about the spherical surface 6034 as the center of the sphere passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion recess defined by the surface 6099. At this time also, the spherical surface 6034 is in engagement with the receiver lip 6086, prohibiting further upward movement of the shank 6004 into the channel 6064. With reference to FIG. 302, the retainer 6012 and attached insert 6014 are ultimately moved down into a final operative position by either an upward pull on the receiver 6010 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 6004 further into the vertebra 6017. Also, in some embodiments, when the receiver 6010 is pre-assembled with the shank 6004, the entire assembly 6001 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool (not shown) into the receiver and the shank drive 6042 and rotating and driving the shank 4 into a desired location of the vertebra 6017. With reference to FIG. 303-304, the rod 6021 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 6001. The closure structure 6018 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 6062 of each of the receivers 6010. The closure structure 6018 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 6166 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 6021 engages the curved top surface 6040 of the shank 6004, pressing the shank upper portion 6008 into locked frictional engagement with the retainer 6012. Specifically, as the closure structure 6018 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 6010, the point 6169 and rim 6170 engage and penetrate the rod surface 6022, the closure structure 6018 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 6021 into compressive engagement with the shank upper surface 6040 that urges the shank upper portion 6008 toward the retainer 6012 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 6012 frictionally abutting the surface 6104 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 6101. For example, about 6080 to about 6120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 6006 with respect to the receiver 6010. If removal of the rod 6021 from any of the bone screw assemblies 6001 is necessary, or if it is desired to release the rod 6021 at a particular location, disassembly is accomplished by using the driving tool (not shown) that mates with the internal drive 6166 on the closure structure 6018 to rotate and remove such closure structure from the cooperating receiver 6010. Disassembly is then accomplished in reverse order to the procedure described previously herein for assembly. With reference to FIGS. 305 and 306, alternative bone screw shanks 6004′ and 6004″ according to the invention may include alternative drive features 6042′ and 6042″, respectively. The bone screws 6004′ and 6004″ may be used in lieu of a screw 6004 in the assembly 1 described above. The bone screw 6004′ and 6004″ include respective outer lower spherical surface 6034′ and 6034″ and respective upper or top domed shaped surfaces 6040′ and 6040″, that are the same or substantially similar to the respective spherical surface 6034 and top domed surface 6040 previously described herein with respect to the shank 6004 of the assembly 6001. The bone screw 6004′ is identical to the screw 6004 with the exception that the six cylindrical cutouts 6048 are replaced by six partially cylindrical grooves 6048′ that in addition to forming cylindrical surfaces in an upstanding surface 6043′ (that is otherwise identical to the surface 6043 of the shank 6004), also carve a groove into the frusto-conical surface 6044′ (that is otherwise identical to the surface 6044) and through the outer spherical surface 6034′, the grooves 6048′ each having a substantially planar bottom surface 6049′ that extends from the surface 6043′ radially outwardly and through the spherical surface 6034′. With respect to the bone screw 6004″, the cylindrical surface 6043 of the bone screw 6004 is replaced by a faceted surface 6043″ and a portion of the spherical surface 6034 is completely removed to result in an annular planar tool seating surface 6049″. In the illustrated embodiment, the faceted surface 6043″ includes six surfaces sized and shaped to be received in a hex shaped socket type driving tool (not shown), the tool seatable on the planar surface 6049″. With reference to the '849 patent application incorporated by reference herein, polyaxial bone screws 6001 according to the invention may be used with dynamic stabilization longitudinal connecting member assemblies that include one or more sleeves with cooperating, spacers, bumpers and an inner tensioned cord. With reference to FIGS. 307-339 the reference number 7001 generally represents a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 7001 includes a shank 7004, that further includes a body 7006 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or head-like capture structure 7008; a receiver 7010; and a lower retainer structure illustrated as a resilient open ring-like structure 7012. The receiver 7010 and retainer structure 7012 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 7004 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 7006 into a vertebra 7017, as will be described in greater detail below. FIG. 307 further shows a closure structure 7018 for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 7021 which in turn presses against the shank upper portion 7008 into fixed frictional contact with the lower retainer 7012, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 7021 within the receiver 7010 and thus fix the member 7021 relative to the vertebra 7017. The illustrated rod 7021 is hard, stiff, non-elastic and cylindrical, having an outer cylindrical surface 7022. It is foreseen that in other embodiments, the rod 7021 may be elastic, deformable and/or of a different cross-sectional geometry. The receiver 7010 and the shank 7004 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 7010 and the shank 7004 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 7010 with the shank 7004 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 7004, best illustrated in FIGS. 307-309, is substantially similar to the shank 6004 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 6001. Thus, the shank 7004 includes the shank body 7006, upper portion or head 7008, a shank thread 7024, a neck 7026, a tip 7028, a top of thread 7032, an upper portion spherical surface 7034 a top surface 7040, a drive feature 7042 and a cannulation bore 7050 the same or substantially similar to the respective body 6006, upper portion or head 6008, shank thread 6024, neck 6026, tip 6028, top of thread 6032, spherical surface 6034, domed top surface 6040, drive feature 6042 and cannulation bore 6050 previously described herein with respect to the shank 6004 of the assembly 6001. To provide a biologically active interface with the bone, the threaded shank body 7006 may be coated, perforated, made porous or otherwise treated as previously discussed herein with respect to the shank body 6 of the assembly 1. With particular reference to FIGS. 307 and 316-320, the receiver 7010 has a generally cylindrical and U-shaped appearance. The receiver 7010 has an axis of rotation B that is shown in FIG. 307 as being aligned with and the same as the axis of rotation A of the shank 7004, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 7010 with the shank 7004, as shown, for example, in FIG. 337. After the receiver 7010 is pivotally attached to the shank 7004, either before or after the shank 7004 is implanted in a vertebra 7017, the axis B is typically disposed at an angle with respect to the axis A, as shown, for example, in FIG. 338. The receiver 7010 includes a substantially cylindrical base 7060 defining a bore or inner cavity, generally 7061, the base 7060 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 7062 forming a cradle and defining a channel 7064 between the arms 7062 with an upper opening, generally 7066, and a lower channel portion including a partially planar and partially U-shaped lower seat 7068, the channel 7064 having a width for operably snugly receiving the rod 7021 or portion of another longitudinal connector between the arms 7062, the channel 7064 communicating with the base cavity 7061. Each of the arms 7062 has an interior surface, generally 7070, that includes various inner cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 7072 located adjacent top surfaces 7073 of each of the arms 7062. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 7072 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 7018, as described more fully below. However, it is foreseen that for certain embodiments of the invention, the guide and advancement structure 7072 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structures, such as a flange form, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 7018 downward between the arms 7062, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 7018 abuts against the rod 7021 or other longitudinal connecting member. It is foreseen that the arms could have break-off extensions. An opposed pair of upper tool receiving and engaging apertures or grooves 7074 are formed on outer surfaces 7076 of the arms 7062. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 7062. Located directly below the apertures are another pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures or through bores, generally 7078, that extend from the surfaces 7076 to the inner surfaces 7070. The through bores 7078 each have a substantially planar bottom surface 7079 and arched or U-shaped upper and side surfaces 7080. It is foreseen that other geometries are possible. As will be described in greater detail below, the through bores 7078 are sized and shaped to provide clearance within the receiver 7010 for down-loading the retainer 7012 from the receiver upper opening 7066 and between the interior surfaces 7070 of the arms 7062 and into the receiver cavity 7061. The bores 7078 also provide access into the receiver 7010 for manipulating the retainer 7012 after loading and during assembly with the shank 7004. Returning to the interior surface 7070 of the receiver arms 7062, located below each guide and advancement structure 7072 is a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 7072 partially defined by a discontinuous cylindrical surface 7082 having a diameter approximately the same or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 7072. Below the surface 7082, moving in a direction toward the base 7060, is another cylindrical surface 7084 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 7082 and illustrated as slightly greater than an inner or lesser diameter of the guide and advancement structure 7072. The surface 7084 is also discontinuous, being formed only at the arms 7062. Located between each of the surfaces 7082 and 7084 is a discontinuous annular surface 7085 running substantially perpendicular to the axis B. Formed in each of the surfaces 7084 is a curved recess or aperture, generally 7088, that is located adjacent to and directly above the respective through bore 7078, an upper portion of the bore 7078 also formed in and through the surface 7084. Each recess 7088 is partially defined by a substantially cylindrical surface 7089 and also by an arched or upside-down U-shaped surface 7090 that runs from the surface 7084 to the surface 7089. The recesses 7088 cooperate with the retainer 7012 during assembly with the receiver 7010 and the shank 7004 as will be described in greater detail below. The surface 7084 terminates at a lower ledge 7098 that runs radially outwardly from the surface 7084 to another cylindrical surface 7099. The ledge 7098 is substantially perpendicular to the axis B. The cylindrical surface 7099 is partially discontinuous at the arms 7062 and also extends downwardly into the base 7060, defining a continuous upper cylindrical portion of the base cavity 7061. Each bore 7078 is substantially formed in the surface 7099 and extends outwardly to the arm surface 7076. The cylindrical surface 7099 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to receive an expanded retainer 7012. The surfaces 7098 and 7099 define a circumferential recess that is sized and shaped to receive a portion of the retainer 7012 as it expands around the shank upper portion 7008 at the surface 7034 as the shank 8 moves upwardly toward the channel 7064 during assembly. A cylindrical surface 7101 located below the cylindrical surface 7099 is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 7012 when the retainer is in a neutral or slightly expanded position as will be described in greater detail below. Thus, the cylindrical surface 7101 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 7099 that defines the expansion area for the retainer 7012. The surface 7101 is joined or connected to the surface 7099 by one or more beveled, curved or conical surfaces 7102. The surfaces 7102 allow for sliding gradual movement of the retainer 7012 into the space defined by the surface 6101 and ultimate seating of the retainer 7012 on a lower annular surface 7104 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 7101. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 7104 is another substantially cylindrical surface 7106 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 7107, the surface 7107 communicating with an exterior base surface 7108 of the base 7060, defining a lower opening, generally 7110, into the base cavity 7061 of the receiver 7010. With particular reference to FIGS. 307 and 310-315, the open, friction fit retainer 7012 that operates to capture and frictionally engage the shank upper portion 7008 within the receiver 7010 has a central axis that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 7010 when the shank upper portion 7008 and the retainer 7012 are installed within the receiver 7010. The retainer 7012 includes a substantially cylindrical discontinuous lower body 7116, a plurality of flex fingers or panels, 7117 extending upwardly from the body 7116 and a pair of opposed spring arms or tabs 7118, also extending upwardly from the body 7116. The retainer ring 7012 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 7012 body 7116 may be expanded and the fingers and tabs (7117 and 7118) of the retainer may be manipulated during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The retainer 7012 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 7121, that passes entirely through the retainer 7012 from curved retainer arm or tab 7118 top surfaces 7122 to a bottom surface 7124 of the retainer body 7116. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 7121 include an inner lower frusto-conical surface 7128 adjacent to the retainer body bottom surface 7124, a substantially cylindrical surface 7130 adjacent the frusto-conical surface 7128, a narrow frusto-conical or beveled surface 7131 adjacent the cylindrical surface 7130 and a partially discontinuous substantially spherical surface 7132 adjacent the surface 7131, the surface 7132 being continuous near the cylindrical surface 7130 with the exception of a through slot or slit, generally 7134. The surface 7132 is in a plurality of segments or pieces at the flex fingers 7117 wherein a plurality of substantially evenly spaced slots 7136 running outwardly and upwardly through an upper surface 7137 separate the surface 7132 into the individual flex fingers 7117. In the illustrated embodiment, the slots 7136 and the through slit 7134 form six substantially uniform flex fingers or tabs 7117 as well as partially define the two spring tabs 7118, each finger and tab having the inner spherical surface 7132. It is foreseen that more or fewer flex fingers may be made by the forming of more or fewer slots 7136. The discontinuous spherical surface 7132 is sized and shaped to closely fit about and snap onto the shank surface 7034 during assembly as will be described in greater detail below. Preferably the surface 7132 has a radius the same or slightly smaller than the radius of the spherical shank surface 7034. In operation, the discontinuous surface 7132 advantageously frictionally engages the bone screw shank upper portion 7008, allowing for un-locked but non-floppy placement of the angle of the shank 7004 with respect to the receiver 7010 during surgery prior to locking of the shank 7004 with respect to the receiver 7010 near the end of the procedure. At the time of locking engagement, as shown in FIG. 336, for example, downward and outward force placed on the retainer 7012 by the shank upper portion 7008 expands the retainer body 7116 at the slit 7134 and the individual flex fingers 7117 no longer frictionally grip the spherical surface 7034 of the upper portion 7008. To aid in bending flexibility and resiliency, certain flex fingers 7117 have sloping outer surfaces 7138, reducing a width of, or, as illustrated, substantially eliminating, the top planar surface 7137, resulting in four of the fingers 7117 having a combination of a narrow top edge surface 7137 with an outwardly and downwardly sloping frusto-conical surface 7138. It is foreseen that in other embodiments of the invention other surface geometries may be used to gain the level of resiliency desired for expansion and gripping of the fingers 7117 about the shank upper portion 7008. It is noted that the fingers 7117 that are directed generally upwardly toward the receiver channel 7064, some of which that include narrow top edges, advantageously sufficiently snap about and then grip the shank surface 7034 to an extent to provide the friction fit desired for non-floppy placement of the shank body 7006 at a desired angle with respect to the receiver 7010 during manipulation of the bone screws 7001 and the rod 7021 or other longitudinal connecting member during surgery. However, as compared to bone screw inserts such as collets known in the art that include downwardly directed portions or panels that are ultimately wedged between a receiver surface and a shank surface upon final locking of the shank to the receiver, the thin upwardly directed fingers 7117 that extend away from the shank locking surface that are not as strong as the retainer body 7116 do not participate or cooperate with the final locking of the shank upper portion 7008 to the retainer 7012 and the retainer 7012 to the receiver inner surfaces 7101 and 7104. For such purpose, the more substantial retainer body 7116 having only the very narrow slit 7134 used for expansion purposes only is the component that locks the shank upper portion 7008 between the receiver 7010 and the rod 7021 or other longitudinal connecting member. The retainer body 7116, the flex fingers 7117 and a substantial part of each of the spring tabs 7118 have an outer substantially cylindrical profile, sized and shaped to closely and slidingly fit within the receiver cavity 7061 with the exception of outward extensions or wings, generally 7140, of the spring tabs 7118 that are located adjacent to the upper surfaces 7122, each extending outwardly away from the respective tab and having a curved outward surface 7142 that is substantially cylindrical, being sized and shaped to closely cooperate and frictionally engage the cylindrical surface 7089 of the receiver recess 7088. Each spring tab 7118 further includes an inner planar surface 7144 that runs from the curved top surface 7122 to the inner cylindrical surface 7132. The through slit 7134 of the resilient retainer 7012 is defined by first and second end surfaces, 7146 and 7147 disposed in spaced relation to one another (they may also be touching) when the retainer is in a neutral state. Both end surfaces 7146 and 7147 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the bottom surface 7124. A width X between the surfaces 7146 and 7147 is very narrow, in some embodiments of about or less than 0.004 inches, the narrow slit functioning to provide stability to the retainer 7012 during operation, specifically retention of the shank upper portion 7008 within the receiver 7010 that must withstand extreme pressure both during assembly and subsequent patient movement. The slit 7134 may be made, for example, by an electrical discharge machining (EDM) process with the resulting surfaces 7146 and 7147 almost touching. Because the retainer 7012 is top loadable in a neutral state and the retainer 7012 does not need to be compressed to fit within the receiver cavity 7061, the width X may be much smaller than what is often required for a bottom loaded compressible retainer ring. The gap X functions only in expansion to allow the retainer 7012 to expand about the shank upper portion 8 both during assembly and during locking of the polyaxial mechanism. The narrow gap X provides for a stronger retainer that has more surface contact with the shank upper portion 7008 upon locking, resulting in a sturdier connection with less likelihood of failure than a retainer ring having a greater gap. Furthermore, because the retainer 7012 body 7116 is only expanded and not compressed, the retainer 7012 does not undergo the mechanical stress that typically is placed on spring ring type retainers that may be both compressed and expanded more than once during assembly and locking. It is foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention, the retainer 7012 inner surfaces may include a roughening or additional material to increase the friction fit against the shank upper portion 7008 prior to lock down by the rod 7021 or other longitudinal connecting member. Also, the embodiment shown in FIGS. 310-315 illustrates the surfaces 7146 and 7147 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle. With reference to FIGS. 307, 336 and 339, the illustrated elongate rod or longitudinal connecting member 7021 (of which only a portion has been shown) can be any of a variety of implants utilized in reconstructive spinal surgery, but is typically a cylindrical, elongate structure having the outer substantially smooth, cylindrical surface 7022 of uniform diameter. The rod 7021 may be made from a variety of metals, metal alloys and deformable and less compressible plastics, including, but not limited to rods made of elastomeric, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and other types of materials. Longitudinal connecting members for use with the assembly 7001 may take a variety of shapes, including but not limited to rods or bars of oval, rectangular or other curved or polygonal cross-section. The shape of the receiver 7010 may be modified so as to closely hold, and if desired, fix or slidingly capture the longitudinal connecting member to the assembly 7001. Some embodiments of the assembly 7001 may also be used with a tensioned cord. Such a cord may be made from a variety of materials, including polyester or other plastic fibers, strands or threads, such as polyethylene-terephthalate. Furthermore, the longitudinal connector may be a component of a longer overall dynamic stabilization connecting member, with cylindrical or bar-shaped portions sized and shaped for being received by the receiver 7010 of the receiver having a U-shaped, rectangular- or other-shaped channel, for closely receiving the longitudinal connecting member. The longitudinal connecting member may be integral or otherwise fixed to a bendable or damping component that is sized and shaped to be located between adjacent pairs of bone screw assemblies 7001, for example. A damping component or bumper may be attached to the longitudinal connecting member at one or both sides of the bone screw assembly 7001. A rod or bar (or rod or bar component) of a longitudinal connecting member may be made of a variety of materials ranging from deformable plastics to hard metals, depending upon the desired application. Thus, bars and rods of the invention may be made of materials including, but not limited to metal and metal alloys including but not limited to stainless steel, titanium, titanium alloys and cobalt chrome; or other suitable materials, including plastic polymers such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK), ultra-high-molecular weight-polyethylene (UHMWP), polyurethanes and composites, including composites containing carbon fiber, natural or synthetic elastomers such as polyisoprene (natural rubber), and synthetic polymers, copolymers, and thermoplastic elastomers, for example, polyurethane elastomers such as polycarbonate-urethane elastomers. With reference to FIGS. 307 and 336, the closure structure or closure top 7018 shown with the assembly 7001 is rotatably received between the spaced arms 7062 of the receiver 7010. It is noted that the closure 7018 top could be a twist-in or slide-in closure structure. The illustrated closure structure 7018 is substantially cylindrical and includes a an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 7162 in the form of a flange that operably joins with the guide and advancement structure 7072 disposed on the arms 7062 of the receiver 7010. The flange form utilized in accordance with the present invention may take a variety of forms, including those described in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689, which is incorporated herein by reference. Although it is foreseen that the closure structure guide and advancement structure could alternatively be a buttress thread, a square thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread like or non-thread like helically wound advancement structure, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 7018 downward between the arms 7062 and having such a nature as to resist splaying of the arms 7062 when the closure structure 7018 is advanced into the channel 7064, the flange form illustrated herein as described more fully in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689 is preferred in some embodiments due to the added strength provided by such flange form that beneficially cooperates with and counters any reduction in receiver strength that may occur in some embodiments that have a receiver of reduced profile designed for closely fitting with sleeves or other longitudinal connecting member components. The illustrated closure structure 7018 also includes a top surface 7164 with an internal drive 7166 in the form of an aperture that is illustrated as a star-shaped internal drive such as that sold under the trademark TORX, or may be, for example, a hex drive, or other internal drives such as slotted, tri-wing, spanner, two or more apertures of various shapes, and the like. A driving tool (not shown) sized and shaped for engagement with the internal drive 7166 is used for both rotatable engagement and, if needed, disengagement of the closure 7018 from the receiver arms 7062. It is also foreseen that the closure structure 7018 may alternatively include a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 70 to 140 inch pounds. Such a closure structure would also include a base having an internal drive to be used for closure removal. A base or bottom surface 7168 of the closure is planar and further includes a point 7169 and a rim 7170 for engagement and penetration into the surface 7022 of the rod 7021 in certain embodiments of the invention. The closure top 7018 may further include a cannulation through bore (not shown) extending along a central axis thereof and through the top and bottom surfaces thereof. Such a through bore provides a passage through the closure 7018 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for insertion of the closure top into the receiver arms 7062. Preferably, the receiver 7010 and the retainer 7012 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainer spring tabs 7118 toward one another. In some circumstances, the shank 7004 is also assembled with the receiver 7010 and the retainer 7012 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 7004, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver and retainer at the insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 7004, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. In other instances, it is desirable for the surgical staff to pre-assemble a shank of a desired size with the receiver, retainer and compression insert. Allowing the surgeon to choose the appropriately sized shank advantageously reduces inventory requirements, thus reducing overall cost. Pre-assembly of the receiver 10 and the retainer 7012 is shown in FIGS. 321-329. With particular reference to FIG. 321, first the retainer 7012 is inserted into the upper receiver opening 7066, leading with one of the spring tabs 7118 with both of the spring tab top surfaces 7122 facing one arm 7062 and the retainer bottom surface 7124 facing the opposing arm 7062. The retainer 7012 is then lowered in such sideways manner into the channel 7064 and partially into the receiver cavity 7061, followed by tilting the retainer 7212 such that the top surface 7122 and thereafter the outer tab or wing 7140 of the leading spring tab 7118 is moved into a nearby receiver arm through bore 7078 as shown in FIGS. 322 and 323. With reference to FIGS. 323-326, the retainer 7012 is then further tilted or turned and manipulated within the receiver to a position within the cavity until the retainer 7012 bottom surface 7124 is directed toward the receiver cavity 7061 and the spring tab upper surfaces 7122 are facing upwardly toward the receiver channel opening 7066. To accomplish such tilting and turning of the retainer 7012, the spring tab arm 7118 located within the receiver bore 7078 is manipulated downwardly and then upwardly within the bore 7078 and finally shifted out of the bore 7078 when the opposed spring tab arm 7118 outer tab or wing 7140 moves past and clears the cylindrical surface 7084 of the receiver 7010 as shown in FIG. 326. Once the retainer bottom surface 7124 seats on the receiver surface 7104, both of the spring tab wings 7140 are partially located in opposed receiver bores 7078. With reference to FIGS. 328 and 329, a tool (not shown) is then used to grip the spring tab arms 7118 at outer surfaces thereof and squeeze or press the tabs 7118 toward one another while moving the retainer 7012 in an upward direction away from the surface 7104. When the spring tab wing surfaces 7122 abut against the surface 7090, the tool (not shown) is released and a portion or portions of each spring tab 7118 curved outer surface 7142 spring out to engage the cylindrical surface 7089 that defines a portion of the receiver recess or aperture 7088. With reference to FIG. 329, the retainer 7012 is now in a desired position for assembly with the shank 7004 with th retainer body 7116 located near and centrally within the cylindrical surface 7099. Typically, the receiver and retainer combination are shipped or otherwise provided to the end user with the spring tab outer wings 7140 wedged against the receiver as shown in FIG. 329. The receiver 7010 and the retainer 7012 combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 7004 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 7004 as will be described herein. As illustrated in FIG. 337, the bone screw shank 7004 or an entire assembly 7001 made up of the assembled shank 7004, receiver 7010 and retainer 7012 is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 7017, by rotation of the shank 7004 using a suitable driving tool (not shown) that operably drives and rotates the shank body 7006 by engagement thereof at the drive feature 7042. Specifically, the vertebra 7017 may be pre-drilled to minimize stressing the bone and have a guide wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for the placement and angle of the shank 7004 with respect to the vertebra. A further tap hole may be made using a tap with the guide wire as a guide. Then, the bone screw shank 7004 or the assembly 7001 is threaded onto the guide wire utilizing the cannulation bore 7050 by first threading the wire into the opening at the bottom 7028 and then out of the top opening at the drive feature 7042. The shank 7004 is then driven into the vertebra using the wire as a placement guide. It is foreseen that the shank and other bone screw assembly parts, the rod 7021 (also having a central lumen in some embodiments) and the closure top 7018 (also with a central bore) can be inserted in a percutaneous or minimally invasive surgical manner, utilizing guide wires. When the shank 7004 is driven into the vertebra 7017 without the remainder of the assembly 7001, the shank 7004 may either be driven to a desired final location or may be driven to a location slightly above or proud to provide for ease in assembly with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer. With reference to FIGS. 330 and 337, the pre-assembled receiver and retainer is placed above the shank upper portion 708 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 7110. As shown in these two figures, the receiver may be snapped or popped on to the shank with the shank and receiver axes aligned or at an angle with respect to one another. With particular reference to FIGS. 331-332, as the shank is moved into the interior of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 7008 presses upwardly against the retainer 7012, the engagement of the retainer spring tabs with the receiver surfaces 7090 keeping the retainer body 7116 in the space defined by the cylindrical surface 7099. As the retainer 7012 presses up against the surface 7090, the shank upper portion 7008 forces outward movement of the retainer body 7116 towards the cylindrical surface 7099 defining the receiver expansion recess as the spherical surface 7034 continues in an upward direction. With reference to FIG. 331, the spring tabs 7118 may bow outwardly as the retainer body 7116 expands. The retainer 7012 body 7116 then begins to contract about the spherical surface 7034 as the center of the sphere passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion recess defined by the surface 7099. At this time also, the spherical surface 7034 engages the spherical surfaces 7132 of the retainer flex fingers 7117, the fingers 7117 also prohibiting further upward movement of the shank 7004 into the channel 7064. The frictional engagement between the surface 7034 and the surfaces 7132 provide for a desired friction fit between such components that is snug or close, but not locked. Furthermore, the position of the spring tab outer wings 7140 within the receiver recesses 7088 prohibits rotation of the now coupled retainer 7012 and shank 7004 about the receiver axis B which might otherwise occur if the retainer 7012 was equipped with flex fingers 7117 but not the upwardly and outwardly extending spring tabs 7118. With reference to FIGS. 333-335, the shank 7004 and attached retainer 7012 are then moved down into a final operative position by either an upward pull on the receiver 7010 or a downward pull on the shank, and/or, in some cases, by driving the shank 7004 further into the vertebra 7017. As best shown in FIG. 335, such movements snaps the retainer 7012 into place with the wings 7140 moving outwardly and being ultimately located in opposed bores 7078 of the receiver 7010 directly beneath the arched surfaces 7080, the spring tabs 7118 now in a neutral position with the receiver surface 7080 prohibiting upward movement of the retainer 7012 and attached shank 7004 within the receiver 7010. Furthermore, capture of the spring tab portions 7140 within the opposed receiver bores 7078 prevent rotation (about the axis B) of the retainer 7012 and shank 7004 combination with respect to the receiver 7010. The shank body 7006 may now only be manipulated (pivoted and rotated) in a non-floppy manner with respect to the receiver 7010. As also illustrated in FIG. 335, the retainer body 7116 is now seated on the receiver surface 7104. However, there is still space between the outer surface of the retainer body 7116 and the cylindrical surface 7101 of the receiver to allow for expansion locking of the retainer 7012 with respect to the receiver 7010 surface 7101 when a downward force is placed upon a rod or other captured connecting member as shown, for example, in FIG. 336. In some embodiments, when the receiver 7010 is pre-assembled with the shank 7004, the entire assembly 7001 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool (not shown) into the receiver and the shank drive 7042 and rotating and driving the shank 7004 into a desired location of the vertebra 7017. With reference to FIGS. 336, 338 and 339, the rod 7021 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 7001. The closure structure 7018 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 7062 of each of the receivers 7010. The closure structure 7018 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 7166 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 7021 engages the curved top surface 7040 of the shank 7004, pressing the shank upper portion 7008 into locked frictional engagement with the retainer 7012. Specifically, as the closure structure 7018 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 7010, the point 7169 and rim 7170 engage and penetrate the rod surface 7022, the closure structure 7018 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 7021 into compressive engagement with the shank upper surface 7040 that urges the shank upper portion 7008 toward the retainer 7012 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 7012 frictionally abutting the surface 7104 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 7101. For example, about 7080 to about 7120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 7006 with respect to the receiver 7010. It is noted that at this time, the retainer flex finger 7117 inner spherical surfaces 7132 may pull away from the shank spherical surface 7034 as shown in FIG. 336. As the final locking of the shank 7004 with respect to the receiver 7010 has now been accomplished, such a pulling away of the retainer fingers from the shank upper portion 7008 is of no consequence. The non-floppy, friction fit relationship between the retainer flex fingers 7117 and the shank surface 7034 is a temporary, advantageous engagement providing bone anchor stability and maneuverability during the bone anchor implantation and rod placement process. If removal of the rod 7021 from any of the bone screw assemblies 7001 is necessary, or if it is desired to release the rod 7021 at a particular location, disassembly is accomplished by using the driving tool (not shown) that mates with the internal drive 7166 on the closure structure 7018 to rotate and remove such closure structure from the cooperating receiver 7010. Disassembly is then accomplished in reverse order to the procedure described previously herein for assembly. With particular reference to FIGS. 340-385 the reference number 8001 generally represents a polyaxial bone screw apparatus or assembly according to the present invention. The assembly 8001 includes a shank 8004, that further includes a body 8006 integral with an upwardly extending upper portion or head-like capture structure 8008; a receiver 8010; and a lower retainer structure illustrated as a resilient open ring-like structure 8012. The receiver 8010 and retainer structure 8012 are initially assembled and may be further assembled with the shank 8004 either prior or subsequent to implantation of the shank body 8006 into a vertebra 8017, as will be described in greater detail below. FIG. 340 further shows a closure structure 8018 for capturing a longitudinal connecting member, for example, a rod 8021 which in turn presses against the shank upper portion 8008 into fixed frictional contact with the lower retainer 8012, so as to capture, and fix the longitudinal connecting member 8021 within the receiver 8010 and thus fix the member 8021 relative to the vertebra 8017. The illustrated rod 8021 is hard, stiff, non-elastic and cylindrical, having an outer cylindrical surface 8022. It is foreseen that in other embodiments, the rod 8021 may be elastic, deformable and/or of a different cross-sectional geometry. Furthermore, the assembly 8001 may cooperate with longitudinal connecting members that include sleeves. The receiver 8010 and the shank 8004 cooperate in such a manner that the receiver 8010 and the shank 8004 can be secured at any of a plurality of angles, articulations or rotational alignments relative to one another and within a selected range of angles both from side to side and from front to rear, to enable flexible or articulated engagement of the receiver 8010 with the shank 8004 until both are locked or fixed relative to each other near the end of an implantation procedure. The shank 8004 is substantially similar to the shank 6004 previously described herein with respect to the assembly 6001. Thus, the shank 8004 includes the shank body 8006, upper portion or head 8008, a shank thread 8024, a neck 8026, a tip 8028, a top of thread 8032, an upper portion spherical surface 8034 a top surface 8040, a drive feature 8042 and a cannulation bore 8050 the same or substantially similar to the respective body 6006, upper portion or head 6008, shank thread 6024, neck 6026, tip 6028, top of thread 6032, spherical surface 6034, domed top surface 6040, drive feature 6042 and cannulation bore 6050 previously described herein with respect to the shank 6004 of the assembly 6001. To provide a biologically active interface with the bone, the threaded shank body 8006 may be coated, perforated, made porous or otherwise treated as previously discussed herein with respect to the shank body 6 of the assembly 1. With particular reference to FIGS. 340 and 349-353, the receiver 8010 has a generally cylindrical and U-shaped appearance. The receiver 8010 has an axis of rotation B that is shown in FIG. 340 as being aligned with and the same as the axis of rotation A of the shank 8004, such orientation being desirable, but not required during assembly of the receiver 8010 with the shank 8004, as shown, for example, in FIG. 370. After the receiver 8010 is pivotally attached to the shank 8004, either before or after the shank 8004 is implanted in a vertebra 8017, the axis B is typically disposed at an angle with respect to the axis A, as shown, for example, in FIG. 382. The receiver 8010 includes a substantially cylindrical base 8060 defining a bore or inner cavity, generally 8061, the base 8060 being integral with a pair of opposed upstanding arms 8062 forming a cradle and defining a channel 8064 between the arms 8062 with an upper opening, generally 8066, and a lower channel portion including a partially planar and partially U-shaped lower seat 8068, as well as pairs of opposed, facing substantially planar perimeter surfaces extending upwardly from either side of the u-shaped seat 8068, the channel 8064 having a width between the opposed surfaces 8069 for operably snugly receiving the insert 8014 and the rod 8021 or portion of another longitudinal connector between the arms 8062, the channel 8064 communicating with the base cavity 8061. Each of the arms 8062 has a pair of perimeter surfaces 8069 and an interior surface, generally 8070 located therebetween, the surface 8070 including various inner concave and substantially cylindrical profiles, an upper one of which is a partial helically wound guide and advancement structure 8072 located adjacent top surfaces 8073 of each of the arms 8062. In the illustrated embodiment, the guide and advancement structure 8072 is a partial helically wound interlocking flangeform configured to mate under rotation with a similar structure on the closure structure 8018, as described more fully below. However, it is foreseen that for certain embodiments of the invention, the guide and advancement structure 8072 could alternatively be a square-shaped thread, a buttress thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread-like or non-thread-like helically wound discontinuous advancement structures, such as a flange form, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 8018 downward between the arms 8062, as well as eventual torquing when the closure structure 8018 abuts against the rod 8021 or other longitudinal connecting member. It is foreseen that the arms could have break-off extensions. An opposed pair of upper tool receiving and engaging apertures or grooves 8074 are formed on outer surfaces 8076 of the arms 8062. It is foreseen that tool receiving grooves or apertures may be configured in a variety of shapes and sizes and be disposed at other locations on the receiver arms 8062. Located directly below the apertures are another pair of tool receiving and engaging apertures or through bores, generally 8078, that are illustrated as having a keyhole shape, and extend from the surfaces 8076 to the inner surfaces 8070. The through bores 8078 each have a substantially planar bottom surface 8079 and keyhole-like curved side surfaces 8080 and an upper arched surface 8081. It is foreseen that other geometries are possible. As will be described in greater detail below, the through bores 8078 are sized and shaped to provide clearance within the receiver 8010 for down-loading the retainer 8012 from the receiver upper opening 8066 and between the interior surfaces 8070 of the arms 8062 and into the receiver cavity 8061. The bores 8078 also provide access into the receiver 8010 for manipulating the retainer 8012 and/or the insert 8014 during and after assembly. Returning to the interior surface 8070 of the receiver arms 8062, located below each guide and advancement structure 8072 is a run-out feature for the guide and advancement structure 8072 partially defined by a discontinuous cylindrical surface 8082 having a diameter approximately the same or slightly greater than a greater diameter of the guide and advancement structure 8072. Below the surface 8082, moving in a direction toward the base 8060, is another cylindrical surface 8084 having a diameter smaller than the diameter of the surface 8082 and illustrated as slightly greater than an inner or lesser diameter of the guide and advancement structure 8072. The surface 8084 is also discontinuous, being formed only at the arms 8062. Located between each of the surfaces 8082 and 8084 is a discontinuous annular surface 8085 running substantially perpendicular to the axis B. Formed in each of the surfaces 8084 are curved recesses or apertures, generally 8088, each partially formed by a cylindrical surface 8089 and arched surfaces 8090 extending from the surface 8089 to the surface 8084. The recesses 8088 are located adjacent to and at either side of the respective through bore 8078, the upper arched portion 8081 of the bore 8078 also being formed in and through the surface 8084. The surfaces forming the recesses 8088 cooperate with the retainer 8012 during assembly with the receiver 8010 and the shank 8004, allowing the resilient retainer 8012 to be temporarily retained in an upper portion of the receiver as will be described in greater detail below. Returning to the substantially planar peripheral surfaces 8069, each arm 8062 includes a pair of projecting ridges or stops 8092, located on each surface 8069, for a total of four stops 8092 that are located near the annular surface 8085 and are spaced from the cylindrical surface 8084. The stops 8092 of one arm 8062 face the opposing pair of stops 8092 on the other arm 8062, each stop 8092 projecting outwardly from the respective planar surface 8069. The illustrated stops 8092 are elongate, running from arm outside or edge surfaces 8094 toward the respective cylindrical surface 8084 in a direction perpendicular to the axis B. As will be described in greater detail below, the stops 8092 cooperate with surfaces of the insert 8014 to retain the insert 8014 within the channel 8064 of the receiver 8010. In the illustrated embodiment, at a location below the stops 8092, each arm includes a curved surface 8095 connecting each substantially planar surface 8069 with the U-shaped seat 8068, an edge 8096 forming a juncture of the curved surface 8095 and the U-shaped seat 8068. As will be described in greater detail below and is shown in FIGS. 374-379, for example, when the insert 8014 is positioned in the receiver channel 8064 between the surfaces 8069 and below the stops 8092, the insert 8014 initially typically rests or seats at or near the surface 8095 and the edge 8096 and is later pressed along and below the edge 8096 and into the seat 8068 into frictional, locking engagement with the receiver 8010. Returning to FIGS. 349-353, the surface 8084 terminates at a lower ledge 8098 that runs radially outwardly from the surface 8084 to another cylindrical surface 8099. The ledge 8098 is substantially perpendicular to the axis B and located adjacent the curved surfaces 8095 that partially form the edges 8096. The cylindrical surface 8099 is partially discontinuous at the arms 8062 and also extends downwardly into the base 8060, defining a continuous upper cylindrical portion of the base cavity 8061. Each bore 8078 is substantially formed in the surface 8099 (with the exception of the upper arched portion 8081 that is formed in the surface 8084), the bore 8078 extending outwardly to the arm surface 8076. The cylindrical surface 8099 is oriented substantially parallel to the axis B and is sized and shaped to receive an expanded retainer 8012. The surfaces 8098 and 8099 define a circumferential recess that is sized and shaped to receive a portion of the retainer 8012 as it expands around the shank upper portion 8008 at the surface 8034 as the shank 8008 moves upwardly toward the channel 8064 during assembly. A cylindrical surface 8101 located below the cylindrical surface 8099 is sized and shaped to closely receive the retainer 8012 when the retainer is in a neutral or slightly expanded position as will be described in greater detail below. Thus, the cylindrical surface 80101 has a diameter smaller than the diameter of the cylindrical surface 8099 that defines the expansion area for receiving the retainer 8012. The surface 8101 is joined or connected to the surface 8099 by one or more beveled, curved or frusto-conical surfaces 8102. The surfaces 8102 allow for sliding gradual movement of the retainer 8012 into the space defined by the surface 8101 and ultimate seating of the retainer 8012 on a lower annular surface 8104 located below and adjacent to the cylindrical surface 8101. Located below and adjacent to the annular seating surface 8104 is a circular edge or narrow substantially cylindrical surface 8106 that communicates with a beveled or flared bottom opening surface 8107, the surface 8107 communicating with an exterior base surface 8108 of the base 8060, defining a lower opening, generally 8110, into the base cavity 8061 of the receiver 8010. With particular reference to FIGS. 340 and 343-348, the open, friction fit retainer 8012 that operates to capture and frictionally engage the shank upper portion 8008 within the receiver 8010 has a central axis that is operationally the same as the axis B associated with the receiver 8010 when the shank upper portion 8008 and the retainer 8012 are installed within the receiver 8010. The retainer 8012 includes a substantially cylindrical discontinuous lower body 8116, a plurality of flex fingers or panels, 8117 extending upwardly from the body 116 and a pair of opposed spring arms or tabs 8118, also extending upwardly from the body 8116. The retainer ring 8012 is made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that the retainer 8012 body 8116 may be expanded and the fingers and tabs (8117 and 8118) of the retainer may be manipulated during various steps of assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The retainer 8012 has a central channel or hollow through bore, generally 8121, that passes entirely through the retainer 8012 from curved retainer arm or tab 8118 top surfaces 8122 to a bottom surface 8124 of the retainer body 8116. Surfaces that define the channel or bore 8121 include an inner lower frusto-conical surface 8128 adjacent to the retainer body bottom surface 8124, a substantially cylindrical surface 8130 adjacent the frusto-conical surface 8128 and a partially discontinuous substantially spherical surface 8132 adjacent the surface 8130, the surface 8132 being continuous near the cylindrical surface 8130 with the exception of a through slot or slit, generally 8134. The surface 8132 is in a plurality of segments or pieces at the flex fingers 8117 wherein a plurality of substantially evenly spaced slots 8136 running outwardly and upwardly through an upper surface 8137 separate the surface 8132 into the individual flex fingers 8117. In the illustrated embodiment, the slots 8136 and the through slit 8134 form six substantially uniform flex fingers or tabs 8117 as well as partially define the two spring tabs 8118, each finger and tab having the inner spherical surface 8132. It is foreseen that more or fewer flex fingers may be made by the forming of more or fewer slots 8136. The discontinuous spherical surface 8132 is sized and shaped to closely fit about and snap onto the shank surface 8034 during assembly as will be described in greater detail below. The surface 8132 may have a radius the same, slightly larger or slightly smaller than the radius of the spherical shank surface 8034. The surface 8132 and/or the shank surface 8034 may include a surface treatment for enhancing friction between such surfaces. In some embodiments, the flexible tabs 8117 may be bent to further enhance frictional engagement. In other embodiments, some or all of the spherical surface 8132 may be replaced by planar or faceted surfaces. In operation, the discontinuous surface 8132 advantageously frictionally engages the bone screw shank upper portion 8008, allowing for un-locked but non-floppy placement of the angle of the shank 8004 with respect to the receiver 8010 during surgery prior to locking of the shank 8004 with respect to the receiver 8010 near the end of the procedure. At the time of locking engagement, downward and outward force placed on the retainer 8012 by the shank upper portion 8008 expands the retainer body 8116 at the slit 8134 and the individual flex fingers 8117 no longer frictionally grip the spherical surface 8034 of the upper portion 8008. In some embodiments, to aid in bending flexibility and resiliency, certain flex fingers 8117 may have sloping outer surfaces (not shown) that reduce a width of, or substantially eliminate the top planar surface 8137. It is foreseen that in other embodiments of the invention other surface geometries may be used to gain a level of resiliency desired for expansion and gripping of the fingers 8117 about the shank upper portion 8008. It is noted that the fingers 8117 that are directed generally upwardly toward the receiver channel 8064 advantageously sufficiently snap about and then grip the shank surface 8034 to an extent to provide the friction fit desired for non-floppy placement of the shank body 8006 at a desired angle with respect to the receiver 8010 during manipulation of the bone screws 8001 and the rod 8021 or other longitudinal connecting member during surgery. However, as compared to bone screw inserts such as collets known in the art that include downwardly directed portions or panels that are ultimately wedged between a receiver surface and a shank surface upon final locking of the shank to the receiver, the thin upwardly directed fingers 8117 that extend away from the shank locking surface that are not as strong as the retainer body 8116, do not participate or cooperate with the final locking of the shank upper portion 8008 to the retainer 8012 and the retainer 8012 to the receiver inner surfaces 8101 and 8104. For such purpose, the more substantial retainer body 8116 having only the very narrow slit 8134, used for expansion purposes only, is the component that locks the shank upper portion 8008 between the receiver 8010 and the rod 8021 or other longitudinal connecting member. The retainer body 8116, the flex fingers 8117 and a substantial part of each of the spring tabs 8118 have an outer substantially cylindrical profile, sized and shaped to closely and slidingly fit within the receiver cavity 8061 with the exception of outward extensions or wings, generally 8140, of the spring tabs 8118 that are located adjacent to the upper surfaces 8122, each wing extending outwardly away from the respective tab body 8118 and having a curved outward surface 8142 that is substantially cylindrical with a curved or frusto-conical lower portion, the surfaces 8142 being sized and shaped to closely cooperate and frictionally engage the cylindrical surface 8089 of the receiver recess 8088. Each spring tab 8118 further includes first and second inner planar surfaces 8144 and 8145, the surface 8144 running from the curved top surface 8122 to the surface 8145 and the surface 8145 running from the surface 8144 to the inner spherical surface 8132. It is foreseen that in other embodiments of the invention, fewer or greater number of planar or other surfaces with other geometries may extend between the top surface 8122 and the spherical surface 8132. The through slit 8134 of the resilient retainer 8012 is defined by first and second end surfaces, 8146 and 8147 disposed in spaced relation to one another (they may also be touching) when the retainer is in a neutral state. Both end surfaces 8146 and 8147 are disposed substantially perpendicular to the bottom surface 8124. A width X between the surfaces 8146 and 8147 is very narrow, in some embodiments of about or less than 0.004 inches, the narrow slit functioning to provide stability to the retainer 8012 during operation, specifically retention of the shank upper portion 8008 within the receiver 8010 that must withstand extreme pressure both during assembly and subsequent patient movement. The slit 8134 may be made, for example, by an electrical discharge machining (EDM) process with the resulting surfaces 8146 and 8147 almost touching. Because the retainer 8012 is top loadable in a neutral state and the retainer 8012 does not need to be compressed to fit within the receiver cavity 8061, the width X may be much smaller than what is often required for a bottom loaded compressible retainer ring. The gap X functions only in expansion to allow the retainer 8012 to expand about the shank upper portion 8 both during assembly and during locking of the polyaxial mechanism. The narrow gap X provides for a stronger retainer that has more surface contact with the shank upper portion 8008 upon locking, resulting in a sturdier connection with less likelihood of failure than a retainer ring having a greater gap. Furthermore, because the retainer 8012 body 8116 is only expanded and not compressed, the retainer 8012 does not undergo the mechanical stress that typically is placed on spring ring type retainers that may be both compressed and expanded more than once during assembly and locking. It is foreseen that in some embodiments of the invention, the retainer 8012 inner surfaces may include a roughening or additional material to increase the friction fit against the shank upper portion 8008 prior to lock down by the rod 8021 or other longitudinal connecting member. Also, the embodiment shown in FIGS. 343-348 illustrates the surfaces 8146 and 8147 as substantially parallel, however, it is foreseen that it may be desirable to orient the surfaces obliquely or at a slight angle. With particular reference to FIGS. 340 and 354-361, the lock and release insert 8014 is illustrated that is sized and shaped to be received by and down-loaded into the receiver 8010 at the upper opening 8066. The insert 8014 has an operational central axis that is the same as the central axis B of the receiver 8010. In operation, an insert 8014 that has been pressed downwardly during the locking of the shank 8004 in a desired angular position with respect to the receiver 8010, by, for example, compression from the rod 8021 and closure top 8018, is wedged into engagement with the receiver 8010 at outer edge surfaces of the receiver arms, the insert retaining the shank 8006 in a locked position even if the rod 8021 and closure top 8018 are removed as shown in FIG. 383. Such locked position may also be released by the surgeon if desired. The insert 8014 is thus preferably made from a resilient material, such as a stainless steel or titanium alloy, so that portions of the insert may be pinched and un-wedged from the receiver 8010. The insert 8014 includes a substantially U-shaped body 8150 having opposed ends, generally 8151, the body 8150 being sized and shaped to extend completely through the U-shaped channel 8064 between the opposed outer surfaces 8094 of the arms 8062 so as to cooperate with the receiver arm outer side surfaces 8069, the stops 8092, and the insert wedging edge surfaces 8096 formed by each curved surface 8095 and the channel seat 8068. A U-shaped channel surface or saddle 8153 formed in the body 8150 also extends between the insert ends 8151 and when the insert 8014 is assembled with the receiver 8010, the saddle 8153 substantially aligns with the receiver channel 8064. The saddle 8153 is formed by the insert body 8150 and by two upstanding arms 8157 and is sized and shaped to closely receive the rod 8021 or other longitudinal connecting member. A bore, generally 8160, is disposed primarily within and through the insert body 8156 that runs along the axis B and communicates with the U-shaped channel formed by the saddle 8153 and upstanding arms 8157. The bore 8160 is sized and shaped to provide space and clearance for the shank head portion 8040 to extend therethrough so that a rod 8021 or other connecting member seated on the saddle 8153 also directly frictionally engages the spherical surface 8040. The bore 8160 is also sized such that in any angular position of the shank 8004 with respect to the receiver 8010, the spherical surface 8040 does not directly engage the insert 8014, but rather is in contact with the rod 8021 or other longitudinal connecting member. As best shown in FIGS. 381 and 382, when the shank 8004 is locked in any angular position by the rod 8021, the insert 8014 contacts the shank 8004 at the spherical surface 8034 and not the spherical surface 8040. It is foreseen that an alternative insert embodiment may be configured to include planar holding surfaces that closely hold a square or rectangular bar as well as hold a cylindrical rod-shaped, cord, or sleeved cord longitudinal connecting member. The arms 8157 disposed on either side of the saddle 8153 and extend upwardly therefrom are sized and configured for ultimate placement above the retainer spring tabs 8118 and beneath the cylindrical run-out surface 8082 located below the receiver guide and advancement structure 8072. The arms 8157 include outer curved, convex surfaces 8163 that is illustrated as partially cylindrical and curved top surfaces 8164 that are ultimately positioned in spaced relation with the closure top 8018, so that the closure top 8018 frictionally engages the rod 8021 only, pressing the rod 8021 downwardly against both the shank top surface 8040 and the insert saddle 8153, the shank 8004 upper portion 8008 then pressing against the retainer 8012 to lock the polyaxial mechanism of the bone screw assembly 8001 at a desired angle. The partially cylindrical surface 8163 extends from the top surface 8164 to a bottom surface 8165 of the insert 8014. The surface 8163 is sized and shaped to generally fit within the receiver surface 8084. Formed in each surface 8163 and extending through the saddle 8153 surface is a through bore 8166, the bore 8166 used for manipulation and removal of the insert 8014 from the receiver through the receiver bore 8074. A recessed surface portion 8167 located beneath each bore 8166 is sized and shaped to receive the curved upper surface 8122 of a wing 8140 of a retainer 8012 spring tab 8118. A portion of the recessed portion 8167 extends completely through the insert 8014 and is defined by a lower notched surface 8169. The recessed portion 8167 is further defined by an upper arched surface 8170 that communicates with the bore 8166 and a flat or slightly convex surface 8171 that extends from the arched surface 8170 to the lower notched surface 8169. The insert 8014 extends from the substantially cylindrical outer arms surfaces 8163 equally outwardly to each end 8151. Substantially planar outer side surfaces 8172 extend from each arm surface 8163 to a substantially planar surface 8174 disposed perpendicular thereto, the surfaces 8174 substantially defining each of the ends 8151. Also, adjacent to the side surfaces 8172, substantially planar upper surfaces 8175 run from the arms 8157 to the end surface 8174. A recess, generally 8176, is located directly beneath the side surfaces 8172 and is also formed in each end surface 8174. Each recess 8176 extends all the way from the end surface 8174 to the arm surface 8163 and is substantially defined by a substantially planar tapering surface 8177 and an upper lip 8178. Pairs of opposed surfaces 8177 are sized and shaped to wedge against and between opposed surfaces 8068 forming the seat of the receiver channel 8064 to lock the insert 8014 against the receiver 8012 and thus lock the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly 8001 as best shown in FIGS. 378 and 379, for example. Portions of the surfaces 8177 and respective adjacent end surfaces 8174 terminate at a lower surface 8179 that curves or tapers downwardly to the base rim 8165. Further cut-outs, tapers or bevels may be made to the surfaces to provide adequate clearance and ease of manipulation of the insert 8014 within the receiver 8010, such as the angular surfaces 8179′ running from the surface 179 to each of the surfaces 8177. The insert bore, generally 8160, is substantially defined at the body 8150 by an inner cylindrical surface 8180 that communicates with the saddle 8153 and a lower concave substantially spherical surface 8181 having a radius the same or substantially similar to a radius of the surface 8034 of the shank upper portion 8008. The surface 8181 terminates at the base 8165 and the lower notched surface 8169. The through bore 8160 is not completely cylindrical at the saddle surface 8153, with portions of the bore extending outwardly towards each end 8151 to provide more than adequate clearance for the shank upper portion surface 8040 to fully and directly engage the rod 8021 or other longitudinal connecting member at any and all angular positions of the shank 8004 with respect to the receiver 8010. The bore 8160 is also sized and shaped to receive the driving tool (not shown) therethrough that engages the shank drive feature when the shank body 8006 is driven into bone with the receiver 8010 attached. Also, the bore 8160 receives a manipulation tool (not shown) used for releasing the insert 8014 from a locked position with the receiver, the tool pressing down on the shank and also gripping the insert 8014 at the opposed through bores 8166 or with other tool engaging features. A manipulation tool for un-wedging the insert 8014 from the receiver 8010 may also access the bores 8166 from the receiver through bores 8074. The illustrated insert 8014 may further include other features, including grooves and recesses for manipulating and holding the insert 8014 within the receiver 8010 and providing adequate clearance between the retainer 8012 and the insert 8014. As will be discussed in greater detail below, frictional engagement between the insert 8014 and the receiver 8010, more particularly, the wedging of the tapered surfaces 8177 into the edge 8096 defined by the seat surfaces 8068, provides independent locking of the polyaxial mechanism of the assembly 8001, maintaining the upper shank portion 8008 in locked engagement by and between the retainer 8012 and the insert 8014 even if the closure top 8018 and/or rod 8021 are thereafter removed from the receiver 8010. With reference to FIGS. 340 and 377-382, the illustrated elongate rod or longitudinal connecting member 8021 (of which only a portion has been shown) can be any of a variety of implants utilized in reconstructive spinal surgery, but is typically a cylindrical, elongate structure having the outer substantially smooth, cylindrical surface 8022 of uniform diameter. The rod 8021 may be made from a variety of metals, metal alloys and deformable and less compressible plastics, including, but not limited to rods made of elastomeric, polyetheretherketone (PEEK) and other types of materials, such as polycarbonate urethanes (PCU). Longitudinal connecting members for use with the assembly 1 may take a variety of shapes, including but not limited to rods or bars of oval, rectangular or other curved or polygonal cross-section. The shape of the insert 8014 may be modified so as to closely hold the particular longitudinal connecting member used in the assembly 8001. Some embodiments of the assembly 8001 may also be used with a tensioned cord. Such a cord may be made from a variety of materials, including polyester or other plastic fibers, strands or threads, such as polyethylene-terephthalate. Furthermore, the longitudinal connector may be a component of a longer overall dynamic stabilization connecting member, with cylindrical or bar-shaped portions sized and shaped for being received by the compression insert 8014 of the receiver having a U-shaped, rectangular- or other-shaped channel, for closely receiving the longitudinal connecting member. The longitudinal connecting member may be integral or otherwise fixed to a bendable or damping component that is sized and shaped to be located between adjacent pairs of bone screw assemblies 8001, for example. A damping component or bumper may be attached to the longitudinal connecting member at one or both sides of the bone screw assembly 8001. A rod or bar (or rod or bar component) of a longitudinal connecting member may be made of a variety of materials ranging from deformable plastics to hard metals, depending upon the desired application. Thus, bars and rods of the invention may be made of materials including, but not limited to metal and metal alloys including but not limited to stainless steel, titanium, titanium alloys and cobalt chrome; or other suitable materials, including plastic polymers such as polyetheretherketone (PEEK), ultra-high-molecular weight-polyethylene (UHMWP), polyurethanes and composites, including composites containing carbon fiber, natural or synthetic elastomers such as polyisoprene (natural rubber), and synthetic polymers, copolymers, and thermoplastic elastomers, for example, polyurethane elastomers such as polycarbonate-urethane elastomers. With reference to FIGS. 340 and 377-382, the closure structure or closure top 18 shown with the assembly 8001 is rotatably received between the spaced arms 8062 of the receiver 8010. It is noted that the closure 8018 top could be a twist-in or slide-in closure structure. The illustrated closure structure 8018 is substantially cylindrical and includes a an outer helically wound guide and advancement structure 8182 in the form of a flange that operably joins with the guide and advancement structure 8072 disposed on the arms 8062 of the receiver 8010. The flange form utilized in accordance with the present invention may take a variety of forms, including those described in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689, which is incorporated herein by reference. Although it is foreseen that the closure structure guide and advancement structure could alternatively be a buttress thread, a square thread, a reverse angle thread or other thread like or non-thread like helically wound advancement structure, for operably guiding under rotation and advancing the closure structure 8018 downward between the arms 8062 and having such a nature as to resist splaying of the arms 8062 when the closure structure 8018 is advanced into the channel 8064, the flange form illustrated herein as described more fully in Applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 6,726,689 is preferred as the added strength provided by such flange form beneficially cooperates with and counters any reduction in strength caused by the any reduced profile of the receiver 8010 that may more advantageously engage longitudinal connecting member components. The illustrated closure structure 8018 also includes a top surface 184 with an internal drive 8186 in the form of an aperture that is illustrated as a star-shaped internal drive such as that sold under the trademark TORX, or may be, for example, a hex drive, or other internal drives such as slotted, tri-wing, spanner, two or more apertures of various shapes, and the like. A driving tool (not shown) sized and shaped for engagement with the internal drive 8186 is used for both rotatable engagement and, if needed, disengagement of the closure 8018 from the receiver arms 8062. It is also foreseen that the closure structure 80 18 may alternatively include a break-off head designed to allow such a head to break from a base of the closure at a preselected torque, for example, 8070 to 8140 inch pounds. Such a closure structure would also include a base having an internal drive to be used for closure removal. A base or bottom surface 8188 of the closure is planar and further includes a point 8189 and a rim 8190 for engagement and penetration into the surface 8022 of the rod 8021 in certain embodiments of the invention. The closure top 8018 may further include a cannulation through bore (not shown) extending along a central axis thereof and through the top and bottom surfaces thereof. Such a through bore provides a passage through the closure 8018 interior for a length of wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for insertion of the closure top into the receiver arms 8062. An alternative closure top 8018′ for use with a deformable rod 8021′, such as a PEEK rod, is shown in FIGS. 384 and 385. The top 8018′ is identical to the top 8018 with the exception that a point 8189′ is located on a domed surface 8190′ in lieu of the planar bottom with point and rim of the closure top 8018. Preferably, the receiver 8010, the retainer 8012 and the insert 8014 are assembled at a factory setting that includes tooling for holding and alignment of the component pieces and pinching or compressing of the retainer 8012 spring tabs 8118 and manipulating the insert 8014. In some circumstances, the shank 8004 is also assembled with the receiver 8010, the retainer 8012 and the insert 8014 at the factory. In other instances, it is desirable to first implant the shank 8004, followed by addition of the pre-assembled receiver, retainer and insert at the patient's insertion point. In this way, the surgeon may advantageously and more easily implant and manipulate the shanks 8004, distract or compress the vertebrae with the shanks and work around the shank upper portions or heads without the cooperating receivers being in the way. In other instances, it is desirable for the surgical staff to pre-assemble a shank of a desired size and/or variety (e.g., surface treatment of roughening the upper portion 8008 and/or hydroxyapatite on the shank 8006), with the receiver, retainer and compression insert. Allowing the surgeon to choose the appropriately sized or treated shank 8004 advantageously reduces inventory requirements, thus reducing overall cost. Pre-assembly of the receiver 8010, the retainer 8012 and the insert 8014 is shown in FIGS. 362-369. With particular reference to FIG. 362, first the retainer 8012 is inserted into the upper receiver opening 8066, leading with one of the spring tabs 8118 with both of the spring tab top surfaces 8122 facing one arm 8062 and the retainer bottom surface 8124 facing the opposing arm 8062. With reference to FIG. 362 and also FIGS. 363 and 364, the retainer 8012 is then lowered in such sideways manner into the channel 8064 and partially into the receiver cavity 8061, followed by tilting the retainer 8212 such that the top surface 8122 and thereafter the outer tab or wing 8140 of the leading spring tab 8118 is moved into a nearby receiver arm through bore 8078. With reference to FIG. 365, the retainer 8012 is then further tilted or turned and manipulated within the receiver to a position within the cavity until the retainer 8012 bottom surface 8124 is directed toward the receiver cavity 8061 and the spring tab upper surfaces 8122 are facing upwardly toward the receiver channel opening 8066. To accomplish such tilting and turning of the retainer 8012, the spring tab arm 8118 located within the receiver bore 8078 is manipulated downwardly and then upwardly within the bore 8078 and finally shifted out of the bore 8078 when the opposed spring tab arm 8118 outer tab or wing 8140 moves past and clears the cylindrical surface 8084 of the receiver 8010. Once the retainer bottom surface 8124 seats on the receiver surface 8104, both of the spring tab wings 8140 are partially located in opposed receiver bores 8078. With reference to FIGS. 365 and 366, the compression insert 8014 is then downloaded into the receiver 8010 through the upper opening 8066 with the bottom surface 8179 facing the receiver arm top surfaces 8073 and the insert arms 8157 aligned with the receiver arms 8062. The insert 8014 is then lowered toward the channel seat 8068 until the insert 8014 arm upper surfaces 8164 are adjacent the run-out area below the guide and advancement structure 8072 defined in part by the cylindrical surface 8082, with the U-shaped channel or saddle surface 8153 of the insert 8014 aligned with the channel 8064 of the receiver 8010. With reference to FIG. 366, at this time, the side surfaces 8172 at the insert ends 8151 are located above the four stops 8092 located on the receiver inner side surfaces 8069 with the lips 8178 resting on each of the stops 8092. With reference to FIG. 367, the insert 8014 is then pushed downwardly toward the receiver base 8060, the resilient u-shaped saddle 8153 being slightly compressed inwardly until the surfaces 8172 pass over the stops 8092. At this time, the insert 8014 is captured within the receiver 8010 between the stops 8092 and the retainer 8012. With reference to FIGS. 368 and 369, a tool (not shown) is then used to grip the retainer spring tab arms 8118 at outer surfaces thereof and squeeze or press the tabs 8118 toward one another while moving the retainer 8012 in an upward direction away from the receiver surface 8104. With reference to FIG. 369, when the spring tab wing surface projections 8142 face the receiver surface 8089, the tool (not shown) is released and a portion or portions of each spring tab 8118 spring out to engage the surface 8089. The retainer 8012 and the insert 8014 are now in a desired position for shipping and also for assembly with the shank 8004. The insert 8014 recessed areas 8167 are located adjacent to the retainer spring tab top surfaces 8122. The insert 8014 is fully captured within the receiver 8010 by the stops 8092 and the geometry of the insert 8014 that extends fully within the channel 8064 of the receiver 8010 advantageously provides an insert 8014 with a saddle 8153 fully aligned with the receiver channel 8064 that cannot be rotated out of alignment as may occur with known inserts that are substantially cylindrical in form. Typically, the receiver, insert and retainer combination are shipped or otherwise provided to the end user with the spring tab outer wings 8140 wedged against the receiver as shown in FIG. 369. The receiver 8010, retainer 8012 and insert 8014 combination is now pre-assembled and ready for assembly with the shank 8004 either at the factory, by surgery staff prior to implantation, or directly upon an implanted shank 8004 as will be described herein. As illustrated in FIG. 370, the bone screw shank 8004 or an entire assembly 8001 made up of the assembled shank 8004, receiver 8010, retainer 8012 and compression insert 8014, is screwed into a bone, such as the vertebra 8017, by rotation of the shank 8004 using a suitable driving tool (not shown) that operably drives and rotates the shank body 8006 by engagement thereof at the drive 8042. Specifically, the vertebra 8017 may be pre-drilled to minimize stressing the bone and have a guide wire (not shown) inserted therein to provide a guide for the placement and angle of the shank 8004 with respect to the vertebra. A further tap hole may be made using a tap with the guide wire as a guide. Then, the bone screw shank 8004 or the entire assembly 8001 is threaded onto the guide wire utilizing the cannulation bore 8050 by first threading the wire into the opening at the bottom 8028 and then out of the top opening at the drive feature 8042. The shank 8004 is then driven into the vertebra using the wire as a placement guide. It is foreseen that the shank and other bone screw assembly parts, the rod 8021 (also having a central lumen in some embodiments) and the closure top 8018 (also with a central bore) can be inserted in a percutaneous or minimally invasive surgical manner, utilizing guide wires. When the shank 8004 is driven into the vertebra 8017 without the remainder of the assembly 8001, the shank 8004 may either be driven to a desired final location or may be driven to a location slightly above or proud to provide for ease in assembly with the pre-assembled receiver, compression insert and retainer. With further reference to FIG. 370, the pre-assembled receiver, insert and retainer are placed above the shank upper portion 8008 until the shank upper portion is received within the opening 8110. With particular reference to FIGS. 371 and 372, as the shank upper portion 8008 is moved into the interior 8061 of the receiver base, the shank upper portion 8008 presses upwardly against the retainer 8012 in the recess partially defined by the cylindrical surface 8099. As the portion 8008 continues to move upwardly toward the channel 8064, the surface 8034 forces outward movement of the retainer 8012 towards the cylindrical surface 8099 defining the receiver expansion recess. The retainer 8012 begins to contract about the spherical surface 8034 as the center of the sphere (shown in dotted lines) passes beyond the center of the retainer expansion recess. At this time also, the spherical surface 8034 moves into engagement with the surfaces 8132 of the retainer flex tabs 8117, the tabs 8117 expanding slightly outwardly to receive the surface 8034. With reference to FIG. 372, the spherical surface 8034 then enters into full frictional engagement with the panel inner surfaces 8132. At this time, the retainer 8012 panels and the surface 8034 are in a fairly tight friction fit, the surface 8034 being pivotable with respect to the retainer 8012 with some force. Thus, a tight, non-floppy ball and socket joint is now created between the retainer 8012 and the shank upper portion 8. With reference to FIGS. 373 and 374, the shank 8004 and attached retainer 8012 are then moved partially downwardly and then into a fully locked desired position (FIG. 375) with the retainer 8012 bottom surface 8124 seated on the receiver surface 8104. This may be accomplished by either an upward pull on the receiver 8010 or, in some cases, by driving the shank 8004 further into the vertebra 8017. Also with reference to FIGS. 375 and 376, the insert 8014 may be pressed downwardly by a tool (not shown) and/or ultimately by a rod and closure top as shown in FIGS. 377-380. Also, in some embodiments, when the receiver 8010 is pre-assembled with the shank 8004, the entire assembly 8001 may be implanted at this time by inserting the driving tool (not shown) into the receiver and the shank drive 8042 and rotating and driving the shank 8004 into a desired location of the vertebra 8017. With further reference to FIGS. 375 and 376, at this time, the receiver 8010 may be articulated to a desired angular position with respect to the shank 8004, such as that shown in FIG. 382, that will be held, but not locked, by the frictional engagement between the retainer 8012 panels 8117 and the shank upper portion 8008. With particular reference to FIGS. 374-376, prior to assembly with the rod 8021 and the closure top 8018, the compression insert 8014 upper end surfaces 8175 are located directly below the receiver stops 8092 (see FIG. 374) and the sloping or tapering surfaces 8177 are resting on or near the edge 8096 that defines the beginning of the receiver channel seat 8068 that is either substantially vertical or may also have an inward slope. With particular reference to FIGS. 378 and 379, as the closure top and rod press down upon both the shank upper portion 8008 and the insert saddle 8153, the surfaces 8177 of the insert are wedged against the receiver edges 8096, pressing the insert into a full frictional engagement with the receiver 8010. With reference to FIG. 380, at this time, the insert through bores 8166 are aligned with the upper arched portion 81 of the receiver keyhole like through bores 8078. Thus, a tool (not shown) may be used to press inwardly on the insert 8014 at either side thereof at the bores 8166 and pull the insert 8014 upwardly away from the receiver seat 8068 and edge surface 8096. The rod 8021 is eventually positioned in an open or percutaneous manner in cooperation with the at least two bone screw assemblies 8001. The closure structure 8018 is then inserted into and advanced between the arms 8062 of each of the receivers 8010. The closure structure 8018 is rotated, using a tool engaged with the inner drive 8186 until a selected pressure is reached at which point the rod 8021 engages the bone screw shank 8004 at the upper surface 8004 as well as the saddle 8153 of the compression insert 8014, pressing the insert spherical surface 8181 against the shank spherical surface 8034, the rod 8021 pressing the shank upper portion 8008 into locked frictional engagement with the retainer 8012. Specifically, as the closure structure 8018 rotates and moves downwardly into the respective receiver 8010, the point 8189 and rim 8190 engage and penetrate the rod surface 8022, the closure structure 8018 pressing downwardly against and biasing the rod 8021 into direct compressive engagement with the shank upper portion 8008 toward the retainer 8012 and into locking engagement therewith, the retainer 8012 frictionally abutting the surface 8104 and expanding outwardly against the cylindrical surface 8101. For example, about 8080 to about 8120 inch pounds of torque on the closure top may be applied for fixing the bone screw shank 8006 with respect to the receiver 8010. As best shown in FIGS. 381 and 382, as the retainer 8012 expands outwardly against the receiver cylindrical surface 8101, the panels 8117 are pulled away from the shank upper portion 8008, pulling the friction fit surface 8132 away from the spherical surface 8034. This is not of concern at this time as the friction fit feature, temporarily advantageous for articulation and placement of the shanks 8004 with respect to the receivers 8010 during the surgical process, is no longer required. With reference to FIGS. 381 and 382, two different angular configurations of the shank 8004 and receiver 8010 are shown. With respect to both of the drawing figures, the rod 8021 bears down directly on the shank upper surface 8040 when the assembly 8001 is in a locked position. Also, when in a locked position, the insert surface 8181 directly engages a portion of the shank spherical surface 8034. Thus, the closure top 8018 can then be loosened without loosening the lock on the polyaxial mechanism provided by the insert 8014 pressing on the shank surface 8034. With reference to FIGS. 383-385, the rod 8021 and closure 8018 are shown removed at FIG. 383 and replaced by a deformable rod 8021′ and cooperating closure top 8018′ to result in an alternative assembly 8001′. If a user wishes to unlock the insert 8014 from the receiver 8010, a tool (not shown) may be used that includes extensions or prongs that are received by and through the opposed through bores 8078 of the receiver 8010 and received into the through bores 8166 of the insert 8014. Such tool is then pulled upwardly in a direction along the axis B away from the receiver base 8060, thereby pulling the insert slightly upwardly and away from the receiver base 8060 and releasing the surface 8177 from the receiver surface 8096. Alternatively, if both the closure top 8018 or 8018′ and the rod 8021 or 8021′ are already removed from the receiver 8010, another manipulation tool (not shown) may be used that is inserted into the receiver at the opening 8066 and between the insert arms 8157, with prongs or extensions thereof extending outwardly into the insert through bores 8166; a piston-like portion of the tool thereafter pushing directly on the shank upper portion 8008, thereby pulling the insert 8014 surface 8177 away from the receiver surface 8096 and thus releasing the polyaxial mechanism. At such time, the shank 8004 may be articulated with respect to the receiver 8010, and the desired friction fit returns between the retainer 8012 and the shank surface 8034, so that an adjustable, but non-floppy relationship still exists between the shank 8004 and the receiver 8010. If further disassembly if the assembly 8001 is desired, such is accomplished in reverse order to the procedure described previously herein for assembly. With reference to FIGS. 386-394, an alternative polyaxial bone screw 8011″ according to the invention is shown that includes the shank 8004, receiver 8010 retainer 8012, rod 8021 and closure top 8018 of the assembly 8001 previously described herein. An insert 8014′ is included in the assembly 8001″ that is substantially similar to the insert 8014 previously described herein. Thus, the insert 8014′ includes a body 8150′, opposed ends 8151′, a saddle 8153′, upstanding arms 8157′, a through bore 8160′ the same or similar to the respective body 8150, opposed ends 8151, saddle 8153, upstanding arms 8157 and through bore 8160 previously described herein with respect to the insert 8014. The insert 8014′ also includes pairs of side surfaces 8172′, a pair of outer end surfaces 8174′, a recess with tapered surfaces 8177′ and a lip 8178′ located between the surfaces 8177′ and the side surfaces 8172′ that are substantially similar to the respective side surfaces 8172, end surfaces 8174, tapered surfaces 8177 and lip 8178 previously described herein with respect to the insert 8014 with the exception that the surfaces 8177′ are located further inwardly than the similar surfaces 8177 such that the insert 8014′ does not lock up against the receiver edge 8096 when the insert 8014′ is pressed downwardly toward the receiver base 8060. Thus, with particular reference to FIGS. 392-394, when the closure top 18 presses the rod 8021 into direct locking engagement with the shank top surface 8040, the insert surfaces 8177′ move downwardly in spaced relation with the receiver channel seat surfaces 8068 and do not wedge against or otherwise engage the edge surface 8096. When the closure top 8018 is removed from the assembly 8001″, the insert 8014′ loosens also and the polyaxial mechanism is unlocked. As with the assembly 8001, once the shank upper portion 8008 is unlocked from the retainer 8012, the retainer flex panels 8117 resiliently move back into engagement with the shank surface 8034, once again providing a friction fit relationship between the shank upper portion 8008 and the retainer 8012. With reference to FIGS. 395-397, a polyaxial bone screw assembly 8001′″ is shown having the bone screw shank 8004, retainer 8012, rod 8021 and closure top 8018 identical or substantially similar to the assembly 8001 and 8001″ previously described herein. The assembly 8001′″ however, does not include an insert 8014 or 8014′. It is to be understood that while certain forms of the present invention have been illustrated and described herein, it is not to be limited to the specific forms or arrangement of parts described and shown. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The present invention is directed to polyaxial bone screws for use in bone surgery, particularly spinal surgery. Bone screws are utilized in many types of spinal surgery in order to secure various implants to vertebrae along the spinal column for the purpose of stabilizing and/or adjusting spinal alignment. Although both closed-ended and open-ended bone screws are known, open-ended screws are particularly well suited for connections to rods and connector arms, because such rods or arms do not need to be passed through a closed bore, but rather can be laid or urged into an open channel within a receiver or head of such a screw. Typical open-ended bone screws include a threaded shank with a pair of parallel projecting branches or arms which form a yoke with a U-shaped slot or channel to receive a rod. Hooks and other types of connectors, as are used in spinal fixation techniques, may also include open ends for receiving rods or portions of other structure. A common mechanism for providing vertebral support is to implant bone screws into certain bones which then in turn support a longitudinal structure such as a rod, or are supported by such a rod. Bone screws of this type may have a fixed head or receiver relative to a shank thereof. In the fixed bone screws, the rod receiver head cannot be moved relative to the shank and the rod must be favorably positioned in order for it to be placed within the receiver head. This is sometimes very difficult or impossible to do. Therefore, polyaxial bone screws are commonly preferred. Open-ended polyaxial bone screws typically allow for a loose or floppy rotation of the head or receiver about the shank until a desired rotational position of the head is achieved by fixing such position relative to the shank during a final stage of a medical procedure when a rod or other longitudinal connecting member is inserted into the head or receiver, followed by a locking screw or other closure. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>A polyaxial bone anchor assembly according to the invention includes a receiver defining a chamber communicating with a channel, the channel sized and shaped for receiving a portion of a longitudinal connecting member. The bone anchor further includes a shank having an upper portion and a retainer located in the chamber, the retainer being expandable in the chamber about the shank upper portion and receiving the upper portion therethrough to capture the upper portion in the chamber. The retainer is in a non-tapered locking engagement with the shank upper portion when the shank is in a locked orientation with respect to the receiver. The bone anchor assembly may include a variety of inserts, including compression inserts that may or may not have a lock and release feature as well as inserts having a super structure to provide a non-floppy friction fit between the insert and the shank upper portion when the shank is not otherwise locked in place with respect to the receiver. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the retainer may have super structure to provide a friction-fit insert. A pre-assembled receiver, retainer and alternative insert may be “pushed-on”, “snapped-on” or “popped-on” to the shank head prior to or after implantation of the shank into a vertebra. Such a “snapping on” procedure includes the steps of uploading the shank head into the receiver lowerer opening, the shank head pressing against the retainer and expanding the resilient retainer portion out into an expansion portion of the receiver cavity followed by return of the retainer back to an original neutral shape thereof after the hemisphere of the shank head or upper portion passes through an open body portion of the retainer. The shank head may also enter into a friction fit super structure of either the retainer or an insert, panels or surfaces of the friction fit portion of the retainer or insert snapping or gripping onto the shank head as or after the retainer returns to a neutral or close to neutral orientation, providing a non-floppy connection between the retainer or insert and the shank head. The friction fit between the shank head and the retainer or insert is temporary. In several of illustrated embodiments, when the shank is ultimately locked between the compression insert and the retainer non-tapered body, the friction fit portions of the retainer or insert typically are no longer in a friction fit engagement with the shank head. The final fixation typically occurs as a result of locking expansion type of contact between the shank head and the expandable retainer and expansion type of engagement between the retainer and the receiver cavity. In some embodiments, when the polyaxial mechanism is locked, an insert or a retainer portion is wedged against a surface of the receiver, allowing for adjustment or removal of the rod or other connecting member without loss of a desired angular relationship between the shank and the receiver. Objects of the invention include providing apparatus and methods that are easy to use and especially adapted for the intended use thereof and wherein the tools are comparatively inexpensive to produce. Other objects and advantages of this invention will become apparent from the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings wherein are set forth, by way of illustration and example, certain embodiments of this invention. The drawings constitute a part of this specification and include exemplary embodiments of the present invention and illustrate various objects and features thereof. | A61B177037 | 20170728 | 20171123 | 78592.0 | A61B1770 | 2 | BOLES, SAMEH RAAFAT | PIVOTAL BONE ANCHOR WITH TOOL ENGAGEMENT GROOVES AND BREAK-OFF EXTENSIONS | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61B | 2,017 |
|
15,664,587 | ACCEPTED | ARTICLE OF FOOTWEAR HAVING A TEXTILE UPPER | An article of footwear and a method of manufacturing the article of footwear are disclosed. The footwear may include an upper and a sole structure. The upper incorporates a textile element with edges that are joined together to define at least a portion of a void for receiving a foot. The textile element may have a first area with a first property and a second area with a second property. Various warp or weft knitting processes, including flat knitting, may be utilized to form the textile element. | 1-20. (canceled) 21. An upper for an article of footwear, the upper comprising: a flat knit textile element comprising (1) flat knit edges free of surrounding textile structure such that the flat knit edges are not surrounded by textile structure from which the textile element must be removed and (2) a first knit strip having a first property and a second knit strip having a second property that is different from the first property; wherein the first knit strip and the second knit strip are positioned adjacent to each other along one or more of a lateral side and a medial side of the upper. 22. The upper of clam 21, wherein one or both of the first knit strip and the second knit strip comprises a plurality of knit strips. 23. The upper of claim 22, wherein the first and second knit strips alternate with one another along one or more of the lateral side and the medial side of the upper. 24. The upper of claim 22, wherein the flat knit textile element comprises at least two first knit strips and at least two second knit strips. 25. The upper of claim 21, wherein the first knit strip and the second knit strip extend along the lateral side of the upper from an instep region of the upper to an area proximate to a lower region of the upper. 26. The upper of claim 21, wherein the first knit strip and the second knit strip extend along the medial side of the upper from an instep region of the upper to an area proximate to a lower region of the upper. 27. The upper of claim 21, wherein the first property comprises a first knit construction and the second property comprises a second knit construction. 28. The upper of claim 21, wherein the first property of the first knit strip comprises a smooth texture, and the second property of the second knit strip comprises a rough texture. 29. The upper of claim 21, wherein the flat knit textile element further comprises a plurality of apertures in an instep region of the upper. 30. The upper of claim 21, wherein the first property of the first knit strip comprises a higher degree of stretch than the second property of the second knit strip. 31. The upper of claim 21, wherein the second property of the second knit strip comprises a higher degree of stretch than the first property of the first knit strip. 32. The upper of claim 21, wherein the first property comprises a first yarn type and the second property comprises a second yarn type. 33. The upper of claim 32, wherein the first yarn type of the first knit strip comprises at least one of a higher biodegradability, moisture absorption, insulation, durability, and/or hydrophobicity than the second yarn type of the second knit strip. 34. The upper of claim of claim 32, wherein the first yarn type of the first knit strip comprises at least one of a higher strength, support, stiffness, recovery, fit and/or form than the second yarn type of the second knit strip. 35. An article of footwear comprising: an upper comprising: a flat knit textile element comprising (1) flat knit edges free of surrounding textile structure such that the flat knit edges are not surrounded by textile structure from which the textile element must be removed and (2) a first knit strip having a first property and a second knit strip having a second property that is different from the first property, wherein the first knit strip and the second knit strip are positioned adjacent to each other along one or more of a lateral side and a medial side of the upper; and a sole structure secured to the upper. 36. The article of footwear of claim 35, wherein the first property comprises one or more of a first knit construction and a first yarn type and wherein the second property comprises one or more of a first knit construction and a second yarn type. 37. The article of footwear of claim 35, wherein the flat knit textile element comprises a plurality of first knit strips extending along the lateral side and the medial side of the upper and a plurality of second knit strips extending along the lateral side and the medial side of the upper. 38. The article of footwear of claim 35, wherein the first knit strip is parallel to the second knit strip. 39. The article of footwear of claim 35, wherein the first knit strip and the second knit strip extend along the lateral side of the upper from an instep region of the upper to an area proximate to the sole structure. 40. The article of footwear of claim 35, wherein the first knit strip and the second knit strip extend along the medial side of the upper from an instep region of the upper to an area proximate to the sole structure. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application having attorney docket number NIKE.276096/081313US78CON and entitled “Article of Footwear Having A Textile Upper” is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/610,089, filed May 31, 2017, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/503,514, filed Oct. 1, 2014, which is a division of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/079,748, filed Nov. 14, 2013, which is a continuation of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/413,233, filed Mar. 6, 2012, which is a continuation application of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/236,742, filed Sep. 20, 2011, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,266,749, issued Sep. 18, 2012, which is a continuation application of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/879,517, filed Sep. 10, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,042,288, issued Oct. 25, 2011, which is a continuation application of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/032,995, filed Feb. 18, 2008, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,814,598, issued Oct. 19, 2010, which is a divisional application of and claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/791,289, filed Mar. 3, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,347,011, issued Mar. 25, 2008, each of which applications are being entirely incorporated herein by reference. BACKGROUND The present invention relates to footwear. The invention concerns, more particularly, an article of footwear incorporating an upper that is at least partially formed from a textile material. DESCRIPTION OF BACKGROUND ART Conventional articles of athletic footwear include two primary elements, an upper and a sole structure. The upper provides a covering for the foot that securely receives and positions the foot with respect to the sole structure. In addition, the upper may have a configuration that protects the foot and provides ventilation, thereby cooling the foot and removing perspiration. The sole structure is secured to a lower surface of the upper and is generally positioned between the foot and the ground. In addition to attenuating ground reaction forces and absorbing energy (i.e., imparting cushioning), the sole structure may provide traction and control potentially harmful foot motion, such as over pronation. Accordingly, the upper and the sole structure operate cooperatively to provide a comfortable structure that is suited for a wide variety of ambulatory activities, such as walking and running. The general features and configuration of the conventional upper are discussed in greater detail below. The upper forms a void on the interior of the footwear for receiving the foot. The void has the general shape of the foot, and access to the void is provided by an ankle opening. Accordingly, the upper extends over the instep and toe areas of the foot, along the medial and lateral sides of the foot, and around the heel area of the foot. A lacing system is often incorporated into the upper to selectively increase the size of the ankle opening and permit the wearer to modify certain dimensions of the upper, particularly girth, to accommodate feet with varying proportions. In addition, the upper may include a tongue that extends under the lacing system to enhance the comfort of the footwear, and the upper may include a heel counter to limit movement of the heel. Various materials may be utilized in manufacturing the upper. The upper of an article of athletic footwear, for example, may be formed from multiple material layers that include an exterior layer, an intermediate layer, and an interior layer. The materials forming the exterior layer of the upper may be selected based upon the properties of wear-resistance, flexibility, and air permeability, for example. With regard to the exterior layer, the toe area and the heel area may be formed of leather, synthetic leather, or a rubber material to impart a relatively high degree of wear-resistance. Leather, synthetic leather, and rubber materials may not exhibit the desired degree of flexibility and air permeability. Accordingly, various other areas of the exterior layer of the upper may be formed from a synthetic or natural textile. The exterior layer of the upper may be formed, therefore, from numerous material elements that each impart different properties to specific portions of the upper. An intermediate layer of the upper may be formed from a lightweight polymer foam material that provides cushioning and protects the foot from objects that may contact the upper. Similarly, an interior layer of the upper may be formed of a moisture-wicking textile that removes perspiration from the area immediately surrounding the foot. In some articles of athletic footwear, the various layers may be joined with an adhesive, and stitching may be utilized to join elements within a single layer or to reinforce specific areas of the upper. Although the materials selected for the upper vary significantly, textile materials often form at least a portion of the exterior layer and interior layer. A textile may be defined as any manufacture from fibers, filaments, or yarns characterized by flexibility, fineness, and a high ratio of length to thickness. Textiles generally fall into two categories. The first category includes textiles produced directly from webs of filaments or fibers by randomly interlocking to construct non-woven fabrics and felts. The second category includes textiles formed through a mechanical manipulation of yarn, thereby producing a woven fabric, for example. Yarn is the raw material utilized to form textiles in the second category. In general, yarn is defined as an assembly having a substantial length and relatively small cross-section that is formed of at least one filament or a plurality of fibers. Fibers have a relatively short length and require spinning or twisting processes to produce a yarn of suitable length for use in textiles. Common examples of fibers are cotton and wool. Filaments, however, have an indefinite length and may merely be combined with other filaments to produce a yarn suitable for use in textiles. Modern filaments include a plurality of synthetic materials such as rayon, nylon, polyester, and polyacrylic, with silk being the primary, naturally-occurring exception. Yarn may be formed of a single filament, which is conventionally referred to as a monofilament yarn, or a plurality of individual filaments grouped together. Yarn may also include separate filaments formed of different materials, or the yarn may include filaments that are each formed of two or more different materials. Similar concepts also apply to yarns formed from fibers. Accordingly, yarns may have a variety of configurations that generally conform to the definition provided above. The various techniques for mechanically manipulating yarn into a textile include interweaving, intertwining and twisting, and interlooping. Interweaving is the intersection of two yarns that cross and interweave at right angles to each other. The yarns utilized in interweaving are conventionally referred to as warp and weft. Intertwining and twisting encompasses procedures such as braiding and knotting where yarns intertwine with each other to form a textile. Interlooping involves the formation of a plurality of columns of intermeshed loops, with knitting being the most common method of interlooping. The textiles utilized in footwear uppers generally provide a lightweight, air-permeable structure that is flexible and comfortably receives the foot. In order to impart other properties to the footwear, including durability and stretch-resistance, additional materials are commonly combined with the textile, including leather, synthetic leather, or rubber, for example. With regard to durability, U.S. Pat. No. 4,447,967 to Zaino discloses an upper formed of a textile material that has a polymer material injected into specific zones to reinforce the zones against abrasion or other forms of wear. Regarding stretch resistance, U.S. Pat. No. 4,813,158 to Brown and U.S. Pat. No. 4,756,098 to Boggia both disclose a substantially inextensible material that is secured to the upper, thereby limiting the degree of stretch in specific portions of the upper. From the perspective of manufacturing, utilizing multiple materials to impart different properties to an article of footwear may be an inefficient practice. For example, the various materials utilized in a conventional upper are not generally obtained from a single supplier. Accordingly, a manufacturing facility must coordinate the receipt of specific quantities of materials with multiple suppliers that may have distinct business practices or may be located in different regions or countries. The various materials may also require additional machinery or different assembly line techniques to cut or otherwise prepare the material for incorporation into the footwear. In addition, incorporating separate materials into an upper may involve a plurality of distinct manufacturing steps requiring multiple individuals. Employing multiple materials, in addition to textiles, may also detract from the breathability of footwear. Leather, synthetic leather, or rubber, for example, are not generally permeable to air. Accordingly, positioning leather, synthetic leather, or rubber on the exterior of the upper may inhibit air flow through the upper, thereby increasing the amount of perspiration, water vapor, and heat trapped within the upper and around the foot. The present invention is an upper for an article of footwear, the upper incorporating a textile element formed with a knitting machine, for example. In one aspect of the invention, the textile element has edges that are joined together to define at least a portion of a void for receiving a foot. In another aspect of the invention, the textile element has a first area and a second area of unitary construction. The first area is formed of a first stitch configuration, and the second area is formed of a second stitch configuration that is different from the first stitch configuration to impart varying textures to a surface of the textile element. The knitting machine may have a configuration that forms the textile element through either warp knitting or weft knitting. Another aspect of the invention involves a method of manufacturing an article of footwear. The method includes a step of mechanically manipulating a yarn with a circular knitting machine, for example, to form a cylindrical textile structure. In addition, the method involves removing at least one textile element from the textile structure, and incorporating the textile element into an upper of the article of footwear. In another aspect of the invention, an article of footwear has an upper and a sole structure secured to the upper. The upper incorporates a textile element formed with a knitting machine. The textile element is removed from a textile structure that includes an outline of the textile element, and the textile element has edges that are joined together to define at least a portion of a void for receiving a foot. The advantages and features of novelty characterizing the present invention are pointed out with particularity in the appended claims. To gain an improved understanding of the advantages and features of novelty, however, reference may be made to the following descriptive matter and accompanying drawings that describe and illustrate various embodiments and concepts related to the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The foregoing Summary of the Invention, as well as the following Detailed Description of the Invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a lateral elevational view of an article of footwear having an upper in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 is a lateral elevation view of the upper. FIG. 3 is a top plan view of the upper. FIG. 4 is a rear elevational view of the upper. FIG. 5 is a bottom plan view of the upper. FIG. 6 is a first cross-sectional view of the upper, as defined by section line 6-6 in FIG. 2. FIG. 7 is a second cross-sectional view of the upper, as defined by section line 7-7 in FIG. 2. FIG. 8 is a plan view of a textile element that forms at least a portion of the upper. FIG. 9 is a perspective view of a textile structure that incorporates two of the textile element. FIG. 10 is a plan view of another textile element. FIG. 11 is a plan view of yet another textile element. FIG. 12 is a lateral elevational view of another article of footwear having an upper in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 13 is a lateral elevational view of yet another article of footwear having an upper in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view of the footwear depicted in FIG. 13, as defined by section line 14-14. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following discussion and accompanying figures disclose an article of footwear 10 and a method of manufacturing footwear 10, or components thereof, in accordance with the present invention. Footwear 10 is depicted in the figures and discussed below as having a configuration that is suitable for athletic activities, particularly running. The concepts disclosed with respect to footwear 10 may, however, be applied to footwear styles that are specifically designed for a variety of other athletic activities, including basketball, baseball, football, soccer, walking, and hiking, for example, and may also be applied to various non-athletic footwear styles. Accordingly, one skilled in the relevant art will recognize that the concepts disclosed herein may be applied to a wide range of footwear styles and are not limited to the specific embodiments discussed below and depicted in the figures. The primary elements of footwear 10 are depicted in FIG. 1 as being a sole structure 20 and an upper 30. Sole structure 20 is secured to a lower portion of upper 30 and provides a durable, wear-resistant component that imparts cushioning as footwear 10 impacts the ground. Upper 30 is at least partially formed from a textile element 40 that defines an interior void for comfortably receiving a foot and securing a position of the foot relative to sole structure 20. Various edges of textile element 40 are then secured together to form the shape of upper 30. In some embodiments, textile element 40 may form substantially all of upper 30, or textile element 40 may only be a portion of an upper. Sole structure 20 has a generally conventional configuration that includes a midsole 21 and an outsole 22. Midsole 21 is secured to a lower portion of upper 30 and is formed of a polymer foam material, such as ethylvinylacetate or polyurethane. Accordingly, midsole 21 attenuates ground reaction forces and absorbs energy (i.e., provides cushioning) as sole structure 20 impacts the ground. To enhance the force attenuation and energy absorption characteristics of sole structure 20, midsole 21 may incorporate a fluid-filled bladder, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,183,156 and 4,219,945 to Rudy. Alternately or in combination, midsole 21 may incorporate a plurality of discrete, columnar support elements, as disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,343,639 and 5,353,523 to Kilgore et al. Outsole 22 is secured to a lower surface of midsole 21 and may be formed from carbon black rubber compound to provide a durable, wear-resistant surface for engaging the ground. Outsole 22 may also incorporate a textured lower surface to enhance the fraction characteristics of footwear 10. In addition, footwear 10 may include an insole (not depicted), which is a relatively thin, cushioning member located within upper 30 and adjacent to a plantar surface of the foot for enhancing the comfort of footwear 10. Sole structure 20 is described above as having the elements of a conventional sole structure for athletic footwear. Other footwear styles, including, dress shoes and boots, for example, may have other types of conventional sole structures specifically tailored for use with the respective types of footwear. In addition to a conventional configuration, however, sole structure 20 may also exhibit a unique, non-conventional structure. Accordingly, the particular configuration of sole structure 20 may vary significantly within the scope of the present invention to include a wide range of configurations, whether conventional or non-conventional. Upper 30 is depicted in FIGS. 2-7 as having a lateral region 31, an opposite medial region 32, an instep region 33, a lower region 34, and a heel region 35. Lateral region 31 extends through a longitudinal length of footwear 10 and is generally configured to contact and cover a lateral side of the foot. Medial region 32 has a similar configuration that generally corresponds with a medial side of the foot. Instep region 33 is positioned between lateral region 31 and medial region 32, and instep region 33 extends over an instep area of the foot. Lower region 34 forms a bottom surface of upper 30 and also extends through the longitudinal length of footwear 10. Heel region 35 forms a rear portion of upper 30 and is generally configured to contact and cover a heel area of the foot. In addition, lateral region 31, medial region 32, instep region 33, and heel region 35 cooperatively define an ankle opening 36 for providing the foot with access to the void within upper 30. Upper 30 is at least partially formed from textile element 40, which forms regions 31-35, and may also include laces or other elements associated with a conventional upper for footwear. Textile element 40 is a single material element that is formed to exhibit a unitary (i.e., one-piece) construction, and textile element 40 is formed or otherwise shaped to extend around the foot. As depicted in FIGS. 2-7, textile element 40 forms both an exterior surface and an interior surface of upper 30. Textile element 40 may be formed as a part of a larger textile element. Textile element 40 is then removed from the larger textile element and various edges of textile element 40 are secured together to form the shape of upper 30. A plurality of seams 51-54 are formed, therefore, when joining the edges of the textile element. Seam 51 extends along the longitudinal length of lower region 34 and is centrally-located with respect to lateral region 31 and medial region 32. Seam 52 is also centrally-located and extends upward along heel region 35. A seam 53 is positioned in a forefoot area of upper 30 and joins a portion of lower region 34 with both of lateral region 31 and medial region 32. In addition, a seam 54 is positioned in a rear area of upper 30 and joins a portion of lower region 34 with heel region 35. Textile element 40 exhibits the general shape depicted in FIG. 8 prior to the formation of seams 51-54. Following formation of seams 51-54, however, textile element 40 exhibits the shape of upper 30 depicted in FIGS. 2-7. Seams 51-54 are formed by securing various edges of textile element 40 together. More specifically, (1) seam 51 is formed by securing an edge 41 a with an edge 41b; (2) seam 52 is formed by securing an edge 42a with an edge 42b; (3) a first portion of seam 53 is formed by securing an edge 43a with an edge 43b; (4) a second portion of seam 53 is formed by securing an edge 43c with an edge 43d; (5) a first portion of seam 54 is formed by securing an edge 44a with an edge 44b; and (6) a second portion of seam 54 is formed by securing an edge 44c with an edge 44d. Referring to FIG. 8, the positions of regions 31-35 and ankle opening 36 are identified to provide a frame of reference relating to the various portions of textile element 40. In order to join edges 41a and 41b to form seam 51, textile element 40 is folded or otherwise overlapped such that edge 41a is placed adjacent to edge 41b. Stitching, an adhesive, or heat bonding, for example, is then utilized to secure edge 41a and edge 41b. Textile element 40, as depicted in FIG. 8, has a generally planar configuration. Upon the formation of seam 51, however, one portion of textile element 40 overlaps the other portion of textile element 40. The volume between the overlapping portions effectively forms a portion of the void within upper 30 for receiving the foot. The folding or overlapping of textile element 40 to form seam 51 places edge 42a adjacent to edge 42b, which facilitates the formation of seam 52. With reference to FIG. 8, an edge 45 forms a generally u-shaped area in textile element 40. Upon the joining of edges 42a and 42b to form seam 52, the u-shaped area becomes an aperture in textile element 40 and effectively forms ankle opening 36. Each of edges 43a-43d and edges 44a-44d are formed from a generally v-shaped area of textile element 40. Accordingly, seams 53 and 54 may be formed by closing the v-shaped areas and securing the various edges together. Following the formation of each of seams 51-54, the manufacturing of upper 30 is essentially complete. Various finishing steps may be performed, such as reinforcing ankle opening 36, for example. Upper 30 (i.e., textile element 40) is then secured to sole structure 20, with an adhesive, for example. The insole is then placed into the void within upper 30 and adjacent to lower region 34. In some embodiments, various reinforcing members may be added to the exterior or interior surface of upper 20 in order to limit the degree of stretch in upper 20 or provide enhanced wear-resistance. In addition, a lacing system may be added to provide adjustability. Textile element 40 is a single material element with a unitary construction, as discussed above. As defined for purposes of the present invention, unitary construction is intended to express a configuration wherein portions of a textile element are not joined together by seams or other connections, as depicted with textile element 40 in FIG. 8. Although the various edges 41a-44d are joined together to form seams 51-54, the various portions of textile element 40 are formed as an unitary element without seams, as discussed below. Textile element 40 is primarily formed from one or more yarns that are mechanically-manipulated through either an interweaving, intertwining and twisting, or interlooping process, for example. As discussed in the Background of the Invention section above, interweaving is the intersection of two yarns that cross and interweave at right angles to each other. The yarns utilized in interweaving are conventionally referred to as warp and weft. Intertwining and twisting encompasses procedures such as braiding and knotting where yarns intertwine with each other to form a textile. Interlooping involves the formation of a plurality of columns of intermeshed loops, with knitting being the most common method of interlooping. Textile element 40 may, therefore, be formed from one of these processes for manufacturing a textile. A variety of mechanical processes have been developed to manufacture a textile. In general, the mechanical processes may be classified as either warp knitting or weft knitting. With regard to warp knitting, various specific sub-types that may be utilized to manufacture a textile include tricot, raschel, and double needle-bar raschel (which further includes jacquard double needle-bar raschel). With regard to weft knitting, various specific sub-types that may be utilized to manufacture a textile include circular knitting and flat knitting. Various types of circular knitting include sock knitting (narrow tube), body garment (seamless or wide tube), and jacquard. Textile element 40 may be formed through any of the mechanical processes discussed above. Accordingly, textile element 40 may be formed on either a warp knitting machine or a weft knitting machine. One suitable knitting machine for forming textile element 40 is a wide-tube circular knit jacquard machine. Another suitable knitting machine for forming textile element 40 is a wide-tube circular knitting machine that is produced in the Lonati Group by Santoni S.p.A. of Italy under the SM8 TOP1 model number. This Santoni S.p.A. wide-tube circular knitting machine may form a textile structure having a diameter that ranges from 10 inches to 20 inches, with 8 feeds for each diameter. The machine exhibits a maximum 140 revolutions per minute for 10 inch diameters, and a maximum 120 revolutions per minute for 13 inch diameters. Furthermore, the machine gauge is variable between 16, 22, 24, 26, 28, and 32 needles per inch, and is suitable for various needle gauges ranging from 48 to 75. A wide-tube circular knitting machine, as produced by Santoni S.p.A., forms a generally cylindrical textile structure and is capable of forming various types of stitches within a single textile structure. In general, the wide-tube circular knitting machine may be programmed to alter the design on the textile structure through needle selection. That is, the type of stitch that is formed at each location on the textile structure may be selected by programming the wide-tube circular knitting machine such that specific needles either accept or do not accept yarn at each stitch location. In this manner, various patterns, textures, or designs may be selectively and purposefully imparted to the textile structure. An example of a textile structure 60 that may be formed with a wide-tube circular knitting machine is depicted in FIG. 9. Textile structure 60 has a generally cylindrical configuration, and the types of stitches vary throughout textile structure 60 so that a pattern is formed with the outline of textile element 40. That is, differences in the stitches within textile structure 60 form an outline with the shape and proportions of textile element 40. The Santoni S.p.A. wide-tube circular knitting machine may form a textile structure having a diameter that ranges from 10 inches to 16 inches, as discussed above. Assuming that textile structure 60 exhibits a diameter of 10 inches, then the circumference of textile structure 60 is approximately 31 inches. In many circumstances, the total width of textile element 40 will be approximately 12 inches, depending upon the size of footwear 10. The outlines for at least two textile elements 40 may, therefore, be formed on textile structure 60. Referring to FIG. 9, the outline of textile element 40 is depicted on a front portion of textile structure 60, and the outline of another textile element 40 is depicted on a rear portion of textile structure 60. Accordingly, a first textile element 40 and a second textile element 40 may be simultaneously formed in a single textile structure 60. As the diameter of textile element 60 is increased or the width of textile element 40 decreases, however, an even greater number of textile elements 40 may be outlined on textile structure 60. Textile structure 60 may be formed with a wide-tube circular knitting machine, as discussed above. The types of stitches that form textile structure 60 may be varied to form an outline of one or more textile elements 40 on textile structure 60. That is, the wide-tube circular knitting machine may be programmed to form different types of stitches in textile structure 60 so as to outline one or more textile elements 40. Each textile element 40 is then removed from textile structure 60 with a die-cutting, laser-cutting, or other conventional cutting operation. Once textile element 40 is removed from textile structure 60, seams 51-54 may be formed and textile element 40 may be incorporated into footwear 10. The yarn forming textile element 40 may be generally defined as an assembly having a substantial length and relatively small cross-section that is formed of at least one filament or a plurality of fibers. Fibers have a relatively short length and require spinning or twisting processes to produce a yarn of suitable length for use in an interlooping process. Common examples of fibers are cotton and wool. Filaments, however, have an indefinite length and may merely be combined with other filaments to produce a yarn suitable for use in an interloping process. Modern filaments include a plurality of synthetic materials such as rayon, nylon, polyester, and acrylic, with silk being the primary, naturally-occurring exception. Yarn may be formed of a single filament (conventionally referred to as a monofilament yarn) or a plurality of individual filaments. Yarn may also be formed of separate filaments formed of different materials, or the yarn may be formed of filaments that are each formed of two or more different materials. Similar concepts also apply to yarns formed from fibers. Accordingly, yarns may have a variety of configurations within the scope of the present invention that generally conform to the definition provided above. In order to provide the stretch and recovery properties to upper 30, and particularly textile element 40, a yarn that incorporates an elastane fiber may be utilized. Elastane fibers are available from E.I. DuPont de Nemours Company under the LYCRA trademark. Such fibers may have the configuration of covered LYCRA, wherein the fiber includes a LYCRA core that is surrounded by a nylon sheath. One suitable yarn, for example, includes a 70 denier elastane core that is covered with nylon having a 2 ply, 80 denier, 92 filament structure. Other fibers or filaments exhibiting elastic properties may also be utilized. As discussed above, a yarn that incorporates elastane fibers is suitable for textile element 40. A plurality of other yarns, whether elastic or inelastic, are also suitable for textile element 40. The characteristics of the yarn selected for textile element 40 depend primarily upon the materials that form the various filaments and fibers. Cotton, for example, provides a soft hand, natural aesthetics, and biodegradability. Elastane fibers, as discussed above, provide substantial stretch and recoverability. Rayon provides high luster and moisture absorption. Wool also provides high moisture absorption, in addition to insulating properties. Polytetrafluoroethylene coatings may provide a low friction contact between the textile and the skin. Nylon is a durable and abrasion-resistant material with high strength. Finally, polyester is a hydrophobic material that also provides relatively high durability. Accordingly, the materials comprising the yarn may be selected to impart a variety of physical properties to textile element 40, and the physical properties may include, for example, strength, stretch, support, stiffness, recovery, fit, and form. Textile element 40 is depicted as having a generally smooth, non-varied stitch configuration. That is, similar stitches are utilized throughout textile element 40 to impart a common texture to the various portions of textile element 40. As discussed above, however, a wide-tube circular knitting machine is generally capable of forming various types of stitches within a single textile structure. The wide-tube circular knitting machine may, therefore, vary the stitches within textile element 40 to produce various patterns, designs, or textures, for example. Various types of stitches may also be formed with other types of knitting machines. With reference to FIG. 10, a textile element 40′ with the general shape of textile element 40 is depicted as having various areas with different textures. For example, a central area that corresponds with instep region 33 has a first texture 46′ that is generally smooth. In addition, textile element 40′ includes a second texture 47′ that is a plurality of longitudinal ribs. When incorporated into footwear 10, the ribs will extend longitudinally along lateral region 31 and medial region 32, and the ribs may extend into heel region 35. The ribs may be present for aesthetic purposes, or may affect the stretch properties of upper 20, for example. Accordingly, textile element 40′ exhibits areas with different textures in a single element of textile material. Many conventional articles of footwear incorporate uppers with various material elements that each exhibit different properties. For example, a first material element may be smooth, and a second material element may be textured. The first and second material elements are then stitched together to form a portion of the conventional upper. Textile element 40′ also exhibits smooth and textured areas. In contrast with the conventional upper, however, first texture 46′ and second texture 47′ are incorporated into a single, unitary element of textile, rather than two separate elements that are stitched or otherwise joined together. A textile structure 40″ is depicted in FIG. 11 and has the general shape of both textile element 40 and textile element 40′. Textile element 40″ includes areas with three different textures. A first texture 46″ is generally smooth and has the configuration of various strips that extends laterally across areas corresponding with lateral region 31, medial region 32, and instep region 33. Various portions of textile element 40″ also include a second texture 47″, which is generally rough in comparison with first texture 46″. In addition, the area of textile element 40″ corresponding with instep region 33 includes a third texture 48″. The different textures 46″-48″ are formed by merely varying the type of stitch formed by the wide-tube circular knitting machine at each location of textile element 40″. Textures 46″-48″ may exhibit aesthetic differences, or the differences may be structural. For example, the degree of stretch in areas with textures 46″-48″ may be different, or the wear resistance of the areas may vary depending upon the stitch utilized. The air-permeability of textile element 40″ may also vary in the different areas. Third texture 48″ is formed to include a plurality of apertures that extend through textile element 40″. The apertures may be formed by omitting stitches at specific locations during the wide-tube circular knitting process, and the apertures facilitate the transfer of air between the void within upper 20 and the area outside of upper 20. Accordingly, the various stitches formed in textile element 40″, or one of textile elements 40 or 40′, may be utilized to vary the texture, physical properties, or aesthetics of footwear 10 within a single, unitary element of material. In addition to varying the stitch types to form textures 46′-47′ and 46″-48″, the type of yarn utilized in various areas of textile elements 40′ and 40″ may be changed to impart different properties. As discussed above, yarn may be formed from cotton, wool, elastane, rayon, nylon, and polyester, for example. Each of these yarn types may impart differing properties to the areas corresponding with textures 46′-47′ and 46″-48″. For example, elastane may be utilized to impart stretch, wool may be utilized for insulation, and nylon may be utilized for durability. Accordingly, different yarn types may be utilized to impart different properties. The types of knitting that may be utilized to form different zones with different properties (e.g., yarn characteristics, textures, etc.) may vary significantly to include the various warp knitting and weft knitting processes discussed earlier, such as tricot, raschel, double needle-bar raschel, circular knitting, and flat knitting, for example. An article of footwear 110 is depicted in FIG. 12 and includes a sole structure 120 and an upper 130. Upper 130 includes a textile element 140 having the general configuration of textile element 40. As with textile element 40, textile element 140 forms both an exterior surface and an interior surface of upper 130. In addition, upper 130 includes a lace 131 and a plurality of elements 132-135 that also form a portion of the exterior surface. Lace 131 extends through a plurality of apertures formed in textile element 140. The apertures may be formed by omitting stitches at specific locations. Element 132 is positioned in a forefoot area of footwear 110 and may be formed of leather or rubber, for example, to provide additional wear-resistance. Element 133 extends around the ankle opening to reinforce and limit stretch in the area of the ankle opening. Element 134 extends around the heel region to counter movement of the heel and seat the heel above sole structure 120. Furthermore, elements 135 are substantially inextensible strips of material, such as leather or synthetic leather, that limit stretch on the lateral side of footwear 110. Whereas upper 30 was almost exclusively formed by textile element 40, upper 130 also includes lace 131 and elements 132-135. Accordingly, an upper in accordance with the present invention may incorporate a plurality of additional components. Another article of footwear 210 is depicted in FIGS. 13-14 and includes a sole structure 220 and an upper 230. Upper 230 includes a textile element 240 that forms an interior layer. In addition, upper 230 includes an intermediate layer 250 and an exterior layer 260. As discussed in the Background of the Invention section above, the upper of a conventional article of footwear may be formed from multiple material layers that include an exterior layer, an intermediate layer, and an interior layer. The materials forming the exterior layer of the upper may be selected based upon the properties of wear-resistance, flexibility, and air permeability, for example. The intermediate layer of the upper may be formed from a lightweight polymer foam material that provides cushioning and protects the foot from objects that may contact the upper. Similarly, an interior layer of the upper may be formed of a moisture-wicking textile that removes perspiration from the area immediately surrounding the foot. Upper 230 has a configuration that is similar to the configuration of the conventional upper in that various material layers are utilized. In contrast with the conventional upper, however, the interior layer is formed of textile element 240, which is manufactured through the process discussed above. That is, textile element 240 is a single element of textile that forms the interior layer of upper 230. A benefit to utilizing textile element 240 for the interior layer is that textile element 240 includes few seams that may contact the foot. In addition, the stitches utilized at various locations of textile element 240 may modify the texture of the interior surface of upper 230, thereby limiting the degree of slip that occurs between the foot and upper 230 or enhancing the air-permeability of upper 230 in specific locations. Various warp knitting or weft knitting processes may be utilized to form textile element 40, or the various other textile elements discussed above. An advantage of this process is that various stitches may be incorporated into specific locations of textile element 40 to modify the physical properties or aesthetics of textile element 40. Whereas a conventional upper includes various elements that stitched or adhesively joined, textile element 40 is a single, unitary element of material. From the perspective of manufacturing, utilizing multiple materials to impart different properties to an article of footwear may be an inefficient practice. By forming textile element 40 to be a single, unitary element of material, however, efficiency is increased in that upper 20 may include a single textile element, rather than numerous joined elements. A variety of knitting processes may be utilized to form textile element 40, as discussed above. As a specific example, a jacquard double needle-bar raschel knitting machine may be utilized to form a flat textile structure, and may also be utilized to form the textile structure to have the configuration of a spacer mesh textile. Unlike textile structure 60, which exhibits a generally cylindrical configuration, the textile structure formed with the jacquard double needle-bar raschel knitting machine will have a flat configuration. Like textile structure 60, however, an outline of a textile element may be imparted to the textile structure formed with the jacquard double needle-bar raschel knitting machine. That is, differences in the stitches within the textile structure may form an outline with the shape and proportions of the intended textile element. Accordingly, the textile element may be removed from the textile structure and incorporated into footwear 10. In addition, the jacquard double needle-bar raschel knitting machine may be utilized to impart various textures, different properties, or different yarn types to the textile element. Similarly, other types of knitting, such as flat knitting, may be utilized within the scope of the present invention to impart various textures, different properties, or different yarn types to the textile element. The present invention is disclosed above and in the accompanying drawings with reference to a variety of embodiments. The purpose served by the disclosure, however, is to provide an example of the various features and concepts related to the invention, not to limit the scope of the invention. One skilled in the relevant art will recognize that numerous variations and modifications may be made to the embodiments described above without departing from the scope of the present invention, as defined by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>The present invention relates to footwear. The invention concerns, more particularly, an article of footwear incorporating an upper that is at least partially formed from a textile material. | <SOH> BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS <EOH>The foregoing Summary of the Invention, as well as the following Detailed Description of the Invention, will be better understood when read in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. FIG. 1 is a lateral elevational view of an article of footwear having an upper in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 2 is a lateral elevation view of the upper. FIG. 3 is a top plan view of the upper. FIG. 4 is a rear elevational view of the upper. FIG. 5 is a bottom plan view of the upper. FIG. 6 is a first cross-sectional view of the upper, as defined by section line 6 - 6 in FIG. 2 . FIG. 7 is a second cross-sectional view of the upper, as defined by section line 7 - 7 in FIG. 2 . FIG. 8 is a plan view of a textile element that forms at least a portion of the upper. FIG. 9 is a perspective view of a textile structure that incorporates two of the textile element. FIG. 10 is a plan view of another textile element. FIG. 11 is a plan view of yet another textile element. FIG. 12 is a lateral elevational view of another article of footwear having an upper in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 13 is a lateral elevational view of yet another article of footwear having an upper in accordance with the present invention. FIG. 14 is a cross-sectional view of the footwear depicted in FIG. 13 , as defined by section line 14 - 14 . detailed-description description="Detailed Description" end="lead"? | A43B104 | 20170731 | 20180320 | 20171116 | 94490.0 | A43B104 | 1 | BAYS, MARIE D | ARTICLE OF FOOTWEAR HAVING A TEXTILE UPPER | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A43B | 2,017 |
15,664,686 | PENDING | DATA TRANSMISSION METHOD AND USER EQUIPMENT FOR THE SAME | A mobile communication technology, and, more particularly, a method for efficiently transmitting data stored in a message 3 (Msg3) buffer and a user equipment for the same is disclosed. The method of transmitting data by a user equipment in uplink includes receiving an uplink (UP) Grant signal from a base station on a specific message, determining whether there is data stored in a message 3 (Msg3) buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the specific message, determining whether the specific message is a random access response message, and transmitting the data stored in the Msg3 buffer to the base station using the UL Grant signal received on the specific message, if there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the specific message and the specific message is the random access response message. | 1. A method of transmitting data by a user equipment through an uplink, the method comprising: receiving an uplink grant (UL Grant) signal from a base station on a random access response message; determining whether there is data stored in a message 3 (Msg3) buffer and whether the UL Grant signal was received on the random access response message; and transmitting, if there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer and if the UL Grant signal was received on the random access response message, the data stored in the Msg3 buffer to the base station using the UL Grant signal received on the random access response message. 2-9. (canceled) | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a Continuation of co-pending application Ser. No. 12/972,366 filed on Dec. 17, 2010, which is a Continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 12/538,514 filed on Aug. 10, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,881,236, issued on Feb. 1, 2011, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/087,988, filed on Aug. 11, 2008, and which claims the benefit of Korean Patent Application No. 10-2009-0057128, filed on Jun. 25, 2009. The entire contents of each of these applications are hereby incorporated by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Field of the Invention The present invention relates to a mobile communication technology, and more particularly, to a method for efficiently transmitting data stored in a message 3 (Msg3) buffer and a user equipment for the same. Discussion of the Related Art As an example of a mobile communication system to which the present invention is applicable, a 3rd Generation Partnership Project Long Term Evolution (3GPP LTE) communication system will be schematically described. FIG. 1 is a schematic view showing the network architecture of an Evolved Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (E-UMTS) as an example of a mobile communication system. The E-UMTS is evolved from the existing UMTS and has been currently standardized in the 3GPP. Generally, the E-UMTS may be called an LTE system. An E-UMTS network may be largely divided into an Evolved UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (E-UTRAN) 101 and a Core Network (CN) 102. The E-UTRAN 101 may include a User Equipment (UE) 103, a base station (hereinafter, referred to as an “eNode B” or “eNB”) 104, and an Access Gateway (AG) 105 positioned at the end of the network and connected to an external network. The AG 105 may be divided into a portion for processing user traffic and a portion for processing control traffic. At this time, an AG for processing new user traffic and an AG for processing control traffic may communicate with each other using a new interface. One or more cells may exist in one eNode B. A plurality of eNode Bs may be connected by an interface for transmitting the user traffic or control traffic. The CN 102 may include the AG 105 and a node for registering a user of the UE 103. An interface for distinguishing between the E-UTRAN 101 and the CN 102 may be used. Layers of radio interface protocol between the UE and the network may be classified into a first layer L1, a second layer L2 and a third layer L3 based on three lower layers of an Open System Interconnection (OSI) reference model that is widely known in the field of communication systems. A physical layer belonging to the first layer provides an information transfer service using a physical channel. A Radio Resource Control (RRC) layer belonging to the third layer serves to control radio resources between the UE and the network. The UE and the network exchange an RRC message via the RRC layer. The RRC layer may be distributed and located at network nodes of the eNode B 104 and the AG 105. Alternatively, the RRC layer may be located at only the eNode B 104 or the AG 105. FIGS. 2 and 3 show the structures of radio interface protocols between the UE and the UTRAN based on a 3GPP radio access network standard. The radio interface protocols of FIGS. 2 and 3 are horizontally formed of a physical layer, a data link layer and a network layer. The radio interface protocols are vertically formed of a user plane for transmitting data information and a control plane for transmitting control signals. In detail, FIG. 2 shows the layers of a radio protocol control plane and FIG. 3 shows the layers of a radio protocol user plane. The protocol layers of FIGS. 2 and 3 may be divided into a first layer (L1), a second layer (L2) and a third layer (L3) based on three lower layers of an OSI reference model that is widely known in the field of communication systems. Hereinafter, the layers of the control plane of the radio protocol of FIG. 2 and the user plane of the radio protocol of FIG. 3 will be described. A physical (PHY) layer of the first layer provides an information transfer service to an upper layer using a physical channel. The PHY layer is connected to an upper layer, such as a Medium Access Control (MAC) layer, via a transport channel. Data is transferred between the MAC layer and the PHY layer via the transport channel. At this time, the transport channel is largely divided into a dedicated transport channel and a common transport channel, depending on whether or not a channel is shared. Data is also transferred between different PHY layers, such as a physical layer of a transmitting side and a physical layer of a receiving side, via a physical channel using radio resources. Various layers exist in the second layer. First, the MAC layer serves to map various logical channels to various transport channels and serves to multiplex several logical channels into one transport channel. The MAC layer is connected to a Radio Link Control (RLC) layer, which is an upper layer, by the logical channel. The logical channel may be largely divided into a control channel for transmitting information about the control plane and a traffic channel for transmitting information about the user plane according to the kinds of information transmitted. The RLC layer of the second layer serves to segment and concatenate data received from an upper layer so as to adjust data size such that a lower layer transmits data in a radio section. In addition, the RLC provides three modes, namely, a Transparent Mode (TM), an Unacknowledged Mode (UM) and an Acknowledged Mode (AM) in order to guarantee various Quality of Services (QoSs) requested by Radio Bearers (RBs). In particular, the AM RLC performs a retransmission function using an Automatic Repeat and Request (ARQ) function for reliable data transmission. A Packet Data Convergence Protocol (PDCP) layer of the second layer performs a header compression function to reduce the size of an Internet Protocol (IP) packet header that includes unnecessary control information and has a relatively large size, for effective transmission in a radio section having a relatively small bandwidth when transmitting an IP packet such as an IPv4 packet or an IPv6 packet. Therefore, only necessary information in a header portion of data is transmitted so as to improve transmission efficiency of the radio section. In the LTE system, the PDCP layer also performs a security function, which includes ciphering for preventing data from being intercepted by a third party and integrity protection for preventing data from being handled by a third party. A Radio Resource Control (RRC) located at a highest portion of the third layer is defined only in the control plane. The RRC layer handles logical channels, transport channels and physical channels for the configuration, re-configuration and release of RBs. Here, the RBs refer to logical paths provided by the first and second layers of the radio protocol, for data transfer between the UE and the UTRAN, and the configuration of the RBs refers to a process of defining the characteristics of the radio protocol layer and channel necessary for providing a specific service, and setting detailed parameters and operation methods. Each of the RBs is divided into a signaling RB and a data RB. The SRB is used as a path for transmitting an RRC message in the control plane (C-plane), and the DRB is used as a path for transmitting user data in the user plane (U-plane). Downlink transport channels for transmitting data from a network to a UE may include a Broadcast Channel (BCH) for transmitting system information and a downlink Shared Channel (SCH) for transmitting user traffic or a control message. The traffic or the control message of a downlink multicast or broadcast service may be transmitted via the downlink SCH or via a separate Downlink Multicast Channel (MCH). Uplink transport channels for transmitting data from a UE to a network may include a Random Access Channel (RACH) for transmitting an initial control message and an uplink SCH for transmitting user traffic or a control message. Downlink physical channels for transmitting information transferred via the downlink transport channels in a radio section between a network and a UE may include a Physical Broadcast Channel (PBCH) for transmitting information about a BCH, a Physical Multicast Channel (PMCH) for transmitting information about an MCH, a Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH) for transmitting information about a PCH and a downlink SCH, and a Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) (also referred to as a DL L1/L2 control channel) for transmitting control information provided by the first layer and the second layer, such as downlink (DL) or uplink (UL) scheduling grant information. Uplink physical channels for transmitting information transferred via the uplink transport channels in a radio section between a network and a UE may include a Physical Uplink Shared Channel (PUSCH) for transmitting information about an uplink SCH, a Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) for transmitting information about an RACH, and a Physical Uplink Control Channel (PUCCH) for transmitting control information provided by the first layer and the second layer, such as a HARQ ACK or NACK, a Scheduling Request (SR), a Channel Quality Indicator (CQI) report. Hereinafter, a random access procedure provided by an LTE system will be schematically described based on the above description. First, a UE performs the random access procedure in the following cases. when the UE performs initial access because there is no RRC Connection with an eNode B, when the UE initially accesses a target cell in a handover procedure, when the random access procedure is requested by a command of an eNode B, when there is uplink data transmission in a situation where uplink time synchronization is not aligned or where a specific radio resource used for requesting radio resources is not allocated, and when a recovery procedure is performed in case of radio link failure or handover failure. In the LTE system, there are provided two procedures in selecting a random access preamble: one is a contention based random access procedure in which the UE randomly selects one preamble within a specific group for use, and another is a non-contention based random access procedure in which the UE uses a random access preamble allocated only to a specific UE by the eNode B. The non-contention based random access procedure may be used only in the handover procedure or when it is requested by the command of the base station, as described above. A random access procedure of a UE with a specific eNode B may largely include (1) a step of, at the UE, transmitting a random access preamble to the eNode B (hereinafter, referred to as a “message 1” transmitting step if such use will not lead to confusion), (2) a step of receiving a random access response from the eNode B in correspondence with the transmitted random access preamble (hereinafter, referred to as a “message 2” receiving step if such use will not lead to confusion), (3) a step of transmitting an uplink message using the information received by the random access response message (hereinafter, referred to as a “message 3” transmitting step if such use will not lead to confusion), and (4) a step of receiving a message corresponding to the uplink message from the eNode B (hereinafter, referred to as a “message 4” receiving step if such use will not lead to confusion). In the random access procedure, the UE stores data to be transmitted via the message 3 in a message 3 (Msg3) buffer and transmits the data stored in the msg3 buffer in correspondence with the reception of an Uplink (UL) Grant signal. The UL Grant signal indicates information about uplink radio resources which may be used when the UE transmits a signal to the eNode B, and is received on a random access response message received on a PDCCH or a PUSCH in the LTE system. According to the current LTE system standard, it is defined that, if the UL Grant signal is received in a state in which data is stored in the Msg3 buffer, the data stored in the Msg3 buffer is transmitted regardless of the reception mode of the UL Grant signal. As described above, if the data stored in the Msg3 buffer is transmitted in correspondence with the reception of all UL Grant signals, problems may occur. Accordingly, there is a need for research to solve such problems. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a data transmission method and a user equipment for the same that substantially obviate one or more problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. An object of the present invention is to provide a data transmission method and a user equipment for the same, which is capable of solving a problem which may occur when data stored in a message 3 (Msg3) buffer is transmitted according to a reception mode of an Uplink (UL) Grant signal. Additional advantages, objects, and features of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows and in part will become apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following or may be learned from practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by the structure particularly pointed out in the written description and claims hereof as well as the appended drawings. To achieve these objects and other advantages and in accordance with the purpose of the invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, a method of transmitting data by a user equipment through an uplink includes receiving an uplink grant (UL Grant) signal from a base station on a specific message, determining whether there is data stored in a message 3 (Msg3) buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the specific message, determining whether the specific message is a random access response message, and transmitting the data stored in the Msg3 buffer to the base station using the UL Grant signal received on the specific message, if there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the specific message and the specific message is the random access response message. If there is no data stored in the Msg3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the specific message or the specific message is not the random access response message, new data may be transmitted to the base station in correspondence with the UL Grant signal received on the specific message. The UL Grant signal received on the specific message may be a UL Grant signal received on a Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH). In this case, the user equipment may transmit new data in correspondence with the UL Grant signal received on the PDCCH. The UL Grant signal received on the specific message may be a UL Grant signal received on a random access response message received on Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH). In this case, if there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the random access response message, the user equipment may transmit the data stored in the buffer in the Msg3 buffer using the UL Grant signal received on the random access response message. The data stored in the Msg3 buffer may be a Medium Access Control Protocol Data Unit (MAC PDU) including a user equipment identifier, and the data stored in the Msg3 buffer further include information about a buffer status report (BSR) if the user equipment starts the random access procedure for the BSR. In another aspect of the present invention, a user equipment includes a reception module receiving an uplink grant (UL Grant) signal from a base station on a specific message, a transmission module transmitting data to the base station using the UL Grant signal received on the specific message, a message 3 (Msg3) buffer storing UL data to be transmitted in a random access procedure, and a Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) entity determining whether there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer when the reception module receives the UL Grant signal and the specific message is a random access response message, acquiring the data stored in the Msg3 buffer if there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer when the reception module receives the UL Grant signal and the specific message is the random access response message, and controlling the transmission module to transmit the data stored in the Msg3 buffer to the base station using the UL Grant signal received by the reception module on the specific message. The user equipment may further include a multiplexing and assembly entity used for transmission of new data. In this case, the HARQ entity may acquire the new data to be transmitted from the multiplexing and assembly entity if there is no data stored in the Msg3 buffer when the reception module receives the UL Grant signal on the specific message or the received message is not the random access response message, and control the transmission module to transmit the new data acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity using the UL Grant signal received by the reception module on the specific message. The user equipment may further include one or more HARQ processes, and HARQ buffers respectively corresponding to the one or more HARQ processes. In this case, the HARQ entity may transfer the data acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity or the Msg3 buffer to a specific HARQ process of the one or more HARQ processes and control the specific HARQ process to transmit the data acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity or the Msg3 buffer through the transmission module. When the specific HARQ process transmits the data stored in the Msg3 buffer through the transmission module, the data stored in the Msg3 buffer may be controlled to be copied into a specific HARQ buffer corresponding to the specific HARQ process, and the data copied into the specific HARQ buffer may be controlled to be transmitted through the transmission module. The UL Grant signal received by the reception module on the specific message may be a UL Grant signal received on a Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH). In this case, the HARQ entity may control new data to be transmitted in correspondence with the received UL Grant signal received on the PDCCH. The UL Grant signal received by the reception module on the specific message may be a UL Grant signal received on a random access response message received on Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH), and the HARQ entity may control the data stored in the Msg3 buffer to be transmitted using the UL Grant signal received on the random access response message if there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer when the reception module receives the UL Grant signal on the random access response message. According to the above-described embodiments of the present invention, it is possible to transmit data stored in a Msg3 buffer according to a reception mode of a UL Grant signal, without confusion. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description of the present invention are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, which are included to provide a further understanding of the invention and are incorporated in and constitute a part of this application, illustrate embodiment(s) of the invention and together with the description serve to explain the principle of the invention. In the drawings: FIG. 1 is a schematic view showing the network architecture of an Evolved Universal Mobile Telecommunication System (E-UMTS) as an example of a mobile communication system; FIGS. 2 and 3 are views showing the structures of radio interface protocols between a user equipment (UE) and a UMTS Terrestrial Radio Access Network (UTRAN) based on a 3rd Generation Partnership Project (3GPP) radio access network standard; FIG. 4 is a view illustrating an operating procedure of a UE and a base station (eNode B) in a non-contention based random access procedure; FIG. 5 is a view illustrating an operating procedure of a UE and an eNode B in a contention based random access procedure; FIG. 6 is a view illustrating an uplink Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) scheme; FIG. 7 is a view illustrating a method of transmitting a message 3 in a random access procedure when uplink radio resources are requested; FIG. 8 is a view illustrating a problem which may occur when data stored in a message 3 buffer is transmitted by an Uplink (UL) Grant signal received on a message other than a random access response message; FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating a method of transmitting uplink data by a UE according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention; FIG. 10 is a view illustrating a method of transmitting uplink data when a Buffer status Report (BSR) is triggered in a UE, according to an embodiment of the present invention; and FIG. 11 is a schematic view showing the configuration of a UE according to an embodiment of the present invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION Hereinafter, the preferred embodiments of the present invention will be described with reference to the accompanying drawings. It is to be understood that the detailed description which will be disclosed along with the accompanying drawings is intended to describe the exemplary embodiments of the present invention, and is not intended to describe a unique embodiment which the present invention can be carried out. Hereinafter, the detailed description includes detailed matters to provide full understanding of the present invention. However, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that the present invention can be carried out without the detailed matters. For example, the following description will be made on the assumption that a mobile communication system is a 3rd Generation Partnership Project Long Term Evolution (3GPP LTE) system, but the present invention is applicable to other mobile communication, systems excluding the 3GPP LTE system. In some instances, well-known structures and devices are omitted in order to avoid obscuring the concepts of the present invention and the important functions of the structures and devices are shown in block diagram form. The same reference numbers will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts. In the following description, it is assumed that a terminal includes a mobile or fixed user end device such as a user equipment (UE) and a mobile station (MS), and a base station includes a node of a network end communicating with a terminal, such as a Node-B, an eNode B, and a base station. As described above, in the following description, a problem which may occur when data stored in a message 3 (Msg3) buffer is transmitted according to a reception mode of an Uplink (UL) Grant signal will be described in detail and a method of solving the problem will be described. Transmission and reception of a signal using a random access procedure and a Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) scheme will be described in detail. FIG. 4 is a view illustrating an operating procedure of a terminal (UE) and a base station (eNode B) in a non-contention based random access procedure. (1) Random Access Preamble Assignment As described above, a non-contention based random access procedure may be performed (1) in a handover procedure and (2) when the random access procedure is requested by a command of an eNode B. Even in these cases, a contention based random access procedure may be performed. First, it is important that a specific random access preamble without the possibility of collision is received from the eNode B, for the non-contention based random access procedure. Methods of receiving the random access preamble may include a method using a handover command and a method using a Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH) command. The UE receives an assigned random access preamble (S401). (2) Message 1 Transmission The UE transmits the preamble to the eNode B after receiving the assigned random access preamble from the eNode B as described above (S402). (3) Message 2 Transmission The UE attempts to receive a random access response within a random access response reception window indicated by the eNode B through a handover command or system information after transmitting the random access preamble in step S402 (S403). More specifically, the random access response information may be transmitted in the form of a Medium Access Control (MAC) Packet Data Unit (PDU), and the MAC PDU may be transferred via a Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH). In addition, the UE preferably monitors the PDCCH in order to enable to the UE to properly receive the information transferred via the PDSCH. That is, the PDCCH may preferably include information about a UE that should receive the PDSCH, frequency and time information of radio resources of the PDSCH, a transfer format of the PDSCH, and the like. Here, if the PDCCH has been successfully received, the UE may appropriately receive the random access response transmitted on the PDSCH according to information of the PDCCH. The random access response may include a random access preamble identifier (e.g. Random Access-Radio Network Temporary identifier (RA-RNTI)), an UL Grant indicating uplink radio resources, a temporary C-RNTI, a Time Advance Command (TAC), and the like. As described above, the reason why the random access response includes the random access preamble identifier is because a single random access response may include random access response information of at least one UE and thus it is reported to which UE the UL Grant, the Temporary C-RNTI and the TAC are valid. In this step, it is assumed that the UE selects a random access preamble identifier matched to the random access preamble selected by the UE in step S402. In the non-contention based random access procedure, it is determined that the random access procedure is normally performed, by receiving the random access response information, and the random access procedure may be finished. FIG. 5 is a view illustrating an operating procedure of a UE and an eNode B in a contention based random access procedure. (1) Message 1 Transmission First, the UE may randomly select a single random access preamble from a set of random access preambles indicated through system information or a handover command, and select and transmit a Physical Random Access Channel (PRACH) capable of transmitting the random access preamble (S501). (2) Message 2 Reception A method of receiving random access response information is similar to the above-described non-contention based random access procedure. That is, the UE attempts to receive its own random access response within a random access response reception window indicated by the eNode B through the system information or the handover command, after the random access preamble is transmitted in step S501, and receives a Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH) using random access identifier information corresponding thereto (S502). Accordingly, the UE may receive a UL Grant, a Temporary C-RNTI, a TAC and the like. (3) Message 3 Transmission If the UE has received the random access response valid for the UE, the UE may process all of the information included in the random access response. That is, the UE applies the TAC, and stores the temporary C-RNTI. In addition, data which will be transmitted in correspondence with the reception of the valid random access response may be stored in a Msg3 buffer. A process of storing the data in the Msg3 buffer and transmitting the data will be described later with reference to FIG. 7. The UE uses the received UL Grant so as to transmit the data (that is, the message 3) to the eNode B (S503). The message 3 should include a UE identifier. In the contention based random access procedure, the eNode B may not determine which UEs are performing the random access procedure, but later the UEs should be identified for contention resolution. Here, two different schemes for including the UE identifier may be provided. A first scheme is to transmit the UE's cell identifier through an uplink transmission signal corresponding to the UL Grant if the UE has already received a valid cell identifier allocated by a corresponding cell prior to the random access procedure. Conversely, the second scheme is to transmit the UE's unique identifier (e.g., S-TMSI or random ID) if the UE has not received a valid cell identifier prior to the random access procedure. In general, the unique identifier is longer than the cell identifier. If the UE has transmitted data corresponding to the UL Grant, the UE starts a contention resolution (CR) timer. (4) Message 4 Reception After transmitting the data with its identifier through the UL Grant included in the random access response, the UE waits for an indication (instruction) from the eNode B for contention resolution. That is, the UE attempts to receive the PDCCH so as to receive a specific message (S504). Here, there are two schemes to receive the PDCCH. As described above, the UE attempts to receive the PDCCH using its own cell identifier if the message 3 transmitted in correspondence with the UL Grant is transmitted using the UE's cell identifier, and the UE attempts to receive the PDCCH using the temporary C-RNTI included in the random access response if the identifier is its unique identifier. Thereafter, in the former scheme, if the PDCCH is received through its own cell identifier before the contention resolution timer is expired, the UE determines that the random access procedure has been normally performed and completes the random access procedure. In the latter scheme, if the PDCCH is received through the temporary C-RNTI before the contention resolution timer has expired, the UE checks data transferred by the PDSCH indicated by the PDCCH. If the unique identifier of the UE is included in the data, the UE determines that the random access procedure has been normally performed and completes the random access procedure. Hereinafter, the LTE system, by way of example, a uplink Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) scheme of a MAC layer will be described, concentrating on the transmission of uplink data. FIG. 6 is a view illustrating an HARQ scheme. A UE may receive UL Grant information or UL scheduling information from an eNode B on a PDCCH (step S601), in order to transmit data to the eNode B by the HARQ scheme. In general, the UL scheduling information may include a UE identifier (e.g., a C-RNTI or a Semi-Persistent Scheduling C-RNTI), resource block assignment, transmission parameters (modulation, coding scheme and redundancy version), and a New Data Indicator (NDI). In the LTE system, the UE has eight HARQ processes and the HARQ processes are synchronously performed with Transmission Time Intervals (TTIs). That is, specific HARQ processes may be sequentially assigned according to points in time when data is received, in a manner of using the first HARQ process at TTI 9 and using the second HARQ process at TTI 10 after a first HARQ process is used at TTI 1, a second HARQ process is used at TTI 2, . . . , and an eighth HARQ process is used at TTI 8. In addition, since the HARQ processes are synchronously assigned as described above, a HARQ process connected to a TTI in which a PDCCH for initial transmission of specific data is received is used for the transmission of the data. For example, if it is assumed that the UE has received a PDCCH including UL scheduling information at an Nth TTI, the UE transmits data at an (N+4)th TTI. In other words, a Kth HARQ process assigned at the (N+4)th TTI is used for the transmission of the data. That is, the UE may transmit the data to the eNode B on a PUSCH according to the UL scheduling information after checking the UL scheduling information transmitted to the UE by monitoring the PDCCH at every TTI (step S602). When the data has been received, the eNode B stores the data in a soft buffer and attempts to decode the data. The eNode B transmits an ACK signal if the decoding of the data succeeds and transmits an NACK signal if the decoding of the data fails. An example in which the decoding of the data fails and the eNode B transmits the NACK signal on a Physical HARQ Indicator Channel (PHICH) is shown in FIG. 6 (step S603). When the ACK signal has been received from the eNode B, the UE determines that the transmission of the data to the eNode B succeeds and transmits next data. However, when the UE receives the NACK signal as shown in FIG. 6, the UE may determine that the transmission of the data to the eNode B has failed and retransmit the same data by the same scheme or a new scheme (step S604). The HARQ retransmission of the UE may be performed by a non-adaptive scheme. That is, the initial transmission of specific data may be performed when the PDCCH including the UL scheduling information should be received, but the retransmission may be performed even when the PDCCH is not received. In the non-adaptive HARQ retransmission, the data is retransmitted using the same UL scheduling information as the initial transmission at a TTI at which a next HARQ process is assigned, without receiving the PDCCH. The HARQ retransmission of the UE may be performed by an adaptive scheme. In this case, transmission parameters for retransmission are received on the PDCCH, but the UL scheduling information included in the PDCCH may be different from that of the initial transmission according to channel statuses. For example, if the channel status is better than that of the initial transmission, transmission may be performed at a high bit rate. In contrast, if the channel status is worse than that of the initial transmission, transmission may be performed at a lower bit rate than that of the initial transmission. If the UE receives the UL scheduling information on the PDCCH, it is determined whether data which should be transmitted at this time is data which is initially transmitted or previous data which is retransmitted, by an NDI field included in the PDCCH. The NDI field is toggled in the order of 0, 1, 0, 1, . . . whenever new data is transmitted as described above, and the NDI field of the retransmission has the same value as that of the initial transmission. Accordingly, the UE may compare the NDI field with the previously transmitted value so as to determine whether or not the data is retransmitted. The UE counts the number of times of transmission (CURRENT_TX_NB) whenever data is transmitted by the HARQ scheme, and deletes the data stored in the HARQ buffer when CURRENT_TX_NB has reached a maximum transmission number set in an RRC layer. When the retransmitted data is received, the eNode B attempts to combine the received data and the data stored in the soft buffer due to the failure or the decoding by various schemes and decodes the combined data. The eNode B transmits an ACK signal to the UE if the decoding succeeds and transmits an NACK signal to the UE if the decoding fails. The eNode B repeats a process of transmitting the NACK signal and receiving the retransmitted data until the decoding of the data succeeds. In the example of FIG. 6, the eNode B attempts to combine the data retransmitted in step S604 and the data which is previously received and stored and decodes the combined data. The eNode B transmits the ACK signal to the UE on the PHICH if the decoding of the received data succeeds (step S605). The UE may transmit the UL scheduling information for the transmission of next data to the UE on the PDCCH, and may transmit the NDI toggled to 1 in order to report that the UL scheduling information is not used for the adaptive retransmission, but is used for the transmission of new data (step S606). The UE may transmit new data to the eNode B on the PUSCH corresponding to the received UL scheduling information (step S607). The random access procedure may be triggered in the above-described cases as described above. Hereinafter, the case where the UE requests UL radio resources will be described. FIG. 7 is a view illustrating a method of transmitting a message 3 in a random access procedure when UL radio resources are requested. When new data is generated in a transfer buffer 601 of the UE, for example, an RLC buffer and a PDCP buffer, the UE should generally inform the eNode B of information about the generation of the data. More accurately, when data having priority higher than that of data stored in the transfer buffer of the UE is generated, the UE informs the eNode B that the data is generated. This indicates that the UE requests radio resources to the eNode B in order to transmit the generated data. The eNode B may assign proper radio resources to the UE according to the above information. The information about the generation of the data is called a buffer status report (hereinafter, referred to as “BSR”). Hereinafter, as described above, the request for the transmission of the BSR is represented by triggering of the BSR transmission (S6100). If the BSR transmission is triggered, the UE should transmit the BSR to the eNode B. However, if the radio resources for transmitting the BSR are not present, the UE may trigger a random access procedure and attempt to request radio resources (S6200). As described above, if the random access procedure for requesting the radio resources to the eNode B is triggered, the UE may transmit a random access preamble to the eNode B and receive a random access response message corresponding thereto as described with reference to FIGS. 4 and 5. In addition, a message 3 (that is, a MAC PDU) including a UE identifier and a BSR may be generated and stored in a Msg3 buffer 602, in a MAC layer of the UE through a UL Grant signal included in the random access response message. The message 3 stored in the Msg3 buffer 602 may be copied and stored in a HARQ process buffer 603 indicated by the UL Grant information. FIG. 7 shows, by way of example, the case where the HARQ process A is used for the transmission of the message 3. Thus, the message 3 is copied to the HARQ buffer 603 corresponding to the HARQ process A. The message 3 stored in the HARQ buffer 603 may be transmitted to the eNode B on a PUSCH. Meanwhile, if the UE should perform retrial of the random access procedure due to contention resolution failure, the UE may transmit the random access preamble to the eNode B again and receive a random access response (S6300). However, in the retried random access procedure, the UE uses the message 3 stored in the Msg3 buffer 602 again, without generating a new message 3. That is, the UE may copy and store the MAC PDU corresponding to the message 3 stored in the Msg3 buffer 602 in a HARQ buffer 604, and transmit the MAC PDU, according to the UL Grant signal included in the random access response received in the retried random access procedure. FIG. 7 shows the case where the reattempted random access procedure is performed by a HARQ process B. The data stored in the Msg3 buffer 602 may be copied into the HARQ buffer B and transmitted. As described above, if the random access response is received while the random access procedure is performed, the UE stores the message 3 stored in the Msg3 buffer in the HARQ buffer and transmits the message 3. As described above, in the current the LTE system standard for the HARQ process, it is defined that the transmission of the data stored in the Msg3 buffer is triggered by the reception of any UL Grant signal. Accordingly, the CR timer may be erroneously driven such that an erroneous contention resolution process is performed. Due to the erroneous contention resolution procedure, the above-described BSR may not be normally transmitted and the UE may come to deadlock. This problem will be described in detail with reference to FIG. 8. FIG. 8 is a view illustrating a problem which may occur when data stored in a Msg3 buffer is transmitted by an Uplink (UL) Grant signal received on a message other than a random access response message. As described with reference to FIG. 7, the UE may trigger the BSR when high priority data is generated, transmit the random access preamble in order to transmit the BSR to the eNode B (S801), and receive the random access response corresponding thereto (S802). Thereafter, the UE may transmit a message 3 including the BSR via UL Grant information included in the random access response message received in step S802 (S803). If the message 3 is transmitted, the CR timer is operated as described with reference to FIG. 5. If the random access procedure is completed before the CR timer expires, the UE determines that the random access procedure has not been successfully completed (S804). In this case, the UE may try to restart the random access procedure from the transmission of the random access preamble. At this time, since the eNode B does not yet know that the UE is performing the random access procedure, the eNode B may transmit a UL Grant signal independent of the random access procedure on a masked PDCCH (S805). In this case, according to the current LTE system standard, the UE transmits the message 3 stored in the Msg3 buffer according to the UL Grant signal received on the PDCCH in step S805 (S806). In addition, when the message 3 is transmitted, the CR timer is restarted. That is, even when the UE does not perform the transmission of the random access preamble and the reception of the random access response message, the CR timer is restarted in step S806. Although the CR timer is started as the UE transmits the message 3 in step S806, the eNode B may not know that the UE is performing the random access procedure because the reception of the random access preamble and the transmission of the random access response message are not performed. If another UL Grant signal is received on the PDCCH including the UE identifier (S807), the UE determines that the ongoing random access procedure is successfully completed. Accordingly, the UE may stop the ongoing CR time (S808). If the message 3 transmitted to the eNode B in step S806 is not successfully received by the eNode B (A), the UE no longer transmits the message 3 including the BSR. Accordingly, if additional data is not generated, the UE may not transmit the data generated in the transfer buffer to the eNode B. The above-described problem will be described as follows. According to the current LTE system standard, if the UL Grant signal is received in a state in which the data is stored in the Msg3 buffer, the UE transmits the data stored in the Msg3 buffer to the eNode B. At this time, the UL Grant signal may be transmitted by the eNode B, not for the transmission of the data stored in the Msg3 buffer, but for the transmission of other data. Accordingly, the CR timer may be erroneously started. In addition, if the eNode B does not know that the CR timer is erroneously started in the UE and transmits the UL Grant signal for the transmission of other data as described with reference to FIG. 8, information (e.g., BSR) to be transmitted through the message 3 may be lost. In addition, the UE may not receive a message 4 for completing a proper contention resolution procedure even with respect to the ongoing random access procedure. In a preferred embodiment of the invention for solving the above-described problem, the data stored in the Msg3 buffer is restrictively transmitted only in the case where the UL Grant signal received from the eNode B is received on the random access response message, but not in all cases where the UL Grant signal is received from the eNode B. If the UL Grant signal is received on the masked PDCCH not by the random access response message but by the UE identifier (C-RNTI or a Semi Persistent Scheduling Radio Network Temporary Identifier (SPS-RNTI)) in a state in which the data is stored in the Msg3 buffer, a method of acquiring and transmitting new data (MAC PDU) to the eNode B instead of the data stored in the Msg3 buffer is suggested. FIG. 9 is a flowchart illustrating a method of transmitting UL data by a UE according to a preferred embodiment of the present invention. In more detail, FIG. 9 shows the operation of a HARQ entity of the UE according to an embodiment of the present invention at every TTI. First, the HARQ entity of the UE may identify a HARQ process associated with a TTI (S901). If the HARQ process associated with the TTI is identified, the HARQ entity of the UE may determine whether or not a UL Grant signal received from the eNode B indicated at the TTI (S902). The UE may determine whether or not a HARQ buffer corresponding to the HARQ process is empty if there is no information about the received UL Grant signal at the TTI, and perform non-adaptive retransmission as described with reference to FIG. 6 if there is data in the HARQ buffer (S903). Meanwhile, if there is a UL Grant signal received from the eNode B at the TTI, it may be determined (1) whether the UL Grant signal is not received on the PDCCH indicated by the temporary C-RNTI and the NDI is toggled from the value during transmission prior to the HARQ process, (2) whether there is previous NDI and this transmission is initial transmission of the HARQ process, (3) whether the UL Grant signal is received on the PDCCH indicated by the C-RNTI and the HARQ buffer of the HARQ process is empty, or (4) whether the UL Grant signal is received on the random access response message (S904). If any one of the conditions (1) to (4) is satisfied in step S904 (A), the method progresses to step S906. In contrast, if any one of the conditions (1) to (4) is not satisfied in step S904 (B), the method progresses to step S905 of performing adaptive retransmission using the UL Grant signal (S905). Meanwhile, the UE determines whether there is data in the Msg3 buffer in step S906 (S906). In addition, even when there is data in the Msg3 buffer, the UE determines whether the received UL Grant signal is received on the random access response message (S907). That is, the UE according to the present embodiment transmits the data stored in the Msg3 buffer only when there is data in the Msg3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal and the UL Grant signal is received on the random access response message (S908). If there is no data in the Msg3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal or the UL Grant is not received on the random access response message, the UE determines that the eNode B makes a request not for the transmission of the data stored in the Msg3 buffer but for transmission of new data, and performs new data transmission (S909). In more detail, the HARQ entity of the UE may be controlled such that a MAC PDU including new data from a multiplexing and assembly entity is acquired and is transmitted through the HARQ process. Hereinafter, an example applied to a process of transmitting a BSR by the UE which operates by the embodiment described with reference to FIG. 9 as shown in FIG. 8 will be described. FIG. 10 is a view illustrating a method of transmitting UL data when a BSR is triggered in a UE, according to an embodiment of the present invention. As described above, new data may be generated in the RLC and PDCP buffers of the UE. It is assumed that the generated new data has higher priority than that of the data already stored in the RLC and PDCP buffers. The UE may trigger the BSR transmission in order to inform an eNode B of information about the generation of the data (step 1). The UE should transmit the BSR according to BSR transmission trigger, but, in a special case, there may be no radio resource for transmitting the BSR. In this case, the UE may trigger a random access procedure for transmitting the BSR. It is assumed that the random access procedure triggered in the present embodiment is the contention based random access procedure described with reference to FIG. 5. The UE may transmit a random access preamble to the eNode B according to the triggering of the random access procedure (step 2). The eNode B may receive the random access preamble transmitted by the UE and transmit a random access response message to the UE (step 3). The UE may receive the random access response message. The UE may generate a message 3 including the PSR and a UE identifier according to a UL Grant signal included in the random access response message received in step 3 and store the message 3 in a Msg3 buffer (step 4). The UE may select a HARQ process according to the UL Grant information included in the random access response message received in step 3 and copy and store the message 3 stored in the Msg3 buffer in the buffer corresponding to the selected HARQ process. Thereafter, the data stored in the HARQ buffer may be transmitted to the eNode B according to the UL HARQ procedure described with reference to FIG. 6 (step 5). The UE starts (or restarts) the CR timer by the transmission of the message 3. When the CR timer expires, the UE may perform retrial of the random access procedure. That is, a random access preamble and a PRACH resource may be prepared to be selected and transmitted to the eNode B. However, in a state in which the CR timer is not operated, the UE may receive UL Grant signal from the eNode B on a PDCCH masked by a UE identifier (step 6). When the UL Grant signal has been received on the PDCCH in step 6, the UE generates new data different from the data stored in the Msg3 buffer according to the UL Grant information received in step 6 as a new MAC PDU, unlike the procedure of the embodiment of FIG. 8 for transmitting the message 3 stored in the Msg3 buffer according to the UL Grant information received in step 6 (step 7). In more detail, if the UE receives the UL Grant signal in step 6 but does not receive the UL Grant signal on the random access response message, a MAC PDU for transmitting not the data stored in the Msg3 buffer but new data from a multiplexing and assembly entity may be acquired and transmitted using a HARQ process corresponding thereto. After the new MAC PDU is generated, the UE according to the present embodiment may select a HARQ process according to the UL Grant signal received in step 6, store the MAC PDU newly generated in step 7 in the buffer corresponding to the HARQ process, and transmit the MAC PDU to the eNode B according to the UL HARQ procedure (step 8). Thereafter, the UE may perform a random access procedure including the transmission of the random access preamble and the reception of the random access response and transmit the BSR stored in the Msg3 buffer to the eNode B. According to the above-described embodiment, it is possible to prevent the eNode B from erroneously operating the CR timer due to the UL Grant signal transmitted not for transmission of the data stored in the Msg3 buffer but for transmission of new data. Accordingly, the problem that the message 3 is lost may be solved. In addition, the random access procedure of the UE with the eNode B may be normally performed. Unlike the above-described embodiment, as another embodiment of the present invention, a method of performing a process while ignoring the UL Grant signal if the UL Grant signal is received from the eNode B on the PDCCH masked by the UE identifier during the random access procedure of the UE may be implemented. In this case, the UE may transfer the message 3 to the eNode B by the normal random access procedure, and the eNode B may retransmit the UL Grant signal for the transmission of new data after the random access procedure of the UE is completed. Hereinafter, the configuration of the UE for implementing the above-described embodiment of the present invention will be described. FIG. 11 is a schematic view showing the configuration of a UE according to an embodiment of the present invention. As shown in FIG. 11, the UE according to the present embodiment may include a reception (Rx) module 1101 for receiving a UL Grant signal from an eNode B on a specific message, a transmission (TX) module 1102 for transmitting data to the eNode B using the received UL Grant signal, a Msg3 buffer 1103 for storing UL data transmitted in a random access procedure, and a HARQ entity 1104 for controlling the transmission of UL data of the UE. In particular, the HARQ entity 1104 of the UE according to the present embodiment performs a function of determining whether there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer 1103 when the Rx module 1101 receives the UL Grant signal and a function of determining whether the Rx module 1101 receives the UL Grant signal on a random access response message. If there is data stored in the Msg3 buffer 1103 when the Rx module 1101 receives the UL Grant signal and the RX module 1101 receives the UL Grant signal on the random access response message, the data stored in the Msg3 buffer 1103 is controlled to be acquired and transmitted to the eNode B. If there is no data stored in the Msg3 buffer 1103 when the Rx module 1101 receives the UL Grant signal and the RX module 1101 receives the UL Grant signal not on the random access response message but on the PDCCH, the data stored in the Msg3 buffer 1103 is not transmitted but new data is acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity in the form of a MAC PDU and is transmitted to the eNode B. In addition, in order to perform the UL HARQ procedure, the UE according to the present embodiment may include one or more HARQ processes 1106 and HARQ buffers 1107 corresponding to the HARQ processes 1106. In the current LTE system, eight independent HARQ processes are defined for use, but the present invention is not limited thereto. Meanwhile, the HARQ entity 1104 according to the present embodiment may transfer the data acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity 1105 or the msg3 buffer 1103 to a specific HARQ process 1106 using the above-described configuration, and control the specific HARQ process 1106 to transmit the data acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity 1105 or the Msg3 buffer 1103 through the Tx module 1102. As described above, if the specific HARQ process 1106 transmits the data stored in the Msg3 buffer 1103 through the Tx module 1102 as described above, the data stored in the Msg3 buffer 1103 may be copied into the specific HARQ buffer 1107 corresponding to the specific HARQ process 1106 and the data copied into the specific HARQ buffer 1107 may be transmitted through the Tx module 1102. At this time, the data stored in the Msg3 buffer 1103 is a MAC PDU including a UE identifier and may further include information such as a BSR according to the purpose of the random access procedure. In the configuration of the UE shown in FIG. 11, the Tx module 1102 and the Rx module 1101 may be configured as a physical layer processing module 1108, and the HARQ entity 1104, the multiplexing and assembly entity 1105 and one or more HARQ processes 1106 may be configured as a MAC layer module 1109. However, the invention is not limited thereto. In addition, the Msg3 buffer 1103 and the HARQ buffers 1107 corresponding to the HARQ processes 1106 may be implemented using any storage medium. Although the signal transmission or reception technology and the UE for the same are applied to a 3GPP LTE system, they are applicable to various mobile communication systems having a similar procedure, in addition to the 3GPP LTE system. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that various modifications and variations can be made in the present invention without departing from the spirit or scope of the invention. Thus, it is intended that the present invention covers the modifications and variations of this invention provided they come within the scope of the appended claims and their equivalents. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Accordingly, the present invention is directed to a data transmission method and a user equipment for the same that substantially obviate one or more problems due to limitations and disadvantages of the related art. An object of the present invention is to provide a data transmission method and a user equipment for the same, which is capable of solving a problem which may occur when data stored in a message 3 (Msg 3 ) buffer is transmitted according to a reception mode of an Uplink (UL) Grant signal. Additional advantages, objects, and features of the invention will be set forth in part in the description which follows and in part will become apparent to those having ordinary skill in the art upon examination of the following or may be learned from practice of the invention. The objectives and other advantages of the invention may be realized and attained by the structure particularly pointed out in the written description and claims hereof as well as the appended drawings. To achieve these objects and other advantages and in accordance with the purpose of the invention, as embodied and broadly described herein, a method of transmitting data by a user equipment through an uplink includes receiving an uplink grant (UL Grant) signal from a base station on a specific message, determining whether there is data stored in a message 3 (Msg 3 ) buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the specific message, determining whether the specific message is a random access response message, and transmitting the data stored in the Msg 3 buffer to the base station using the UL Grant signal received on the specific message, if there is data stored in the Msg 3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the specific message and the specific message is the random access response message. If there is no data stored in the Msg 3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the specific message or the specific message is not the random access response message, new data may be transmitted to the base station in correspondence with the UL Grant signal received on the specific message. The UL Grant signal received on the specific message may be a UL Grant signal received on a Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH). In this case, the user equipment may transmit new data in correspondence with the UL Grant signal received on the PDCCH. The UL Grant signal received on the specific message may be a UL Grant signal received on a random access response message received on Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH). In this case, if there is data stored in the Msg 3 buffer when receiving the UL Grant signal on the random access response message, the user equipment may transmit the data stored in the buffer in the Msg 3 buffer using the UL Grant signal received on the random access response message. The data stored in the Msg 3 buffer may be a Medium Access Control Protocol Data Unit (MAC PDU) including a user equipment identifier, and the data stored in the Msg 3 buffer further include information about a buffer status report (BSR) if the user equipment starts the random access procedure for the BSR. In another aspect of the present invention, a user equipment includes a reception module receiving an uplink grant (UL Grant) signal from a base station on a specific message, a transmission module transmitting data to the base station using the UL Grant signal received on the specific message, a message 3 (Msg 3 ) buffer storing UL data to be transmitted in a random access procedure, and a Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request (HARQ) entity determining whether there is data stored in the Msg 3 buffer when the reception module receives the UL Grant signal and the specific message is a random access response message, acquiring the data stored in the Msg 3 buffer if there is data stored in the Msg 3 buffer when the reception module receives the UL Grant signal and the specific message is the random access response message, and controlling the transmission module to transmit the data stored in the Msg 3 buffer to the base station using the UL Grant signal received by the reception module on the specific message. The user equipment may further include a multiplexing and assembly entity used for transmission of new data. In this case, the HARQ entity may acquire the new data to be transmitted from the multiplexing and assembly entity if there is no data stored in the Msg 3 buffer when the reception module receives the UL Grant signal on the specific message or the received message is not the random access response message, and control the transmission module to transmit the new data acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity using the UL Grant signal received by the reception module on the specific message. The user equipment may further include one or more HARQ processes, and HARQ buffers respectively corresponding to the one or more HARQ processes. In this case, the HARQ entity may transfer the data acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity or the Msg 3 buffer to a specific HARQ process of the one or more HARQ processes and control the specific HARQ process to transmit the data acquired from the multiplexing and assembly entity or the Msg 3 buffer through the transmission module. When the specific HARQ process transmits the data stored in the Msg 3 buffer through the transmission module, the data stored in the Msg 3 buffer may be controlled to be copied into a specific HARQ buffer corresponding to the specific HARQ process, and the data copied into the specific HARQ buffer may be controlled to be transmitted through the transmission module. The UL Grant signal received by the reception module on the specific message may be a UL Grant signal received on a Physical Downlink Control Channel (PDCCH). In this case, the HARQ entity may control new data to be transmitted in correspondence with the received UL Grant signal received on the PDCCH. The UL Grant signal received by the reception module on the specific message may be a UL Grant signal received on a random access response message received on Physical Downlink Shared Channel (PDSCH), and the HARQ entity may control the data stored in the Msg 3 buffer to be transmitted using the UL Grant signal received on the random access response message if there is data stored in the Msg 3 buffer when the reception module receives the UL Grant signal on the random access response message. According to the above-described embodiments of the present invention, it is possible to transmit data stored in a Msg 3 buffer according to a reception mode of a UL Grant signal, without confusion. It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description of the present invention are exemplary and explanatory and are intended to provide further explanation of the invention as claimed. | H04W740833 | 20170731 | 20171214 | 90223.0 | H04W7408 | 2 | HAILU, KIBROM T | DATA TRANSMISSION METHOD AND USER EQUIPMENT FOR THE SAME | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04W | 2,017 |
|
15,665,014 | PENDING | Spironolactone Aqueous Compositions | Disclosed herein is a stable, ready-to-use liquid formulation comprising spironolactone and its method of use. | 1. A ready-to-use liquid formulation, comprising: (a) 0.50% w/v of spironolactone; (b) from 0.18% w/v to 0.36% w/v of a xanthan gum; (c) optionally a sufficient amount of a buffer to maintain the pH of the pharmaceutical composition from 4.5 to 5.5; and (d) a sufficient amount of a water vehicle, wherein the formulation exhibits a spironolactone content of 100±10% labeled content for about 24-months when stored at 25±2° C. and 40±5% relative humidity. 2. A method of treating a patient having a condition, comprising: administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising spironolactone, wherein the liquid formulation provides for a spironolactone exposure that is about 15 to about 37% greater than a spironolactone exposure obtained when orally administering to a subject a tablet formulation comprising spironolactone, and wherein the condition is one or more of heart failure, edema, hypertension, and a skin disorder selected from the group consisting of acne, hirsutism, androgenic alopecia, rosacea, and combinations thereof. 3. The method of claim 2, wherein the liquid formulation comprises spironolactone at a concentration of 5 mg/mL. 4. The method of claim 2, wherein the liquid formulation comprises 25 mg spironolactone and the tablet formulation comprises 25 mg spironolactone, and the liquid formulation provides for a spironolactone exposure that is about 15% greater than a spironolactone exposure obtained when orally administering to a subject a tablet formulation comprising spironolactone. 5. The method of claim 2, wherein the liquid formulation comprises 100 mg spironolactone and the tablet formulation comprises 100 mg spironolactone, and the liquid formulation provides for a spironolactone exposure that is about 37% greater than a spironolactone exposure obtained when orally administering to a subject a tablet formulation comprising spironolactone. 6. A method for the treatment of heart failure in a patient, which comprises: administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising 20 mg or 37.5 mg spironolactone once daily or once every other day, wherein said patient has a serum potassium level of ≦5.0 mEq/L and an estimated glomular filtration rate (eGFR) >50 mL/min/1.73 m2. 7. The method of claim 6, said method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 20 mg spironolactone once daily. 8. The method of claim 6, said method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 20 mg spironolactone once every other day. 9. The method of claim 6, The method of claim 5, said method comprises comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 37.5 mg spironolactone once daily. 10. A method for the treatment of heart failure in a patient, which comprises administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising 10 mg spironolactone once daily or once every other day, wherein said patient has a serum potassium level of ≦5.0 mEq/L and an estimated glomular filtration rate (eGFR) between 30 to 50 mL/min/1.73 m2. 11. A method for the treatment of edema associated with hepatic cirrhosis in a patient, which comprises administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising 75 mg to 300 mg spironolactone daily, in a single or a divided dose. 12. The method of claim 11, said method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 75 mg to 150 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. 13. The method of claim 11, said method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 75 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. 14. The method of claim 11, said method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 150 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. 15. A method for the treatment of hypertension in a patient, which comprises administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising 20 mg to 75 mg spironolactone daily, in a single or a divided dose. 16. The method of claim 15, said method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 20 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. 17. The method of claim 15, said method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 75 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. 18. The method of claim 15, wherein the hypertension is essential hypertension. | RELATED APPLICATION The present application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/337,559, filed on Oct. 28, 2016, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/495,583, filed on Oct. 30, 2015. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Spironolactone aqueous compositions are described herein, as well as a method of manufacture and of use thereof. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Spironolactone (CAS Registry No. 52-01-7) is commercially available as tablets (e.g.,) ALDACTONE® . Spironolactone is an aldosterone antagonist having utility as a potassium sparing diuretic. (ALDACTONE° (spironolactone) Tablet Prescribing Information, as of Oct. 22, 2014.) Spironolactone is used to diagnose or treat conditions in which a person has elevated levels of aldosterone. Aldosterone is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands to help regulate the salt and water balance in the body. Spironolactone is employed in the management of primary hyperaldosteronism and the treatment of congestive heart failure. Spironolactone is also indicated for the treatment of a variety of skin disorders such as acne, hirsutism, androgenic alopecia, and rosacea. Spironolactone may also be used to treat cirrhosis of the liver, nephrotic syndrome, and essential hypertension. Spironolactone, when added to a standard therapy for adults with severe heart failure, has been shown to result in a 30% reduction in mortality. (M. L. Buck, The Annals of Pharmacotherapy (2005) 39(5): 823-828.) Additionally, spironolactone has become a standard part of combination diuretic regimens in infants with chronic lung disease and children with heart disease. (M. L. Buck, The Annals of Pharmacotherapy (2005) 39(5): 823-828.) Oftentimes tablet administration is not possible, especially for the above-mentioned adult patients with severe heart failure or with the pediatric patients. As there is presently no commercial available aqueous-based spironolactone drug product, a physician, in the clinical setting, must rely on the pharmacy to prepare a compounded spironolactone formulation. The pharmacist, in turn, typically prepares the compounded spironolactone formulation from the commercially available tablet or from powder spironolactone. Compounded formulations may be problematic for pharmacists because of the potential for microbial contamination. Compounded formulations may be problematic for the physician, and importantly, the patient, due to the potential errors associated with compounding. Further, the stability of the compounded formulations is oftentimes unknown. As related to spironolactone, the literature includes reports by others that examine the stability of spironolactone in compounded formulations. Gupta et al., American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy (1978), 35(11): 1382-1385 examines the stability of spironolactone in a compounded spironolactone formulation comprised of a simple syrup vehicle containing 10% alcohol and 0.1% sodium benzoate used as a preservative. Therein, Gupta et al. reports that the compounded spironolactone formulation having a pH of 6.2 retains 97.4% of the initial spironolactone after 160 days. Gupta et al. explains that the compounded spironolactone formulations described therein have limited stability but can be used by pharmacists extemporaneously on an as-needed basis. Gupta et al. mentions that the bioavailability of the compounded spironolactone formulation was not examined. Mathur et al., American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy (1989) 46(10): 2040-2042 report that compounded spironolactone formulations were prepared by grinding commercially available film-coated spironolactone tablets, adding Purified Water, USP to the ground material followed by triturating that composition to form a paste, and then suspending the paste in Cherry Syrup, NF. Mathur et al. describe the stability of spironolactone in three compounded spironolactone formulations with theoretical concentrations of 2.5 mg/mL, 5.0 mg/mL, and 10.0 mg/mL. Mathur et al. also describe an HPLC assay for determining the spironolactone content over a period of time. Therein, Mathur et al. examine the concentrations of spironolactone remaining for the three compounded spironolactone formulations at various temperatures that range from 5° C. to 30° C. Based on the HPLC assay results, Mathur et al. state that compounded spironolactone formulations at the stated concentrations exhibited less than 5% degradation after four weeks of storage. Mathur et al. also state that microbial evaluation by the USP antimicrobial preservatives effective test showed that the samples exhibited bacterial and fungal counts well within acceptable limits. Pramar et al., Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics (1992): 17(4): 245-248 report the development of a stable oral liquid dosage form of spironolactone. As a part of that study, Pramar et al. mention that a clear and stable oral liquid dosage form of spironolactone is not available because the aqueous solubility of spironolactone is reported to be only 28 μg/mL. Pramar et al. describe ten different spironolactone-containing liquid dosage forms with spironolactone present at a concentration of 0.2% w/v in a vehicle comprised mainly of polyethylene glycol 400 (30% v/v) and mono- and polyhydric alcohols (ethanol (10% v/v), propylene glycol (10% v/v), and glycerin (10% v/v)). Pramar et al. mention that the amounts of propylene glycol and polyethylene glycol 400 alone were too high in order to achieve a spironolactone concentration of 2 mg/mL (i.e., 0.2% w/v). For instance, Pramar et al. explains that propylene glycol, when administered in high doses, is known to cause lactic acidosis in children. Pramar et al. identify a particular dosage form (i.e., Formulation C), as being stable based on accelerated testing at 40° C. and a relative humidity of 75%. Interestingly, the reported dosage forms also include phosphate or citrate buffer (50 mM) adjusted to a final pH of 4.5, in which the reported final pH is identified therein as being the pH at which spironolactone exhibits maximum stability. Pramar et al. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy (1991) 17(5): 747-761; Pramar et al. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences (1991) 80(6): 551-553. As related to the dosage form containing citrate, Pramar et al. mention that a spironolactone-containing liquid dosage form including citrate buffer (i.e., Formulation B) is unsuitable because of the resultant instability. Nahata et al., The Annals of Pharmacotherapy (1993) 27(10): 1198-1199 report that a compounded spironolactone formulation prepared from tablets exhibits stability for three months. Nahata et al. criticizes the dosage forms described in the aforementioned Pramar et al. reference as being unsuitable for certain patients (e.g., infants) due to the high concentrations of propylene glycol and ethanol. The compounded spironolactone formulation of Nahata et al. contains carboxymethylcellulose as a suspending agent, “which may provide uniform doses by minimizing settling of the drug in the bottle during use by patients.” Despite the presence of the carboxymethylcellulose suspending agent, Nahata et al. observe variability in concentration assay measurements that “was most likely attributable to sampling of nonuniform dispersion of drug particles in the suspension.” U.S. Pat. No. 4,837,211 to J. L. Olsen, describes a spironolactone-containing composition that purports to overcome the uniformity issue by utilizing sodium carboxymethylcellulose or a mixture of methylcellulose and a dimethylpolysiloxane polymer. It was discovered that a spironolactone-containing composition comparable to the composition described in Example V resulted in an increase in sedimentation and that uniformity could only be achieved after vigorous shaking for 60-120 seconds after storage at 25±2° C. and 40±5% relative humidity. The extended time required to resuspend spironolactone in the composition is problematic in that it may result in reduced patient compliance—especially for an elderly patient. Further, administration errors may arise if the spironolactone is not uniformly dispersed throughout the composition. Additional reports describe compounded spironolactone formulations as having a shelf-life stability of either 60 days (Allen et al., American Journal of Health-System Pharmacy (1996) 53(19): 2304-2309) or 90 days (BasuSarkar et al. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Review and Research (2013) 23(1): 67-70). However, these additional reports do not consider the uniformity of the compounded suspension. Kaukonen et al., Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology (1998) 50(6): 611-619 recognize the drawbacks associated with the above-mentioned compounded spironolactone formulations and the spironolactone-containing liquid dosage forms. In an effort to overcome those drawbacks Kaukonen et al. describe an oral solution of spironolactone containing water-soluble derivatives of β-cyclodextrin (e.g., sulfobutyl ether β-cyclodextrin (SBE7) or dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin (DM-β-CyD)). Therein, Kaukonen et al. conducted a comparative evaluation of selected pharmacokinetic parameters of oral solutions containing spironolactone and either SBE7 or DM-β-CyD versus a compounded spironolactone formulation. Kaukenen et al. state that oral bioavailability of the oral solutions is about three times greater than the compounded spironolactone formulation. A potential drawback to the oral solution described by Kaukonen et al. is the differences in bioavailability, which would require a clinician to estimate the dosage amounts for a given subject, and thus lead to potential dosing errors. In view of the foregoing, there is a need for a spironolactone aqueous composition that is ready to use having acceptable long-term stability and resuspension properties that contribute to patient compliance and reduce the likelihood of dosing errors. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Disclosed herein is a stable, ready-to-use liquid formulation comprising spironolactone and its method of use. Also disclosed herein is a pharmaceutical composition, comprising: (a) spironolactone; (b) a xanthan gum; (c) an anti-foaming agent; (d) a preservative; (f) a dispersing agent; (g) a sweetening agent; (h) a flavoring agent; (i) optionally a buffer to maintain the pH of the pharmaceutical composition within a range described herein; and (j) a sufficient amount of a water vehicle. Further disclosed herein is a method of treating a patient having a condition, comprising administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising spironolactone, wherein the liquid formulation provides for a spironolactone exposure that is about 15 to about 37% greater than a spironolactone exposure obtained when orally administering to a subject a tablet formulation comprising spironolactone, and wherein the condition is one or more of heart failure, edema, hypertension, and a skin disorder selected from the group consisting of acne, hirsutism, androgenic alopecia, rosacea, and combinations thereof BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 shows the initially observed spironolactone content (% l.c.) as a function of shake-time (in seconds) for the compositions of Example 2 (grey bars) and Comparative Example 1 (black bars). FIG. 2 shows the observed spironolactone content (% l.c.) as a function of shake-time (in seconds) for the compositions of Example 2 (grey bar) and Comparative Example 1 (black bars) after storage at 25±2° C. and 40±5% relative humidity for 3-months. FIG. 3 shows the effect of storage at 40±2° C. and not more than 25% relative humidity on sorbate levels in amber PETE bottles (grey bars, Example 2 Composition) and white HDPE bottles (black bars, composition similar to Comparative Example 1). DEFINITIONS The term “about” has its customary meaning, as defined in the USP, Section 8.20, which states that “about” indicates a quantity within 10%. A stated amount for a compositional ingredient that is not preceded by the term “about” does not mean that there is no variance for the stated term, as one of ordinary skill would understand that there is always some possibility of a degree of variability generally associated with experimental error. The concentration unit “% w/v” is a measure of the weight amount of a specified ingredient based on the total volume of the composition. As used herein, long-term storage conditions refers to storing a sample for a designated time at 25±2° C. and 40±5% relative humidity (“RH”). For simplicity, “long-term storage conditions,” is abbreviated as “long-term storage” or “long-term.” As used herein, accelerated storage conditions refers to storing a sample for a designated time at 40±2° C. and not more than 25% RH (i.e., 25% RH). For simplicity, “accelerated storage conditions,” is abbreviated as “accelerated storage” or “accelerated.” DETAILED DESCRIPTION Disclosed herein is a pharmaceutical composition, comprising: (a) spironolactone; (b) a xanthan gum; (c) an anti-foaming agent; (d) a preservative; (e) a dispersing agent; (f) a sweetening agent; (g) a flavoring agent; (h) optionally a buffer to maintain the pH of the pharmaceutical composition within a defined range; and (i) a sufficient amount of a water vehicle. The spironolactone may be present in an amount that ranges from 0.20% w/v to 1.0% w/v and all amounts in between, including, for example 0.3% w/v, 0.4% w/v, 0.5% w/v, 0.6% w/v, 0.7% w/v, 0.8% w/v, and 0.9% w/v. In a particular embodiment, spironolactone is present in an amount of 0.5% w/v. The xanthan gum may be present in an amount that ranges from 0.18% w/v to 0.36% w/v and all amounts in between, including, for example, 0.19% w/v, 0.20% w/v, 0.21% w/v, 0.22% w/v, 0.23% w/v, 0.24% w/v, 0.25% w/v, 0.26% w/v, 0.27% w/v, 0.28% w/v, 0.29% w/v, 0.30% w/v, 0.31% w/v, 0.32% w/v, 0.33% w/v, 0.34% w/v, 0.35% w/v. In a particular embodiment, xanthan gum is present in an amount of 0.25% w/v. The anti-foaming agent aids in the removal of air, such as entrapped air, from the pharmaceutical compositions described herein. Simethicone emulsion is an example of an anti-foaming agent. The simethicone emulsion may be present in an amount that ranges from 0.1% w/v to 0.6% w/v, and all amounts in between, including, for example, 0.2% w/v, 0.3% w/v, 0.4% w/v, 0.5% w/v. In a particular embodiment, simethicone emulsion is present in an amount of 0.2% w/v. The preservative aids in the preservation of the compositions described herein against certain microbial organisms, including one or more of E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, A. brasiliensis, B. cepacia, and C. albicans. Preservatives contemplated herein include methylparaben or propylparaben and the salts thereof (e.g., sodium, potassium, etc.), sodium benzoate, citric acid, benzoic acid, butylated hydroxytoluene, and butylated hydroxyanisole, sorbic acid, and a sorbate salt (e.g., sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, etc.) and the mixtures thereof). In a particular embodiment, the preservative is comprised of sorbic acid and a sorbate salt (e.g., sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, etc.). The amount of sorbic acid includes 0.025% w/v to 0.050% w/v, while the amount of sorbate salt includes 0.10% w/v to 0.20% w/v. In another particular embodiment, the preservative is comprised of 0.025% w/v to 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and 0.10% w/v to 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate, and in yet another embodiment, the preservative is comprised of 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate. One of ordinary skill will appreciate that the equilibrium pKa-value of sorbic acid and sorbate is about 4.8. Accordingly, the molar amounts of sorbic acid and sorbate in the pharmaceutical composition described herein depend on the pH of the composition. Therefore, one of ordinary skill would appreciate that the amount of sorbate (i.e., sorbic acid and potassium sorbate) in the pharmaceutical composition refers to the amount added during manufacture. The dispersing agent aids in dispersing spironolactone in the pharmaceutical compositions described herein. Contemplated dispersing agents, include, for example, propylene glycol, glycerin, or a mixture thereof. In a particular embodiment the dispersing agent is glycerin. In another embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition comprises from 1.8% w/v to 2.4% w/v glycerin, and all amounts in between, including, for example, 1.9% w/v, 2.0% w/v, 2.1% w/v, 2.2% w/v, and 2.3% w/v. Specifically contemplated amounts range from 1.9% w/v to 2.3% w/v glycerin, from 2.0% w/v to 2.2% w/v, or from 2.1% w/v to 2.2% w/v glycerin. The sweetening agent aids in the palatability of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein. Contemplated sweetening agents, include, for example, sucralose, ammonium glycyrrhizinate, acesulfame-K, aspartame, saccharin, a saccharin salt (e.g., sodium, potassium, calcium, etc.), sodium cyclamate, and mixtures thereof. The amount of sweetener can vary according to the desired sweetness and that amount of sweetening agent depends at least in part on the amount of spironolactone. The percentage amount of the sweetening agent contained in a pharmaceutical composition described herein ranges from 0.005% w/v to 10% w/v, from 0.05% w/v to 5% w/v, or from 0.1% to 1% (w/v). In a particular embodiment, the sweetening agent comprises from about 0.04% w/v to 0.6% w/v (more particularly 0.14% w/v) sodium saccharin and from 0.03% w/v to 0.04% w/v ammonium glycyrrhizinate, based on the content of glycyrrhizic acid. The flavoring agent likewise aids in the palatability of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein. Contemplated flavoring agents include, e.g., cherry, orange, banana, strawberry or other acceptable fruit flavors, or mixtures of cherry, orange, and other acceptable fruit flavors. The amount of flavoring agent can range, for example, from 0.1% w/v to 0.5% w/v. In a particular embodiment, the flavoring agent comprises a banana flavor in the amount of 0.3% w/v. The buffer, when present, serves to maintain the pH of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein within a defined range. Suitable buffers include those buffers described in, for example, G. L. Flynn, “Buffers—pH Control within Pharmaceutical Systems,” J. Parenteral Drug Assoc. (1980) 34(2): 139-162. A suitable buffer is one that is not only capable of maintaining a pH that ranges from 4.5 to 5.5, but also be compatible with the pharmaceutical composition described herein. Suitable contemplated buffers included, for example, acetate, aconitate, glutarate, glutamate, malate, succinate, tartrate, citrate, and phosphate. A specifically contemplated buffer is comprised of citric acid, monobasic citrate, dibasic citrate, and tribasic citrate, in which the mono-, di-, or tribasic citrate forms have associated counterions, and thus, may collectively be referred to as citrate salts, or in particular, a citrate salt. The associated counterions include, for example, sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium, etc. For instance, a particular citrate salt contemplated herein is sodium citrate, which may exist as a hydrated form, such as, a dihydrate or a pentahydrate. In a particular embodiment, the buffer molar concentration ranges from about 10 mM to about 100 mM, which corresponds to a buffer comprised of 0.07% w/v to 0.0.7% w/v citric acid and 0.18% w/v to 1.86% w/v of a citrate salt. One of ordinary skill will appreciate that the buffer concentration can be any numerical value between about 10 mM to about 100 mM, including for example, 15 mM, 20 mM, 25 mM, 30 mM, 35, mM, 45 mM, 50 mM, 55 mM, 60 mM, 65 mM, 70 mM, 75 mM, 80 mM, 85 mM, 90 mM and 95 mM. In another embodiment, the buffer is comprised of 0.20% w/v citric acid and 0.43% w/v sodium citrate dihydrate. One of ordinary skill will understand that the molar amounts of citric acid and sodium citrate, relative to each other, will depend on the pH of the composition. Therefore, one of ordinary skill would appreciate that the amount of citrate (i.e., citric acid and sodium citrate) in the pharmaceutical composition refer to the amount added during manufacture. In a particular embodiment, the pH of the pharmaceutical composition ranges from about 4.5 to about 5.5, from about 4.8 to about 5.5, from about 4.8 to about 5.4, from about 4.8 to about 5.3, or from about 4.8 to about 5.0. The pharmaceutical compositions described herein have an acceptable viscosity that ranges from 100 cP to 300 cP, and all amounts in between, including, for example, 110 cP, 120 cP, 130 cP, 140 cP, 150 cP, 160 cP, 170 cP, 180 cP, 190 cP, 200 cP, 210 cP, 220 cP, 230 cP, 240 cP, 250 cP, 260 cP, 270 cP, 280 cP, and 290 cP. In a particular embodiment, the viscosity of the pharmaceutical composition ranges from 130 cP to 170 cP. Pharmaceutical compositions described herein are stable when stored in a closed container, as evidenced by, for example, the amount of spironolactone being 100.0±10.0% of labeled content (“l.c.”). Data shows that pharmaceutical compositions described herein have a spironolactone content that is 100±10% l.c. when stored under long-term conditions for 12-months regardless whether the container is stored in an upright position or on its side. Data also shows that pharmaceutical compositions described herein have a spironolactone content that is 100±10% l.c. when stored under accelerated conditions for 6-months regardless whether the container is stored in an upright position or on its side. It was projected that pharmaceutical compositions described herein have a spironolactone content of 100±10% l.c. for at least 24-months, and in other instances of at least for at least 36-months. The stability may also be measured by the amount of canrenone detected after long-term storage. For instance, pharmaceutical compositions described herein have an amount of canrenone that is: ≦2.0% after 24-months, ≦1.0% after 24-months, ≦0.5% after 24-months, or ≦0.3% after 24-months after long-term storage. It is contemplated that the pharmaceutical compositions described herein are stored in a polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) bottle. In a particular embodiment, the PETE bottle is amber. In another embodiment, the amber PETE bottle is enclosed using a suitable closure. In yet another embodiment, the enclosed, amber PETE bottle has a volume of 4 oz. or 16 oz. Prior to dispensing the pharmaceutical composition to an amber PETE bottle, it may be desirable to purge with an inert gas, such as, nitrogen, and evacuate said bottle under reduced pressure. It may also be desirable to introduce an inert gas, such as, nitrogen, into the headspace of the bottle once it is filled with the pharmaceutical composition. It was discovered that spironolactone resuspendability is an important consideration for pharmaceutical compositions described herein. For a dosage form containing suspended spironolactone, sedimentation can occur after storage for a period of time and that sedimentation results in a reduced level of dosage uniformity. For example, after storage for a period of time when the suspended spironolactone settles at the bottom of the container, the solution above the sediment contains a lower amount of spironolactone (based on the original label content) when compared to the originally prepared dosage form. This is especially problematic for compounded dosage forms typically prepared in the pharmacy. Oftentimes, it is difficult to resuspend the settled solid at the bottom of the container once the solid settles. If settling occurs, spironolactone dosage uniformity is unknown. This may be problematic when administration requires pouring a certain volume of the dosage form from the container. In order to deliver the appropriate dosage amount, it is critical that the spironolactone be uniformly distributed throughout the entire volume of the dosage form. Otherwise, the patient may receive a lower (or a higher) dosage amount than what is desired. Pharmaceutical compositions described herein exhibit satisfactory dosage uniformity and are ready to use with minimal shaking, as determined by the resuspendability test described below. A satisfactory dosage uniformity is based on the original label content (l.c.) of the spironolactone contained within pharmaceutical compositions described herein. In particular, a satisfactory dosage uniformity is one where the amount of spironolactone throughout the composition is about 100% l.c. (i.e., 100±10%). A satisfactory dosage uniformity is obtained within about 10 seconds of shaking, within about 5 to about 10 seconds of shaking, and within about 5 seconds of shaking regardless of the storage conditions. That is, an amount of spironolactone of about 100% l.c. may be achieved within about 10 seconds of shaking, within about 5 to about 10 seconds of shaking, or within about 5 seconds of shaking. A first embodiment is a pharmaceutical composition, comprising: (a) 0.50% w/v of spironolactone; (b) from 0.18% w/v to 0.36% w/v of a xanthan gum; (c) an anti-foaming agent; (d) a preservative; (e) a dispersing agent; (f) a sweetening agent; (g) a flavoring agent; (h) optionally a sufficient amount of a buffer to maintain the pH of the pharmaceutical composition from 4.5 to 5.5; and (i) a sufficient amount of a water vehicle. In a first aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of sorbic acid and a sorbate salt; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of glycerin; and the saccharin salt, a glycyrrhizinate salt, and combinations thereof. In a second aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of from 0.025% w/v to 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and from 0.10% w/v to 0.20% w/v of a sorbate salt; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of (f) 1.8% w/v to 2.4% w/v glycerin; and the sweetening agent (f) is comprised of a sweetener selected from the group consisting of a saccharin salt, a glycyrrhizinate salt, and combinations thereof. In a third aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of from 0.025% w/v to 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and from 0.10% w/v to 0.20% w/v of a sorbate salt; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 1.8% w/v to 2.4% w/v glycerin; and the sweetening agent (f) comprises a saccharin (sodium, potassium, ammonium, calcium) salt and a glycyrrhizinate salt; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of citric acid and a citrate salt. In a fourth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of from 0.025% w/v to 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and from 0.10% w/v to 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 1.8% w/v to 2.4% w/v glycerin; and the sweetening agent (f) comprises sodium saccharin and ammonium glycyrrhizinate; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of citric acid and a citrate salt. In a fifth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of from 0.025% w/v to 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and from 0.10% w/v to 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 1.8% w/v to 2.4% w/v glycerin; the sweetening agent (f) comprises sodium saccharin and ammonium glycyrrhizinate; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of from 0.17% w/v to 0.24% w/v citric acid and from 0.36% w/v to 0.48% w/v of a citrate salt. In a sixth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of from 0.025% w/v to 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and from 0.10% w/v to 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 1.9% w/v to 2.3% w/v glycerin; and the sweetening agent (f) comprises 0.14% w/v sodium saccharin and from 0.03% w/v to 0.04% w/v ammonium glycyrrhizinate; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of from 0.17% w/v to 0.24% w/v citric acid and from 0.36% w/v to 0.48% w/v of a citrate salt. In a seventh aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 2.0% w/v to 2.2% w/v glycerin; and the sweetening agent (f) comprises 0.14% w/v sodium saccharin and from 0.03% w/v to 0.04% w/v ammonium glycyrrhizinate; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of from 0.17% w/v to 0.24% w/v citric acid and from 0.36% w/v to 0.48% w/v of a citrate salt. In an eighth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of first embodiment, the viscosity ranges from 100 cP to 300 cP. It was discovered that the viscosity of pharmaceutical compositions described herein is an important consideration. For instance, a viscosity less than 100 cP may be problematic with respect to the resuspendability of the pharmaceutical composition. Not to be bound by theory, it is believed that a viscosity less than 100 cP promotes sedimentation. Further, a viscosity greater than 300 cP results in a solution that is too viscous, which may be problematic with respect to product dispensation, i.e., the solution may become too thick to dispense easily. In a ninth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 2.1% w/v to 2.2% w/v glycerin; the sweetening agent (f) comprises 0.14% w/v sodium saccharin and from 0.03% w/v to 0.04% w/v ammonium glycyrrhizinate; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of 0.20% w/v citric acid and 0.43% w/v sodium citrate. In a tenth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, xanthan gum is present in an amount of 0.25% w/v; the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 2.1% w/v to 2.2% w/v glycerin; the sweetening agent (f) comprises 0.14% w/v sodium saccharin and from 0.03% w/v to 0.04% w/v ammonium glycyrrhizinate; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of 0.20% w/v citric acid and 0.43% w/v sodium citrate. In an eleventh aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, xanthan gum is present in an amount of 0.25% w/v; the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 2.1% w/v to 2.2% w/v glycerin; the sweetening agent (f) comprises 0.14% w/v sodium saccharin and from 0.03% w/v to 0.04% w/v ammonium glycyrrhizinate; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of 0.20% w/v citric acid and 0.43% w/v sodium citrate and the viscosity of the composition ranges from 130 cP to 170 cP. In a twelfth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, xanthan gum is present in an amount of 0.25% w/v; the anti-foaming agent (c) is comprised of 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; the preservative (d) is comprised of 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; the dispersing agent (e) is comprised of from 2.1% w/v to 2.2% w/v glycerin; the sweetening agent (f) comprises 0.14% w/v sodium saccharin and from 0.03% w/v to 0.04% w/v ammonium glycyrrhizinate; and wherein the pharmaceutical composition comprises the buffer comprised of 0.20% w/v citric acid and 0.43% w/v sodium citrate, and the viscosity of the composition ranges from 130 cP to 170 cP, and the pH of the pharmaceutical composition ranges from about 4.5 to about 5.5. A thirteenth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment is directed to an enclosed, amber polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) bottle comprising the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment. A fourteenth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment is directed to an enclosed, amber polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) bottle comprising the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, wherein the volume of said bottle is 4 oz. (about 118 mL) or 16 oz (about 473 mL). In a fifteenth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the shake time to achieve a uniform amount (i.e., about 100%1.c.) of spironolactone occurs within about 10 seconds. In a sixteenth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the shake time to achieve a uniform amount (i.e., about 100% l.c.) of spironolactone occurs within about 5 to about 10 seconds. In a seventeenth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, the shake time to achieve a uniform amount (i.e., about 100% l.c.) of spironolactone occurs within about 5 seconds. A second embodiment is directed to a pharmaceutical composition comprising: (a) 0.50% w/v spironolactone; (b) 0.25% w/v of a xanthan gum; (c) 0.20% w/v of a simethicone emulsion; (d) a preservative comprised of 0.050% w/v of sorbic acid and 0.20% w/v of potassium sorbate; (e) from 2.1% w/v to 2.2% w/v glycerin; (f) a sweetening agent containing 0.14% w/v sodium saccharin and from 0.03% w/v to 0.04% w/v ammonium glycyrrhizinate; (g) 0.30% w/v of a fruit flavoring agent; (h) a buffer comprised of 0.20% w/v citric acid and 0.43% w/v sodium citrate; and (i) a sufficient amount of a water vehicle. In a first aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition has a pH of from 4.5 to 5.5. In a second aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition has a pH of from 4.8 to 5.2. In a third aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition has a viscosity that ranges from 100 cP to 300 cP. In a fourth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition has a viscosity that ranges from 100 cP to 300 cP. In a fourth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, the pharmaceutical composition has a viscosity that ranges from 130 cP to 170 cP. A fifth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment is directed to an enclosed, amber polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) bottle comprising the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment. A sixth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment is directed to an enclosed, amber polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) bottle comprising the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, wherein the volume of said bottle is 4 oz. (about 118 mL) or 16 oz (about 473 mL). In a seventh aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, the shake time to achieve a uniform amount (i.e., about 100% l.c.) of spironolactone occurs within about 10 seconds. In an eight aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, the shake time to achieve a uniform amount (i.e., about 100% l.c.) of spironolactone occurs within about 5 to about 10 seconds. In a ninth aspect of the pharmaceutical composition of the second embodiment, the shake time to achieve a uniform amount (i.e., about 100% l.c.) of spironolactone occurs within about 5 seconds. A third embodiment is directed to a process for preparing the pharmaceutical composition of the first embodiment, which comprises: (1) mixing the xanthan gum, anti-foaming agent, preservative, a portion of the sweetening agent, and, optionally, the buffer, in water in a first container; (2) mixing the spironolactone, the dispersing agent, and the remaining portion of the sweetening agent in a second container; (3) transferring the contents of the second container to the first container followed by mixing the contents of the first container; (4) adding the flavoring agent to the contents of the first container from step (3); (5) adding water to the first container of step (3) and mixing the contents of the first container; (6) optionally, adding a sufficient amount of buffer to the first container to maintain the pH of the composition from 4.8 to 5.0; and (7) dispensing the contents of the first container from step (5) or the contents of the first container into an amber polyethylene terephthalate bottle. A first aspect of the third embodiment is directed to a pharmaceutical product prepared by the process of the third embodiment. A second aspect of the third embodiment is directed to a pharmaceutical product prepared by any one of the exemplified embodiments described herein. According to the above-mentioned ALDACTONE® (spironolactone) Tablet Prescribing Information, ALDACTONE® (spironolactone) is indicated: (i) in the management of primary hyperaldosteronism; (ii) in the short-term preoperative treatment of patients with primary hyperaldosteronism; (iii) in the long-term maintenance therapy for patients with discrete aldosterone-producing adrenal adenomas who are judged to be poor operative risks or who decline surgery; and (iv) in the long-term maintenance therapy for patients with bilateral micro or macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (idiopathic hyperaldosteronism). ALDACTONE (spironolactone) is also indicated for edematous conditions for patients with congestive heart failure, for the management of edema and sodium retention when the patient is only partially responsive to, or is intolerant of, other therapeutic measures. ALDACTONE® is further indicated for patients with congestive heart failure taking digitalis when other therapies are considered inappropriate. ALDACTONE® (spironolactone) is also indicated for the treatment of hypertension, to lower blood pressure; for the treatment of patients with hypokalemia when other measures are considered inappropriate or inadequate. ALDACTONE® is also indicated for the prophylaxis of hypokalemia in patients taking digitalis when other measures are considered inadequate or inappropriate. ALDACTONE® (spironolactone) is also indicated for the treatment of severe heart failure (NYHA class III-IV), so as to increase survival, and to reduce the need for hospitalization for heart failure when used in addition to standard therapy. One of ordinary skill would understand that the pharmaceutical compositions described herein are useful for the indications associated with the ALDACTONE® drug product. One of ordinary skill would also be able to consult the ALDACTONE® prescribing information or rely on sound judgment so as to ascertain a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical compositions described herein. A fourth embodiment is directed to a method for the treatment of a patient in need thereof in a manner consistent with any one of the approved indications associated with ALDACTONE®, which comprises administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of the first or second embodiment. A fifth embodiment is directed to a method for the treatment of hypertension in a subject in need thereof, which comprises administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of the first or second embodiment. In a first aspect of the fifth embodiment, the composition is administered orally or by a nasogastric tube. A sixth embodiment is directed to a method for the treatment of severe heart failure in a subject in need thereof, which comprises administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of the first or second embodiment; wherein the composition is administered orally or by a nasogastric tube. A seventh embodiment is directed to a method for the treatment of a patient suffering from a skin disorder, which comprises administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of the pharmaceutical composition of the first or second embodiment, wherein said skin disorder is selected from the group consisting of acne, hirsutism, androgenic alopecia, rosacea, and combinations thereof. An eighth embodiment is directed to a method of treating a patient having a condition, comprising administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising spironolactone, wherein the liquid formulation provides for a spironolactone exposure that is about 15 to about 37% greater than a spironolactone drug exposure obtained when orally administering to a subject a tablet formulation comprising spironolactone, and wherein the condition is one or more of heart failure, edema, hypertension, and a skin disorder selected from the group consisting of acne, hirsutism, androgenic alopecia, rosacea, and combinations thereof. In a first aspect of the eighth embodiment, the liquid formulation comprises spironolactone at a concentration of 5 mg/mL. In a second aspect of the eighth embodiment, the liquid formulation comprises 25 mg spironolactone and the tablet formulation comprises 25 mg spironolactone, and the liquid formulation provides for a spironolactone exposure that is about 15% greater than a spironolactone drug exposure obtained when orally administering to a subject a tablet formulation comprising spironolactone. In a third aspect of the eighth embodiment, the liquid formulation comprises 100 mg spironolactone and the tablet formulation comprises 100 mg spironolactone, and the liquid formulation provides for a spironolactone exposure that is about 37% greater than a spironolactone drug exposure obtained when orally administering to a subject a tablet formulation comprising spironolactone. In a fourth aspect of the eighth embodiment, the edema is associated with hepatic cirrhosis, congestive heart failure, or nephrotic syndrome. Liquid formulations described herein unexpectedly provide improved bioavailability when compared to ALDACTONE® tablets permitting a dose reduction in the amount of administered spironolactone as shown in the ninth to twelfth embodiments. A ninth embodiment is directed to a method for the treatment of heart failure in a patient, which comprises administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising 20 mg or 37.5 mg spironolactone once daily or once every other day, wherein said patient has a serum potassium level of ≦5.0 mEq/L and an estimated glomular filtration rate (eGFR) >50 mL/min/1.73 m2. In a first aspect of the ninth embodiment, the method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 20 mg spironolactone once daily. In a second aspect of the ninth embodiment, the method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 20 mg spironolactone once every other day. In a third aspect of the ninth embodiment, the method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 37.5 mg spironolactone once daily. As a point of reference, the ALDACTONE® (spironolactone) tablets prescribing information, as of October 22, 2014, recommends administering ALDACTONE® (spironolactone, 25 mg) tablet once daily for the treatment of severe heart failure if the patient's serum potassium is ≦5.0 mEq/L. In contrast, the liquid formulation described herein provides for an administration of 20 mg spironolactone once daily for the treatment of severe heart failure if the patient's serum potassium level of ≦5.0 mEq/L, which corresponds to a dose reduction of 20%. A tenth embodiment is directed to a method for the treatment of heart failure in a patient, which comprises administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising 10 mg spironolactone once daily or once every other day, wherein said patient has a serum potassium level of ≦5.0 mEq/L and an estimated glomular filtration rate (eGFR) between 30 to 50 mL/min/1.73 m2. An eleventh embodiment is directed to a method for the treatment of edema associated with hepatic cirrhosis in a patient, which comprises administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising 75 mg to 300 mg spironolactone daily, in a single or a divided dose. In a first aspect of the eleventh embodiment, the method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 75 mg to 150 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. In a second aspect of the eleventh embodiment, the method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 75 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. In a third aspect of the eleventh embodiment, the method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 150 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. A twelfth embodiment is directed to a method for the treatment of hypertension in a patient, which comprises administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising 20 mg to 75 mg spironolactone daily, in a single or a divided dose. In a first aspect of the twelfth embodiment, the method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 20 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. In a second aspect of the twelfth embodiment, the method comprises administering to the patient the liquid formulation comprising 75 mg spironolactone, in a single or a divided dose. In a third aspect of the twelfth embodiment, the hypertension is essential hypertension. In an aspect of any one of the eighth through twelfth embodiments, the liquid formulation is a ready-to-use liquid formulation, comprising: (a) 0.50% w/v of spironolactone; (b) from 0.18% w/v to 0.36% w/v of a xanthan gum; (c) optionally a sufficient amount of a buffer to maintain the pH of the pharmaceutical composition from 4.5 to 5.5; and (d) a sufficient amount of a water vehicle, wherein the formulation exhibits a spironolactone content of 100±10% labeled content for about 24-months when stored at 25±2° C. and 40±5% relative humidity. Examples Spironolactone is commercially available as a micronized or unmicronized solid. The median (volume) particle size of commercially available unmicronized spironolactone was 7.47 μm, 18.3 μm, and 35.5 μm for D(v,0.1), D(v,0.5), and D(v,0.9), respectively. The manufacturer's specifications for the micronized spironolactone is <10 μm (not less than 90.0%) and <25 μm (not less than 99.0%). The micronized spironolactone used in the examples described herein, e.g., Example 2, had a particle size of about 0.42 μm, about 3.64 μm, and about 9.42 μm, for D(v,0.1), D(v,0.5), and D(v,0.9), respectively. A dissolution profile for unmicronized spironolactone was slower compared to micronized spironolactone. For instance, in a dissolution study done in a manner consistent with USP <711>, the unmicronized spironolactone at 5-minutes resulted in about 50% of labeled content dissolved, while at the same time the micronized spironolactone resulted in about 90% of labeled content dissolved. Accordingly, in the exemplified embodiments that follow, spironolactone refers to micronized spironolactone. Xanthan gum (i.e., Xanthan Gum, NF) is a water soluble hydrocolloid that acts as the suspending agent in the composition by increasing the viscosity of the continuous (aqueous) phase which reduces sedimentation. Xanthan gum is commercially available, used as purchased, and complies with USP-NF requirements. Simethicone Emulsion is used as an anti-foaming agent in the compositions described herein. It is a water-dilutable, non-ionic emulsion containing about 30% simethicone, about 1-5% silica gel, about 1-5% polyethylene glycol stearate, and water. Simethicone Emulsion is commercially available, used as purchased, and complies with USP-NF requirements. Sorbic acid is an antimicrobial preservative. Sorbic Acid is commercially available, used as purchased, and complies with USP-NF requirements. Potassium Sorbate is an antimicrobial preservative. Potassium Sorbate is commercially available, used as purchased, and complies with USP-NF requirements. Saccharin sodium is a sweetening agent used to improve the palatability of the compositions described herein. Saccharin Sodium is commercially available, used as purchased, and complies with USP-NF requirements. Citric Acid is a pH modifier (buffering agent) used to maintain the composition pH from about 4.5 to about 5.5. Citric Acid is commercially available, used as purchased, and complies with USP-NF requirements. Sodium Citrate Dihydrate is a pH modifier (buffering agent) used to maintain the composition pH of about 4.5 to about 5.5. Sodium Citrate Dihydrate is commercially available, used as purchased, and complies with USP-NF requirements. One of ordinary skill would recognize that other forms of citrate may be used in the compositions described herein. Magnasweet 110 (i.e., sweetener) is a sweetening agent used for masking after-tastes and enhancing sweetness. Magnasweet 110 contains from 8.5 to 10% w/w monoammonium glycyrrhizinate, as measured by the content of glycyrrhizic acid, in a glycerin vehicle having a specific gravity of about 1.27. A typical amount of monoammonium glycyrrhizinate, as measured by the content of glycyrrhizic acid, found in Magnasweet 110 is about 9.9% w/w. Magnasweet 110 is commercially available and used as purchased. Glycerin is used as a dispersing agent for the spironolactone. Glycerin is commercially available, used as purchased, and complies with USP-NF requirements. Artificial banana flavor (i.e., fruit flavor) is a flavor used to improve the palatability of the composition. In addition to the flavoring substances, artificial banana flavor contains a vehicle comprised of propylene glycol (70-80%), water (5-15%), and ethyl alcohol (1-10%). Artificial banana flavor is commercially available and used as purchased. Purified water, which meets USP-NF requirements, is used as the primary solvent for the excipients and diluent for the compositions described herein. Specific gravity was measured in a manner consistent with USP <841>, Method I, using a calibrated pycnometer at a temperature of 25° C. being careful to exclude foam and air bubbles. Dosage uniformity was measured in a manner consistent with USP <905>. Dissolution was measured in a manner consistent with USP <711>reporting the amount of dissolved spironolactone as a percent of labeled content with an associated relative standard devision (“RSD”). Amounts of spironolactone, related impurities (e.g., canrenone and β-spironolactone), and sorbate were determined by HPLC. Resuspendability tests for a given sample stored under long-term and accelerated conditions. Analysis of samples is performed using a nominal concentration of about 0.50 mg/ml spironolactone. The following procedure was employed for the resuspendability test: (1) Shake pharmaceutical composition (spironolactone concentration of 5.0 mg/mL) composition thoroughly for 5 seconds, 10 seconds and 15 seconds. Invert the bottle to aid in mixing. (Additional time points may be added if necessary). Note: shake times are cumulative. Therefore, after the first shake of 5 seconds a sample aliquot is withdrawn (5 second sample), then the sample is shaken for an additional 5 seconds to obtain a 10 second aliquot and so on. (2) Transfer approximately 5.0 mL of suspension after each shake time, accurately weighed, to a 50-mL volumetric flask. (3) Dilute to volume with Diluent and mix well. (4) Filter a portion of the sample through a filter (Whatman 0.45 μm Nylon with glass microfiber (GMF) or equivalent) discarding at least the first 2 mLs. Samples were assayed by HPLC using a Waters Sunfire C-18, 10 um, 4.6 mm×150 mm column (or its equivalent) operating at a column temperature of 40° C. (sample Temperature: Ambient) with a mobile phase comprised of 50:50% v/v acetonitrile:water operating at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min and an injection volume of 5 μL. Spironolactone elutes with an approximate retention time of about 7.5 min and the chromatogram peak is detected using ultraviolet light at a wavelength of 238 nM (Attenuation: 1 AUFS). A typical chromatogram runs for 10 minutes. The reported amount of spironolactone (expressed as a % of the spironolactone labeled content) is determined by HPLC by reference to a suitable calibration curve. Particle size measurements were performed on spironolactone (prior to composition manufacture) and on the particulate matter present in the compositions described herein by laser diffraction. The reported particle sizes D(v, 0.1), D(v, 0.5), and D(v, 0.9) relate to the mass median diameter (in μm) of the volume of distribution of the given particles. For instance, D(v, 0.1) (in μm) indicates that 10% of the sample mass is smaller than that value and 90% larger than that value. D(v, 0.5) (in μm) indicates that 50% of the sample mass is smaller than that value and 50% of the sample mass is larger than that value. Finally, D(v, 0.9) (in μm) indicates that 90% of the sample mass is smaller than that value and 10% of the sample mass is larger than that value. Alternatively, particle size can be estimated using optical microscopy. Viscosity measurements were made in a manner consistent with USP <912>with the following instrument parameters: Helipath T-Bar (S91) with dimensions of 1 mm thick and 48 mm across, spindle speed (60 rpm or 573 rad/sec), 600 mL test substance container having an inner diameter of 85 mm. Results are obtained at 25±1° C. and are presented with units of centi-Poise (cP). pH was measured in a manner consistent with USP <791>. Typically, a sample was prepared by shaking a sample container for at least 15 seconds with inversion of the container so as to aid sample mixing. A sufficient amount of mixed sample was transferred into a suitable vessel so as to measure the pH. Anti-microbial effectiveness testing was performed by an independent laboratory in a manner consistent with USP <51>. Microbiological examination was performed by an independent laboratory in a manner consistent with USP <61> and USP <62>. Unless stated otherwise, the bottles used for the compositions described herein preferably comprise a polyethylene terephthalate (PETE) resin having an amber color. The amber bottles described herein have volumes of 4 oz. (about 118 mL) or 16 oz (about 473 mL) and have an ultraviolet light (290-450 nm) transmission less than about 10%. The bottles containing the compositions described herein include caps so as to maintain an enclosed composition. Comparative Example 1 Methylcellulose-Containing Composition A composition similar to U.S. Pat. No. 4,837,211 was prepared. A 40 L batch was manufactured and packaged into 16 oz. amber PETE bottles. The compositional makeup is summarized in Table 1. TABLE 1 Compositional Makeup of Comparative Example 1 Ingredients/Quality Standards mg % w/v Spironolactone 5.00 0.500 Methylcellulose 12.00 1.200 Simethicone Emulsion 2.0 0.20 Sorbic Acid 0.50 0.050 Potassium Sorbate 2.00 0.200 Saccharin Sodium 1.35 0.135 Sweetener 0.56 0.056 Glycerin 17.64 1.720 Fruit Flavor 2.00 0.200 Purified Water QS to 1 mL QS The amount of simethicone emulsion in Comparative Example 1 is 0.20% w/v, while the amount of simethicone emulsion found in the composition described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,837,211 is 0.067% w/v. The spironolactone was dispersed in glycerin and sweetener. Separately, a solution containing methylcellulose (Methocel A4C) in water was cooled to 15° C. for 30 minutes to allow complete hydration of the methylcellulose. The product assayed at 99.2%, 101.5%, and 99.9% for beginning, middle, and end of the packaging process. Table 2 summarizes the observed stability data for the composition of Comparative Example 1 under accelerated and long-term storage conditions. TABLE 2 Observed Stability Data for Composition of Comparative Example 1. Accelerated Long-Term Attribute Initial 1-mo 2-mo 3-mo 3-mo PHYSICAL INSPECTION Conforms Conforms Conforms Conforms Conforms pH 5.043 5.12 5.12 5.14 5.14 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 1.0093 1.0096 1.0094 1.0097 1.0096 DISSOLUTION <711> 5 min mean 89 95 97 95 95 % RSD 3.3 0.9 2.4 0.5 1.8 10 min mean 92 99 103 100 99 % RSD 3.5 0.5 0.4 1.0 0.4 15 min mean 93 100 103 100 100 % RSD 3.8 0.4 0.0 0.5 0.5 30 min mean 93 100 103 101 100 % RSD 3.4 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.4 45 min mean 93 101 104 101 100 % RSD 3.8 0.5 0.4 0.4 1.3 60 min mean 93 100 105 101 99 % RSD 3.4 0.4 1.2 0.4 2.9 PARTICLE SIZEa D(v, 0.1) μm 2.38, 2.36 2.18, 2.18 2.14, 2.49 2.15, 2.13 2.13, 2.19 D(v, 0.5) μm 8.86, 8.83 7.97, 7.94 7.93, 8.90 8.03, 7.96 7.60, 7.67 D(v, 0.9) μm 25.9, 26.1 27.3, 29.0 26.9, 29.6 22.3, 22.1 2.1, 20.1 ASSAY (% l.c.) 101.40, 101.21 99.34 100.51 90.7 83.4 REL IMPURITIES (%) Canrenone ND 0.04 ND 0.06 0.03 Unidentified ND ND ND ND ND Total ND 0.04 ND 0.06 0.03 PRESERVATIVE 102.14 95.33 94.39 94.27 94.52 (% Sorbate) VISCOSITY <912> 76.3 45.3 55.0 45.3 46.9 (cP) aReported particle size is of the solid material in the composition. ASSAY results at three months for accelerated and long-term storage conditions are suspected to be low due to insufficient shaking of the product during sample preparation. It was determined that the method sample preparation required shaking the sample (inverted) for 60 seconds. The low ASSAY values were not confirmed by the 3 month DISSOLUTION results or the 3 month time point for the Resuspendability Tests. These aberrant results highlight the importance of resuspendability of the product. Resuspendability tests were performed on the product during stability. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the required shake time to provide a uniform product after accelerated (40° C./<25% RH) and long-term (25° C./40% RH) storage conditions. Table 3 summarizes the assayed amounts (% labeled content (“l.c.”)) of spironolactone observed during the Resuspendability Tests. Resuspendability Tests (after long-term storage) show upwards of 60-120 seconds of vigorous shaking required to resuspend the spironolactone. This amount of shaking is not a desirable attribute for suspensions because it can lead to poor patient compliance. Further, inadequate resuspension could lead to potentially unwanted dosing errors. In particular, the low viscosities observed for the Comparative Example 1 composition are believed to result in an increase in sedimentation. Thus, it is clear that a balance between viscosity and sedimentation must be achieved highlighting the importance of a certain viscosity range. In view of the excessive shake time required for this composition, efforts were made to identify a suitable suspending agent. As a part of this effort, seven different compositions containing varying amounts of suspending agents (methylcellulose, xanthan gum, and magnesium aluminometasilicate) were prepared and evaluated. Table 4 summarizes the compositional makeup of seven different compositions. TABLE 4 Compositional Makeup of Comparative Examples 2-8 Comparative Examples 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Ingredients % w/v % w/v % w/v % w/v % w/v % w/v % w/v Spironolactone 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 0.500 Methylcellulose 1.20 1.20 1.20 — — — — Xanthan Gum 0.25 0.13 — 0.13 0.25 0.25 0.25 Microcrystalline Cellulosea — — — 2.40 — — — MASd — — 0.500 — — 1.00 0.50 Simethicone Emulsion 0.20 0.20 — 0.20 0.20 — 0.20 Sorbic Acid 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 Potassium Sorbate 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 Saccharin Sodium 0.135 0.135 0.135 0.135 0.135 — 0.135 Sweetenerb 0.25 0.50 0.50 0.50 0.50 — 0.50 Glycerin 1.764 1.764 1.764 1.764 1.764 15.00 5.00 Fruit Flavorc 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.300 0.30 — Propylene Glycol — — — — — 5.00 5.00 Sucralose — — — — — 0.10 — Citric Acid Anhydrous — — — — — — 0.20 Sodium Citrate Dihydrate — — — — — — 0.05 Purified Water QS QS QS QS QS QS QS aMicrocrystalline Cellulose (Avicel RC-611) bMAS (amorphous magnesium aluminometasilicate, Neusilin ®). cSweetener (Magnasweet 110) dFruit Flavor (Banana Flavor) In Comparative Example 2, a 1-L batch containing xanthan gum (0.25%) was added to the Comparative Example 1 composition. No sedimentation was noted after three days, but the product was very viscous and therefore is not a viable composition. Entrapped air bubbles were also noted in the suspension after three days which could lead to dosing errors. In Comparative Example 3, a 1-L batch containing xanthan gum (0.13%) was added to the Comparative Example 1 composition. No sedimentation was noted after several days. The suspension appeared to be more viscous than the composition of Comparative Example 1 but acceptable. This is a potentially viable composition. In Comparative Example 4, a 1-L batch containing amorphous magnesium aluminometasilicate (Neusilin®) was added to the Comparative Example 1 composition. After 24 hours, the sedimentation caked at the bottom and did not resuspend easily. This is not a viable composition. In Comparative Example 5, methylcellulose used in the Comparative Example 1 composition was replaced with xanthan gum (0.13%) and microcrystalline cellulose (Avicel RC-611 at 2.4%) for a 1-L batch. No sedimentation was noted. After 24 hours the suspension became very viscous and non-pourable. Upon shaking, the suspension exhibited shear-thinning properties and became pourable. This is not an ideal composition in terms of practical use. In Comparative Example 6, methylcellulose used in Comparative Example 1 was replaced with xanthan gum (0.25%) for a 1-L batch. The suspension was elegant and no sedimentation was noted visually after several days. The product appeared to be easily resuspendable. This is a potentially viable composition. In Comparative Example 7, methylcellulose used in Comparative Example 1 was replaced with xanthan gum (0.25%) and further included magnesium aluminometasilicate (Neusilin®), glycerin, sucralose, propylene glycol, sorbic acid, potassium sorbate, banana flavor, citric acid, sodium citrate, and water in the stated amounts for a 1-L batch. There was no sedimentation noted but significant foaming (entrapped air bubbles) was visually present after several days. This is not a viable composition. In Comparative Example 8, methylcellulose used in Comparative Example 1 was replaced with xanthan gum (0.25%) and further included magnesium aluminometasilicate (Neusilinc), glycerin, simethicone, sweetener, sodium saccharin, propylene glycol, sorbic acid, potassium sorbate, sodium citrate, citric acid, banana flavor, and water for a 1-L batch. There was no sedimentation noted after one day. This is a potentially viable composition. In view of the observations gleaned from the compositions described in Comparative Examples 2-8, xanthan gum at approximately 0.25% appeared to be a suspending agent that provided an elegant easily resuspendable suspension. An added advantage realized by xanthan gum comes from process considerations. For instance, methylcellulose should be sufficiently hydrated prior to use, which requires heating and cooling an aqueous composition containing methycellulose. There is no such added requirement for xanthan gum. Further development work focuses on the addition of xanthan gum and removal of methylcellulose. Example 1 Composition that Replaces Methylcellulose with Xanthan Gum Based on previously mentioned development work, xanthan gum was selected as a potential suspending agent instead of methylcellulose. Table 5 summarizes the compositional makeup of the Example 1 composition. TABLE 5 Compositional Makeup of Example 1 Composition Ingredients/Quality Standards mg % w/v g/Batch Spironolactone 5.000 0.5000 50.00 Xanthan Gum 2.500 0.2500 25.00 Simethicone Emulsion 2.000 0.2000 20.00 Sorbic Acid 0.5000 0.05000 5.000 Potassium Sorbate 2.000 0.2000 20.00 Saccharin Sodium 1.350 0.1350 13.50 Sweetener 5.000 0.5000 50.00 Glycerin 17.64 1.764 176.4 Fruit Flavor 3.000 0.3000 30.00 Purified Water, USP QS to 1 mL QS QS to 10 L A 10 L batch was manufactured as follows. Xanthan gum and 7.0 kg of purified water were mixed at 1000 rpm in a first container for 15 minutes. Simethicone emulsion was added to the first container containing xanthan gum, and after addition, the composition was mixed at 1000 rpm for 5 minutes. Next, sorbic acid, potassium sorbate, and sodium saccharin were added to said first container followed by mixing at 900 rpm for 10 minutes. In a separate container, sweetener, glycerin, and 125 g of purified water were mixed at 900 rpm for 1 minute. To said second container, spironolactone was dispersed by mixing at 550 rpm for 5 minutes. The contents of the second container were then transferred to the first container, which was followed by the addition of fruit flavor. The contents of the first container after fruit flavor addition were mixed at 950 rpm for 2 minutes. Finally, the remaining amount of purified water was added to the first container and said contents were mixed at 950 rpm for 15 minutes. The contents of the first container were then packaged into 4 oz. amber PETE bottles. Again, due to the removal of methylcellulose (Methocel A4C), the process is simplified since heating and cooling is not required for xanthan gum. Table 6 summarizes the observed stability data for the Example 1 composition under accelerated and long-term storage. TABLE 6 Observed Stability Data for Example 1 under Accelerated and Long-Term Storage Conditions. Accelerated Long-Term Attribute Initial 1-mo 2-mo 3-mo 3-mo PHYSICAL INSPECTION Conforms Conforms Conforms Conforms Conforms pH 5.044 5.046 5.037 5.005 5.092 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 1.008 1.008 1.007 1.008 1.008 DISSOLUTION <711> 5 min mean 89 90 91 93 92 % RSD 3.6 0.7 0.9 0.4 0.0 10 min mean 96 97 98 99 98 % RSD 2.6 0.5 0.6 0.0 0.4 15 min mean 97 98 99 101 100 % RSD 2.6 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.6 30 min mean 98 100 99 101 100 % RSD 2.5 0.0 0.4 0.4 0.0 45 min mean 98 99 100 102 100 % RSD 2.6 0.4 0.6 0.4 0.0 60 min mean 98 99 99 101 100 % RSD 3.0 0.6 0.5 0.5 0.0 PARTICLE SIZEa D(v, 0.1) μm 2.48, 2.47 2.21, 2.14 2.72, 2.58 2.65, 2.64 2.72, 2.73 D(v, 0.5) μm 9.41, 9.47 8.84, 8.48 9.43, 9.11 9.33, 9.11 9.63, 9.64 D(v, 0.9) μm 20.8, 20.9 19.8, 19.2 20.6, 20.2 20.2, 19.7 20.9, 20.9 ASSAY (% 1.c.) 99.0 99.5 101.4 103.0 101.2 REL IMPURITIES (%) Canrenone 0.08 0.07 0.10 0.3 ≦0.10 β-Spironolactone 0.10 0.09 0.09 NRb NRb Unidentified 0.09 0.06 ND ND ND Total 0.27 0.22 0.19 0.3 ≦0.10 PRESERVATIVE 96.64 92.05 90.58 90.0 91.5 (% Sorbate) VISCOSITY <912> 145.0 136.5 129.7 129.3c 145.6 (cP) NR (not reported), ND (not determined) aReported particle size is of the solid material in the composition. bβ-spironolactone is a process impurity and not reported after 3 months. cAfter 6-months long-term storage, the observed viscosity is 102.5 cP. The observed viscosity during the reported time intervals was found to be at least 129 cP. As described elsewhere, the composition should have a viscosity that ranges from 100 cP to 300 cP. Not to be bound by theory, it is believed that a viscosity less than 100 cP promotes sedimentation, which may be problematic with respect to the resuspendability of the pharmaceutical composition. A viscosity greater than 300 cP results in a solution that is too viscous, which may be problematic with respect to product dispensation, i.e., the solution may become too thick to dispense easily. Resuspendability tests were performed on the Example 1 composition. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the required shake times to provide a uniform product after accelerated and long-term storage conditions. Table 7 summarizes the results of the resuspendability tests. The stability of the Example 1 composition with xanthan gum (instead of methylcellulose) is acceptable after 3 months accelerated storage. After long-term storage, the product resuspends after only 5 seconds of shaking compared to 60-120 seconds for the composition of Comparative Example 1 (with methylcellulose). The particle size of the composition does not change on stability. Example 2 Alternate Composition with Xanthan Gum and Citrate Buffer An alternative composition was manufactured like Example 1, with the exception that a citrate buffer was added. Table 8 summarizes the compositional makeup of the Example 2 composition. TABLE 8 Compositional Makeup of Example 2 Composition Ingredients/Quality Standards mg % w/v Spironolactone Micronized 5.000 0.5000 Xanthan Gum 2.500 0.2500 Simethicone Emulsion 2.000 0.2000 Sorbic Acid 0.5000 0.05000 Potassium Sorbate 2.000 0.2000 Saccharin Sodium 1.350 0.1350 Sweetener 4.000 0.4000 Glycerin, USP 17.64 1.764 Fruit Flavor 3.000 0.3000 Citric Acid Anhydrous 2.388 0.2388 Sodium Citrate Dihydrate 3.696 0.3696 Purified Water, USP QS to 1 mL QS A 12 L batch was manufactured as follows. Xanthan gum and 8.0 kg of purified water were mixed at 900 rpm in a first container for 30 minutes. Simethicone emulsion was added to the first container containing xanthan gum, and after addition, the composition was mixed at 950 rpm for 5 minutes. Next, sorbic acid, potassium sorbate, and sodium saccharin were added to said first container followed by mixing at 950 rpm for 10 minutes. Citric acid and sodium citrate were then added to the first container and the contents were mixed at 1000 rpm for 10 minutes. In a separate container, sweetener, glycerin, and 125 g of purified water were mixed at 400 rpm for 1 minute. To said second container, spironolactone was dispersed by mixing at 1050 rpm for 5 minutes. The contents of the second container were then transferred to the first container, which was followed by the addition of fruit flavor. The contents of the first container after fruit flavor addition were mixed at 1250 rpm for 2 minutes. The remaining amount of purified water (q.s. to 95% of batch) was added to the first container and said contents were mixed at 750 rpm for 5 minutes. An optional step requires checking and adjusting the pH by adding the appropriate amounts of 10% (w/w) citric acid solution or 10% (w/w) sodium citrate solution. The contents of the first container were then packaged into 4 oz. amber PETE bottles. Observed stability data for the Example 2 composition under accelerated and long-term storage are reported in Tables 9-10, respectively. TABLE 9 Observed Stability Data for Example 2 under Accelerated Storage Conditions. Accelerated Attribute Initial 1 month 2 months 3 months 6 month PHYSICAL INSPECTION Conforms Conforms Conforms Conforms Conforms pH 5.032 5.037 5.059 5.022 5.005 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 1.012 1.013 1.010 1.013 1.013 DISSOLUTION <711> 5 min mean 91 93 91 93 95 % RSD 1.3 0.9 0.8 0.4 0.0 10 min mean 98 99 97 99 101 % RSD 0.5 0.5 0.4 0.4 0.0 15 min mean 99 100 98 100 103 % RSD 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.8 0.5 30 min mean 100 100 98 101 103 % RSD 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.0 45 min mean 99 101 99 101 103 % RSD 0.5 0.5 0.0 0.4 0.5 60 min mean 99 100 99 101 103 % RSD 0.4 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 PARTICLE SIZEa D(v, 0.1) μm 2.24, 2.20 2.02, 2.03 2.39, 2.31 2.38, 2.41 2.34, 2.07 D(v, 0.5) μm 8.50, 8.54 8.09, 8.18 8.55, 8.46 8.53, 8.54 8.56, 8.32 D(v, 0.9) μm 18.9, 19.0 18.2, 18.3 18.7, 18.7 18.7, 18.6 18.7, 18.5 ASSAY (% l.c.) 99.4 100.4 101.0 101.4 103.8 REL IMPURITIES (%) Canrenone 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.4 0.6 β-spironolactone 0.10 0.09 0.09 NRa NRb Unidentified ND 0.02 0.21 0.4 ND Total 0.17 0.20 0.21 0.40 0.6 PRESERVATIVE 98.40 95.20 98.98 92.5 89.2 (% Sorbate) VISCOSITY <912> 153.7 155.0 153.1 153.1 139.0 (cP) NR (not reported), ND (not determined) aReported particle size is of the solid material in the composition. bβ-spironolactone is a process impurity and not reported after 3 months. TABLE 10 Observed Stability Data for Example 2 under Long-Term Storage Conditions. Long-Term Attribute Initial 3 months 6 months 9 months 12 months PHYSICAL INSPECTION Conforms Conforms Conforms Conforms Conforms pH 5.032 5.052 4.988 4.961 5.000 SPECIFIC GRAVITY 1.012 1.013 1.013 1.011 1.013 DISSOLUTION <711> 5 min mean 91 93 94 93 93 % RSD 1.3 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.6 10 min mean 98 99 100 99 100 % RSD 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.4 1.4 15 min mean 99 100 101 100 101 % RSD 0.4 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.0 30 min mean 100 101 101 101 102 % RSD 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.0 0.5 45 min mean 99 101 101 101 102 % RSD 0.5 0.4 0.0 0.4 0.0 60 min mean 99 101 101 101 102 % RSD 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.0 0.5 PARTICLE SIZEa D(v, 0.1) μm 2.24, 2.20 2.31, 2.36 2.39, 2.36 2.17, 2.24 2.17, 2.20 D(v, 0.5) μm 8.50, 8.54 8.49, 8.54 8.61, 8.57 7.96, 8.08 8.05, 8.14 D(v, 0.9) μm 18.9, 19.0 18.7, 18.7 18.8, 18.7 17.5, 17.5 17.6, 16.8 ASSAY (% l.c.) 99.4 101.6 102.3 103.3 102.9 REL IMPURITIES (%) Canrenone 0.07 0.09 0.12 0.4 0.1 β-spironolactone 0.10 0.09 0.09 NRb NRb Unidentified ND 0.02 0.21 0.4 0.1 Total 0.17 0.20 0.21 0.40 0.1 PRESERVATIVE 98.40 95.20 98.98 92.5 96.7 (% Sorbate) VISCOSITY <912> 153.7 162.5 152.2 161.5 164.1 (cP) NR (not reported), ND (not determined) aReported particle size is of the solid material in the composition. bβ-spironolactone is a process impurity and not reported after 3 months. The observed viscosity during the reported time intervals was found to be at least 139 cP. As stated above, the composition should have a viscosity that ranges from 100 cP to 300 cP. As stated above, Pramar et al., Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics (1992): 17(4): 245-248 report stabilities studies of a spironolactone-containing liquid dosage form containing phosphate (0.05, pH=4.5±0.1) and citrate buffer (0.05 M, pH=4.5±0.1). After 93-days of storage at 40° C., Pramar et al. found that the amount of spironolactone remaining in the phosphate-buffered dosage form to be 91.23±0.51%, while the citrate-buffered dosage form to be 80.97±0.84%. In view of the findings reported by Pramar et al., it was surprising that the addition of citrate buffer resulted in a composition that had an acceptable impurity profile after accelerated and long-term storage. Resuspendability tests were performed on the Example 2 composition. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the required shake times to provide a uniform product after accelerated and long-term storage conditions. Table 11 summarizes the results of the resuspendability tests. The results presented in Table 11 show that the Example 2 composition resuspends within 5 seconds after shaking under accelerated and long-term storage. As a point of reference, FIG. 1 shows the initially observed spironolactone content (% l.c.) as a function of shake-time (in seconds) for the compositions of Example 2 (grey bars) and Comparative Example 1 (black bars). FIG. 2 shows the observed spironolactone content (% l.c.) as a function of shake-time (in seconds) for the compositions of Example 2 (grey bars) and Comparative Example 1 (black bars) after long-term storage for 3-months. The data depicted in FIG. 2 shows that the composition of Example 2 remains suspended with uniform content even after long-term storage for 3-months. This should be contrasted to the composition of Comparative Example 1 in which uniform suspension requires a shake-time of at least 120 seconds. The composition of Example 2 was assayed for spironolactone after shaking well and after allowing the bottle to remain undisturbed for 30 minutes, 2 hours, and 4 hours to evaluate the uniformity of the spironolactone under actual conditions of use. The spironolactone remains suspended and uniform for at least 4 hours after initial shaking. No sedimentation is visually observed even after seven days. Table 12 summarizes the suspension maintenance test for the Example 2 composition after initial shaking. TABLE 12 Suspension Maintenance Tests for Example 2 Composition after Initial Shaking Time point % l.c. Spironolactone Initial 101.2 30 minutes 101.1 2 hours 101.1 4 hours 101.0 The stability of the Example 2 composition with xanthan gum and citrate buffer is acceptable after 3 months accelerated conditions. After long term storage the product resuspends after only 5 seconds of shaking compared to 60-120 seconds in the composition described in Comparative Example 1. The product remains suspended and uniform for at least four hours after shaking well. Improvements in the resuspendability of the product are achieved with this composition. Use of amber PETE bottles, instead of white HDPE bottles, reduced the rate of loss for sorbate. A composition similar to Comparative Example 1 (except that glycerin and fruit flavor were present at 1.717 and 0.10% w/v, respectively), was stored in two separate bottles: amber PETE and white HDPE. The amount of sorbate (%) in the composition stored in the PETE bottle after long-term storage at 9-months was about 90.7%. The amount of sorbate (%) in the composition stored in the HDPE bottle after long-term storage at 6-months was about 56.7%. In view of these results, a decision was made to use amber PETE bottles due to the extensive sorbate loss in the HDPE bottles. As a point of reference, FIG. 3 shows the effect of storage on sorbate levels in amber PETE bottles (grey bars, Example 2 Composition) and white HDPE bottles (black bars, above-mentioned composition similar to Comparative Example 1). Acceptable sorbate levels are observed in the amber PETE bottles after six months accelerated storage. This should be contrasted to the composition contained in the white HDPE bottles. The importance of preservative level is apparent from a preservative effectiveness study. In that study, compositions identical to the Example 2 composition were prepared (except for varying levels of total sorbate (approximately 25%, 50%, and 75%), where total sorbate is the amount of sorbic acid and potassium sorbate). Antimicrobial Effectiveness Testing showed that at a total sorbate level of about 25%, the composition passed against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and A. brasiliensis, but failed against B. cepacia and C. albicans. Antimicrobial Effectiveness Testing showed that at total sorbate levels of 50%, the composition passed against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and A. brasiliensis, and C. albicans, but failed against B. cepacia. Finally, Antimicrobial Effectiveness Testing showed that at total sorbate levels of 75%, the composition passed against E. coli, P. aeruginosa, S. aureus, and A. brasiliensis, C. albicans, and B. cepacia. And, 100% sorbate levels the composition passed against all of the above- mentioned organisms. he stability of the Example 2 composition with xanthan gum (instead of methylcellulose) is acceptable after 6 months accelerated storage conditions and 12 months long term storage conditions. After long term storage, the product resuspends to a suitable level after only 5 seconds of shaking compared to 60-120 seconds observed for the composition of Comparative Example 1 (with methylcellulose). After nine months of long-term storage visual sedimentation is seen at the bottom of the bottle for the composition of Example 1 that is not noted in the buffered system (Example 2). This observation is confirmed by long-term storage resuspendability tests at 9-months (with no shaking) for the Example 1 composition (16.4% l.c.) and the Example 2 composition (89.1% l.c.) This is a surprising discovery that after long-term storage the Example 2 composition exhibits a much higher level of uniformity without shaking, which suggests that the citrate buffer is serving to retard the sedimentation rate. Improvements in the resuspendability of the product are seen even in the 4 oz. PETE bottle. The particle size of the Example 2 composition does not change on stability. Improvements and simplification in the process are also gained by replacing the methylcellulose with xanthan gum. Another point of interest stems from the observed viscosity values for the Example 1 and Example 2 compositions under accelerated storage conditions. For instance, the Example 1 composition (without citrate buffer) after 6-months at accelerated storage had an observed viscosity of 102.5 cP. This should be contrasted to the Example 2 composition (with citrate buffer) after 6-months at accelerated storage where the observed viscosity was 139.0 cP. This amounts to a change in viscosity of about 36%. This was an unexpectedly surprising finding, which provided the motivation to pursue further a composition that contains a citrate buffer. It is also of interest to compare the viscosity values for the compositions of Comparative Example 1, Example 1, and Example 2, after 3-months of storage under accelerated conditions. For example, the observed viscosity value for the Comparative Example 1 composition was 45.3 cP, after 3-months storage under accelerated conditions. At the same time point and the same conditions, the observed viscosity values for the Example 1 and Example 2 compositions were 129.3 cP and 153.1 cP, respectively. This information shows the unexpected superiority of xanthan gum with respect to methylcellulose. Examples 3-4 Spironolactone Compositions containing Different Amounts of Xanthan Gum Two different compositions with different amounts of xanthan gum were prepared and different viscosities. The compositional makeup of Example 3 and Example 4 is summarized in Table 13. TABLE 13 Compositional Makeup of Examples 3-4 Example 3 Example 4 Ingredients/Quality Standards mg % w/v mg % w/v Spironolactone Micronized 5.000 0.5000 5.000 0.5000 Xanthan Gum 1.800 0.1800 3.600 0.3600 Simethicone Emulsion 2.000 0.2000 2.000 0.2000 Sorbic Acid 0.5000 0.05000 0.5000 0.05000 Potassium Sorbate 2.000 0.2000 2.000 0.2000 Saccharin Sodium 1.350 0.1350 1.350 0.1350 Sweetener 4.000 0.4000 4.000 0.4000 Glycerin, USP 17.64 1.764 17.64 1.764 Fruit Flavor 3.000 0.3000 3.000 0.3000 Citric Acid Anhydrous 2.010 0.201 2.010 0.201 Sodium Citrate Dihydrate 4.280 0.4280 4.280 0.4280 Purified Water, USP QS to 1 mL QS QS to 1 mL QS Viscosity (cP) 108.0 299.4 pH 4.8 4.9 The compositions of Examples 3-4 were assayed for spironolactone after shaking well and after allowing the bottle to remain undisturbed for 30 minutes, 2 hours, and 4 hours to evaluate the uniformity of the spironolactone under actual conditions of use. The spironolactone remains suspended and uniform for at least 4 hours after initial shaking. No sedimentation is visually observed even after seven days. The results are found in Table 14. TABLE 14 Suspension Maintenance Tests for Example 3-4 Compositions after Initial Shaking % l.c. Spironolactone Time point Example 3 Example 4 Initial 102.4 101.5 30 minutes 102.1 101.2 2 hours 101.2 101.1 4 hours 102.1 101.0 In view of these results, a viscosity range of 100 to 300 cP was found to be acceptable. Example 5 Composition Containing Xanthan Gum and Citrate Buffer An alternative composition was manufactured like Example 2 except at a larger (250 L) scale. Table 15 summarizes the compositional makeup of the Example 5 composition. TABLE 15 Compositional Makeup of Example 5 Ingredients mg % w/v Spironolactone 5.000 0.5000 Xanthan Gum 2.500 0.2500 Simethicone Emulsion 2.000 0.2000 Sorbic Acid 0.5000 0.05000 Potassium Sorbate 2.000 0.2000 Saccharin Sodium 1.350 0.1350 Sweetenera 4.000 0.4000 Glycerin 17.64 1.764 Fruit Flavorb 3.000 0.3000 Citric Acid Anhydrous 1.758 0.1758 Sodium Citrate Dihydrate 4.660 0.4660 Purified Water QS to 1 mL QS pH 4.5-5.5c,d aSweetener (Magnasweet 110) bFruit Flavor (Banana Flavor). cpH adjustment with 10% (w/w) Citric Acid Solution or 10% (w/w) Sodium Citrate Solution, if necessary. dThe in process pH specification for manufacture was pH of 4.8 to 5.2, but with storage the pH specification is 4.5 to 5.5. Three separate batches (250 L each) were prepared in a manner comparable to that described for the Example 2 composition. The average viscosity of the three batches was determined to be 155±2 cP, while the average specific gravity was determined to be 1.012±0.001. The measured bulk pH was 5.0 for each batch. Each batch was packaged in amber PETE containers (4 oz. (118 mL fill volume) and 16 oz. (473 mL fill volume)). The stability of the Example 5 Composition with xanthan gum is acceptable after accelerated (6-months) and long-term (12-months) storage. Particle size and viscosity values were consistent to those values reported for the Example 2 composition for accelerated and long-term storage. Resuspendability tests show that the Example 5 composition resuspends within 5-15 seconds after accelerated and long-term storage. The results for a portion of the packaged batch (4 oz.) is summarized in Table 16. The data found in Table 16 shows that the Example 5 composition exhibits satisfactory resuspendability even after 12-months of long-term storage. The slight, but acceptable, increase in % l.c. spironolactone is believed to be due to evaporative loss. For instance, after 3-months long-term storage a weight loss of about 0.4% was observed, while after 12-months long-term storage a weight loss of about 1.6% was observed. A weight loss of not more than 5% at accelerated conditions is considered to be acceptable. Example 6 Composition with Xanthan Gum and Citrate Buffer A composition is manufactured like Example 5 except at a larger (2000 L) scale. Table 17 summarizes the compositional makeup of the Example 6 composition. TABLE 17 Compositional Makeup of Example 6 Ingredients mg % w/v % w/wa Spironolactone 5.000 0.5000 0.4941 Xanthan Gum 2.500 0.2500 0.2470 Simethicone Emulsion 2.000 0.2000 0.1976 Sorbic Acid 0.5000 0.05000 0.04941 Potassium Sorbate 2.000 0.2000 0.1976 Saccharin Sodium 1.350 0.1350 0.1334 Sweetenerb 4.000 0.4000 0.3953 Glycerin 17.64 1.764 1.743 Fruit Flavorc 3.000 0.3000 0.2964 Citric Acid Anhydrous 2.010 0.2010 0.1986 Sodium Citrate Dihydrate 4.280 0.4280 0.4229 Purified Water QS to 1 mL QS QS pH 4.5-5.5d,e aCalculated using a specific gravity of 1.012. bSweetener (Magnasweet 110). cFruit Flavor (Banana Flavor). dpH adjustment with 10% (w/w) Citric Acid Solution or 10% (w/w) Sodium Citrate Solution, if necessary eThe in process pH specification for manufacture was pH of 4.8 to 5.0, but with storage the pH specification is 4.5 to 5.5. Example 7 Pharmacokinetic Comparative Studies An open label, randomized, two treatment, two period, two sequence, crossover, single dose, oral pharmacokinetic and comparative bioavailability study of: (i) a liquid formulation described herein (see, e.g., Example 5; see also Example 6) comprising spironolactone (dosed at 25 mg or 100 mg) and (ii) ALDACTONE® spironolactone tablets (25 mg or 100 mg) of G.D. Searle LLC, Division of Pfizer Inc. USA, in healthy, human subjects (N =13 (25 mg) or N=56 (100 mg)) under fasting condition. Plasma concentrations of spironolactone were measured after administration and least squares means for selected pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters were calculated, including the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax), as well as area under the curve values (i.e., AUC0-t and AUC0-∞). Table 18 provides the least squares geometric means of the selected PK parameters, as well as the calculated ratios and the 90% confidence intervals. TABLE 18 Pharmacokinetic (PK) Parameters PK Parameter Liquid Tablet Ratio, % 90% C.I. 25 mga AUC0-t, ng · hr/mL 76.695 67.289 113.978 103.02-126.11 AUC0-∞, ng · hr/mL 81.556 70.786 115.214 104.19-127.41 Cmax, ng/mL 47.360 38.901 121.744 101.43-146.13 100 mgb AUC0-t, ng · hr/mL 290.114 211.220 137.352 123.83-152.35 AUC0-∞, ng · hr/mL 299.509 218.630 136.994 122.45-153.26 Cmax, ng/mL 127.021 76.10 165.587 150.42-182.28 aN = 13. bN = 56. From these results it can be seen that the liquid formulation exhibits higher Cmax- and AUC-values. Based on the AUC0-∞-values, it can be seen that the liquid formulation provides a greater drug exposure when compared to the ALDACTONE® tablet formulation dosed at an equivalent amount. For instance, the liquid and tablet provided an AUC0-∞ ratio of 115.214 for the 25-mg dose and 137.352 for the 100 mg dose. Therefore, for an equivalent dosage amount the liquid formulation results in an increase in spironolactone exposure of about 15 to about 37% spironolactone when compared to ALDACTONE® tablets. This finding is unexpected and permits a lower dosage amount of the liquid spironolactone formulation when compared to ALDACTONE® tablets. Alternative embodiments, examples, and modifications which would still be encompassed by the disclosure may be made by those skilled in the art, particularly in light of the foregoing teachings. Further, it should be understood that the terminology used to describe the disclosure is intended to be in the nature of words of description rather than of limitation. The subject matter of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/337,559, filed on Oct. 28, 2016, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/495,583, filed on Oct. 30, 2015, is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Additionally, the references described herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety to the extent necessary. In the event that there is a difference in meaning between the incorporated terms and the terms disclosed herein, the meaning of the terms disclosed herein will control. Those skilled in the art will also appreciate that various adaptations and modifications of the preferred and alternative embodiments described above can be configured without departing from the scope and spirit of the disclosure. Therefore, it is to be understood that, within the scope of the appended claims, the disclosure may be practiced other than as specifically described herein. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Spironolactone (CAS Registry No. 52-01-7) is commercially available as tablets (e.g.,) ALDACTONE® . Spironolactone is an aldosterone antagonist having utility as a potassium sparing diuretic. (ALDACTONE° (spironolactone) Tablet Prescribing Information, as of Oct. 22, 2014.) Spironolactone is used to diagnose or treat conditions in which a person has elevated levels of aldosterone. Aldosterone is a hormone produced by the adrenal glands to help regulate the salt and water balance in the body. Spironolactone is employed in the management of primary hyperaldosteronism and the treatment of congestive heart failure. Spironolactone is also indicated for the treatment of a variety of skin disorders such as acne, hirsutism, androgenic alopecia, and rosacea. Spironolactone may also be used to treat cirrhosis of the liver, nephrotic syndrome, and essential hypertension. Spironolactone, when added to a standard therapy for adults with severe heart failure, has been shown to result in a 30% reduction in mortality. (M. L. Buck, The Annals of Pharmacotherapy (2005) 39(5): 823-828.) Additionally, spironolactone has become a standard part of combination diuretic regimens in infants with chronic lung disease and children with heart disease. (M. L. Buck, The Annals of Pharmacotherapy (2005) 39(5): 823-828.) Oftentimes tablet administration is not possible, especially for the above-mentioned adult patients with severe heart failure or with the pediatric patients. As there is presently no commercial available aqueous-based spironolactone drug product, a physician, in the clinical setting, must rely on the pharmacy to prepare a compounded spironolactone formulation. The pharmacist, in turn, typically prepares the compounded spironolactone formulation from the commercially available tablet or from powder spironolactone. Compounded formulations may be problematic for pharmacists because of the potential for microbial contamination. Compounded formulations may be problematic for the physician, and importantly, the patient, due to the potential errors associated with compounding. Further, the stability of the compounded formulations is oftentimes unknown. As related to spironolactone, the literature includes reports by others that examine the stability of spironolactone in compounded formulations. Gupta et al., American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy (1978), 35(11): 1382-1385 examines the stability of spironolactone in a compounded spironolactone formulation comprised of a simple syrup vehicle containing 10% alcohol and 0.1% sodium benzoate used as a preservative. Therein, Gupta et al. reports that the compounded spironolactone formulation having a pH of 6.2 retains 97.4% of the initial spironolactone after 160 days. Gupta et al. explains that the compounded spironolactone formulations described therein have limited stability but can be used by pharmacists extemporaneously on an as-needed basis. Gupta et al. mentions that the bioavailability of the compounded spironolactone formulation was not examined. Mathur et al., American Journal of Hospital Pharmacy (1989) 46(10): 2040-2042 report that compounded spironolactone formulations were prepared by grinding commercially available film-coated spironolactone tablets, adding Purified Water, USP to the ground material followed by triturating that composition to form a paste, and then suspending the paste in Cherry Syrup, NF. Mathur et al. describe the stability of spironolactone in three compounded spironolactone formulations with theoretical concentrations of 2.5 mg/mL, 5.0 mg/mL, and 10.0 mg/mL. Mathur et al. also describe an HPLC assay for determining the spironolactone content over a period of time. Therein, Mathur et al. examine the concentrations of spironolactone remaining for the three compounded spironolactone formulations at various temperatures that range from 5° C. to 30° C. Based on the HPLC assay results, Mathur et al. state that compounded spironolactone formulations at the stated concentrations exhibited less than 5% degradation after four weeks of storage. Mathur et al. also state that microbial evaluation by the USP antimicrobial preservatives effective test showed that the samples exhibited bacterial and fungal counts well within acceptable limits. Pramar et al., Journal of Clinical Pharmacy and Therapeutics (1992): 17(4): 245-248 report the development of a stable oral liquid dosage form of spironolactone. As a part of that study, Pramar et al. mention that a clear and stable oral liquid dosage form of spironolactone is not available because the aqueous solubility of spironolactone is reported to be only 28 μg/mL. Pramar et al. describe ten different spironolactone-containing liquid dosage forms with spironolactone present at a concentration of 0.2% w/v in a vehicle comprised mainly of polyethylene glycol 400 (30% v/v) and mono- and polyhydric alcohols (ethanol (10% v/v), propylene glycol (10% v/v), and glycerin (10% v/v)). Pramar et al. mention that the amounts of propylene glycol and polyethylene glycol 400 alone were too high in order to achieve a spironolactone concentration of 2 mg/mL (i.e., 0.2% w/v). For instance, Pramar et al. explains that propylene glycol, when administered in high doses, is known to cause lactic acidosis in children. Pramar et al. identify a particular dosage form (i.e., Formulation C), as being stable based on accelerated testing at 40° C. and a relative humidity of 75%. Interestingly, the reported dosage forms also include phosphate or citrate buffer (50 mM) adjusted to a final pH of 4.5, in which the reported final pH is identified therein as being the pH at which spironolactone exhibits maximum stability. Pramar et al. Drug Development and Industrial Pharmacy (1991) 17(5): 747-761; Pramar et al. Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences (1991) 80(6): 551-553. As related to the dosage form containing citrate, Pramar et al. mention that a spironolactone-containing liquid dosage form including citrate buffer (i.e., Formulation B) is unsuitable because of the resultant instability. Nahata et al., The Annals of Pharmacotherapy (1993) 27(10): 1198-1199 report that a compounded spironolactone formulation prepared from tablets exhibits stability for three months. Nahata et al. criticizes the dosage forms described in the aforementioned Pramar et al. reference as being unsuitable for certain patients (e.g., infants) due to the high concentrations of propylene glycol and ethanol. The compounded spironolactone formulation of Nahata et al. contains carboxymethylcellulose as a suspending agent, “which may provide uniform doses by minimizing settling of the drug in the bottle during use by patients.” Despite the presence of the carboxymethylcellulose suspending agent, Nahata et al. observe variability in concentration assay measurements that “was most likely attributable to sampling of nonuniform dispersion of drug particles in the suspension.” U.S. Pat. No. 4,837,211 to J. L. Olsen, describes a spironolactone-containing composition that purports to overcome the uniformity issue by utilizing sodium carboxymethylcellulose or a mixture of methylcellulose and a dimethylpolysiloxane polymer. It was discovered that a spironolactone-containing composition comparable to the composition described in Example V resulted in an increase in sedimentation and that uniformity could only be achieved after vigorous shaking for 60-120 seconds after storage at 25±2° C. and 40±5% relative humidity. The extended time required to resuspend spironolactone in the composition is problematic in that it may result in reduced patient compliance—especially for an elderly patient. Further, administration errors may arise if the spironolactone is not uniformly dispersed throughout the composition. Additional reports describe compounded spironolactone formulations as having a shelf-life stability of either 60 days (Allen et al., American Journal of Health - System Pharmacy (1996) 53(19): 2304-2309) or 90 days (BasuSarkar et al. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Review and Research (2013) 23(1): 67-70). However, these additional reports do not consider the uniformity of the compounded suspension. Kaukonen et al., Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology (1998) 50(6): 611-619 recognize the drawbacks associated with the above-mentioned compounded spironolactone formulations and the spironolactone-containing liquid dosage forms. In an effort to overcome those drawbacks Kaukonen et al. describe an oral solution of spironolactone containing water-soluble derivatives of β-cyclodextrin (e.g., sulfobutyl ether β-cyclodextrin (SBE7) or dimethyl-β-cyclodextrin (DM-β-CyD)). Therein, Kaukonen et al. conducted a comparative evaluation of selected pharmacokinetic parameters of oral solutions containing spironolactone and either SBE7 or DM-β-CyD versus a compounded spironolactone formulation. Kaukenen et al. state that oral bioavailability of the oral solutions is about three times greater than the compounded spironolactone formulation. A potential drawback to the oral solution described by Kaukonen et al. is the differences in bioavailability, which would require a clinician to estimate the dosage amounts for a given subject, and thus lead to potential dosing errors. In view of the foregoing, there is a need for a spironolactone aqueous composition that is ready to use having acceptable long-term stability and resuspension properties that contribute to patient compliance and reduce the likelihood of dosing errors. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Disclosed herein is a stable, ready-to-use liquid formulation comprising spironolactone and its method of use. Also disclosed herein is a pharmaceutical composition, comprising: (a) spironolactone; (b) a xanthan gum; (c) an anti-foaming agent; (d) a preservative; (f) a dispersing agent; (g) a sweetening agent; (h) a flavoring agent; (i) optionally a buffer to maintain the pH of the pharmaceutical composition within a range described herein; and (j) a sufficient amount of a water vehicle. Further disclosed herein is a method of treating a patient having a condition, comprising administering to the patient in need thereof a liquid formulation comprising spironolactone, wherein the liquid formulation provides for a spironolactone exposure that is about 15 to about 37% greater than a spironolactone exposure obtained when orally administering to a subject a tablet formulation comprising spironolactone, and wherein the condition is one or more of heart failure, edema, hypertension, and a skin disorder selected from the group consisting of acne, hirsutism, androgenic alopecia, rosacea, and combinations thereof | A61K31585 | 20170731 | 20171116 | 97432.0 | A61K31585 | 1 | IVANOVA, SVETLANA M | Spironolactone Aqueous Compositions | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,667,284 | ACCEPTED | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR SECURITY SENSING IN A POWER CABLE FOR AN ARTICLE OF MERCHANDISE | Embodiments of the present invention are directed to merchandise security systems and methods for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise from theft. In one example, the system includes a sensor configured to be secured to the article of merchandise, wherein the sensor includes alarming circuitry. The system also includes a tether comprising a pair of conductors electrically connected to the alarming circuitry, wherein the pair of conductors is configured to transfer power to the sensor and/or to the article of merchandise. In response to power ceasing to be transferred, the alarming circuitry is configured to monitor an electrical signal transmitted through the pair of conductors in order to determine whether the tether has been cut or removed from the sensor. | 1. A merchandise security system for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise comprising: a sensor configured to be secured to the article of merchandise and to detect removal of the article of merchandise from the sensor, the sensor comprising an upper portion and a lower portion; a power cable having a connector configured to operably engage an input port on the article of merchandise for providing power to the article of merchandise, wherein the lower portion comprises a recess configured to receive an end of the power cable opposite the connector, wherein the upper portion is configured to receive one or more retaining arms for engaging the article of merchandise, wherein the upper portion is configured to be secured to the article of merchandise and the lower portion such that the upper portion is disposed between the lower portion and the article of merchandise and the end of the power cable is disposed between the upper portion and the lower portion; a base configured to removably support the sensor thereon such that the sensor is configured to be removed from the base and positioned on the base; and a tether comprising a connector at one end configured to releasably connect to the sensor, wherein an opposite end of the tether is configured to be received by the base. 2. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the tether is coupled to a recoiler at the opposite end such that the tether is extendable and retractable. 3. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the tether comprises a plurality of conductors for communicating with the sensor. 4. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the recess is defined in a surface of the lower portion configured to be secured to the article of merchandise. 5. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the upper portion comprises a pair of slots each configured to receive a respective retaining arm. 6. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the lower portion is configured to be secured to the upper portion with at least one fastener. 7. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the upper portion comprises an engagement member for aligning the upper portion and the lower portion with one another. 8. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the lower portion is configured to be secured to the upper portion such that the one or more retaining arms are secured therebetween and cannot be removed without first detaching the lower portion from the upper portion. 9. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the upper portion comprises a contact, limit, or pressure switch configured to detect when the article of merchandise has been removed from the sensor. 10. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the sensor comprises alarming circuitry configured to detect the sensor being removed from the article of merchandise, the tether being removed from the sensor, and/or the tether being cut. 11. The merchandise display system of claim 10, wherein the alarming circuitry is configured to generate a visual and/or an audible alarm signal in response to the sensor being removed from the article of merchandise, the tether being removed from the sensor, and/or the tether being cut. 12. The merchandise display system of claim 10, wherein the tether comprises a plurality of conductors electrically connected to the alarming circuitry. 13. The merchandise display system of claim 12, wherein at least one of the plurality of conductors is configured to transfer power to the sensor and/or to the article of merchandise. 14. The merchandise display system of claim 1, wherein the sensor is configured to detect the connect of the power cable being removed from the input port of the article of merchandise. 15. The merchandise display system of claim 14, wherein the sensor is configured to wirelessly communicate with a key for arming and/or disarming the alarming circuitry. 16. The merchandise display system of claim 1, further comprising a lock mechanism configured to lock the connector to the sensor such that the connector cannot be removed from the sensor without first disengaging the lock mechanism. 17. A method for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise comprising: positioning an end of a power cable within a recess defined in a lower portion of a sensor, the sensor configured to detect removal of the article of merchandise from the sensor; operably engaging a connector of the power cable opposite the end with an input port on the article of merchandise for providing power to the article of merchandise; engaging one or more retaining arms received by an upper portion of the sensor to the article of merchandise; securing the upper portion to the article of merchandise and the lower portion such that the upper portion is disposed between the lower portion and the article of merchandise and the end of the power cable is disposed between the upper portion and the lower portion; removably supporting the sensor on a base such that the sensor is configured to be removed from the base and positioned on the base; and releasably connecting a tether to the lower portion of the sensor with a connector at one end, wherein an opposite end of the tether is configured to be received by the base. 18. The method of claim 17, further comprising locking the connector to the sensor with a lock mechanism such that the connector cannot be removed from the sensor without first disengaging the lock mechanism. 19. The method of claim 17, wherein engaging comprises engaging a pair of retaining arms received by the upper portion of the sensor to the article of merchandise. 20. The method of claim 17, further comprising actuating a wireless key for arming and/or disarming the sensor. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 15/111,626 filed on Jul. 14, 2016, which is a national phase entry of International Application No. PCT/US2015/012378, filed Jan. 22, 2015, which claims the benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/930,529 filed on Jan. 23, 2014, the entire disclosures of which are incorporated herein by reference. FIELD OF THE INVENTION Embodiments of the present invention relate generally to security systems and methods for displaying articles of merchandise in a retail environment. More particularly, the invention relates to systems and methods for security sensing in a tether for an article of merchandise. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Retailers routinely display articles of merchandise, such as telephones, portable computers (e.g. notebooks, laptops, tablets, etc.), e-readers, media players, and the like for customers to evaluate before making a purchase. These articles of merchandise are continually being made smaller and lighter in weight due to advances in technology and materials. As a result, such merchandise is increasingly vulnerable and susceptible to theft. At the same time, the retail price, and hence the profit margin, for such merchandise continues to decline. Accordingly, these articles of merchandise need to be secured by a security device that effectively and cost efficiently protects the merchandise from theft. It is common in the field of retail merchandise security to tether electronic devices to a store fixture to prevent theft, yet still allowing a customer to interact with the device. The retailers and their customers want these tethers to be as unobtrusive as possible, making smaller diameter tethers desirable. One problem with keeping tether size small is the number of conductors needed to supply power and sensing signals. Typically, a plurality of conductors is needed to provide both power and security. As a result, reducing the number of conductors while maintaining necessary functionality and security can be challenging. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION In one aspect, the invention is a merchandise security system for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise. The system includes a sensor configured to be secured to the article of merchandise, wherein the sensor including alarming circuitry. The system further includes a tether including a pair of conductors electrically connected to the alarming circuitry, wherein at least one of the pair of conductors is configured to transfer power to the sensor and/or to the article of merchandise. In response to power ceasing to be transferred, the alarming circuitry is configured to monitor an electrical signal transmitted through the pair of conductors in order to determine whether the tether has been cut or removed from the sensor. In one embodiment, the pair of conductors consists of a positive power conductor and a negative ground conductor. In another embodiment, the tether is coupled to a recoiler such that the tether is extendable and retractable relative to the recoiler. In yet another embodiment, each of the sensor and the recoiler has at least one resistor electrically connected to the pair of conductors in a sense loop circuit, and the alarming circuitry is configured to determine a change in resistance in the sense loop circuit. In still another embodiment, the alarming circuitry and the pair of conductors define the sense loop circuit, and the resistor in the recoiler is disposed across the pair of conductors. In still another embodiment, the alarming circuitry is configured to generate a visual and/or an audible alarm signal in response to the sensor being removed from the article of merchandise, the tether being removed from the sensor, and/or the tether being cut. In another aspect, the invention is a method for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise. The method includes transferring power through a tether to a sensor attached to the article of merchandise and/or to the article of merchandise, wherein the tether includes a pair of conductors electrically connected to the sensor. The method further includes monitoring, in response to power ceasing to be transferred, an electrical signal transmitted through the pair of conductors in order to determine whether the tether has been cut or removed from the sensor. In one embodiment monitoring includes repeatedly determining a voltage level in predetermined increments of time. In another embodiment, determining includes determining whether the voltage level is greater than a predetermined voltage level. In yet another embodiment, the method further includes generating a visual and/or an audible alarm signal when the voltage level is greater than the predetermined voltage level. In still another embodiment, the method further includes repeating the step of determining the voltage level if the voltage level is greater than the predetermined voltage level. In still another embodiment, the method further includes generating the electrical signal on the pair of conductors prior to determining the voltage level. In still another embodiment, monitoring includes determining a change in total resistance in a sense loop circuit defined at least by the sensor, the pair of conductors, and a plurality of resistors. In still another embodiment, the method further includes determining whether the pair of conductors has been shorted. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWING FIGURES The detailed description of the invention provided hereafter may be better understood with reference to the accompanying drawing figures, in which embodiments of a merchandise security system for displaying an article of merchandise are disclosed, and in which like reference characters indicate the same or similar parts. FIG. 1 is a perspective view of a merchandise security system for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise according to an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a merchandise security system according to the invention shown with the article of merchandise and a sensor attached thereto removed from a base. FIG. 3 is a perspective view showing the merchandise security system of FIG. 2 electrically connected to a recoiler secured to a support surface of a display fixture and electrically connected to an external source of power. FIG. 4 is a perspective view of the merchandise security system of FIG. 3 showing the recoiler detached from a mounting plate secured to the support surface of the display fixture. FIG. 5 is an exploded perspective view showing an embodiment of a sensor for use with a merchandise security system according to the invention. FIG. 6 is an exploded perspective view of the sensor of FIG. 5 shown with an upper portion of the sensor attached to an article of merchandise and a lower portion of the sensor detached from the upper portion. FIG. 7 is a perspective view of another embodiment of a sensor for use with a merchandise security system according to the invention shown with an upper portion of the sensor detached from a lower portion of the sensor. FIG. 8 is a perspective view of a portion of the merchandise security system of FIG. 1 illustrating the use of a key to arm and/or disarm the alarming circuitry of the sensor. FIG. 9 is a schematic illustrating a pair of conductors configured for transmitting electrical power to the sensor and/or the article of merchandise according to the invention. FIG. 10 is a schematic illustrating a sense loop circuit for generating an alarm signal according to the invention. FIG. 11 is a graph depicting the voltage in the sense loop circuit of FIG. 10 when a tether is intact and there is a loss of electrical power. FIG. 12 is a graph depicting the voltage in the sense loop circuit of FIG. 10 when the tether has been cut or removed. FIG. 13 is a graph depicting the voltage in the sense loop circuit of FIG. 10 for an intact and connected tether, referred to as a “good cable,” and a cut or removed tether, referred to as a “bad cable.” FIG. 14 is a graph depicting an example of the voltage in the sense loop circuit of FIG. 10 where the voltage level is initially at an input power level and thereafter the input power ceases. FIG. 15 is a graph depicting another example of the voltage in the sense loop circuit of FIG. 10 where the voltage level is initially at the input power level and thereafter input power ceases. FIG. 16 is a flowchart of a method for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise according to an embodiment of the invention. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION One or more embodiments of a merchandise security system for displaying an article of merchandise are shown in the accompanying drawing figures and described below. The article of merchandise, indicated generally herein by reference character M, is typically a display model or an operational sample of electronic merchandise, such as portable telephones, smart phones, computers (e.g. notebooks, laptops, tablets, etc.), e-readers, media players, and the like, for a customer to examine before making a decision whether to purchase the article. The article of merchandise is typically displayed in a manner that permits a prospective purchaser to evaluate the operation and features of the merchandise, while protecting the merchandise from theft. In one embodiment, a sensor with alarming circuitry may be attached to the article of merchandise for detecting various alarming conditions, such as the article being removed from the sensor. A tether may be operably engaged with the sensor at one end, while the opposite end may be secured to a base or to a surface of a display fixture. As explained in further detail below, the alarming circuitry of the sensor may also be configured to detect an alarming condition of the tether, such as a cutting, severing, removing or detaching of the tether. As also explained in further detail below, the tether may consist of only a pair of conductors. Thus, unlike conventional tethers that include three, four, or more conductors, the tether according to one embodiment may have only two conductors for providing both power and security functionality. Regardless, the alarming circuitry is configured to monitor an electrical signal in the conductors in order to determine if an alarming condition has occurred. FIGS. 1-4 illustrate embodiments of a merchandise security system, indicated generally herein by reference character 10, for displaying an article of merchandise M and securing the merchandise from theft or unauthorized removal. The system 10 generally includes a sensor 12, a tether 14, a base 16, and a recoiler 18, as shown in the embodiment of FIGS. 2-4. The sensor 12 is configured to be secured to the article of merchandise M, such as with a pressure-sensitive adhesive. Alternatively, or in addition, the sensor 12 may be secured to the article of merchandise M by two or more retaining arms 34, as illustrated in the embodiment of FIG. 1. A first end of the tether 14 may be electrically connected to the recoiler 18, as shown in FIG. 4, while the opposite second end of the tether may include a jack or connector 22 for electrically connecting the tether to the sensor 12, as shown in FIG. 2. Thus, connector 22 may be releasably engaged with sensor 12 to establish electrical communication therebetween. The connector 22 may be further secured in position with a lock mechanism 21, such as a clip, as indicated by the arrow in FIG. 2. As such, when lock mechanism 21 is engaged with connector 22, the connector may not be removed from the sensor 12 without first disengaging the lock mechanism. The lock mechanism 21 may allow tension to be applied to the tether 14 without causing the connector 22 to become inadvertently disconnected from the sensor 12. Furthermore, the lock mechanism 21 may provide stress relief for the electrical connection between the sensor 12 and the tether 14. The base 16 is configured to removably support the sensor 12 thereon such that a prospective purchaser may remove the article of merchandise M and the sensor secured thereto from the base for inspection, and subsequently return the merchandise to the base for display. The base 16 may define an opening 15 therethrough that allows the tether 14 to extend and retract relative to the base. Recoiler 18 may be disposed within the base 16, or alternatively, the recoiler may be secured below a support surface 20 (e.g., a counter, shelf, or the like) of a display fixture, as shown in FIG. 3. In this regard, the recoiler 18 may include a mounting plate 23 that is configured to be secured to the underside of the support surface 20, in which case the recoiler is configured to engage the mounting plate and be secured thereto. As shown in FIG. 3 and illustrated schematically in FIG. 10, the recoiler 18 may be electrically connected to a power source 24 via an input power cable 25 that is configured to provide power to the recoiler and to the tether 14. A plug or other connector, for example, an AC power plug and AC/DC power converter, may be disposed at a first end of the input power cable 25 for electrically connecting the input power cable to an external source of electrical power, for example, a conventional 110V AC power outlet. A second opposite end of the input power cable 25 may be electrically connected to an input cable 27 of the recoiler 18. In some embodiments, the sensor 12 is also electrically connected to a power cable 26 that is configured to provide electrical power to the article of merchandise M, as shown in FIG. 2. Thus, the power cable 26 may be utilized to facilitate demonstration of the operation of the article of merchandise M on display, as well as for charging a rechargeable battery of the merchandise. FIG. 2 further shows that the power cable 26 may include a connector 28 that is configured to operably engage an input port provided on the article of merchandise M. In some embodiments, the alarming circuitry of the sensor 12 may be configured to detect removal of the connector 28 and to generate an audible and/or a visual alarm signal in response to removal of the connector 28 from the sensor 12. As discussed above, the sensor 12 may include alarming circuitry, a processor, a central processing unit, or the like, that is configured to determine whether various security events have occurred for generating an audible and/or a visual alarm signal. The sensor 12 may also include an alarm (e.g., a piezoelectric device) that is configured to generate an audible alarm. Thus, the sensor 12 may be configured as “alarm-on-product,” whereby the sensor is operable to alarm when attached to the article of merchandise M and/or when detached from the article of merchandise. In some cases, the sensor 12 may include a visual indicator (e.g., an LED) for indicating the alarming circuitry is armed and/or alarming. Moreover, the sensor 12 may include a transfer port 30 that is configured to communicate with a key 32 (see, FIG. 8) for arming and/or disarming the alarming circuitry. In one embodiment, the transfer port 30 is configured to communicate wirelessly with key 32 to determine whether the key is authorized to arm and/or disarm the alarming circuitry. According to some embodiments, the key 32 is similar to that described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,737,845, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety. According to one embodiment, the sensor 12 may include a contact, limit or pressure switch 33 (see, FIG. 7), or the like, that is configured to detect when the article of merchandise M has been removed from the sensor. The alarming circuitry may be configured to detect the removal of the article of merchandise M from the sensor 12 and to generate and an audible and/or a visual alarm signal in response thereto. In some embodiments, the sensor 12 is a one-piece design that is configured to be attached to the article of merchandise M. FIGS. 5-8 illustrate embodiments wherein the sensor 12 may include an upper portion 35 and a lower portion 37. The upper portion 35 may be configured to be secured to the lower portion 37, such as with a proprietary fastener 39. In addition, the upper portion 35 may be configured to be secured to the article of merchandise M, while the lower portion 37 may be configured to receive the connector 22. FIG. 7 shows that a first end of the power cable 26 may be enlarged and configured to be inserted into a recess 31 formed in the lower portion 37, which secures the power cable therein when the upper portion 35 and the lower portion 37 are secured together. In addition, FIG. 6 shows that upper portion 35 may include an engagement member 40 and FIG. 7 shows that lower portion may include an opening 42 configured to receive the engagement member therein. Engagement between the engagement member 40 and the opening 42 may be used to align the upper portion 35 and the lower portion 37 relative to one another prior to securing the upper and lower portions together. Furthermore, FIGS. 1, 5-6, and 8 illustrate that sensor 12 may include one or more retaining arms 34 for securing the article of merchandise M to the sensor. In one example, FIG. 5 shows that the upper portion 35 may include a pair of slots 36 that are each configured to receive a respective retaining arm 34 therein. Thus, retaining arms 34 may be configured to slide within the slots 36 to adjust the position of the retaining arms relative to the width or length of the article of merchandise M. As illustrated by FIGS. 5-6, the lower portion 37 may be secured to the upper portion 35 such that the retaining arms 34 are secured therebetween and cannot be removed without first detaching the lower portion from the upper portion. Embodiments of the present invention provide for the delivery of electrical power to the article of merchandise M and/or to the sensor 12 through a pair of conductors 50 (see, e.g., FIG. 9) disposed within the tether 14 (removed for purposes of clarity). In some examples, the tether 14 includes only two conductors 50, such as a positive power line and a ground line. An input power source 24 may be in electrical communication with the conductors 50 for transmitting power through the tether 14 and to the article of merchandise M and/or the sensor 12. In order to obtain a sense signal using only the power lines, one technique is to simply detect when the electrical power stops flowing. The problem with this method is that the sensor 12 and/or the article of merchandise M typically do not receive power when there is a power outage, which could cause a false alarm in the merchandise security system 10. Instead, one embodiment of the invention provides security sensing over the same conductors 50 used to supply power to the article of merchandise M and/or the sensor 12. As such, the diameter of the tether 14 may be reduced in comparison to conventional tethers, and the incidence of false alarms may be reduced. According to some embodiments, the merchandise security system 10 utilizes a security scan for determining whether the tether 14 has been cut or removed from the sensor 12, and/or whether the power cable 26 has been removed from the article of merchandise M. This scan may be performed when input power is no longer being provided. In this case, the sensor 12 and associated alarming circuitry may operate on battery power for carrying out the security scan. FIG. 10 schematically illustrates one embodiment of a sense loop circuit 55 defined between the alarming circuitry or a central processing unit (CPU) and the recoiler 18. In this embodiment, the sense loop circuit 55 includes a plurality of resistors R comprising a voltage divider network. One or more resistors R may be disposed in both the sensor 12 and the recoiler 18. The resistor R in the recoiler 18 may be disposed across the pair of conductors. The sense loop circuit 55 may be further defined by the pair of conductors 50 extending through the tether 14. If the tether is cut or disconnected, the total resistive load detected by the alarming circuitry and/or the CPU changes. FIG. 11 shows a graph depicting the voltage in the sense loop circuit 55 when the tether 14 is intact (i.e., not cut or removed) and there is a loss of electrical power, for example as a result of a power outage. As shown, the voltage in the sense loop circuit 55 is about 1.4 volts. FIG. 12 shows a graph depicting the voltage in the sense loop circuit 55 when the tether 14 has been cut (whether partially or completely) or removed (e.g., disconnected or detached). As shown, the voltage in the sense loop circuit 55 is about 2.4 volts. Thus, the detected voltage level is higher when the tether 14 has been cut or removed (e.g., disconnected or detached). FIG. 13 shows another graph depicting the voltage in the sense loop circuit 55 where an intact and connected tether 14, indicated as a “good cable” in FIG. 13, has a lower voltage than a cut or removed (e.g., disconnected or detached) tether, indicated as a “bad cable” in FIG. 13. In one embodiment, the security scan commences immediately after power is lost. For example, input power may be provided at about 18 volts, and when power is lost, the detected voltage would be 0 volts. The merchandise security system 10 may include capacitors that do not allow for a sudden drop in voltage, but there is typically a delay before the voltage level drops to the lower level. As the capacitors discharge, the voltage level passes from the initial input power (e.g., about 18 volts), to the “bad cable” range (e.g., about 2.4 volts), and to the “good cable” range (e.g., about 1.4 volts). If the security scan was performed immediately after the power is lost and the tether 14 was intact and connected, the “bad cable” range would be detected, and the tether would be incorrectly indicated as cut or disconnected. However, it is understood that if the scan is initiated immediately after power ceases, the alarming circuitry and/or CPU is able to compare the measured voltage level and the expected voltage level during the voltage decay period. If the measured and expected voltage levels are within a predetermined range during the decay period following a power loss, an alarm is not generated. FIG. 14 shows a graph depicting another example of the voltage in the sense loop circuit 55 where the voltage level is initially at about 18 volts and thereafter the input power ceases at about 3.0 seconds. There is a sharp decline in the voltage level to about 6.8 volts at about 3.3 seconds. This drop may occur in about 250 ms. Then the voltage drops further to about 1.5 volts at about 5.3 seconds, wherein the further drop takes about 2 seconds. FIG. 15 shows a similar graph depicting another example of the voltage in the sense loop circuit 55 where the voltage level is initially at about 18 volts and thereafter the input power is lost. FIG. 15 demonstrates that a security scan may be initiated after a predetermined period of time and after the voltage transition so that false alarms are reduced. In this example, there is about 3 seconds after power is lost before the security scan begins. FIG. 16 shows a flowchart of an embodiment of a method 60 for determining the integrity and connection of the tether 14 according to the present invention. In the illustrated embodiment, the alarming circuitry and/or CPU may be configured to initially determine whether a voltage level is equal to about “X” volts, as indicated by reference character 62. For example, “X” volts may be the normal input voltage provided, such as about 18 volts. If the voltage is equal to “X” volts, there is no alarm event. If the voltage does not equal “X” volts, a security scan is initiated, as indicated by reference character 64. The security scan may be cyclical in that the scan may be performed repeatedly in predetermined increments of time. The security scan may be initiated immediately after power ceases, or alternatively, after a predetermined delay (e.g., about 2-4 seconds), as discussed above, to allow the voltage in the tether 14 to decay. The security scan may first determine whether the tether 14 has been shorted (e.g., the conductors 50 are crimped together), as indicated by reference character 66. In the case that the tether 14 is shorted, the voltage level will be zero, or close to zero, and an alarm signal will be generated, as indicated by reference character 76. In one embodiment, a cycle of the security scan may be about 200 ms in duration to determine whether the tether 14 is shorted. If the tether 14 is not shorted, the alarming circuitry or CPU may generate an electrical signal on the pair of conductors 50, as indicated by reference character 68. For example, the electrical signal could be a ping, current, pulse, frequency, or the like. In one embodiment, generating an electrical signal may include setting the bit high on one of the conductors 50 to the alarming circuitry and/or CPU and waiting for the tether 14 to charge. For example, the bit may be set to about 3.0 volts. FIGS. 11 and 13 show that the bit may be set high at time “T1” and then a pause is effectuated (e.g., about 250 ms). The voltage level in the tether 14 is then determined, and if the voltage level is greater than “Y” volts (e.g., about 2.0 volts), as indicated by reference character 70, the security scan is repeated at least one more time, as indicated by reference character 72. If the voltage level is still greater than “Y” volts, as indicated by reference character 74, an alarm signal is generated, as indicated by reference character 76. However, if the voltage level is not greater than “Y” volts, either after the first measurement or the second measurement, the security scan is restarted, as indicated by reference character 64, and no alarm signal is generated. It is understood that the voltage levels and scanning intervals may be any desired value in order to determine whether to generate an alarm signal and that the aforementioned values are intended only as examples to illustrate the broad principles and concepts of the invention. The determined voltage level may be analog levels (ADC readings), although other values or levels may be determined in order to perform the aforementioned method 60. In addition, it is understood that the steps of the flowchart shown in FIG. 16 are meant for illustrative purposes only and that the steps may be performed in any desired order and that certain steps may be combined or eliminated in various embodiments. For example, the step 66 of determining if the tether 14 is shorted may be eliminated, as the step 70 of determining the voltage level “Y” after the step 68 of generating an electrical signal may be used to determine if the tether 14 has been shorted. The foregoing has described one or more embodiments of merchandise security systems and methods for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise from theft. Those of ordinary skill in the art will understand and appreciate that numerous variations and modifications of the invention may be made without departing from the spirit and broad scope of the invention. Accordingly, all such variations and modifications are intended to be encompassed by the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Retailers routinely display articles of merchandise, such as telephones, portable computers (e.g. notebooks, laptops, tablets, etc.), e-readers, media players, and the like for customers to evaluate before making a purchase. These articles of merchandise are continually being made smaller and lighter in weight due to advances in technology and materials. As a result, such merchandise is increasingly vulnerable and susceptible to theft. At the same time, the retail price, and hence the profit margin, for such merchandise continues to decline. Accordingly, these articles of merchandise need to be secured by a security device that effectively and cost efficiently protects the merchandise from theft. It is common in the field of retail merchandise security to tether electronic devices to a store fixture to prevent theft, yet still allowing a customer to interact with the device. The retailers and their customers want these tethers to be as unobtrusive as possible, making smaller diameter tethers desirable. One problem with keeping tether size small is the number of conductors needed to supply power and sensing signals. Typically, a plurality of conductors is needed to provide both power and security. As a result, reducing the number of conductors while maintaining necessary functionality and security can be challenging. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>In one aspect, the invention is a merchandise security system for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise. The system includes a sensor configured to be secured to the article of merchandise, wherein the sensor including alarming circuitry. The system further includes a tether including a pair of conductors electrically connected to the alarming circuitry, wherein at least one of the pair of conductors is configured to transfer power to the sensor and/or to the article of merchandise. In response to power ceasing to be transferred, the alarming circuitry is configured to monitor an electrical signal transmitted through the pair of conductors in order to determine whether the tether has been cut or removed from the sensor. In one embodiment, the pair of conductors consists of a positive power conductor and a negative ground conductor. In another embodiment, the tether is coupled to a recoiler such that the tether is extendable and retractable relative to the recoiler. In yet another embodiment, each of the sensor and the recoiler has at least one resistor electrically connected to the pair of conductors in a sense loop circuit, and the alarming circuitry is configured to determine a change in resistance in the sense loop circuit. In still another embodiment, the alarming circuitry and the pair of conductors define the sense loop circuit, and the resistor in the recoiler is disposed across the pair of conductors. In still another embodiment, the alarming circuitry is configured to generate a visual and/or an audible alarm signal in response to the sensor being removed from the article of merchandise, the tether being removed from the sensor, and/or the tether being cut. In another aspect, the invention is a method for displaying and protecting an article of merchandise. The method includes transferring power through a tether to a sensor attached to the article of merchandise and/or to the article of merchandise, wherein the tether includes a pair of conductors electrically connected to the sensor. The method further includes monitoring, in response to power ceasing to be transferred, an electrical signal transmitted through the pair of conductors in order to determine whether the tether has been cut or removed from the sensor. In one embodiment monitoring includes repeatedly determining a voltage level in predetermined increments of time. In another embodiment, determining includes determining whether the voltage level is greater than a predetermined voltage level. In yet another embodiment, the method further includes generating a visual and/or an audible alarm signal when the voltage level is greater than the predetermined voltage level. In still another embodiment, the method further includes repeating the step of determining the voltage level if the voltage level is greater than the predetermined voltage level. In still another embodiment, the method further includes generating the electrical signal on the pair of conductors prior to determining the voltage level. In still another embodiment, monitoring includes determining a change in total resistance in a sense loop circuit defined at least by the sensor, the pair of conductors, and a plurality of resistors. In still another embodiment, the method further includes determining whether the pair of conductors has been shorted. | G08B131454 | 20170802 | 20180515 | 20171116 | 62242.0 | G08B1314 | 1 | NGUYEN, TAI T | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR SECURITY SENSING IN A POWER CABLE FOR AN ARTICLE OF MERCHANDISE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G08B | 2,017 |
15,667,604 | PENDING | Methods And Apparatus For Entity Worth Cartography | The present disclosure relates to evaluation methods and systems that use interactive steps to develop a visualization of worth. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to an evaluation system that utilizes a combination of subjective interactive stages; subjective and objective analysis of the business, person, or concept; and visualization tools to create a statement of value of the business, person, or concept that may elicit personal, emotional, and logical responses from a target audience. | 1. A system for generating a worth statement through worth cartography, the system comprising: a display; one or more wireless communication interfaces; one or more memory resources comprising: a worth map database; and one or more processors to: transmit a plurality of worth inquiries; collect a plurality of worth responses to the plurality of worth inquiries; populate a worth map display with the plurality of worth responses; generate a worth path comprising select worth responses in a logical path; generate a worth statement comprising a prose statement, wherein the prose statement transforms the worth path into the worth statement; present a worth statement display. 2. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to: prompt input of personal ranking data related to the plurality of worth responses; receive personal ranking data. 3. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to: access a linguistic database, wherein the linguistic database may assign linguistic ranking to the plurality of worth responses 4. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to: prompt input of a personal worth path, wherein the personal worth path comprises personally selected worth responses in a personal logical path; receive personal worth path data. 5. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to: access a linguistic database, wherein the linguistic database may assign linguistic ranking to the plurality of worth responses. 6. The system of claim 1, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to: prompt input of worth statement criteria, wherein the worth statement criteria at least partially defines parameters of the worth statement; receive worth statement criteria. 7. A system for creating a worth matrix, the system comprising: a display; one or more wireless communication interfaces; one or more memory resources comprising: a worth map database comprising a plurality of worth map data; one or more processors to: collect a plurality of worth map data related to an entity; compare the plurality of worth map data; generate a worth matrix comprising analytic data extracted from the comparison of the plurality of worth map data; present a worth matrix display, wherein the worth matrix display comprises a visual representation of the worth matrix. 8. The system of claim 7, wherein the plurality of worth map data are collected from a plurality of participants. 9. The system of claim 8, wherein the plurality of participants are from a plurality of entity segments. 10. The system of claim 7, wherein the plurality of worth map data are collected from a single participant. 11. The system of claim 7, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to: generate a master worth map, wherein the master worth map comprises extracted master worth map data from the worth matrix; generate a master worth path comprising select master worth responses from the master worth map in a logical path; generate a master worth statement comprising a master prose statement, wherein the master prose statement transforms the master worth path into the master worth statement; present a master worth statement display. 12. The system of claim 11, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to: prompt input of master worth statement criteria, wherein the master worth statement criteria at least partially defines parameters of the master worth statement; receive master worth statement criteria. 13. The system of claim 7, wherein the one or more memory resources comprises a linguistic database, and the one or more processors are further configured to: access the linguistic database, wherein the comparison further includes a linguistic analysis on the plurality of worth maps. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to retrieve master objective data from the linguistic database, wherein the master objective data allows for comparison of linguistically similar or adjacent worth map responses between the plurality of worth maps. 15. A system for scoring a worth map, the system comprising: a worth map server configured to: receive worth map responses to a plurality of worth inquiries, wherein the worth map responses comprise one or both text characters or images; receive a worth map display populated with the plurality of worth responses; access a worth map response database; analyze the worth map responses and the worth map display, wherein the analysis identifies relative significance of the worth map responses, wherein the significance is at least partially based on a position of the worth map responses within the worth map display; assign objective data to each of the worth map responses; generate a uniform quantitative tag for each of the worth map responses. 16. The system of claim 15, wherein the one or more processors are further configured to: access a linguistic database, wherein the analysis further includes a linguistic analysis on the worth map responses. 17. The system of claim 15, wherein the worth map server is further configured to receive: personal ranking data related to the plurality of worth responses, wherein the significance is further based at least partially on the personal ranking data. 18. The system of claim 15, wherein the worth map server is further configured to transmit objective data to a master scoring database, wherein the master scoring database aggregates objective data from one or more participants and entities. 19. The system of claim 18, wherein the worth map server is further configured to: access the master scoring database; retrieve aggregated objective data related to the worth map responses, wherein the significance is further based at least partially on retrieved aggregated objective data. 20. The system of claim 15, wherein the one or more memory resources comprises a predictive analytics database, and the one or more processors are further configured to: access the predictive analytics database, wherein the analysis further includes a predictive analysis on the worth map responses. | CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION This application claims priority to and the full benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 62/370,276, filed Aug. 3, 2016, and titled “METHODS AND APPARATUS FOR ENTITY WORTH CARTOGRAPHY”, the entire contents of which are incorporated in this application by reference. BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE The advent of the Industrial Revolution brought with it a transition from manual labor to semi or fully automated manufacturing processes using machines. Due to this increased efficiency, a new labor force was needed to oversee production, interact with a burgeoning clientele due to the potential broader reach and cheaper prices that machines facilitated, and ensure that machines were functioning by tasking employees with upkeep or working in parts of the manufacturing process that were not automated yet. Despite the relative efficiency of these machines, individuals were still in charge of handling them and implementing systems to ensure that production was occurring satisfactorily and on time. On top of that, supervisors had to make sure that their work force was operating at the peak of their abilities to either participate in processes machines could not do yet or to maintain machines in working order. Supervisors had to train employees, make sure employees were performing satisfactorily, and service a growing community that had a need for the products facilitated by this new technology and methods of manufacture. Given the sheer number of moving parts, supervisors were not concerned with an employee's contentment, whether their abilities were optimized, or whether the tasks they were given were those they were best at. The result was long working hours under strict working conditions at an unprecedented pace set by machines, not human beings. The shift in awareness that a content, happy work force resulted in a more productive work force occurred slowly as the centuries went on. As technology matured and allowed for streamlined efficiency, more thought and care was put into the human component of the experience. Companies started encouraging employees to find their purpose within the company, and movement between positions or specialties was encouraged more than it was before. Solutions like the lean canvas were created as a business modeling tool to help identify broader customer problems while targeting different segments of clientele. Organizations and businesses still struggle to identify how best to implement employee and customer retention while maintaining greater revenue growth. Organizations are also unable to accurately capture and take snapshot of current organization culture or gauge cultural stagnation to determine when action or change might be necessary. SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE What is needed, therefore, is a way to help companies, organizations, and individuals very quickly identify and authentically communicate their worth to increase their sales or marketing efforts, retain employees and customers, communicate their worth, and achieve greater revenue, growth, and sustainability while tracking the impact of these efforts. This requires a method and system that may evaluate a business, person, concept, product, service, or segment from the perspective of one or more persons, such as a potential customer, existing employee, or member of the general public, that can be dynamic to each individual need or target while also being either automated or manipulated in real-time depending on the exercise. The system may scale according to need, meaning it can be simple, immediate, and intuitive, or may range in complexity depending on information requested by the user or reviewer. The system may also be directed inward to identify organizational culture in a moment in time, over time, and within specific periods of time using quantifiable tools and data based on or gathered from user input. This information can then be used to redirect organizational culture or to provide insight to those who need to be able to quickly access and identify what is going on with the organization's culture. With this information, a higher up, such as a chief operating officer, may be able to identify if culture shifted as a result of a new policy being instituted, a new hire becoming a part of the team, or whether there were other dynamics at play around the time there was a change in employee attitude, output, or thinking. This can highlight areas for improvement within the organization that a person can act on and improve. On an individual level, the organization can also see employees on a micro-level and be able to identify changes in performance, attitude, or output by individual. Accordingly, the present disclosure relates to evaluation methods and systems that use interactive steps to develop a visualization and valuation of worth, both internally and self-reflective; externally and within a business; or amongst a group of peers. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to an evaluation system that utilizes a combination of subjective interactive stages; subjective and objective analysis of the business, person, or concept; and visualization tools to create a statement of worth of the business, person, or concept that may elicit personal, emotional, and logical responses from a target audience. Further, the present disclosure provides a visualization of worth that may be easy to digest and easily sharable, allowing for a flexible communication tool that may be useful to multiple levels of communicators and may align and engage participants around an authentic voice. In some aspects, worth cartography may create a path for growth that may be universally and quickly deployable and flexible for different business sizes and states of formation. Some aspects may include a system for generating a worth statement through worth cartography, wherein the system may include a display; one or more wireless communication interfaces; one or more memory resources. The system may also include a worth map database; and one or more processors. The system may also transmit a plurality of worth inquiries. The system may also collect a plurality of worth responses to the plurality of worth inquiries. The system may also include populate a worth map display with the plurality of worth responses. The system may also include generate a worth path including select worth responses in a logical path. The system may also include generate a worth statement including a prose statement, where the prose statement transforms the worth path into the worth statement. The system may also include present a worth statement display. Other embodiments of this aspect may include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods. Implementations may include one or more of the following features. In some aspects, the one or more processors may be further configured to prompt input of personal ranking data related to the plurality of worth responses; receive personal ranking data. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be further configured to access a linguistic database, where the linguistic database may assign linguistic ranking to the plurality of worth responses. In some implementations, the one or more processors may be further configured to prompt input of a personal worth path, where the personal worth path includes personally selected worth responses in a personal logical path; receive personal worth path data. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be further configured to access a linguistic database, where the linguistic database may assign linguistic ranking to the plurality of worth responses. In some aspects, the one or more processors may be further configured to prompt input of worth statement criteria, where the worth statement criteria at least partially defines parameters of the worth statement; receive worth statement criteria. Implementations of the described techniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computer software on a computer-accessible medium. Some aspects may include a system for creating a worth matrix, the system including: a display; one or more wireless communication interfaces; and one or more memory resources including. In some embodiments, the system may also include a worth map database including a plurality of worth map data and one or more processors. In some aspects, the system may collect a plurality of worth map data related to an entity. In some implementations, the system may compare the plurality of worth map data. In some embodiments, the system may generate a worth matrix including analytic data extracted from the comparison of the plurality of worth map data. In some aspects, the system may also include present a worth matrix display, where the worth matrix display includes a visual representation of the worth matrix. Other embodiments of this aspect may include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods. Implementations may include one or more of the following features. In some embodiments, the plurality of worth map data may be collected from a plurality of participants. In some aspects, the plurality of participants may be from a plurality of entity segments. In some implementations, the plurality of worth map data may be collected from a single participant. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be further configured to generate a master worth map, where the master worth map includes extracted master worth map data from the worth matrix; generate a master worth path including select master worth responses from the master worth map in a logical path; generate a master worth statement including a master prose statement, where the master prose statement transforms the master worth path into the master worth statement and presents a master worth statement display. In some implementations, this may be condensed into shorthand for the participant, such as an abbreviated pitch or paragraph setting. In some aspects, the one or more processors may be further configured to prompt input of master worth statement criteria, where the master worth statement criteria at least partially defines parameters of the master worth statement; and receive master worth statement criteria. In some implementations, the one or more memory resources may include a linguistic database, and the one or more processors may be further configured to access the linguistic database, where the comparison further includes a linguistic analysis on the plurality of worth maps. In some aspects, the one or more processors may be further configured to retrieve master objective data from the linguistic database, where the master objective data allows for comparison of linguistically similar or adjacent worth map responses between the plurality of worth maps. Implementations of the described techniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computer software on a computer-accessible medium. Some general aspects may include a system for scoring a worth map, the system including: a worth map server configured to: receive worth map responses to a plurality of worth inquiries, where the worth map responses include one or both text characters or images; receive a worth map display populated with the plurality of worth responses; access a worth map response database; analyze the worth map responses and the worth map display, where the analysis identifies relative significance of the worth map responses, where the significance is at least partially based on a position of the worth map responses within the worth map display; assign objective data to each of the worth map responses; generate a uniform quantitative tag for each of the worth map responses. Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods. Implementations may include one or more of the following features. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be further configured to access a linguistic database, where the analysis further includes a linguistic analysis on the worth map responses. In some aspects, the worth map server may be further configured to receive personal ranking data related to the plurality of worth responses, where the significance is further based at least partially on the personal ranking data. In some implementations, the worth map server may be further configured to transmit objective data to a master scoring database, where the master scoring database aggregates objective data from one or more participants and entities. In some embodiments, the worth map server may be further configured to access the master scoring database; and retrieve aggregated objective data related to the worth map responses, where the significance is further based at least partially on retrieved aggregated objective data. In some implementations, the one or more memory resources may include a predictive analytics database, and the one or more processors may be further configured to access the predictive analytics database, where the analysis further includes a predictive analysis on the worth map responses. Implementations of the described techniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computer software on a computer-accessible medium. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The accompanying drawings, that are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the disclosure and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure: FIG. 1 illustrates exemplary method steps for a worth cartography process. FIG. 2 illustrates exemplary method steps for presenting questions to participants for the interactive portion of worth cartography. FIG. 3 illustrates exemplary process flow steps according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 4 illustrates an exemplary worth map according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 5 illustrates an alternate exemplary worth map according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 6 illustrates exemplary worth themes according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 7 illustrates an exemplary worth statement according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 8 illustrates an exemplary processing and interface system according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 9A illustrates an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) of a worth map according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 9B illustrates an alternate exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) of a worth map according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. FIG. 10 illustrates an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) for entity registration. FIG. 11 illustrates an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) for worth cartography initiation. FIG. 12 illustrates an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) of a worth map. FIG. 13 illustrates an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) of a worth path. FIG. 14 illustrates an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) of worth map management. FIG. 15 illustrates an exemplary word of worth matrix according to some embodiments of the present disclosure. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The present disclosure provides generally for a method of evaluating persons, companies, or traits. According to the present disclosure, worth cartography may be used to assess an entity for value, based on predefined parameters and measures. The present disclosure relates to evaluation methods and systems that use interactive steps to develop a visualization of worth. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to an evaluation system that utilizes a combination of subjective interactive stages; subjective and objective analysis of the business, person, or concept; and visualization tools to create a statement of worth of the business, person, or concept that may elicit personal, emotional, and logical responses from a target audience. This data capturing tool can be implemented in various levels to provide an entity with deeper insight into a customer base, their employees, or defining internal or external goals. In the following sections, detailed descriptions of examples and methods of the disclosure will be given. The description of both preferred and alternative examples, though thorough, are exemplary only, and it is understood to those skilled in the art that variations, modifications, and alterations may be apparent. It is therefore to be understood that the examples do not limit the broadness of the aspects of the underlying disclosure as defined by the claims. Glossary Worth Cartography: as used herein refers to an entity evaluation system utilizing a combination of one or more interactive steps, visualization, evaluation steps, analytics, summation, formation, and structuring. Entity: as used herein refers to a person, company, or trait that may be evaluated using worth cartography. As a non-limiting example, an entity may include a person, such as an employee, a manager, a CEO, or individual; multiple persons, such as a seminar or training group, customer base, a team, or a particular demographic segment (including a member of the general public); an organization, such as a company or club; a brand; or a destination, such as a restaurant, museum, zoo, or concert venue. Participant: as used herein refers to any person or group who may be providing responses during interactive steps of the worth cartography process. The participant may or may not represent the entity, and the appropriate participant may depend on the entity being evaluated. For example, where the entity is a brand, the participant may be a member of the marketing department who may have more insight into the branding than a software developer in the same company. Worth Map: as used herein refers to the visualization of the responses provided in the interactive stage of the worth cartography. In some embodiments, the worth map may further provide visualization of the evaluation and summation stages. Worth Matrix: as used herein refers to an organizational view of worth-flow based on input from one or more entity segments. In some aspects, a worth matrix may be based on multiple maps from a single participant, wherein the matrix may provide insight to the participant's perceived worth over time or a participant's morale as it relates to an entity, as non-limiting examples. In some embodiments, the worth matrix may be based on maps from multiple participants who may be part of the same or different segments within an entity. For example, segments may include employees within a department, customers within a demographic, executives, managers within management positions. In some implementations, this can provide a cascading or referring impact to each entity segment. Worth Path: as used herein refers to the ordering and linking of the responses provided during the interactive stage. In some aspects, the worth path may provide visualization of the evaluation stage. In some embodiments, the worth path may be developed internally where the exact worth path may not be provided to the participant. The worth path may be used to develop a worth statement. Worth Statement: as used herein refers to the resulting prose developed based on a summation of the worth path and the assessed worth of the entity. In some aspects, the worth statement may be further based on participant preferences, goals of the worth cartography, or other factors. The present disclosure describes a process and method that may provide for strategic alignment, engagement, and growth that may help organizations identify and communicate value. In some aspects, worth cartography may be an ongoing process, wherein the process and evaluation may occur repeatedly over time and with a variety of participants, allowing the organization to continually improve and engage their customers, employees, investors, or other relevant groups. Entities may utilize worth cartography to increase marketing and sales efforts, satisfy and retain customers, and engage and empower employees. In some implementations, worth cartography may directly impact sales and marketing, such as by increasing lead generation and response rates, improve close ratios, enhance sales talent skills at multiple levels, and strengthen messaging. In some aspects, worth cartography may improve customer alignment and employee engagement. For example, worth cartography may improve satisfaction and retention, increase lifetime customer value, create brand champions, and clarify the voice of the customer. As another example, worth cartography may prompt authentic feedback from employees, allow employees to identify their own value as it may relate to the entity, and increase productivity, customer service, and long-term value. In some embodiments, the worth cartography process may collect data from a variety of segments. In some implementations, this data can be deployed and processed in real time and compared to other data sets. In some aspects, the system can assign values to input responses and create a ranking value based on each segment or some other threshold set by an entity or participant. For example, the entity may determine that a certain customer segment is desirable for a new marketing campaign. The system can weigh entries by those participants more heavily than others while providing a decision-maker with a report condensing and summarizing what those values are. As an illustrative example, a marketing campaign developed for life insurance may want to see what resonates with single fathers raising children on their own, which represents a new target demographic marketers want to pursue. By polling fathers from all walks of life, the ones that identify as raising children on their own may or may not have similarities with other fathers who do not have the same personal situation. Pulling from this pool, the system can compare information and create a worth matrix to provide a report on what those similarities are and what the differences are. The differences the system identifies may be the distinguishing the direction, angle, or data needed that the marketing campaign can focus on as they develop their ideas. Referring now to FIG. 1, exemplary method steps for a worth cartography process 100 are illustrated. At 105, a plurality of questions may be presented to one or more participants. At 110, responses to the plurality of questions may be received. At 115, the responses may be presented in a worth map. At 120, the responses may be ranked and organized, wherein the ranking may be based on one or more predefined criteria. For example, the responses may be ranked based on detected sincerity, accuracy, or occurrence, wherein repeated terminology or synonyms may be ranked higher than isolated words or phrases. In some implementations, questions may be generated based on the who the entity is or the problem to be addressed. For example, a participant may select “customer growth” as a starting point for questions generated around addressing that focus. In some embodiments, at 125, manual selection of received responses may be prompted. For example, as part of the interactive segment, a participant may be forced to select some of the responses to be included in the worth path. The process of selecting may help a participant learn to identify and define the worth of the entity. In some aspects, the selected responses may be an indication of sincerity or relevance, which may be used in the ranking at step 120. In some implementations, at 130, characteristics of one or both the entity or participant may be retrieved and/or received. In some aspects, objective characteristics of a company entity, such as industry, gross revenue, number of employees, or corporate structure, may be useful in providing parameters and context to one or more the responses received at 110, the ranking at 120, or the selection at 125. As an illustrative example, a response to a question regarding purpose of the entity may be “to serve,” and a response to how the entity makes others feel may be “restored.” Those responses may carry different significance depending on the entity type, such as a faith-based organization, a law firm, or a hospital. A faith-based organization may serve a deity and its patrons may have their faith restored. A law firm may serve justice, and its clients may feel like they have been restored from the damages caused by another party. A hospital may serve the community or the wounded, and its patients may feel their health has been restored. Information regarding characteristics of an entity may allow for a more useful, relevant, and effective worth statement. At 135, worth themes may be extracted and developed from the responses received at 110. Worth themes may comprise permutations of combinations of responses from one or more questions and categories, wherein the combinations may indicate some part of the entity's worth. For example, responses to questions regarding the problem solved by the entity may be combined with the solution to that problem that the entity offers. At 140, a worth path may be developed based on one or more of the previous steps, such as the ranking at 120 or the worth themes developed at 135. In some embodiments, at 145, selection of worth statement preferences may be prompted. For example, preferences may include length, audience, media type, purpose of the worth statement, or other predefined criteria. At 150, a worth statement may be created, wherein the worth statement may be prose, constructed from the information gathered from steps 105-145. In some aspects, the length, perspective, tone, and focus of the worth statement may be tailored to predefined criteria, such as the preferences received at 145, characteristics of the entity and/or participant retrieved at 130, or other relevant criteria. As an illustrative example, an individual salesperson may respond to a plurality of questions presented at 105, wherein the questions may regard a product the individual sells. The salesperson may want a worth statement that she may present to potential buyers that may encourage purchase of the product. The salesperson may generally have thirty seconds to capture a potential buyer's attention and then an additional five to ten minutes once she has a captivated audience. Accordingly, two worth statements may be created at 150, one for the thirty-second pitch and one for the five to ten-minute pitch. Referring now to FIG. 2, exemplary method steps for presenting questions to participants for the interactive portion of worth cartography are illustrated. In some aspects, at 205, a blank worth map may be presented. At 210, a first logical question may be presented, and at 215, at least one response to the first logical question may be received. In some embodiments, at 220, the response received at 215 may be added to the worth map. At 225, a first emotional question may be presented, and at 230, at least one response to the first emotional question may be received. In some implementations, at 235, the response received at 230 may be added to the worth map. In some embodiments, the addition of responses into the worth map may occur live, wherein responses may be added to the worth map as they are received. In some implementations, the addition of responses may occur once all responses for a particular question may be received. In some embodiments, the responses may be filtered, wherein some responses may be ignored or not added to the worth map based on predefined parameters, such as, for example, preferences, relevance, repetition, or employer restrictions. For example, an employer may limit the number of responses received by any one employee, which may encourage participation of more employees. As another example, an entity may be a product, and the purpose of the worth cartography may be to assess, define, and articulate the value of the product to customers. Accordingly, responses related to the manufacturer, vendors, or salespeople may be deemed irrelevant. In some aspects, at 240, the worth map may be populated with the responses received at 215 and 225. In some embodiments, the population of the worth map may occur after receipt of responses to two or more questions, wherein a participant may not see a live addition of responses to the worth map. A delayed population may allow a participant to respond to each question independently with limited ability to reference prior responses. In some implementations, the responses may populate the worth map in question groups, such as all emotional questions, all logical questions, paired emotional and logical questions, or other groupings. In some aspects, the response population may occur based on a predefined parameter. For example, the responses may be compared to each other, and repeated responses and synonyms may be ignored, ensuring that only unique responses may be added to the worth map. As another example, the opposite may occur, wherein only repeated responses and synonyms may be added to the worth map. In some embodiments, the comparison may be limited to responses within a single question, a question group, or the entire set of received responses. In some implementations, questions may be recorded, tracked, or responded to via a variety of methods, ranging in complexity from a white board to sheets of paper to application programs. Referring now to FIG. 3, exemplary process flow steps are illustrated. At 305, 325, 335, logical questions may be presented, and at 315, 345, emotional questions may be presented. One or more responses to the logical and emotional questions may be received at 310, 320, 330, 340, 350. The one or more responses may populate a worth map at 355. At 360, worth themes may be extracted and developed from the worth map, and at 365, one or more worth paths may be developed from the worth themes and worth map. At 385, one or more worth statements may be developed from the worth themes and worth path. In some embodiments, at 370, entity characteristics may be received, and at 375, participant characteristics may be received. In some aspects, at 380, preferences may be received. In some implementations, one or more the entity characteristics, participant characteristics, and preferences may be directly input, such as by a participant, seminar leader, or employer. In some aspects, one or more the entity characteristics, participant characteristics, and preferences may be received from a database. For example, objective entity or participant characteristics may be received from a government database, such as from state registration bodies, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, or the Internal Revenue Service, as non-limiting examples. In some aspects, objective participant characteristics may be received from private sources, such as from the employer or third parties. In some aspects, one or more subjective entity characteristics, subjective participant characteristics, or preferences may be received from third parties. For example, information may be acquired from online reviews of an entity or participant, social media related to the entity or participant, or other sources where third parties, such as clients, customers, or vendors, may input opinions about the entity or participant. Referring now to FIG. 4, an exemplary worth map is illustrated. In some aspects, some questions may be listed as individual question headings 405, 410, 415, 420, wherein responses may be populated in a column form below the question headings 405, 410, 415, 420. In some embodiments, one or more emotional questions may be presented as individual emotional question headings 425, 430, wherein responses may be grouped below the individual emotional question headings 425, 430. In some implementations, the presentation of responses to logical questions in an organized, columnar manner may visually confirm the logical nature of the questions in contrast to a more freeform presentation of the responses to emotional questions. In some aspects, as a part of the interactive stage, a participant or participants may be engaged to manually populate the worth map, wherein the exercise of placing responses to logical questions in a columnar fashion may encourage and reinforce the logical nature in comparison to the more freeform population of the emotional question sections. In some embodiments, the arrangement of the responses in one or both the logical question section and emotional question sections may be analyzed and evaluated, wherein the placement analysis may be integrated into developing one or more of the worth themes, worth paths, and worth statements. Referring now to FIG. 5, an alternative exemplary worth map is illustrated, wherein responses to logical questions and emotional questions have been populated in their respective sections. In some aspects, a worth map may visually indicate a grouping of logical question responses 510, 515, 520 with a logic icon 505. In some implementations, a worth map may visually indicate a grouping of logical question responses 530, 535 with an emotion icon 525. In some aspects, potentially subjective questions that blend logical and emotional responses may be organized by entity priority or value guidance. Referring now to FIG. 6, exemplary worth themes 605, 610, 615, 620, 625 are illustrated. In some aspects, worth themes 605, 610, 615, 620, 625 may be developed from responses to each question separately, wherein each worth theme 605, 610, 615, 620, 625 may relate to each question independently. In some embodiments, worth themes 605, 610, 615, 620, 625 may be developed from responses to each question separately and modified based on worth themes from other questions. In such aspects, the worth themes 605, 610, 615, 620, 625 may be normalized to the context of the responses as a whole. In some implementations, external information, such as those described in FIG. 3 at 370, 375, may be used to drive or guide the development of the worth themes 605, 610, 615, 620, 625. In some aspects, an entity may assign values or rank worth themes by internal importance. For example, an entity looking to screen employees before they can interview with the company may tell the system that worth themes representing honesty and authenticity are most important to them. A participant can go through the worth cartography process and, depending on the worth themes developed, may proceed to the next phase of an interview process. Referring now to FIG. 7, an exemplary worth statement is illustrated. In some aspects, the worth statement may be presented to indicate the adaptation of the respective worth theme from the respective questions. In some embodiments, the worth statement may be modified based on external information or preferences such as described in FIG. 3 at 370, 375, 380. In some implementations, the worth statement may be manipulated or reorganized by the participant or entity to authentically represent or portray a goal. Referring now to FIG. 8, an exemplary processing and interface system 800 is illustrated. In some aspects, access devices 815, 810, 805, such as a mobile device 815 or laptop computer 810 may be able to communicate with an external server 825 through a communications network 820. The external server 825 may be in logical communication with a database 826, which may comprise data related to identification information and associated profile information. In some examples, the server 825 may be in logical communication with an additional server 830, which may comprise supplemental processing capabilities. In some aspects, the server 825 and access devices 805, 810, 815 may be able to communicate with a cohost server 840 through a communications network 820. The cohost server 840 may be in logical communication with an internal network 845 comprising network access devices 841, 842, 843 and a local area network 844. For example, the cohost server 840 may comprise a payment service, such as PayPal or a social network, such as Facebook or a dating website. Referring now to FIGS. 9A-9B, an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) 900 and an exemplary alternate graphical user interface (GUI) 950 of a worth map is illustrated, wherein the GUI 900 and alternate GUI 950 may be accessible through web-based applications of the present disclosure. In some aspects, a series of questions 905 may be presented, wherein each question may be associated with a respective response box 915. In some embodiments, each prompt for the series of questions 905 may comprise a help key 910 that may provide further information or guidance on each of the questions. In some aspects, the help key 910 may comprise a standard information icon, such as an “I” or “?” or “help” in a box or circle. A participant may access the additional information or guidance by interacting with the help key 910 in a predefined manner, such as by hovering over the help key 910 or clicking on the help key 910. For example, hovering may prompt the appearance of a help box that may contain the additional information or guidance, wherein the help box may disappear when the controller is moved off the help key 910. As another example, clicking on the help key 910 may prompt an opening of a help box, which may exist within the GUI 900 window, may open in an independent new tab or window, or may open an independent static help window. In some embodiments, the responses may be manually input into each respective response box 915. In some aspects, manual input may allow for a direct typing of responses into a response box 915. In some implementations, a GUI 900 may provide response input options 915, wherein responses may be added into response boxes 915 utilizing one or more methods, including for example, direct text input; image, icon, emoji, symbol, shape selection; or free draw. For example, responses may be selected from an image bank, wherein the images may be explicit responses or evocative response. As an illustrative example, a participant may select a happy face emoji to explicitly indicate happiness, and a serene pastoral image to evoke a feeling of peacefulness. In some embodiments, clicking one of the response option buttons 920 may prompt the appearance of a dropdown box or a pop-out window, wherein images may be selected or dragged and dropped into the worth map. In some aspects, clicking one of the response option buttons may trigger an alternate GUI, wherein the alternate GUI 950 may comprise an interface specific to the response option type. For example, clicking on the image response option button may trigger an alternate GUI 950 that allows for the fluid interaction between image selection and placement of the image within the worth map. In some implementations, the alternate GUI 950 may provide an alternate worth map. For example, an image response interface may allow for a grid-like or web-like arrangement of responses within each response box. In some embodiments, predefined response options may allow for a range of selection methods. For example, a participant may directly select and drop responses into the appropriate response box, such as where the GUI 900 may be accessed through a personal access device, including a tablet, desktop computer, laptop, or kiosk. In some aspects, a participant may interact indirectly with the GUI 900, such as through a coach, seminar leader, related application, or other third party interactions. As an illustrative example, a participant or participants may be salespeople from the same company and may attend a training seminar, wherein a seminar leader may utilize worth cartography to evaluate the primary product sold by the company. The seminar leader may randomly prompt the salespeople to provide answers to the questions, and the seminar leader may add the answers to the response boxes 915. In some aspects, the salespeople may provide answers by speaking into a microphone, wherein the answers may be automatically entered and transcribed into the response boxes 915. In some aspects, the GUI 900 may allow for a manual manipulation of the placement of responses within the worth map, such as through arrangement buttons 925 and ordering buttons 930, which may allow for some control over the development of one or more worth themes, worth path, and worth statement. In some aspects, the arrangement buttons 925 and ordering buttons 930 may be locked, such as where the interactive portion of the worth cartography may be limited to the input of responses into the worth map. In some embodiments, the GUI 900 may comprise interface options, wherein a user may toggle between screens, control the progression of the worth cartography, and share or save the worth map, as non-limiting examples. In some aspects, the GUI 900 may be tailored for the organization, either by a user, reviewer, or proctor. In some implementations, the GUI 900 or a proctor may generate user and organization questions depending on need. In some aspects, the GUI 900 or a proctor may create additional questions in real-time. In some embodiments, questions may be vetted and implemented “worth”-wide to be used on other evaluations within an organization, or questions may be sent to a server to be implemented throughout the entire system based on user or reviewer feedback. For example, an organization may implement the above to evaluate their members. Based on need, the organization selects certain questions to poll those who participate in the evaluation. The organization may find that some questions do not address specific situations that the organization regularly deals with, so it creates some questions during the evaluation to probe its users more thoroughly. These questions may be sent to a server where it will sit in a database bank, readily available to be used in other evaluations. Referring now to FIG. 10, an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) 1000 for entity registration is illustrated. In some embodiments, a participant may register for the worth cartography process. In some implementations, an entity may register for an account. In some aspects, an entity can invite participants to initiate the worth cartography process. In some embodiments, an entity may create its own portal. In some implementations, an entity can create a worth matrix through this portal. In some aspects, this allows an entity to track participants from within the same entity. In some embodiments, multiple participants from the same entity may be accessible by the entity. In some implementations, an entity can access a participant's worth map, worth statement, or worth path. In some aspects, an entity can access various segments relating to the entity, such as employees, customers, or campaigns, as non-limiting examples. For example, an entity may track how a campaign is faring with both employees and customers to get a generalized reaction overview. This may provide an entity with enough information on the likelihood of success for a particular campaign, such as morale within the team indicating employees' belief in the campaign compared to how a customer segment is interacting with the campaign. Referring now to FIG. 11, an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) 1100 for worth cartography initiation is illustrated. In some embodiments, a participant or administrator may title a worth map. In some implementations, a participant may choose the map type, such as a personal or team map. In some aspects, if a personal map is picked, others can contribute inputs relating to the participant's worth. For example, other members from within the same department can indicate to an individual participant what they believe that participant's core strengths on the team are. In some embodiments, a team may create a worth map. In some implementations, a team worth map may relate to the entity in same way. For example, when a team creates a worth map, the team members can input how they feel about their projects, the entity's overall mission or progress towards fulfilling that mission, or how satisfactorily the team believes they are accomplishing their goals within the entity, as non-limiting examples. In some aspects, an entity may present worth inquiries to guide answers to provide feedback for the entity relating to some aspect of the entity. Referring now to FIG. 12, an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) 1200 of a worth map is illustrated. In some embodiments, worth inquiries 1210, 1220, 1230, 1240, 1250, 1260 may prompt input from a participant. In some implementations, participants may populate and manipulate worth responses 1270. In some aspects, worth responses 1270 may be a combination of text or images. In some embodiments, worth responses 1270 may have arrows to indicate increases or decreases, which may also be extended beyond the literal to indicate importance or a range within the worth responses 1270. In some implementations, a worth inquiry 1220 may have a worth inquiry subcategory 1280 to help guide inquiries. For example, a worth inquiry 1220 related to how a participant solves a particular problem may include a worth inquiry subcategory asking what tools the participant uses in solving that problem. In some aspects, worth response 1270 may be pre-populated. In some embodiments, a participant may arrange and rank their own responses within the map. This may be helpful to an entity to increase participation or shorten the worth cartography process. In some implementations, this may allow for quicker analysis between submitted maps for the worth matrix. For example, as opposed to natural language entry, which allows for a breadth and range of nuanced expression and inputs, an option with pre-populated responses may allow for more consistency between teams, participants, or departments within an entity. By way of another example, if an entity is trying to create a worth matrix based on individual participant worth responses, the entity may have to do a holistic analysis that allows for comparison to similar and adjacent terms. Participants may write “good” or “better” as a worth response. The worth cartography system will then determine the context by using linguistic analysis and scoring. A participant may write that productivity is important to them as well as “getting things done.” The system will then determine whether a vernacular term means the same as a formal term. In some embodiments, the worth cartography process may be conducted over various segments. In some implementations, various worth maps may be collected over various segments. In some aspects, the worth cartography system may need to normalize terms if an entity requests comparisons between diverse departments. In some embodiments, the worth cartography system may imply ranking and scores based on modifiers. For example, a management team and a manufacturing team, though employed with the same entity, may not have the same focus or use the same terms to describe similar concepts or worth inquiries. This may be further demonstrated once the geographical scope of the entity's focus expands, such as in the United States, such as southern United States and the Midwest, compared to employees in India. Beyond this, it is possible that a third party, such as a proctor, helped facilitate the worth cartography process and transformed or translated answers. In this instance, the worth cartography system may provide some uniformity for an entity to indicate what terms were most important on a broad organizational level. By way of another example, it is possible a participant uses modifiers as they respond to a worth inquiry. If people use different modifiers for the same word, such as bad service, horrible service, the worst service, the worth matrix can then compare terms on an equalized level despite the subjective meaning. In some implementations, the worth cartography system can extrapolate and determine whether words are commonly used by a participant. In some aspects, linguistic analysis between phrases as well as trends of that particular individual may be applied. In some embodiments, these terms can then be compared and analyzed with those who speak in more measured terms. In some implementations, this analysis may happen based on a single map from a single participant or over multiple maps from a single participant. In some aspects, this may be expanded outwards for a team or segment. In some embodiments, linguistic analysis may be used to track an employee's progression to flag for an entity or administrator to the program that there has been a severe change in language used. For example, an employee may use positive terms and drastically change to negative terms over a period of six months. This may indicate to an entity that the individual is unhappy and that there is a likelihood of some change in performance, burnout, or focus. Referring now to FIG. 13, an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) 1300 of a worth path is illustrated. In some embodiments, a participant may create a worth path 1310 based on their inputs in a worth map. In some implementations, a participant may number or rank responses within a worth path 1310. In some aspects, the worth cartography system may generate a worth path 1310 based on analysis of the participant's worth map. In some embodiments, worth paths can be compared to other worth paths. In some implementations, a worth statement 1320 may be generated based on a variety of factors, such as linguistic analysis within a map or over multiple maps, either from the same or different participants. In some aspects, a master worth path or map may be created. In some embodiments, predictive analysis with historical data may be used to create a worth statement that relates to the entity or some aspect of the entity. For example, if an entity is looking for a particular type of statement, a worth path can be created based on certain types of previously or historically inputted data. In some embodiments, a worth statement 1320 may show or illustrate the words pulled from a worth path 1310. In some implementations, an entity may tailor the worth statement 1320. In some aspects, a 30-second pitch version or a 10 sentence mission statement for a company may be created. In some embodiments, various parameters may be imposed to create a particular type of worth statement, such as length, type of statement, purpose, or audience as non-limiting examples. For example, a worth statement 1320 for an employee may need to motivational, while a worth statement for a customer may need to be convincing, Referring now to FIG. 14, an exemplary graphical user interface (GUI) 1400 of worth map management is illustrated. In some embodiments, a participant may manage their own maps that they have create. In some implementations, an administrator may manage maps based on participants, departments, segments, or entities, as non-limiting examples. In some aspects, views may be limited based on what an entity may allow. In some embodiments, there may be an option to create a master map. In some implementations, these master maps may used to populate a worth matrix. In some aspects, a master map may be create for specific groups, such as 10 participants, a team, a department, or a customer segment, as non-limiting examples. For example, a sales representative may have multiple maps relating to different products, different lines, and different demographics for each. This sales representative may be able to view but not contribute to a master statement to make sure that their sales approach aligns with their entity's overall strategy and goals. In some embodiments, where there may be a variety of different and diverse segments, a master map may need to be normalized over those segments using scoring or value assignments. In some implementations, this normalization may be segment agnostic. In some aspects, this may facilitate further comparison of maps on a generalized level. In some aspects, the worth cartography system may recognize, excise, or mark biased, loaded, or charged language. In some embodiments, an entity may determine whether these terms are important. For example, an entity that advocates against the inhumane treatment of animals may want to employ charge or impassioned language in their messaging or campaigns. Referring now to FIG. 15, an exemplary word of worth matrix 1500 is illustrated. In some embodiments, participants may accelerate the process of generating a worth statement or worth path by collaborating on a word of worth matrix 1500. In some implementations, a word of worth matrix 1500 may start with a central problem or issue that a team or individual is looking to solve. In some aspects, a participant may fill in a single word to start a discussion with an entity or other participants. In some embodiments, others may comment, contribute, or collaborate to further develop the word of worth matrix 1500. In some implementations, the word of worth matrix 1500 may have several sources of input, such as an entity, customer, or employee, as non-limiting examples. In some aspects, the word of worth matrix 1500 may then be fed back into the system to generate a common word of worth. In some embodiments, participants to a session may have access to each other's words of worth. In some implementations, an entity may see a participant's word of worth on an individual or team basis. In some aspects, these can be collected to then create a campaign for another worth cartography process. In some embodiments, this may ease or lead participants into the worth path process. For example, a focus group may be asked what an entity means to them in one word. Other participants in the focus group may see each other's answers once everyone has submitted something. From there, participants can contribute to that word of worth, either expanding or narrowing the scope. If everyone in a focus group agrees that an entity makes them feel happy, this might be enough information for a team to prioritize that messaging. Illustrative Example As an illustrative example, the entity may be a brokerage company that sells a service, and the participants may be the sales and marketing teams. The purpose of the worth cartography may be to develop a cohesive marketing strategy that may be implemented by the sales and marketing team. Through the worth cartography process, the participants may develop a deeper understanding of the company's potential worth as related to their clients, community, and industry. Further, the participants may be involved in an articulation of that worth based on objective and subjective information, at least some of which the participants provide. Involving the participants may allow for the development of a worth statement that connects the participants personally to that worth statement. A personal connection and understanding may infuse the presentation of company worth from the sales and marketing team with sincerity, passion, and purpose, which may be integral to that campaign. The series of questions may include three emotional questions and three logical questions. The three logical questions may be as follows: What problems does the company solve for its customers? How do we, as employees, and through our people, processes, and tools, solve them? What is the impact of that solution? The three emotional questions may be as follows: Why do we care about solving the problem? How does the solution and impact make others feel? How does the solution and impact make us feel? The questions may be populated into a worth map, such as illustrated in FIG. 4, or into a worth map GUI, such as illustrated in FIG. 9A. In some aspects, the worth map may comprise question indicators, such as alphanumeric symbols, without explicitly listing the questions. The indicators may keep participants engaged in the worth cartography without shifting the focus to reading through the text. Participants may be prompted to respond to the questions, which may be by, for example, a facilitator or seminar leader. The prompted responses may be one or more words, phrases, or images. The participants may be randomly selected to answer various questions, or a single participant may be selected to answer all the questions. The participants may also be prompted to answer one or more of the questions remotely and individually, such as through an application interface, sheet of paper, or other response methods. In some events, the worth cartography may utilize a combination of the response techniques. For example, individuals may be asked to respond to the questions without context prior to the event, and at the event, a facilitator may prompt multiple individuals to provide various responses. Part of the exercise may be to compare individual worth mapping of the company to the worth mapping from the group. The responses may be populated into the worth map, such as into the worth map's respective response boxes. In some events, the participants may be involved in the arrangement of the responses and the response boxes. Part of the exercise may be to encourage the participants to rank the responses based on their perceived significance, accuracy, or relevance. In some events, participants may be asked to select only a predefined number of responses from each response box. From the responses on the worth map, worth themes, and worth paths may be developed. In some events, the worth themes and worth paths may be extracted based on predefined parameters, such as speed of response, repetition of synonyms, participant selection of responses, proximity of arranged responses to a reference point on the worth map, participant ranking of responses, or relevance between responses to different questions, as non-limiting examples. Part of the process may include prompting participants to attempt the development of worth themes and worth paths. The participants may be prompted at random individually, or they may be prompted to break into groups to develop worth paths and themes as a team. The participants may be prompted to physically arrange the responses on the worth map, such as through a dynamic graphical user interface (GUI). The worth map may be color-coded, wherein the questions and their respective responses may be the same color. The emotional questions may be warm colors, such as red, yellow, and orange; and the logical questions may be cool colors, such as blue, purple, and green. The colors may be consistent throughout the worth cartography, wherein the colors of the worth themes and worth path correlate to the colors of the responses they may be adapted from. The worth statement may be broken into distinct portions, wherein each portion matches the color of the source question. For some worth cartography, blends of colors may indicate the use of responses from multiple questions. For example, if a worth theme is developed from responses to a blue question and a yellow question, the worth theme may be a distinct green. The participant results may be integrated into and taken as additional factors for the worth themes and worth paths that may be developed based on the predefined parameters. For some events, the process of developing worth paths and themes may be repeated with different predefined parameters or prompts. From the worth themes and worth paths, worth statements may be developed. Preferences for worth statement characteristics may include duration, intended audience, purpose, and level of formality, as non-limiting examples. As the event is intended to create marketing strategies for the sales and marketing teams, worth statements may be developed for the sales team, marketing teams, and internal use. The worth statement for the sales team may be engaging and have a casual tone to be more relatable to potential customers. The worth statement for the marketing teams may be succinct and for a general audience so the worth statement may be integrated into advertisements. The worth statement for internal use may be structured like a mission statement focused on ideals to emotionally connect employees with their company's worth, suggesting a state of mind for employees. Once the worth statements have been developed and conveyed, individual participants may be prompted to present the worth statement as practice. As part of the exercise, individuals may repeat the presentation in succession. In some seminars, other participants may provide feedback on the presentation, allowing the presenting individual to modify the worth statement organically to suit his personality and personal connection to the company. The participants may be prompted to break into groups, wherein each group may finesse the worth statement to have a natural and organic tempo. The resulting worth statements may be compared between the groups. As part of the exercises, the participants may be prompted to develop worth statements individually or in groups, which may then be compared to the worth statements developed by the worth cartography system. Multiple worth statements may be developed, wherein the worth statements may vary based on the predefined parameters previously described and may have a personal connection to individual participants. For example, some individuals may have a deeper connection with some worth themes than others, and the most effective worth statement for those individuals may place an emphasis on the worth themes they connect with. The initial worth cartography seminar may develop the foundation for the sales and marketing teams to identify, understand, and personally appreciate the worth of the company. Periodic worth cartography exercises may maintain the personal connection between participants and their company. The continued worth cartography may occur individually, such as through a personal GUI, such as illustrated and described in FIGS. 9A and 9B, or in a group setting, which may promote camaraderie within the teams. Periodic worth cartography may utilize the responses from the initial worth cartography seminar, prompting a participant to review and confirm responses. In some aspects, periodic worth cartography may engage the participants to go through the entire process again, wherein one or more new responses, worth themes, worth paths, and worth statements may be compared to previous responses, worth themes, worth paths, and worth statements. The comparison may allow participants to see their appreciation and connection to the company and identification and articulation of the company's worth evolve over time. Worth cartography may not be static, wherein periodic worth cartography may allow for a fluid and flexible appreciation and articulation of value that evolves with the company over time. For example, the company may expand or contract geographically or functionally, which may prompt a reevaluation exercise in worth cartography. The sales and marketing team may undergo a substantial change in personnel, such as through layoffs or a merger, wherein worth cartography may promote morale and create a renewed sense of personal connection to the company. The information provided may be fed into the system and preserved for future reference by the entity. The information collection may be converted into data points and assigned values based on a variety of factors, either organic or designated, such as frequency, association, resonance based on a campaign, or importance based on entity hierarchy. Weighing these values, the system can then provide a report indicating any trends. The system may also suggest further actions based on an entity's previous activities or solutions to similar trends or adjacent trends. The system can track potential pressure points as well as use historical information to indicate how a campaign or a decision point may affect a customer segment or entity employees, as non-limiting examples. By collecting this information from the worth cartography process, an entity can have a micro and macro view of a segment it regularly analyzes. Alternatively, the entity will have quality data points for a segment that can be compared to other data points. Over time, the worth cartography process may compare and indicate trends within an industry using authentic data based on participant input. This heightens actionable insight an entity can then use to affect change on an individual, entity-wide, and organizational level. CONCLUSION A number of embodiments of the present disclosure have been described. While this specification contains many specific implementation details, there should not be construed as limitations on the scope of any disclosures or of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features specific to particular embodiments of the present disclosure. Certain features that are described in this specification in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented in combination in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in combination in multiple embodiments separately or in any suitable sub-combination. Moreover, although features may be described above as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can in some cases be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a sub-combination or variation of a sub-combination. Similarly, while operations are depicted in the drawings in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed, to achieve desirable results. In certain circumstances, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Moreover, the separation of various system components in the embodiments described above should not be understood as requiring such separation in all embodiments, and it should be understood that the described program components and systems can generally be integrated together in a single software product or packaged into multiple software products. Thus, particular embodiments of the subject matter have been described. Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims. In some cases, the actions recited in the claims can be performed in a different order and still achieve desirable results. In addition, the processes depicted in the accompanying figures do not necessarily require the particular order show, or sequential order, to achieve desirable results. In certain implementations, multitasking and parallel processing may be advantageous. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the claimed disclosure. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE DISCLOSURE <EOH>The advent of the Industrial Revolution brought with it a transition from manual labor to semi or fully automated manufacturing processes using machines. Due to this increased efficiency, a new labor force was needed to oversee production, interact with a burgeoning clientele due to the potential broader reach and cheaper prices that machines facilitated, and ensure that machines were functioning by tasking employees with upkeep or working in parts of the manufacturing process that were not automated yet. Despite the relative efficiency of these machines, individuals were still in charge of handling them and implementing systems to ensure that production was occurring satisfactorily and on time. On top of that, supervisors had to make sure that their work force was operating at the peak of their abilities to either participate in processes machines could not do yet or to maintain machines in working order. Supervisors had to train employees, make sure employees were performing satisfactorily, and service a growing community that had a need for the products facilitated by this new technology and methods of manufacture. Given the sheer number of moving parts, supervisors were not concerned with an employee's contentment, whether their abilities were optimized, or whether the tasks they were given were those they were best at. The result was long working hours under strict working conditions at an unprecedented pace set by machines, not human beings. The shift in awareness that a content, happy work force resulted in a more productive work force occurred slowly as the centuries went on. As technology matured and allowed for streamlined efficiency, more thought and care was put into the human component of the experience. Companies started encouraging employees to find their purpose within the company, and movement between positions or specialties was encouraged more than it was before. Solutions like the lean canvas were created as a business modeling tool to help identify broader customer problems while targeting different segments of clientele. Organizations and businesses still struggle to identify how best to implement employee and customer retention while maintaining greater revenue growth. Organizations are also unable to accurately capture and take snapshot of current organization culture or gauge cultural stagnation to determine when action or change might be necessary. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE DISCLOSURE <EOH>What is needed, therefore, is a way to help companies, organizations, and individuals very quickly identify and authentically communicate their worth to increase their sales or marketing efforts, retain employees and customers, communicate their worth, and achieve greater revenue, growth, and sustainability while tracking the impact of these efforts. This requires a method and system that may evaluate a business, person, concept, product, service, or segment from the perspective of one or more persons, such as a potential customer, existing employee, or member of the general public, that can be dynamic to each individual need or target while also being either automated or manipulated in real-time depending on the exercise. The system may scale according to need, meaning it can be simple, immediate, and intuitive, or may range in complexity depending on information requested by the user or reviewer. The system may also be directed inward to identify organizational culture in a moment in time, over time, and within specific periods of time using quantifiable tools and data based on or gathered from user input. This information can then be used to redirect organizational culture or to provide insight to those who need to be able to quickly access and identify what is going on with the organization's culture. With this information, a higher up, such as a chief operating officer, may be able to identify if culture shifted as a result of a new policy being instituted, a new hire becoming a part of the team, or whether there were other dynamics at play around the time there was a change in employee attitude, output, or thinking. This can highlight areas for improvement within the organization that a person can act on and improve. On an individual level, the organization can also see employees on a micro-level and be able to identify changes in performance, attitude, or output by individual. Accordingly, the present disclosure relates to evaluation methods and systems that use interactive steps to develop a visualization and valuation of worth, both internally and self-reflective; externally and within a business; or amongst a group of peers. More specifically, the present disclosure relates to an evaluation system that utilizes a combination of subjective interactive stages; subjective and objective analysis of the business, person, or concept; and visualization tools to create a statement of worth of the business, person, or concept that may elicit personal, emotional, and logical responses from a target audience. Further, the present disclosure provides a visualization of worth that may be easy to digest and easily sharable, allowing for a flexible communication tool that may be useful to multiple levels of communicators and may align and engage participants around an authentic voice. In some aspects, worth cartography may create a path for growth that may be universally and quickly deployable and flexible for different business sizes and states of formation. Some aspects may include a system for generating a worth statement through worth cartography, wherein the system may include a display; one or more wireless communication interfaces; one or more memory resources. The system may also include a worth map database; and one or more processors. The system may also transmit a plurality of worth inquiries. The system may also collect a plurality of worth responses to the plurality of worth inquiries. The system may also include populate a worth map display with the plurality of worth responses. The system may also include generate a worth path including select worth responses in a logical path. The system may also include generate a worth statement including a prose statement, where the prose statement transforms the worth path into the worth statement. The system may also include present a worth statement display. Other embodiments of this aspect may include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods. Implementations may include one or more of the following features. In some aspects, the one or more processors may be further configured to prompt input of personal ranking data related to the plurality of worth responses; receive personal ranking data. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be further configured to access a linguistic database, where the linguistic database may assign linguistic ranking to the plurality of worth responses. In some implementations, the one or more processors may be further configured to prompt input of a personal worth path, where the personal worth path includes personally selected worth responses in a personal logical path; receive personal worth path data. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be further configured to access a linguistic database, where the linguistic database may assign linguistic ranking to the plurality of worth responses. In some aspects, the one or more processors may be further configured to prompt input of worth statement criteria, where the worth statement criteria at least partially defines parameters of the worth statement; receive worth statement criteria. Implementations of the described techniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computer software on a computer-accessible medium. Some aspects may include a system for creating a worth matrix, the system including: a display; one or more wireless communication interfaces; and one or more memory resources including. In some embodiments, the system may also include a worth map database including a plurality of worth map data and one or more processors. In some aspects, the system may collect a plurality of worth map data related to an entity. In some implementations, the system may compare the plurality of worth map data. In some embodiments, the system may generate a worth matrix including analytic data extracted from the comparison of the plurality of worth map data. In some aspects, the system may also include present a worth matrix display, where the worth matrix display includes a visual representation of the worth matrix. Other embodiments of this aspect may include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods. Implementations may include one or more of the following features. In some embodiments, the plurality of worth map data may be collected from a plurality of participants. In some aspects, the plurality of participants may be from a plurality of entity segments. In some implementations, the plurality of worth map data may be collected from a single participant. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be further configured to generate a master worth map, where the master worth map includes extracted master worth map data from the worth matrix; generate a master worth path including select master worth responses from the master worth map in a logical path; generate a master worth statement including a master prose statement, where the master prose statement transforms the master worth path into the master worth statement and presents a master worth statement display. In some implementations, this may be condensed into shorthand for the participant, such as an abbreviated pitch or paragraph setting. In some aspects, the one or more processors may be further configured to prompt input of master worth statement criteria, where the master worth statement criteria at least partially defines parameters of the master worth statement; and receive master worth statement criteria. In some implementations, the one or more memory resources may include a linguistic database, and the one or more processors may be further configured to access the linguistic database, where the comparison further includes a linguistic analysis on the plurality of worth maps. In some aspects, the one or more processors may be further configured to retrieve master objective data from the linguistic database, where the master objective data allows for comparison of linguistically similar or adjacent worth map responses between the plurality of worth maps. Implementations of the described techniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computer software on a computer-accessible medium. Some general aspects may include a system for scoring a worth map, the system including: a worth map server configured to: receive worth map responses to a plurality of worth inquiries, where the worth map responses include one or both text characters or images; receive a worth map display populated with the plurality of worth responses; access a worth map response database; analyze the worth map responses and the worth map display, where the analysis identifies relative significance of the worth map responses, where the significance is at least partially based on a position of the worth map responses within the worth map display; assign objective data to each of the worth map responses; generate a uniform quantitative tag for each of the worth map responses. Other embodiments of this aspect include corresponding computer systems, apparatus, and computer programs recorded on one or more computer storage devices, each configured to perform the actions of the methods. Implementations may include one or more of the following features. In some embodiments, the one or more processors may be further configured to access a linguistic database, where the analysis further includes a linguistic analysis on the worth map responses. In some aspects, the worth map server may be further configured to receive personal ranking data related to the plurality of worth responses, where the significance is further based at least partially on the personal ranking data. In some implementations, the worth map server may be further configured to transmit objective data to a master scoring database, where the master scoring database aggregates objective data from one or more participants and entities. In some embodiments, the worth map server may be further configured to access the master scoring database; and retrieve aggregated objective data related to the worth map responses, where the significance is further based at least partially on retrieved aggregated objective data. In some implementations, the one or more memory resources may include a predictive analytics database, and the one or more processors may be further configured to access the predictive analytics database, where the analysis further includes a predictive analysis on the worth map responses. Implementations of the described techniques may include hardware, a method or process, or computer software on a computer-accessible medium. | G06Q101053 | 20170802 | 20180208 | 97119.0 | G06Q1010 | 0 | NOVAK, REBECCA R | Methods And Apparatus For Entity Worth Cartography | SMALL | 0 | REJECTED | G06Q | 2,017 |
|
15,669,598 | PENDING | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN MOBILE DEVICE USERS | Provided are systems and methods for establishing a communication between mobile device users that register with a collaboration system. The collaboration system determines a match between profile data of the first registered mobile device and profile data of the second registered mobile device. Displayed at the first registered mobile device is a first list of user identifications, which includes an identification of a user of the second registered mobile device and an identification of a user of at least one other mobile device. Displayed at the second registered mobile device is a second list of user identifications. The second list includes an identification of a user of the first registered mobile device and an identification of at least one other mobile device user. | 1. A method for establishing a communication between mobile devices, comprising: registering a plurality of mobile devices with a collaboration system; determining, by the collaboration system, a match between profile data of each of a first mobile device and profile data of a second mobile device of the plurality of mobile devices; displaying at the first mobile device in response to the match a first list of user identifications, the first list including an identification of a user of the second mobile device; displaying at the second mobile device in response to the match a second list of user identifications, the second list including an identification of a user of the first mobile device; providing at the first mobile device an option for the user of the first mobile device to select or not to select the identification of the second mobile device user from the first list; providing at the second mobile device an option for the user of the second mobile device to select or not to select the identification of the first mobile device user from the second list, wherein: at least the first mobile device or the second mobile device includes at least a first and second profile of the profile data, the second profile containing at least one profile element different than the first profile; and wherein; in response to a first condition the first profile determines the match and in response a second condition different than the first condition, the second profile determines the match. 2. The method of claim 1, further comprising: generating a mutual selection, including: both selecting by the first mobile device the identification of the user of the second mobile device from the first list and selecting by the second mobile device the identification of the first mobile device use from the second list; and forming an electronic communication between the first mobile device and second mobile device. 3. The method of claim 1, further comprising: in response to the first mobile device user failing to select the identification of the second mobile device user from the first list or the second mobile device user failing to select the identification of the first mobile device user from the second list, preventing an electronic communication from being formed between the first mobile device and second mobile device. 4. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and second profiles is professional in nature and includes at least one professional or career relevant attribute including one or more of a first name, last name, employer, job title, status, interests, photograph, contact information, e-mail, professional contacts, social media link, employment status, college or university information, desired search or scanning preferences such as a designated search radii about the mobile device, current or historical location data, users with a job title, users with a common professional interest or profile element, contacts, or users with certain current or historical location data, past or current user selections, current or previous status, or other professional or personal information. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the first or second profile is linked to or partially populated by a social media account, database, e-mail exchange or human resource data source. 6. The method of claim 1, wherein at least one of the first and second profiles is personal in nature and includes at least one personal or social attribute including first name, last name, screen name, gender, age, photograph, personal contacts, schools, social media link, hobbies, interests or other personal attributes, desired search or scanning preferences such as a designated search radii about the mobile device, friends, users with a common interest or profile element, users with a common social activity interest, current or historical location data, past or current user selections, current or previous status, desired social activity, or other personal or professional information. 7. The method of claim 6, wherein the first or second profile is linked to or partially populated by a social media account. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the first or second condition that determines the match is manually selected by the first or second user. 9. The method of claim 8, wherein a manual action by the first or second user establishing the first or second condition includes an interactive action with respect to a graphical interface element. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the first or second condition that determines the match is automatically triggered by a user-established schedule. 11. The method of claim 10, wherein the user-established schedule is established, defined, activated or modified by a user via a graphical interface element that allows a user to select a weekday, weekend, days of the week, times of day, time windows, or other time or calendar-based criteria. 12. The method of claim 10, wherein the user-established schedule is based on the time of day, day of week, day of month, year, or any other time or calendar-based criteria such as a holiday, weekday, weekend, work schedule, designated work hours, typical work schedule, personal schedule or vacation schedule. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the first or second condition that determines the match is triggered by the social or professional relationship between the first and second user, similarities or differences between the profile of the first and second user, the search preferences of the first or second user, the current or past location of the first or second user, any other attribute of the first or second user including a current or past selected status, desired activity, schedule, personal or professional social graph or past or present selections, system-generated default, or any other attribute designated by a user, another user, or automatically established by the collaboration system. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein when a match is determined based on the first or second profile, at least one element of the first or second profile is displayed at the first or second mobile device. 15. A server device for establishing a communication between mobile devices, comprising: a processor that registers a plurality of mobile devices with a collaboration system; a processor that determines a match between profile data of a first mobile device of the plurality of mobile devices and profile data of a second mobile device of the plurality of mobile devices; a processor that generates and outputs to the first mobile device in response to the match a first list of user identifications, the first list including an identification of the user of the second mobile device; a processor that generates and outputs to the second mobile device in response to the match a second list of user identifications, the second list including an identification of the user of the first mobile device; a processor that provides at the first mobile device an option for the user of the first mobile device to select or not to select the identification of the second mobile device user from the first list; a processor that provides at the second mobile device an option for the user of the second mobile device to select or not to select the identification of the first mobile device user from the second list; a processor that provides for the user of the first mobile device or the user of the second mobile device at least one of a first or second profile; a processor that determines that the second profile contains at least one profile element different than the first profile; and a processor that determines that a first condition exists and uses the first profile to determine the match or that a condition different than the first condition exists, and uses the second profile to determine the match. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/410,385, filed Jan. 19, 2017 and entitled “Systems and Methods for Establishing Communications Between Mobile Device Users,” which is a continuation application claiming the benefit of the filing date of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/044,739, filed Feb. 16, 2016 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,584,464 on Feb. 28, 2017, entitled “Systems and Methods for Establishing Communications Between Mobile Device Users,” which claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/744,367, filed Jan. 17, 2013 and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 9,294,428 on Mar. 22, 2016, entitled “Systems and Methods for Establishing Communications Between Mobile Device Users,” which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/587,946, filed on Jan. 18, 2012 entitled “Geospatial-Based Detection System”, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/680,949, filed on Aug. 8, 2012, entitled “Collaboration Platform,” and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/746,638, filed on Dec. 28, 2012, entitled “Privacy Method for Social Networking Platforms,” the entirety of each of which is incorporated by reference herein. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The inventive concepts relate generally to mobile device applications. More specifically, the inventive concepts relate to systems and methods that provide privacy and security for mobile device users and that remove barriers and inefficiencies with respect to electronic communications established with other mobile device users in a social networking or other collaborative environment. BACKGROUND Social and professional networking is a popular online activity and continues to grow, particularly on mobile devices. In order to perform online activities related to sharing information, users can register with a social networking service or the like, then enter personal or professional profile information at a mobile device such as a smartphone. The user can use search or location tracking features provided by the service to connect and engage in a communication with other mobile device users. SUMMARY In one aspect, provided is a method for establishing a communication between mobile device users. In the method, a plurality of mobile devices registers with a collaboration system. Each mobile device includes profile data. The collaboration system determines that a first registered mobile device and a second registered mobile device are at a same vicinity. The collaboration system determines a match between profile data of the first registered mobile device and profile data of the second registered mobile device. Displayed at the first registered mobile device in response to the match is a first list of user identifications. The first list includes an identification of a user of the second registered mobile device and an identification of a user of at least one other mobile device. Displayed at the second registered mobile device in response to the match is a second list of user identifications. The second list includes an identification of a user of the first registered mobile device and an identification of at least one other mobile device user. In another aspect, provided is a method for establishing a communication between mobile devices. A plurality of mobile devices is registered with a collaboration system, each mobile device including profile data. The collaboration system processes the profile data of each registered mobile device. A user status is selected by each of a user of a first registered mobile device and a user of a second registered mobile device. The collaboration system determines that the users of the first and second registered mobile devices, respectively, selected a same user status. The collaboration system determines that the users of the first and second registered mobile devices, respectively, are within a predetermined geographic area with respect to each other. The collaboration system displays at the first registered mobile device a first list of user identifications, the first list including an identification of the user of the second registered mobile device. The collaboration system displays at the second registered mobile device a second list of user identifications, the second list including an identification of the user of the first registered mobile device. In another aspect, provided is a method for remote or non-location based matching for providing user privacy or security. A plurality of mobile devices is registered with a collaboration system. Each mobile device includes profile data. The collaboration system determines that users of the first and second registered mobile devices, respectively, share a same user status. The collaboration system determines a match between profile data of the first registered mobile device and profile data of the second registered mobile device. Displayed at the first registered mobile device in response to the match is an alert that includes a first list of user identifications. The first list including an identification of a user of the second registered mobile device and an identification of a user of at least one other mobile device. Displayed at the second registered mobile device in response to the match is an alert that includes a second list of user identifications. The second list including an identification of a user of the first registered mobile device and an identification of at least one other mobile device user. In another aspect, provided is a system for establishing a communication between a plurality of mobile devices, comprising: a processor that receives registration data from a plurality of mobile devices; a processor that determines first and second registered mobile devices have a common profile data element; a processor that determines a match between the first and second registered mobile device users based on the common profile data element; a processor that generates and outputs to the first registered mobile device in response to the match a first list of user identifications, the first list including an identification of a user of the second registered mobile device and an identification of a user of at least one other mobile device; and a processor that generates and outputs to the second registered mobile device in response to the match a second list of user identifications, the second list including an identification of a user of the first registered mobile device and an identification of at least one other mobile device user. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is an illustration of an environment in which embodiments of the present inventive concepts can be practiced; FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating a method of establishing a communication between mobile device users, in accordance with an embodiment; FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating the establishment of a communication between two mobile devices, in accordance with an embodiment; FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating the establishment of a communication between two mobile devices, in accordance with an embodiment; FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a method of coupon offering in response to a location-based match, in accordance with an embodiment; FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a method of establishing a communication between mobile device users, in accordance with an embodiment; and FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating the establishment of a communication between two mobile devices at different locations, in accordance with an embodiment. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE EMBODIMENTS In the following description, specific details are set forth although it should be appreciated by one of ordinary skill that the systems and methods can be practiced without at least some of the details. In some instances, known features or processes are not described in detail so as not to obscure the present invention. Privacy and safety concerns exist with respect to the online posting and sharing of personal and location information. For example, location-based social networking services now permit mobile device users to track the location of their friends and even strangers via their mobile devices. Service providers providing location-tracking features may provide users some elements of control over their privacy settings. For example, service providers may permit users to expose their personal information only to a designated audience, for example, the user's friends and family, while restricting unauthorized parties such as strangers from viewing or otherwise accessing this information. Traditional Web-based social and professional networking platforms are being made available for mobile device users to manage their personal profiles, contact lists, and related information. These platforms may also leverage the location tracking features available with modern smartphones, for example, informing a mobile device user about other users in the mobile device user's contact list who are in the same local area as the mobile device user. However, the user must provide a location-based networking platform with personal information, e.g., a contact list or social network and location tracking permissions, which can introduce privacy or safety concerns. For example, an unsuspecting user such as a minor may be in close proximity with a potentially hostile user, for example, a stranger, who may be provided by the networking platform with knowledge of the whereabouts of the unsuspecting user, which can provide an opportunity to physically interact with the unsuspecting user. In another example, a user's contact list may include an ex-boyfriend. However, the user may not wish the ex-boyfriend to use a location-tracking feature to know her whereabouts. In other cases, users may not want their contacts to know their whereabouts at certain times or in certain situations. Other users may desire the flexibility to select when, where and with whom they would like to present their personal information such as a current location. One approach for protecting location privacy is to allow users to create private areas or ‘hiding spots’, where a user's presence at a particular location is hidden to others. However, this feature requires significant manual programming for each hiding spot location. Also, modifying these user settings to selectively permit other mobile device users to “see” the user at different times, in different locations, and across dynamic social situations, can be cumbersome. Another approach provides the ability for a user to pre-configure a “circle of friends” designated to have knowledge of the user's location. However, a user's preferences for sharing a location with the circle of friends may vary depending on the location, the time of day, their status or current social situation, etc. It can become cumbersome to select and unselect users from a pre-configured circle of friends on a real-time basis. Some location-based social networking environments publish the presence of mobile device users at a location, for example, on a map displayed on the mobile device screen, and provide features that permit a user to control who can see them, e.g., only direct contacts, so the user is not viewable among the broader list of users to any non direct contact user. However, these approaches are static, unidirectional, i.e., one user initiates, and do not protect the privacy of the other users in the area relative to that user, i.e., that user is concealed with respect to the other users, but the other users are still visible to that user and thus their privacy is not protected. Also, the abovementioned approaches do not take into account “secondary contacts.” Here, a “friend of a friend” or other indirect secondary contact may be in the same vicinity as a mobile device user. The abovementioned approaches can make the secondary contact and the mobile device users aware of each other's presence in the vicinity at the same time. However, neither party may be interested in communicating with the other ever, or just in that particular moment. As mentioned above, hiding spots or the like require significant manual operation and are limited with respect to providing privacy for both parties. In brief overview, systems and methods in accordance with embodiments of the present inventive concepts assist users of smartphones or other mobile devices to detect friends and interesting people in a flexible and private manner, and remove conventional barriers and inefficiencies to interactions that may occur after two or more mobile device users are identified for a possible communication. In an embodiment, a roaming mobile device automatically scans a surrounding area for other mobile devices which meet predetermined search criteria established by the mobile device user, for example, other mobile devices determined to be in a same vicinity and/or that share a common interest, attribute, status, or profile. The roaming mobile device user can be presented with a list of names or identifiers of other mobile device users when a “match” is found, e.g., another mobile device user is identified as being in the same vicinity and/or determined to share a common interest, attribute, current status, and so on as the roaming mobile device. One of the identifiers on the list corresponds to the other mobile device identified in the match. The other identifiers can correspond to other mobile device users who may or may not have a relationship with the roaming mobile device user and/or may or may not actually be in the same vicinity but are determined to be “believable” to the viewer, i.e., the list is persuasive in that the user believes that the other mobile device users are indeed candidates for communication with the roaming mobile device user. Similarly, the discovered mobile device, i.e., the other device determined from the match, receives a list of names or other identifiers of other mobile device users, one of which is the name or identifier of the roaming mobile device. If the discovered mobile device user is selected from the roaming mobile device's list, and the roaming device user is selected from the discovered device's list, then the identity, location, status, and/or other personal information of each of the two parties, i.e., the roaming device user and the discovered device user, are revealed to each other, and a communication can be established between the two mobile devices. An important feature of the present inventive concepts is that anonymity is preserved unless both users mutually select each other, i.e., mutually “opt-in” to be connected. In particular, anonymity is preserved if one of the identified users of the match does not select the other identified user from the displayed list. Anonymity is also preserved if a first identified user selects a second identified user but the second identified user doesn't select the first identified user. In view of the displayed list including several possible users, a mobile device user doesn't know whether another user is actually in the vicinity or is otherwise available to communicate unless each user agrees to communicate with the other, or “opts-in”. Thus, a map configured to display on a mobile device the locations of other mobile devices may not display the location, or exact location, and or identifying information of the other user unless the other user mutually selects the user of the mobile device displaying the map. The systems and methods in accordance with embodiments include an automatic introduction tool providing geospatially active features that facilitate users to meet each other. Other applications can include but not be limited to general social interactions, for example, where two individuals are in the same vicinity and may be interested in being made aware of each other's availability in order to initiate a personal encounter such as a meeting. Related applications can include matchmaking services, where a mobile device user wishes to search for companions, for example, new friends, dates, exercise partners, travel companions, roommates, buyers or sellers for used goods, and so on. Regardless of the application, a list of possible dates, new friends, etc. are presented, at least one of which shares a common attribute, feature, or the like with the searching device, and the others being generated so that the viewer may believe that they are possible dates, new friends, etc. Other applications can relate to business applications such as sales or marketing campaigns. For example, the name of a sales person determined to be in close physical proximity to a business owner can be displayed a business owner's mobile device among a list of other mobile device users, and vice versa. Accordingly, the business owner can opt whether to reveal his current location and/or status to the sales person. In another example, two mobile device users who indicate that each is interested in meeting for coffee can each receive a coupon offered by a coffee shop in the same vicinity as both users. As non-limiting examples, coupons may be presented as a single coupon or multiple coupons may be presented with an interface that allows the user the ability to browse, select from various categories, research the vendors, actively vote on their preferences with other connected user(s), etc. Although two users are described in a match, in other embodiments, more than two users, or groups of users, can be organized into a group. For example, a group of users can meet at a restaurant, and coupons can be presented to the group or groups of users who are in a same vicinity as the restaurant. A feature of the systems and methods in accordance with embodiments is that a mobile device user is less likely to experience a sense of rejection by another user, which might otherwise occur when both mobile device users are fully aware of the other's actual presence or status and a mobile device user attempts to contact the other mobile device user but does not receive a response from the other mobile device user. For example, after being matched a first mobile device user may agree to reveal her identity and status to a second mobile device user by selecting a second mobile device user from a list of contacts presented at the first user's mobile device, but the second mobile device user may not be interested in communicating with the first mobile device user at a particular moment, even if the first mobile device user is a good friend or family member, and thus they may decide not to select the first user. In this case, neither matched users' identity and current location or status is revealed to the other and each user may receive a message from the system that a mutual opt-in did not occur. Accordingly, the systems and methods in accordance with an embodiment provide an environment where the first user can rationalize that the second user wasn't actually nearby or sharing a similar status, or was unavailable, and avoid a sense of rejection where the first user wants to chat with the second user, but not vice-versa. In one embodiment, a user may be limited to the number of users he or she may select on their device list. For example, if they are presented a list of five possible users who are the match, they may be limited to select only a maximum of four from their list. Thus, there would always be one user they were not able to select, even if they wanted to communicate with all the users on their list. If a mutual opt-in does not occur, the user may rationalize that the one user they were not able to select was the user with whom they were matched and thus they could avoid feeling a sense of rejection assuming it was the user who they didn't have the opportunity to select who was actually there. FIG. 1 is an illustration of an environment 10 in which embodiments of the present inventive concepts can be practiced. The environment 10 can include a social networking environment or related environment where a communication can occur between two or more electronic devices, in particular, mobile devices 12A, 12B, 12C (generally, 12). Such communications can include the exchange of messages, voice, video, and/or other data such as profile information or location coordinates, between two or more of the mobile devices 12 and/or a computer system 20 over a network 16. A service provider such as a social networking service can facilitate communications between electronic device users, for example, users at mobile devices 12. Other elements (not shown) of the environment 10 can include but not be limited to GPS, geotagging, electronic beacons, desktop or non-mobile computers, databases, cloud computing applications, and other network computing hardware and software components known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The mobile devices 12 can include personal digital assistants (PDA) or smartphones, tablet devices, wireless computers, or other electronic devices having the ability to exchange data with the network 16. Each mobile device 12 can have a display screen, speaker, and/or other input/output (I/O) device for presenting text, graphics, voice, video, recorded messages, and/or other data exchanged in the environment 10, and for providing roaming features. The mobile devices 12 can have different configurations, for example, different display sizes, form factors, connection speeds, and/or other physical or electronic distinguishing features. The participant mobile devices 12 can be geographically separate from each other, and can communicate with each other and/or the computer system 20 via the network 16, for example, a public switched telephone network (PSTN), a mobile communications network, a data network, such as a local area network (LAN) or wide area network (WAN), or a combination thereof, or other communication network known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The computer system 20 can be part of, or in electronic communication with, an application server or related processing device (not shown) via the network 16, for example, a social networking server, or other non-mobile social networking platforms, such as a conventional on-line systems. The computer system 20 may be a stand-alone server and/or a cloud-based or scalable network-based platform. The computer system 20 can include one or more processors 22 such as a central processing unit (CPU), a memory 24, and an input/output (I/O) logic 32, which can communicate with each other via a bus 34, for example, a peripheral component interconnect (PCI) bus. The I/O logic 32 can include a network interface card (NIC) or other adaptor for connecting the computer system 20 with the network 16. The memory 24 can include volatile memory, for example, random access memory (RAM) and the like, and/or non-volatile memory, for example, read-only memory (ROM), flash memory, and the like. The memory 24 can include removable and/or non-removable storage media implemented in accordance with methods and technologies known to those of ordinary skill in the art for storing data. Stored in the memory 24 can include program code of an operating system (OS) 28 and a collaboration system 26 executed by one or more processors 22. The program code can carry out operations for aspects of the present inventive concepts. The program code may execute entirely on one or more computers, for example computer 20 and/or mobile devices 12, partly on the user's computer and/or mobile devices 12, as a stand-alone software package, partly on the user's device and partly on a remote computer or entirely on the remote computer or server. In the latter scenario, the remote computer may communicate with other elements of the environment 10 through any type of network, including the network 16. The collaboration system 26 can employ hardware and/or program code stored in the memory 24 or other storage device, and is executed by a processor at the computer system 20. The collaboration system 26 can include, or otherwise establish a communication with a computer that includes, a network-based, geospatial search tool that can continuously or intermittently search for the presence and/or location of mobile devices 12 and/or detectable objects, such as a stationary business, for example, a restaurant. A location of a mobile device 12, or other objects, may be tracked using GPS, by triangulation or related techniques using mobile network towers, and/or with local antennas using other mobile devices 12 on the network. In the latter case, a mobile phone 12 on the network 16 can recognize the presence of another device, for example, via Bluetooth™, GPS, or other wireless technology, and then transmit the location information to the collaboration system 26. Other types of geospatial analysis can be equally performed. User positioning data, current and historical user locations or registered users, and/or other geospatial pattern history data, can be stored at the collaboration system 26 or other storage device in communication with the collaboration system 26, the mobile devices 12, and/or other elements of the environment 10. The collaboration system 26 can process information, or profile data, related to the registered mobile devices 12. Profile data elements can include, but not be limited to, a mobile device user's status, e.g., hungry or bored, personal interests, direct and/or shared social relationships provided for example as contact data, associated attributes about the user, e.g. job title, desired search or scanning preferences such as a designated search radii about the mobile device, current or historical location data, and/or other relevant user information. Profile data can be derived from contact lists or other data sources stored locally at a mobile device 12, and/or be derived from external sources, such as personal profile data retrieved from an online social media account, a database, e-mail exchange, human resource data source, and/or other repository containing profile data that is accessible by the collaboration system 26 via the network 16. Profile data, registered user account information, device settings, preferences, and the like can be stored in a table format or the like at a data repository, for example, the memory 24 of the collaboration system, or other storage device in communication with the environment 10. The collaboration system 26 can process, and optionally store, other data related to mobile device communications such as current or past location information of the mobile devices 12, user usage statistics, and/or mobile device contact data which can be used in accordance with embodiments of the present inventive concepts. The collaboration system 26 can compare the location data, profile data, search criteria, and/or other data related to a mobile device 12 to identify a common location, attribute, or other profile data shared by two or more mobile devices 12. The collaboration system 26 can generate a match result when a comparison produces profile data or related information that is common to different mobile device users 12. For example, a match result can be generated when the collaboration system 26 establishes that two mobile devices 12 are in a same city block and that the user of each mobile device 12 indicates as a status that he or she is hungry. In another embodiment, group matching can occur between two or more mobile devices 12. This can include receiving, by each of the registered mobile devices 12, a notification of information related to at least one other of the registered mobile devices 12. A user of each of the two or more registered mobile devices 12 can select an identification of the at least one other of the two or more registered mobile devices. A direct communication can be established between registered mobile devices of the two or more registered mobile devices identified as being part of a common group of the at least one group. For example, a plurality of mobile device users can receive an alert of the presence, shared status, location, or other profile data regarding other registered mobile devices. Each can select from a list generated in accordance to a method described in accordance with an embodiment, for example, described herein. The collaboration system 26 can include a processor that identifies one or more compatible or common groups, for example, groups in which each person selects all other mobile devices in that group. The collaboration system 26 can provide registered mobile devices 12 with a Simultaneous or near-simultaneous, multi-way opt-in feature when a match is determined between two or more devices. The collaboration system 26 can generate an alert, a notification, or the like, which is provided to each mobile device 12 identified in the match result. A user may establish different alerts for various matches received. For example, a user can set an audible alert when a close contact or friend is detected nearby and identified in a match. In another example, a user may set all non-close contacts in the mobile device contact list, e.g., a contact who is not a friend or immediate family member, to a silent mode and receive a silent alert such as a text message if a non-close contact is identified in a match. The alert, notification, or the like can include a list of other mobile device users, which includes the other mobile device 12 identified in the match result, and also includes identifiers of other people generated by the collaboration system 26 who may or may not be “real” people, i.e., fictitious names generated according to an algorithm, technique, or the like, and determined to be “believable.” An example of a fictional “believable person” includes information such as a name or other identifier determined by the collaboration system 26 to be possibly recognized by the user as being a person that the user may know or be acquainted with, which is presented to the mobile device 12 as being in the same vicinity as the user, having a common interest, and so on, even though the “person” presented to the mobile device 12 is not in fact a real person. The algorithm, technique, or the like for generating user identifications for a list displayed in response to a match result can retrieve stored profile data of other users, and modify the profile data to maximize the ‘believability’ of the list. This feature of presenting a list of “believable users” to a mobile device 12 provides a level of privacy for the mobile device 12 by ensuring that a mobile device identified from the match result is not immediately aware of the other's full identity and/or actual location or status. In establishing a “believable” mobile device user for the list, the collaboration system 26 may employ any variety of techniques to selectively choose which user identifications are to be displayed in the list, so as to make ‘believable’ the presence of a potential user on a list. For example, if a user of the mobile device 12C is at an airport in another country, only other users who could actually be at that airport may be displayed to maximize the ‘believability’ of the profile options presented. Alternatively, users presented on a displayed list can include real and/or fictitious people, which can be generated by the collaboration system 26 from profile data of other registered mobile device users, or created randomly according to a name generator at the collaboration system 26 that optimizes the profiles presented to maximize the believability of the list. The collaboration system 26 may assess numerous parameters from profile data of other registered mobile devices to identify a ‘likely’ or ‘probable’ list of mobile devices for the list. These parameters can include profile data such as the actual or probable location of the other mobile devices at the time of the match determination, device location traces in the past and the timing of the traces, user home and office locations, user interests, user profile and status information, e.g., information identifying a person with a baby who is near a day care center, user privacy settings, e.g., settings designating the area of interest as a user ‘hiding spot’, and/or historical information, e.g., a track record indicating that during the previous five days the user was at a particular location. The collaboration system 26 can present other notification data in addition to matched users and lists. For example, the collaboration system 26 can assess user locations relative to stationary points of interest such as a restaurant. Here, the collaboration system 26 can notify a user that the restaurant is nearby. Accordingly, the collaboration system 26 can make a mobile device user aware of businesses, products, services, or other location-based objects that the user may be interested in, for example, being alerted that a Sushi restaurant is nearby. In this example, the user while walking down a sidewalk may receive an alert at the user's mobile device to a virtual geo-tagged coupon that has been “posted” in the vicinity of the Sushi restaurant. Geospatial information such as the presence and location of retail stores, restaurants, public transportation centers, and so on, can likewise be stored at the collaboration system 26 or other storage device in communication with the environment 10. In another embodiment, the collaboration system 26 can remotely connect mobile device users, even when they are not in a same location. Here, an initiating user can provide the collaboration system 26 with profile data such as a current status, for example, indicating that the user is available for an electronic “chat,” “game,” or the like. The collaboration system 26 can identify other registered mobile devices having the same status, and are also determined to be available for an electronic chat, game, or the like. The system 26 can then generate an alert for the initiating user and one or more other identified users having the same status. The identities of the initiating user and another identifier user are only revealed to each other after each selects the other from a corresponding list of candidate users and mutually opts-in, or otherwise agrees, to chat or play a game. FIG. 2 is a flowchart illustrating a method 200 of establishing a communication between mobile device users, in accordance with an embodiment. In describing the method 200, reference can be made to elements of FIG. 1. Some or all of the method 200 can be performed at the computer system 20, one or more intermediary devices (not shown but well-known to those of ordinary skill in the art such as servers, routers, and so on) at the network 16, and/or mobile devices 12 of FIG. 1, for example, governed by instructions that are stored in a memory of the computer system 20 and/or one or more mobile devices 12 and executed by one or more processors of the collaboration system 26 of the computer system 20 and/or one or more mobile devices 12. At block 202, two or more mobile devices 12, for example, mobile devices 12A and 12B, register with the collaboration system 26. A mobile device 12 can register with the collaboration system 26 via a user interface displayed at the mobile device 12, or from another computer, or from a display directly attached to the collaboration system. As part of the registration process, a user of each mobile device 12A, 12B can establish an account on the system 26 and enter profile data, which can be processed by the collaboration system 26, for example, to perform an operation in accordance with an embodiment. As described herein, profile data can include user contact information or other social relationship data, user status information, for example, a status indicating that the user is currently hungry or bored and/or available for communication, personal details, associated attributes, and/or desired search criteria or scanning preferences, for example, a designated search radius of 1 mile from a current location of the mobile device 12. As described herein, profile data can include other location data, and/or other relevant configuration data, for example, permission to monitor a location of a mobile device 12 according to one or more localization and tracking methods known to those of ordinary skill in the art, for example, using GPS techniques. The profile data can be stored at a table or other data format on a storage device so that the profile data is associated with the user's established account data. In addition to personal profile data, a commercial user may provide the collaboration system 26 with information about a business such as its products, services, target customers, coupons, and so on. In this example, the business may be at a location frequently visited by a user. In another example, a mobile device user can submit preferences related to other people, places, or things, e.g., other mobile devices, that the system 26 is permitted to detect and the manner in which the user may be notified. Scanning preferences, search criteria, and/or other configuration information can include information about whom or what local information the system 26 may detect and the manner in which the user is to be presented with a notification, for example, settings associated with what profile data is permitted to be displayed or visible to other mobile device users. For example, profile data for a mobile device 12A may be ‘tiered’ and only made available to other mobile devices 12 that meet certain criteria established by the user of the mobile device, e.g., buddy list contacts, those who are affiliated with the same business, etc. A tiered configuration may permit only a limited amount of information to be initially displayed at the other mobile device 12 user's list, for example, user name or handle only. If two parties select each other from a list, then additional profile information can be revealed, according to configuration parameters defined by each party. In another example, the configuration system 26 can be configured to permit some registered users having certain profile data in common with profile data of the mobile device user 12A to see some or all information related to the common profile data, while providing other registered users with limited information, for example, the user's screen name. In a tiered configuration, initially the users may only see user picture icons on their respective lists. They may be able to select a user's photo and see limited information about them (e.g., “Tier 1” information) such as hometown, age, etc. If users mutually select each other from their respective lists, then they may see more information (e.g., “Tier 2” information) such as a university, an employer, hobbies, etc. After chatting in a chat window, if both parties are comfortable with each other, each may choose to ‘release’ profile information to allow the other to see it in its entirety (e.g., “Tier 3” information) such as name, e-mail address, friend list, etc. In another example, a user can create a “public profile” and a “company/internal profile”. Other users who work in the same company may view contents of the company/internal profile that can include confidential information. Other mobile device users in the same vicinity who are not authorized to view this information may only see the user's public profile, which includes non-confidential information. A user of a registered mobile device 12 may provide inputs or instructions to the collaboration system 26 to assist the system 26 in identifying, screening, prioritizing, categorizing, or otherwise differentiating mobile devices 12, or local features or objects, which may be detected during a geospatial scanning and detection operation in accordance with an embodiment of the present inventive concepts, for example, during block 204 described below. One way that the system 26 can differentiate detected mobile devices 12 or local features or objects is to establish a prioritization or weighting to search attributes. This can be accomplished by a user individually ranking each search criteria, e.g., university attended or a hometown, according to a level of importance, for example, “High” or “Low”. Another method in accordance with an embodiment can include the ranking of search criteria according to groupings, for example, assigning multiple search criteria to a “High Importance” or “Must Have” grouping, or to a “Low Importance” or “Nice to Have” grouping, to simplify the process of navigating through all the individual search criteria. As the user ranks each search criteria, the list of displayed criteria, as described herein, may behave ‘dynamically’ to further facilitate the ranking task. For example, the list may collapse as criteria are ranked or assigned, i.e., those ranked items are hidden, or those ranked may turn gray, or those ranked may move away from the master list and to a separate ‘Ranked’ list. Eventually the user may move some or all of the criteria from the first list to the second list that is used by the system as the active list that will be used to conduct searches. The collaboration system 26 can include a configurable search sensitivity meter, which can control the presentation of the number and/or frequency of other registered mobile devices that are detected, matched and presented to a user. For example, mobile device 12A profile data may include a scanning preference to monitor all mobile devices identified within a one-mile radius of the current location of the mobile device 12A. However, in some environments such as an urban setting or city, the collaboration system 26 may identify a large number of registered mobile devices 12. Since a typical mobile device display screen is incapable of efficiently displaying a large number of device names or identifiers, the collaboration system 26 can be configured to establish matching preference settings to control the volume, frequency, and/or quality of matches made by the system 26. The meter can include a governor or related control mechanism to control the frequency or volume of match result alerts that a mobile device 12 may receive. The governor or related control mechanism can be configured to accommodate a mobile device in an area with a substantial number of potential matches, for example, by modifying a setting for a “high quality match only” and only receive an alert if there is a high degree of match. Other settings can include a low setting, which can detect and/or display any mobile device within a predefined range, or a medium setting, which can prioritize the detection and/or display of discovered mobile devices with certain profile data search criteria that match search criteria established by the roaming mobile device. Other settings can include a high setting, which detects and/or alerts the user if an ideal user that matches all search criteria is in the range of the roaming mobile device. Other settings may include a “snooze” button that provides a user the ability to temporarily block alerts according to pre-determined preferences such as for a period of time, or until they change locations, etc. Thus, in high-density user areas where a user is receiving too many matching alerts, the system 26 can be configured to provide a pause in order to limit or suspend alerts. Alternatively, a user may choose to allow for random alerts, for example, provided as notifications to the roaming mobile device when another mobile device satisfying some, none, or all of the predefined search criteria is in the same vicinity as the roaming mobile device. The user of the roaming mobile device may enter or select various manual or custom search criteria that will be used by the system 26 to search for other mobile devices or objects, features, etc. These search criteria may be populated and saved at the computer system 20. During an operation, a mobile device user can enter search criteria in a text box or the like, select from pre-defined search criteria, execute various other pre-defined search algorithms to identify ‘mutual matches’, i.e., which identify registered user(s) with whom the roaming device user shares common attributes, features, and so on. Another feature can include ‘reverse matches’, i.e., which identifies registered users who are looking for the user's mobile device. At block 204, the collaboration system 26 monitors, tracks, or otherwise determines the locations of the registered mobile devices 12, for example, using GPS, Wi-Fi, cell towers, or any other local or regional wireless network, or related location tracking technologies to determine the movement and locations of the mobile device 12. Current and historical location data can be stored at the collaboration system 26 and/or at a separate data storage device in communication with the collaboration system 26. A registered user can establish a distance setting as search criteria, which can be stored and processed at the collaboration system 26. For example, the collaboration system 26 can be configured to monitor a location of the mobile device 12A, and to scan the current location of the mobile device 12A for other mobile devices 12 that are within a 100 feet from the mobile device 12A. A registered mobile device user can submit several different profiles to the collaboration system 26, and activate a preferred profile for the system 26 to use when searching for other mobile devices. For example, the user may establish a weekday profile and a weekend profile with differentiated information. The user may manually activate the weekend profile on a Friday night. Alternately, the system 26 may automatically activate the weekend profile if an automatic alarm setting has been established for each profile. Here, the activated profile can be compared to the profile data of mobile devices detected during the search. The user can provide additional inputs or instruction to assist the system 26 in identifying, screening, prioritizing, categorizing, or otherwise differentiating registered mobile devices, or local features or objects, that it may detect. One or more geospatial scanning and detection techniques known to those of ordinary skill in the art can be performed when searching for the presence of other mobile devices and/or detectable objects such as restaurants or other stationary businesses. At block 206, a profile data match is determined between two or more registered mobile devices 12. The profile data match can be determined in response to a geospatial scanning operation, for example, described herein. The collaboration system 26 can determine a profile data match from a comparison between profile data corresponding to the mobile device 12A and profile data of the mobile device 12B. In determining a match, the collaboration system 26 may apply one or more techniques, methods, algorithms, and the like to match attributes and/or search terms of a user's profile data with profile data of other mobile device users. For example, a determination can be made that mobile devices 12A and 12B have at least one attribute, interest, status, or other profile data or information in common. For example, a profile data match may occur when the collaboration system 26 establishes that the users of the mobile devices 12A, 12B, respectively, are each hungry, which can be achieved by the users selecting a status at the mobile devices 12A, 12B, respectively, that he or she is hungry, and/or establishes that the users have a mutual friend, and/or are each at or near a same restaurant. In another example, the collaboration system 26 may generate a match result in response to a determination that mobile device users 12A and 12B are both at a same shopping mall, and that the profile data of mobile device 12A includes information indicating that mobile device user 12A is interested in martial arts, and that mobile device user 12B is also interested in martial arts. In one example, mobile device users 12A and 12B can have a known relationship. The strength of a relationship can be established by a predetermined “degree of separation” with respect to each other. The term “degrees of separation” derives from a well-known social networking concept that each person is a predetermined number of relationships from any other person, typically anywhere from one to six relationships. A lesser degree of separation, i.e., a smaller number of relationships, indicates a stronger relationship. On the other hand, a greater degree of separation, i.e., a larger number of relationships, indicates a weaker relationship. The collaboration system 26 can be configured to generate match results in response to a predetermined strength of the relationship, for example, no more than two degrees of separation. For example, if mobile device users 12A and 12B are former college roommates, there is a direct relationship, or first degree of separation, between them. In another example, if mobile device user 12A is a “friend of a friend” of mobile device user 12B, there is an indirect relationship, more specifically, a second degree of separation, i.e., a difference of two relationships, and so on. In other embodiments, the degree of separation is not considered, or is greater than a predetermined number of relationships, for example, greater than a fourth degree of separation. Thus, mobile device user 12A and 12B can be strangers to each other, but can nevertheless be candidates for a possible match. A display or graphical representation of the relationship, referred to as a social graph, may be presented during a “tiered” information release to each user to allow them to make a more accurate determination of whether or not they would mutually benefit from communicating with each other. Profile matching can be performed automatically or continuously, for example, without a specific request made by a mobile device. Alternatively, profile match requests can be initiated by the user. For example, a mobile device user may be hungry, and activate the collaboration system 26 to locate friends or strangers who are in close physical proximity to the requesting user, and have profile data indicating that they are likewise hungry. At block 208, one or more mobile devices 12 are identified for display at each mobile device 12A, 12B when a match is established between two or more mobile devices 12. The first mobile device 12A can be presented with a plurality of user profiles, or list, representing individuals who may possibly be in the same vicinity as the first mobile device 12A at a particular moment. One of the identifiers on the presented list refers to the user of the mobile device 12B, which is determined from the profile data match result. One or more identifiers on the presented list may actually not have the same status. Instead, these identifiers are of people who have some probability of having the same status or could be believable by the user of the first mobile device 12A to have the same status. The list can include random people from the mobile device user's contact list or friend network, or can include registered users identified from a 2-hop network, or strangers from an H-hop network, where H>2. The H-hop network can be modelled according to degrees of separation described herein. The identifiers on a list may correspond to people who are not actually at the same location as the mobile device displaying the list. Instead, these names may be of people who have some probability of being present at the same location or could be believable by the user of the first mobile device 12A to be at the same location. Similarly, a second set of mobile devices is displayed at the second mobile device 12B as possibly being at the same location as the first mobile device 12A. One of the candidate users is the user of the mobile device 12A, which is likewise determined from the profile data match result. If multiple mobile device users are in the same vicinity as the first mobile device 12A, and multiple mutual matches are possible, for example, several users are identified from the profile data match result, then the system 26 may display some or all of the identified users. Each mobile device user 12A, 12B has the option of selecting who they may be open to meeting at that location at that time. Each selection made by the users of the first and second mobile devices 12A, 12B, respectively, can be stored at a table or the like at the memory 24 of the computer system 20. The collaboration system 26 can compare the selections made by the mobile device users to identify a mutual selection. Accordingly, at decision diamond 210, a determination is made whether the mobile devices 12A, 12B select each other. If yes, then the method 200 proceeds to block 212, where each mobile device user 12A, 12B is made aware of each other's identity and location. Here, the collaboration system 26 may transmit a message or signal to either or both mobile devices 12A, 12B informing them of each other's presence, profile attributes, or other information. In this manner, the identities, locations, and/or other profile data of the mobile device users are revealed to each other only if the first mobile device user selects the second user's identifier from the list displayed at the first mobile device 12A and the second mobile device user selects the first user's identifier from the list displayed at the second mobile device 12B. Otherwise, the method 200 proceeds to block 214, where the abovementioned profile data, i.e., identity, location, and so on, of the mobile devices 12A, 12B are not revealed to each other. In this manner, each mobile device user has the ability to decide if he or she wishes to reveal his or her identity, presence and/or status to none, several, or all of the individuals on their respective lists. The collaboration system 26 can be configured to prevent a user from selecting all the users presented at the user's mobile device 12 to reduce the risk of rejection. For example, if the first mobile device 12A is presented with a list having five names, but the first mobile device user is only permitted to select a maximum of four names, and no match is returned indicating that none of the users on the list selected the first mobile device user, the first mobile device user may assume that the fifth name was actually at the location but that no match occurred because the first user did not have an opportunity to select all including the fifth name. If both parties to a match, e.g., the users of mobile devices 12A and 12B choose to establish a communication, or “opt-in”, they can be revealed to each other, for example, each receiving a notification. In doing so, each mobile device 12A, B can receive a displayed option to communicate with the other via a phone call, instant message (IM), short message service (SMS) text message, email, or other form of communication known to those of ordinary skill in the art. A notification can include a communication window displayed at each mobile device 12A, 12B for providing the direct communication, the direct communication including at least one of an instant message (IM), a short message service (SMS), a phone call, or an electronic mail (email) message. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating the establishment of a bi-directional communication between two mobile devices, in accordance with an embodiment. In describing FIG. 3, reference is made to elements of FIGS. 1 and 2. In FIG. 3, the mobile devices are smartphones. However, other electronic devices can equally apply. A first smartphone 312A and a second smartphone 312B are each registered with the collaboration system 26. The collaboration system includes profile data for each smartphone 312A, 312B, including interests, current and historical location data, contact lists, search criteria, and so on. The profile data can be manually or automatically entered into the collaboration system 26, for example, by users of the smartphones 312A, 312B, respectively. Alternatively, or in addition, the profile data can be automatically retrieved by the collaboration system 26 from the smartphones 312A, 312B and/or other information sources, for example, a social networking service subscribed to by users of the smartphones 312A, 312B. The collaboration system 26 can be configured to monitor a location of each smartphone 312A, 312B, and store the location data along with other profile data. Accordingly, the collaboration system 26 in concert with a mobile network can scan a geographic area for other mobile devices, area businesses, local information, and so on based on established search preferences or other rules provided by users of the first and/or second smartphones 312A, 312B to determine when the smartphones 312A, 312B are at a same or nearby location or vicinity. The collaboration system 26 can determine that the first smartphone 312A is at a same location as the second smartphone 312B, for example, a same shopping mall. For example, a first user of the first smartphone 312A can include profile data and search criteria indicating that the first user is interested in establishing communications with other registered users within 1 mile of the first smartphone 312A. The collaboration system 26 can also, or alternatively, determine from the profile data of each of the users of the smartphones 312A, 312B that the users have a common interest, for example, sports, and can further determine that the shopping mall includes an athletic department. The collaboration system 26 can generate a match result from this data. For example, the collaboration system 26 can generate a match result in response to a determination that the second smartphone 312B is within 1 mile of the first smartphone 312A. The match result can include a list 314A of mobile device users that is displayed at the first smartphone 312A and a list 314B of mobile device users that is displayed at the second smartphone 312B. The first list 314A includes the name or other identifier of the user of the second smartphone 312B, i.e., “Romit.” The second list 314B includes the name or other identifier of the user of the first smartphone 312A, i.e., “Chris.” The lists 314A, 314B may be presented and managed in any variety of user interfaces, such as check boxes, or a feature where the user moves selected list items to a ‘yes’ bin, and moves rejected list items to a garbage can icon. In an embodiment, either or both lists 314A, 314B is generated by an interactive physical means such as a user “shaking” a mobile device, for example, similar to rolling physical dice in a game. The collaboration system 26 can respond to the accelerometer (not shown) in an electronic device such as a smartphone. If a user wants to see who is out there that might want coffee, or just if they have any contacts around, the user can activate the system matching process described herein by physically shaking their phone like a pair of dice. The mobile device 12 being shaken can include sensors or the like to detect the rapid movement, or shaking, of the device 12, which can activate a processor at the collaboration system 26 to generate a list, which can include contacts, random users, system-created users, or a combination thereof. A mutual acceptance or opt-in can occur when the user of the first smartphone 312A selects the second smartphone identifier, i.e., “Romit”, on the first list 314A and the user of the second smartphone 312B selects the first smartphone identifier, i.e., “Chris”, on the second list 314B. Here, each smartphone 314A, 314B is alerted (notification) that the other is actually in the local area and/or shares a similar status, for example, by a notification message 316A, 316B generated by the collaboration system 26. Thus, privacy can be provided in the form of an anonymous alert that is followed by a two way, mutual ‘opt-in’ feature. After each smartphone user agrees to opt-in, other information can be displayed on the mobile devices 312A, 312B, such as location-based or non-location based marketing information, for example, coupons to a store that is determined by the collaboration system 26 to be in the same vicinity as the smartphones 314A, 314B and matching the interests, status or other profile attributes of the two users. Additional details regarding this feature are described herein. FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating the establishment of a communication between two mobile devices, in accordance with an embodiment. In describing FIG. 4, reference is made to elements of FIGS. 1-3. In FIG. 3, the mobile devices are smartphones. However, other electronic devices can equally apply. A first smartphone 412A and a second smartphone 412B are each registered with the collaboration system 26 in a manner similar to smartphones 312A, 312B of FIG. 3. Each smartphone 412A, 412B registered with the collaboration system 26 can be presented with a search filter in the form of a status display 413A, 413B, respectively. The status displays 413A, 413B can include a list of a variety of status options such as “I'm Hungry”, “I want to see a movie”, “I want coffee”, “I want to play a game,” and so on. As shown in FIG. 4, the user of the first smartphone 412A selects the “I'm Hungry” status option at the smartphone display 413A. The user of the second smartphone 412B also selects the “I'm Hungry” status option at the smartphone display 413B. The collaboration system 26 can process the status option selection data and update the profile data of each smartphone 412A, 412B accordingly. The collaboration system 26 can generate a match result from this data. For example, the collaboration system 26 can generate a match result in response to a first determination that the first and second smartphones 412A, 412B are in the same vicinity or predetermined distance from each other, for example, within 1 mile of each other, and further in response to a second determination that the users of the first and second smartphones 412A, 412B, respectively, share a same status, e.g., both users are hungry as indicated by the selections made at the displays 413A, 414B, respectively. The collaboration system 26 can include a search timer. Accordingly, when a user wants to filter users in the same vicinity, which share a same status, the search timer can be activated, and a predetermined threshold can be established, for example, a user-defined number of minutes. Thus, if a match doesn't occur during this time, the system 26 stops looking for matches. A list 414A of friends and/or other registered mobile device users who are potentially in the area and are also hungry can be displayed at the first smartphone 412A. This status, i.e. a hungry friend, is provided as profile data of the other registered mobile devices to the collaboration system 26. Similarly, a list 414B of potentially hungry friends and/or other registered mobile device users potentially in the area can be displayed at the second smartphone 412B. The first list 414A includes an identifier corresponding to the user of the second smartphone 412B, for example, the second smartphone user's contact name “Sally.” The second list 414B includes an identifier corresponding to the first smartphone 412A, for example, the first smartphone user's contact name “Elizabeth” or “Beth.” The lists 414A, 414B can include identifiers, such as names, of other mobile device users identified in a match result, and can also include other mobile devices who may or may not be at the same location as the user and/or may or may not share a same status, but are nevertheless generated for the lists 414A, 414B, respectively, by the collaboration system 26 from mobile device profile data corresponding to the other mobile devices. For example, the name “Mark” on list 414A can be generated by a random name generator at the collaboration system 26, or according to an algorithm that establishes that the user of the mobile device 412A has a contact list that includes several different contacts having the name “Mark,” and therefore, the user is likely to believe that “Mark” is at the same location and/or shares a same status. As another example, the system 26 may record and store which identifiers have previously been displayed on a user's list. If an identifier is a candidate for display based on a match, but that identifier has recently been displayed on that user's list, the system 26 may restrict displaying that identifier to that user to protect privacy. For example, if Bob works at a hospital and Jim has recently been included on multiple identifier lists displayed to Bob then Bob may infer that Jim is actually in the vicinity routinely and may be receiving a treatment. If the system 26 restricts the display of Jim's identifier to a reduced or intermittent frequency, Jim's privacy may be enhanced, as he would not be regularly visible to Bob at the hospital. A mutual acceptance or opt-in can occur when the first smartphone user selects the second smartphone user's name, i.e., selects “Sally” on the first list 414A and the second smartphone user selects the first smartphone user's name, i.e., selects “Beth” on the second list 414B. Here, each smartphone 414A, 414B receives an alert, notification, or the like that the other is actually in the local area and that each is hungry as indicated by the selection made at the status displays 413A, 414B, respectively. For example, as shown in FIG. 4, when each of Elizabeth and Sally selects each other from the lists 414A, 414B, respectively, a notification is displayed on Elizabeth's invite screen 416A, indicating the Sally is interested in having lunch with Elizabeth. Similarly, a notification is displayed on Sally's invite screen 416B that Elizabeth is interested in having lunch with Sally. After an opt-in match occurs, the interface that reveals the users' identify may display other information such as location-based or non-location based marketing information. For example, each invite screen 416A, 416B can display a coupon 417A, 417B offering a 20% discount to a local restaurant. Other features such as store directions, maps, pre-purchase screens, coupon redemption barcodes, etc. can be presented at the invite screen 416A, 416B. In one embodiment, a single coupon is displayed. In another embodiment, a plurality of coupons may be displayed to the users. They may be arranged in a list or a graphical or interactive display that allows the users to browse through the available options such as flipping through a deck of cards. The coupons may further be organized into groupings, such as coupons to coffee shops, restaurants, etc. In one embodiment, users may have the ability to vote or select coupons of interest and the system may then generate and display a tally or ranking to each user in order to communicate each other's preferences for the purpose of selecting the most popular discount or venue. FIG. 5 is a flowchart illustrating a method 500 of coupon offering in response to a location-based match, in accordance with an embodiment. In describing the method 500, reference can be made to elements of FIGS. 1-4. Some or all of the method 500 can be performed at the computer system 20 and/or one or more intermediary devices (not shown) at the network 16 of FIG. 1, for example, governed by instructions that are stored in the memory 24 of the computer system 20 and executed by one or more processors 22 of the collaboration system 26 of the computer system 20 and/or one or more mobile devices 12. Some or all of the method 500 can be performed at one or more mobile devices described herein, for example, a processor and memory of a mobile device 12 of FIG. 1. At block 502, marketing information is registered at the collaboration system 26. For example, a business may establish an account, post a coupon, and/or designate information associated with the coupon such as target customer demographics, eligible locations, or eligible timeframes before expiration of the coupon, etc. The marketing information can be stored at the computer system 20, for example, at memory 24, or at a remote storage location in communication with the collaboration system 26. At block 504, registered marketing information is identified that may be of interest to mobile device users identified in a profile data match result, and selected in response to an “opt-in” as described herein. For example, the collaboration system 26 may assess from mobile device profile data the current location and interests of each mobile device user and identify that they both drink coffee. The system 26 can identify registered marketing information, e.g., coupons posted by coffee shops at or near the location, which may be of particular interest to one or both users. At block 506, the collaboration system 26 can transmit the marketing information identified at block 504 to the mobile devices identified in the match result. One or both mobile device users can browse, select, rank or vote, and/or accept the marketing information, for example, by selecting a redeem button for a coupon displayed at a mobile device. The user selections can be transmitted to the collaboration system 26 and added to the profile data corresponding to the mobile devices. Other information can be displayed at the mobile devices, such as directions to the coffee shop offering the coupon, or other marketing messages including location-based and non-location based specials, coupons, advertisements, etc. and the ability for users to select and redeem them as part of a matching event. Information about users' historical coupon selections or purchases may be stored and/or displayed at each respective user's device and/or in aggregate such as a display of user “points” earned to date at a business for previous patronage, aggregated user ratings to businesses, and the like. In another illustrative example of an application in accordance with an embodiment, a coupon can be provided for users in a location, such as residents of a building, which offers discounts for a nearby restaurant if a predetermined number of people from the building arrive for dinner that night. The system 26 can display at the residents' mobile devices lists of people who may currently be near the building and potentially open to dinner. A mobile device user, i.e., a resident, can select friends displayed on the list who may be in the vicinity and willing to go to dinner. The system can identify if there is a set of K or more users all of which form a clique or other group (i.e., each of the users has picked all the (K−1) users). Here, the system 26 can notify each user about this opportunity, and the K user may together redeem the coupon. A commission or other incentive may be earned by a provider for coordinating these people to visit the restaurant. Related examples can include coordinating people in airports to share a cab to their homes, coordinating among tourists who are visiting places they are unfamiliar with, coordinating among people who intend to perform an activity together. In all these cases, the coordination can be privacy preserving, and supported by mutual opt-in procedures. This feature thus permits value-sharing opportunities with meet-up venues and retailers. For example, by facilitating a grouping of strangers to share a tour bus while on vacation, the tour bus operator may benefit by securing more customers, the customers may benefit by receiving a group discount, and the described collaboration platform may benefit by receiving a commission for organizing this group of tourists in a real-time manner. FIG. 6 is a flowchart illustrating a method 600 of establishing a communication between mobile device users, in accordance with an embodiment. In describing the method 600, reference can be made to elements of FIG. 1. Some or all of the method 600 can be performed at the computer system 20 and/or one or more intermediary devices (not shown) at the network 16 of FIG. 1, for example, governed by instructions that are stored in a memory 24 of the computer system 20 and executed by one or more processors of the collaboration system 26 of the computer system 20 and/or one or more mobile devices 12. Some or all of the method 600 can be performed at one or more mobile devices described herein, for example, a processor and memory of a mobile device 12 of FIG. 1. In addition to embodiments related to location-based scanning and matching described herein, the collaboration system 26 can establish communications between two or more mobile devices 12 not located in the same vicinity. Thus, match results can be generated based on profile data, search criteria, and so on, without a requirement that mobile devices be at the same or nearby locations. For example, a mobile device user may have extra time on his hands but have no contacts or interesting people, i.e., matches, who are in the same immediate area. The user in this example may wish to call a contact on the mobile device 12 who is located in a different location, but is available for a telephone chat, IM exchange, game, sharing mobile content, or other communication. However, it is typically not known whether such contacts are available for a chat or communication at a particular point in time. The method 600 can therefore be implemented to ensure that other registered mobile device users are available and willing to participate in a communication prior to being identified. Although mobile device contacts are mentioned, the systems and methods described herein can be applied to non-contacts or strangers registered with the collaboration system 26. At block 602, mobile devices 12A and 12B of the mobile devices 12 register with the collaboration system 26. The mobile devices 12A, 12B can register in a similar manner as that described with respect to block 202 of FIG. 2. Repetitive details are therefore omitted for brevity. At block 604, a status of each of the mobile devices 12A, 12B is determined. For example, a mobile device user can select at a mobile device 12 a displayed option regarding a status, for example, “available”, “bored,” or “game,” or the like. Status options can include options that can be performed remotely, regardless of location, for example, playing an online game, as distinguished from status options described herein with reference to location-based embodiments, for example, meeting for coffee. The display of status options can indicate that the mobile device user is available for communicating with other registered mobile device users. By selecting a button or the like at a mobile device 12, an instruction is passed to the collaboration server 26 and the status selected by the user can be stored along with other profile data, for example, at the computer system 20. At block 606, a profile data match is determined between two or more registered mobile devices 12 in response to the registered mobile devices 12A, 12B of block 604 selecting the same displayed status option. The collaboration system 26 can compare the selected status data, and/or other profile data corresponding to the mobile devices 12A, 12B and generate a match result based on the selected status option determined to be common to both mobile devices 12A, 12B, and/or other profile data such as user search criteria, interests, location, shared contacts, and so on. Other details of a profile data match can be similar to those described above with respect to FIG. 2. Therefore, repetitive details are omitted for brevity. At block 608, one or more mobile devices 12 are identified for display at each mobile device 12A, 12B. The first mobile device 12A can be presented with a list of user profiles, each providing an identifier and/or other details regarding registered mobile device users who may have the same status as the first mobile device 12A at a particular moment, for example, other users who are bored, and so on. A displayed list may include actual contacts, secondary contacts, or any other users, real or created by the collaboration system 26, who are or aren't actually available to communicate. One of the identifiers on the presented list refers to the user of the mobile device 12B, which is determined from the profile data match result. One or more identifiers on the presented list may actually not have the same status. Instead, these identifiers are of people who have some probability of having the same status or could be believable by the user of the first mobile device 12A to have the same status. The list can include random people from the mobile device user's contact list or friend network, or can include registered users identified from a 2-hop network, or strangers from an H-hop network, where H>2. Each list item, including randomly chosen people, can be identified on the list as having a similar status. If multiple mobile device users have a same status as the first mobile device 12A, and multiple mutual matches are possible, for example, several users are identified from the profile data match result, then the system 26 may display some or all of the identified users, which may be limited to maximum number of users displayed, in accordance with an embodiment. A second set of mobile devices are displayed at the second mobile device 12B as possibly having the same status in a similar manner as the list described with reference to the first mobile device 12A. Accordingly, one of the candidate users is the user of the mobile device 12A, which is likewise determined from the profile data match result. The user at the first mobile device 12A and the user at the second mobile device 12B each can select one or more names or other identifiers on the presented list corresponding to a mobile device user with whom the user would like to communicate, in a manner similar to other approaches described herein. Each mobile device user 12A, 12B has the option of selecting with whom they may be open to communicating at that time. Each selection made by the users of the first and second mobile devices 12A, 12B, respectively, can be stored at a table or the like at the memory 24 of the computer system 20. The collaboration system 26 can compare the selections made by the mobile device users to identify a mutual selection. Accordingly, at decision diamond 610, a determination is made whether the mobile devices 12A, 12B select each other. Each user's selection is transmitted from their mobile device 12A, 12B to the collaboration system 26 and stored at a table or other format associated with the user's account. If the users mutually select each other, then the method 600 proceeds to block 612, where each mobile device user 12A, 12B is made aware of each other's identity. Here, the collaboration system 26 may transmit a message or signal to either or both mobile devices 12A, 12B informing them of each other's status, profile attributes, or other information. In other words, the users are alerted to the fact they share the same status via a message sent to their respective devices 12A, 12B only if each user mutually selects the other's profile. Users would then have the ability of pressing a button (e.g., call Bob now) to initiate a telephone call, play a game, send an instant message, share content, text message, or otherwise participate in a mode of communication well-known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Otherwise, the method 600 proceeds to block 614, where the identity of the users of the mobile devices 12A, 12B are not revealed to each other and each user may as example, receive a message indicating that they were not able to be connected with other user. Thus, instead of simply notifying one or both mobile devices 12A, 12B that they share the same status, the identities and statuses of the mobile device users are only revealed to each other after each of the alert recipients select the other of the recipients among a list of candidate users presented to each other. FIG. 7 is a diagram illustrating the establishment of a communication between two mobile devices 712A, 712B, at different locations, in accordance with an embodiment. In describing FIG. 7, reference is made at least to elements of FIGS. 1 and 6. Mobile devices, for example, smartphone 712A and a second smartphone 712B, each register with the collaboration system 26 via a network 16. The user of the first smartphone 712A may be interested in establishing a chat, text session, or other communication with another available electronic device user, for example, a user at the smartphone 712B. The user of the second smartphone 712B is one of many different registered users with whom the user of the first smartphone 712A may wish to engage in a chat or other communication. The collaboration system 26 can present to the first smartphone 712A status display 713A, 713B that includes a user-selectable set of status options providing the user's current status, for example, “I'm available” or “I'm bored.” The users do not need to be at the same vicinity, but can be instead at remote locations but are each interested in the same activity. As shown in FIG. 7, the user of the first smartphone 712A selects the “Play Game” status option at the smartphone display 713B. The user of the second smartphone 712B also selects the “Play Game” status option at the smartphone display 713B. The collaboration system 26 can receive the status option selection data and update the profile data of each smartphone 712A, 712B accordingly. In selecting one of the status options, the collaboration system 26 is made aware that the user is available for communication with contacts or other users registered with the collaboration system 26. The collaboration system 26 can also send a set of options 713B to the second smartphone 712B, or to other mobile devices registered with the collaboration system 26. The collaboration system 26 can generate a match result from this data. For example, the collaboration system 26 can generate a match result in response to a determination that the users of the first and second smartphones 712A, 712B, respectively, share a same status, e.g., both users are bored as indicated by the selections made at the status displays 713A, 713B, respectively. The match result can include a list 714A of mobile device users that is displayed at the first smartphone 712A and a list 714B of mobile device users that is displayed at the second smartphone 712B. The first list 714A includes an identifier corresponding to the user of the second smartphone 712B, for example, the second smartphone user's contact name “Sally.” The second list 714B includes an identifier corresponding to the first smartphone 712A, for example, the first smartphone user's contact name “Beth.” The lists 714A, 714B can include other mobile device identified in a match result, and can also include other mobile devices who may or may not be at the same location as the user and/or may or may not share a same status, but are nevertheless deemed to be “believable” to the user. In establishing a “believable” mobile device user for the list, the collaboration system 26 may employ one or more techniques, for example, among those described herein, to selectively choose which profiles are displayed on the mobile devices 712A, 712B so as to provide a level of ‘believability’ with respect to the shared status of a potential user on a list. Each user may have the ability to select none, one, or a plurality of users from their list indicating who they would be open to communicating with at that particular moment. The system may allow them to select all or a subset of the users from the list in order to add additional uncertainty to the opt-in process. For example, if a mobile device 12 is displayed with five users for a user to select from, the user may be limited to selecting only four users. That way, if a mutual opt-in does not occur, either user may be able to assume it was the user not selected who was actually the user with a similar status. In this manner, a user may avoid a sense of rejection if they were to be able to select all of the users on their display but not receive a connection. An “opt-in” can occur when the first smartphone user selects the second smartphone user's name, i.e., selects “Sally” on the first list 714A and the second smartphone user selects the first smartphone user's name, i.e., selects “Beth” on the second list 714B. Here, each smartphone 714A, 714B receives an alert, notification, or the like that the other is bored as indicated by the selection made at the status displays 713A, 714B, respectively. For example, when Beth and Sally select each other from the lists 714A, 714B, respectively, a notification is displayed at Beth's invite screen 716A indicating that Sally is interested in playing an online game, chatting, or otherwise communicating with Beth. Similarly, a notification is displayed at Sally's invite screen 716B that Beth is interested in playing an online game, chatting, or otherwise participating in a communication. If a mutual selection occurs, i.e., if mobile device users 712A, 712B select each other from their respective lists, then the collaboration system 26 can generate a notification for each mobile device 712A, 712B. Each user can be presented with one or more communication options, for example, “Talk”, “SMS”, “Play a Game,” etc., and can select an option, for example, initiating a telephone call, each invite screen 716A, 716B can display marketing-related information as described herein, for example, a coupon offered to each user for playing an online game. As described above, mobile device users can elect whether they would like to be revealed to other users as well as how much information they wish to reveal, which may be released in a “Tiered” manner. In doing so, a user of a first mobile device identified in a match may activate (or pre-activate) certain security settings on the mobile device to control what information about them is displayed on the second user's device. For example, a user of a first mobile device included in a list may initially allow only a limited amount of information about them to display on the second user's device, such as the first user's screen name, or certain basic profile features. During a communication established after a match has been made between the first and second mobile devices, that is, perhaps initially ‘blinded’, each user may choose to unhide certain information about themselves and either reveal it or allow the other user to access the additional information. This may be performed in a variety of additive sequences. For example, if the first mobile device user wishes to engage with another matched user, for example, a third mobile device, the first mobile device user may first desire to send the third mobile device an anonymous instant message or other communication, without revealing the first user's full identity to the third user. After exchanging instant messages, if either the first user or the third user wishes to reveal information, they may alter the security settings to reveal some or all of their information (e.g., “Tiers”), e.g., reveal their screen name, or picture, their entire profile, or a link to their other social networking profile. In another embodiment, prior to being matched and establishing communication with another user, a user can browse other users currently on the system and/or even communicate with them proactively. For example, if no alerts have been received during a period of time, a user may wish to casually and proactively browse their vicinity for users or browse for users with a shared status (e.g., “bored”). However, as earlier discussed, location and/or status privacy can be a concern. Here, the collaboration system 26 may employ a “blinded” approach to keep users anonymous while still allowing them to interact with each other prior to a match and establishing a communication. For example, nearby users on the network 16 may be displayed on a map on a user's display with only limited or scrambled information about them, for example, with only a generic icon, or actual locations may be intentionally offset on the user's map display, etc. For example, hungry users within the vicinity of a user may be displayed as “Hungry User” icons on the user's display and may appear a few blocks away from where they actually are. Other select but relatively anonymous attributes may be further displayed or available for viewing, such as “Professional Baseball player”, etc. The attributes may be chosen by the mobile device users, or chosen dynamically by the system and tailored to the user's preference. For example, if a user attended Duke University, other users in the vicinity that also studied at Duke University may be tagged, or categorized, as “Duke Alumni” on that user's display, noting that other attributes about that user may be displayed on other users' displays based on their profiles. To establish a communication in accordance with an embodiment, a mobile device user can notify another user that he or she is interested in chatting or the like. The user may select a button or hyperlink at the mobile device display and/or enter an identifier of the other user. Or, the user may highlight or select a user on their map or display. If security settings allow for it, certain information stored in the other user's table may be transferred over the network and displayed on the user's mobile device. In one embodiment, this request triggers a list on each user's mobile device 12 from which they would each choose who they would like to meet, chat, play a game with, etc. right now, for example, according to one or more methods described herein. If the users don't choose each other, i.e., no opt-in, they are not connected and no further information is revealed. In another embodiment, if each user is comfortable enough with each other, they may instead choose to skip the list method (i.e., the opt-in step) and simply allow each of their identities to be instantly revealed, for example, either fully or in a tiered manner as described herein. A user may highlight or select a user on their map or other display presented on the mobile device or choose them from a stored contact list, etc. If security settings are available, and allow for it, certain information stored in the other user's table may be transferred over the network 16 and displayed on the mobile device. The user may then have an option of selecting an “Instant Message” button. If selected, a chat window would open, allowing the user to enter content. Upon hitting a send or transmit button at the mobile device, the message is sent to the appropriate server (not shown) over the network 16. The message would be routed to the account of the other user, and the message would be transmitted over the network 16 to that user and displayed on their device or converted into a signal or alert. This exchange may be performed anonymously until each user decides to opt-in through an embodiment described herein. Messages may be stored in tables associated with each mobile device user and accessed at later times. Another feature may allow the exchange of email messages or the like, which can allow one user to send an e-mail to another user, either using an e-mail address or by sending to the user screen name or other identifier and relying on the system to anonymously route the message to the e-mail address on record in the user's account. This allows one user to e-mail the other without knowing their actual e-mail address and/or the other user's actual identity. To perform this function, a user may highlight or select a user on their map or display or choose them from a stored contact list, etc. If security settings allow for it, certain information stored in the other user's table may be transferred over the network and displayed on the user's device. The user may then have an option of selecting an “Email” button. If selected, a text window can open, allowing the user to enter data content such as text, images, video, and so on. Upon hitting a send or transmit button at the mobile device, the message is output to the appropriate server over the network 16. The message can be routed to the account of the other user at the collaboration system 26. The message can be transmitted over the network 16 to that user and displayed on their mobile device or converted into a signal or alert. Another feature may allow an exchange of voice-related data, whereby mobile device users can speak with each other. The system may allow one user to call the other, either using their phone numbers, or by using a Web-based method such as Voice-over-IP (VoIP) which may allow for mobile device users to chat without having to reveal their phone numbers. For example, after a mutual opt-in event and subsequent communication is established, two users may be able to conduct a voice call through the system blindly without having to reveal their actual phone numbers. In another embodiment, mobile device users can create and manage contact lists that may include a variety of features, including, but not limited to, adding or deleting a contact, adding another user to their contact list while viewing them on a device display during or after a communication session, and/or accepting or denying a request to be added to another user's contact list. For example, if a user is exchanging instant messages with another user and wishes to add them to a contact list, the user may have the option of selecting a button such as “Add to Contact List”. When selected, the user's identifier and the desired contacts identifier are transmitted by the system over the network from the user to the desired contact. A message or indicator may then be displayed alerting them to the other user's request. If the other user approves the request, the other user may select a button such as “Accept”, which transmits an instruction over the network 16 to server, for example, at the collaboration system 26, to associate the user's identifier with the user, and store the information on a table. When the user views the user's contact list, this contact, and any others stored on the table, can be transmitted over the network 16 and displayed in various ways, such as in a list of contact names. In addition to storing the other user's contact ID in the table, additional information may also be stored in the table and related to the contact. For example, with respect to GeoTags or the like, a user may wish to store the location or coordinates of the interaction so that the parties to the interaction can remember where they met each other, e.g., drop a pin that marks where they crossed paths. Upon selecting this feature, for example, at the user's mobile device, the coordinates of the interaction may be stored on a table associated with this contact in the user's account. In another embodiment, a user may wish to capture and/or retrieve a contact's photo or other information about the contact to include it in their saved contact information. Upon selecting this feature, the data may be stored on a table associated with this contact in the user's account. A user can download other data such as electronic files related to other registered mobile device users, contact lists, and so on. A user may wish to enter any other text or information at a mobile device about the contact, such as conversation notes, reminders, etc. Upon selecting this feature, the data may be stored on a table associated with this contact in the user's account, for example, at the collaboration system 26, or a server or other storage device in communication with the collaboration system 26. A business-related mobile device user may wish to save users in a contact list to serve as a customer list, and has a similar ability as other mobile device users referred to herein to retrieve and/or store data regarding other registered users. For example, business contact-related information can be stored in a table on the collaboration system 26, or a server or other storage device in communication with the collaboration system 26. In other embodiments, a mobile device user may desire another user to assist in locating or connecting with other users that may be mutually interested in connecting with the mobile device user. In other words, a mobile device can serve as a proxy for another mobile device. For example, if a first user is interested in renting out an apartment, but a second user they have just met on the street is not a good fit, the first and second users may mutually agree that the second user will help the first user advertise the apartment. Instead of the first user handing them a flyer or other information, the first user may transition the search request to the second user electronically, e.g., provide the second user with a copy of the information for the second user to ‘carry’ with him or her. This information may be added to the second user's profile as temporary or appendix content. As the second user's mobile device roams, the mobile device incorporates the first user's search information into the second device's scanning activity. If the second user crosses paths with a third user that is searching for an apartment and meets the search criteria of the first user, the second user and the third user will each be alerted in accordance with embodiments referred to herein. In addition, the first user, even though no longer in the vicinity, may also be alerted, whereby either the second user or the first user remotely would have the opportunity to engage in a communication with the third user about the apartment. For example, the first user could send an IM to the third user. Accordingly, a notification can occur between the first and third user, the second and third user, and/or all three users. A notification can be generated even though a user is not physically present. In an embodiment, a mobile device 12 is constructed and arranged to act as a roaming and automatic “referral” to other users or businesses, and gives the user the ability to easily acquire, carry and ‘hand off’ information about that user to other users with whom they may pass by or interact with. A reward system such as a finder's fee could be incorporated into the collaboration system 26. Thus, in the previous example when the second user locates and passes off the third user, the first user may have an option of rewarding them in some fashion. Such a function may include, but not limited to, the ability for the first user to transmit funds, an electronic gift certificate, or the like secured through this system, etc. to the second user, for example, to thank the second user for the referral. Through this feature, mobile device users may expand their geospatial search coverage to that of all users who have agreed to serve as scouts or referrals for them. This could greatly expand the search and increase the chances of finding for whom or for what they are searching. For example, if a business would like to have a user advertise for them, they may provide them with content and thus as they roam, they act like a “virtual sandwich board”, advertising that businesses' products or services. A reward could thus serve as a sales commission if the second user hands off the information to other users that may or may not ultimately conduct in a business transaction with the business. In a similar manner, contacts may be handed-off from one user to another user, thus serving as virtual business cards being passed around. This information may be initially blinded to limit personal information being handed off, and only when a user authorizes a new user to have their full contact information would that user's profile and content be fully accessible. For example, first and second mobile device users are contacts, and second mobile device user meets a new user, i.e., a third mobile device user, and wishes to contact the first user. The second user can perform a contact handoff, giving the third user enough information about the first user to contact the first user. Only after the first user feels comfortable about the third user and permits the third user to add the first user as a contact does the third user have additional or full information about the first user. In this example, the third and first user may each be presented a list of users as described herein and only if each selects the other, i.e., mutually opts-in, will a communication be established. Another example operation of this function is as follows. After first and second registered mobile device users have been alerted of each other, and after they have initiated a connection, they may agree that the second user can assist the first user in locating other mobile device users that meet certain criteria that the first user is seeking. The first user may hand off information relating to the search by first selecting the second user on the mobile device display and selecting an option such as “Hand-Off a Search”. The first user may then select the information in the first mobile device profile or account the first user wishes to hand off. This is accomplished by using the first user mobile device to access the collaboration server 26 over the network 16. Information selected is stored in a table and made available for transmission over the network. After submitting the request, the selected information is then transferred via the collaboration system 26 to the second user's profile or account and is stored in an associated table. The first user may instead use a near-field format wireless signal such as Bluetooth™ to transfer the content over to the second user, thus circumventing the need to access the network servers. This search information is then appended to or included in the scanning function performed by the network for the second user. If a third party user passes in the vicinity of the second user, an alert is performed informing them, and perhaps additionally the first user, about the third party and that a criteria match has occurred. The first user and/or the second user may contact the third user using the aforementioned messaging tools. Additionally, the third user may be alerted and use the communication tools to contact ether the first or second user. If the first user wishes to reward the second user for the referral, they may have an option of sending them a finder's fee or other financial payment. The collaboration system 26 can include a range of user-controlled and/or automatic security features. For example, the collaboration system 26 can permit mobile device users to adjust visibility settings to control whether they are visible to other users. This may include a range of features including showing all profile information, showing partial profile information, showing no profile information and only a generic marker on a map, or hiding their presence altogether so that even their location is not shown on certain or all user's displays. In an embodiment, mobile device users can create and use screen names to conceal their real names. When registering, the user enters a desired screen name and this is stored in a table on the server. Users may be required to use unique screen names. The system may have a function that helps the user generate a screen name (e.g., a random screen name generator). As the user engages with other users, for example, communicates with a user over instant messaging, etc. prior to an opt-in connection described herein, this screen name is used by the system to represent the identity of the user in order to preserve anonymity. Any information or data associated with this user would be stored in tables that are cross-referenced to this unique identifier. In an embodiment, the systems and methods include a “blind messaging” feature. As users initially interact on the system, such as using the Instant Messaging feature, their screen name is used to protect their identity. During a messaging exchange, the server accesses the users profile and returns only their screen name. Any message or other data exchanged are stored in a table on the computer system 20 or other storage device and is associated with this screen name that then is related to the user's account. In an embodiment, the collaboration system 26 may allow registered mobile device users 12 to modify or control how they are displayed, or what is displayed about them, on displays of other mobile device users 12 prior to and/or even after establishing a connection to further protect their privacy and safety. For example, an individual sitting in an airport may want the system 26 to detect who is in range of the user's mobile device 12, and that meets a set of predetermined search criteria to potentially engage with the individual, e.g., instant message or meet for a coffee. However, the individual may initially not want the other mobile device user to be able to physically locate the individual's precise location with the use of a displayed map or related information on the other user's mobile device 12. Thus, the system may “scramble” the actual location of the user, for example, display a user who is actually at Coordinate A as being located at Coordinate B at another user's display. Additionally, the user may only allow certain non-identifying information about them to be initially displayed at the other user's device, such as an icon (e.g., a sports team logo), or a picture (e.g., a sunset), or a status indicator (e.g., a “I Want Coffee”) This would allow the users to initially communicate, for example, blindly chat, and only after a 2 party opt-in method is performed in accordance with an embodiment or if the first user is comfortable meeting the other user in person, may the individual either turn off a location scrambling feature at the individual's mobile phone or simply tell the other mobile device user where the individual is located. Through a web interface, desktop, or mobile device application or other network interface, the registered mobile device user can log into an account and through the mobile device user interface select the desired settings available. The settings can saved at a table on the computer system 20 or other storage device associated with their account. The collaboration system 26 can apply well-known techniques to identify users that meet each other's criteria. Prior to returning the actual location information for display, however, the system 26 may apply a technique to modify the perceived or viewed location that is displayed on the display of the user's mobile device 12. In an embodiment, mobile device users may be able to control the visibility and/or access to outside links of information. For example, during a blind chat or during a 2 party opt-in method performed in accordance with an embodiment, they may initially only show visibility of links to other social network sites to those on their contact list, or only reveal it if they feel comfortable with another user during the course of an exchange. Based on their preference settings, the system 26 can selectively route and display the user information to other mobile devices 12 on the network 16. The collaboration system 26 may use a variety of authentication methods for various purposes, such as controlling the availability of user information based certain criteria. For example, a mobile device user can prevent users above or below a predetermined age from ever being matched, occurring in a match list, and/or viewing the location of the mobile device user on a display. This feature would thus allow a young user to control the age of those that can see them, communicate with them, locate them, or use any other feature on the system, e.g., a young user could limit any user over 18 years old from seeing any or all of their information. In an embodiment, a mobile device user can lock the type or amount of information being displayed on the network 16 that would otherwise be available for access. For example, a user may have the option of a “Quick Lock” button to immediately stop the display of the user's personal information on other mobile device displays. Upon selecting this feature, the collaboration system 26 can refrain from sending that user's data when transmitting data to be made visible on another user's mobile device display. Additionally, it may instruct the system to send false information, such as incorrect location coordinates or false profile information to throw the other user off. In an embodiment, the collaboration system 26 can include multiple versions, each tailored to the needs of different user populations. For example, the collaboration system 26 can include a ‘child’ version of the system that restricts the ages of those users on the network 16, but can allow for adults or parents to create, manage, and have access to all of their information either through similar interfaces or interfaces and displays unique to the parent or guardian. The system may require age checks or other means of using third-party data of systems to verify and control the ages of users on the network. The collaboration system may have versions tailored to social networking, professional networking, dating, or the like. In an embodiment, the collaboration system 26 can analyze if there are any mutual connections between two users and perhaps even how many degrees of separation they may have. For example, if two users are near each other that share a common contact, the system 26 may recognize this commonality and notify them of their extended relationship through their mutual friend. The system may use a variety of methods to search for these connections, such as scanning the system's database or using outside data sources such as other social or professional networking sites. The system may use other methods to identify any connections they may have, including, but not limited to using their photos or leveraging network based facial recognition software to search for any connections they may have. In these cases, the server may use the data associated with two users to perform search algorithms that may or may not use third-party databases, websites, or other data. In an embodiment, the collaboration system 26 may allow for the conduction of transactions among, between, or on behalf of users. These may include financial or non-financial exchanges of value including, but not limited to the below example and functions. For example, two users may be alerted to the presence of each other and informed that one user is selling extra tickets they have to an event. The second user, who has advertised their interest in purchasing tickets using a headline or in their profile, and after a multi-party opt-in method is performed in accordance with an embodiment resulting in a communication, may elect to conduct a transaction with that user in which the first user exchanges the tickets for something of value from the second user. Through the user's interface, the second user can instruct the system 26, or a financial system in communication with the system 26, to transfer funds to the account of the first user. This exchange may be instant or use an escrow feature to hold funds until a mutually acceptable time such as when the user successfully uses the tickets and is inside the venue, knowing the tickets are authentic. The exchange may occur internally to the system and involved in moving internal funds, i.e., pre-deposited funds transferred into the second user's account by electronic transfer or credit card, or by transferring a payment from external financial institutions. In an embodiment, the collaboration system 26 communicates with a computer of a third-party financial institution or the like to permit mobile device users to perform financial transactions, e.g., to local retailers, for event and movie ticket dealers. As a non-limiting example, after a 2 party opt-in method is performed in accordance with an embodiment, the two parties satisfying a match can each view the chat window and receive an electronic coupon displayed at the users' mobile devices 12. Each party can buy movie tickets to a local theatre using the coupon and/or using a link to a third-party online ticket seller. A registered mobile device 12 can connect to a server, which can include the collaboration system 26, and which can be maintained by a service provider and can pass the server information about the user that may include, but not be limited to: time of day, date, user's name or unique identifier, user's geographic coordinates, user's profile information, and other information such as user's usage history, device type or software version, or any other information about the user. This data can be stored in a table on a network server, along with other data described herein. In establishing a communication between registered mobile devices that can include a financial transaction, one or both mobile device users may instruct the system 26 and/or other computer servers participating in the financial transaction, about the parameters of a desired transaction, including but not limited to the items they intend to exchange, the identify of each user, the value of exchange, whether or not they wish to use an escrow feature, payment method, etc. The data may be manually entered or entered in another fashion such as via voice recognition, with the use of peripherals, attachments or input devices, e.g., optical scanners, radio tag scanners, etc. The data associated with the transaction is stored in a table on the server, and the data are related to each user's account. If the user wishes to pay for the item with their banking information stored in a user account, the funds would be transferred to the other user's account. This may be performed by connecting to third-party banks or other financial institutions, or it may be performed within the system if funds or value have been pre-deposited and the user's have a balance of value available for use on the system and to be transferred to the other users account. The user interface of either user's mobile device or other user computer such as a desktop computer connected to the network 16 can include any of the currently available online banking or electronic funds transfer functions or additional functions and features to facilitate a transaction between users on the system. As described herein, user information can be stored in a table(s) in the computer system 20, or a server or other computer platform in communication with the computer system 20. User data may include, but not be limited to: user profile and account information, search criteria/preferences to locate other users or points of interest, user location data or movement patterns, patterns of the connections among or between users and extended contact networks or social network graphs, user usage statistics, user transaction data, time and date information, usage data regarding the user or any other information about the user or their use of the system 26. The data from multiple users may be compiled, manually or automatically analyzed and sorted and a variety of written or graphic-based reports and outputs may be generated that may include, but not be limited to: maps that show time-based patterns of activity by users, heat maps that show time, frequency, or other cuts of data in an intensity map to facilitate interpretation, “user maps” that map users that share similar profiles or other characteristics, statistical summaries of various network, user, or other system data. The collaboration system 26 may allow registered commercial users or businesses, e.g., retailers, to distribute content such as details regarding products or services to other mobile devices, in a real-time and targeted manner, based on any user data such as users' profile data, their preference data, their search data, their location data, etc. For example, a retailer that has access to user data on a real-time basis may be alerted that a user that meets a desired profile is going to walk or drive by their store. The retailer, either manually or through an automated function, may issue the user an electronic coupon or alert the user of a sale via a message, e.g., text, e-mail, instant message, etc. to entice them to enter the store. The system 26 may be automated, i.e., pre-programmed, or managed in real-time by the retailer. For example, the retailer may have an account on the system and be able to enter information about users to whom it desires to market its products. As the system 26 monitors the movement patterns of mobile devices 12 on the network 16, if there is a match the system 26 will automatically transmit the marketing materials to that user. Additionally, the retailer may have an interface such as a mobile device or computer that they use to more manually manage the marketing in a real time manner. For example, users may be able to access and monitor the user data real time, e.g., view users on a map or display, and manually select users to whom to send marketing materials. They could even use this real time data to walk out their store and personally engage with the user to get them to visit their business. For example, if a user provides a picture that is displayed publicly in his profile, then the retailer may use a mobile device 12 that displays the user picture and location to help the retailer to identify the user via his photo among the crowd of shoppers. Through a web interface, desktop or mobile device application or other network interface, a commercial user such as a retailer can pre-register with a service provider to create an account profile and will provide the service provider with various data, content and/or uploads. The retailer may create marketing materials including text, graphics, or other marketing content in an offline fashion and then “upload” this content to their profile area on the server for subsequent management including but not limited to storing, editing and distribution. The content is stored at the collaboration system 26, or a storage device in communication with the system 26 in a table associated with the registered retailer profile. Alternatively, the retailer may use functionality included on the computer system 20, or a marketing server or the like in communication with the computer system 20, to create and manage their marketing content. This may include, but not be limited to text and graphic editing functionality. A retailer may then distribute the marketing content to both registered and non-registered mobile devices. Non-registered users' geospatial data may be acquired through other means and third-party services. Marketing content may be distributed in a variety of manners including, but not limited to the following: 1. Banner Advertising: A retailer may desire to display the marketing content to select or all users, at any time and either on their mobile device or online as in their profile or account areas. 2. Text Message to Phone: The Retailer may desire to distribute the marketing content to select or all users (at anytime and either on a mobile device or online as in their profile or account areas). This may be accomplished a number of ways including, but not limited to distributing a text message that is uploaded to the server and then distributed to one or more registered mobile devices 12 directly via the server or via third-party network affiliate(s) to which the Customers mobile devices are in communication. 3. Instant Message: A retailer may desire to distribute the marketing content to select or all users, for example, at anytime and either on their mobile device or online as in their profile or account areas. This may be accomplished a number of ways including, but not limited to distributing an instant message that is uploaded to the server and then distributed to the user(s) directly via the server or via any third-party network affiliate(s) (such as Twitter™, AOL Instant Messenger™, Yahoo Instant Messenger™, Facebook™, etc.) to which the user's mobile devices, computers or other devices are connected. 4. E-mail Message: The retailer may desire to distribute the marketing content to select or all users, for example, anytime and either on their mobile device or online as in their profile or account areas. This may be accomplished a number of ways including, but not limited to distributing an e-mail message that is uploaded to the server and then distributed to the users directly via a server or via third-party network affiliate(s) (such as Yahoo™, Google™, etc.) to which the user's mobile devices, computers or other devices to which they have access are connected. A commercial mobile device user may use other forms of creating and transmitting electronic data containing marketing content to users including, but not limited to: Bluetooth™ transmission to a mobile device that is within the vicinity of the commercial user. This may include both registered and unregistered users. Any other method of transmitting marketing content to a user for the purposes of trying to engage in a transaction between the commercial user and the other users. The retailer may transmit these marketing data real-time, or may also use stored user data on the server and select certain users to send data to at a later time. For example, they may be able to access a report or database that lists all the users of certain criteria that passed near their store, a competitor's store, or any other location of interest at a time of interest, and then target them with marketing materials or information, e.g., send an e-mail. The collaboration system 26 may include any other function or feature that would allow or improve the ability for a user to detect, gain information about, communicate with, or otherwise engage with another user or location or feature or enhance their ability to manage their account, profile, user settings or enhance the use of the system 26. In addition to the functions and features previously described, the system may offer additional functions and features including, but not limited to: a. an ability to import content from other Websites, server locations, etc., b. language translators to convert content or communications from one language to another to facilitate interaction between two users, c. an ability to search the system for anything including people, objects, locations, etc., an ability for a user to view information about other users who have viewed information about that user (e.g., learn who has been looking at their profile information, etc.), e.g., an ability to perform a variety of functions related to E-mail including but not limited to sending offline messages, forwarding messages, replying to messages, linking to external e-mail accounts, etc., f personality quizzes, tests, and other personality assessments to increase accuracy of the matching algorithms or increase the probability that two users made aware of each other would have a higher probability of a positive interaction, g. an ability to provide feedback, comments, ratings etc. about other users, businesses, or any other feature indexed on the network. This may provide a number of utilities including warning users of a user that possesses negative traits, alerting or informing users of the quality of product or service at a business, etc. Instead of providing real-time alerts to a user, the system may provide a feature that allows the detection data to be saved as the user roams, and then provide the ability for the user to view summaries or other views that show detection data in some aggregated, historical, or other form. For example, a user may not wish to be notified real-time of the presence of every restaurant the user passes, or every other user, however, they may wish to have the system save these data to download or view a map of select content that meets certain criteria, for example, display a map of all the Chinese restaurants they have passed by in the past 7 days that have met their search or detection criteria. Users may have the ability to provide ratings or feedback about other users. The collaboration system 26 can produce a variety of views including, but not limited to, dynamic maps that show the location (e.g., icons) of a user, locations of other users, and any other area feature in real time. Also, various user interfaces and displays may be used to facilitate the operation of functions and features, such as user-to-user communications (e.g. chat windows). Data from the system is manually requested or automatically pushed to the user's mobile device via the network or other method. Map views may be rendered that show the location of the user and other information including, but not limited to, icons that represent the location of other users or area features. Different screen views may be created and/or maps may be adjusted in a variety of manners, such as adjusting scale, icons, content, layers, etc. Preference settings like these may be saved and stored on the server table and associated with the user's account. Content on maps may include, but not be limited to: a. A user's location may be represented by a blinking dot, their picture, a customizable icon, etc. b. Other users or features (some or all depending on various users' display settings and security settings) may also be shown as blinking dots, icons, by a picture, etc. c. users or features that meet the user's desired search criteria may be differentiated in some way on the user's display. For example, icons may be color coded (green=another user with a lot in common or a feature or status, e.g. hungry, that highly matches their search criteria), yellow=another user with some things in common or a feature that partially meets their search criteria, red=not much in common or a feature that does not generally meet their search criteria). A user may select and view information about other users or features on the display through a variety of methods. For example, they may select another user or highlight their icon to display information about that user or feature. For example, if a first user selects the icon for a second user nearby, a request would be transmitted to the server through the network and information about the second user would be transmitted to the first user's mobile device and displayed. A window or text box may appear with basic information such as the second user's “nametag” or “headline”, “greeting” “banner, screen name, and/or any other information that the second user has designated to be publicly viewed or viewable to the profile of the first user prior to a 2 party opt-in method is performed in accordance with an embodiment resulting in a communication. The amount of information displayed about the second user may be sequentially increased as the second user chooses to, i.e., following a certain increased level of comfort about the first user after instant messaging and getting to know each other and/or after a 2 party opt-in method is performed in accordance with an embodiment resulting in a communication, the second user may reveal additional information they wish to share about themselves. This increase in information may be granted as a link imbedded in their text messages, or the second user may have the ability to selectively increase their information visible to the first user with buttons or options on their display. For example, they may be able to select a particular user on their display or in their contact list and establish custom display settings for only that user, i.e., provide them with more information. As described herein, various techniques, methods, algorithms, or the like can be applied to establish a match between mobile device users, which can be used to initiate a notification at each mobile device identified from the match result. A matching function can include a user-defined automatic match alert trigger or filter. Through an interface, a user may access the collaboration system 26 and enter search terms or phrases (for example, terms such as “hungry,” “coffee,” “Duke University,” “looking for roommate,” etc.), scanning and match preferences such as a desired attributes, match strength thresholds, scan distance, window of time each day to scan, scan only when moving, stop scanning when stationary for a period of time, and so on. The system 26 can store the search terms or other data, and automatically and continually execute a matching technique, method, algorithm, or the like based on the inputs and compare the search terms against the other stored user and/or virtual bulletin board data. The system 26 can identify matches and return a match result described herein. Another matching function can include a user-defined random contact generator, referred to as “user roulette.” Here, the system 26 may receive a request from a mobile device 12, or other electronic device such as a desktop computer under the control of a user, to match the user with other nearby users for the purpose of forming new connections. The request and any criteria for inclusion such as profile data can be stored at a storage device in communication with the collaboration system 26. The criteria can include but not be limited to a current distance from the user, attributes, how many other users to match, how often to match users, time of day to match users, and so on. A user via a mobile device 12 or other electronic device can execute a random match request, for example, selecting a hyperlink at a display on the mobile device 12, that transmits the request to the collaboration system 26, which can identify other registered mobile devices 12, and output relevant response data such as user profile data to the mobile device 12. The system 26 can output other notification data such as an introduction, coupons, and so on, which can be used when forming a connection Another matching function can include a user-defined virtual invitation, also referred to as a smart flier, virtual post, or virtual flier. Here, a user may post an electronic, geo-tagged ‘virtual flier’ to invite other users to join the user for an activity such as a meeting, soccer game, and so on. The user can create an electronic flier with trigger or attribute information described herein, and post it to the system 26. If another user is determined by the collaboration system 26 to match the attribute information, the other user can receive at a mobile device, or computer or other electronic device a message containing the information. For example, an employee of a company may be interested in a jog during lunch, and my post a smart flier that indicates that the employee is looking for fellow joggers. The data associated with the flier may include inputs such as activity type (run), time to post (12 p.m.), matching criteria such as search terms (run, runner), search time (9 a.m.-11:30 a.m.), distance from user (100 m), etc. The user can populate a form input on their mobile device 12, or upload a pre-designated flier to the mobile device 12. The flier data can be located at the mobile device 12 of the jogger, and alert other mobile device users within their vicinity of a jogger. Alternatively, the user may pin or post the information at a certain location, whereby when another user walks by the location, a trigger is activated at the user's mobile device 12, indicating a match result. If a user wishes to post the information at a location, the user may via a user-initiated request establish a tag with respect to the flier, which includes a current location or other data. The collaboration system 26 can associate the user's location at the time of the tag. The flier and/or data is then associated with the location and only users that pass within the vicinity of the location may receive a notification. Even if the user subsequently moves away from the location, the flier remains “posted” at the location, even though the mobile device 12 is no longer physically located at the location. Alternatively, a user may both post the flier at the location and carry the flier around. In any such example, after users are matched the 2 party opt-in method may be performed in accordance with an embodiment resulting in a communication. The system 26 can be programmed by an administrator or user to create a set of administrative location triggers that match mobile device users with each other based on an administrator's matching preferences. The administrative location triggers can co-exist with, run simultaneously with, and/or complement user-defined triggers, for example, described herein. This feature permits users to be matched with other users with whom they would not otherwise be typically inclined to connect with, and allows an administrator, for example, a human resources manager, or an event manager, to “force” a match between users. An administrator can establish various triggers based on attributes, windows of time, distances, for example, to create an automatic match result when users are at a predetermined distance from each other. An administrator can enter “matching terms” that the administrator wishes to use to identify current users who may benefit from knowing other registered users. Such terms can include but not be limited to user professional attributes such as current roles, past projects, experience, academic credentials, and so on or personal attributes and preferences such as interests and hobbies. Other terms can be applied to provide a number of people the administrator desires a user to identify or be matched with, and to form groups. Matches or alerts between Users can be created based on criteria the system designated (i.e., it could override User search preferences) for purpose of facilitating group meet-ups and encouraging new connections/collaborations. For example, if a group coupon was ‘floated’ in a certain location, multiple Users may be alerted to its availability, and encouraged to group up with people that may be nearby to claim it (e.g., it is a bar that requires >5 people to show up to redeem it), thus Users may receive matches by the system to other Users that would not normally be triggered by their search settings, for the purpose of encouraging new people to connect with new people, form a new group, and come in and claim the coupon (and thus meet some new people and get a great discount). Mobile device users may program multiple profiles for various situations (work hours, weekends, work colleagues, personal friends, strangers, etc.). The system may automatically display a certain profile when matching the User to another based on the attributes of that other user. For example, while walking around downtown during work hours, a User is matched with another user. The system may choose to automatically display each Users ‘professional daytime profile’ to the other as it is during work hours and the system designates each of them as professionals. However, while walking around at night during the weekend, the same user's ‘personal’ or weekend profile may be displayed to other Users as the system 26 knows it is a weekend and the two Users are both out socializing. The system 26 may allow for “location scrambling” (e.g., as displayed on maps) to keep actual User location unknown to other users on map, only if User releases it/grants viewing rights to another will the other User then see their actual location on their map and be able to navigate to them. For example, after the two Users pass through the 2-way opt-in method (or perhaps before hand) they may see each other on a map display. However, if a User wants to protect their safety, they may have chosen a setting to ‘scramble’ their location on the map. Thus, the other User(s) would know they are generally in the area, but not see exactly where as their icon on the map would be purposely placed off-center of their location. If the User at any point comfortable letting the other User(s) know exactly where they are, they may turn off the scrambling and suddenly their exact location would be visible on the other User(s) maps/displays. The system 26 may use social maps of Users that may visually provide information about their shared connections. For example, before or after the 2 way opt-in method, the User(s) may be able to see a social graph or description (“5 friends in common”) indicating how many degrees of separation/common friends they may have with each other (for the purpose of assessing the safety and desirability of connecting with that other person). The system 26 can be configured so that contacts added to a mobile device user contact list may include various information such as time of add, location of add, etc. For example, if two Users are matched with each other and grab coffee, they may choose to save each other to a contact list. In this case, the contact file/data may be ‘smart’ and include information such as the coordinates at which they met/had coffee, the time of day, etc. Virtual bulletin boards (i.e., stations with various data tagged with that geospatial coordinates) may allow system 26 to detect a match between a user and the data and allow the User to “grab” and store the data as they walk by—triggered by a match between the User's profile and attributes of the data. They may later be able to view it, display it, share it, etc. An example application may include businesses that may create a location-based profile and market to those Users passing by around them (flyers, coupons, etc.) A retailer or other user associated with a business establishment with a smart phone may create a profile and ‘hang’ coupons or other items virtually outside their store. As Users on the system walk around, they may detect these coupons. “Smart briefcases or wallets” may be used by Users to manually or automatically collect and store geo-tagged data and/or marketing information from such virtual bulletin boards as they walk around. For example, a User may be walking around and the system 26 would match the User(s) with location based data (e.g., a coupon, etc.) and it would automatically ‘pick up’ or virtually tear off the coupon and place it in their virtual briefcase or wallet, either manually, whereby the User is alerted to the presence of the coupon or information hanging above them on the street, or automatically, whereby the system 26 recognizes the match and places the electronic coupon in their briefcase for them to view or use later. Contact Handoffs/Referrals may allow a first mobile device user to virtually “grab” a second user's contact information and then as they walk around, the second user's contact information may trigger an event that only relates to and involves that other second user—such as a third user may be notified of that second users contact information without the first user being notified of the match. In one example, the system 26 matches two users and after going through the 2 way opt-in privacy step a communication is created and they meet up for coffee. One of them (Mike) is selling a bike, and tells the other (Bob) if they can help them find someone to buy it, they will give them a 10% commission. They leave, and as Bob walks around he may walk by someone (John) who is looking for a bike (based on a match of their profile information). The system 26 may recognize this as a match, matching John with Bob even though Bob doesn't have the bike, but he is ‘carrying’ information about the bike and has the opportunity to chat with John, tell him about it, and ends up selling it (connects John with the bike owner) and thus gets a commission for the ‘sale’. An administrator may run analytics and reports summarizing various matches made by the system 26 (e.g., in past 7 days), how many 2 way opt-in events were successful or not, how many coupons were offered and subsequently redeemed, etc. While the invention has been shown and described with reference to specific embodiments, it should be understood by those skilled in the art that various changes in form and detail may be made therein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Social and professional networking is a popular online activity and continues to grow, particularly on mobile devices. In order to perform online activities related to sharing information, users can register with a social networking service or the like, then enter personal or professional profile information at a mobile device such as a smartphone. The user can use search or location tracking features provided by the service to connect and engage in a communication with other mobile device users. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>In one aspect, provided is a method for establishing a communication between mobile device users. In the method, a plurality of mobile devices registers with a collaboration system. Each mobile device includes profile data. The collaboration system determines that a first registered mobile device and a second registered mobile device are at a same vicinity. The collaboration system determines a match between profile data of the first registered mobile device and profile data of the second registered mobile device. Displayed at the first registered mobile device in response to the match is a first list of user identifications. The first list includes an identification of a user of the second registered mobile device and an identification of a user of at least one other mobile device. Displayed at the second registered mobile device in response to the match is a second list of user identifications. The second list includes an identification of a user of the first registered mobile device and an identification of at least one other mobile device user. In another aspect, provided is a method for establishing a communication between mobile devices. A plurality of mobile devices is registered with a collaboration system, each mobile device including profile data. The collaboration system processes the profile data of each registered mobile device. A user status is selected by each of a user of a first registered mobile device and a user of a second registered mobile device. The collaboration system determines that the users of the first and second registered mobile devices, respectively, selected a same user status. The collaboration system determines that the users of the first and second registered mobile devices, respectively, are within a predetermined geographic area with respect to each other. The collaboration system displays at the first registered mobile device a first list of user identifications, the first list including an identification of the user of the second registered mobile device. The collaboration system displays at the second registered mobile device a second list of user identifications, the second list including an identification of the user of the first registered mobile device. In another aspect, provided is a method for remote or non-location based matching for providing user privacy or security. A plurality of mobile devices is registered with a collaboration system. Each mobile device includes profile data. The collaboration system determines that users of the first and second registered mobile devices, respectively, share a same user status. The collaboration system determines a match between profile data of the first registered mobile device and profile data of the second registered mobile device. Displayed at the first registered mobile device in response to the match is an alert that includes a first list of user identifications. The first list including an identification of a user of the second registered mobile device and an identification of a user of at least one other mobile device. Displayed at the second registered mobile device in response to the match is an alert that includes a second list of user identifications. The second list including an identification of a user of the first registered mobile device and an identification of at least one other mobile device user. In another aspect, provided is a system for establishing a communication between a plurality of mobile devices, comprising: a processor that receives registration data from a plurality of mobile devices; a processor that determines first and second registered mobile devices have a common profile data element; a processor that determines a match between the first and second registered mobile device users based on the common profile data element; a processor that generates and outputs to the first registered mobile device in response to the match a first list of user identifications, the first list including an identification of a user of the second registered mobile device and an identification of a user of at least one other mobile device; and a processor that generates and outputs to the second registered mobile device in response to the match a second list of user identifications, the second list including an identification of a user of the first registered mobile device and an identification of at least one other mobile device user. | H04W4206 | 20170804 | 20171116 | 78684.0 | H04W420 | 1 | DINH, KHANH Q | SYSTEMS AND METHODS FOR ESTABLISHING COMMUNICATIONS BETWEEN MOBILE DEVICE USERS | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04W | 2,017 |
|
15,669,920 | PENDING | APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES | An apparatus, including a memory device which stores work schedule information or scheduling information for an employer, hiring entity, individual, independent contractor, temporary worker, or freelancer; a receiver which receives a first request containing information regarding a request to obtain work schedule information or scheduling information for the employer, hiring entity, individual, independent contractor, temporary worker, or freelancer, and the first request is received from a first communication device; a processing device which is specially programmed for processing information contained in the first request and generates a first message containing the work schedule or scheduling information for the employer, hiring entity, individual, independent contractor, temporary worker, or freelancer; and a transmitter for transmitting the first message to the first communication device or to a second communication device. | 1. An apparatus, comprising: a memory device, wherein the memory device stores work schedule information or scheduling information for an employer or a hiring entity, or for an individual, an independent contractor, a temporary worker, or a freelancer; a receiver, wherein the receiver receives a first request, wherein the first request contains information regarding a request to obtain work schedule information or scheduling information for the employer, the hiring entity, the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer, wherein the first request is transmitted from a first communication device associated with an employer or hiring entity or associated with a an individual, an independent contractor, a temporary worker, or a freelancer; a processing device, wherein the processing device is specially programmed for processing information contained in the first request, wherein the processing device generates a first message containing the work schedule information or the scheduling information for the employer, the hiring entity, the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer; and a transmitter, wherein the transmitter transmits the first message to the first communication device or to a second communication device, wherein the apparatus processes information contained in a second request, wherein the second request contains information for offering services of the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer, to the employer or hiring entity, or contains information for the employer or hiring entity reserving or requesting the services of the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer. 2. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the memory device stores work schedule information or scheduling information for a plurality of employers, hiring entities, individuals, independent contractors, temporary workers, or freelancers. 3. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the processing devices processes information regarding a search to identify the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer. 4. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the processing devices processes information regarding a search to identify the employer or the hiring entity. 5. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the second request contains information regarding an amount the employer or hiring entity is willing to pay the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, and or the freelancer. 6. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the second request contains information regarding an amount for which the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, and or the freelancer is willing to work for the employer or the hiring entity. 7. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the apparatus is utilized on or over the Internet or the World Wide Web. 8. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the apparatus is utilized with a wireless communication network. 9. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the apparatus processes information regarding an auction for services of the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer. 10. The apparatus of claim 1, wherein the apparatus processes information regarding an auction for a job, a project, or a work assignment. 11. An apparatus, comprising: a memory device, wherein the memory device stores work schedule information or scheduling information for an employer or a hiring entity, or for an individual, an independent contractor, a temporary worker, or a freelancer; a receiver, wherein the receiver receives a first request, wherein the first request contains information regarding a request to obtain work schedule information or scheduling information for the employer, the hiring entity, the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer, wherein the first request is transmitted to the receiver on or over the Internet or the World Wide Web from a first communication device associated with an employer or hiring entity or associated with a an individual, an independent contractor, a temporary worker, or a freelancer; a processing device, wherein the processing device is specially programmed for processing information contained in the first request, wherein the processing device generates a first message containing the work schedule information or the scheduling information for the employer, the hiring entity, the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer; and a transmitter, wherein the transmitter transmits the first message to the first communication device or to a second communication device, wherein the apparatus processes information contained in a second request, wherein the second request contains information for offering services of the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer, to the employer or hiring entity, or contains information for the employer or hiring entity reserving or requesting the services of the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer. 12. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the memory device stores work schedule information or scheduling information for a plurality of employers, hiring entities, individuals, independent contractors, temporary workers, or freelancers. 13. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the processing devices processes information regarding a search to identify the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer. 14. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the processing devices processes information regarding a search to identify the employer or the hiring entity. 15. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the second request contains information regarding an amount the employer or hiring entity is willing to pay the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, and or the freelancer. 16. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the second request contains information regarding an amount for which the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, and or the freelancer is willing to work for the employer or the hiring entity. 17. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the apparatus is utilized on or over the Internet or the World Wide Web. 18. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the apparatus is utilized with a wireless communication network. 19. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the apparatus processes information regarding an auction for services of the individual, the independent contractor, the temporary worker, or the freelancer. 20. The apparatus of claim 11, wherein the apparatus processes information regarding an auction for a job, a project, or a work assignment. | RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/839,946, filed Aug. 29, 2015, and entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES”, which, in turn, is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/315,124, filed Nov. 29, 2008, and entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES”, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,152,943, which, in turn, is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/691,796, filed Oct. 23, 2003, and entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES”, now U.S. Pat. No. 7,490,086, which, in turn, is a continuation application of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/612,528, filed on Jul. 7, 2000, and entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES”, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,662,194, the subject matter of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/612,528, filed on Jul. 7, 2000, claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/146,776, filed Jul. 31, 1999, and entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES”, the subject matter of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. FIELD OF THE INVENTION The present invention is directed to an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services and, in particular, to an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services as they may relate to individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, employers and/or hiring entities, in a network environment. BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION Individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, can expend great efforts and a great deal of time in job searching efforts. Individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, typically place a great deal of importance on their job searching efforts, on efforts directed to securing employment, both permanently and/or temporarily as a temporary employee and/or “contract” employee, and/or on efforts directed to obtaining and/or securing projects and/or assignments. Employers and/or hiring entities require that they have a satisfactory workforce in order to meet the demands of doing business. In this regard, employers and/or hiring entities very often need to find and/or recruit new employees, replace former employees, find employees with new skills to meet their business needs, and/or obtain the services of temporary workers, independent contractors, and/or freelancers. Growing businesses and markets have been created by the need for individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers to find and/or to secure jobs, employment, projects and/or assignments, and by the need of employers and/or hiring entities to recruit and hire new employees, independent contractors, and/or freelancers. These businesses and markets include employment agencies, recruiters, so-called “headhunters”, employment and/or career consultants, temporary employment agencies, personal agents, personal managers, and/or other intermediaries, who or which, respectively, bring the respective parties together and/or assist them in obtaining introductions, establishing a dialog between parties, reaching agreement on, and/or establishing an employment, an independent contractor, and/or a freelance relationship. Job searching activities and recruitment activities typically require efforts in introducing parties to one another, pre-screening the parties prior to, and/or subsequent to, an introduction, acting as an information gathering entity for a party, exchanging information in order to determine if a relationship is appropriate and/or desirable, negotiating a deal, and/or consummating a deal between the respective parties. While individuals and/or employers and/or hiring entities can act on their own behalf during most of the process, one of the parties may typically enlist the efforts of an employment agency or agencies, a recruiter(s), a so-called “headhunter(s)”, an employment and/or career consultant(s), a temporary employment agency or agencies, a personal agent(s), a personal manager(s), and/or another intermediary or intermediaries, sometimes at great expense. The enlistment of employment agencies, recruiters, so-called “headhunters”, employment and/or career consultants, temporary employment agencies, personal agents, personal managers, and/or other intermediaries, can be costly and can lead to job search efforts and/or recruitment efforts which may be limited in breadth and/or scope by the personal and/or individual contacts, limitations and/or constraints associated with the employment agency, recruiter, so-called “headhunter”, employment and/or career consultant, temporary employment agency, personal agent, personal manager, and/or other intermediary. In this regard, job search efforts and/or recruitment efforts may be limited, thereby depriving an individual and/or an employer and/or hiring entity of being introduced to the best possible candidates. In some instances, an employer and/or hiring entity may forgo access to certain candidates simply because they cannot and/or refuse to enlist the efforts of a recruiter and/or other intermediary. Job searching efforts and recruitment efforts may be limited by and/or be constrained by limited personal contacts, geographical constraints, monetary constraints, and/or time constraints. Oftentimes, individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, do not have the resources to conduct their own respective job searching efforts or recruitment efforts. The enlistment of employment agencies, recruiters, so-called “headhunters”, employment and/or career consultants, temporary employment agencies, personal agents, personal managers, and/or other intermediaries, may not be sufficient to overcome these limitations and/or constraints, particularly, if the respective employment agency or agencies, recruiter(s), so-called “headhunter(s)”, employment and/or career consultant(s), temporary employment agency or agencies, personal agent(s), personal manager(s) and/or other intermediary or intermediaries, are working with similar limitations and/or constraints. The job search process and/or the recruitment process can typically be rendered more difficult in instances when additional information may be requested by one or by both of the parties concerning a counterpart. This typically results in time delays and/or additional expense to the party having to comply with such a request. Job searching efforts and/or recruitment efforts may further be rendered more difficult when the parties are not properly pre-screened, thereby resulting in wasted time and effort, and/or when the parties are not properly informed as to the needs and/or demands of a counterpart. The needs and/or demands can include job description, job needs, project description, assignment description, salary, compensation, and/or other related information. The failure to pre-screen the parties and/or to conduct a dialog and/or initiate interviews and/or discussions when the parties may be so far apart regarding their respective needs, requests and/or expectations, for example, those involving job duties and/or salary, can result in wasted time and effort. Confidentiality is typically another concern in job searching activities and/or in recruitment activities. Individuals, employees, and/or hiring entities may have an interest in, and/or a desire for, maintaining confidentiality during at least some initial stages of any job search and/or recruitment effort. In some instances, once an initial interest is expressed, any confidentiality which may have existed may be lost for the remainder of the process. Sometimes, it may be desirable for an individual, an employer and/or hiring entity, to retain at least some level of confidentiality and/or anonymity further into the job search and/or recruitment process. In this manner, at least some confidentiality and/or anonymity can be preserved, especially if a deal between the parties is not ultimately reached. Job searching activities and/or recruitment activities may be far too widespread and may be far too important to be limited by the above-described limitations and/or constraints. Individuals, employers and/or hiring entities would be better served by a system which overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION The apparatus and method of the present invention overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art and provides an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services. The present invention utilizes the technologies and advances in information technology and in communication technology in order to provide these services in a network environment. The present invention is directed to an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, for the respective individuals, employees, independent contractors, freelancers, employers and/or hiring entities, described herein in a network environment. The present invention also provides a centralized apparatus, which can also serve as a clearinghouse, which provides job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, as well as any of the services and/or activities described herein. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized by individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, and/or other entities, desirous of securing a job, a position, a project, an assignment, and/or an employment relationship, either permanent and/or temporary, with an employer and/or a hiring entity. The apparatus and method of the present invention can also be utilized by employers and/or by other hiring entities desirous of securing the services of an individual, an employee, an independent contractor, and/or freelancer, either permanently and/or temporarily. The present invention can also be utilized by an employment agency, a recruiter, a so-called “headhunter”, or other intermediary, in order to assist and/or to act on behalf of any of the individuals, employers and/or hiring entities described herein. The present invention can also be utilized in order to provide agency services for any of the herein described parties, i.e., individual, employees, independent contractors, freelancers, employers, hiring entities, recruiters, headhunters, etc. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized in a network environment in order to effectuate any of the services described herein on, or over, any communication network. The apparatus can include a central processing computer or server computer, at least one or more individual computers and at least one or more employer computers. Each of the herein-described computers may communicate with any and all of the computers which are utilized in conjunction with the apparatus of the present invention. The present invention may be utilized in any communication network such as the Internet, the World Wide Web, a telecommunications network, and/or any other communication network described herein and/or otherwise. Each of the central processing computer(s), the individual computers, and/or the employer computers can include any and/or all components, peripherals, hardware, and/or software, for facilitating the use thereof in a manner consistent with the present invention as described herein. The central processing computer may also include, and/or be linked to, a database(s) and/or other storage and/or memory device(s) for storing any and/or all of the data and/or information described as being utilized, and/or which may be utilized, in conjunction with the present invention. The present invention provides job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, while preserving confidentiality among and/or between the parties and/or between the parties and third parties, and may further provide for varying layers of confidentiality for the parties involved. The present invention can also provide enhanced information services for the parties utilizing same, including but not limited to, links, hyperlinks, and/or other pointing and/or linking devices for linking a user to additional and/or supplemental information concerning any of the individuals, employers, hiring entities, and/or other parties, involved in a dialog, negotiations and/or discussions. The data and/or information utilized in conjunction with the present invention can also be utilized by the various individuals, employers, hiring entities, contractors, applicants, recruiters, headhunters, third party intermediaries, and/or the operator and/or the administrator of the apparatus, and can be uploaded to, downloaded from, and/or be stored and/or be resident on any of the central processing computer(s), the individual computer(s), and/or the employer computer(s). The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized to perform various job-searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services and/or functions. The present invention may be utilized by an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, a freelancer, either permanent or temporary, to find or to locate a job, a position, a project and/or an assignment, for which they may wish to apply. The present invention can also be utilized by an employer and/or hiring entity to recruit and/or to search for, an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, either permanent or temporary. The present invention can also be utilized by a recruiter, a headhunter, and/or a third party intermediary, in order to assist an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, in searching for a job, a position, a project, and/or an assignment, and/or for assisting an employer and/or a hiring entity in searching for, and/or for recruiting an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, in order to fill a hiring and/or other need. The present invention may also be utilized to notify an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or freelancer, of the existence and/or the availability of an opportunity for and/or related to a job, a position, a project and/or an assignment. The present invention may also be utilized to notify an employer and/or a hiring entity of the availability of an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or freelancer. Any and/or all of the communications between the parties may be effected via electronic message transmission, e-mail, electronic forms submission, a telephone call, telephone messaging, facsimile messaging, pager and/or beeper messaging, physical mailing, and/or via any other appropriate method, means and/or mechanism. Employers and/or other hiring entities can post data and/or list information regarding jobs, employment positions, temporary positions, assignments, freelance assignments, contracting assignments and/or jobs, as well as any other assignments, projects and/or efforts which require and/or which may require the services of an individual, an employee, an independent contractor, a freelancer, a temporary employee, etc, with the present invention. Similarly, individuals, job applicants, prospective employees, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers, etc., can also post and/or list data and/or information regarding themselves with the present invention. The present invention can be utilized in order to allow employers and/or hiring entities to bid for individuals, employees, independent contractors, and/or freelancers. The present can also be utilized in order to allow individuals and/or their agents and/or managers to auction and/or offer their services to employers and/or to hiring entities. The present invention can be utilized for managing work schedules, and/or for maintaining information regarding work schedules for an individual or entity, including, but not limited to any job applicant, temporary worker, independent contractor, and/or freelancer. An employer and/or hiring entity can obtain information regarding the work, temporary assignment, and/or project or assignment, schedules for any individual or entity utilizing the present invention. An employer and/or hiring entity may hire and/or reserve the time of and/or the services of, the individual and/or entity via the present invention. The present invention can also provide an individual and/or an employer and/or hiring entity with data and/or information regarding the latest developments and/or current developments in the employment and/or recruiting fields, including, but not limited to, growth areas, demand information for certain jobs and/or professions, salary surveys, etc. In this manner, the present invention can provide information for allowing an individual, an employer and/or hiring entity to determine the state of the job market and/or to utilize this information in any appropriate manner so as to minimize the time, effort and/or expense of job searching efforts and/or recruitment efforts. The present invention can also provide notification to any of the individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, when and/or if information is being and/or has been requested about he, she or it. The present invention can also provide the identity of the party requesting the information to the respective individual, employer and/or hiring entity. The present invention can also provide for the blockage of any access, authorized and/or unauthorized, to any of the data and/or information utilized in conjunction with the present invention and/or concerning any individual, entity, employer, and/or hiring entity, utilizing the present invention. The present invention can also provide any data and/or information specifically, generically, generally, such as for a group, and/or statistically and/or in any other manner. The present invention can also be utilized so as to prevent certain individuals and/or entities, employers and/or hiring entities, from accessing the data and/or information about any other individual, entity, employer, and/or hiring entity. The operation of the present invention may be triggered by any type of pre-specified event and/or occurrence which may include a new individual listing, a new employer and/or hiring entity listing, a departure of an individual from an employer, the completion of a job, project and/or assignment, changes in an economic factor(s), changes in a market factor(s), an increase in an unemployment rate, the unemployment of an individual, a detected need for jobs having a certain skill(s), and/or any other event, situation, and/or any other occurrence which may be deemed to have some relationship and/or effect related to job searching efforts and/or recruitment efforts. The apparatus and method of the present invention can also be utilized for performing and/or for facilitating the provision of recruitment services for schools, colleges, universities, and/or any organizations of any kind. The apparatus of the present invention can also be programmed in order to be self-activating and/or activated automatically. The apparatus of the present invention can also be programmed in order to generate and/or transmit any of the e-mails, electronic message transmissions, electronic notification transmissions, and/or any of the communications, described herein between any of the parties utilizing the present invention. The present invention can be utilized in conjunction with intelligent agents, software agents and/or mobile agents, in order to provide for these respective agents to act for, or on behalf of, a respective party. The present invention can also be utilized in order to generate electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons for advertising and/or for publicizing the availability of individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, for work, and/or for advertising and/or publicizing jobs, employment positions, projects and/or assignments, which employers and/or hiring entities are seeking to fill. The present invention can also be utilized in order to monitor, record and/or keep track of, all offers and/or rejections involving any and all jobs, employment positions, projects and/or assignments, which occur in conjunction with and/or via use of the present invention. The information compiled can be provided to individuals, employers, and/or recruiters for use in any appropriate and/or suitable manner. The present invention, can also store individual and/or employer data and/or information with various and/or varying levels of specificity and/or confidentiality. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized as an electronic and/or network-based recruiting apparatus and/or clearinghouse. The present invention can be utilized in order to reduce recruiting costs and so-called headhunter fees to employers as well as job search efforts and/or expenses to individuals. The present invention provides an apparatus and a method for eliminating intermediaries and/or unnecessary efforts and/or expense involved in job search and/or recruitment processes for any of the individuals, employers and/or hiring entities described herein. The present invention can also be utilized in conjunction with the bartering and/or trading of services between parties, such as individuals, employers, and/or hiring entities. The present invention also provides an apparatus and a method for providing enhanced confidentiality during the job-search, recruitment, and/or related interactions, negotiations and/or other dealings between the parties involved in same. The present invention can monitor and/or record any interaction between any of the parties which utilize the present invention. The present invention can also be utilized in conjunction with job searches and/or recruiting efforts for any kind of job, profession, employment position, project, and/or assignment, and/or for any permanent, temporary, independent contractor, and/or freelance, job, employment position, project, and/or assignment. The present invention can utilize electronic commerce technologies and security methods, techniques and technologies. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, in a network environment. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, on and/or over the Internet, the World Wide Web, and/or any other communication network. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides links to various data and/or information which may be requested, required, and/or desired, by the respective parties involved in job searching activities and/or in recruitment activities. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which utilizes databases which can be linked to external information sources. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which facilitates the posting of data and/or information by respective individuals and/or employers and/or hiring entities. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, which allows an individual to perform job searches. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, which allows an employer and/or hiring entity to perform recruitment searches. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which notifies an individual of job and/or employment opportunities which may be of interest to the individual when same become available. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which notifies an employer and/or hiring entity of individuals, prospective employees, independent contractors, permanent workers, temporary workers, and/or freelancers, who or which may be of interest to the employer and/or hiring entity when these individuals and/or entities become available. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which utilizes data and/or information which is specific, generic, and/or general, to an individual, to an employer, and/or to hiring entity. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which facilitates providing notification to an employer and/or hiring entity when a recruitment-related opportunity arises. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which facilitates providing notification to an individual when an employment-related opportunity arises. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides for the securing and/or the reserving of services of an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job-searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides notification of the availability of an individual, a prospective employee, a job applicant, an independent contractor, a temporary worker, and/or a freelancer, for a job, position, project, or assignment. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job-searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides notification of the availability of a job, an employment position, a project, and/or an assignment, with an employer and/or hiring entity. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method of the providing job-searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which utilizes electronic messages and/or e-mail messages which contain links to information and/or information sources which may be utilized in providing said information. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides for bidding and/or auctioning activities regarding said services. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides scheduling services and/or schedule management services for an individual, an independent contractor, a freelancer, an employer and/or hiring entity. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides information regarding developments related to the job-search and/or recruitment fields. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides notification to an individual, an independent contractor, a freelancer, and an employer and/or hiring entity, when data and/or information has been requested about them. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which can be utilized by an individual, an independent contractor, a freelancer, an employer and/or hiring entity, and/or a party acting on behalf of same. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which prevents access to certain data and/or information by certain parties. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, which can be programmed to be self-activating and/or be activated automatically. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services which generates electronic messages, e-mail messages, telephone calls, pager calls, pager messages, and/or other communication messages, automatically. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which utilizes intelligent agents, software agents, and/or mobile agents, for providing various services for, and/or for taking action on behalf of, a respective party. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides links and/or hyperlinks to information, products and/or services related thereto. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides automatic notification of, and/or announcements of, job openings, position openings, projects, and/or assignments, the availability of job applicants and/or the availability of goods and/or service providers, to respective parties. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which monitors, records, and/or provides notification of, any communications which take place and/or which may transpire between respective parties. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides for the generation of and/or the distribution of electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons related to job search activities and/or recruitment activities. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides notification of job-search-related and/or recruitment-related events and/or occurrences. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which monitors, records and/or keeps track of, job search and/or recruitment activities of, and for, any of the respective parties. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides for the storage and/or the utilization of data and/or information with various and/or varying levels of confidentiality and/or specificity. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which is utilized in conjunction with the buying, selling, bartering and/or trading, of goods and/or services. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides enhanced confidentiality during the respective job search, recruitment, and/or related activities and/or interactions. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which monitors and/or records communications, interactions, and/or dealings, between parties. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides statistical information pertaining to job searches, recruitment activities, and/or related activities. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which can be utilized in conjunction with independent job search efforts and/or independent recruitment efforts. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which can administer a financial account for, and/or on behalf of a party, and which can effect a payment from one party to another, and/or receive a payment for, and/or on behalf of, a party. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, for schools, colleges, universities, and/or any organizations of any kind. Other objects and advantages of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art upon a review of the Description of the Preferred Embodiment taken in conjunction with the Drawings which follow. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS In the Drawings: FIG. 1 illustrates the apparatus of the present invention, in block diagram form; FIG. 2 illustrates the central processing computer of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in block diagram form; FIG. 3 illustrates the individual computer of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in block diagram form; FIG. 4 illustrates the employer computer of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in block diagram form; FIGS. 5A to 5E illustrate a preferred embodiment operation of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in flow diagram form; FIGS. 6A to 6E illustrate another preferred embodiment operation of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in flow diagram form; FIG. 7 illustrates another preferred embodiment operation of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in flow diagram form; and FIG. 8 illustrates another preferred embodiment operation of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in flow diagram form. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS The present invention is directed to an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, and, in particular, to an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, for effectuating services and activities involving and/or related to job search efforts and/or recruitment efforts, by, and/or for, individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, employers and/or hiring entities. The apparatus and method of the present invention provides services which facilitate individual, independent contractor, and/or freelancer, job search efforts, employer and/or hiring entity recruitment, search and/or placement efforts, and/or related efforts. The present invention also provides a centralized apparatus, and/or a clearinghouse, for providing and/or for facilitating the herein-described efforts, services, and/or activities. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized by individuals and entities desirous of identifying and/or securing an employment relationship, either permanent and/or temporary, an independent contractor relationship, and/or a freelancer relationship, with an employer and/or hiring entity. The apparatus and method of the present invention can also be utilized by employers and/or hiring entities desirous of searching for, and/or for securing the services of, an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, either permanently and/or temporarily. The present invention can also be utilized by an employment agency, an agent, a recruiter, a so-called “headhunter”, a career consultant, a personal manager, and/or an intermediary, to assist an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, in searching for a job, a position, a project, and/or assignment. The present invention can also be utilized to assist an employer and/or hiring entity to search for an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer. The present invention can also be utilized in order to provide agency services for any of the herein described parties, such as, but not limited to, individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, employers, hiring entities, recruiters, and/or headhunters. The terms “individual, “employee”, “prospective employee”, “applicant”, “contractor”, “independent contractor”, “temp”, “temporary employee”, “freelancer” etc., as used herein, refer to any individual, person, company, business entity, independent contracting business or entity, employment agent and/or agency, and/or any other entity, seeking to identify, find, and/or secure, a job, an employment position, a project, and/or an assignment, for himself, herself, itself, and/or for another. The terms “employer”, “hiring entity”, “company”, “business”, etc., as used herein, refer to any employer, hiring entity, individual, person, company, business entity, and/or other entity, seeking to identify, find, or secure the services of, an individual, independent contractor, and/or freelancer, for itself and/or for another. The terms “recruiter”, “headhunter”, “employment agency”, “placement agency”, “employment consultant”, “placement consultant”, etc., refer to any individual, person, and/or entity, who or which acts as an intermediary for, and/or on behalf of, any party or parties described herein, in order to initiate and/or to effectuate a job search and/or a recruitment activity and/or any searches or activities which result, and/or which proceed, therefrom. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter and teachings of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/146,776 which teaches an apparatus and method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, the subject matter and teachings of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter and teachings of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/839,946, filed Aug. 29, 2015, and entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES”, the subject matter and teachings of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter and teachings of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/315,124, filed Nov. 29, 2008, and entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES”, the subject matter and teachings of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized in a network environment in order to effectuate any of the services described herein. FIG. 1 illustrates a preferred embodiment of the apparatus of the present invention which is designated generally by the reference numeral 100. In FIG. 1, the apparatus 100 includes a central processing computer or server computer 10. The central processing computer 10 provides control over the apparatus 100 and provides services for the various computers associated with the various individuals employees, contractors, independent contractors, freelancers, employers, hiring entities, recruiters, etc., who or which utilize the apparatus 100 of the present invention. The central processing computer 10, in the preferred embodiment, can be any suitable computer, network computer, or computer system, for providing service for the various computers associated with the individuals, employees, independent contractors, freelancers, employers, hiring entities, recruiters, etc., who or which utilize the present invention. In the preferred embodiment, any number of central processing computers 10 may be utilized in order to provide the servicing functions described herein. The central processing computer(s) 10 may be linked to other central processing computers or may be stand alone devices. A given central processing computer 10 may service a particular geographic area or certain individuals employees, independent contractors, freelancers, employers, hiring entities, recruiters, etc., and/or groups thereof. A central processing computer 10 may also be dedicated to service any one or group of the above described individuals and/or entities. The apparatus 100, in the preferred embodiment, also includes one or more individual computers 20. Each individual computer 20 may be a personal computer or other communication device suitable for allowing the individual to interact with the central processing computer(s) 10. Each individual computer 20 can be utilized to transmit information to the central processing computer 10 and to receive information from the central processing computer 10 via the communication network. The individual computer 20 can be a personal computer, a hand-held computer, a palmtop computer, a laptop computer, a personal communication device, a personal digital assistant, a telephone, a digital telephone, a display telephone, a video telephone, a videophone, a 3G telephone, a television, an interactive television, a beeper, a pager, and/or a watch. In the present invention, any number of individual computers 20 may be utilized. In the present invention, each individual or entity utilizing the present invention may have one or more individual computers 20 associated therewith. The apparatus 100, in the preferred embodiment, also includes one or more employer computers 30. Each employer computer 30 may be a personal computer or other communication device suitable for allowing the employer to interact with the central processing computer(s) 10. Each employer computer 30 can be utilized to transmit information to the central processing computer 10 and to receive information from the central processing computer 10 via the communication network. The employer computer 30 can be a personal computer, a hand-held computer, a palmtop computer, a laptop computer, a personal communication device, a personal digital assistant, a telephone, a digital telephone, a display telephone, a video telephone, a videophone, a 3G telephone, a television, an interactive television, a beeper, a pager, and/or a watch. In the preferred embodiment, any number of employer computers 30 may be utilized. In the present invention, each employer and/or hiring entity utilizing the present invention may have one or more employer computers 30 associated therewith. Each of the individual computer(s) 20 and each of the employer computer(s) 30 described herein can transmit information to each central processing computer 10 as well as receive information from each central processing computer 10. In addition, each individual computer 20 can also transmit information to any employer computer 30 as well as receive information from any employer computer 30. In a similar manner, each employer computer 30 can transmit information to any individual computer 20 as well as receive information from any individual computer 20. The central processing computer(s) 10, the individual computer(s) 20, and/or the employer computer(s) 30 can communicate with one another, and/or be linked to one another, over a communication network and/or a wireless communication network. In the preferred embodiment, the present invention is utilized on, and/or over, the Internet and/or the World Wide Web. The present invention, in the preferred embodiment, can also utilize wireless Internet and/or World Wide Web services, equipment and/or devices. The central processing computer(s) 10, in the preferred embodiment, has a web site or web sites associated therewith. Although the Internet and/or the World Wide Web is the preferred communication system and/or medium utilized, the present invention, in all of the embodiments described herein, can also be utilized with any appropriate communication systems including, but not limited to, network communication systems, telephone communication systems, cellular communication systems, digital communication systems, personal communication systems, personal communication services (PCS) systems, satellite communication systems, broad band communication systems, low earth orbiting (LEO) satellite systems, and/or public switched telephone networks or systems. In the preferred embodiment, each of the central processing computer(s) 10, the individual computer(s) 20, and employer computer(s) 30, can transmit data and/or information using TCP/IP, as well as any other Internet and/or World Wide Web, protocols. The individual computer 20, in the preferred embodiment, can be linked directly or indirectly with a central processing computer 10. The employer computer 30, in the preferred embodiment, can also be linked directly or indirectly with a central processing computer 20. In any of the preferred embodiments described herein, any individual computer(s) 20 and any employer computer(s) 30 can be linked directly or indirectly with one another so as to facilitate a direct or indirect bi-directional communication between an individual computer(s) 20 and an employer computer(s) 30. FIG. 2 illustrates the central processing computer 10, in block diagram form. The central processing computer 10, in the preferred embodiment, is a network computer or computer system which is utilized as a central processing computer such as an Internet server computer and/or a web site server computer. In the preferred embodiment, the central processing computer 10 includes a central processing unit or CPU 10A, which in the preferred embodiment, is a microprocessor. The CPU 10A may also be a microcomputer, a minicomputer, a macro-computer, and/or a mainframe computer, depending upon the application. The central processing computer 10 also includes a random access memory device(s) 10B (RAM) and a read only memory device(s) 10C (ROM), each of which is connected to the CPU 10A, a user input device 10D, for entering data and/or commands into the central processing computer 10, which includes any one or more of a keyboard, a scanner, a user pointing device, such as, for example, a mouse, a touch pad, and/or an audio input device and/or a video input device, etc., if desired, which input device(s) are also connected to the CPU 10A. The central processing computer 10 also includes a display device 10E for displaying data and/or information to a user or operator. The central processing computer 10 also includes a transmitter(s) 10F, for transmitting signals and/or data and/or information to any one or more of the individual computer(s) 20 and employer computer(s) 30 which may be utilized in conjunction with the present invention. The central processing computer 10 also includes a receiver 10G, for receiving signals and/or data and/or information from any one or more of the individual computer(s) 20 and/or employer computer(s) 30. The central processing computer 10 also includes a database(s) 10H which contains data and/or information pertaining to the individuals, employees, independent contractors, freelancers, and/or other persons or entities, who or which utilize the present invention in order to find or secure a job, project, or assignment. The database 10H also contains data and/or information pertaining to the employers and/or hiring entities who or which utilize the present invention to recruit individuals, independent contractors, or freelancers, in order to satisfy their needs and/or requirements. The database 10H may also contain data and/or information pertaining to recruiters, headhunters, management consultants, managers, and/or other intermediaries, and/or third parties, who or which utilize the present invention in order to act on behalf of any of the individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, employers and/or hiring entities, who attempt to match the needs of any of the parties described herein. Individual data and/or information, which can be stored in the database 10H, can include, but not be limited to, the individual's name, sex, age, address, educational information, schooling, work experience, work history, skills, work-related skills, past employers, references, salary history, salary requirements, benefit requirements, school transcripts, links to registrar's offices and/or databases at respective school(s) and/or to a transcript database and/or electronic storage facility, medium, and/or device, which stores transcripts and/or other scholastic and/or educational information about an individual(s), work samples, reference letters, recommendation letters, pictures, video clips, and/or other relevant and/or pertinent information. In this manner, the present invention facilitates more efficient access to data and/or information pertaining to an individual(s). In order to preserve confidentiality and/or so as to maintain an anonymous identity, each of the above-described types of information can be described in a generic manner, i.e., a school can be listed as a large Ivy League institution as opposed to being named and positively identified. For example, an individual can be described as being a mid-level engineer having experience in computer programming, etc. Each and every field of data and/or information can be represented by a corresponding generic term or terms so as to keep the true information masked for a desired time period or during a certain period of processing. The individual data and/or information can also include certain jobs and/or events and/or occurrences for which the individual may desire to be notified. Any of the data and/or information may have hyperlinks associated therewith for directing a party to a separate and/or a different data and/or information source. The information source may be external from the central processing computer 10. The database 10H can also contain data and/or information restricting access to any of the data and/or information stored in the database 10H. For example, an individual, independent contractor, freelancer, employer, and/or hiring entity, may, at any time, may restrict access by any party, to any of their respective data and/or information. For example, an individual may prevent a current employer from accessing his or her data and/or information, thereby maintaining the confidentiality of a job search. Similarly, any party may restrict the availability of any of its data and/or information from any other party or parties. In the cases of temporary employees, self-employed individuals, professionals, independent contractors, freelancers, etc., the database 10H can contain information regarding the schedules and/or work calendars for any of these individuals, employees, and/or entities. In this regard, each individual, employee, and/or entity in this category may store and have maintained by the apparatus 100, a work schedule and/or working calendar which can provide information regarding days and/or time periods of employment and/or engagement as well as days and/or time periods of availability. The database 10H can also contain information pertaining to employers whom an individual will readily work for if the employer should need and/or request the individual. The individual data and/or information can also include employers and/or hiring entities whom the individual, independent contractor, or freelancer, has agreed in advance to work for, as well as employers and/or hiring entities whom the individual has decided in advance not to work for. The database 10H can also include information regarding which employers and/or hiring entities may access an individual's data and/or information as well as those employers and/or hiring entities who may not access an individual's data and/or information. The database 10H also includes data and/or information about employers who or which utilize the present invention which information includes, but is not limited to, employer name, company name, job offerings, job openings, job(s) or position(s) needed to be filled, job(s) or position(s) desired to be filled, employer size, employer location, regional location, jobs or positions employed, benefits offered, employer history, salary information, compensation information, customer information, supplier information, information from past employees, information from current employees, past and/or current employment agencies or recruiter representing the employer, types of positions, including but not limited to permanent and/or temporary positions, references, pictures of facilities, video clips, fringe benefits, work hours, work requirements, recommendation letters, salary and/or compensation information. The data and/or information contained in the database 10H can also include information concerning events, occurrences, availability of an applicant or applicants and/or any other information of which the employer may which to be notified. As in the case with individuals, in order to preserve confidentiality and/or so as to maintain an anonymous identity, each of the above-described types of information can be described in a generic manner, i.e., an employer can be listed as a large computer manufacturer as opposed to being named and positively identified. Each and every field of data and/or information, described herein as being stored in the database 10H and/or otherwise utilized by the present invention, can be represented by a corresponding generic term or terms so as to keep the true information masked for a desired time period or during a certain period of processing. The employer data and/or information can also include events and/or occurrences for which the employer may desire to be notified. Any of the data and/or information stored in the database 10H may have hyperlinks associated therewith for directing a party to a separate and/or to a different data and/or information source, which may also be external form the central processing computer 10. The employer data and/or information can also include work schedules and/or work calendars which provide information regarding when the employer will be in need of the assistance of and/or the services of individuals, independent contractors, temporary employees, and/or freelancers. The database 10H can contain information regarding the schedules and/or work calendars providing notification of the human resource and/or employee requirements for the employer and/or hiring entity thereby providing information regarding days and/or time periods when it will require the assistance of individuals, independent contractors and/or freelancers. The database 10H may also contain information regarding which individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, may be approved, in advance, for hiring and/or for working for the employer and/or hiring entity, as well as data and/or information regarding which individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, may be prohibited, in advance, from being hired by, and/or from working for, the employer and/or hiring entity. The database 10H may also contain information regarding which individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, may obtain information about the employer and/or hiring entity as well as information regarding those individuals who may be prohibited from obtaining such information. The database 10H may also contain information regarding which individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, may apply for a job, position, project, or assignment, with an employer and/or hiring entity as well as information regarding those individuals who may be prohibited from so applying. The database 10H may also contain data and/or information pertaining to an employment agency, recruiters, headhunters, agents, managers, and/or other third party intermediaries (hereinafter “recruiter”), who or which attempt to brings individuals and employers together so as to facilitate the fulfillment of the needs of the respective parties. The information can include, but not be limited to, the recruiter's name, location, types of positions filled by same, information from past clients, references, past dealings and/or deals with an employer and/or hiring entity, salary histories of past deals, etc. As in the case with individuals and employers, in order to preserve confidentiality and/or so as to maintain an anonymous identity, each of the above-described types of information can be described in a generic manner, i.e., a recruiter and/or any information pertaining thereto can be described generically, i.e. a legal recruiter specializing in placing bankruptcy attorneys, etc., as opposed to being named and positively identified. Each and every field of data and/or information can be represented by a corresponding generic term or terms so as to keep the true information masked for a desired time period or during a certain period of processing. The recruiter data and/or information can also include events and/or occurrences for which the recruiter may desire to be notified. Any of the data and/or information stored in the database 10H may have hyperlinks associated therewith for directing a party to a separate and/or a different data and/or information source, which may also be external from the central processing computer 10. The database 10H may also contain any other information which may be relevant, pertinent, useful, and/or desired, for facilitating the operation of the apparatus and method of the present invention as described herein and/or as related thereto. The database 10H, in the preferred embodiment, is a database which may include individual databases or collections of databases, with each database being designated to store any and all of the data and/or information described herein. The database 10H may also contain data and/or information concerning past placements and/or transactions with such data and/or information being stored after each placement and/or transaction which occurs via the apparatus and method of the present invention. Any and all data and/or information can be stored regarding transactions which occur via the present invention as well as those transactions which occur independently of the present invention. The data and/or information can then be compiled and processed using statistical calculations in order to update the stored historical placement and/or transaction data and/or information with such data and/or information being made available to users of the apparatus 100. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the teachings of Basic Business Statistics Concepts and Applications, Mark L. Berenson and David M. Levine, 6th Edition, Prentice Hall 1996. The database 10H may also contain data and/or information concerning attrition rates at individual employers and/or hiring entities, as well as in different fields and/or market sectors, salary information, salary surveys for particular jobs, professions, etc., including salary, benefits, and/or other compensation, data and/or information for various experience levels, skill levels, skills and abilities, educational credentials, and/or other data and/or information which may be utilized by any of the individuals and/or employers described herein, by job or profession type, by market sector, by type of employer, and/or by location and/or geographic region. The database 10H may also contain data and/or information regarding the latest developments and/or current developments in the employment and/or recruiting field, including, but not limited to, growth areas, demand information for certain jobs and/or professions, etc. The data and/or information which is stored in the database 10H, or in the collection of databases, can be linked via relational database techniques, to the respective employer computers 30 and/or individual computers 20 and/or via any appropriate database management techniques. The data and/or information, in the preferred embodiment, can be updated via inputs from the respective individual computers 20, and/or employer computers 30, and/or from any other information source, at any time. Information updates can also be provided from other information sources via the communication network. The database 10H, or collection of databases, may be updated by each of the respective individuals, employers, or by an administrator and/or operator of the central processing computer 10, and/or by any other third party, in real-time, and/or via dynamically linked database management techniques. The data and/or information stored in the database 10H can also be updated by external sources. The database 10H will contain any and all information deemed necessary and/or desirable for providing all of the processing and/or services and/or functions described herein. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of Fundamentals of Database Systems, by Ramez Elmasri and Shamkant B. Navathe, 2nd Ed., Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1994. The database 10H can also contain any information needed for corresponding with any of the individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, employers and/or hiring entities, and/or recruiters, described herein, such as their respective addresses, telephone numbers, e-mail addresses, pager number, and/or any other information for facilitating a communication with any of these respective parties. The database 10H can also include employer-related data and/or information, job and/or position-related information, individual, independent contractor and/or freelancer, data and/or information, recruiter, headhunter, and/or third party intermediary-related information, and/or any other data and/or information needed and/or desired for performing any of the herein-described methods and features of the present invention. With reference once again to FIG. 2, the central processing computer 10 also includes an output device 101 such as a printer, a modem, a fax/modem, or other output device, for providing data and/or information to the operator or user of the central processing computer 10 or to a third party or third party entity. In the preferred embodiment, each of the individual computer(s) 20 and the employer computer(s) 30, include the same, similar, or analogous, components and/or peripheral devices as described herein for the central processing computer 10. In this manner, any individual computer(s) 20 or employer computer(s) 30, may be the same as, or be similar to, the central processing computer 10. In this regard, and depending upon the application and/or individual and/or employer requirements, each of the individual computer(s) 20 and/or each of the employer computer(s) 30 can have the same or similar components as the central processing computer 10. FIG. 3 illustrates the individual computer 20, in block diagram form. The individual computer 20, in the preferred embodiment, is a network computer or computer system which is utilized to access and/or to communicate with the central processing computer 10. In the preferred embodiment, the individual computer 20 includes a central processing unit or CPU 20A, which in the preferred embodiment, is a microprocessor. The CPU 20A may also be a microcomputer, a minicomputer, a macro-computer, and/or a mainframe computer, depending upon the application. The individual computer 20 also includes a random access memory device(s) 20B (RAM) and a read only memory device(s) 20C (ROM), each of which is connected to the CPU 20A, a user input device 20D, for entering data and/or commands into the individual computer 20, which includes any one or more of a keyboard, a scanner, a user pointing device, such as, for example, a mouse, a touch pad, and/or an audio input device and/or a video input device, etc., if desired, which input device(s) are also connected to the CPU 20A. The individual computer 20 also includes a display device 20E for displaying data and/or information to a user or operator. The individual computer 20 also includes a transmitter(s) 20F, for transmitting signals and/or data and/or information to any one or more of the central processing computer(s) 10 and to the employer computer(s) 30. The individual computer 20 also includes a receiver 20G, for receiving signals and/or data and/or information from any one or more of the central processing computer(s) 10 and/or the employer computer(s) 30. The individual computer 20 also includes a database(s) 20H which can contain any and/or all of the data and/or information described herein with regards to the database 10H of the central processing computer 10. The database 20H can also contain data and/or information personal to an individual or group of individuals, as well as data and/or information concerning the work schedule(s) and/or work calendar(s) for the individual and/or group of individuals for which the individual computer(s) 20 is/are associated. This data and/or information can also include information concerning when the individual is scheduled to work and/or when the individual is available to take work assignments. With reference once again to FIG. 3, the individual computer 20 also includes an output device 20I such as a printer, a modem, a fax/modem, or other output device, for providing data and/or information to the operator or user of the individual computer 20 or to a third party or third party entity. FIG. 4 illustrates the employer computer 30, in block diagram form. The employer computer 30, in the preferred embodiment, is a computer or computer system which is utilized to access and/or to communicate with the central processing computer 10. In the preferred embodiment, the employer computer 30 includes a central processing unit or CPU 30A, which in the preferred embodiment, is a microprocessor. The CPU 30A may also be a microcomputer, a minicomputer, a macro-computer, and/or a mainframe computer, depending upon the application. The employer computer 30 also includes a random access memory device(s) 30B (RAM) and a read only memory device(s) 30C (ROM), each of which is connected to the CPU 30A, a user input device 30D, for entering data and/or commands into the employer computer 30, which includes any one or more of a keyboard, a scanner, a user pointing device, such as, for example, a mouse, a touch pad, and/or an audio input device and/or a video input device, etc., if desired, which input device(s) are also connected to the CPU 30A. The employer computer 30 also includes a display device 30E for displaying data and/or information to a user or operator. The employer computer 30 also includes a transmitter(s) 30F, for transmitting signals and/or data and/or information to any one or more of the central processing computer(s) 10 and individual computer(s) 20. The employer computer 30 also includes a receiver 30G, for receiving signals and/or data and/or information from any one or more of the central processing computer(s) 10 and/or the individual computer(s) 20. The employer computer 30 also includes a database(s) 30H which can contain any and/or all of the data and/or information described herein with regards to the database 10H of the central processing computer 10. The database 30H can also contain data and/or information concerning a particular employer and/or hiring entity and/or groups of employers and/or hiring entities, as well as data and/or information concerning the work schedule(s) and/or work calendar(s), including project schedules and/or calendars, for the employer and/or hiring entity, or groups thereof, for which the employer computer 30 is associated. This data and/or information can also include information concerning when the employer may be in need of individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, and/or when the employer and/or hiring entity may not be in need of same. With reference once again to FIG. 4, the employer computer 30 also includes an output device 301 such as a printer, a modem, a fax/modem, or other output device, for providing data and/or information to the operator or user of the individual computer 20 or to a third party or third party entity. The databases 20H and 30H of the individual computer(s) 20 and the employer computer(s) 30, respectively, can contain any and/or all of the data and/or information which is stored and/or contained in the database 10H. The database 10H, or collection of databases which form the database 10H, as well as any database 20H and/or 30H, and/or any other database(s) described herein, can be implemented by utilizing database software and/or spreadsheet software, such as, for example database software by Oracle®, Microsoft® Access® and/or Microsoft® Excel®, or any other suitable database or spreadsheet software programs and/or systems. The data and/or information can be provided by the various employers, hiring entities, individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, applicants, recruiters, headhunters, third party intermediaries, and/or the operator and/or the administrator of the apparatus 100, and can be uploaded to, downloaded from, and/or be stored and/or be resident on any of the central processing computer(s) 10, the individual computer(s) 20, and/or the employer computer(s) 30. In the preferred embodiment, wherein the apparatus 100 is utilized over the Internet and/or the World Wide Web, hyperlinks and/or other data and/or information links and/or linking methods and/or devices, can be utilized in order to provide an additional mechanism by which any of the individual computers 20 and/or any of the employer computers 30, can access and/or communicate with any other individual computer 20, employer computer 30 as well as the central processing computer. Any and/or all of the central processing computer 10, the individuals computers 20, and/or the employer computers 30, describe herein, can also be linked to, and/or can access and/or communicate with, any external computer, computer system, and/or information source (not shown), including, but not limited to, school registrar office computers, recruiter computers, employment agency computer, in order to access and/o obtain information therefrom. The apparatus 100 and the method of the present invention can be utilized to perform various recruitment and/or recruitment-related services and/or functions. The present invention can be utilized by an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, in order to search for, and/or to apply for, a job, a position, a project, and/or an assignment. The present invention can also be utilized by an employer and/or hiring entity in order to search for, and or to recruit, an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, in order to fill a job, a position, a project, and/or an assignment. The present invention can also be utilized by a recruiter, a headhunter, and/or a third party intermediary, in order to assist a respective individual, independent contractor, and/or freelancer, search for a job, a position, a project, and/or an assignment, as well as to assist an employer and/or a hiring entity to search for, and/or to recruit, an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, in order to fill a job, a position, a project, and/or an assignment. The data and/or information which is stored in the database 10H, as well as stored in any of the databases 20H and/or 30H, can be linked via any suitable data linking techniques such as, for example, dynamically linked lists (DLLs), linked lists, and object links embedded (OLE's). In any and all of the embodiments described herein, each of the individual computers 20, the central processing computer(s) 10 and the employer computers 30 can communicate with one another via electronic submissions, electronic form submissions and/or transmissions, e-mail transmissions, facsimile transmissions, telephone messages, telephone calls, physical mail delivery, and/or via any other suitable communication technique, medium, or method. In any and all of the embodiments described herein, employers and other hiring entities can post and/or list information regarding jobs, employment positions, temporary positions, assignments, freelance assignments, contracting assignments (hereinafter “jobs”), as well as any other assignments, projects, and/or efforts which require and/or which may require the services of individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, and/or temporary employees, etc. Data and/or information regarding the above-described jobs, employment positions, assignments, etc., can be stored in the database 10H of the central processing computer 10. The data and/or information can also be stored in the database 20H of any individual computer 20 and/or in the database 30H of any employer computer 30. Individuals, job applicants, prospective employees, employees, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers, etc., can also post and/or list data and/or information regarding themselves with the database 10H of the central processing computer 10. As in the case with employers and/or hiring entities, data and/or information regarding these Individuals, job applicants, prospective employees, employees, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers, etc., can also be stored in the database 20H of any individual computer 20 and/or in the database 30H of any employer computer 30. Recruiters and/or other third party intermediaries described herein can also store data and/or information regarding any of the individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, whom they represent, which data and/or information can also be stored in the database 10H of the central processing computer 10 as well as the database 20h of the individual computer 20 and/or the database 30H of the employer computer 30. A recruiter or third party intermediary may utilize an individual computer 20 to access and/or utilize the present invention. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized in many preferred embodiments to provide job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services. FIGS. 5A to 5E illustrate a preferred embodiment operation of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in flow diagram form. FIGS. 5A to 5E illustrate a method for using the apparatus 100, for assisting individuals, job applicants, prospective employees, employees, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers, etc. (hereinafter referred to collectively as “individual” or “individuals”), to perform job searches, for employment positions, contracting jobs, temporary assignments and/or freelance assignments (hereinafter referred to as a “job” or “jobs”). The operation of the apparatus 100 commences at step 200. At step 201, the individual accesses the central processing computer 10 via the individual computer 30. The individual may, at step 202, enter data and/or information regarding his or her education, skills, work experience, objectives and/or any other data and/or information pertinent to a job search. Step 202 may be dispensed with if this information has been entered by the individual previously. The data and/or information can be entered specifically and/or generically. If entered specifically, the individual can also enter generic data and/or information to preserve confidentiality, if desired. Data and/or information may also be entered into the central processing computer 10 by uploading and/or downloading, whichever the case may be, a resume and/or any other pertinent data and/or information. Data and/or information may also be obtained via a questionnaire which may be provided and/or answered on-line. Any and/or all of such data and/or information may be stored in the database 10H. The central processing computer 10 can also process the specific data and/or information in order to convert and/or separately store same as generic data and/or information. Any and all data and/or information stored at step 202, and/or previously, can be stored in the database 10H of the central processing computer 10 and/or in the databases 20H and/or 30H, respectively, of the individual computer 20 and/or the employer computer 30, as appropriate. At step 203, the individual can choose to have the search proceed with specific data and/or information and/or generic data and/or information. If, at step 204, it is determined that a search with specific data and/or information is selected, the central processing computer 10 will proceed to step 205 and proceed with the specific data and/or information. Thereafter, the operation will proceed to step 207. If, however, at step 204, it is determined that a search with specific data and/or information is not selected, the central processing computer 10 will proceed to step 206 and proceed with the generic and/or general data and/or information. Thereafter, the operation will proceed to step 207. At step 207, the individual will enter his or her job search, including any search criteria, into the central processing computer 10 via the individual computer 20. At step 208, the central processing computer 10 will query the database of posted and/or listed jobs and generate a report or list of jobs which meet the individual's search criteria. At step 209, the central processing computer 10 will provide the individual with the report or list of available jobs either electronically and/or otherwise. The results of the search can also be provided to the individual by being displayed on the display device 20E and/or by being printed via the output device or printer 20I. Thereafter, the individual will decide whether he or she wishes to apply for any of the jobs. At step 210, the individual can transmit information to the central processing computer 10 regarding which, if any, of the reported jobs he or she wishes to apply for. At step 211, the central processing computer 10 will determine whether the individual wants to apply for any of the reported jobs. If, at step 211, it is determined that the individual does not want to apply for any of the reported jobs, the central processing computer 10 will, at step 212, record and/or store any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, up to this point, including the actions of the individual. The operation of the apparatus 100 will thereafter cease at step 213. If, at step 211, it is determined that the individual wants to apply for a reported job, the operation will proceed to step 214. At step 215, the individual data and/or information, whether specific, generic, and/or general, is transmitted to the employer and/or employer computer 30. Any data and/or information described as being transmitted between the parties, and/or between the respective computers, can be transmitted electronically, such as via e-mail, electronic message transmission, telephone call, telephone message, facsimile transmission, pager message, and/or physical mail delivery. The employer can review the data and/or information, at step 215, and transmit a response to the central processing computer 10 at step 216. At step 217, the central processing computer 10 will process the employer's response and determine if the employer is interested in pursuing discussions with the individual. If, at step 217, it is determined that the employer is not interested in pursuing the individual, the central processing computer 10 will, at step 218, record and/or store any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, including information concerning the employer, the individual, the time and date of the consideration, along with any notes made by the employer or individual, up to this point. The data and/or information stored at step 218 is stored in the database 10H for later use or reference by any individual, employer, and/or operator or administrator of the apparatus 100. Some or all of the data and/or information stored in the database 10H may thereafter be transmitted to, and/or stored in, the database(s) 20H and/or 30H of the respective individual computer(s) 20 and/or employer computer(s) 30. The operation of the apparatus 100 will thereafter cease at step 219. If, at step 217, it is determined that the employer is interested in pursuing discussions with the individual, then the central processing computer 10 will, at step 220, notify the individual by transmitting a message to the individual, and/or to the individual computer 20 associated with the individual, so notifying the individual. The individual can review the data and/or information, at step 220, and transmit a response to the central processing computer 10 at step 221. If the employer's response had included a request for additional and/or more specific data and/or information, such as, but not limited to, a resume, references, work samples, salary requirements, salary history, transcripts, and/or requests for authorization to obtain any of the above, and/or any other information of interest to the employer, the individual's response, at step 221, can include same and/or links to same. The operation of the apparatus will thereafter proceed to step 222. At step 222, the central processing computer 10 will determine whether the individual is interested in pursuing the opportunity with the employer. If at step 222, it is determined that the individual is not interested in pursing the opportunity, the central processing computer will, at step 223, record and/or store this information, along with any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, including information concerning the employer, the individual, the time and date of the consideration, along with any notes made by the employer or individual, up to this point. Thereafter, operation of the apparatus will cease at step 224. If, at step 222, it is determined that the individual is interested in pursuing the opportunity, the data and/or information in the individual's response will, at step 225, be transmitted to the employer and/or the employer computer 30 associated with the employer. The employer can review the data and/or information, at step 225, and transmit a response to the central processing computer 10 at step 226. The response can include information as to whether the employer is interested in pursuing discussions with the individual. At step 227, the central processing computer 10 will process the employer's response in order to determine if the employer is still interested in pursuing the opportunity regarding the individual. If, at step 227, it is determined that the employer is not interested in pursuing the opportunity regarding the individual, the central processing computer 10 will, at step 228, record and/or store this information, along with any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, including information concerning the employer, the individual, the time and date of the consideration, along with any notes made by the employer or individual, up to this point. Thereafter, the operation of the apparatus will cease at step 229. If, at step 227, it is determined that the employer is interested in pursing the opportunity with the individual, the central processing computer 10 will, at step 230, put the employer and the individual in contact with each other by transmitting contact information to either or both of the employer and/or the individual. The contact information may include the individual's name, address, telephone number, fax number, e-mail, and/or any other contact information for the individual, and/or the employer's name, address, person to contact, contact individual at the employer, telephone number, fax number, e-mail, and/or any other contact information for the employer. The employer and the individual may thereafter proceed with the interview, employment screening, and/or recruitment, processes. At step 231, the central processing computer 10 can monitor the interview, employment screening, and/or recruitment, processes, which take place between the employer and the individual. At step 232, the central processing computer 10 will record and/or store any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, including information concerning the employer, the individual, any information concerning whether a deal has been reached between the parties, any information concerning offers, counteroffers, rejected offers and/or rejected counteroffers, the time and date of the consideration, along with any notes made by the employer or individual, up to this point. The data and/or information stored at step 232 is stored in the database 10H for later use or reference by any individual, employer, and/or operator or administrator of the apparatus 100. Some or all of the data and/or information stored in the database 10H may thereafter be transmitted to, and/or be stored in, the database(s) 20H and/or 30H of the respective individual computer(s) 20 and/or employer computer(s) 30. The operation of the apparatus 100 will thereafter cease at step 233. The operation of the apparatus 100 may be terminated by either the individual and/or the employer at any time. In this manner, a party may terminate discussions at any time. The individual and/or the employer may also, at any time, obtain information about, and/or perform research on, the opposite party by linking to said information and/or research via the central processing computer 10 and/or via links and/or hyperlinks which can be inserted in the various e-mails and/or electronic messages which are utilized and/or transmitted in conjunction with the present invention. The information and/or research can be obtained without interrupting the processing of the central processing computer 10. In this manner, a party may obtain information and/or research about the opposite party, at any time, and without interrupting the processing of the central processing computer 10. The present invention in another preferred embodiment, can be utilized by an employer and/or hiring entity in order to search for and/or recruit individuals for jobs, employment positions, temporary assignments, projects, and/or freelance assignments, and/or for any other need. FIGS. 6A to 6E illustrate another preferred embodiment operation of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in flow diagram form. FIGS. 6A to 6E illustrate a method for using the apparatus 100, for assisting employers and/or hiring entities (hereinafter referred to as “employer”) in searching for and/or for recruiting job applicants, prospective employees, employees, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers, etc. (hereinafter referred to collectively as “individual”), to fill jobs, employment positions, contracting jobs, temporary assignments, freelance assignments, and/or other needs. The operation of the apparatus 100 commences at step 300. At step 301, the employer accesses the central processing computer 10 via the employer computer 30. The employer may, at step 302, enter data and/or information regarding its requirements and/or needs, including, but not limited to, those related to hiring needs, and/or its requirements concerning educational credentials, skills, work experience, objectives, and/or any other data and/or information pertinent to a fulfilling its needs. Step 302 may be dispensed with if this information has been entered by the employer previously. The data and/or information can be entered specifically and/or generically. If entered specifically, the employer can also enter generic data and/or information to preserve confidentiality, if desired. Data and/or information may also be entered into the central processing computer 10 by uploading and/or downloading, whichever the case may be, job descriptions and/or hiring needs and/or any other pertinent data and/or information. Data and/or information may also be obtained via a questionnaire which may be provided and/or answered on-line. Any and/or all of such data and/or information may be stored in the database 10H. The central processing computer 10 can also process the specific data and/or information in order to convert and/or separately store same as generic data and/or information. Any and all data and/or information stored at step 302, and/or previously, can be stored in the database 10H of the central processing computer 10 and/or in the databases 20H and/or 30H, respectively, of the individual computer 20 and/or the employer computer 30, as appropriate. At step 303, the employer can choose to have the search proceed with specific data and/or information and/or generic data and/or information. If, at step 304, it is determined that a search with specific data and/or information is selected, the central processing computer 10 will proceed to step 305 and proceed with the specific data and/or information. Thereafter, the operation will proceed to step 307. If, however, at step 304, it is determined that a search with specific data and/or information is not selected, the central processing computer 10 will proceed to step 306 and proceed with the generic and/or general data and/or information. Thereafter, the operation will proceed to step 307. At step 307, the employer will enter its recruitment search, including any search criteria, into the central processing computer 10 via the employer computer 30. At step 308, the central processing computer 10 will query the database of posted and/or listed individuals and generate a report or list of individuals who meet the employer's search criteria. At step 309, the central processing computer 10 will provide the employer with the report or list of available individuals either electronically and/or otherwise. The results of the search can also be provided to the employer by being displayed on the display device 30E and/or by being printed via the output device or printer 301. Thereafter, the employer will decide whether it wants to pursue any of the individuals identified in the search report. At step 310, the employer can transmit information to the central processing computer 10 regarding which, if any, of the reported individuals its wants to pursue. At step 311, the central processing computer 10 will determine whether the employer wants to pursue any of the individuals. If, at step 311, it is determined that the employer does not want to pursue any of the individuals, the central processing computer 10 will, at step 312, record and/or store any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, up to this point, including the actions of the employer. The operation of the apparatus 100 will thereafter cease at step 213. If, at step 311, it is determined that the employer wants to pursue an individual, the operation will proceed to step 314. At step 315, the employer data and/or information, whether specific, generic, and/or general, is transmitted to the individual and/or individual computer 20. Any data and/or information described as being transmitted between the parties, and/or between the respective computers, can be transmitted electronically, such as via e-mail, electronic message transmission, telephone call, telephone message, facsimile transmission, pager message, and/or physical mail delivery. The individual can review the data and/or information, at step 315, and transmit a response to the central processing computer 10 at step 316. At step 317, the central processing computer 10 will process the individual's response and determine if the individual is interested in pursuing discussions with the employer. If, at step 317, it is determined that the individual is not interested in pursuing the opportunity, the central processing computer 10 will, at step 318, record and/or store any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, including information concerning the employer, the individual, the time and date of the consideration, along with any notes made by the individual or employer, up to this point. The data and/or information stored at step 318 is stored in the database 10H for later use or reference by any individual, employer, and/or operator or administrator of the apparatus 100. Some or all of the data and/or information stored in the database 10H may thereafter be transmitted to, and/or stored in, the database(s) 20H and/or 30H of the respective individual computer(s) 20 and/or employer computer(s) 30. The operation of the apparatus 100 will thereafter cease at step 319. If, at step 317, it is determined that the individual is interested in pursuing discussions with the employer, then the central processing computer 10 will, at step 320, notify the employer by transmitting a message to the employer, and/or to the employer computer 30 associated with the employer, so notifying the employer. The employer can review the data and/or information, at step 320, and transmit a response to the central processing computer 10 at step 321. If the individual's response had included a request for additional and/or more specific data and/or information, such as, but not limited to, job description, firm resume, references, work samples, salary and benefits information, and/or requests for authorization to obtain any of the above, and/or any other information of interest to the individual, the employer's response, at step 321, can include same and/or links to same. The operation of the apparatus will thereafter proceed to step 322. At step 322, the central processing computer 10 will determine whether the employer is interested in pursuing the opportunity with the individual. If at step 322, it is determined that the employer is not interested in pursing the opportunity, the central processing computer will, at step 323, record and/or store this information, along with any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, including information concerning the employer, the individual, the time and date of the consideration, along with any notes made by the employer or individual, up to this point. Thereafter, operation of the apparatus will cease at step 324. If, at step 322, it is determined that the employer is interested in pursuing the opportunity, the data and/or information in the employer's response will, at step 325, be transmitted to the individual and/or the individual computer 20 associated with the individual. The individual can review the data and/or information, at step 325, and transmit a response to the central processing computer 10 at step 326. The response can include information as to whether the individual is interested in pursuing discussions with the employer. At step 327, the central processing computer 10 will process the individual's response in order to determine if the individual is still interested in pursuing the opportunity. If, at step 327, it is determined that the individual is not interested in pursuing the opportunity regarding the employer, the central processing computer 10 will, at step 328, record and/or store this information, along with any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, including information concerning the employer, the individual, the time and date of the consideration, along with any notes made by the employer or individual, up to this point. Thereafter, the operation of the apparatus will cease at step 329. If, at step 327, it is determined that the individual is interested in pursing the opportunity with the employer, the central processing computer 10 will, at step 330, put the individual and the employer in contact with each other by transmitting contact information to either or both of the individual and/or the employer. The contact information may include the employer's name, address, person to contact, contact individual at the employer, telephone number, fax number, e-mail, and/or any other contact information for the employer and/or the individual's name, address, telephone number, fax number, e-mail, and/or any other contact information for the individual. The employer and the individual may thereafter proceed with the interview, employment screening, and/or recruitment, processes. At step 331, the central processing computer 10 can monitor the interview, employment screening, and/or recruitment, processes, which take place between the employer and the individual. At step 332, the central processing computer 10 will record and/or store any and/or all data and/or information regarding and/or pertinent to the search and/or the corresponding results, including information concerning the employer, the individual, any information concerning whether a deal has been reached between the parties, any information concerning offers, counteroffers, rejected offers and/or rejected counteroffers, the time and date of the consideration, along with any notes made by the employer or the individual, up to this point. The data and/or information stored at step 332 is stored in the database 10H for later use or reference by any employer, individual, and/or operator or administrator of the apparatus 100. Some or all of the data and/or information stored in the database 10H may thereafter be transmitted to, and/or be stored in, the database(s) 20H and/or 30H of the respective individual computer(s) 20 and/or employer computer(s) 30. The operation of the apparatus 100 will thereafter cease at step 333. The operation of the apparatus 100 may be terminated by either the employer and/or the individual at any time. In this manner, a party may terminate discussions at any time. The employer and/or the individual may also, at any time, obtain information about, and/or perform research on, the opposite party by linking to said information and/or research via the central processing computer 10 and/or via links and/or hyperlinks which can be inserted in the various e-mails and/or electronic messages which are utilized and/or transmitted in conjunction with the present invention. The information and/or research can be obtained without interrupting the processing of the central processing computer 10. In this manner, a party may obtain information and/or research about the opposite party, at any time, and without interrupting the processing of the central processing computer 10. In another preferred embodiment, the present invention can be utilized to provide notification of job openings and/or job, contracting, freelancing, and/or temporary position, opportunities, to an individual an/or group of individuals. In this embodiment, the central processing computer 10 can be manually activated, automatically activated, and/or programmed for automatic activation, so as to perform searches of, and for, job openings and/or job, contracting, freelancing, and/or temporary position, opportunities, and provide an individual and/or group of individuals with notification of the availability of same. FIG. 7 illustrates another preferred embodiment operation of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in flow diagram form. In the embodiment of FIG. 7, the apparatus and method of the present invention is utilized so as to provide notification of job openings and/or job opportunities to an individual and/or a group of individuals. In this manner, the present invention can be utilized to inform an individual or individuals of job openings which may be of interest to him, her, or them, as the jobs or positions are posted and/or listed with the apparatus 100 by an employer and/or hiring entity. In the embodiment of FIG. 7, an individual who desires to be notified of any of the herein described job openings, positions, assignments, contracts and/or projects, can list and/or provide their data and/or information, i.e., resume, educational qualifications, work experience, skills, references, work samples, and/or any other pertinent information, along with the type of job, work, project, and/or assignment, which they seek, with the apparatus 100 and, in particular, with the central processing computer 10, such as via the individual computer 20. Thereafter, the individual's data and/or information can be stored in the database 10H. Individuals posting or listing with the apparatus 100 may be subscribers, non-subscribers, and/or one-time and/or occasional or sporadic users of the apparatus 100. The individual can also include information regarding the “searching event”, the occurrence of which will trigger the central processing computer 10 to perform a job search for the individual and notify him or her of the results. The “searching event” can be pre-defined and/or be pre-specified as a date, a time, a time interval(s), a time period(s), events and/or occurrences. The “searching event” can be requested by an individual, individuals, an employer, employers, a hiring entity or entities, and/or a recruiter, and may be defined as the occurrence of a new job posting by an employer and/or employers, upon the posting of new and/or revised data and/or information from an individual and/or group of individuals, upon a news release of certain business events, employment-related events, economic reports, industry-specific news, and/or any other event which may create an interest on behalf of an employer to fill a position, and/or for an individual to seek a position, and/or upon the occurrence of any recruitment initiating event, the happening of which will activate the central processing computer 10. The central processing computer 10 will thereafter proceed to perform a job search of employers and/or jobs in order to identify jobs or opportunities which may be of interest to, and/or which may be a possible match for, the individual. The individual can also provide information such as a telephone number(s), a facsimile number(s), a pager number(s), an electronic mail (e-mail) address or e-mail addresses, and/or any other information which will facilitate a communication from the central processing computer 10 to the individual and/or the individual computer 20 associated with the individual. In this manner, the central processing computer 10 can communicate job openings and/or other opportunities which may be requested and/or which may be of interest to the individual. An employer can also provide similar, and/or analogous information to the central processing computer 10. Any and/or all of the data and/or information described herein as being provided by an individual, an employer, and/or a recruiter, can be stored in the database 10H. In the embodiment of FIG. 7, the apparatus 100 can be programmed so as to trigger the central processing computer 10 to perform a job search for an individual and, in this manner, any programmed job search activity and/or recruitment activity will commence upon the occurrence of the “searching event”. The operation of the apparatus 100 commences at step 400. At step 401, the searching event will occur thereby activating the central processing computer 10. Thereafter, at step 402, the central processing computer 10 will query the database 10H in order to perform a job search for the individual. The central processing computer 10 will thereafter, at step 403, generate a list or report of available jobs and/or employers which may meet the individual's criteria, which may be of interest to the individual, and/or which may be a possible match for the individual. At step 404, the list or report of jobs will be transmitted to the individual and/or to the individual computer 20 associated with the individual. The list or report can be transmitted electronically, such as via e-mail, electronic message transmission, telephone call, telephone message, facsimile transmission, pager message, and/or physical mail delivery. At step 405, the job search process between the individual and the employer will then proceed in the manner described in steps 210 through 233 of FIG. 5, the description of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. Thereafter, the operation of the apparatus 100 will cease at step 406. In another preferred embodiment, the present invention can be utilized to provide notification of individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, and/or temporary workers, who are available for job openings, projects, freelance assignments, and/or temporary assignments, to an employer and/or hiring entity and/or to a group of employers and/or hiring entities. In this embodiment, the central processing computer 10 can be manually activated, automatically activated, and/or programmed for automatic activation, so as to perform searches of, and for, individuals who may be candidates to fill the job openings and/or the requirements of the employers and/or hiring entities and provide an employer and/or group of employers with notification of the availability of these individuals. FIG. 8 illustrates another preferred embodiment operation of the apparatus of FIG. 1, in flow diagram form. In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the apparatus and method of the present invention is utilized so as to provide notification of individuals, who are available for applying for, and/or for interviewing for, job, job opportunities, and/or employer needs, to an employer and/or a group of employers. In this manner, the present invention can be utilized to inform an employer or employers of individuals whom may be candidates for, may be recruiting prospects for, and/or who may be interested in being notified about, any of the employer's jobs, job opportunities, and/or needs, which are posted and/or listed with the apparatus 100 by the employer or a representative. In the embodiment of FIG. 8, an employer who desires to be notified of an individual or individuals, who may be qualified and/or interested in filling a job or position, can list and/or provide data and/or information, regarding the job openings, project openings, freelance assignments, and/or temporary assignments, including descriptions thereof, as well as the credentials required for filling and/or for being offered the respective job opening, project opening, freelance assignment, and/or temporary assignment, with the central processing computer 10. The employer can also list and/or provide data and/or information about itself, a firm resume, salary structure, benefits packages, firm qualifications, firm references, work samples, and/or any other pertinent information, with the central processing computer 10, such as via the employer computer 30. Thereafter, the employer's data and/or information can be stored in the database 10H. Employers posting or listing jobs with the apparatus 100 may be subscribers, non-subscribers, and/or one-time and/or occasional or sporadic users of the apparatus 100. The employer can also include information regarding the “searching event”, the occurrence of which will trigger the central processing computer 10 to perform a recruitment search for the employer and notify the employer of the results. The “searching event” can be pre-defined and/or be pre-specified as a date, a time, a time interval(s), a time period(s), events and/or occurrences. The “searching event” can be requested by an employer, employers, a hiring entity or entities, an individual, individuals, and/or a recruiter, and may be defined as the occurrence of a new job posting by an employer and/or employers, upon the posting of new and/or revised data and/or information from an individual and/or group of individuals, upon a news release of certain business events, employment-related events, economic reports, industry-specific news, and/or any other event which may create an interest on behalf of an employer to fill a position, and/or for an individual to seek a position, and/or upon the occurrence of any recruitment initiating event, the happening of which will activate the central processing computer 10. The central processing computer 10 will thereafter proceed to perform a recruitment search of individuals in order to identify individuals whom may be interested in, and/or whom may be a possible match for, the employer. The employer can also provide information such as a telephone number(s), a facsimile number(s), a pager number(s), an electronic mail (e-mail) address or e-mail addresses, and/or any other information which will facilitate a communication from the central processing computer 10 to the employer and/or the employer computer 30 associated with the employer. In this manner, the central processing computer 10 can communicate information regarding an individual and/or individuals whom may be of interest to the employer. An individual can also provide similar, and/or analogous information to the central processing computer 10. Any and/or all of the data and/or information described herein as being provided by an employer, an individual, and/or a recruiter, can be stored in the database 10H. In the embodiment of FIG. 8, the apparatus 100 can be programmed so as to trigger the central processing computer 10 to perform a recruitment search for an employer and, in this manner, any programmed recruitment search activity and/or recruitment activity will commence upon the occurrence of the “searching event”. The operation of the apparatus 100 commences at step 500. At step 501, the searching event will occur thereby activating the central processing computer 10. Thereafter, at step 502, the central processing computer 10 will query the database 10H in order to perform a recruitment search for the employer. The central processing computer 10 will thereafter, at step 503, generate a list or report of available individuals whom may meet the employer's criteria, which may be of interest to the employer, and/or which may be a possible match for the employer. At step 504, the list or report of individuals will be transmitted to the employer and/or to the employer computer 30 associated with the employer. The list or report can be transmitted electronically, such as via e-mail, electronic message transmission, telephone call, telephone message, facsimile transmission, pager message, and/or physical mail delivery. At step 505, the recruitment search process between the employer and the individual will then proceed in the manner described in steps 310 through 333 of FIGS. 6A to 6E, the description of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein. Thereafter, the operation of the apparatus 100 will cease at step 506. In any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, any electronic messages, such as e-mails, electronic message transmissions, pager messages, telephone calls or messages, facsimile transmissions, etc., described herein, can be generated and/or transmitted to any of the respective parties, in real-time, thereby providing real-time message transmission and/or notification services. In any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, any electronic messages, such as e-mails, electronic message transmissions, pager messages, telephone calls or messages, facsimile transmissions, etc., which are generated by the central processing computer 10, by the individual computer 20, and/or by the employer computer 30, may contain appropriate hyperlinks, and/or forwarding information, to the party sending the electronic message and/or e-mail, to a third party, to other information, and/or to another information source. In this manner, for example, an e-mail message, transmitted from and/or on behalf of an employer to an individual, can contain a hyperlink(s) to the employer's web site or web page. The hyperlink(s) to the employer's web site or web page can provide the individual with a link to, and/or access to, information about the employer, links to a video presentation about the employer, the employer's departments, and/or any other information, video and/or photographs of the employer's facilities, information regarding certain employees, job descriptions, benefits, financial and operational data and/or information, salary information, travel-related service entities or travel agents for arranging travel to the employer for interview and/or other purposes, links to information sources regarding the locale and/or area where the employer is located, etc., and/or any other information which may be of interest to a job applicant and/or prospective employee. Similarly, any electronic message and/or e-mail transmitted from and/or on the behalf of the individual can contain hyperlinks to additional data and/or information which may be of interest to the employer. This information may include the individual's resume, supplemental resume, supplemental information, references, letters of recommendation, links to the colleges, universities, and/or schools attended, links to pre-authorized letters/forms requesting transcripts from any schools attended, links to the registrar's office of the individual's schools, links to past employers, links to work samples, links to video presentations and/or a video clip of the individual and/or a photograph of the individual, and/or links to any other information which may be useful and/or desirable in the recruiting process. In another preferred embodiment, including in any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, the present invention can be utilized in order to allow employers and/or hiring entities to bid for the services of individuals, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers. In a similar and/or analogous manner, an individual, independent contractor, temporary worker, and/or freelancer, may offer and/or auction his, her, or its, services to employers and/or hiring entities. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/120,883 which teaches an apparatus and method for effectuating commerce in a network environment. Applicant also hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/498,143 which teaches an apparatus and method for effectuating commerce in a network environment. In this manner, bidding and auctioning activities, related to job search activities, recruitment activities, and/or recruitment-related activities, can be utilized in order to fill and/or to obtain any job, employment position, project, and/or assignment, described herein. When utilized to perform bidding and/or auctioning activities, the respective employer or individual can direct their respective bidding activity or activities and/or auctioning activity or activities to any single, group of, and/or combination of any, party, parities, individual, individuals, employer, employers, and/or hiring entity or hiring entities. The bidding and/or auctioning activities can be directed to a party, parities, individual, individuals, employer, employers, and/or hiring entity or hiring entities, which may be specified by the respective initiating party and/or which may be obtained via any of the various search routines, described herein. Any and/or all respective bidding activities and/or auctioning activities can be effected via e-mail messages, electronic message transmissions, pager messages, facsimile messages, telephone calls or messages, physical mail delivery, and/or via any other method, means and/or mode of communication. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of U.S. Pat. No. 5,862,223 which teaches a method and apparatus for a cryptographically-assisted commercial network system designed to facilitate and support expert-based commerce; the subject matter of U.S. Pat. No. 5,797,127 which teaches a method, apparatus, and program for pricing, selling, and exercising options to purchase airline tickets; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,794,207 which teaches a method and apparatus for a cryptographically assisted commercial network system designed to facilitate buyer-driven conditional purchase offers. Applicant also hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of U.S. Pat. No. 5,884,272 which teaches a method and system for establishing and maintaining user-controlled anonymous communications; U.S. Pat. No. 5,884,270 which teaches a method and system for facilitating an employment search incorporating user-controlled anonymous communications; U.S. Pat. No. 5,832,497 which teaches an electronic automated information exchange and management system; U.S. Pat. No. 5,758,324 which teaches a resume storage and retrieval system; U.S. Pat. No. 5,696,702 which teaches a time and work tracker; U.S. Pat. No. 5,416,694 which teaches a computer-based data integration and management process for workforce planning and occupational readjustment; and U.S. Pat. No. 5,164,897 which teaches an automated method for selecting personnel matched job criteria. In another preferred embodiment, including in any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, the present invention can be utilized for providing scheduling services for, and/or on behalf of, any of the individuals and/or employers described herein. In this embodiment, the present invention can maintain work schedules, and/or scheduling data and/or information, of and for individuals, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers. The present invention can also maintain the work schedules, and/or scheduling data and/or information, of and for employers and/or hiring entities, including dates and/or times when the employer and/or hiring entity will, or may, be in need of help or assistance which can be provided by any of the individuals, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers described herein. The above-described schedules, and/or scheduling data and/or information, can be stored in the database 10H of the central processing computer 10. The schedules, and/or scheduling data and/or information, can also be stored and/or provided at any of the respective individual computers 20 and/or employer computers 30 described herein, and/or may be stored in any of the respective databases 20H and/or 30H. An employer may utilize the schedules and/or scheduling data and/or information in order to reserve, engage, and/or request, the services of an individual. An employer can access the central processing computer 10 and access data and/or information concerning the work schedules of a certain individual and/or the work schedules of any number of individuals. The individual or individuals may be identified via a recruitment search as described herein and/or may be an individual and/or individuals already known by the employer and/or recommended to the employer. The employer may review the schedules and/or scheduling data and/or information until it identifies an individual and/or individuals who is or are acceptable and available for the dates and/or times, as well as places, needed by the employer. Once the employer locates an individual and/or individuals, the employer can reserve, engage, and/or request, the services of the individual or individuals by transmitting an appropriate message from the employer computer 30 to the central processing computer 10. The message can include the amount which the employer is willing to pay for the individual's services. Thereafter, the central processing computer 10 will transmit a message to the individual computer(s) 20 associated with the individual or individuals, and/or otherwise notify the individual or individual. The individual or individuals may receive the message in real-time and/or otherwise. The individual or individuals may thereafter confirm the reservation, agree to the engagement, and/or reply to the request, respectively, via transmitting a message from the individual computer 20 to the central processing computer 10. Thereafter, the central processing computer 10 will transmit a message to the employer computer 30 of the employer, thereby notifying the employer of the confirmed reservation, the confirmed agreement to the engagement, and/or the reply, respectively. Thereafter, the employer and the individual or individuals can be put into contact with one another and/or contact one another as they see fit. In another embodiment, the central processing computer 10 can be programmed to confirm a reservation, agree to an engagement, and/or issue a reply, respectively, for, or on behalf, of an individual or individuals. In another preferred embodiment, the central processing computer 10 can be programmed to provide an employer with conditions under which the individual and/or individuals will agree to a reservation, an engagement, and/or a request. One of these conditions can include payment in advance, a down payment, and/or an option payment, for the services of the individual or individuals. In this embodiment, the central processing computer 10 can administer and/or maintain a financial account for, or on behalf of any of, the individuals and/or employers described herein. The financial accounts may be bank accounts, electronic money accounts, credit accounts, debit account, and/or any other accounts for facilitating financial transactions. The central processing computer 10 can make a payment and/or transfer, on behalf of an employer, from the employer's account, to an individual's account or to accounts of individuals, thereby receiving payment for, or on behalf of, the individual or individuals, whichever the case may be. As noted above, the employer may also secure and/or reserve the services of an individual, by purchasing an option from the individual, or person or entity representing the individual, for the respective individual's services, with the price of said option being determined by using conventional financial options pricing models and/or methods. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of Options, Futures, and Other Derivatives, Third Edition, by John C. Hull, Prentice Hall, 1997. An individual may utilize the schedules and/or scheduling data and/or information in order to offer services to an employer. An individual can access the central processing computer 10 and access data and/or information concerning the work schedules or needs of an employer or any number of employers. The employer or employers may be identified via a job search as described herein and/or may be an employer and/or employers already known by the individual and/or recommended to the individual. The individual may review the schedules and/or scheduling data and/or information, until it identifies an employer and/or employers may be in need of the individual's services. Once the individual locates an employer and/or employers, the individual can offer the individual's services to the employer or employers by transmitting an appropriate message from the individual computer 20 to the central processing computer 10. The message or offer can include the individual's fee or the amount of charge for the services. Thereafter, the central processing computer 10 will transmit a message to the employer computer(s) 30 associated with the employer or employers, and/or otherwise notify the employer or employers. The employer or employers may receive the message in real-time and/or otherwise. The employer or employers may thereafter accept or reject the offer via transmitting a message from the employer computer 30 to the central processing computer 10. Thereafter, the central processing computer 10 will transmit a message to the individual computer 20 of the individual, thereby notifying the individual of the acceptance or rejection of its offer. Thereafter, the individual and the employer or employers can be put into contact with one another and/or contact one another as they see fit. In another embodiment, the central processing computer 10 can be programmed to accept or reject, an offer to provide services, for, or on behalf, of an employer or employers. In another preferred embodiment, the central processing computer 10 can be programmed to provide an individual with conditions under which the employer and/or employers will accept an offer. One of these conditions can be that a bond or guarantee must be posted for guaranteeing that the services will be performed as agreed upon. In this embodiment, the central processing computer 10 can administer and/or maintain a financial account for, or on behalf of any of, the individuals and/or employers described herein. The financial accounts may be bank accounts, electronic money accounts, credit accounts, debit account, and/or any other accounts for facilitating financial transactions. The central processing computer 10 can make a payment and/or transfer, on behalf of an individual, from the individual's account, to an employer's account or to accounts of employers, thereby receiving payment for, or on behalf of, the employer or employers, whichever the case may be. The individual may also secure a job, position, project, and/or assignment, by purchasing an option for same from the employer, or a representative of the employer, with the price of said option being determined by using conventional financial options pricing models and/or methods. In another preferred embodiment, as well as in any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, the present invention can generate electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons for use by employers, to publicize and/or to advertise jobs, employment positions, projects and/or assignments, which they wish to fill, and/or by individuals, employment agencies and/or their agents and/or representatives, to publicize and/or to advertise their services, and/or the services of those who they represent, as well as their respective availability and/or desire to perform and/or to fill and/or assume a job, employment position, project and/or assignment. In this manner, an employer can generate and/or distribute electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons, thereby publicizing and/or advertising any jobs, positions, projects and/or assignments, and electronically distribute same to individuals and/or employment agencies who or which can be identified by querying the database 10H and/or by utilizing any other appropriate search method and/or criteria. Individuals, and/or their representative(s), and/or employment agencies, may generate and/or distribute electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons in order to publicize and/or to advertise the individual's credentials, services, availability, and/or desire, to fill or assume a job, position, project, and/or assignment, to employers and/or hiring entities. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter and teachings of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/137,689 which teaches an apparatus and method for providing an electronic catalog and/or an electronic coupon. Applicant also hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter and teachings of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/579,358 which teaches an apparatus and method for providing an electronic catalog and/or an electronic coupon. Any and/or all of the electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons described herein can be generated and/or transmitted as e-mail messages and/or electronic message transmissions and can include text information, resume information, video information and/or audio information. Any and/or all of the electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons described herein can be generated automatically by the central processing computer 10 and/or by any individual computers 20 and/or employer computers 30. Any of the central processing computer 10, the individual computer(s) 20 and/or the employer computer(s) 30 can be programmed to generate and/or to transmit any of the e-mails, electronic message transmissions, electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons described herein. In another preferred embodiment, the apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized for performing and/or for facilitating the provision of recruitment services for schools, colleges, universities, and/or any organizations of any kind. In this embodiment, information in the form of text messages, video messages, audio messages, video clips, audio clips, infomercials, electronic catalogs, e-mail messages, etc., for publicizing and/or for promoting any of the herein-described schools, colleges, universities, and/or any organizations of any kind, can be stored at the central processing computer 10 and can be provided to any individuals who or which utilizes the apparatus and method of the present invention. The apparatus and method of the present invention can also provide and/or facilitate the provision of any of the herein-described recruiting and/or recruitment services for attracting individuals to, and/or recruiting individuals for, any of the respective schools, colleges, universities, and/or any organizations of any kind. Any and/or all of the e-mails, electronic message transmissions, electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons, described herein, can be generated, transmitted and/or distributed, in response to a posting of a new job, a new employment position, a new project, and/or a new assignment, a listing and/or a posting of an individual(s), changes to the employment status, resume, skills, educational status, etc., of an individual(s), the occurrence of an event concerning the economy, the work needs of individuals, the needs of employers and/or hiring entities, and/or at specific times, at specified time intervals, and/or upon the occurrence of any event and/or occurrence which can be the basis for initiating a job search and/or a recruitment search. In another preferred embodiment, as well as in any of the embodiments described herein, intelligent agents, software agents, mobile agents, and/or related technologies, can be utilized in conjunction with the present invention. The respective intelligent agent(s), software agent(s), mobile agent(s), (hereinafter referred to collectively as “intelligent agent” or “intelligent agents”) can be programmed and/or designed to act on behalf of a respective individual, employer and/or hiring entity, so as to perform any of the job searches, recruitment searches, and/or any of the other activities and/or functions described herein. The intelligent agent can act on behalf of the individual, employer and/or hiring entity, in various related interactions, negotiations, and/or other activities which are described as being performed herein and/or which may be incidental and/or related thereto. An individual can utilize an intelligent agent(s) in order to find, identify, and/or locate a job, position, project and/or assignment. In a similar and/or an analogous manner, the employer and/or hiring entity can utilize an intelligent agent(s) in order to find and/or locate individuals to fill a job, position, project and/or assignment. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of the Agent Sourcebook, A Complete Guide to Desktop, Internet and Intranet Agents, by Alper Caglayan and Colin Harrison, Wiley Computer Publishing, 1997. Applicant also incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of Cool Intelligent Agents For The Net, by Leslie L. Lesnick with Ralph E. Moore, IDG Books Worldwide, Inc. 1997. In any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, the present invention can provide links and/or hyperlinks, on-line, on-screen, in e-mail messages and/or in electronic message transmissions, and/or otherwise, to any and/or all products and/or services related to job searching and/or recruiting. For example, the present invention can provide links to information regarding the location of an employer, links to a travel agent, links to transportation companies, rental car companies, hotels and other lodging establishments, as well as links to resume services, employment agencies, recruiters, temporary agencies, etc. The present invention can also provide links to attorneys, banks, financial institutions, insurance companies, bonding companies, etc., and/or other individuals and/or entities, the services of whom or which may be needed and/or may be recommended when hiring an individual, an independent contractor, a temporary worker, and/or a freelancer, and/or when accepting and/or assuming responsibility, respectively, for a job, a position, a project and/or an assignment. The present invention can also provide for the automatic notification of job openings, position openings, projects, and/or assignments, the availability of individuals, job applicants, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, and/or the availability of goods and/or service providers, to any of the respective parties described herein who may utilize the present invention. In another preferred embodiment, as well as in any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, the present invention can provide an individual, employer and/or hiring entity, with data and/or information concerning attrition rates at individual employers and/or hiring entities, as well as salary information, including salary surveys for particular jobs, professions, etc., including salary, benefits, and/or other compensation, data and/or information for various experience levels, skill levels, skills and abilities, educational credentials, and/or other data and/or information which may be utilized by the individuals, employers and/or employer entities, and/or recruiters, described herein. The above-described data and/or information can be provided by job or profession type, by market sector, by type of employer, and/or by location and/or geographic region. For example, an individual may utilize the data and/or information provided by the present invention in order to determine what compensation the market will bear for his or her credentials and/or skill levels. An employer can also utilize this information in order to be competitive in its recruitment efforts and/or for otherwise attracting talented individuals. The present invention can also provide an individual, an employer and/or hiring entity, and/or a recruiter, with data and/or information regarding the latest developments and/or current developments in the employment and/or recruiting fields, including, but not limited to, growth areas, demand information for certain jobs and/or professions, etc. For example, an individual can utilize this information in order to determine whether retraining is needed in order to attain a certain position and/or to ascertain the latest growth areas for certain jobs, careers and/or professions. An employer can utilize this information in order to determine the state of the job market and utilize the information as it sees fit. The present invention can also be utilized in order to provide notification to any of the individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, described herein, that information is being, and/or has been, requested about them. The present invention can also provide the identity of the requesting party to the respective individual, employer and/or hiring entity. For example, an individual can be notified that company A has requested information about him or her. Similarly, an employer can be notified that an individual and/or a certain individual has requested information about it. The present invention may also maintain any and/or all information requests as confidential, if so requested. In this embodiment, any and/or all of the data and/or information described herein, may be provided, requested, and/or accessed, by any of the respective parties. Any such notification embodiments can also provide for the blockage of any such notification by a requesting party. Also, any and/or all information utilized and/or provided in any such notification embodiments can also be provided as group information, generic information, and/or as information representative of a group, or a trend. In any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, the present invention can also provide data and/or information, which may be transmitted and/or provided to any of the respective individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, to any number of, or groups of, third party or other individuals, employers, and/or hiring entities. The present invention can be utilized by any individual, employer and/or hiring entity. The present invention can also be utilized by a recruiter, a recruiting entity, a headhunter, an agent, an employment agency, etc., in representing an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer. For example, a recruiter can utilize the present invention in order to assist others in finding jobs, positions, projects and/or assignments, and/or to assist employers and/or hiring entities to find individuals to fill jobs, positions, projects and/or assignments. The present invention can also be utilized in order to prevent certain individuals and/or entities, employers and/or hiring entities, from accessing the data and/or information about any other individual, entity, employer, and/or hiring entity. For example, an individual can prevent access, to his or her data and/or information, by a present employer, a past employer, and/or any other individual, entity, employer and/or hiring entity identified by the individual, specifically, generically, and/or generally. In this manner, an individual can prevent a present employer and/or any other individual, entity, employer and/or hiring entity, from learning about his or her job search and/or availability. Similarly, an employer and/or hiring entity can prevent certain individuals, entities, employers, and/or hiring entities, from learning of its recruitment efforts and/or human resource and/or employment needs. Access restrictions to any data and/or information can be effected by utilizing any data and/or information security and/or access prevention methods, technologies and/or techniques, known by those skilled in the pertinent arts. In any and/or all of the herein-described embodiments, the operation of the present invention may be triggered by any type of pre-specified event and/or occurrence which may include a new individual listing, a new employer and/or hiring entity listing, a departure of an individual from the employ of another, the completion of a job, project and/or assignment, changes in an economic factor(s), changes in a market factor(s), an increase in an unemployment rate, the unemployment of an individual, a detected need for jobs of a certain skill, and/or any other event, situation, and/or occurrence which may be pertinent and/or related to job searching efforts and/or recruitment efforts. The apparatus of the present invention, in any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, can also be programmed to be self-activating and/or activated automatically. The apparatus of the present invention can also be programmed in order to automatically generate and/or transmit any of the e-mails, electronic message transmissions, electronic notification transmissions, and/or any of the communications, which are described herein, between any of the parties which utilize the present invention. In another preferred embodiment, as well as in any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, the present invention can be utilized in order to monitor, record, and/or keep track of, any offers and/or rejections of offers, involving any jobs, employment positions, projects and/or assignments, which occur in conjunction with and/or via use of the present invention. The information which is obtained can thereafter be provided to individuals, employers, and/or recruiters, for utilization in any appropriate and/or suitable manner. In any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, any individual and/or employer data and/or information can be stored with various and/or varying levels of specificity and/or confidentiality. In this manner, any of the data and/or information described herein, can be filtered, can be released at varying times, depending upon the interest and/or comfort levels of the parties, and/or can be maintained as confidential. In this manner, the respective parties can maintain confidentiality and/or can exercise control over the nature and amount of data and/or information which can be released about themselves. The apparatus and/or method of the present invention can be utilized as an electronic and/or network-based job searching and/or recruitment searching apparatus and/or clearinghouse. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/132,301 which teaches an apparatus and method for monitoring an advertisement and/or an advertisement location. In any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, any interactions, negotiations, and/or deals reached, between any of the parties, can be monitored and/or be recorded by the central processing computer 10 and be stored in the database 10H. In this regard, any interviews, interactions, communications, actions and responses thereto, offers, counter-offers, acceptances and/or rejections, can be recorded and/or be stored and utilized in any manner consistent with the operation and/or use of the present invention as described herein. The present invention, in any and/or all of the herein-described embodiments, can utilize electronic commerce technologies and security methods, techniques and technologies, as described and as set forth in Electronic Commerce Technical, Business, and Legal Issues, Nabil R. Adam, et al. Prentice Hall, 1999 and Web Security & Commerce, Simson Garfinkel with Gene Spafford, O'Reilly 1997, the subject matter of which are hereby incorporated by reference herein. The communications networks and/or systems on, or over, which the present invention may be utilized, can include any one or combination of telecommunication networks or systems, satellite communication networks or systems, radio communication networks or systems, digital communication networks or systems, digital satellite communication networks or systems, personal communications services networks or systems, cable television networks or systems, broadband communication networks or systems, low earth orbiting satellite (LEOs) networks or systems, as well as in, or on any internets and/or intranets, the Internet, the World Wide Web, and any other suitable communication network or system. Any and/or all of the data and/or information described herein can be compiled and processed using statistical calculations in order to update the stored data and/or information with such data and/or information being made available to the respective individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, who or which utilize the present invention. Any and/or all of the data and/or information described herein, which is stored in the database 10H, or in the collection of databases, can be linked via relational database techniques and/or via any appropriate database management techniques. The data and/or information, in the preferred embodiments, can be updated via inputs from the respective individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, and/or administrator or operator of the apparatus 100 and/or the central processing computer 10. The above-described updates can also be provided from other information sources via the communication network. The data and/or information stored in the database 10H, or in the collection of databases, and/or any other databases utilized in conjunction with the present invention, can be updated by each of the respective individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, and/or administrator or operator of the apparatus 100 or the central processing computer 10, in real-time, and/or via dynamically linked database management techniques. The data and/or information which is stored in the database 10H and/or which may be otherwise utilized with, and/or in conjunction with, the apparatus and method of the present invention, can be linked via any suitable data linking techniques such as, for example, dynamically linked lists (DLLs), linked lists, and object links embedded (OLE's). Any suitable database management technique(s) may also be utilized in conjunction with the present invention. The present invention can be utilized in conjunction with job searches, recruitment searches, and/or related activities, for any kind of job, service, vocation, profession, employment position, independent contractor project, project, freelance assignment, assignment, and/or any other kind or variety of work or services, permanent and/or temporary, and/or regardless of duration and/or type. The present invention provides an apparatus and a method for providing automated job searching services, recruitment services, and/or employment agent and/or agency services, in a network environment, while reducing the time, expense and effort needed in performing these services. The present invention can also be utilized in conjunction with electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons in order to provide electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons containing information regarding any of the job search applicants, prospective employees, independent contractors, employers, assignments, available jobs or positions, contract positions, contracting assignments, employment agency services, and/or other individuals and/or entities described herein, so as to advertise the availability or existence of the respective individuals and/or entities. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter and teachings of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/137,689 entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING AN ELECTRONIC CATALOG AND/OR AN ELECTRONIC COUPON”. Applicant hereby incorporates by reference herein the subject matter and teachings of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/579,358 entitled “APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING AN ELECTRONIC CATALOG AND/OR AN ELECTRONIC COUPON”. The present invention can be utilized in conjunction with any job, assignment, position, employment position, service, contracting assignment, and/or any independent contracting position and/or freelance position, which can be the subject of commerce. The present invention can be utilized, in any and/or all of the embodiments described herein, in conjunction with the buying, selling, bartering and/or trading, of services between the various parties, individuals, employers, and/or hiring entities described herein. The present invention can be utilized in order to reduce recruiting efforts, costs and fees, such as headhunter fees, agency fees, broker fees, and/or representative fees, and can eliminate the inefficiencies which may result from dealing with intermediaries in job search efforts and/or recruitment efforts. The present invention also provides an apparatus and a method for providing enhanced confidentiality during job search activities, assignment search activities, recruitment activities, and/or related activities, interactions, negotiations and/or other dealings, between the respective parties involved. While the present invention has been described and illustrated in various preferred and alternate embodiments, such descriptions are merely illustrative of the present invention and are not to be construed to be limitations thereof. In this regard, the present invention encompasses all modifications, variations and/or alternate embodiments, with the scope of the present invention being limited only by the claims which follow. | <SOH> BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, can expend great efforts and a great deal of time in job searching efforts. Individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, typically place a great deal of importance on their job searching efforts, on efforts directed to securing employment, both permanently and/or temporarily as a temporary employee and/or “contract” employee, and/or on efforts directed to obtaining and/or securing projects and/or assignments. Employers and/or hiring entities require that they have a satisfactory workforce in order to meet the demands of doing business. In this regard, employers and/or hiring entities very often need to find and/or recruit new employees, replace former employees, find employees with new skills to meet their business needs, and/or obtain the services of temporary workers, independent contractors, and/or freelancers. Growing businesses and markets have been created by the need for individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers to find and/or to secure jobs, employment, projects and/or assignments, and by the need of employers and/or hiring entities to recruit and hire new employees, independent contractors, and/or freelancers. These businesses and markets include employment agencies, recruiters, so-called “headhunters”, employment and/or career consultants, temporary employment agencies, personal agents, personal managers, and/or other intermediaries, who or which, respectively, bring the respective parties together and/or assist them in obtaining introductions, establishing a dialog between parties, reaching agreement on, and/or establishing an employment, an independent contractor, and/or a freelance relationship. Job searching activities and recruitment activities typically require efforts in introducing parties to one another, pre-screening the parties prior to, and/or subsequent to, an introduction, acting as an information gathering entity for a party, exchanging information in order to determine if a relationship is appropriate and/or desirable, negotiating a deal, and/or consummating a deal between the respective parties. While individuals and/or employers and/or hiring entities can act on their own behalf during most of the process, one of the parties may typically enlist the efforts of an employment agency or agencies, a recruiter(s), a so-called “headhunter(s)”, an employment and/or career consultant(s), a temporary employment agency or agencies, a personal agent(s), a personal manager(s), and/or another intermediary or intermediaries, sometimes at great expense. The enlistment of employment agencies, recruiters, so-called “headhunters”, employment and/or career consultants, temporary employment agencies, personal agents, personal managers, and/or other intermediaries, can be costly and can lead to job search efforts and/or recruitment efforts which may be limited in breadth and/or scope by the personal and/or individual contacts, limitations and/or constraints associated with the employment agency, recruiter, so-called “headhunter”, employment and/or career consultant, temporary employment agency, personal agent, personal manager, and/or other intermediary. In this regard, job search efforts and/or recruitment efforts may be limited, thereby depriving an individual and/or an employer and/or hiring entity of being introduced to the best possible candidates. In some instances, an employer and/or hiring entity may forgo access to certain candidates simply because they cannot and/or refuse to enlist the efforts of a recruiter and/or other intermediary. Job searching efforts and recruitment efforts may be limited by and/or be constrained by limited personal contacts, geographical constraints, monetary constraints, and/or time constraints. Oftentimes, individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, do not have the resources to conduct their own respective job searching efforts or recruitment efforts. The enlistment of employment agencies, recruiters, so-called “headhunters”, employment and/or career consultants, temporary employment agencies, personal agents, personal managers, and/or other intermediaries, may not be sufficient to overcome these limitations and/or constraints, particularly, if the respective employment agency or agencies, recruiter(s), so-called “headhunter(s)”, employment and/or career consultant(s), temporary employment agency or agencies, personal agent(s), personal manager(s) and/or other intermediary or intermediaries, are working with similar limitations and/or constraints. The job search process and/or the recruitment process can typically be rendered more difficult in instances when additional information may be requested by one or by both of the parties concerning a counterpart. This typically results in time delays and/or additional expense to the party having to comply with such a request. Job searching efforts and/or recruitment efforts may further be rendered more difficult when the parties are not properly pre-screened, thereby resulting in wasted time and effort, and/or when the parties are not properly informed as to the needs and/or demands of a counterpart. The needs and/or demands can include job description, job needs, project description, assignment description, salary, compensation, and/or other related information. The failure to pre-screen the parties and/or to conduct a dialog and/or initiate interviews and/or discussions when the parties may be so far apart regarding their respective needs, requests and/or expectations, for example, those involving job duties and/or salary, can result in wasted time and effort. Confidentiality is typically another concern in job searching activities and/or in recruitment activities. Individuals, employees, and/or hiring entities may have an interest in, and/or a desire for, maintaining confidentiality during at least some initial stages of any job search and/or recruitment effort. In some instances, once an initial interest is expressed, any confidentiality which may have existed may be lost for the remainder of the process. Sometimes, it may be desirable for an individual, an employer and/or hiring entity, to retain at least some level of confidentiality and/or anonymity further into the job search and/or recruitment process. In this manner, at least some confidentiality and/or anonymity can be preserved, especially if a deal between the parties is not ultimately reached. Job searching activities and/or recruitment activities may be far too widespread and may be far too important to be limited by the above-described limitations and/or constraints. Individuals, employers and/or hiring entities would be better served by a system which overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>The apparatus and method of the present invention overcomes the shortcomings of the prior art and provides an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services. The present invention utilizes the technologies and advances in information technology and in communication technology in order to provide these services in a network environment. The present invention is directed to an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, for the respective individuals, employees, independent contractors, freelancers, employers and/or hiring entities, described herein in a network environment. The present invention also provides a centralized apparatus, which can also serve as a clearinghouse, which provides job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, as well as any of the services and/or activities described herein. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized by individuals, independent contractors, freelancers, and/or other entities, desirous of securing a job, a position, a project, an assignment, and/or an employment relationship, either permanent and/or temporary, with an employer and/or a hiring entity. The apparatus and method of the present invention can also be utilized by employers and/or by other hiring entities desirous of securing the services of an individual, an employee, an independent contractor, and/or freelancer, either permanently and/or temporarily. The present invention can also be utilized by an employment agency, a recruiter, a so-called “headhunter”, or other intermediary, in order to assist and/or to act on behalf of any of the individuals, employers and/or hiring entities described herein. The present invention can also be utilized in order to provide agency services for any of the herein described parties, i.e., individual, employees, independent contractors, freelancers, employers, hiring entities, recruiters, headhunters, etc. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized in a network environment in order to effectuate any of the services described herein on, or over, any communication network. The apparatus can include a central processing computer or server computer, at least one or more individual computers and at least one or more employer computers. Each of the herein-described computers may communicate with any and all of the computers which are utilized in conjunction with the apparatus of the present invention. The present invention may be utilized in any communication network such as the Internet, the World Wide Web, a telecommunications network, and/or any other communication network described herein and/or otherwise. Each of the central processing computer(s), the individual computers, and/or the employer computers can include any and/or all components, peripherals, hardware, and/or software, for facilitating the use thereof in a manner consistent with the present invention as described herein. The central processing computer may also include, and/or be linked to, a database(s) and/or other storage and/or memory device(s) for storing any and/or all of the data and/or information described as being utilized, and/or which may be utilized, in conjunction with the present invention. The present invention provides job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, while preserving confidentiality among and/or between the parties and/or between the parties and third parties, and may further provide for varying layers of confidentiality for the parties involved. The present invention can also provide enhanced information services for the parties utilizing same, including but not limited to, links, hyperlinks, and/or other pointing and/or linking devices for linking a user to additional and/or supplemental information concerning any of the individuals, employers, hiring entities, and/or other parties, involved in a dialog, negotiations and/or discussions. The data and/or information utilized in conjunction with the present invention can also be utilized by the various individuals, employers, hiring entities, contractors, applicants, recruiters, headhunters, third party intermediaries, and/or the operator and/or the administrator of the apparatus, and can be uploaded to, downloaded from, and/or be stored and/or be resident on any of the central processing computer(s), the individual computer(s), and/or the employer computer(s). The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized to perform various job-searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services and/or functions. The present invention may be utilized by an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, a freelancer, either permanent or temporary, to find or to locate a job, a position, a project and/or an assignment, for which they may wish to apply. The present invention can also be utilized by an employer and/or hiring entity to recruit and/or to search for, an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, either permanent or temporary. The present invention can also be utilized by a recruiter, a headhunter, and/or a third party intermediary, in order to assist an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, in searching for a job, a position, a project, and/or an assignment, and/or for assisting an employer and/or a hiring entity in searching for, and/or for recruiting an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer, in order to fill a hiring and/or other need. The present invention may also be utilized to notify an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or freelancer, of the existence and/or the availability of an opportunity for and/or related to a job, a position, a project and/or an assignment. The present invention may also be utilized to notify an employer and/or a hiring entity of the availability of an individual, a prospective employee, an independent contractor, and/or freelancer. Any and/or all of the communications between the parties may be effected via electronic message transmission, e-mail, electronic forms submission, a telephone call, telephone messaging, facsimile messaging, pager and/or beeper messaging, physical mailing, and/or via any other appropriate method, means and/or mechanism. Employers and/or other hiring entities can post data and/or list information regarding jobs, employment positions, temporary positions, assignments, freelance assignments, contracting assignments and/or jobs, as well as any other assignments, projects and/or efforts which require and/or which may require the services of an individual, an employee, an independent contractor, a freelancer, a temporary employee, etc, with the present invention. Similarly, individuals, job applicants, prospective employees, independent contractors, temporary workers, and/or freelancers, etc., can also post and/or list data and/or information regarding themselves with the present invention. The present invention can be utilized in order to allow employers and/or hiring entities to bid for individuals, employees, independent contractors, and/or freelancers. The present can also be utilized in order to allow individuals and/or their agents and/or managers to auction and/or offer their services to employers and/or to hiring entities. The present invention can be utilized for managing work schedules, and/or for maintaining information regarding work schedules for an individual or entity, including, but not limited to any job applicant, temporary worker, independent contractor, and/or freelancer. An employer and/or hiring entity can obtain information regarding the work, temporary assignment, and/or project or assignment, schedules for any individual or entity utilizing the present invention. An employer and/or hiring entity may hire and/or reserve the time of and/or the services of, the individual and/or entity via the present invention. The present invention can also provide an individual and/or an employer and/or hiring entity with data and/or information regarding the latest developments and/or current developments in the employment and/or recruiting fields, including, but not limited to, growth areas, demand information for certain jobs and/or professions, salary surveys, etc. In this manner, the present invention can provide information for allowing an individual, an employer and/or hiring entity to determine the state of the job market and/or to utilize this information in any appropriate manner so as to minimize the time, effort and/or expense of job searching efforts and/or recruitment efforts. The present invention can also provide notification to any of the individuals, employers and/or hiring entities, when and/or if information is being and/or has been requested about he, she or it. The present invention can also provide the identity of the party requesting the information to the respective individual, employer and/or hiring entity. The present invention can also provide for the blockage of any access, authorized and/or unauthorized, to any of the data and/or information utilized in conjunction with the present invention and/or concerning any individual, entity, employer, and/or hiring entity, utilizing the present invention. The present invention can also provide any data and/or information specifically, generically, generally, such as for a group, and/or statistically and/or in any other manner. The present invention can also be utilized so as to prevent certain individuals and/or entities, employers and/or hiring entities, from accessing the data and/or information about any other individual, entity, employer, and/or hiring entity. The operation of the present invention may be triggered by any type of pre-specified event and/or occurrence which may include a new individual listing, a new employer and/or hiring entity listing, a departure of an individual from an employer, the completion of a job, project and/or assignment, changes in an economic factor(s), changes in a market factor(s), an increase in an unemployment rate, the unemployment of an individual, a detected need for jobs having a certain skill(s), and/or any other event, situation, and/or any other occurrence which may be deemed to have some relationship and/or effect related to job searching efforts and/or recruitment efforts. The apparatus and method of the present invention can also be utilized for performing and/or for facilitating the provision of recruitment services for schools, colleges, universities, and/or any organizations of any kind. The apparatus of the present invention can also be programmed in order to be self-activating and/or activated automatically. The apparatus of the present invention can also be programmed in order to generate and/or transmit any of the e-mails, electronic message transmissions, electronic notification transmissions, and/or any of the communications, described herein between any of the parties utilizing the present invention. The present invention can be utilized in conjunction with intelligent agents, software agents and/or mobile agents, in order to provide for these respective agents to act for, or on behalf of, a respective party. The present invention can also be utilized in order to generate electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons for advertising and/or for publicizing the availability of individuals, independent contractors, and/or freelancers, for work, and/or for advertising and/or publicizing jobs, employment positions, projects and/or assignments, which employers and/or hiring entities are seeking to fill. The present invention can also be utilized in order to monitor, record and/or keep track of, all offers and/or rejections involving any and all jobs, employment positions, projects and/or assignments, which occur in conjunction with and/or via use of the present invention. The information compiled can be provided to individuals, employers, and/or recruiters for use in any appropriate and/or suitable manner. The present invention, can also store individual and/or employer data and/or information with various and/or varying levels of specificity and/or confidentiality. The apparatus and method of the present invention can be utilized as an electronic and/or network-based recruiting apparatus and/or clearinghouse. The present invention can be utilized in order to reduce recruiting costs and so-called headhunter fees to employers as well as job search efforts and/or expenses to individuals. The present invention provides an apparatus and a method for eliminating intermediaries and/or unnecessary efforts and/or expense involved in job search and/or recruitment processes for any of the individuals, employers and/or hiring entities described herein. The present invention can also be utilized in conjunction with the bartering and/or trading of services between parties, such as individuals, employers, and/or hiring entities. The present invention also provides an apparatus and a method for providing enhanced confidentiality during the job-search, recruitment, and/or related interactions, negotiations and/or other dealings between the parties involved in same. The present invention can monitor and/or record any interaction between any of the parties which utilize the present invention. The present invention can also be utilized in conjunction with job searches and/or recruiting efforts for any kind of job, profession, employment position, project, and/or assignment, and/or for any permanent, temporary, independent contractor, and/or freelance, job, employment position, project, and/or assignment. The present invention can utilize electronic commerce technologies and security methods, techniques and technologies. Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, in a network environment. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job search services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, on and/or over the Internet, the World Wide Web, and/or any other communication network. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides links to various data and/or information which may be requested, required, and/or desired, by the respective parties involved in job searching activities and/or in recruitment activities. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which utilizes databases which can be linked to external information sources. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which facilitates the posting of data and/or information by respective individuals and/or employers and/or hiring entities. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, which allows an individual to perform job searches. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, which allows an employer and/or hiring entity to perform recruitment searches. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which notifies an individual of job and/or employment opportunities which may be of interest to the individual when same become available. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which notifies an employer and/or hiring entity of individuals, prospective employees, independent contractors, permanent workers, temporary workers, and/or freelancers, who or which may be of interest to the employer and/or hiring entity when these individuals and/or entities become available. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which utilizes data and/or information which is specific, generic, and/or general, to an individual, to an employer, and/or to hiring entity. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which facilitates providing notification to an employer and/or hiring entity when a recruitment-related opportunity arises. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which facilitates providing notification to an individual when an employment-related opportunity arises. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides for the securing and/or the reserving of services of an individual, an independent contractor, and/or a freelancer. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job-searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides notification of the availability of an individual, a prospective employee, a job applicant, an independent contractor, a temporary worker, and/or a freelancer, for a job, position, project, or assignment. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job-searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides notification of the availability of a job, an employment position, a project, and/or an assignment, with an employer and/or hiring entity. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method of the providing job-searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which utilizes electronic messages and/or e-mail messages which contain links to information and/or information sources which may be utilized in providing said information. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides for bidding and/or auctioning activities regarding said services. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides scheduling services and/or schedule management services for an individual, an independent contractor, a freelancer, an employer and/or hiring entity. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides information regarding developments related to the job-search and/or recruitment fields. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides notification to an individual, an independent contractor, a freelancer, and an employer and/or hiring entity, when data and/or information has been requested about them. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which can be utilized by an individual, an independent contractor, a freelancer, an employer and/or hiring entity, and/or a party acting on behalf of same. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which prevents access to certain data and/or information by certain parties. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services, which can be programmed to be self-activating and/or be activated automatically. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services and/or recruitment-related services which generates electronic messages, e-mail messages, telephone calls, pager calls, pager messages, and/or other communication messages, automatically. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which utilizes intelligent agents, software agents, and/or mobile agents, for providing various services for, and/or for taking action on behalf of, a respective party. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides links and/or hyperlinks to information, products and/or services related thereto. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides automatic notification of, and/or announcements of, job openings, position openings, projects, and/or assignments, the availability of job applicants and/or the availability of goods and/or service providers, to respective parties. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which monitors, records, and/or provides notification of, any communications which take place and/or which may transpire between respective parties. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides for the generation of and/or the distribution of electronic catalogs and/or electronic coupons related to job search activities and/or recruitment activities. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides notification of job-search-related and/or recruitment-related events and/or occurrences. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which monitors, records and/or keeps track of, job search and/or recruitment activities of, and for, any of the respective parties. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides for the storage and/or the utilization of data and/or information with various and/or varying levels of confidentiality and/or specificity. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which is utilized in conjunction with the buying, selling, bartering and/or trading, of goods and/or services. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides enhanced confidentiality during the respective job search, recruitment, and/or related activities and/or interactions. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which monitors and/or records communications, interactions, and/or dealings, between parties. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which provides statistical information pertaining to job searches, recruitment activities, and/or related activities. It is another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which can be utilized in conjunction with independent job search efforts and/or independent recruitment efforts. It is still another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, which can administer a financial account for, and/or on behalf of a party, and which can effect a payment from one party to another, and/or receive a payment for, and/or on behalf of, a party. It is yet another object of the present invention to provide an apparatus and a method for providing job searching services, recruitment services, and/or recruitment-related services, for schools, colleges, universities, and/or any organizations of any kind. Other objects and advantages of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art upon a review of the Description of the Preferred Embodiment taken in conjunction with the Drawings which follow. | G06Q101053 | 20170805 | 20171123 | 58395.0 | G06Q1010 | 11 | CORRIELUS, JEAN M | APPARATUS AND METHOD FOR PROVIDING JOB SEARCHING SERVICES, RECRUITMENT SERVICES AND/OR RECRUITMENT-RELATED SERVICES | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | G06Q | 2,017 |
|
15,671,581 | PENDING | MULTI-IMAGE INTERACTIVE GAMING DEVICE | An image capture device, including: a housing; a first camera defined along a front surface of the housing; a first camera controller configured to control the first camera to capture images of an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting, the captured images from the first camera being analyzed to detect a dynamic range of the interactive environment and to track a user; a second camera defined along the front surface of the housing; a second camera controller configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting based on the detected dynamic range, the second exposure setting being lower than the first exposure setting and configured to enable capture of objects that are the brightest objects in the interactive environment, the captured images from the second camera being analyzed to track an illuminated object. | 1. An image capture device for providing input to an interactive application, comprising: a housing; a first camera defined along a front surface of the housing; a first camera controller configured to control the first camera to capture images of an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting, the captured images from the first camera being analyzed to detect a dynamic range of the interactive environment and to track a user; a second camera defined along the front surface of the housing; a second camera controller configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting based on the detected dynamic range, the second exposure setting being lower than the first exposure setting and configured to enable capture of objects that are the brightest objects in the interactive environment, the captured images from the second camera being analyzed to track an illuminated object in the interactive environment that is among the objects that are the brightest objects in the interactive environment. 2. The image capture device of claim 1, wherein the second exposure setting is configured to exclude capture of objects that are not the brightest objects in the interactive environment. 3. The image capture device of claim 1, wherein tracking the user includes tracking a face of the user. 4. The image capture device of claim 1, wherein the first camera and the second camera are horizontally aligned along the front surface of the housing. 5. The image capture device of claim 1, further comprising a microphone array for capturing sound from the interactive environment. 6. The image capture device of claim 5, wherein the microphone array includes a plurality of microphones that are horizontally aligned along the front surface of the housing. 7. The image capture device of claim 1, wherein the first camera controller is configured to control the first camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the first exposure setting. 8. The image capture device of claim 1, wherein the second camera controller is configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the second exposure setting. 9. A system for facilitating interactivity with an interactive application, comprising: a controller device having an illuminated object; an image capture device, the image capture device including a first camera, a second camera, a first camera controller configured to control the first camera to capture images of an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting, and a second camera controller configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting lower than the first exposure setting; a computing device connected to the image capture device, the computing device configured to execute the interactive application, the computing device configured to analyze the captured images from the first camera to detect a dynamic range of the interactive environment and determine the second exposure setting based on the detected dynamic range, the second exposure setting being configured to enable capture of objects that are the brightest objects in the interactive environment, the computing device configured to analyze the captured images from the first camera to track a user in the interactive environment, wherein the captured images from the first camera are not analyzed to track the illuminated object, the computing device configured to analyze the captured images from the second camera to track the illuminated object in the interactive environment, the illuminated object being one of the objects that are the brightest objects in the interactive environment, wherein the captured images from the second camera are not analyzed to track the user. 10. The system of claim 9, wherein the second exposure setting is configured to exclude capture of objects that are not the brightest objects in the interactive environment. 11. The system of claim 9, wherein tracking the user includes tracking a face of the user. 12. The system of claim 9, wherein the first camera and the second camera are horizontally aligned along the front surface of the housing. 13. The system of claim 9, further comprising a microphone array for capturing sound from the interactive environment. 14. The system of claim 13, wherein the microphone array includes a plurality of microphones that are horizontally aligned along the front surface of the housing. 15. The system of claim 9, wherein the first camera controller is configured to control the first camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the first exposure setting. 16. The system of claim 9, wherein the second camera controller is configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the second exposure setting. 17. A method for interactivity with an interactive application, comprising: capturing images from an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting; analyzing the images captured at the first exposure setting to detect a dynamic range of the interactive environment and to track a user; simultaneous with the capturing images at the first exposure setting, capturing images from the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting based on the detected dynamic range, the second exposure setting being lower than the first exposure setting and configured to enable capture of objects that are the brightest objects in the interactive environment, wherein the second exposure setting is configured to exclude capture of objects that are not the brightest objects in the interactive environment; analyzing the images captured at the second exposure setting to track an illuminated object in the interactive environment that is among the objects that are the brightest objects in the interactive environment, wherein the images captured at the second exposure setting are not analyzed to track the user. 18. The method of claim 17, wherein tracking the user includes tracking a face of the user. 19. The method of claim 17, further comprising, analyzing the images captured at the first exposure setting to identify and track an AR tag. 20. The method of claim 17, further comprising, capturing sound from the interactive environment. | CLAIM OF PRIORITY This application claims priority as a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 13/842,573, filed Mar. 15, 2013 (now U.S. Pat. No. 9,724,597), entitled “Multi-Image Interactive Gaming Device,” which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/655,459, filed Jun. 4, 2012, entitled “Multi-Image Interactive Gaming Device,” the disclosures of which are incorporated by reference herein. RELATED APPLICATIONS This application is related to U.S. application Ser. No. 13/539,311, filed Jun. 30, 2012, entitled “Gaming Controller.” This application is related to U.S. Pat. No. 7,760,248, issued Jul. 20, 2010, entitled “Selective Sound Source Listening in Conjunction with Computer Interactive Processing.” This application is related to U.S. Provisional Application No. 61/745,281, filed Dec. 21, 2012, entitled “Automatic Generation of Suggested Mini-Games for Cloud-Gaming Based on Recorded Gameplay.” The disclosures of these applications are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety for all purposes. BACKGROUND 1. Field of the Invention The present invention relates to controllers for interfacing with an interactive program. 2. Description of the Related Art The video game industry has seen many changes over the years. As computing power has expanded, developers of video games have likewise created game software that takes advantage of these increases in computing power. To this end, video game developers have been coding games that incorporate sophisticated operations and mathematics to produce a very realistic game experience. Example gaming platforms, may be the Sony Playstation®, Sony Playstation2® (PS2), and Sony Playstation3® (PS3), each of which is sold in the form of a game console. As is well known, the game console is designed to connect to a monitor (usually a television) and enable user interaction through handheld controllers. One example of a handheld controller is the DUALSHOCK® 3 wireless controller manufactured by Sony Computer Entertainment Inc. It is in this context that embodiments of the invention arise. SUMMARY Embodiments of the present invention provide systems and methods for interfacing with an interactive application such as a video game. Several inventive embodiments of the present invention are described below. In one embodiment, an image capture device for providing input to an interactive application is provided. The image capture device includes: a housing; a first camera defined along a front surface of the housing; a first camera controller configured to control the first camera to capture images of an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting; a second camera defined along the front surface of the housing; a second camera controller configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting lower than the first exposure setting, the captured images from the second camera being analyzed to identify and track an illuminated object in the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the captured images from the first camera are analyzed to identify and track a user. In one embodiment, identifying and tracking the user includes identifying and tracking a face of the user. In one embodiment, the first camera and the second camera are horizontally aligned along the front surface of the housing. In one embodiment, the image capture device further includes a microphone array for capturing sound from the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the first camera controller is configured to control the first camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the first exposure setting. In one embodiment, the second camera controller is configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the second exposure setting. In another embodiment, a system for facilitating interactivity with an interactive application is provided, including: an image capture device, the image capture device including a first camera, a second camera, a first camera controller configured to control the first camera to capture images of an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting, and a second camera controller configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting lower than the first exposure setting; a computing device connected to the image capture device, the computing device configured to execute the interactive application, the computing device configured to analyze the captured images from the second camera to identify and track an illuminated object in the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the computing device is configured to analyze the captured images from the first camera to identify and track a user. In one embodiment, identifying and tracking the user includes identifying and tracking a face of the user. In one embodiment, the first camera and the second camera are horizontally aligned along the front surface of the housing. In one embodiment, the system further includes a microphone array for capturing sound from the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the first camera controller is configured to control the first camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the first exposure setting. In one embodiment, the second camera controller is configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the second exposure setting. In another embodiment, a method for interactivity with an interactive application is provided, including the following method operations: capturing images from an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting; capturing images from the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting lower than the first exposure setting; analyzing the images captured at the second exposure setting to identify and track an illuminated object in the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the method further includes analyzing the images captured at the first exposure setting to identify and track a user. In one embodiment, identifying and tracking the user includes identifying and tracking a face of the user. In one embodiment, the method further includes analyzing the images captured at the first exposure setting to identify and track an AR tag. In one embodiment, the method further includes capturing sound from the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the method further includes capturing images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity; and analyzing the images captured prior to the user interactivity to determine one or more of the first exposure setting or the second exposure setting. In another embodiment, a method for managing multi-player interactivity with an interactive application is provided, including the following method operations: determining a location of a first controller; determining a location of a second controller; determining a location of a biometric identifier of a first user; determining a location of a biometric identifier of a second user; pairing the first controller to the first user based on the location of the first controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the first user; pairing the second controller to the second user based on the location of the second controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the second user; wherein the method is executed by a processor. In one embodiment, determining the location of the first controller includes identifying an illuminated portion of the first controller; and determining the location of the second controller includes identifying an illuminated portion of the second controller. In one embodiment, identifying the illuminated portion of the first controller includes identifying a first color defined by the illuminated portion of the first controller; and identifying the illuminated portion of the second controller includes identifying a second color defined by the illuminated portion of the second controller, the second color being a different color than the first color. In one embodiment, the method further includes: determining a previous pairing of the first controller to the second user; determining a previous pairing of the second controller to the first user; changing the illuminated portion of the first controller from the first color to the second color; changing the illuminated portion of the second controller from the second color to the first color. In one embodiment, the biometric identifier of the first user is defined by one or more of a face, a voice, a size, or a fingerprint of the first user; and the biometric identifier of the first user is defined by one or more of a face, a voice, a size, or a fingerprint of the second user. In one embodiment, determining the location of the biometric identifier of the first user includes determining a vicinity of the first controller and searching the vicinity of the first controller to identify the biometric identifier of the first user; and determining the location of the biometric identifier of the second user includes determining a vicinity of the second controller and searching the vicinity of the second controller to identify the biometric identifier of the second user. In one embodiment, the method further includes presenting a split-screen view of the interactive application, the split-screen view including a first view defined for the first user and a second view defined for the second user; wherein locations of the first view and the second view in the split-screen view are determined based on one or more of the location of the first controller, the location of the second controller, the location of the biometric identifier of the first user, or the biometric identifier of the second user. In one embodiment, any of the presently described methods is defined in the form of program instructions embodied on a computer readable medium. In another embodiment, a method for managing multi-player interactivity with an interactive application is provided, including the following method operations: capturing images of an interactive environment; analyzing the captured images to determine a location of a first controller; analyzing the captured images to determine a location of a second controller; analyzing the captured images to determine a location of a biometric identifier of a first user; analyzing the captured images to determine a location of a biometric identifier of a second user; pairing the first controller to the first user based on the location of the first controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the first user; pairing the second controller to the second user based on the location of the second controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the second user; wherein the method is executed by a processor. In one embodiment, analyzing the captured images to determine the location of the first controller includes identifying an illuminated portion of the first controller; and analyzing the captured images to determine the location of the second controller includes identifying an illuminated portion of the second controller. In one embodiment, identifying the illuminated portion of the first controller includes identifying a first color defined by the illuminated portion of the first controller; and identifying the illuminated portion of the second controller includes identifying a second color defined by the illuminated portion of the second controller, the second color being a different color than the first color. In one embodiment, the method further includes: determining a previous pairing of the first controller to the second user; determining a previous pairing of the second controller to the first user; changing the illuminated portion of the first controller from the first color to the second color; changing the illuminated portion of the second controller from the second color to the first color. In one embodiment, the biometric identifier of the first user is defined by a face of the first user; and the biometric identifier of the first user is defined by a face of the second user. In one embodiment, analyzing the captured images to determine the location of the biometric identifier of the first user includes determining a vicinity of the first controller and searching the vicinity of the first controller to identify the biometric identifier of the first user; and analyzing the captured images to determine the location of the biometric identifier of the second user includes determining a vicinity of the second controller and searching the vicinity of the second controller to identify the biometric identifier of the second user. In one embodiment, the method further includes: presenting a split-screen view of the interactive application, the split-screen view including a first view defined for the first user and a second view defined for the second user; wherein locations of the first view and the second view in the split-screen view are determined based on one or more of the location of the first controller, the location of the second controller, the location of the biometric identifier of the first user, or the biometric identifier of the second user. In another embodiment, a method for managing multi-player interactivity with an interactive application executing on a cloud processing server is provided, including the following method operations: receiving image data captured from an interactive environment; processing the captured image data to determine a location of a first controller, a location of a second controller, a location of a biometric identifier of a first user, and a location of a biometric identifier of a second user; pairing the first controller to the first user based on the location of the first controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the first user; pairing the second controller to the second user based on the location of the second controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the second user; wherein the method is executed by a processor. In one embodiment, determining the location of the first controller includes analyzing the captured image data to identify an illuminated portion of the first controller; and determining the location of the second controller includes analyzing the captured image data to identify an illuminated portion of the second controller. In one embodiment, identifying the illuminated portion of the first controller includes identifying a first color defined by the illuminated portion of the first controller; and identifying the illuminated portion of the second controller includes identifying a second color defined by the illuminated portion of the second controller, the second color being a different color than the first color. In one embodiment, the method further includes determining a previous pairing of the first controller to the second user; determining a previous pairing of the second controller to the first user; sending an instruction to change the illuminated portion of the first controller from the first color to the second color; sending an instruction to change the illuminated portion of the second controller from the second color to the first color. Other aspects of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, illustrating by way of example the principles of the invention. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS The invention may best be understood by reference to the following description taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings in which: FIG. 1A illustrates an interactive environment in which multiple players are interacting with a video game, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 1B illustrates an image capture device, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 1C is a schematic of an image capture device, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 2 illustrates an image of an interactive environment captured by the high exposure camera, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 3 illustrates an image of an interactive environment captured by a low exposure camera, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 4 illustrates a plurality of users operating controllers for interacting with an application in an interactive environment, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 5 illustrates two players interacting with a video game, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 6 illustrates a user operating a motion controller 212 in an interactive environment, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 7 illustrates a user interacting with an interactive application rendered on a display, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. FIG. 8 illustrates hardware and user interfaces that may be used to provide interactivity with a video game, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 9 illustrates additional hardware that may be used to process instructions, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 10 is an exemplary illustration of scene A through scene E with respective user A through user E interacting with game clients 1102 that are connected to server processing via the internet, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11 illustrates an embodiment of an Information Service Provider architecture. DETAILED DESCRIPTION The following embodiments describe methods and apparatus for interfacing with an interactive program. It will be obvious, however, to one skilled in the art, that the present invention may be practiced without some or all of these specific details. In other instances, well known process operations have not been described in detail in order not to unnecessarily obscure the present invention. FIG. 1A illustrates an interactive environment in which multiple players are interacting with a video game, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. A computing device 100 provides image data and audio data for rendering a video game on a display 102. The computing device 100 can be a general purpose computer, a gaming console, or any other type of device configured to provide the image data and audio data of the video game to the display 102. The video game can be executed on the computing device 100, or may be executed remotely, with the computing device 100 acting as a terminal for providing image data and audio data for rendering and for receiving and transmitting input from users. An image capture device 104 includes two cameras: a high exposure camera 106, and a low exposure camera 108. The high exposure camera 106 is configured to capture images of the interactive environment at an exposure level set to enable capture of a high amount of detail of the interactive environment. Broadly speaking, the exposure level of the high exposure camera 106 can be determined based on the overall dynamic range of light intensity from the interactive environment and optimized to enable maximum capture of detail. By contrast, the low exposure camera 108 is configured to capture images of the interactive environment at a lower exposure level set to capture a comparatively low amount of detail of the interactive environment. Broadly speaking, the exposure level of the low exposure camera 108 can also be determined based on the overall dynamic range of light intensity of the interactive environment, but is set at a lower level which enables capture of images with less detail. Because the exposure level of the low exposure camera 108 is set at a lower level than that of the high exposure camera 106, the captured images from the low exposure camera 108 will provide less detail or no detail at all from regions of the interactive environment which have lower light intensity. FIG. 1B illustrates the image capture device 104, including the high exposure camera 106 and the low exposure camera 108. In some embodiments, the high exposure camera 106 is also a higher resolution camera than the low exposure camera 108. The resolution of both the high exposure camera 106 and the low exposure camera 108 may also be set during operation of the image capture device 104. Thus, the high exposure camera may also capture more detail and produce larger quantities of data as a result of having a higher resolution compared to the low exposure camera 108 which has a lower resolution. The high exposure camera 106 and the low exposure camera 108 can be separated from each other by a known distance, and may be operated in tandem to enable stereoscopic image capture. Because the distance between the cameras is known, three-dimensional effects can be provided based on the stereoscopic image capture. In one embodiment, the high exposure camera 106 and the low exposure camera 108 are separated from each other by a distance of approximately six to ten centimeters. In other embodiments, the cameras are separated from each other by more than ten centimeters. In some embodiments, the high and low exposure cameras each have the same hardware capabilities, but are controlled to operate in a different manner, so that one achieves a higher exposure or resolution than the other. Additionally, the image capture device 104 may include a microphone array, including microphones 109A, 109B, 109C, and 109D. The microphone array can be utilized to capture sound from the interactive environment. Additionally, the sound from each of the microphones of the microphone array can be analyzed to determine the location of sounds in the interactive environment. Specific sound zones can be defined within the interactive environment from which sound is captured. The sound zones may be determined in accordance with zones of interactivity as are described elsewhere herein. By way of example, sound captured from a given interactive zone may be associated with a specific user and processed for that user's gameplay to the exclusion of sounds originating from outside of the interactive zone. FIG. 1C illustrates a schematic of the image capture device 104, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The image capture device 104 includes the high and low exposure cameras 106 and 108, respectively, which are controlled by a camera controller 121. The camera controller 121 can control various settings of the cameras, such as frame rate of image capture, shutter speed or time of each capture, resolution, aperture, and various other image capture characteristics. An image processor 122 performs onboard image processing, e.g. raw data conversion, image data compression or conversion, etc. A microphone controller 123 controls sensitivity of the microphones 109A-D. In one embodiment, the microphone controller 123 also controls the direction of each microphone. An audio processor 124 performs onboard processing of the audio data, e.g. analog to digital conversion, audio data compression. In some embodiments, the audio processor 124 can be configured to perform identification of sound sources in the interactive environment, or may be configured to process incoming audio signals from the microphone array so as to reduce or eliminate sounds which are not from one or more specified zones in the interactive environment. The image capture device is operatively connected to a CPU 124, which may be a processor of a game console or local computing device, or may be a processor of a remote computing device, such as a cloud-computing device. The CPU 124 can receive image streams of the high and low exposure cameras as well as audio streams from the microphone array, for processing and analysis, in accordance with the principles and methods described herein. FIG. 2 illustrates an image 130 of an interactive environment captured by the high exposure camera 106. In the interactive environment, there are present multiple objects, including a lamp 132, a picture 134, a window 136, a couch 138, and a plant 140, all of which are visible in the image 130. A user 142 operates a controller 144 which includes an illuminated tracking feature 146. The user 142 and the controller 144 are also visible in the captured image 130. FIG. 3 illustrates an image 150 of the same interactive environment captured by the low exposure camera 108. In the image 150, because the exposure level of the low exposure camera 108 is lower than that of the high exposure camera 106, only the brightest objects which produce high light intensities in the interactive environment are visible. As shown, only a lighted portion of the lamp 132, the window 136, and the illuminated tracking feature 146 of the controller 144 are visible in the image 150, as these objects produce the highest light intensities in the interactive environment. In accordance with embodiments of the invention, the captured images from the low exposure camera 108 can be utilized for detection and tracking of the illuminated tracking feature 146 of the controller 144. Because the images from the low exposure camera 108 are captured at a lower exposure setting than those from the high exposure camera 106, they will, in most circumstances, have less data than the images captured by the high exposure camera of the same interactive environment. Thus, assuming that the illuminated tracking feature 146 is bright enough (produces a high enough light intensity) to be detected in the captured images from the low exposure camera 108, then the detection and tracking of the illuminated tracking feature based on analysis of these images requires less processing than would be required based on analysis of higher exposure images. Also, in accordance with embodiments of the invention, the low exposure camera 108 may utilize a smaller aperture than that of the high exposure camera 106, thereby providing for sharper depth of field over a broader range of depth than is possible with the larger aperture of the high exposure camera 106. This further enhances accurate detection and tracking of the tracking feature 146 of the controller 144, providing especially improved accuracy of depth detection over that which would be obtained from analysis of higher exposure images captured utilizing a larger aperture. It will be appreciated that for detection and tracking of the illuminated tracking feature 146 based on analysis of captured images from the low exposure camera 108, it is desirable for the illuminated tracking feature 146 to be among the brighter of brightest objects in the interactive environment. To ensure this is the case, in one embodiment, the overall dynamic range of the interactive environment is determined, and the light intensity of the illuminated tracking feature 146 is then adjusted so as to be among the brighter or brightest objects in the interactive environment. If the light intensity of the illuminated tracking feature 146 is adjusted to be the brightest object in the interactive environment, then the exposure setting of the low exposure camera 108 can be set to a value that eliminates the remainder of the interactive environment from images captured by the low exposure camera 108, thereby simplifying the process of detection and tracking of the illuminated tracking feature 146 based on such images, as the illuminated tracking feature 146 is essentially the only detectable object in such images. However, it may also be desirable to not set the illuminated tracking feature 146 to be the brightest object in the interactive environment, for example, so as not to be distracting or appear visually out of place to users or others in the interactive environment. Thus, in various embodiments, the light intensity level of the illuminated tracking feature 146 can be defined to be equal to the highest value of the overall dynamic range of the interactive environment (i.e. equal to the brightest object(s) in the interactive environment). In another embodiment, the light intensity level of the illuminated tracking feature 146 can be set to be within a certain fraction of the upper end of the dynamic range, e.g. within the top n % of the dynamic range of the interactive environment. In some embodiments, the light intensity level of the illuminated tracking feature 108 can be set based on median light intensity values for the interactive environment, such that the illuminated tracking feature has a light intensity among the highest light intensity values of the interactive environment. In some embodiments, the light intensity value of the illuminated tracking feature 108 relative to the overall dynamic range of the interactive environment can be set based on light intensity characteristics of the interactive environment. For example, in one embodiment, if the overall ambient lighting conditions of the interactive environment are determined to be low, then the light intensity of the illuminated tracking feature 108 is set to be lower than the maximum light intensity detected from the interactive environment. Whereas if the overall ambient lighting conditions of the interactive environment are determined to be high, then the light intensity of the illuminated tracking feature 108 is set to be greater than or equal to the maximum detected light intensity from the interactive environment. If this is not possible, then the light intensity of the illuminated tracking feature is set to its maximum possible value. In this manner, when low ambient lighting conditions are detected, the light intensity of the illuminated tracking feature 108 is adjusted so as not be visually distracting in an otherwise low ambient light environment. Whereas when high ambient lighting conditions are detected, then the light intensity of the illuminated tracking feature 108 is adjusted to be brighter relative to the overall interactive environment because under high ambient lighting conditions, a bright object may be perceived as less intrusive. FIG. 4 illustrates a plurality of users operating controllers for interacting with an application in an interactive environment, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. In the illustrated scene, the user 110 operates a controller 116 having an illuminated tracking feature 164; the user 112 operates a controller 118 having an illuminated tracking feature 174; and the user 114 operates a controller 120 having an illuminated tracking feature 184. In accordance with principles described herein, images of the interactive environment are captured by the high exposure camera 106 and the low exposure camera 108. Examples of controllers include motion controllers such as the Playstation Move motion controller manufactured by Sony Computer Entertainment. In one embodiment, the captured images of the interactive environment from the high exposure camera 106 are analyzed to determine the locations of the players. More specifically, the captured images can be analyzed to determine facial regions which contain the faces of the users. In the illustrated embodiment, a facial region 166 includes the face of the user 110; a facial region 176 includes the face of the user 112, and a facial region 186 includes the face of the user 114. The identified facial regions can be tracked based on analysis of the captured images from the high exposure camera 106. It will be appreciated that the illustrated facial regions are shown by way of example only, and may have various shapes and sizes in accordance with the specifics of the facial recognition methods employed. Facial regions may include the entire head of a user, or may include only selected features of a user's head, e.g., a region including the eyes, nose and mouth, but excluding other features of the user's face and head. The captured images of the interactive environment from the low exposure camera 108 are analyzed to detect the orientation and three-dimensional location of the illuminated tracking features of the controllers, and consequently the location of the controllers themselves. Broadly speaking, the orientation and size of an illuminated tracking feature in the captured images can be analyzed to determine its orientation and location within the interactive environment, and consequently the orientation and location of the controller with which the illuminated tracking feature is associated. The illuminated tracking features 164, 174, and 184 may be configured to display a different color, pattern, or other differentiating characteristic to facilitate their identification and tracking via the low exposure camera 108. In some embodiments, each controller is associated or paired with a particular user for purposes of providing precise interactive input with an application. For example, in a multi-player video game, there may be several users, each of whom is represented in the video game by an associated character, avatar, object or other representative entity in the video game. In many such video games, each user is responsible for controlling their representative entity, and so each controller is associated with a particular user. Conventional methods of associating a controller with a user have generally required users to carefully indicate selections through cumbersome menus and procedures, often requiring adherence to strict procedures which delay actual gameplay. However, in accordance with principles described herein, significantly less intrusive methods can be employed to associate controllers with users. In one embodiment, each controller is configured to have its illuminated tracking feature display a unique characteristic, such as a unique color. On this basis, each controller is identified based on analysis of captured images by the low exposure camera. With reference to FIG. 4 by way of example, when the controller 116 is identified based on detection of the illuminated tracking feature 164, a facial search region 168 proximate to the controller is defined, within which a facial recognition process is applied. The facial search region 168 is defined as a region of the interactive environment in which a user's face may be reasonably expected to exist if the controller is being operated by a user for interactivity. The facial search region can be determined based on a predefined distance from the controller or a predefined region shape oriented about a controller, by way of example. In the illustrated embodiment, application of the facial recognition process to the facial search region 168 results in identification of the facial region 166 containing the face of the user 110. The identified face of the user 110 is therefore associated with the controller 116. In a similar manner, the controllers 118 and 120 can be identified based on their illuminated tracking features 174 and 184, respectively. The facial search regions 178 and 188 are then defined for the controllers 118 and 120, respectively. Applying facial recognition process to these facial search regions identifies the facial region 176 of the user 112 and the facial region 186 of the user 114. Therefore, the facial region 176 of the use 112 is associated with the controller 118 and the facial region 186 is associated with the user 114. Application of the presently described method can improve the identification and association of controller and users in dark environments. For instead of searching an entire captured region for the faces of users, limited search regions and identified for searching based on identification of the controller locations first. Also, as the users move over time, their facial regions and their associated controllers can be tracked. In another embodiment, faces of users and controllers are each identified in the interactive environment, the faces being identified based on application of a facial recognition process to captured images from the high exposure camera, and the controllers being identified based on analysis of the captured images from the low exposure camera. For each controller or identified face, a corresponding nearest identified face or controller is associated therewith. In one embodiment, the association of controller with an identified face may occur if the controller and the face are not separated by more than a predetermined distance. In other embodiments, when two faces are equidistant from a given controller, then preference may be given to the face which is longitudinally closer to the given controller. Or other controllers and faces may first be associated before associating the given controller, so that other faces may be eliminated from consideration. It will be appreciated that according to the methods presently described, faces which are not found within a vicinity of a controller are not associated with a controller. And a controller for which no face is identified in proximity to it is not associated with any user's face. Thus, users who are not participating in the video game or controllers which are not in use are not associated or improperly activated for purposes of interactivity with the video game. In one embodiment, a profile picture of each user's face is saved. The profile picture of a given user is utilized to recognize the user in subsequent captured images taken by the high exposure camera 108. Each controller, as indicated above, is configured via its illuminated tracking feature to display a different characteristic, such as a different color. For each user whose face is detected in the interactive environment, the nearest identified controller is assigned to that user. Thus, with continued reference to FIG. 4, the user 110 is identified based on facial recognition of the facial region 166, and the controller 116 is identified based on, for example a unique color displayed by the illuminated tracking feature 164. Then the controller 116, being the nearest identified controller to the user 110, is associated with the user 110 for purposes of interactivity with the interactive application. In a similar manner, each of controllers 118 and 120 are configured to have their illuminated tracking features 174 and 184, respectively, display unique colors. Then, based on facial recognition of the facial regions 176 and 186, users 112 and 114 are identified. The identified controller 118 is then associated with user 112 because it is determined to be the nearest controller to user 112, whereas controller 120 is associated with user 114 because it is determined to be the nearest controller to user 114. It will be appreciated that in various embodiments, the method of identifying which controller to associate with which user can employ various technologies. For example, a “nearest” controller can be determined based in part on body recognition in association with facial recognition, to determine or estimate an expected location of a controller relative to a user. The expected location might be a region approximately in front of the user in a vicinity of the user's midsection, for example. Recognition of users' arms or other body features may enhance the accuracy of the controller association process. By utilizing facial recognition and controller recognition to properly associate/assign a particular controller with a specific user, the cumbersome initialization procedures are avoided. Furthermore, if users switch controllers for some reason (e.g., the users take a break from the game and later resume play, but switch controllers in the process) then the correct controller can be quickly assigned to the appropriate user without requiring further user input. Accordingly, in one embodiment, the controller assignment process is executed not only during initiation of the interactive video game, but also following breaks or pauses in the interactivity. This may occur, for example, when a user pauses and resumes gameplay, when the video game transitions between sections or levels, or any other break or time period when users may switch controllers. In accordance with another embodiment, in certain interactive video games, players may be assigned to specific interactive zones of gameplay. By way of example, each interactive zone may correspond to a particular character or entity that is controlled through user interactivity detected in the interactive zone. However, if users switch zones, then the correspondence between a particular user and his/her entity is broken. Therefore, in accordance with principles described herein, when a user's face and a controller are recognized in a specific interactive zone, then that interactive zone can be associated with the user and the controller. If users switch zones or controllers, then the assignment of interactive zones and controllers to the users can be switched based on updated detection of the user's faces and the controllers. Utilizing facial recognition in combination with controller tracking as described herein can provide additional functionality and benefits. For example, with continued reference to FIG. 4, a controller interactive zone 168 can be determined for the user 110. The controller interactive zone 168 is a region of the interactive environment in which the controller 116 assigned to the user 110 can be expected to be located. The controller interactive zone 168 can be determined, by way of example, based on an estimation of the user's 110 arm reach or other factors. In the illustrated embodiment, controller interactive zones 178 and 188 are determined for the users 112 and 114, respectively. Though embodiments of the invention have thus been described with reference to facial recognition as a basis for controller pairing with specific users, in other embodiments it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that other forms of biometric identification can be substituted or utilized in combination with facial recognition. Other biometric identifiers may include identification of a person's voice, a person size or weight, a fingerprint, etc. In one embodiment, a user's voice may be identified by requesting the user to say something such as their name, and recording and analyzing the recorded speech against a stored user speech profile to identify the user. In this regard, the user's speech profile may be generated by having the user read a predefined portion of text. In another embodiment, the user's fingerprint can be obtained by having the user place their finger on a touch sensitive portion of their controller device, and matching the obtained fingerprint to one previously stored for the user. As discussed herein, the illuminated portions of various controllers can be configured to have different colors which facilitate their identification based on analysis of captured images from the interactive environment. During the course of gameplay, a group of users may pause their gameplay and put down their controllers, and when they return, some or all of them may pick up different controllers than the ones they were using prior to pausing their gameplay. However, despite picking up different controllers, it may still be desirable for each of the users to have the same color associated with their controller, as this color may also be associated with their gameplay. Therefore, in one embodiment, when a controller is paired with a user, it is determined whether a prior pairing during the gameplay session existed and whether it matched the currently determined pairing. If a mismatch is detected between the user's prior controller pairing and their current controller pairing, then in one embodiment, once all remaining controllers are paired with their respective users, then the user's controller color is changed to the previous color exhibited by the controller which the user operated prior to pausing gameplay. A simple two-player example will serve to illustrate the above-described concept. For example, assume a first player operates a first controller with a portion illuminated to have a red color, and a second player operates a second controller with a portion illuminated to have a blue color. The first controller is paired with the first player and the second controller is paired with the second player based on controller identification in combination with biometric identification as previously described. Additionally, in the video game being played, the red color is associated with the first player and the blue color is associated with the second player. This color association provides an intuitive mechanism for the players to understand the relationship between their controller and elements of the video game which they control. By way of example, an avatar or character controlled by the first user might feature a red colored marker indicating that it is controlled by the first controller (illuminated red), whereas an avatar or character controlled by the second user might feature a blue colored marker indicating that it is controlled by the second controller (illuminated blue). However, if the first player and the second player somehow switch controllers (e.g. after taking a break from gameplay and later returning), then the pairing process can be repeated to determine which controller to pair with which user. In this case, the blue controller is now paired with the first user and the red controller is not paired with the second user. Because this association of colors to the users does not match the previous association, once the controllers are paired with the users in the sense of identifying which controller is being operated by which user, then the colors exhibited by the controllers can be changed to match the prior association of colors to users. In this case, color of the second controller (now operated by the first user) is changed from blue to red, restoring the first user to a red colored controller; and the color of the first controller (now operated by the second user) is changed from red to blue, restoring the second user to a blue colored controller. FIG. 5 illustrates two players interacting with a video game, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. In the illustrated embodiment, the players 190 and 192 operate controllers 194 and 196, respectively. The video game is rendered on the display 102 in a split-screen mode. As the user 190 is positioned on the left in the interactive environment and the user 192 is positioned on the right, for ease of viewing, the video game views are assigned in the split-screen mode so that the video game view for the user 190 is rendered on a left portion 198 of the display 102, and the video game view of the user 192 is rendered on a right portion 200 of the display 102. However, if the users 190 and 192 switch places, then based on controller recognition or facial recognition, it can be determined that the users have switched places, and the video game views can be reassigned to the opposite side of the split-screen. Thus, when users 190 and 192 have switched places, their faces or controllers are detected and recognized, and the video game view for user 192 is now shown on the left portion 198, whereas the video game view for the user 190 is shown on the right portion 200. While the foregoing embodiment has been described in terms of two users with corresponding left and right split screen portions, it will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that there be any number of users and corresponding split screen portions, which may be assigned to each other in accordance with embodiments of the invention. FIG. 6 illustrates a user 210 operating a motion controller 212 in an interactive environment, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The motion controller 212 includes an illuminated tracking feature 214 which is tracked based on analysis of images captured by the low exposure camera 108 of the image capture device 104. Additionally, the user 210 is holding an augmented reality (AR) tag 216. The AR tag is identified and tracked based on analysis of captured images from the high exposure camera 106 of the image capture device 104. In one embodiment, the AR tag is replaced with an object 218 in video of the user displayed on the display 102. The controller 212 is replaced with an object 220 in the displayed video. The application of two cameras configured to operate at differing exposure levels and/or resolutions enables the simultaneous identification and tracking of illuminated tracking features and AR tags. It will be appreciated that in addition to AR tags, various other augmented reality methods can be applied based on analysis of the captured images from the high exposure camera 106 of the image capture device 104. This can be combined with simultaneous tracking of an illuminated tracking feature to provide an enhanced user interactive experience. FIG. 7 illustrates a user 210 interacting with an interactive application rendered on a display 102, in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The controller 212 is associated with the user 210, in accordance with methods and principles described elsewhere is the present disclosure. In one embodiment, a gesture region 230 is identified for the user 210. The gesture region 230 is analyzed to detect gestures by the user 210 for interactivity with the interactive application. In one embodiment, the gesture detection is based on analysis of the captured images from the high exposure camera, whereas the tracking of the controller 212 is based on analysis of the captured images from the low exposure camera as has been described. The gesture region may be determined to be a region proximate to the location of the controller. In one embodiment, the gesture region is determined by identifying the hand of the user which is holding the controller and identifying a region proximate to the controller, but centered about a point on the side of the controller on which the non-controller holding hand of the user is located. In yet another embodiment, the gesture region is defined as a region above and or to the sides of the controller, as the user may gesture in such a region when the user is operating a controller designed to be held by both hands of the user. In some embodiments, as has been noted, the image capture device 104 can include two cameras which are operated in different manners to achieve high quality image capture and high fidelity tracking of an illuminated object. The two cameras may be operated so that one produces high quality images at a higher resolution and exposure, while the other produces low quality images at a lower resolution and exposure. Furthermore, the individual framerates of each of the cameras may differ. By way of example, the high quality camera may require longer exposure times to achieve higher exposure, therefore necessitating a lower framerate. Whereas the low quality camera may require shorter exposure times to achieve a comparatively lower exposure, therefore providing for a faster framerate that is beneficial for tracking purposes. FIG. 8 illustrates hardware and user interfaces that may be used to provide interactivity with a video game, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 8 schematically illustrates the overall system architecture of the Sony® Playstation 3® entertainment device, a console that may be compatible for interfacing a control device with a computer program executing at a base computing device in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. A system unit 700 is provided, with various peripheral devices connectable to the system unit 700. The system unit 700 comprises: a Cell processor 728; a Rambus® dynamic random access memory (XDRAM) unit 726; a Reality Synthesizer graphics unit 730 with a dedicated video random access memory (VRAM) unit 732; and an I/O bridge 734. The system unit 700 also comprises a Blu Ray® Disk BD-ROM® optical disk reader 740 for reading from a disk 740a and a removable slot-in hard disk drive (HDD) 736, accessible through the I/O bridge 734. Optionally the system unit 700 also comprises a memory card reader 738 for reading compact flash memory cards, Memory Stick® memory cards and the like, which is similarly accessible through the I/O bridge 734. The I/O bridge 734 also connects to six Universal Serial Bus (USB) 2.0 ports 724; a gigabit Ethernet port 722; an IEEE 802.11b/g wireless network (Wi-Fi) port 720; and a Bluetooth® wireless link port 718 capable of supporting up to seven Bluetooth connections. In operation, the I/O bridge 734 handles all wireless, USB and Ethernet data, including data from one or more game controllers 702-703. For example when a user is playing a game, the I/O bridge 734 receives data from the game controller 702-703 via a Bluetooth link and directs it to the Cell processor 728, which updates the current state of the game accordingly. The wireless, USB and Ethernet ports also provide connectivity for other peripheral devices in addition to game controllers 702-703, such as: a remote control 704; a keyboard 706; a mouse 708; a portable entertainment device 710 such as a Sony Playstation Portable® entertainment device; a video camera such as an EyeToy® video camera 712; a microphone headset 714; and a microphone 715. Such peripheral devices may therefore in principle be connected to the system unit 700 wirelessly; for example the portable entertainment device 710 may communicate via a Wi-Fi ad-hoc connection, whilst the microphone headset 714 may communicate via a Bluetooth link. The provision of these interfaces means that the Playstation 3 device is also potentially compatible with other peripheral devices such as digital video recorders (DVRs), set-top boxes, digital cameras, portable media players, Voice over IP telephones, mobile telephones, printers and scanners. In addition, a legacy memory card reader 716 may be connected to the system unit via a USB port 724, enabling the reading of memory cards 748 of the kind used by the Playstation® or Playstation 2® devices. The game controllers 702-703 are operable to communicate wirelessly with the system unit 700 via the Bluetooth link, or to be connected to a USB port, thereby also providing power by which to charge the battery of the game controllers 702-703. Game controllers 702-703 can also include memory, a processor, a memory card reader, permanent memory such as flash memory, light emitters such as an illuminated spherical section, LEDs, or infrared lights, microphone and speaker for ultrasound communications, an acoustic chamber, a digital camera, an internal clock, a recognizable shape such as the spherical section facing the game console, and wireless communications using protocols such as Bluetooth®, WiFi™, etc. Game controller 702 is a controller designed to be used with two hands, and game controller 703 is a single-hand controller with an attachment. In addition to one or more analog joysticks and conventional control buttons, the game controller is susceptible to three-dimensional location determination. Consequently gestures and movements by the user of the game controller may be translated as inputs to a game in addition to or instead of conventional button or joystick commands Optionally, other wirelessly enabled peripheral devices such as the Playstation™ Portable device may be used as a controller. In the case of the Playstation™ Portable device, additional game or control information (for example, control instructions or number of lives) may be provided on the screen of the device. Other alternative or supplementary control devices may also be used, such as a dance mat (not shown), a light gun (not shown), a steering wheel and pedals (not shown) or bespoke controllers, such as a single or several large buttons for a rapid-response quiz game (also not shown). The remote control 704 is also operable to communicate wirelessly with the system unit 700 via a Bluetooth link. The remote control 704 comprises controls suitable for the operation of the Blu Ray™ Disk BD-ROM reader 540 and for the navigation of disk content. The Blu Ray™ Disk BD-ROM reader 740 is operable to read CD-ROMs compatible with the Playstation and PlayStation 2 devices, in addition to conventional pre-recorded and recordable CDs, and so-called Super Audio CDs. The reader 740 is also operable to read DVD-ROMs compatible with the Playstation 2 and PlayStation 3 devices, in addition to conventional pre-recorded and recordable DVDs. The reader 740 is further operable to read BD-ROMs compatible with the Playstation 3 device, as well as conventional pre-recorded and recordable Blu-Ray Disks. The system unit 700 is operable to supply audio and video, either generated or decoded by the Playstation 3 device via the Reality Synthesizer graphics unit 730, through audio and video connectors to a display and sound output device 742 such as a monitor or television set having a display 744 and one or more loudspeakers 746. The audio connectors 750 may include conventional analogue and digital outputs whilst the video connectors 752 may variously include component video, S-video, composite video and one or more High Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) outputs. Consequently, video output may be in formats such as PAL or NTSC, or in 720p, 1080i or 1080p high definition. Audio processing (generation, decoding and so on) is performed by the Cell processor 728. The Playstation 3 device's operating system supports Dolby® 5.1 surround sound, Dolby® Theatre Surround (DTS), and the decoding of 7.1 surround sound from Blu-Ray® disks. In the present embodiment, the video camera 712 comprises a single charge coupled device (CCD), an LED indicator, and hardware-based real-time data compression and encoding apparatus so that compressed video data may be transmitted in an appropriate format such as an intra-image based MPEG (motion picture expert group) standard for decoding by the system unit 700. The camera LED indicator is arranged to illuminate in response to appropriate control data from the system unit 700, for example to signify adverse lighting conditions. Embodiments of the video camera 712 may variously connect to the system unit 700 via a USB, Bluetooth or Wi-Fi communication port. Embodiments of the video camera may include one or more associated microphones and also be capable of transmitting audio data. In embodiments of the video camera, the CCD may have a resolution suitable for high-definition video capture. In use, images captured by the video camera may for example be incorporated within a game or interpreted as game control inputs. In another embodiment the camera is an infrared camera suitable for detecting infrared light. In general, in order for successful data communication to occur with a peripheral device such as a video camera or remote control via one of the communication ports of the system unit 700, an appropriate piece of software such as a device driver should be provided. Device driver technology is well-known and will not be described in detail here, except to say that the skilled man will be aware that a device driver or similar software interface may be required in the present embodiment described. FIG. 9 illustrates additional hardware that may be used to process instructions, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. Cell processor 728 has an architecture comprising four basic components: external input and output structures comprising a memory controller 860 and a dual bus interface controller 870A, B; a main processor referred to as the Power Processing Element 850; eight co-processors referred to as Synergistic Processing Elements (SPEs) 810A-H; and a circular data bus connecting the above components referred to as the Element Interconnect Bus 880. The total floating point performance of the Cell processor is 218 GFLOPS, compared with the 6.2 GFLOPs of the Playstation 2 device's Emotion Engine. The Power Processing Element (PPE) 850 is based upon a two-way simultaneous multithreading Power 570 compliant PowerPC core (PPU) 855 running with an internal clock of 3.2 GHz. It comprises a 512 kB level 2 (L2) cache and a 32 kB level 1 (L1) cache. The PPE 850 is capable of eight single position operations per clock cycle, translating to 25.6 GFLOPs at 3.2 GHz. The primary role of the PPE 850 is to act as a controller for the Synergistic Processing Elements 810A-H, which handle most of the computational workload. In operation the PPE 850 maintains a job queue, scheduling jobs for the Synergistic Processing Elements 810A-H and monitoring their progress. Consequently each Synergistic Processing Element 810A-H runs a kernel whose role is to fetch a job, execute it and synchronized with the PPE 850. Each Synergistic Processing Element (SPE) 810A-H comprises a respective Synergistic Processing Unit (SPU) 820A-H, and a respective Memory Flow Controller (MFC) 840A-H comprising in turn a respective Dynamic Memory Access Controller (DMAC) 842A-H, a respective Memory Management Unit (MMU) 844A-H and a bus interface (not shown). Each SPU 820A-H is a RISC processor clocked at 3.2 GHz and comprising 256 kB local RAM 830A-H, expandable in principle to 4 GB. Each SPE gives a theoretical 25.6 GFLOPS of single precision performance. An SPU can operate on 4 single precision floating point members, 4 32-bit numbers, 8 16-bit integers, or 16 8-bit integers in a single clock cycle. In the same clock cycle it can also perform a memory operation. The SPU 820A-H does not directly access the system memory XDRAM 726; the 64-bit addresses formed by the SPU 820A-H are passed to the MFC 840A-H which instructs its DMA controller 842A-H to access memory via the Element Interconnect Bus 880 and the memory controller 860. The Element Interconnect Bus (EIB) 880 is a logically circular communication bus internal to the Cell processor 728 which connects the above processor elements, namely the PPE 850, the memory controller 860, the dual bus interface 870A,B and the 8 SPEs 810A-H, totaling 12 participants. Participants can simultaneously read and write to the bus at a rate of 8 bytes per clock cycle. As noted previously, each SPE 810A-H comprises a DMAC 842A-H for scheduling longer read or write sequences. The EIB comprises four channels, two each in clockwise and anti-clockwise directions. Consequently for twelve participants, the longest step-wise data-flow between any two participants is six steps in the appropriate direction. The theoretical peak instantaneous EIB bandwidth for 12 slots is therefore 96B per clock, in the event of full utilization through arbitration between participants. This equates to a theoretical peak bandwidth of 307.2 GB/s (gigabytes per second) at a clock rate of 3.2 GHz. The memory controller 860 comprises an XDRAM interface 862, developed by Rambus Incorporated. The memory controller interfaces with the Rambus XDRAM 726 with a theoretical peak bandwidth of 25.6 GB/s. The dual bus interface 870A,B comprises a Rambus FlexIO® system interface 872A,B. The interface is organized into 12 channels each being 8 bits wide, with five paths being inbound and seven outbound. This provides a theoretical peak bandwidth of 62.4 GB/s (36.4 GB/s outbound, 26 GB/s inbound) between the Cell processor and the I/O Bridge 734 via controller 870A and the Reality Simulator graphics unit 730 via controller 870B. Data sent by the Cell processor 728 to the Reality Simulator graphics unit 730 will typically comprise display lists, being a sequence of commands to draw vertices, apply textures to polygons, specify lighting conditions, and so on. FIG. 10 is an exemplary illustration of scene A through scene E with respective user A through user E interacting with game clients 1102 that are connected to server processing via the internet, in accordance with one embodiment of the present invention. A game client is a device that allows users to connect to server applications and processing via the internet. The game client allows users to access and playback online entertainment content such as but not limited to games, movies, music and photos. Additionally, the game client can provide access to online communications applications such as VOIP, text chat protocols, and email. A user interacts with the game client via controller. In some embodiments the controller is a game client specific controller while in other embodiments, the controller can be a keyboard and mouse combination. In one embodiment, the game client is a standalone device capable of outputting audio and video signals to create a multimedia environment through a monitor/television and associated audio equipment. For example, the game client can be, but is not limited to a thin client, an internal PCI-express card, an external PCI-express device, an ExpressCard device, an internal, external, or wireless USB device, or a Firewire device, etc. In other embodiments, the game client is integrated with a television or other multimedia device such as a DVR, Blu-Ray player, DVD player or multi-channel receiver. Within scene A of FIG. 10, user A interacts with a client application displayed on a monitor 1104A using a controller 1106A paired with game client 1102A. Similarly, within scene B, user B interacts with another client application that is displayed on monitor 1104B using a controller 1106B paired with game client 1102B. Scene C illustrates a view from behind user C as he looks at a monitor displaying a game and buddy list from the game client 1102C. While FIG. 10 shows a single server processing module, in one embodiment, there are multiple server processing modules throughout the world. Each server processing module includes sub-modules for user session control, sharing/communication logic, user geo-location, and load balance processing service. Furthermore, a server processing module includes network processing and distributed storage. When a game client 1102 connects to a server processing module, user session control may be used to authenticate the user. An authenticated user can have associated virtualized distributed storage and virtualized network processing. Examples items that can be stored as part of a user's virtualized distributed storage include purchased media such as, but not limited to games, videos and music etc. Additionally, distributed storage can be used to save game status for multiple games, customized settings for individual games, and general settings for the game client. In one embodiment, the user geo-location module of the server processing is used to determine the geographic location of a user and their respective game client. The user's geographic location can be used by both the sharing/communication logic and the load balance processing service to optimize performance based on geographic location and processing demands of multiple server processing modules. Virtualizing either or both network processing and network storage would allow processing tasks from game clients to be dynamically shifted to underutilized server processing module(s). Thus, load balancing can be used to minimize latency associated with both recall from storage and with data transmission between server processing modules and game clients. The server processing module has instances of server application A and server application B. The server processing module is able to support multiple server applications as indicated by server application X1 and server application X2. In one embodiment, server processing is based on cluster computing architecture that allows multiple processors within a cluster to process server applications. In another embodiment, a different type of multi-computer processing scheme is applied to process the server applications. This allows the server processing to be scaled in order to accommodate a larger number of game clients executing multiple client applications and corresponding server applications. Alternatively, server processing can be scaled to accommodate increased computing demands necessitated by more demanding graphics processing or game, video compression, or application complexity. In one embodiment, the server processing module performs the majority of the processing via the server application. This allows relatively expensive components such as graphics processors, RAM, and general processors to be centrally located and reduces to the cost of the game client. Processed server application data is sent back to the corresponding game client via the internet to be displayed on a monitor. Scene C illustrates an exemplary application that can be executed by the game client and server processing module. For example, in one embodiment game client 1102C allows user C to create and view a buddy list 1120 that includes user A, user B, user D and user E. As shown, in scene C, user C is able to see either real time images or avatars of the respective user on monitor 1104C. Server processing executes the respective applications of game client 1102C and with the respective game clients 1102 of users A, user B, user D and user E. Because the server processing is aware of the applications being executed by game client B, the buddy list for user A can indicate which game user B is playing. Further still, in one embodiment, user A can view actual in game video directly from user B. This is enabled by merely sending processed server application data for user B to game client A in addition to game client B. In addition to being able to view video from buddies, the communication application can allow real-time communications between buddies. As applied to the previous example, this allows user A to provide encouragement or hints while watching real-time video of user B. In one embodiment two-way real time voice communication is established through a client/server application. In another embodiment, a client/server application enables text chat. In still another embodiment, a client/server application converts speech to text for display on a buddy's screen. Scene D and scene E illustrate respective user D and user E interacting with game consoles 1110D and 1110E respectively. Each game console 1110D and 1110E are connected to the server processing module and illustrate a network where the server processing modules coordinates game play for both game consoles and game clients. FIG. 11 illustrates an embodiment of an Information Service Provider architecture. Information Service Providers (ISP) 1370 delivers a multitude of information services to users 1382 geographically dispersed and connected via network 1386. An ISP can deliver just one type of service, such as stock price updates, or a variety of services such as broadcast media, news, sports, gaming, etc. Additionally, the services offered by each ISP are dynamic, that is, services can be added or taken away at any point in time. Thus, the ISP providing a particular type of service to a particular individual can change over time. For example, a user may be served by an ISP in near proximity to the user while the user is in her home town, and the user may be served by a different ISP when the user travels to a different city. The home-town ISP will transfer the required information and data to the new ISP, such that the user information “follows” the user to the new city making the data closer to the user and easier to access. In another embodiment, a master-server relationship may be established between a master ISP, which manages the information for the user, and a server ISP that interfaces directly with the user under control from the master ISP. In other embodiment, the data is transferred from one ISP to another ISP as the client moves around the world to make the ISP in better position to service the user be the one that delivers these services. ISP 1370 includes Application Service Provider (ASP) 1372, which provides computer-based services to customers over a network. Software offered using an ASP model is also sometimes called on-demand software or software as a service (SaaS). A simple form of providing access to a particular application program (such as customer relationship management) is by using a standard protocol such as HTTP. The application software resides on the vendor's system and is accessed by users through a web browser using HTML, by special purpose client software provided by the vendor, or other remote interface such as a thin client. Services delivered over a wide geographical area often use cloud computing. Cloud computing is a style of computing in which dynamically scalable and often virtualized resources are provided as a service over the Internet. Users do not need to be an expert in the technology infrastructure in the “cloud” that supports them. Cloud computing can be divided in different services, such as Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS). Cloud computing services often provide common business applications online that are accessed from a web browser, while the software and data are stored on the servers. The term cloud is used as a metaphor for the Internet, based on how the Internet is depicted in computer network diagrams and is an abstraction for the complex infrastructure it conceals. Further, ISP 1370 includes a Game Processing Server (GPS) 1374 which is used by game clients to play single and multiplayer video games. Most video games played over the Internet operate via a connection to a game server. Typically, games use a dedicated server application that collects data from players and distributes it to other players. This is more efficient and effective than a peer-to-peer arrangement, but it requires a separate server to host the server application. In another embodiment, the GPS establishes communication between the players and their respective game-playing devices exchange information without relying on the centralized GPS. Dedicated GPSs are servers which run independently of the client. Such servers are usually run on dedicated hardware located in data centers, providing more bandwidth and dedicated processing power. Dedicated servers are the preferred method of hosting game servers for most PC-based multiplayer games. Massively multiplayer online games run on dedicated servers usually hosted by the software company that owns the game title, allowing them to control and update content. Broadcast Processing Server (BPS) 1376 distributes audio or video signals to an audience. Broadcasting to a very narrow range of audience is sometimes called narrowcasting. The final leg of broadcast distribution is how the signal gets to the listener or viewer, and it may come over the air as with a radio station or TV station to an antenna and receiver, or may come through cable TV or cable radio (or “wireless cable”) via the station or directly from a network. The Internet may also bring either radio or TV to the recipient, especially with multicasting allowing the signal and bandwidth to be shared. Historically, broadcasts have been delimited by a geographic region, such as national broadcasts or regional broadcast. However, with the proliferation of fast internet, broadcasts are not defined by geographies as the content can reach almost any country in the world. Storage Service Provider (SSP) 1378 provides computer storage space and related management services. SSPs also offer periodic backup and archiving. By offering storage as a service, users can order more storage as required. Another major advantage is that SSPs include backup services and users will not lose all their data if their computers' hard drives fail. Further, a plurality of SSPs can have total or partial copies of the user data, allowing users to access data in an efficient way independently of where the user is located or the device being used to access the data. For example, a user can access personal files in the home computer, as well as in a mobile phone while the user is on the move. Communications Provider 380 provides connectivity to the users. One kind of Communications Provider is an Internet Service Provider (ISP) which offers access to the Internet. The ISP connects its customers using a data transmission technology appropriate for delivering Internet Protocol datagrams, such as dial-up, DSL, cable modem, wireless or dedicated high-speed interconnects. The Communications Provider can also provide messaging services, such as e-mail, instant messaging, and SMS texting. Another type of Communications Provider is the Network Service provider (NSP) which sells bandwidth or network access by providing direct backbone access to the Internet. Network service providers may consist of telecommunications companies, data carriers, wireless communications providers, Internet service providers, cable television operators offering high-speed Internet access, etc. Data Exchange 1388 interconnects the several modules inside ISP 1370 and connects these modules to users 1382 via network 1386. Data Exchange 1388 can cover a small area where all the modules of ISP 1370 are in close proximity, or can cover a large geographic area when the different modules are geographically dispersed. For example, Data Exchange 1388 can include a fast Gigabit Ethernet (or faster) within a cabinet of a data center, or an intercontinental virtual area network (VLAN). Users 1382 access the remote services with client device 1384, which includes at least a CPU, a display and I/O. The client device can be a PC, a mobile phone, a netbook, a PDA, etc. In one embodiment, ISP 1370 recognizes the type of device used by the client and adjusts the communication method employed. In other cases, client devices use a standard communications method, such as html, to access ISP 1370. Embodiments of the present invention may be practiced with various computer system configurations including hand-held devices, microprocessor systems, microprocessor-based or programmable consumer electronics, minicomputers, mainframe computers and the like. The invention can also be practiced in distributed computing environments where tasks are performed by remote processing devices that are linked through a wire-based or wireless network. With the above embodiments in mind, it should be understood that the invention can employ various computer-implemented operations involving data stored in computer systems. These operations are those requiring physical manipulation of physical quantities. Any of the operations described herein that form part of the invention are useful machine operations. The invention also relates to a device or an apparatus for performing these operations. The apparatus can be specially constructed for the required purpose, or the apparatus can be a general-purpose computer selectively activated or configured by a computer program stored in the computer. In particular, various general-purpose machines can be used with computer programs written in accordance with the teachings herein, or it may be more convenient to construct a more specialized apparatus to perform the required operations. The invention can also be embodied as computer readable code on a computer readable medium. The computer readable medium is any data storage device that can store data, which can be thereafter be read by a computer system. Examples of the computer readable medium include hard drives, network attached storage (NAS), read-only memory, random-access memory, CD-ROMs, CD-Rs, CD-RWs, magnetic tapes and other optical and non-optical data storage devices. The computer readable medium can include computer readable tangible medium distributed over a network-coupled computer system so that the computer readable code is stored and executed in a distributed fashion. Although the method operations were described in a specific order, it should be understood that other housekeeping operations may be performed in between operations, or operations may be adjusted so that they occur at slightly different times, or may be distributed in a system which allows the occurrence of the processing operations at various intervals associated with the processing, as long as the processing of the overlay operations are performed in the desired way. Although the foregoing invention has been described in some detail for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be apparent that certain changes and modifications can be practiced within the scope of the appended claims. Accordingly, the present embodiments are to be considered as illustrative and not restrictive, and the invention is not to be limited to the details given herein, but may be modified within the scope and equivalents of the appended claims. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH> | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the present invention provide systems and methods for interfacing with an interactive application such as a video game. Several inventive embodiments of the present invention are described below. In one embodiment, an image capture device for providing input to an interactive application is provided. The image capture device includes: a housing; a first camera defined along a front surface of the housing; a first camera controller configured to control the first camera to capture images of an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting; a second camera defined along the front surface of the housing; a second camera controller configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting lower than the first exposure setting, the captured images from the second camera being analyzed to identify and track an illuminated object in the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the captured images from the first camera are analyzed to identify and track a user. In one embodiment, identifying and tracking the user includes identifying and tracking a face of the user. In one embodiment, the first camera and the second camera are horizontally aligned along the front surface of the housing. In one embodiment, the image capture device further includes a microphone array for capturing sound from the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the first camera controller is configured to control the first camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the first exposure setting. In one embodiment, the second camera controller is configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the second exposure setting. In another embodiment, a system for facilitating interactivity with an interactive application is provided, including: an image capture device, the image capture device including a first camera, a second camera, a first camera controller configured to control the first camera to capture images of an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting, and a second camera controller configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting lower than the first exposure setting; a computing device connected to the image capture device, the computing device configured to execute the interactive application, the computing device configured to analyze the captured images from the second camera to identify and track an illuminated object in the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the computing device is configured to analyze the captured images from the first camera to identify and track a user. In one embodiment, identifying and tracking the user includes identifying and tracking a face of the user. In one embodiment, the first camera and the second camera are horizontally aligned along the front surface of the housing. In one embodiment, the system further includes a microphone array for capturing sound from the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the first camera controller is configured to control the first camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the first exposure setting. In one embodiment, the second camera controller is configured to control the second camera to capture images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity, the images captured prior to the user interactivity being analyzed to determine the second exposure setting. In another embodiment, a method for interactivity with an interactive application is provided, including the following method operations: capturing images from an interactive environment during user interactivity at a first exposure setting; capturing images from the interactive environment during the user interactivity at a second exposure setting lower than the first exposure setting; analyzing the images captured at the second exposure setting to identify and track an illuminated object in the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the method further includes analyzing the images captured at the first exposure setting to identify and track a user. In one embodiment, identifying and tracking the user includes identifying and tracking a face of the user. In one embodiment, the method further includes analyzing the images captured at the first exposure setting to identify and track an AR tag. In one embodiment, the method further includes capturing sound from the interactive environment. In one embodiment, the method further includes capturing images of the interactive environment prior to the user interactivity; and analyzing the images captured prior to the user interactivity to determine one or more of the first exposure setting or the second exposure setting. In another embodiment, a method for managing multi-player interactivity with an interactive application is provided, including the following method operations: determining a location of a first controller; determining a location of a second controller; determining a location of a biometric identifier of a first user; determining a location of a biometric identifier of a second user; pairing the first controller to the first user based on the location of the first controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the first user; pairing the second controller to the second user based on the location of the second controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the second user; wherein the method is executed by a processor. In one embodiment, determining the location of the first controller includes identifying an illuminated portion of the first controller; and determining the location of the second controller includes identifying an illuminated portion of the second controller. In one embodiment, identifying the illuminated portion of the first controller includes identifying a first color defined by the illuminated portion of the first controller; and identifying the illuminated portion of the second controller includes identifying a second color defined by the illuminated portion of the second controller, the second color being a different color than the first color. In one embodiment, the method further includes: determining a previous pairing of the first controller to the second user; determining a previous pairing of the second controller to the first user; changing the illuminated portion of the first controller from the first color to the second color; changing the illuminated portion of the second controller from the second color to the first color. In one embodiment, the biometric identifier of the first user is defined by one or more of a face, a voice, a size, or a fingerprint of the first user; and the biometric identifier of the first user is defined by one or more of a face, a voice, a size, or a fingerprint of the second user. In one embodiment, determining the location of the biometric identifier of the first user includes determining a vicinity of the first controller and searching the vicinity of the first controller to identify the biometric identifier of the first user; and determining the location of the biometric identifier of the second user includes determining a vicinity of the second controller and searching the vicinity of the second controller to identify the biometric identifier of the second user. In one embodiment, the method further includes presenting a split-screen view of the interactive application, the split-screen view including a first view defined for the first user and a second view defined for the second user; wherein locations of the first view and the second view in the split-screen view are determined based on one or more of the location of the first controller, the location of the second controller, the location of the biometric identifier of the first user, or the biometric identifier of the second user. In one embodiment, any of the presently described methods is defined in the form of program instructions embodied on a computer readable medium. In another embodiment, a method for managing multi-player interactivity with an interactive application is provided, including the following method operations: capturing images of an interactive environment; analyzing the captured images to determine a location of a first controller; analyzing the captured images to determine a location of a second controller; analyzing the captured images to determine a location of a biometric identifier of a first user; analyzing the captured images to determine a location of a biometric identifier of a second user; pairing the first controller to the first user based on the location of the first controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the first user; pairing the second controller to the second user based on the location of the second controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the second user; wherein the method is executed by a processor. In one embodiment, analyzing the captured images to determine the location of the first controller includes identifying an illuminated portion of the first controller; and analyzing the captured images to determine the location of the second controller includes identifying an illuminated portion of the second controller. In one embodiment, identifying the illuminated portion of the first controller includes identifying a first color defined by the illuminated portion of the first controller; and identifying the illuminated portion of the second controller includes identifying a second color defined by the illuminated portion of the second controller, the second color being a different color than the first color. In one embodiment, the method further includes: determining a previous pairing of the first controller to the second user; determining a previous pairing of the second controller to the first user; changing the illuminated portion of the first controller from the first color to the second color; changing the illuminated portion of the second controller from the second color to the first color. In one embodiment, the biometric identifier of the first user is defined by a face of the first user; and the biometric identifier of the first user is defined by a face of the second user. In one embodiment, analyzing the captured images to determine the location of the biometric identifier of the first user includes determining a vicinity of the first controller and searching the vicinity of the first controller to identify the biometric identifier of the first user; and analyzing the captured images to determine the location of the biometric identifier of the second user includes determining a vicinity of the second controller and searching the vicinity of the second controller to identify the biometric identifier of the second user. In one embodiment, the method further includes: presenting a split-screen view of the interactive application, the split-screen view including a first view defined for the first user and a second view defined for the second user; wherein locations of the first view and the second view in the split-screen view are determined based on one or more of the location of the first controller, the location of the second controller, the location of the biometric identifier of the first user, or the biometric identifier of the second user. In another embodiment, a method for managing multi-player interactivity with an interactive application executing on a cloud processing server is provided, including the following method operations: receiving image data captured from an interactive environment; processing the captured image data to determine a location of a first controller, a location of a second controller, a location of a biometric identifier of a first user, and a location of a biometric identifier of a second user; pairing the first controller to the first user based on the location of the first controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the first user; pairing the second controller to the second user based on the location of the second controller and the location of the biometric identifier of the second user; wherein the method is executed by a processor. In one embodiment, determining the location of the first controller includes analyzing the captured image data to identify an illuminated portion of the first controller; and determining the location of the second controller includes analyzing the captured image data to identify an illuminated portion of the second controller. In one embodiment, identifying the illuminated portion of the first controller includes identifying a first color defined by the illuminated portion of the first controller; and identifying the illuminated portion of the second controller includes identifying a second color defined by the illuminated portion of the second controller, the second color being a different color than the first color. In one embodiment, the method further includes determining a previous pairing of the first controller to the second user; determining a previous pairing of the second controller to the first user; sending an instruction to change the illuminated portion of the first controller from the first color to the second color; sending an instruction to change the illuminated portion of the second controller from the second color to the first color. Other aspects of the invention will become apparent from the following detailed description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, illustrating by way of example the principles of the invention. | A63F13235 | 20170808 | 20171123 | 78661.0 | A63F13235 | 0 | MYHR, JUSTIN L | MULTI-IMAGE INTERACTIVE GAMING DEVICE | UNDISCOUNTED | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | A63F | 2,017 |
|
15,672,162 | PENDING | ASSESSMENT OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE WITH CARBON DIOXIDE | The invention provides methods for diagnosing coronary heart disease in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject to induce hyperemia, monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject and diagnosing the presence or absence of coronary heart disease in the subject, wherein decreased vascular reactivity in the subject compared to a control subject is indicative of coronary heart disease. The invention also provides methods for increasing sensitivity and specificity of BOLD MRI. | 1. A method of inducing hyperemia to diagnose coronary heart disease in a subject in need thereof comprising administering a CO2 containing gas, attaining at least one increase in a subject's coronary PaCO2 sufficient for diagnosing coronary heart disease from imaging data, and imaging the heart during a period in which the at least one increase in PaCO2 is measurable to produce imaging data indicative of a cardiovascular-disease-associated vasoreactive response in at least one coronary blood vessel or region of the heart. 2. The method of claim 1, comprising attaining the at least one increase in PaCO2 in a stepwise manner. 3. The method of claim 1, comprising attaining the at least one increase in PaCO2 in a block manner. 4. The method of claim 1, comprising administering carbon dioxide via inhalation to attain a predetermined PaCO2. 5. The method of claim 4, wherein the predetermined PaCO2 is subject specific. 6. The method of claim 5, wherein the selected increase in PaCO2 is an 8 to 20 mm Hg increase in a subject's steady state level measured prior to changing the subject's PaCO2. 7. The method of claim 1, wherein the cardiovascular disease-associated vasoreactive response is a compromised increase in blood flow. 8. The method of claim 1, wherein the imaging method is PET or SPECT and the measure of the cardiovascular-disease-associated vasoreactive response is the presence or absence of a threshold increase in blood flow. 9. The method of claim 1, wherein the imaging data is indicative of the presence or absence of a two-fold increase in blood flow. 10. The method of claim 1, wherein the PaCO2 is increased and decreased in a block manner repeatedly. 11. The method of claim 1, wherein the imaging data are obtained by MRI. 12. The method of claim 1, wherein the imaging data are a change in signal intensity of a BOLD MRI signal. 13. The method of claim 1, wherein the presence or absence of coronary heart disease is assessed on the basis of whether or not the at least one increase in PaCO2 produces at least an 8%-20% increase in BOLD signal intensity. 14. The method of claim 1, wherein the presence or absence of coronary heart disease is assessed on the basis of whether or not the at least one increase in PaCO2produces at least a 9%-12% increase in BOLD signal intensity. 15. The method of claim 1, wherein the presence or absence of coronary heart disease is assessed on the basis of whether or not the at least one increase in PaCO2 produces at least a 10% increase in a BOLD MRI signal 16.-17. (canceled) 18. The method of claim 11, comprising (i) registering and segmenting MRI images to obtain the myocardial dynamic volume and (ii) identifying ischemic territory and quantifying image volume. 19. The method of claim 12, comprising (i) imaging the myocardium to obtain free-breathing cardiac phase resolved 3D myocardial BOLD images; (ii) registering and segmenting the images to obtain the myocardial dynamic volume; and (iii) identifying ischemic territory and quantifying image volume. 20.-22. (canceled) 23. A method for imaging hyperemia in a subject in need of a diagnostic assessment of cardiovascular disease comprising administering a CO2 containing gas in a non-therapeutic diagnostic setting, attaining at least one selected increase in a subject's coronary PaCO2 sufficient for diagnosing coronary heart disease from imaging data and imaging the heart during a period in which the selected increase in PaCO2 is measurable, wherein the imaging data is selected to be indicative of a cardiovascular-disease-associated vasoreactive response in at least one coronary blood vessel or region of the heart. 24.-25. (canceled) 26. The method of claim 23, wherein the cardiovascular-disease-associated vasoreactive response is comparable to a vasodilatory response produced by administering a hyperemia inducing drug for a duration and in an amount per unit of time effective to assess coronary disease. 27.-29. (canceled) 30. The method of claim 23, wherein the cardiovascular-disease-associated vasoreactive response is obtained by controlling the administration of a CO2 containing gas to repeatedly alternate between at least two PaCO2 levels and obtaining repeat BOLD MRI measurement at each level to statistically assess the hyperemic response. 31.-35. (canceled) | GOVERNMENT RIGHTS The invention was made with government support under Grant No. HL091989 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights to the invention. FIELD OF INVENTION The invention is directed to methods for detecting coronary heart disease using carbon dioxide (CO2) to induce hyperemia and monitor vascular reactivity. BACKGROUND All publications herein are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. The following description includes information that may be useful in understanding the present invention. It is not an admission that any of the information provided herein is prior art or relevant to the presently claimed invention, or that any publication specifically or implicitly referenced is prior art. Coronary artery disease (CAD) leads to narrowing of the small blood vessels that supply blood and oxygen to the heart. Typically, atherosclerosis is the cause of CAD. As the coronary arteries narrow, blood flow to the heart can slow down or stop, causing, amongst other symptoms, chest pain (stable angina), shortness of breath and/or myocardial infarction. Numerous tests help diagnose CAD. Such tests include coronary angiography/arteriography, CT angiography, echocardiogram, electrocardiogram (ECG), electron-beam computed tomography (EBCT), magnetic resonance angiography, nuclear scan and exercise stress test. Functional assessment of the myocardium (for example the assessment of myocardium's oxygen status) requires that a patient's heart is stressed either via controlled exercise or pharmacologically. Assessment of vascular reactivity in the heart is the hallmark of stress testing in cardiac imaging aimed at understanding ischemic heart disease. This is routinely done in Nuclear Medicine with radionuclide injection (such as Thallium) in conjunction with exercise to identify territories of the heart muscle that are subtended by a suspected narrowed coronary artery. In patients who are contraindicated for exercise stress-testing, this approach is typically used in conjunction with hyperemia inducing drugs, for example via adenosine infusion. Reduced coronary narrowing is expected to reduce hyperemic response and the perfusion reserve. Since nuclear methods are hampered by the need for radioactive tracers combined with limited imaging resolution, other imaging methods, such as ultrasound (using adenosine along with microbubble contrast) and MRI (also using adenosine and various conjugates of gadolinium (Gd) (first-pass perfusion) or alterations in oxygen saturation in response to hyperemia, also known as the Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) effect) are under clinical investigation. Nonetheless, in patients who are contraindicated for exercise stress-testing, currently all imaging approaches require adenosine to elicit hyperemia. However, adenosine has undesirable side effects (such as the feeling of “impending doom”, bradycardia, arrhythmia, transient or prolonged episode of asystole, ventricular fibrillation (rarely), chest pain, headache, dyspnea, and nausea), making it less than favorable for initial or follow-up studies and many patients request that they do not undergo repeated adenosine stress testing. Nonetheless repeated stress testing is indicated in a significant patient population to assess the effectiveness of interventional or medical therapeutic regimens. In view of the side effects of hyperemia inducing drugs, there is a need for alternatives, which induce hyperemia in patients who are contraindicated for exercise stress-testing but do not cause the side effects caused by the existing hyperemia inducing drugs. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION Applicants' invention is directed to the use of carbon dioxide to replace adenosine to induce hyperemia in subjects contra-indicated for exercise stress testing so as to diagnose coronary heart diseases but without the side effects of adenosine. In an embodiment, the CO2 levels are altered while the O2 levels are held constant. In another embodiment, the CO2 levels are controlled by administering a blend of air and a controlled amount of a gas mixture comprising 20% oxygen and 80% carbon dioxide. The invention is directed to methods for diagnosing coronary heart disease in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject to produce a hyperemic response corresponding to at least one selected increase in a subject's coronary PaCO2, monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject and diagnosing the presence or absence of coronary heart disease in the subject. The presence of coronary disease can be detected by monitoring a parameter indicative of a disease-associated change in a vasoreactive response to the at least one increase in PaCO2 in at least one coronary blood vessel or region of the heart. The inventors have found that such a change can be captured by monitoring the quantum of change in a parameter affected by a change in PaCO2, from an first PaCO2 level to a PaCO2 second level, for example a parameter correlated with vasodilation such as increased blood flow. An observation of a change in a vasodilatory response can be extended to comparing responses among different subjects, wherein a decreased vascular reactivity in a subject in need of a diagnosis compared to that of a control subject is indicative of coronary heart disease. Thus, according to one embodiment, the invention also provides a method for assessing hyperemic response in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject to induce hyperemia, monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject and assessing hyperemic response in the subject, wherein decreased vascular reactivity in the subject compared to a control subject is indicative of poor hyperemic response, thereby assessing hyperemic response in the subject in need thereof. The invention may be directed to assessing organ perfusion in a subject in need thereof. The invention may be directed to assessing vascular reactivity of an organ in a subject in need thereof. The invention further provides methods of producing coronary vasodilation in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject so as to produce coronary vasodilation, thereby producing coronary vasodilation in the subject. The invention also provides methods from increasing sensitivity and specificity for BOLD MRI. The method includes administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject to induce hyperemia and imaging the myocardium using MRI to assess a hypermic response in response to a predetermined modulation in PaCO2. Optionally, imaging the myocardium comprises (i) obtaining free-breathing cardiac phase resolved 3D myocardial BOLD images; (ii) registering and segmenting the images to obtain the myocardial dynamic volume; and (iii) identifying ischemic territory and quantify image volume. The invention is also directed to the use a CO2 containing gas for inducing hyperemia in a subject in need of a diagnostic assessment of coronary heart disease, wherein the CO2 containing gas is used to attain at least one increase in a subject's coronary PaCO2 sufficient for diagnosing coronary heart disease from imaging data, wherein the imaging data is indicative of a cardiovascular-disease-associated vasoreactive response to the least one increase in PaCO2 in at least one coronary blood vessel or region of the heart. The invention also provides a method for inducing hyperemia in a subject in need of a diagnostic assessment of coronary heart disease comprising administering a CO2 containing gas, attaining at least one increase in a subject's coronary PaCO2 sufficient for diagnosing coronary heart disease from imaging data and imaging the heart during a period in which the increase in PaCO2 is measurable, wherein the imaging data is indicative of a cardiovascular disease-associated vasoreactive response in at least one coronary blood vessel or region of the heart. Optionally, the at least one increase in the subject's PaCO2 is selected to produce a coronary vasoreactive response sufficient for replacing a hyperemia inducing drug in assessing coronary disease. Optionally, the use/method comprises attaining a particular predetermined PaCO2. Optionally, the pre-determined PaCO2 is patient specific, for example an 8 to 20 mm Hg increase relative a baseline steady level measured at the time of testing. Optionally, the use/method comprises administering carbon dioxide in a stepwise manner. Optionally, the use/method comprises administering carbon dioxide in a block manner. Optionally, the CO2 is administered via inhalation. Optionally, the disease-associated coronary vasoreactive response is assessed relative to a control subject. Optionally, the PaCO2 is increased and decreased repeatedly. Optionally, the at least one PaCO2 produces at least an 8%-12% increase in a BOLD signal intensity. Optionally, the disease-associated vasoreactive response is a compromised increase in blood flow. Optionally, the imaging data is indicative of the presence or absence of a two-fold increase in blood flow in a coronary artery. Optionally the imaging data are obtained by MRI and the imaging method obtains input of a change in signal intensity of a BOLD MRI signal. Optionally, the imaging method is PET or SPECT and the measure of a disease-associated vasoreactive response is the presence or absence of a threshold increase in blood flow. Optionally, the at least one increase in PaCO2 produces at least a 10% increase in intensity of a BOLD MRI signal. Optionally, the at least one increase in PaCO2 produces a 10-20% increase in intensity of a BOLD MRI signal. Optionally, the use/method comprises: (i) imaging the myocardium to obtain free-breathing cardiac phase resolved 3D myocardial BOLD images. (ii) registering and segmenting the images to obtain the myocardial dynamic volume and (iii) identifying ischemic territory and quantifying image volume. Optionally, the at least one PaCO2 is at least a 10 mm Hg increase from a first level which is determined to be between 30 and 55 mm Hg. Optionally, the first level is first determined to be between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Optionally, the sufficiency of the increase in PaCO2 is determined by increasing PaCO2 in a stepwise manner. Optionally, the vasoreactive response is sufficient for obtaining a disease-associated change in BOLD MRI signal obtained by administering CO2 in a manner effective to alternate between two or more PaCO2 levels over a period of time and using repeated BOLD MRI measurements to statistically assess the hyperemic response. Optionally, the coronary vasoreactive response corresponds to a vasodilatory response produced by administering a hyperemia inducing drug for a duration and in amount per unit of time effective to assess coronary disease. Optionally, the hyperemia inducing drug is adenosine, wherein adenosine is administered in a regimen of 140 milligrams/litre per minute over 4 to 6 minutes. Optionally, the use/method comprises admixing air with a selected amount of a CO2 containing gas controlled to obtain a predetermined size increase in PaCO2 from a previous value, for example a measured baseline value. The CO2 containing gas may contain, for example, 75 to 100% CO2. Optionally the CO2 containing gas comprises a percentage composition of oxygen in the 18-23% range, optionally about 20%. In one embodiment the invention is directed to a method for diagnosing coronary heart disease in a subject in need thereof comprising: (i) administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject in a stepwise or block manner to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject to induce hyperemia; (ii) monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject; and (iii) diagnosing the presence or absence of coronary heart disease in the subject, wherein decreased vascular reactivity in the subject compared to a control subject is indicative of coronary heart disease, thereby diagnosing coronary heart disease in the subject in need thereof. As elaborated below, administering carbon dioxide to alter PaCO2 in block manner, is optionally repeated over time. Optionally carbon dioxide is administered so as to alternate between two or more levels of PaCO2 over a period of time. Vascular reactivity may be monitored using any one or more of a variety of advanced imaging methods including positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to name a few. Optionally, vascular reactivity may be measured using FFR. A particularly advantageous admixture of CO2 and O2 for inducing hyperemia, particularly for blending a CO2 containing gas with air for inhalation is an admixture in which O2 is present in the range of 19-22%, for example about 20%. In this embodiment, CO2 may make up the rest of the admixture (81-78% respectively) or there may be a third gas in the admixture. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES FIG. 1 depicts, in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention, the vascular reactivity in dogs as measured by the BOLD-effect using medical-grade Carbogen (5% CO2 and 95% O2) with and without coronary artery stenosis. FIG. 2 depicts myocardial BOLD MRI with CO2 in canines under normocarbic and hypercarbic conditions under free breathing conditions. FIG. 3 depicts myocardial BOLD response to step-wise PaCO2 ramp up in canines while holding basal PaO2 constant. FIG. 4 depicts myocardial BOLD response to repeated (block) administration CO2 response. FIG. 5 depicts the Doppler flow through the left anterior descending artery in response to PaCO2 modulation while PaO2 is held constant. FIG. 6 depicts the Doppler flow through the LAD, RCA and LCX arteries in response to PaCO2 modulation while PaO2 is held constant. FIG. 7 is a bar graph depicting the territorial myocardial BOLD response to PaCO2 modulations in canines while PaO2 is held constant. FIG. 8 is a bar graph depicting the BOLD effect associated with PaCO2 modulation in blood, muscle and air while PaO2 is held constant. FIG. 9 is a table summarizing the statistical BOLD data associated with the PaCO2 modulation in myocardial territories, blood, muscle and air, while PaO2 is held constant. FIG. 10 is a comparison of BOLD response to adenosine and PaCO2 (while PaO2 is held constant). FIG. 11 depicts the early findings of BOLD response to PaCO2 in humans, while PaO2 is held constant. FIG. 12(a) depicts a simulated BOLD signal for a change in PaCO2 (red line) with definitions for noise variability (σ=20) and response. FIG. 12(b) depicts a relation between BOLD response (y-axis) and the number of measurements (x-axis) required to establish statistical significance (color-coded p-values). For a given BOLD response, the number of repeated measurements (N) required for reliable assessment (p<0.05) of a change from baseline condition lies at the right of the white dotted line. For e.g., to reliably detect a BOLD response from a voxel with peak BOLD signal response of 10%, greater than 8 measurements are needed. The bar on the right gives the scale for p values associated with the statistical significance. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION All references cited herein are incorporated by reference in their entirety as though fully set forth. Unless defined otherwise, technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Singleton et al., Dictionary of Microbiology and Molecular Biology 3rd ed., J. Wiley & Sons (New York, N.Y. 2001); March, Advanced Organic Chemistry Reactions, Mechanisms and Structure 5th ed., J. Wiley & Sons (New York, N.Y. 2001); and Sambrook and Russel, Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual 3rd ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. 2001), provide one skilled in the art with a general guide to many of the terms used in the present application. One skilled in the art will recognize many methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein, which could be used in the practice of the present invention. Indeed, the present invention is in no way limited to the methods and materials described. For purposes of the present invention, the following terms are defined below. “Beneficial results” may include, but are in no way limited to, lessening or alleviating the severity of the disease condition, preventing the disease condition from worsening, curing the disease condition, preventing the disease condition from developing, lowering the chances of a patient developing the disease condition and prolonging a patient's life or life expectancy. “Mammal” as used herein refers to any member of the class Mammalia, including, without limitation, humans and nonhuman primates such as chimpanzees and other apes and monkey species; farm animals such as cattle, sheep, pigs, goats and horses; domestic mammals such as dogs and cats; laboratory animals including rodents such as mice, rats and guinea pigs, and the like. The term does not denote a particular age or sex. Thus, adult and newborn subjects, as well as fetuses, whether male or female, are intended to be included within the scope of this term. “Treatment” and “treating,” as used herein refer to both therapeutic treatment and prophylactic or preventative measures, wherein the object is to prevent or slow down (lessen) the targeted pathologic condition, prevent the pathologic condition, pursue or obtain beneficial results, or lower the chances of the individual developing the condition even if the treatment is ultimately unsuccessful. Those in need of treatment include those already with the condition as well as those prone to have the condition or those in whom the condition is to be prevented. “Carbogen” as used herein is an admixture of carbon dioxide and oxygen. The amounts of carbon dioxide and oxygen in the admixture may be determined by one skilled in the art. Medical grade carbogen is typically 5% CO2 and 95% O2. In various other embodiments, carbon dioxide is used to induce hyperemia may be an admixture of ranges including but not limited to 94% O2 and 6% CO2, 93% O2 and 7% CO2, 92% O2 and 8% CO2, 91% O2 and 9% CO2, 90% O2 and 10% CO2, 85% O2 and 15% CO2, 80% O2 and 20% CO2, 75% O2 and 25% CO2 and/or 70% O2 and 30% CO2. Optionally, for blending with air, the CO2 containing gas comprises 20% oxygen. “BOLD” as used herein refers to blood-oxygen-level dependence. A “vascular-disease-associated” coronary vasoreactive response means a type and/or quantum of vasoreactive response elicited by cardiac stress testing (e.g. exercise or administration of a hyperemic drug or a CO2 containing gas) as demonstrable in an imaging study using one or more diagnostic imaging parameters of the type suitable to diagnose coronary vascular disease. For example, with respect to PET and SPECT, a normal response would be considered a four to five fold increase in blood flow. With respect to BOLD MRI imaging, a 10-12+% increase in BOLD signal would be considered normal. Disease associated responses are those which are not normal in varying significant degrees among which, as evidence of disease, benchmarks may be adopted to categorize differences with represent a clearer-cut diagnosis or a progression of disease that warrants greater follow-up or more proactive treatment, for example a less than two-fold increase in blood flow as measured by PET or SPECT (typically measured in ml. of blood/min/gm of tissue). Accordingly, a benchmark which represent a change from a value that clinicians described as “normal” which is at least statistically significant and optionally is also comparable to a standard for cardiac stress testing adopted by clinicians with respect to inducing stress represents a clear-cut benchmark for using CO2 as a vasoactive stress stimulus. A targeted increase in PaCO2 will be selected to cause a similar vasoreactive response in normal and diseased tissue. From the standpoint of statistical significance, it will be appreciated that selection of a discriminatory increase in PaCO2 may depend on whether or not repeat measurements are made, for example, the number of repeat measurements of a BOLD signal intensity that are made at while at lower and increased PaCO2 levels. Current methods for inducing hyperemia in subjects include the use of compounds such as adenosine, analogs thereof and/or functional equivalents thereof. However, such compounds (for example, adenosine) have adverse side effects including bradycardia, arrhythmia, transient or prolonged episode of asystole, ventricular fibrillation (rarely), chest pain, headache, dyspnea, and nausea, making it less than favorable for initial or follow-up studies. The invention described herein is directed to the use of CO2 instead of hyperemia-inducing drugs, in view of their side effects, to assess myocardial response and risk of coronary artery diseases. To date, however, it has not been possible to independently control arterial CO2 and O2, hence direct association of the influence of partial pressure of CO2 (PaCO2) on coronary vasodilation has been difficult to determine. With the development of gas flow controller devices designed to control gas concentrations in the lungs and blood (for example, RespirACT™, Thornhill Research, WO/2013/0082703), it is now possible to precisely control the arterial CO2, while, in some embodiments, holding O2 constant. With such devices, the desired PaCO2 changes are rapid (1-2 breaths) and are independent of minute ventilation. The inventors are the first adopters of such devices for the assessment of myocardial response to CO2. The claimed invention is believed to be the first to use modulation of CO2 levels to show that the carbon dioxide has the same effect as the clinical dose of other hyperemia-inducing drugs such as adenosine but without the side effects. The inventors induce hyperemia by administering an admixture comprising a predetermined amount of CO2 to a subject in need thereof to assess myocardial response, evaluate coronary artery disease and identify ischemic heart disease. In an embodiment, hyperemia is induced by independently altering the administered CO2 level while holding oxygen (O2) constant to assess myocardial response, evaluate coronary artery disease and identify ischemic heart disease. A subject's myocardial response after administration of CO2 may be monitored using various imaging techniques such as MRI. Cardiac Stress Testing When exercise stress testing is contra-indicated (in nearly 50% of patients), every existing imaging modality uses adenosine (or its analogues such as dipyridamole or regadenoson) to induce hyperemia. However, as described above, adenosine or analogs thereof or functional equivalents thereof, are well known for their adverse side effects such as bradycardia, arrhythmia, transient or prolonged episode of asystole, ventricular fibrillation (rarely), chest pain, headache, dyspnea, and nausea, making it less than favorable for initial or follow-up studies. Direct measures of ischemic burden may be determined on the basis of single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT/SPET), positron emission tomography (PET), myocardial contrast echocardiography (MCE), and first-pass perfusion magnetic resonance imaging (FPP-MRI). SPECT and PET use radiotracers as contrast agents. While SPECT and PET studies account for approximately 90% myocardial ischemia-testing studies, the sensitivity and specificity for both methods combined for the determination of severe ischemia is below 70%. Both MCE and FPP-MRI are relatively newer approaches that require the use of exogenous contrast media and intravenous pharmacological stress agent (adenosine), both carrying significant risks and side effects in certain patient populations. BOLD-MRI An alternate method, BOLD (Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent) MRI, relies on endogenous contrast mechanisms (changes in blood oxygen saturation, % O2) to identify ischemic territories. The potential benefits of BOLD MRI for detecting global or regional myocardial ischemia due to coronary artery disease (CAD) were demonstrated by the inventors and others at least a decade ago. Although a number of pilot clinical studies have demonstrated the feasibility of using BOLD MRI for identifying clinically significant myocardial ischemia due to CAD, the method is inherently limited by sensitivity and specificity due to low BOLD contrast-to-noise ratio (CNR). The repeatability of BOLD MRI using CO2 provides the means to improve sensitivity and specificity, which is not possible using adenosine or analogs thereof. The invention provides a method for increasing the sensitivity and specificity of BOLD MRI. The method includes administering an admixture comprising of CO2 to the subject in need thereof to induce hyperemia and imaging the myocardium using MRI to assess a hypermic response in response to a predetermined modulation in PaCO2. The proposed method utilizes (i) an individualized targeted change in arterial partial pressure of CO2 (PaCO2) as the non-invasive vasoactive stimulus, (ii) fast, high-resolution, 4D BOLD MRI at 3T and (iii) statistical models (for example, the generalized linear model (GLM) theory) to derive statistical parametric maps (SPM) to reliably detect and quantify the prognostically significant ischemic burden through repeated measurements (i.e. in a data-driven fashion). The method for increasing the sensitivity and specificity of BOLD MRI comprises (i) obtaining free-breathing cardiac phase-resolved 3D myocardial BOLD images (under different PaCO2 states established via inhalation of an admixture of gases comprising of CO2); (ii) registering and segmenting the images to obtain the myocardial dynamic volume and (iii) identifying ischemic territory and quantify image volume. Obtaining the Images The first step in increasing the sensitivity and specificity of BOLD MRI is to obtain free-breathing cardiac phase resolved 3D myocardial BOLD images. Subjects are placed on the MRI scanner table, ECG leads are placed, and necessary surface coils are positioned. Subsequently their hearts are localized and the cardiac shim protocol is prescribed over the whole heart. K-space lines, time stamped for trigger time are collected using cine SSFP acquisition with image acceleration along the long axis. Central k-space lines corresponding to each cardiac phase will be used to derive the center of mass (COM) curves along the z-axis via 1-D fast Fourier transform (FFT). Based on the COM curves, the k-space lines from each cardiac phase will be sorted into 1-30 bins, each corresponding to a respiratory state with the first bin being the reference bin (end-expiration) and the last bin corresponding to end inspiration. To minimize the artifacts from under sampling, the data will be processed with a 3D filter, followed by re-gridding the k-space lines, application of a spatial mask (to restrict the registration to region of the heart) and performing FFT to obtain the under sampled 3D image for each respiratory bin. Using the end-expiration image as the reference image, images from all bins (except bin 1) are registered using kits such as Insight Tool Kit (freely available from www.itk.org), or an equivalent software platform, in an iterative fashion and the transform parameters will be estimated for rotation, scaling, shearing, and translation of heart between the different respiratory bins. The k-space data will again be divided into 1 to 30 respiratory bins, re-gridded, transformed to the reference image (3D affine transform), summed together, and the final 3D image will be reconstructed. Imaging parameters may be TR=3.0 to 10 ms and flip angle=1° to 90°. In this fashion, 3D cine data under controlled PaCO2 values (hypo- and hyper-carbic states) are collected. Registration and Segmentation of Images The next step in increasing the sensitivity and specificity of BOLD MRI is registration and segmentation of the images to obtain the myocardial dynamic volume. The pipeline utilizes MATLAB and C++ using the ITK framework or an equivalent software platform. The myocardial MR images obtained with repeat CO2 stimulation blocks will be loaded in MATLAB (or an equivalent image processing platform) and arranged in a four-dimensional (4D) matrix, where the first 3 dimensions represent volume (voxels) and the fourth dimension is time (cardiac phase). Subsequently, each volume is resampled to achieve isotropic voxel size. End-systole (ES) are identified for each stack based on our minimum cross-correlation approach. A 4D non-linear registration algorithm is used to find voxel-to-voxel correspondences (deformation fields) across all cardiac phases. Using the recovered deformation, all cardiac phases are wrapped to the space of ES, such that all phases are aligned to ES. Recover the transformations across all ES images from repeat CO2 blocks and bring them to the same space using a diffeomorphic volume registration tool, such as ANTs. Upon completion, all cardiac phases from all acquisitions will be spatially aligned to the space of ES of the first acquisition (used as reference) and all phase-to-phase deformations and acquisition-to-acquisition transformations will be known. An expert delineation of the myocardium in the ES of the first (reference) acquisition will then be performed. Based on the estimated deformation fields and transformations, this segmentation is propagated to all phases and acquisitions, resulting in fully registered and segmented myocardial dynamic volumes. Image Analysis to Identity and Quantify Ischemic Territories The final step needed for increasing the sensitivity and specificity of BOLD MRI is identifying ischemic territory and quantify image volume. Since BOLD responses are optimally observed in systolic frames, only L systolic cardiac volumes (centered at ES) are retained from each fully registered and segmented 4D BOLD MR image set obtained above. Only those voxels contained in the myocardium are retained and the corresponding RPP (rate-pressure-product) and PaCO2 are noted. Assuming N acquisitions per CO2 state (hypocarbic or hypercarbic) and K, CO2 stimulation blocks, and each cardiac volume consists of n×m×p (×=multiplication) isotropic voxels, build a concatenated fully registered 4D dataset consisting of n×m×p×t pixels, where ×=multiplication and t=L×K×N, and export this dataset in NIFTI (or an equivalent) format using standard tools. The 4D dataset is loaded into a voxel-based statistical model fitting (such as FSL-FEAT developed for fMRI), to fit the model for each voxel. The statistical analysis outputs a P-statistic volume, i.e., the SPM, where for each voxel in the myocardium the p-value of the significance of the correlation to the model is reported. The statistical parametric maps (SPM) are thresholded by identifying the voxels that have p<0.05. Those voxels are identified as hyperemic for responding to the CO2 stimulation. The total number of hyperemic voxels (VH) are counted and their relative volume (VRH=VH/total voxels in myocardium) is determined. The voxels that do not respond to CO2 stimulation (on SPM) are identified as ischemic and used to generate a binary 3D map of ischemic voxels (3D-ISCHmap). In addition, total ischemic voxels (VI) and the relative ischemic volume (VRI=VI/total myocardial voxels) are determined. The above methods provide ischemic volumes that can be reliably identified on the basis of statistical analysis applied to repeatedly acquire 4D BOLD images under precisely targeted changes in PaCO2. These volumes are closely related to the clinical index of fractional flow reserve FFR. FFR An additional method, fractional flow reserve (FFR) is used in coronary catheterization to measure pressure differences across a coronary artery stenosis to determine the likelihood that the stenosis impedes oxygen delivery to the heart muscle (myocardial ischemia). Fractional flow reserve measures the pressure behind (distal to) a stenosis relative to the pressure before the stenosis, using adenosine or papaverine to induce hyperemia. A cut-off point of 0.75 to 0.80 has been used wherein higher values indicate a non-significant stenosis and lower values indicate a significant lesion. FFR, determined as the relative pressure differences across the stenotic coronary artery has emerged as the new standard for determining clinically significant ischemia (FFR≤0.75). However, it is invasive, expensive, and exposes the patient to ionizing radiation and the side-effects of the use of adenosine. In view of the side-effects of adenosine discussed above, Applicants propose using carbon dioxide instead of adenosine to induce hyperemia, by administering to a subject an admixture comprising CO2 to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject to induce hyperemia. In some embodiments, the admixture comprises any one or more of carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen; carbon dioxide and oxygen; carbon dioxide and nitrogen; or carbon dioxide alone. In one embodiment, the amounts of CO2 and O2 administered are both altered. In another embodiment, the amount of CO2 administered is altered to a predetermined level while the amount of O2 administered is held constant. In various embodiments, the amounts of any one or more of CO2, O2 or N2 in an admixture are changed or held constant as would be readily apparent to a person having ordinary skill in the art. Methods of the Invention The invention is directed to methods for diagnosing coronary heart disease in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject to induce hyperemia, monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject and diagnosing the presence or absence of coronary heart disease in the subject, wherein decreased vascular reactivity in the subject compared to a control subject is indicative of coronary heart disease. In an embodiment, CO2 is administered via inhalation. In another embodiment, CO2 levels are altered while the O2 levels remain unchanged so that the PaCO2 is changed independently of the O2 level. In a further embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using imagining techniques deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art, including but not limited to any one or more of positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT), positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT), ultrasound, electrocardiogram (ECG), Electron-beam computed tomography (EBCT), echocardiogram (ECHO), electron spin resonance (ESR) and/or any combination of the imaging modalities such as (PET/MR), PET/CT, and/or SPECT/MR. In an embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using free-breathing BOLD MRI. In some embodiments, the admixture comprises any one or more of carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen; carbon dioxide and oxygen; carbon dioxide and nitrogen; or carbon dioxide alone. In one embodiment, the amounts of CO2 and O2 administered are both altered. In another embodiment, the amount of CO2 administered is altered to a predetermined level while the amount of O2 administered is held constant. In various embodiments, the amounts of any one or more of CO2, O2 or N2 in an admixture are changed or held constant as would be readily apparent to a person having ordinary skill in the art. The invention also provides a method for assessing hyperemic response in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject to induce hyperemia, monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject and assessing hyperemic response in the subject, wherein decreased vascular reactivity in the subject compared to a control subject is indicative of poor hyperemic response, thereby assessing hyperemic response in the subject in need thereof. This method may also be used to assess organ perfusion and assess vascular reactivity. In an embodiment, CO2 is administered via inhalation. In another embodiment, CO2 levels are altered while the O2 levels remain unchanged so that the PaCO2 is changed independently of the O2 level. In a further embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using imagining techniques deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art, including but not limited to any one or more of positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT), positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT), ultrasound, electrocardiogram (ECG), Electron-beam computed tomography (EBCT), echocardiogram (ECHO), electron spin resonance (ESR) and/or any combination of the imaging modalities such as (PET/MR), PET/CT, and/or SPECT/MR. In an embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using free-breathing BOLD MRI. In some embodiments, the admixture comprises any one or more of carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen; carbon dioxide and oxygen; carbon dioxide and nitrogen; or carbon dioxide alone. In one embodiment, the amounts of CO2 and O2 administered are both altered. In another embodiment, the amount of CO2 administered is altered to a predetermined level while the amount of O2 administered is held constant. In various embodiments, the amounts of any one or more of CO2, O2 or N2 in an admixture are changed or held constant as would be readily apparent to a person having ordinary skill in the art. The invention is further directed to methods for producing coronary vasodilation in a subject in need thereof comprising providing a composition comprising CO2 and administering the composition comprising CO2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject so as to produce coronary vasodilation in the subject, thereby producing coronary vasodilation in the subject. In an embodiment, CO2 is administered via inhalation. In another embodiment, CO2 levels are altered while the O2 levels remain unchanged so that the PaCO2 is changed independently of the O2 level. In a further embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using imagining techniques deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art, including but not limited to any one or more of positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT), positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT), ultrasound, electrocardiogram (ECG), Electron-beam computed tomography (EBCT), echocardiogram (ECHO), electron spin resonance (ESR) and/or any combination of the imaging modalities such as (PET/MR), PET/CT, and/or SPECT/MR. In an embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using free-breathing BOLD MRI. In some embodiments, the admixture comprises any one or more of carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen; carbon dioxide and oxygen; carbon dioxide and nitrogen; or carbon dioxide alone. In one embodiment, the amounts of CO2 and O2 administered are both altered. In another embodiment, the amount of CO2 administered is altered to a predetermined level while the amount of O2 administered is held constant. In various embodiments, the amounts of any one or more of CO2, O2 or N2 in an admixture are changed or held constant as would be readily apparent to a person having ordinary skill in the art. The invention also provides a method for assessing tissue and/or organ perfusion in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO2 in the subject to induce hyperemia, monitoring vascular reactivity in the tissue and/or organ and assessing tissue and/or organ perfusion by assessing the hyperemic response in the subject, wherein decreased vascular reactivity in the subject compared to a control subject is indicative of poor hyperemic response and therefore poor tissue and/or organ perfusion. In an embodiment, CO2 is administered via inhalation. In another embodiment, CO2 levels are altered while the O2 levels remain unchanged so that the PaCO2 is changed independently of the O2 level. In a further embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using imagining techniques deemed appropriate by one skilled in the art, including but not limited to any one or more of positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT), positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT), ultrasound, electrocardiogram (ECG), Electron-beam computed tomography (EBCT), echocardiogram (ECHO), electron spin resonance (ESR) and/or any combination of the imaging modalities such as (PET/MR), PET/CT, and/or SPECT/MR. In an embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using free-breathing BOLD MRI. In some embodiments, the admixture comprises any one or more of carbon dioxide, oxygen and nitrogen; carbon dioxide and oxygen; carbon dioxide and nitrogen; or carbon dioxide alone. In one embodiment, the amounts of CO2 and O2 administered are both altered. In another embodiment, the amount of CO2 administered is altered to a predetermined level while the amount of O2 administered is held constant. In various embodiments, the amounts of any one or more of CO2, O2 or N2 in an admixture are changed or held constant as would be readily apparent to a person having ordinary skill in the art. In some embodiments, the admixture comprising CO2 is administered at high doses for short duration or at low doses for longer durations. For example, administering the admixture comprising CO2 at high doses of CO2 for a short duration comprises administering any one or more of 40 mmHg to 45 mmHg, 45 mmHg to 50 mmHg, 50 mmHg to 55 mmHg, 55 mmHg CO2 to 60 mm Hg CO2, 60 mmHg CO2 to 65 mm Hg CO2, 65 mmHg CO2 to 70 mm Hg CO2, 70 mmHg CO2 to 75 mm Hg CO2, 75 mmHg CO2 to 80 mm Hg CO2, 80 mmHg CO2 to 85 mm Hg CO2 or a combination thereof, for about 20 minutes, 15 minutes, 10 minutes, 9 minutes, 8 minutes, 7 minutes, 6 minutes, 5 minutes, 4 minutes, 3 minutes, 2 minutes, 1 minute or a combination thereof. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. For example, administering low doses of predetermined amounts of CO2 for a longer duration comprises administering the predetermined amount of CO2 at any one or more of about 30 mmHg CO2 to about 35 mmHg CO2, about 35 mmHg CO2 to about 40 mmHg CO2, about 40 mmHg CO2 to about 45 mmHg CO2or a combination thereof for any one or more of about 20 to 24 hours, about 15 to 20 hours, about 10 to 15 hours, about 5 to 10 hours, about 4 to 5 hours, about 3 to 4 hours, about 2 to 3 hours, about 1 to 2 hours, or a combination thereof, before inducing hyperemia. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. In one embodiment, CO2 is administered in a stepwise manner. In another embodiment, administering carbon dioxide in a stepwise manner includes administering carbon dioxide in 5 mmHg increments in the range of any one or more of 10 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2 or 50 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. In another embodiment, administering carbon dioxide in a stepwise manner includes administering carbon dioxide in 10 mmHg increments in the range of any one or more of 10 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2 or 50 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. In a further embodiment, administering carbon dioxide in a stepwise manner includes administering carbon dioxide in 20 mmHg increments in the range of any one or more of 10 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2 or 50 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. In a further embodiment, administering carbon dioxide in a stepwise manner includes administering carbon dioxide in 30 mmHg increments in the range of any one or more of 10 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2 or 50 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. In a further embodiment, administering carbon dioxide in a stepwise manner includes administering carbon dioxide in 40 mmHg increments in the range of any one or more of 10 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2 or 50 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. In a further embodiment, administering carbon dioxide in a stepwise manner includes administering carbon dioxide in 50 mmHg increments in the range of any one or more of 10 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 100 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 90 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 80 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 50 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 60 mmHg to 70 mmHg CO2, 10 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 20 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 30 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2, 40 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2 or 50 mmHg to 60 mmHg CO2. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. Other increments of carbon dioxide to be administered in a stepwise manner will a readily apparent to a person having ordinary skill in the art. In a further embodiment, predetermined amount of CO2 is administered in a block manner. Block administration of carbon dioxide comprises administering carbon dioxide in alternating amounts over a period of time. In alternating amounts of CO2 comprises alternating between any of 20 mmHg and 40 mmHg, 30 mmHg and 40 mmHg, 20 mmHg and 50 mmHg, 30 mmHg and 50 mmHg, 40 mmHg and 50 mmHg, 20 mmHg and 60 mmHg, 30 mmHg and 60 mmHg, 40 mmHg and 60 mmHg, or 50 mmHg and 60 mmHg. In various embodiments, the predetermined levels of CO2 are administered so that the arterial level of CO2 reaches the PaCO2 of any one or more of the above ranges. Other amounts of carbon dioxide to be used in alternating amounts over a period of time will be readily apparent to a person having ordinary skill in the art. In one embodiment, vascular reactivity may be measured by characterization of Myocardial Perfusion Reserve, which is defined as a ratio of Myocardial Perfusion at Stress to Myocardial Perfusion at Rest. In healthy subjects the ratio may vary from 5:1 to 6:1. The ratio diminishes with disease. A decrease in this ratio to 2:1 from the healthy level is considered the clinically significant and indicative of poor vascular reactivity. In another embodiment, vascular reactivity may be measured via differential absolute perfusion, which may be obtained using imaging methods such as first pass perfusion, SPECT/PET, CT perfusion or echocardiography in units of ml/sec/g of tissue. In an embodiment the CO2 gas is administered via inhalation. CO2 may be administered using, for example, RespirACT™ technology from Thornhill Research. In various embodiments, CO2 is administered for 1-2 minutes, 2-4 minutes, 4-6 minutes, 6-8 minutes, 8-10 minutes, 10-12 minutes, 12-14 minutes, 14-16 minutes, 16-18 minutes and/or 18-20 minutes. In a preferred embodiment, CO2 is administered for 4-6 minutes. In an additional embodiment CO2 is administered for an amount of time it takes for the arterial PaCO2 (partial pressure of carbon dioxide) to reach 50-60 mmHg from the standard levels of 30 mmHg during CO2-enhanced imaging. In one embodiment, carbon dioxide used to induce hyperemia is medical-grade carbogen which is an admixture of 95% O2 and 5% CO2. In various other embodiments, carbon dioxide is used to induce hyperemia may be an admixture of ranges including but not limited to 94% O2 and 6% CO2, 93% O2 and 7% CO2, 92% O2 and 8% CO2, 91% O2 and 9% CO2, 90% O2 and 10% CO2, 85% O2 and 15% CO2, 80% O2 and 20% CO2, 75% O2 and 25% CO2 and/or 70% O2 and 30% CO2. In another embodiment, vascular reactivity and/or vasodilation are monitored using any one or more of positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT/CT), positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT), ultrasound, electrocardiogram (ECG), Electron-beam computed tomography (EBCT), echocardiogram (ECHO), electron spin resonance (ESR) and/or any combination of the imaging modalities such as (PET/MR), PET/CT, and/or SPECT/MR In an embodiment, vascular reactivity is monitored using free-breathing BOLD MRI. Imaging techniques using carbon dioxide involve a free-breathing approach so as to permit entry of CO2 into the subject's system. In an embodiment, the subjects include mammalian subjects, including, human, monkey, ape, dog, cat, cow, horse, goat, pig, rabbit, mouse and rat. In a preferred embodiment, the subject is human. ADVANTAGES OF THE INVENTION The methods described herein to functionally assess the oxygen status of the myocardium include administering an effective amount of CO2 to the subject in need thereof In an embodiment, the O2 level is held constant while the CO2 level is altered so as to induce hyperemia. Applicants herein show the vascular reactivity in subjects in response to changes in PaCO2. The existing methods use adenosine, dipyridamole, or regadenoson which have significant side-effects described above. As described in the Examples below, CO2 is at least just as effective as the existing methods (which use, for example, adenosine) but without the side effects. The use of CO2 provides distinct advantages over the use of, for example, adenosine. Administering CO2 is truly non-invasive because it merely involves inhaling physiologically sound levels of CO2. The instant methods are simple, repeatable and fast and most likely have the best chance for reproducibility. Not even breath-holding is necessary during acquisition of images using the methods described herein. The instant methods are also highly cost-effective as no pharmacological stress agents are required, cardiologists may not need to be present during imaging and rapid imaging reduces scan times and costs. Further, the improved BOLD MRI technique described above provides a non-invasive and reliable determination of ischemic volume (no radiation, contrast-media, or adenosine) and other value-added imaging biomarkers from the same acquisition (Ejection Fraction, Wall Thickening). Additionally, the subject does not experience adenosine-related adverse side effects and thus greater patient tolerance for repeat ischemia testing. There is a significant cost-savings from abandoning exogenous contrast media and adenosine/regadenoson. Moreover, the proposed BOLD MRI paradigm will be accompanied by significant technical advances as well: (i) a fast, high-resolution, free-breathing 4D SSFP MRI at 3T, that can impact cardiac MRI in general; (ii) Repeated stimulations of the heart via precisely targeted changes in PaCO2; and (iii) adoption of sophisticated analytical methods employed in the brain to the heart. EXAMPLES All imaging studies were performed in instrumented animals with a Doppler flow probe attached to the LAD coronary arteries for measurement of flow changes in response to CO2 and clinical dose of adenosine. In these studies, CO2 and O2 delivery were tightly controlled using Respiract. CO2 values were incremented in steps of 10 mmHg starting from 30 mmHg to 60 mmHg and were ramped down in decrements of 10 mmHg. At each CO2 level, free-breathing and cardiac gated blood-oxygen-level-dependent (BOLD) acquisitions were prescribed at mid diastole and Doppler flow velocities were measured. Similar acquisitions were also performed with block sequences of CO2 levels; that is, CO2 levels were alternated between 40 and 50 mmHg and BOLD images (and corresponding Doppler flow velocities) were acquired at each CO2 level to assess the reproducibility of the signal changes associated with different CO2 levels. Each delivery of CO2 using Respiract were made in conjunction with arterial blood draw to determine the arterial blood CO2 levels. Imaging-based demonstration of myocardial hyperemic response to changes in PaCO2 was shown in health human volunteers with informed consent. Example 1 The inventor has shown that CO2 can increase myocardial perfusion by a similar amount, as does adenosine in canine models. The inventor has also shown that in the setting of coronary artery narrowing, it is possible to detect regional variations in hyperemic response with the use of MRI by detecting signal changes in the myocardium due to changes in oxygen saturation (also known as the BOLD effect) using a free-breathing BOLD MRI approach. As show in FIG. 1, the inventor found a 20% BOLD signal increase (hyperemic response) with medical-grade carbogen breathing in the absence of stenosis in dogs. With a severe stenosis, the hyperemic response was significantly reduced in the LAD (left anterior descending) territory but the other regions showed an increase in signal intensity (as observed with adenosine). First-pass perfusion images acquired with adenosine under severe stenosis (in the same slice position and trigger time) is also shown for comparison. Heart rate increase of around 5-10% and a drop in blood pressure (measured invasively) by about 5% was also observed in this animal under carbogen. All acquisitions were navigator gated T2-prep 2D SSFP (steady-state free precession) and triggered at mid/end diastole (acquisition window of 50 ms). To date 10 dogs have been studied with medical-grade carbogen and have yielded highly reproducible results. In detail, the color images (lower panel of FIG. 1) are color-coded to the signal intensities of grayscale images (above). The darker colors (blue/black) represent territories of baseline myocardial oxygenation and the brighter regions represent those regions that are hyperemic. On average the signal difference between a dark blue (low signal) and orange color (high signal) is about 20%. Note that in the absence of stenosis, as one goes from 100% O2 to Carbogen, the BOLD signal intensity is elevated (second image from left) suggesting CO2 based vasoreactivity of the myocardium. The dogs were instrumented with an occluder over the left-anterior descending (LAD) coronary artery. As the LAD is occluded, note that the region indicated by an arrow (i.e. approximately between 11 o'clock and 1-2 o'clock (region supplied by the LAD)) becomes darker (3rd image from left), suggesting that vasodilation is no longer possible or is reduced. The first pass image (obtained with adenosine stress following BOLD images) at the same stenosis level also shows this territory clearly. The inventor has also been comparing the epicardial flow enhancements in response to Carbogen (with ETCO2 reaching 48-50 mm Hg) against clinical dose of adenosine and the responses have been quite similar (˜20% response). Example 2 Co-Relation Between Inhaled CO2 and Oxygen Saturation Applicants assessed the difference between myocardial blood-oxygen-level dependent (BOLD) response under hypercarbia and normocarbia conditions in canines. The BOLD signal intensity is proportional to oxygen saturation. Top panels of FIG. 2 depict the myocardial response under hypercarbia (60 mm Hg) and normocarbia (30 mmHg) conditions and show an increase in BOLD signal intensity under hypercarbia condition. The lower panel depicts the difference as obtained by subtracting the signal under rest from that under stress. The myocardial BOLD signal difference between the two is depicted in grey and shows the responsiveness of canines to hypercarbia conditions. Applicants further assessed the myocardial BOLD response to stepwise CO2 increase (ramp-up) in canines. As shown in FIG. 3, as the amount of CO2 administered increases, the BOLD signal intensity increases which is indicative of an increase in hyperemic response to increased uptake of CO2 and oxygen saturation. To further evaluate vascular reactivity and coronary response to CO2, Applicants measured the myocardial BOLD signal in response to block increases of CO2 in canines. Specifically, the myocardial BOLD signal was measured as the amount of CO2 administered to the canine subjects alternated between 40 mmHg CO2 and 50 mmHg CO2. As shown in FIG. 4, an increase in CO2 level from 40 mmHg CO2 to 50 mmHg CO2 resulted in an increase in BOLD signal intensity and the subsequent decrease in CO2 level to 40 mmHg resulted in a decreased BOLD signal. These results show a tight co-relation between administration of CO2 and vascular reactivity and coronary response. Example 3 Co-Relation Between the Amount of CO2 Inhaled and Doppler Flow Doppler flow, an ultrasound-based approach which uses sound waves to measure blood flow, was used to show that administration of CO2 leads to vasodilation which results in greater blood flow, while PaO2 is held constant. The Doppler flow was measured in the left anterior descending (LAD) artery. As shown in FIG. 5, as the amount of administered CO2 increases the Doppler flow increases. The relative change in coronary flow velocity is directly proportional to the amount of CO2 administered. Example 4 Each of the Arteries which Supply Blood to the Myocardium Responds to the CO2 Levels The myocardium is supplied with blood by the left anterior descending (LAD) artery, the right coronary artery (RCA) and the left circumflex (LCX) artery. Applicants measured the blood flow through each of these arteries in response to increasing CO2 supply. As shown in FIG. 6 and summarized in FIG. 7, in each of the three LAD, RCA and LCX arteries, there is a direct correlation between the amount of CO2 administered and the signal intensity; as the amount of administered CO2 increases, the signal intensity, signaling the blood flow, in each of the three arteries increases. Further, as shown in FIG. 6 and summarized in FIG. 8, there is no response to CO2 modulation in control territories such as blood, skeletal muscle or air. As shown in FIG. 9, the mean hyperemic response is approximately 16%. Example 5 Vascular Reactivity to CO2 Comparable to Adenosine Vascular reactivity of three canines that were administered with adenosine was compared with the vascular reactivity of canines that were administered with CO2. As shown in FIG. 10, the hyperemic adenosine stress BOLD response is approximately 12% compared with 16% in response to CO2. Further, as shown in FIG. 11, early human data shows a hyperemic response of approximately 11% for a partial pressure CO2 (pCO2) change of 10 mmHg, from 35 mmHg to 45 mmHg. Example 6 To derive a theoretical understanding of how repeated measurements may affect the BOLD signal response, for a given BOLD response to PaCO2, Applicants performed numerical simulations of statistical fits assuming various peak hyperemic BOLD responses to two different PaCO2 levels (as in FIG. 12a) along with known variability in BOLD signals. The results (FIG. 12b) showed that as the BOLD response decreases, the number of measurements required to establish statistical significance (p<0.05) associated with the BOLD response increases exponentially. This model provides the basis for developing a statistical framework for identifying ischemic volume on the basis of repeated measures. Various embodiments of the invention are described above in the Detailed Description. While these descriptions directly describe the above embodiments, it is understood that those skilled in the art may conceive modifications and/or variations to the specific embodiments shown and described herein. Any such modifications or variations that fall within the purview of this description are intended to be included therein as well. Unless specifically noted, it is the intention of the inventors that the words and phrases in the specification and claims be given the ordinary and accustomed meanings to those of ordinary skill in the applicable art(s). The foregoing description of various embodiments of the invention known to the applicant at this time of filing the application has been presented and is intended for the purposes of illustration and description. The present description is not intended to be exhaustive nor limit the invention to the precise form disclosed and many modifications and variations are possible in the light of the above teachings. The embodiments described serve to explain the principles of the invention and its practical application and to enable others skilled in the art to utilize the invention in various embodiments and with various modifications as are suited to the particular use contemplated. Therefore, it is intended that the invention not be limited to the particular embodiments disclosed for carrying out the invention. While particular embodiments of the present invention have been shown and described, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art that, based upon the teachings herein, changes and modifications may be made without departing from this invention and its broader aspects. It will be understood by those within the art that, in general, terms used herein are generally intended as “open” terms (e.g., the term “including” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” the term “having” should be interpreted as “having at least,” the term “includes” should be interpreted as “includes but is not limited to,” etc.). | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>All publications herein are incorporated by reference to the same extent as if each individual publication or patent application was specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference. The following description includes information that may be useful in understanding the present invention. It is not an admission that any of the information provided herein is prior art or relevant to the presently claimed invention, or that any publication specifically or implicitly referenced is prior art. Coronary artery disease (CAD) leads to narrowing of the small blood vessels that supply blood and oxygen to the heart. Typically, atherosclerosis is the cause of CAD. As the coronary arteries narrow, blood flow to the heart can slow down or stop, causing, amongst other symptoms, chest pain (stable angina), shortness of breath and/or myocardial infarction. Numerous tests help diagnose CAD. Such tests include coronary angiography/arteriography, CT angiography, echocardiogram, electrocardiogram (ECG), electron-beam computed tomography (EBCT), magnetic resonance angiography, nuclear scan and exercise stress test. Functional assessment of the myocardium (for example the assessment of myocardium's oxygen status) requires that a patient's heart is stressed either via controlled exercise or pharmacologically. Assessment of vascular reactivity in the heart is the hallmark of stress testing in cardiac imaging aimed at understanding ischemic heart disease. This is routinely done in Nuclear Medicine with radionuclide injection (such as Thallium) in conjunction with exercise to identify territories of the heart muscle that are subtended by a suspected narrowed coronary artery. In patients who are contraindicated for exercise stress-testing, this approach is typically used in conjunction with hyperemia inducing drugs, for example via adenosine infusion. Reduced coronary narrowing is expected to reduce hyperemic response and the perfusion reserve. Since nuclear methods are hampered by the need for radioactive tracers combined with limited imaging resolution, other imaging methods, such as ultrasound (using adenosine along with microbubble contrast) and MRI (also using adenosine and various conjugates of gadolinium (Gd) (first-pass perfusion) or alterations in oxygen saturation in response to hyperemia, also known as the Blood-Oxygen-Level-Dependent (BOLD) effect) are under clinical investigation. Nonetheless, in patients who are contraindicated for exercise stress-testing, currently all imaging approaches require adenosine to elicit hyperemia. However, adenosine has undesirable side effects (such as the feeling of “impending doom”, bradycardia, arrhythmia, transient or prolonged episode of asystole, ventricular fibrillation (rarely), chest pain, headache, dyspnea, and nausea), making it less than favorable for initial or follow-up studies and many patients request that they do not undergo repeated adenosine stress testing. Nonetheless repeated stress testing is indicated in a significant patient population to assess the effectiveness of interventional or medical therapeutic regimens. In view of the side effects of hyperemia inducing drugs, there is a need for alternatives, which induce hyperemia in patients who are contraindicated for exercise stress-testing but do not cause the side effects caused by the existing hyperemia inducing drugs. | <SOH> SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION <EOH>Applicants' invention is directed to the use of carbon dioxide to replace adenosine to induce hyperemia in subjects contra-indicated for exercise stress testing so as to diagnose coronary heart diseases but without the side effects of adenosine. In an embodiment, the CO 2 levels are altered while the O 2 levels are held constant. In another embodiment, the CO 2 levels are controlled by administering a blend of air and a controlled amount of a gas mixture comprising 20% oxygen and 80% carbon dioxide. The invention is directed to methods for diagnosing coronary heart disease in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO 2 to a subject to produce a hyperemic response corresponding to at least one selected increase in a subject's coronary PaCO 2 , monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject and diagnosing the presence or absence of coronary heart disease in the subject. The presence of coronary disease can be detected by monitoring a parameter indicative of a disease-associated change in a vasoreactive response to the at least one increase in PaCO 2 in at least one coronary blood vessel or region of the heart. The inventors have found that such a change can be captured by monitoring the quantum of change in a parameter affected by a change in PaCO 2 , from an first PaCO 2 level to a PaCO 2 second level, for example a parameter correlated with vasodilation such as increased blood flow. An observation of a change in a vasodilatory response can be extended to comparing responses among different subjects, wherein a decreased vascular reactivity in a subject in need of a diagnosis compared to that of a control subject is indicative of coronary heart disease. Thus, according to one embodiment, the invention also provides a method for assessing hyperemic response in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO 2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO 2 in the subject to induce hyperemia, monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject and assessing hyperemic response in the subject, wherein decreased vascular reactivity in the subject compared to a control subject is indicative of poor hyperemic response, thereby assessing hyperemic response in the subject in need thereof. The invention may be directed to assessing organ perfusion in a subject in need thereof. The invention may be directed to assessing vascular reactivity of an organ in a subject in need thereof. The invention further provides methods of producing coronary vasodilation in a subject in need thereof comprising administering an admixture comprising CO 2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO 2 in the subject so as to produce coronary vasodilation, thereby producing coronary vasodilation in the subject. The invention also provides methods from increasing sensitivity and specificity for BOLD MRI. The method includes administering an admixture comprising CO 2 to a subject to reach a predetermined PaCO 2 in the subject to induce hyperemia and imaging the myocardium using MRI to assess a hypermic response in response to a predetermined modulation in PaCO 2 . Optionally, imaging the myocardium comprises (i) obtaining free-breathing cardiac phase resolved 3D myocardial BOLD images; (ii) registering and segmenting the images to obtain the myocardial dynamic volume; and (iii) identifying ischemic territory and quantify image volume. The invention is also directed to the use a CO2 containing gas for inducing hyperemia in a subject in need of a diagnostic assessment of coronary heart disease, wherein the CO 2 containing gas is used to attain at least one increase in a subject's coronary PaCO 2 sufficient for diagnosing coronary heart disease from imaging data, wherein the imaging data is indicative of a cardiovascular-disease-associated vasoreactive response to the least one increase in PaCO 2 in at least one coronary blood vessel or region of the heart. The invention also provides a method for inducing hyperemia in a subject in need of a diagnostic assessment of coronary heart disease comprising administering a CO2 containing gas, attaining at least one increase in a subject's coronary PaCO 2 sufficient for diagnosing coronary heart disease from imaging data and imaging the heart during a period in which the increase in PaCO 2 is measurable, wherein the imaging data is indicative of a cardiovascular disease-associated vasoreactive response in at least one coronary blood vessel or region of the heart. Optionally, the at least one increase in the subject's PaCO 2 is selected to produce a coronary vasoreactive response sufficient for replacing a hyperemia inducing drug in assessing coronary disease. Optionally, the use/method comprises attaining a particular predetermined PaCO 2 . Optionally, the pre-determined PaCO2 is patient specific, for example an 8 to 20 mm Hg increase relative a baseline steady level measured at the time of testing. Optionally, the use/method comprises administering carbon dioxide in a stepwise manner. Optionally, the use/method comprises administering carbon dioxide in a block manner. Optionally, the CO 2 is administered via inhalation. Optionally, the disease-associated coronary vasoreactive response is assessed relative to a control subject. Optionally, the PaCO 2 is increased and decreased repeatedly. Optionally, the at least one PaCO 2 produces at least an 8%-12% increase in a BOLD signal intensity. Optionally, the disease-associated vasoreactive response is a compromised increase in blood flow. Optionally, the imaging data is indicative of the presence or absence of a two-fold increase in blood flow in a coronary artery. Optionally the imaging data are obtained by MRI and the imaging method obtains input of a change in signal intensity of a BOLD MRI signal. Optionally, the imaging method is PET or SPECT and the measure of a disease-associated vasoreactive response is the presence or absence of a threshold increase in blood flow. Optionally, the at least one increase in PaCO 2 produces at least a 10% increase in intensity of a BOLD MRI signal. Optionally, the at least one increase in PaCO 2 produces a 10-20% increase in intensity of a BOLD MRI signal. Optionally, the use/method comprises: (i) imaging the myocardium to obtain free-breathing cardiac phase resolved 3D myocardial BOLD images. (ii) registering and segmenting the images to obtain the myocardial dynamic volume and (iii) identifying ischemic territory and quantifying image volume. Optionally, the at least one PaCO 2 is at least a 10 mm Hg increase from a first level which is determined to be between 30 and 55 mm Hg. Optionally, the first level is first determined to be between 35 and 45 mm Hg. Optionally, the sufficiency of the increase in PaCO 2 is determined by increasing PaCO 2 in a stepwise manner. Optionally, the vasoreactive response is sufficient for obtaining a disease-associated change in BOLD MRI signal obtained by administering CO2 in a manner effective to alternate between two or more PaCO 2 levels over a period of time and using repeated BOLD MRI measurements to statistically assess the hyperemic response. Optionally, the coronary vasoreactive response corresponds to a vasodilatory response produced by administering a hyperemia inducing drug for a duration and in amount per unit of time effective to assess coronary disease. Optionally, the hyperemia inducing drug is adenosine, wherein adenosine is administered in a regimen of 140 milligrams/litre per minute over 4 to 6 minutes. Optionally, the use/method comprises admixing air with a selected amount of a CO 2 containing gas controlled to obtain a predetermined size increase in PaCO 2 from a previous value, for example a measured baseline value. The CO 2 containing gas may contain, for example, 75 to 100% CO 2 . Optionally the CO 2 containing gas comprises a percentage composition of oxygen in the 18-23% range, optionally about 20%. In one embodiment the invention is directed to a method for diagnosing coronary heart disease in a subject in need thereof comprising: (i) administering an admixture comprising CO 2 to a subject in a stepwise or block manner to reach a predetermined PaCO 2 in the subject to induce hyperemia; (ii) monitoring vascular reactivity in the subject; and (iii) diagnosing the presence or absence of coronary heart disease in the subject, wherein decreased vascular reactivity in the subject compared to a control subject is indicative of coronary heart disease, thereby diagnosing coronary heart disease in the subject in need thereof. As elaborated below, administering carbon dioxide to alter PaCO 2 in block manner, is optionally repeated over time. Optionally carbon dioxide is administered so as to alternate between two or more levels of PaCO 2 over a period of time. Vascular reactivity may be monitored using any one or more of a variety of advanced imaging methods including positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computed tomography/computed tomography (SPECT), computed tomography (CT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), to name a few. Optionally, vascular reactivity may be measured using FFR. A particularly advantageous admixture of CO 2 and O 2 for inducing hyperemia, particularly for blending a CO 2 containing gas with air for inhalation is an admixture in which O 2 is present in the range of 19-22%, for example about 20%. In this embodiment, CO2 may make up the rest of the admixture (81-78% respectively) or there may be a third gas in the admixture. | A61K4908 | 20170808 | 20180705 | 59443.0 | A61K4908 | 0 | PEHLKE, CAROLYN A | ASSESSMENT OF CORONARY HEART DISEASE WITH CARBON DIOXIDE | SMALL | 1 | CONT-PENDING | A61K | 2,017 |
|
15,672,350 | PENDING | MACHINE TOOL | In a machine tool, when machining is in a steady zone, a rotation phase of a main spindle at the time of measurement in the N-th sampling is calculated, and the calculated rotation phase and the measurement value are recorded in a recording section so as to be associated with each other. The measurement and calculation of the rotation phase of the main spindle at the time of each measurement are continued for plural times of rotations of the main spindle, and thus the measurement values are obtained at various rotation phases, whereby change in drive force during one rotation of the main spindle is finally calculated. | 1. A machine tool comprising: a rotary shaft device including a rotary shaft; a sensor attached to the rotary shaft device and configured to acquire information about a phenomenon periodically occurring on the rotary shaft device in synchronization with rotation of the rotary shaft; and a control device configured to control operation of the rotary shaft device and acquire the information via the sensor, wherein when machining is performed while the rotary shaft is rotated, the control device determines whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in a command relevant to operation control for the rotary shaft device, and when the machining is in the steady state, the control device acquires the information via the sensor with a predetermined sampling cycle, associates the acquired information with a rotation phase of the rotary shaft, and calculates change in the phenomenon in one cycle on the basis of the information acquired for plural times of rotations of the rotary shaft. 2. A machine tool comprising: a rotary shaft device including a rotary shaft; a sensor attached to the rotary shaft device and configured to acquire information about a phenomenon periodically occurring on the rotary shaft device in synchronization with rotation of the rotary shaft; and a control device configured to control operation of the rotary shaft device and acquire the information via the sensor, wherein when machining is performed while the rotary shaft is rotated, the control device determines whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in machining state, and when the machining is in the steady state, the control device acquires the information via the sensor with a predetermined sampling cycle, associates the acquired information with a rotation phase of the rotary shaft, and calculates change in the phenomenon in one cycle on the basis of the information acquired for plural times of rotations of the rotary shaft. 3. The machine tool according to claim 2, wherein a tool or a workpiece is mounted to the rotary shaft, and a cutting amount of the workpiece is calculated from information about a preset shape of the workpiece, an operation path of the tool relative to the workpiece, and a current command coordinate, and the machining is determined to be in the steady state on the basis of a fact that the cutting amount is constant. | BACKGROUND This application claims the benefit of Japanese Patent Application Number 2016-179834 filed on Sep. 14, 2016, the entirety of which is incorporated by reference. TECHNICAL FIELD The present invention relates to a machine tool having a rotary shaft device for performing machining while rotating a tool or a workpiece, for example. RELATED ART Conventionally, in a machine tool that performs machining while rotating a rotary shaft, for performing state diagnosis or machining diagnosis of the machine tool itself, it is general to measure vibration, drive force, and the like during operation and perform the diagnosis on the basis of a result of the measurement. For example, in the case of mounting a tool to the rotary shaft and cutting a workpiece, drive force of the rotary shaft during the cutting is measured, whereby the cutting amount can be identified and the state of the cutting tool can be detected. In the invention described in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2004-126956, drive force occurring during cutting is calculated on the basis of a cutting volume calculated from shape data of a machining target and a machining path, and the material quality of a workpiece, and the calculated drive force is compared with an actually measured drive force, thereby detecting abnormal machining. In the invention described in Japanese Laid-Open Patent Publication No. 2012-254499, in the case of repeatedly performing machining, drive force when normal machining was performed last time is compared with drive force measured in machining at this time, thereby detecting abnormal machining. In addition, in recent years, besides drive force of a rotary shaft, by attaching a vibration sensor or an AE sensor to each part of the machine tool or employing a displacement sensor, a phenomenon occurring on the machine tool has been attempted to be measured more clearly. SUMMARY However, in the conventional methods, in order to detect change in a desired phenomenon such as a cycle in which the rotary shaft is driven or the cutting is performed or a vibration cycle intrinsic to a bearing or a guide component, it is necessary to perform measurement with an extremely short sampling cycle. For example, in the case where cutting is performed using a rotary tool having six cutting blades and change in drive force of each blade is to be measured, if the rotation speed is 10000 min−1, the cutting cycle is 100 μsec. Therefore, in order to sample ten points for each cutting blade, the sampling cycle needs to be shorter than 10 μsec. If such a high-speed sampling is needed, there is a problem that cost in measurement and analysis increases. Accordingly, the present invention has been made in view of the above problem, and an object of the present invention is to provide a machine tool capable of, regarding change in a phenomenon occurring on a rotary shaft device, obtaining an accurate measurement result at low cost without performing sampling with an extremely short cycle as in the conventional case. In order to achieve the above object, a first aspect of the present invention is a machine tool. The machine tool includes a rotary shaft device including a rotary shaft, a sensor attached to the rotary shaft device and configured to acquire information about a phenomenon periodically occurring on the rotary shaft device in synchronization with rotation of the rotary shaft, and a control device configured to control operation of the rotary shaft device and acquire the information via the sensor. When machining is performed while the rotary shaft is rotated, the control device may determine whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in a command relevant to operation control for the rotary shaft device. When the machining is in the steady state, the control device may acquire the information via the sensor with a predetermined sampling cycle, associate the acquired information with a rotation phase of the rotary shaft, and calculate change in the phenomenon in one cycle on the basis of the information acquired for plural times of rotations of the rotary shaft. In order to achieve the above object, a second aspect of the present invention is a machine tool. The machine tool includes a rotary shaft device including a rotary shaft, a sensor attached to the rotary shaft device and configured to acquire information about a phenomenon periodically occurring on the rotary shaft device in synchronization with rotation of the rotary shaft, and a control device configured to control operation of the rotary shaft device and acquire the information via the sensor. When machining is performed while the rotary shaft is rotated, the control device may determine whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in machining state. When the machining is in the steady state, the control device may acquire the information via the sensor with a predetermined sampling cycle, associate the acquired information with a rotation phase of the rotary shaft, and calculate change in the phenomenon in one cycle on the basis of the information acquired for plural times of rotations of the rotary shaft. In a third aspect of the present invention based on the second aspect, in the machine tool, a tool or a workpiece is mounted to the rotary shaft. A cutting amount of the workpiece may be calculated from information about a preset shape of the workpiece, an operation path of the tool relative to the workpiece, and a current command coordinate, and the machining may be determined to be in the steady state on the basis of a fact that the cutting amount is constant. According to the present invention, when machining is performed while the rotary shaft is rotated, the control device determines whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in a command relevant to operation control for the rotary shaft device (first aspect), or the control device determines whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in machining state (second aspect). When the machining is in the steady state, the control device acquires the information via the sensor with a predetermined sampling cycle, associates the acquired information with a rotation phase of the rotary shaft, and calculates change in the phenomenon in one cycle on the basis of the information acquired for plural times of rotations of the rotary shaft. Therefore, for example, regarding a phenomenon that changes at high speed, such as change in the drive force of the main spindle, even though the measurement thereof is performed with a sampling cycle longer than the conventional one, a useful measurement result can be obtained, and cost reduction can be achieved. In addition, it is also possible to measure such a phenomenon that the change cycle thereof is so fast that conventionally the measurement thereof has been technically difficult, and since the measurement is performed only during the steady state, a measurement result with high reliability can be obtained. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a machine tool. FIG. 2 is a flowchart showing control for measurement of a phenomenon occurring on a main spindle device. FIG. 3 is a diagram illustrating the correspondence relationship between sampling and periodic change in drive force of a main spindle. FIG. 4 is a diagram illustrating, in one cycle, change in drive force of the main spindle obtained by performing measurement every 50 μsec. FIG. 5 is a diagram illustrating, in one cycle, change in drive force of the main spindle finally obtained by performing measurement every 30 msec. DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Hereinafter, a machine tool according to one embodiment of the present invention will be described in detail with reference to the drawings. FIG. 1 is a diagram illustrating a machine tool 20. The machine tool 20 is a so-called machining center and includes a main spindle device 11 and a control device 12. A main spindle head 3 of the main spindle device 11 is provided with a main spindle 2 serving as a rotary shaft, a driving device (not shown) for rotating the main spindle 2, and the like. A tool holder 1 provided with a tool is mountable to an end of the main spindle 2. A sensor (for example, a sensor for measuring desired electric power of the driving device) for measuring drive force of the main spindle 2, a sensor for measuring vibration occurring on the main spindle device 11, and the like are attached to major components, such as the main spindle head 3, of the main spindle device 11. On the other hand, the control device 12 is for controlling operation of the main spindle 2 and diagnosing the state of the main spindle device 11 and machining by the main spindle device 11. The control device 12 is connected to the above various sensors, and includes a measurement section 4 which measures various information about the main spindle device 11, a recording section 5 which records a measurement value with a predetermined sampling cycle, and a calculation section 6 which performs various calculation processes on the basis of the value recorded in the recording section 5. Control for measurement of a phenomenon occurring on the main spindle device 11, which is a major part of the present invention, will be described with reference to a flowchart in FIG. 2. Here, it is assumed that change in drive force of the main spindle 2 when cutting is performed using a tool having three cutting blades is measured. In measurement of change in drive force of the main spindle 2, first, the control device 12 measures the drive force of the main spindle 2 with a predetermined sampling cycle ST (e.g., 30 msec) from the main spindle device 11 in which the main spindle 2 is rotating with a rotary shaft rotation cycle LT set for performing cutting (S1). Next, the control device 12 determines whether or not the machining is in a steady zone in which the same machining is being performed for a workpiece (whether or not the machining is in a steady state), from a fact that there are no changes in a rotation speed command and a feed speed command from the control device 12 to the main spindle device 11 (there are no changes in commands relevant to operation control for the rotary shaft device), and a fact that cutting amounts of the workpiece in the axial direction and the radial direction are constant (there is no change in machining state), the cutting amounts being calculated on the basis of information about the shape of the workpiece, which is recorded in advance in the recording section 5, a tool operation path, and the current command coordinate (S2). Then, only when the machining is in the steady zone, the control device 12 continues the measurement, and if the machining deviates from the steady zone, the control device 12 stops the measurement immediately. If the machining is in the steady zone, the control device 12 calculates a rotation phase of the main spindle 2 at the time of measurement in the N-th sampling by using the following formula (1), i.e., a fractional part of a value obtained by dividing a product of a sampling cycle ST and the number N of times of sampling by the rotary shaft rotation cycle LT (S3), and records the calculated rotation phase and the measurement value in the recording section 5 so as to be associated with each other (S4). Then, for plural times of rotations of the main spindle 2, the control device 12 continues the measurement and calculation of the rotation phase of the main spindle 2 at the time of each measurement, and thus obtains the measurement values at various rotations phases, thereby finally calculating change in the drive force during one rotation of the main spindle 2 (i.e., change in one cycle) as shown in FIG. 5. [ Mathematical 1 ] ( 1 ) Rotation phase at N - th sampling measurement = N × S T L T - ⌊ N × S T L T ⌋ ( N = 1 , 2 , 3 , … ) └ ┘ represents a floor function, and └A┘ represents the greatest integer not greater than A. Here, with reference to FIG. 3 to FIG. 5, the case of performing measurement every 30 msec as in the present embodiment is compared with the case of performing measurement every 50 μsec as in a conventional case. In the conventional method in which measurement is performed every 50 μsec, change in drive force of the main spindle 2 can be measured substantially in real time during one rotation of the main spindle 2, and a measurement result as shown in FIG. 4 can be obtained. On the other hand, in the method in which measurement is performed every 30 msec as in the present embodiment, the drive force can be measured at only one point or two points during one rotation of the main spindle 2. However, as shown in FIG. 3, while the machining is in the steady zone, the drive force is measured for plural times of rotations, and further, each measurement value is associated with the rotation phase of the main spindle 2 and the measurement values for plural times of rotations are combined, whereby change in the drive force in one rotation can be obtained as shown in FIG. 5. As is found from comparison between FIG. 4 and FIG. 5, a measurement result approximate to the measurement result in the case of performing measurement every 50 μsec can be obtained also in the case of performing measurement every 30 msec. In the machine tool 20 having the configuration as described above, whether or not the machining is in the steady zone in which the same machining is being performed for a workpiece is determined from a fact that there are no changes in the rotation speed command and the feed speed command from the control device 12 to the main spindle device 11, and a fact that cutting amounts of the workpiece in the axial direction and the radial direction are constant, the cutting amounts being calculated on the basis of information about the shape of the workpiece, which is recorded in advance in the recording section 5, a tool operation path, and the current command coordinate. Then, if the machining is in the steady zone, a rotation phase of the main spindle 2 at the time of measurement in the N-th sampling is calculated by using formula (1), and the calculated rotation phase and the measurement value are recorded in the recording section 5 so as to be associated with each other. Further, the measurement and calculation of the rotation phase of the main spindle 2 at the time of each measurement are continued for plural times of rotations of the main spindle 2, and thus the measurement values are obtained at various rotations phases. Then, change in the drive force during one rotation of the main spindle 2 is finally calculated. Therefore, regarding a phenomenon that changes at high speed, such as change in the drive force of the main spindle 2, even though the measurement thereof is performed with a sampling cycle longer than the conventional one, a useful measurement result can be obtained, and cost reduction can be achieved. In addition, it is also possible to measure such a phenomenon that the change cycle thereof is so fast that conventionally the measurement thereof has been technically difficult. Further, since the measurement is performed only during the steady state, a measurement result with high reliability can be obtained. It is noted that the configuration for the machine tool of the present invention is not limited to the above embodiment at all. Not only the entire configuration of the machine tool, but also configurations for the control for phenomenon measurement and the like may be modified as appropriate without departing from the scope of the present invention. For example, although the main spindle device as a machining center has been described in the above embodiment, the present invention is suitably applicable also to other machine tools and rotary shaft devices, such as a main spindle device and a feed shaft device of a lathe. In the above embodiment, drive force of the main spindle has been shown as a phenomenon that changes periodically, but without limitation thereto, the phenomenon may be, for example, drive force of another drive shaft such as a feed shaft, or vibration, displacement, temperature, or the like that occurs on the rotary shaft device. As a specific example, a vibration sensor (sensor) may be attached to a feed shaft (rotary shaft), to measure vibration occurring when the feed shaft is rotated at a certain speed to move a mobile body. By obtaining a result of such measurement, it is possible to diagnose the state of a bearing or a ball screw relevant to feed shaft movement. In the above embodiment, whether or not the machining is in the steady state is determined on the basis of both a fact that there are no changes in commands relevant to operation control for the rotary shaft device and a fact that there is no change in machining state. However, whether or not the machining is in the steady state may be determined on the basis of only one of these facts. In the above embodiment, on the basis of a fact that the cutting amount of the workpiece is constant, it is determined that there is no change in machining state. However, it is also possible to employ such a configuration as to determine that there is no change in machining state on the basis of a fact that there is no change in another condition, e.g., there is no change in feeding direction or there is no change in machine temperature. It is explicitly stated that all features disclosed in the description and/or the claims are intended to be disclosed separately and independently from each other for the purpose of original disclosure as well as for the purpose of restricting the claimed invention independent of the composition of the features in the embodiments and/or the claims. It is explicitly stated that all value ranges or indications of groups of entities disclose every possible intermediate value or intermediate entity for the purpose of original disclosure as well as for the purpose of restricting the claimed invention, in particular as limits of value ranges. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>This application claims the benefit of Japanese Patent Application Number 2016-179834 filed on Sep. 14, 2016, the entirety of which is incorporated by reference. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>However, in the conventional methods, in order to detect change in a desired phenomenon such as a cycle in which the rotary shaft is driven or the cutting is performed or a vibration cycle intrinsic to a bearing or a guide component, it is necessary to perform measurement with an extremely short sampling cycle. For example, in the case where cutting is performed using a rotary tool having six cutting blades and change in drive force of each blade is to be measured, if the rotation speed is 10000 min −1 , the cutting cycle is 100 μsec. Therefore, in order to sample ten points for each cutting blade, the sampling cycle needs to be shorter than 10 μsec. If such a high-speed sampling is needed, there is a problem that cost in measurement and analysis increases. Accordingly, the present invention has been made in view of the above problem, and an object of the present invention is to provide a machine tool capable of, regarding change in a phenomenon occurring on a rotary shaft device, obtaining an accurate measurement result at low cost without performing sampling with an extremely short cycle as in the conventional case. In order to achieve the above object, a first aspect of the present invention is a machine tool. The machine tool includes a rotary shaft device including a rotary shaft, a sensor attached to the rotary shaft device and configured to acquire information about a phenomenon periodically occurring on the rotary shaft device in synchronization with rotation of the rotary shaft, and a control device configured to control operation of the rotary shaft device and acquire the information via the sensor. When machining is performed while the rotary shaft is rotated, the control device may determine whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in a command relevant to operation control for the rotary shaft device. When the machining is in the steady state, the control device may acquire the information via the sensor with a predetermined sampling cycle, associate the acquired information with a rotation phase of the rotary shaft, and calculate change in the phenomenon in one cycle on the basis of the information acquired for plural times of rotations of the rotary shaft. In order to achieve the above object, a second aspect of the present invention is a machine tool. The machine tool includes a rotary shaft device including a rotary shaft, a sensor attached to the rotary shaft device and configured to acquire information about a phenomenon periodically occurring on the rotary shaft device in synchronization with rotation of the rotary shaft, and a control device configured to control operation of the rotary shaft device and acquire the information via the sensor. When machining is performed while the rotary shaft is rotated, the control device may determine whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in machining state. When the machining is in the steady state, the control device may acquire the information via the sensor with a predetermined sampling cycle, associate the acquired information with a rotation phase of the rotary shaft, and calculate change in the phenomenon in one cycle on the basis of the information acquired for plural times of rotations of the rotary shaft. In a third aspect of the present invention based on the second aspect, in the machine tool, a tool or a workpiece is mounted to the rotary shaft. A cutting amount of the workpiece may be calculated from information about a preset shape of the workpiece, an operation path of the tool relative to the workpiece, and a current command coordinate, and the machining may be determined to be in the steady state on the basis of a fact that the cutting amount is constant. According to the present invention, when machining is performed while the rotary shaft is rotated, the control device determines whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in a command relevant to operation control for the rotary shaft device (first aspect), or the control device determines whether or not the machining is in a steady state in which there is no change in machining state (second aspect). When the machining is in the steady state, the control device acquires the information via the sensor with a predetermined sampling cycle, associates the acquired information with a rotation phase of the rotary shaft, and calculates change in the phenomenon in one cycle on the basis of the information acquired for plural times of rotations of the rotary shaft. Therefore, for example, regarding a phenomenon that changes at high speed, such as change in the drive force of the main spindle, even though the measurement thereof is performed with a sampling cycle longer than the conventional one, a useful measurement result can be obtained, and cost reduction can be achieved. In addition, it is also possible to measure such a phenomenon that the change cycle thereof is so fast that conventionally the measurement thereof has been technically difficult, and since the measurement is performed only during the steady state, a measurement result with high reliability can be obtained. | B23Q520 | 20170809 | 20180315 | 66830.0 | B23Q520 | 0 | SNYDER, ALAN W | MACHINE TOOL | UNDISCOUNTED | 0 | ACCEPTED | B23Q | 2,017 |
|
15,673,741 | ACCEPTED | Digital Message Processing System | A wireless apparatus and system automatically processes digital “messages” to a remote system at a predefined destination address. Initial transmission occurs via a wireless network, and the apparatus process allows the simultaneous capture of new messages while transmissions are occurring. The destination address may correspond to an e-mail account, or may correspond to a remote server from which the message can be efficiently processed and/or further distributed. In the latter case, data packaged with the digital message is used to control processing of the message at the server, based on a combination of pre-defined system and user options. Secured Internet access to the server allows flexible user access to system parameters for configuration of message handling and distribution options, including the option to build named distribution lists that are downloaded to the wireless apparatus. | 1. A digital photo processing system comprising: at least one wireless digital camera apparatus, wherein each apparatus includes a processor, a memory, a destination address and one or more previously defined recipient codes stored in the memory, a user interface connected to the processor for displaying the one or more previously defined recipient codes and receiving signals indicating user selection of a displayed one or more previously defined recipient codes, a digital camera connected to the processor for capturing one or more digital images in response to signals from the user interface, a RF communications device connected to the processor, wherein the processor is configured to respond to signals received from the user interface to transmit a message including the one or more previously defined recipient codes and the one or more digital images to the destination address via the RF communications device; and a server associated with the destination address and responsive to the message received at the destination address from at least one wireless digital camera apparatus, and server memory configured to store account configuration data including recipient code data, wherein the server is further configured to parse the one or more previously defined recipient codes from the message and process the message according to the account configuration data associated with the one or more previously defined recipient codes, and to transmit the account configuration data including the one or more previously defined recipient codes to the at least one wireless digital camera apparatus, wherein the processor of the at least one wireless digital camera apparatus is configured to he responsive to receiving the account configuration data transmitted from the server to update the memory of the at least one wireless digital camera apparatus with at least a portion of the account configuration data. 2. A digital photo processing system comprising: at least one wireless digital camera apparatus, wherein the at least one wireless digital camera apparatus includes a processor, a memory, a destination address and one or more previously defined recipient codes stored in the memory, a user interface connected to the processor for displaying the one or more previously defined recipient codes and receiving signals indicating user selection of a displayed recipient code, a digital camera connected to the processor for capturing one or more digital images in response to signals from the user interface, a RE communications device connected to the processor, wherein the processor is responsive to signals received from the user interface, to transmit a message, including the one or more previously defined recipient codes and the one or more digital images to the destination address via the RF communications device; a server associated with the destination address and responsive to the message received at the destination address from the at least one wireless digital camera apparatus; a database storing account configuration data including recipient code data; and a server communication device, wherein the server is configured or otherwise operable to parse the one or more previously defined recipient codes from the message, retrieving from the database account configuration data that is associated with the one or more previously defined recipient codes, and processing the message according to the account configuration data. 3. The digital photo processing system of claim 2, wherein the server is further configured to archive the message on the server. 4. The digital photo processing system of claim 2, wherein the server is configured to distribute the message to one or more recipient addresses associated with the one or more previously defined recipient codes included in the account configuration data. 5. The digital photo processing system of claim 2, wherein the message further comprises an account identifier, the database configuration data includes an account identifier, and the server is configured to retrieve from the database account configuration data, data that is associated with both the account identifier and the one or more previously defined recipient codes. | CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS This Application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 11/668,465 filed Jan. 29, 2007 entitled “Digital Message Processing System” which is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/324,249 filed on Jun. 2, 1999, entitled “Apparatus and System for Prompt Digital Photo Delivery and Archival,” the disclosures of which are herein incorporated in their entirety. FIELD OF THE DISCLOSURE The present disclosure relates to digital cameras and particularly to digital cameras which include a radio frequency (RF) transceiver for transmitting digital photos to a remote destination according to user preferences. BACKGROUND Digital cameras are increasingly popular, and the popularity is due in part to their elimination of processing delays involved with conventional film-based photography. With a digital camera, one does not have to shoot an entire roll of film and send it to a processor for development before seeing the resulting photograph. Instead, one can immediately download a digital image to a computer and display the photograph, or in some instances link the digital camera to a TV monitor to display the photograph. Another attractive feature of digital cameras is that the digital images they create, after being stored on a computer, can be forwarded to others via e-mail or can be incorporated into other electronic documents, including Internet web pages. However, the process of connecting the digital camera to a computer and then downloading images to the computer for storage and viewing can be complicated. Some digital camera manufacturers have attempted to make this process easier by including in the camera a standard format 3.5-inch floppy disk drive for storing digital images so that the images can be easily accessed by computers with similar disk drives. Others provide flash card memory which can store a high number of images, or provide an infrared (IR) port for transferring images to a computer. Even with these features, the image transfer cannot be begun until the digital camera (or storage device) is physically connected to a computer, or in the case of digital cameras and computers which include IR transceivers these must be in close proximity before a transfer can be made. For many users, this process is confusing and detracts from the usefulness of the device. When a user wishes to view or share access to a digital photo quickly, this delay and manual transfer process can be both inconvenient and frustrating. Another potential problem with current digital cameras is that they generally require creation of a database of images on a home or office computer, which often has limited accessibility, is unsecured, and is infrequently backed up. With the growing popularity of Internet accessible software programs, and “network computers” which include little or no data storage, there is a need for a networked image storage and archival service that provides secure, reliable, and universally accessible image storage services. Such a service would allow shared access to and transfer of images by family or business groups in a format which would greatly enhance the ability to categorize and sort each image by time, date, and occasion, and which would at the same time greatly reduce the possibility of losing important images. The Fujifilm company is known to offer an Internet archival service in connection with conventional film processing, but there is no known similar service for digital photos. When compressed, a color digital image is typically 10K bytes or more in size, and transmission of such an image requires from 10 to more than 30 seconds, depending on wireless modem transmission rates. Cellular service providers typically charge for total circuit connection time or, in the case of wireless data services providers, for the amount of data transferred, and it is therefore advantageous to reduce the required connection time to perform a file transfer or the amount of data to be transferred. One way to do this is to compress the file before transmission. But even when a file is to be sent to multiple recipients one would not want to initiate multiple calls in order to transfer the file to each recipient, even if the file is compressed. It would be beneficial to have a system which allowed one to forward an image file, with distribution instructions, to a central repository, and know that the repository would then save and/or automatically distribute the image file according to prior user instructions, without incurring another expensive wireless transfer. Digital cameras which include the ability to effect a wireless RF image transfer are not known to be currently marketed in the United States. A search of issued U.S. patents has revealed U.S. Pat. No. 4,884,132 to Morris et al, which provides a “personal security unit” which includes a digital image sensor, a cellular transmitter, a window aligned with the image sensor, and which transmits digital information identifying the hand-held unit to a remote cellular receiving station where all cellular communications received from the personal security units are recorded. Morris states that the recorded data can be accessed at a later time if a crime is reported. Another known device is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,712,679 to Coles which discloses a security system with a method for locatable portable electronic camera image transmission to a remote receiver. This device provides the means to transmit a video image along with device identifying information and position coordinate information to a remote receiver. Coles states that the transmission may be accomplished by cellular radio and is received by a remote receiver where the image may be displayed or printed by facsimile. SUMMARY Embodiments of the present disclosure may provide a wireless digital camera device (also referred to herein as a wireless device) including a processor, RF communications device (modem), memory, and digital camera which is configured to transmit a digital data message, including at least a digital image, an account ID, and a recipient code, across a combined wireless and wired network to a host system at a predefined Internet Protocol (IP) address. The portable apparatus is programmed to minimize the number of user inputs required for operation in order to operate much like other automatic cameras, providing “aim and shoot” operation. While it is presently possible to assemble a portable device which can transfer data files, including image files, to a destination computer by using readily available commercial products, such as a portable computer, camera, and cellular modem, such a system requires user input to configure and initialize, including a destination phone number for modem dialing or a host IP or e-mail address to send the image to. The present disclosure provides a simple wireless photo delivery system which requires minimal user inputs for successful configuration and operation. In order to simplify the wireless camera apparatus set up and operation, the present disclosure provides a user-friendly means to customize operational features of the camera. Many computer users today have access to web sites on the Internet, and are familiar with the process of interacting with programs and forms posted on Internet web sites. In one embodiment of the present invention, a digital camera service server provides a means for users to define distribution nicknames and custom operation options, and automatically downloads these custom operational parameters to the wireless camera whenever they are updated. In order for an e-mail system to resolve e-mail addresses into IP addresses, it is necessary for a user device to have access to a domain name server (DNS) resolver. This exchange of messages between the remote device and the DNS at time of message delivery is eliminated in one embodiment of the present invention by having e-mail addresses resolved into their corresponding IP addresses by the digital camera service server (subsequently referred to herein as the server) prior to downloading these IP addresses with address nicknames to the wireless camera device. This enables embodiments of the wireless camera device which contain a wireless packet data communications device such as a Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) modem to construct and send messages directly to the intended recipient's known IP address in a protocol format known to those of ordinary skill in the art, such as TCP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME), Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP), Point to Point (PPP), or Post Office Protocol (POP) without reference to a DNS resolver. Wireless device users may wish to maintain control over who can send messages to them, in order to avoid paying for unwanted message transmissions. Another aspect of the present invention allows messages generated by the wireless device to be formatted so that the message origin address appears as a server address. This causes all message replies to be routed to the server, which receives and filters all replies addressed to the wireless device and only forwards messages which are from approved sources and in appropriate formats to the wireless device. There is then a need to provide an apparatus and system which will allow for effortless transfer of a message including a digital image, an account identifier, and an optional recipient code, across a combined wireless/wired network to a host device at a pre-defined IP address. One aspect of the present disclosure provides a digital camera service server host device at the pre-defined IP address which can store portions of the message, and/or forward select portions of the message and digital image to one or more recipients associated with a message recipient code. In the case where the delivery IP address corresponds to a server, the data message may be stored at the server for later access or may be immediately forwarded to one or more IP addresses that correspond to a recipient code included in the data message. When an image is to be sent to multiple recipients, it is much more economical to only incur one transmission from the wireless camera device across the wireless communications link to the server, and then forward the image to each intended recipient through a conventional wire-line or fiber optic network. In one embodiment of the present disclosure, an account is established on the server which corresponds to at least one wireless camera device. This server may be a private system accessible only via a private network, or may be connected to the Internet and be configured to allow wireless device users to access the server by using commonly available world wide web browsers. In either case the server is preferably remotely accessible in order to establish or update account parameters, or to access previously transmitted digital images and or responses thereto. In the preferred system, each server account is password protected for access only by authorized users. Authorized users may update their server accounts to establish recipient codes, or nicknames, and associate these codes with one or more destination e-mail addresses, IP addresses, phone numbers (for delivery of audio messages), or storage destinations (such as a server path name), thereby creating nicknames for the purpose of controlling how messages will be archived and/or distributed to individuals or groups. When certain account parameters, such as nicknames, are changed on the server, they are automatically flagged to be downloaded in a list to the wireless camera device the next time the wireless device contacts the server. Alternately, the wireless device may be programmed to get a fresh copy of account parameters, or portions thereof, upon each new connection to the server. This nickname list is viewable in a scrollable window on the wireless camera device, providing a quick means for selecting who a particular data message is to be sent to, without concern for entering an e-mail or IP address. For example, a camera user who is employed as a Realtor may define both business nicknames and personal nicknames. Business nicknames may include codes based on property attributes (a 3BR2BA code for all customers who are currently looking for a house with at least three bedrooms and two baths) or may include codes for different communities or property price ranges. Finance companies could also use the wireless camera to automatically create a photo of the collateral property, as required in many states, and simultaneously send the photo to the loan processor and to an archive file. Other potential uses for the present disclosure include (i) photo-advertisements—for example, camera can be used by sales agents to send pictures to a list of current clients, to an office webmaster, print shops, etc., or to save photos in a pre-defined server directory; (ii) journalists could use the system to submit late breaking news pictures; (iii) insurance adjusters—photo with claim or file number can be mailed directly to the home office or saved in a pre-defined server directory associated with the file; (iv) police—photos of accident site/crime scene can be captured and archived; and (v) a holiday photo system where the camera can be rented while on vacation in order to have photos automatically e-mailed to a printing service, or to a list of friends/relatives with whom you want to share trip events. In the preferred embodiment, the present disclosure comprises a battery-powered wireless camera device, including a digital camera for creating a digital image, a memory for storing digital images, a delivery IP address, and a list of nicknames, an RF communications device connected to the wireless device, and processor means for transmitting a message to the delivery IP address via the communications device. Backup memory in the form of a removable disk or memory card may be provided in some embodiments for message storage with or without message transmission. The message includes an account ID, a recipient code (nickname), and at least one digital image created by the digital camera. As further described in the Detailed Description, in some embodiments, the message may include message origination date, time, a message classification indicator, digital audio recordings, and/or location coordinates, and in some instances, may not include a digital image. The delivery IP address may be saved in the wireless camera device memory in response to input commands entered at a device user interface, input commands entered remotely via the communications device, or input commands during manufacture of the wireless device. The RF communications device may be a circuit-switched data modem or packet data modem, and may respectively establish a switched connection through the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to the server or to a host device and router system at a particular phone number from which messages are transmitted to the destination IP address, or may transmit the message directly through a cellular service provider digital packet network connection, such as CDPD, to the destination IP address through an Internet connection. In alternate embodiments, the wireless camera includes a microphone interface for recording audio messages to be transmitted in a digital format with messages. In such embodiments where the interface includes a microphone, a voice recognition module may be used to translate spoken messages into operational commands. For example, the wireless apparatus may be activated to record a spoken nickname, address, or alphanumeric identifier for association with the message, process this recording with the voice recognition module, and then include the character output of the voice recognition module as a nickname, e-mail address, classification or message field in the next message transmission. Other interface means may include a bar code scanner, or numeric or alphanumeric keypad. Another embodiment is configured to function as an enhanced digital phone that includes a digital camera. Other embodiments include an optional global positioning system (GPS) unit for capturing location data that may then be included in the message. Yet another embodiment of the present disclosure includes a data port which is connected directly to the communications device so that the wireless camera device can be used as a portable RF modem for external devices which are connected to the data port from time to time. Other technical features may be readily apparent to one skilled in the art from the following figures, descriptions and claims. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS For a more complete understanding of this disclosure, reference is now made to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which: FIG. 1 is a high-level diagram of the photo delivery system of the present disclosure; FIG. 2 is a block diagram of the wireless device; FIG. 3 shows a representative user configuration table for the wireless device; FIG. 4 shows a representative recipient selection view of the wireless device interface means; FIG. 5 shows a representative mode selection view of the wireless device interface means; FIG. 6 shows a representative classification selection view of the wireless device interface means; FIG. 7 shows a representative account configuration record on the server of the present disclosure; FIG. 8 shows a server interface means display of account recipient information; FIG. 9 shows a server interface means display of representative individual recipient information; FIG. 10 shows a server interface means display of representative group information; FIG. 11 shows a server interface means display for editing representative group information; FIG. 12 shows a process flow chart for one embodiment of the wireless camera device of the present disclosure; FIG. 13 shows a process flow chart of the register process of FIG. 12; FIG. 14 shows a process flow chart of the get image process of FIG. 12; FIG. 15 shows a process flow chart of the audio recording process of FIG. 12; FIG. 16 shows a process flow chart of the format process of FIG. 12; FIG. 17 shows a process flow chart of the custom input process of FIG. 16; FIG. 18 shows a process flow chart of the transmit process of the preferred embodiment wireless camera device; FIG. 19 shows a data format for data transmitted from the wireless camera device to the server of the preferred embodiment; FIG. 20 shows a process flow chart of how the server processes messages received from a wireless camera device; FIG. 21 shows a process flow chart for how the server responds to wireless camera device queries; and FIG. 22 shows a process flow chart for how the server responds to messages addressed to a wireless camera device. DETAILED DESCRIPTION As will be understood from reading and understanding the following more detailed description, the present disclosure includes a wireless digital camera apparatus, and in the preferred embodiment includes the digital camera apparatus as part of a digital photo delivery system, which system also includes a server that is accessible through the Internet for user updates. Each user of such a system has an assigned server account ID and password which is required in order to update account parameters and access messages stored on the server although in some embodiments users may designate that certain images may be stored in a public area from which they may be freely accessed or linked to. Photo delivery system 100 is shown in FIG. 1 as including wireless camera apparatus 110, which transmits and receives messages via radio network 120. Radio network 120 can be any data-capable airlink (such as GSM, TDMA, CDMA), or wireless data network such as CDPD, or may be a short-range radio link such as an in-building network or a radio link between the wireless device and other devices via a standard protocol such as the Bluetooth Specification sponsored by Ericsson, IBM, Intel, Nokia, and Toshiba. Radio network 120 is connected to external network 130, which may be the Internet, an intranet, or other private data network. External network 130 is connected to at least one wireless camera service server 140, and one or more viewer stations 150 (which will ordinarily comprise a personal computer and may be configured to include viewer microphone 160 or viewer camera 170). In alternate embodiments, the external network is connected to printing service 180. Major elements of wireless camera apparatus 110 are shown in block form in FIG. 2, as including digital camera 210, memory 220, processor 230, RF modem 240 which includes antenna 250, interface means 260, and digital signal processor 266, which in the preferred embodiment are integrated into one unit. However, wireless camera device 110 and server 140 may be programmatically implemented by using many general-purpose hardware components. For example, wireless device 110 may be implemented with a handheld PC such as the Mobilon HC 4100 connected to a CE-AG04 color digital camera card, both available from Sharp Electronics Corporation, and a wireless CDPD modem such as the Sage modem available from Novatel Wireless, Inc. Alternately, the wireless device may be implemented by programming a Novatel Wireless CONTACT handheld PC (which includes an integrated CDPD modem), now available for beta testing from Novatel, and which is connected to any one of several digital cameras presently available on the market. The present disclosure may also be programmatically implemented on a combination of notebook computer running the Windows 95 operating system, wireless CDPD modem such as the PM100C CDPD modem from Motorola, and digital camera, such as the QuickCam VC from Connectix Corporation or the CMOS-PRO from Sound Vision Incorporated, or the Sony Vaio Cl Picturebook computer that incorporates a digital camera, and a CDPD PC card modem such as the Sierra Wireless Aircard. Although the RF modem for the preferred embodiment is configured for packet data transmissions, circuit switched modems may be used without departing from the spirit of the present disclosure. For example, alternate embodiments may include a combined CDPD and circuit switched modem, such as the Sierra Wireless SB220 OEM communications module, in order to allow wireless communication via a circuit switched connection to server 140 when the wireless device is used in an area where CDPD service is not available. FIG. 3 shows representative configuration table 310 for the wireless device which in the preferred embodiment system is built on server 140 and stored in server memory, and downloaded to wireless device memory 220 after each change to table contents, or upon initial activation of wireless device 110, although for wireless device embodiments with interface means 260 which provide the ability to input alphanumeric text, configuration table 310 or portions of it can be modified directly on wireless device 110. In FIG. 3, the items in recipient code column 312 are nicknames that may be selected by users of wireless device 110 in order to control distribution of messages transmitted from the wireless device. Optional recipient type column 314 represents an indication of whether the nickname designates a group nickname (G) an individual nickname (N) or a system processing code (S). Two system processing codes CUSTOM and HOLD are shown. HOLD is the default nickname that is used if no other nickname is selected. When the apparatus is activated to send a photo with HOLD, a message is constructed and sent to server 140 where it is held for predetermined period of time to await further processing instructions. When wireless device 110 is activated to send a photo with CUSTOM, a process is activated on wireless device 110 to allow the user to designate a custom e-mail address prior to transmitting the photo message to the server. Recipient IP address column 316 corresponds to IP address data which is generated by server 140 before downloading the table to wireless device 110, and which is applicable only when the nickname is for an individual. Although not shown here, preferred embodiment configuration table 310 also includes a list of message classifications as further described in reference to FIG. 6 below, as well as other custom parameters used to control operation of wireless device 110. FIGS. 4-6 show a portion of preferred embodiment wireless device interface means 260 as including configuration display 198, mode display 200, vertical scroll key 190, horizontal scroll key 192, and select key 194. As will be apparent to one skilled in the art, configuration display 198 and mode display 200 may be comprised of an active matrix display, LCD display, or other appropriate display means. In other embodiments scroll keys 190 and 192, and select key 194, may be incorporated into a touch screen display. Mode display 200 of the preferred embodiment includes three possible operation modes, “TO”, “MODE”, and “CLASS”, which are selected by horizontal scroll key 192, and the currently selected operation mode is highlighted. When the TO mode is selected, preferred embodiment configuration display 198 shows up to four recipient codes and their corresponding recipient types from current configuration table 310. In FIG. 4, three group nicknames and one individual nickname are displayed, with the current selection (“FAMILY”) being highlighted. Nickname selection in the preferred embodiment is controlled by vertical scroll key 190. FIG. 5 shows that when the MODE operation mode view is selected on mode display 200, configuration display 198 shows a list of current operation modes for that embodiment of the wireless device. The display shown is for an embodiment that allows operation in a “SEND”, “SAVE”, and “SEND LAST” mode. For illustration purposes, the preferred embodiment, which allows the capability to record an audio message for transmission along with a digital photo image, would have operational modes of “SEND”, “SEND W/AUDIO”, “SAVE”, “SAVE W/AUDIO”, “SEND LAST” and “AUDIO ONLY”, corresponding respectively to transmitting an image without an audio message, transmitting an image with an audio message, saving an image without transmitting it, saving an image and an audio message without transmitting, transmitting the last saved message, and transmitting only an audio message. FIG. 6 shows that when the CLASS operation mode is selected on mode display 200, configuration display 198 shows a list of current message classifications, which may be selected by operation of vertical scroll key 190. When wireless device 110 is activated to send a message with the CUSTOM classification selected, a process is activated on wireless device 110 to allow the user to designate a custom message classification, such as a customer number or name, prior to transmitting the photo message to server 140. Various message classifications may be customized on server 140 of the preferred embodiment and downloaded to wireless device 110 along with other portions of configuration table 310 as will be later described in relation to FIG. 13. FIG. 7 shows a representative account configuration record on server 140 of the present disclosure. In the preferred embodiment wireless photo delivery system, each wireless device user will have an account configuration record on the server which includes account ID 321, password 322, account name 323, contact name 324, billing address 325, camera id 326 which corresponds to RF modem 240 network equipment identifier or IP address (for those devices with a packet data modem), wireless device dial ID number 327 corresponding to the phone number associated with RF modem 240 (for those devices with a standard circuit switched cellular modem), and date fields 328 and 329 corresponding to the dates for which account service has been established. Other embodiments include Direct or Server switch field 330 that is used to indicate whether wireless device messages to individual nicknames will be transmitted first to the server for distribution or directly to the nicknames associated IP address. In such embodiments, only messages that are transmitted to the server can be archived. FIGS. 8-11 depict server interface means displays in the preferred embodiment for establishing and maintaining account recipient information which are preferably accessible via any Internet browser program, and which are stored in server database tables, along with the FIG. 7 account configuration record, in any number of ways which will be apparent to those who are skilled in the relevant art using standard techniques such as active server pages accessing a relational database. FIG. 8 shows people or individual address screen 340 view of all account message recipients in column 342, associated nicknames in column 344, associated e-mail addresses in column 346, and edit and delete selector buttons in columns 348 and 350. Other user selection buttons in this screen view are drop-down list view selector 352 and group view selector button 354. The top of this display shows account e-mail address 341 that is associated with this server account. This address 341 in the preferred embodiment is comprised of the Account ID (represented here as XXXXXX), and the server domain name (represented here as YYYY.COM). In one embodiment, any e-mail messages that are received by the server for this e-mail address in an acceptable format from authorized e-mail addresses (as further described below) will be forwarded to the associated wireless device. FIG. 9 shows server interface means display address book detail screen 360 of representative individual recipient information, corresponding to the last address book entry shown in FIG. 8, and indicating the allowed level of detailed information which is stored on server 140 for each account individual recipient record in the preferred embodiment. Most of these fields are self-describing, but e-mail reply OK indicators 362 and 364 are used by one embodiment server to build an account table of all e-mail addresses where this indicator is set to Y. This table is checked when the server receives e-mail addressed to the account e-mail address, and if the sender's e-mail address is found in the table then the e-mail will be forwarded in an appropriate format to the wireless device. Phone numbers 366 are optional, but are included for embodiments that are capable of forwarding wireless device messages that include an audio portion to a telephone or voice mail number, which can be accomplished in many ways apparent to those skilled in the relevant art. Path 367 is optional and is included for embodiments where the message is to be saved under a specific server directory path in lieu of or in addition to being distributed. FIG. 10 shows server 140 interface means group view display 370 of representative group information that is accessed in the preferred embodiment by selecting group view selector button 354 shown in FIG. 8. This group view display 370 shows currently defined account groups and includes people view selector button 372, add new entry selector button 374, group names display column 376, edit selector button column 378 for each group name, and delete selector button column 380. Selection of people view button 372 will take you back to the view of FIG. 8, and selection of add new entry selector button 374 or any edit selector button in column 378 will take you to the group detail view of FIG. 11. Server 140 interface means group detail view display 390 for editing representative group information in the preferred embodiment is shown in FIG. 11. This particular group detail view shows hypothetical entries for a group name “MANSE” in group name selector field 392. When detail view 390 is activated by add new entry selector button 374 of FIG. 10, the group name selector field would be blank, and all defined individuals would be displayed in non-member display column 394. Preferred group detail view 390 includes vertical scroll bars 396 and 396′ and group member display column 398. Other user selectable buttons on the preferred group detail view include add, remove, delete, and done buttons, which operate respectively to add highlighted non-members shown in column 394 to the group, to remove highlighted members shown in column 398 from the group, to delete the entire group, or to return to the group view display 370 of FIG. 10 after processing any changes. FIG. 12 shows the overall method used to operate one embodiment of the wireless camera device of the present invention that includes both switched circuit cellular and wireless packet data modem capabilities. The process begins at block 402 where a flag is checked to determine whether the wireless packet data modem is to be used. If so, processing continues with the registration process of block 404, which is shown in further detail in FIG. 13. In the alternative, the registration process is skipped and (although not shown here) wireless devices with circuit switched modems may contact server 140 to obtain fresh configuration table 310 before processing continues at block 406, where processing halts until a signal is received indicating send key 196 has been activated. At block 408, the operation mode is checked, and if the SEND LAST switch is set, processing branches to block 410 where the first previously held message is marked to be sent, after which processing returns to a wait state at block 406. If the send last flag is not set, and the operation mode is not AUDIO ONLY, the GET IMAGE routine of FIG. 14 is activated at block 412. If at block 414 the AUDIO ONLY, SAVE W/AUDIO, or SEND W/AUDIO operation mode is set, the AUDIO routine of FIG. 15 is activated at block 416 before activating the FORMAT routine of FIG. 16 at block 418. If at block 420 the operation mode is set to SAVE or SAVE W/AUDIO, processing branches to block 422 where the formatted message is saved in memory 220 and marked to be held in the wireless device memory, but if the operation mode is not set to save the message, then at block 423 the message is saved in memory 220 and marked to be sent as soon as possible, and at block 424 the Transmit function of FIG. 18 is invoked, if this is not already active. In either case processing continues at block 426 where if memory is full, a warning is issued to the operator via user interface means 260 which, in those embodiments that have flash memory or other removable memory devices, would prompt the user to replace memory device 220, before branching back to the beginning of the method at block 400. While this describes the best mode embodiment process, it will be apparent to those skilled in the art that many steps may be executed in an altered order or may be otherwise modified without departing from the scope of the present disclosure as claimed herein. FIG. 13 shows a process flow chart of the registration process of FIG. 12 that is activated in the preferred embodiment as well as any other embodiments that include a wireless packet data modem. Once registered with a wireless packet data service provider network, wireless packet data modems can remain registered for an indefinite period of time and most such modems, including the wireless packet data modem of the preferred embodiment, periodically query the network to verify that the device is still registered and set an indicator if the registration is dropped. In most instances, this FIG. 13 routine will execute only once upon powering up wireless device 110, and thereafter the indicator check at block 432 will branch to return back to the calling routine of FIG. 12. In case the wireless device is not registered with the network, a registration routine on RF modem 240 will be initiated to register with the network at block 434. Next, at block 436 a query will be transmitted to server 140 indicating that the device is registered, and requesting the server to transmit a copy of configuration table 310 if this has been updated since the last time the wireless device was used. Finally, at step 438 the wireless device will receive and save any configuration table updates received from the server. In alternate embodiments, wireless device 110 may simply log in to the server and retrieve its associated configuration table 310 in a manner well known in the art. FIG. 14 shows a process flow chart of the get image process routine that is activated from block 412 of the preferred embodiment main process of FIG. 12. This process initially signals digital camera 210 to save a digital image at block 440, may then compresses this image in memory 220 according to a standard compression scheme such as GIF or JPEG at block 442, and for embodiments with interface means 260 which includes a display capable of showing a reduced version of the image, display the image at block 444. Other embodiments may alternately be configured to constantly display the image currently being received by digital camera 210, or in very simple embodiments may be configured only with a viewfinder and have no interface means 260 capable of displaying any image. Still other embodiments may skip the compression stage as it is recognized that larger files generally are more detailed and desirable, and compression to a small size prior to transmission may be less important in the future as greater wireless bandwidth becomes available. FIG. 15 shows a process flow chart of the audio recording process of FIG. 12 as including first processing step 450 which displays or plays a visual or audible prompt asking the wireless device user to record a voice message. Wireless devices which are equipped to allow audible message recording, including the preferred embodiment, have interface means 260 which includes a record button which must be depressed and held while a message is recorded at block 452. Otherwise the record function could be automatically activated for a set period of time at block 452. After the recording ceases, the message is played back at block 454, and the user is asked at block 456 if the message is acceptable. If the user indicates the message is acceptable, the audio process ends, and if the message is not acceptable processing branches back to block 450 to repeat the message recording process. FIG. 16 shows a process flow chart of the preferred embodiment message format process 418 of FIG. 12 as including first check 460 to determine whether the operation mode is set to include a custom classification. If so, the custom input process is invoked at a first entry block 466 with a parameter indicating that a custom classification is requested, before processing continues at block 461 where the message header is constructed in a buffer area of memory 220. This message header 534, as shown in more detail in FIG. 19, includes such data as the account ID, Classification, date, time, and location coordinates if available. At block 462, currently designated recipient code 536 is moved into the buffer area. At block 464, a check is performed to determine whether a custom recipient code/e-mail address was requested. If so, the custom input process is invoked at a second entry block 466′ with a parameter indicating that a custom address is requested, after which the custom address is moved into the buffer area at block 467. Otherwise, processing continues at block 468 where the image is moved into the buffer area. Then, at block 470, a check is performed to determine whether the AUDIO ONLY, SAVE W/AUDIO, or SEND W/AUDIO operation mode is set, indicating that an audio message was recorded. If so, the audio message is moved into the buffer area at block 472. Otherwise, processing continues at block 474 where an end of message indicator is moved into the buffer area. Throughout this process appropriate delimiters will be added to indicate message field boundaries, and a current message length field updated appropriately, in a manner which is well known in the art. In other embodiments, the message may be formatted by wireless device 110, and account ID and recipient code transmitted to the server, by a different mechanism without departing from the spirit of the invention. For example, an image file may be assigned a unique file name, including the account ID, recipient code, and an image identifier, for later transfer via FTP Put command to server 140. Similarly, audio messages could be sent separately to server 140 under a corresponding file name for later association with the image file by a process on the server. FIG. 17 shows a process flow chart of the preferred embodiment custom input process 466 and 466′ of FIG. 16, wherein at block 480, a check is performed to determine whether the routine was activated to provide a custom address or a custom classification. If for a custom address, the user is prompted by the interface means 260 display or by audio prompt to enter the recipient's e-mail address. The address is entered via user interface means 260, via a microphone and voice recognition module on certain embodiments or via other input means such as selections from a scrollable list of alpha numeric characters, or via keyboard input. The address is displayed at block 484 and the user is asked to verify this at block 485. If the address displayed is incorrect, processing branches back to block 482, and, if correct, processing continues at block 486 where the custom address is saved in memory. If the custom input routine of FIG. 17 is entered to provide a custom message classification, then a similar process is executed at blocks 488 through 494 whereby a custom classification is entered and saved in a designated area of memory 220. In the preferred embodiment a separate processing loop, as shown in FIG. 18, is invoked to transmit messages from the wireless device to the server. This allows users to quickly take several pictures without waiting for the prior picture to be transmitted. A standard wireless packet data routine is utilized to receive messages by RF modem 240 in a manner well known to those of ordinary skill in the art and is not further described here. As previously described in relation to FIG. 12, the transmit process is invoked (if it is not already active) after a message has been formatted in memory 220 for transmission. Upon activation, an indicator on the wireless device is checked to determine whether the transmission is to be accomplished as packet data or as circuit switched data. This indicator may be set to only allow packet or circuit data transmissions, or may be set dynamically in embodiments which include the capability to transmit both as packet data or circuit data depending on the availability of a packet data network, so that one form of transmission may be established as preferred, but if that form is not available, then the other form of transmission will be attempted. If as circuit switched data, block 512 process is invoked to establish a switched circuit modem connection between the wireless device and either server 140 or a known host which is capable of transmitting the message according to an IP protocol to a defined destination IP address. Formatted messages are stored in memory 220 until transmission is complete, and at block 514 a pointer is established to the first message in queue in memory. At block 516 the message is checked to determine whether the message is on hold, or is marked to be sent, and if marked to be held processing branches to block 526. If not held, a second check regarding packet data is performed at block 518, and if wireless device 110 is set for packet data transmissions a routine at block 520 formats the message for transmission, preferably by the TCP/IP protocol, or by other IP protocols which are well known to those of ordinary skill in the art of packet data transmissions, and activates the RF Modem, which in some embodiments may be preconfigured to transmit the message according to a particular protocol. If the wireless device 110 is not set for packet data transmissions, then the message is transmitted to server 140 or a known host which is capable of forwarding the message according to an IP protocol to the server. This is preferably accomplished as an asynchronous data transmission in compressed form, such as the V.42bis compression protocol in order to reduce transmission time. Regardless of the type of transmission, after the transmission is attempted in the preferred embodiment, common processing continues at block 524, and if no error flag was set during transmission, the transmitted message is deleted from memory. However, in other embodiments, the user may wish to maintain a copy of the message after transmission, for back up or other purposes, in which case the message may be marked to be held instead of being deleted at this point. At block 526 the next message slot in the memory queue is pointed to and if another message is in the memory queue processing continues back at block 516. Otherwise, a final check is performed at block 528 to see if a circuit switched data transmission is being used, and if so, the circuit is terminated at block 530. In addition to the processing routines which drive the server interfaces of FIGS. 7 through 11 and the database calls which are required to support these interfaces, preferred embodiment server 140 includes several specific processes related to message transmissions both from and to wireless camera devices 110, and which are shown in FIGS. 20 through 22. FIG. 20 shows a process flow chart of how the server processes messages received from a wireless camera device. At block 544, the server receives a message, parses out information such as account number, image, audio data, date, time, classification, location, and recipient code which is included in the message, saves this in a server memory for future access and in a holding area designated for this account, and if a path is associated with the recipient code saves the message at that location. At block 546, the server determines whether the message is to be held or if the account is no longer valid, in which case no further action is taken, and the message will be marked for deletion after a predetermined period of time absent further action. At block 548, if a custom address was included in the message, then processing branches to block 550, where the address may be resolved into an IP address before being formatted as a standard e-mail message and transmitted to the recipient or this may be handled automatically by a commercially available e-mail program such as MS Outlook, depending on how the server is configured. Otherwise, if the message is to an individual then processing continues directly at block 554. If the message is to a group, then a list of recipient addresses is retrieved at block 556, and at block 558 the message is formatted as a standard e-mail message and transmitted to each recipient. Some embodiments may only send out a thumbnail version of images and/or a hyperlink to the server path or URL where the message has been saved. Certain embodiments may allow delivery of the audio portion of messages to a recipient's phone number, in which case a separate server process would be invoked to make a set number of attempts to deliver the message to the listed phone number or a voice mail system at that number, after which the message would be marked undelivered. If the message recipient wished, they could leave a reply message immediately, via an interactive voice process on the server, which reply the server would later attempt to deliver, or the recipient could call back later to a designated number and enter a response ID number, both as specified with the original message delivery, in order to leave a reply message. FIG. 21 shows a process flow chart for how preferred embodiment server 140 responds to queries from wireless camera device 110 in order to download the current account configuration table to the wireless device. At block 572, the server receives a query from the wireless device as previously discussed in relation to FIG. 13. If there have been any changes to the account since the last download, then processing continues from block 574 to block 576 where the server contacts a domain server in order to resolve all individual IP addresses for e-mail addresses associated with account individuals' e-mail addresses. At block 578, the updated configuration table is transmitted to the camera in a prescribed format, and the last download data is updated for the account. In other embodiments, wireless device 110 may simply log into server 140 upon initial activation of the wireless device and registration with the wireless packet data network and retrieve its associated configuration table, as by an FTP Get command. FIG. 22 shows a process flow chart for how the server responds to messages received by server 140 and addressed to an address associated with wireless camera device 110. The message is typically received at block 588 as an e-mail message, but as previously discussed may comprise a voice mail message. If the account is valid, then processing will continue at block 594; otherwise the server will attempt to respond that the account is no longer valid. As discussed previously in relation to FIG. 9, the account data is checked at block 594 to determine whether a reply from this source is authorized. If a reply is authorized, the message is reformatted in a form which will be recognized by the wireless device, and transmitted to the camera ID at block 596. In either case, in the preferred system the reply is archived for a predetermined number of days before being deleted, and will be accessible for review prior to deletion via Internet account access or via other means, such as for example embodiments where server 140 and wireless device 110 are configured respectively as server and client using the IMAP protocol as previously discussed. Use and operation of the preferred embodiment of the present invention may be better understood by reference to the figures in connection with the following description. The wireless device user will obtain wireless device 110 and register it with a wireless packet data network service provider, who will assign camera id 326, or dial id 327, account validity dates 328 and 329, initialize the RF modem to recognize the appropriate id, and arrange for initialization of account information 320 (FIG. 7) on server 140. The user will then be able to logon to the server and initialize preferred address book entry details as shown in FIGS. 8-11, or this information may be provided directly to a service provider who will initialize the address book on behalf of the user. Alternately, and in cases where the user does not own a wireless device but only rents one on occasion, the user may establish an account and initialize address book details at his or her convenience prior to obtaining a wireless device, and the wireless device provider will associate a particular device with this account information when the user picks up the device. Next, the user can activate wireless device 110, which will automatically initiate the process of FIG. 12 to register the wireless device with the packet data network and download updates as previously described in relation to FIGS. 13 and 21. After the configuration table is initialized on the wireless device, the user will be able to operate wireless device 110 interface in order to select a recipient code, mode, and classification, as described in relation to FIGS. 4-6. If this step is skipped, the default values for any transmitted messages will be respectively set for HOLD, SEND, and NONE. The user will then be able to activate the camera by pressing send key 196, which will activate processing of FIG. 12 subsequent to block 406 in order to capture an image and transmit it as part of a message to server 140 for processing and distribution according to the selected recipient code as described in relation to FIG. 20. Although the present disclosure and its advantages have been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure as defined by the appended claims. Moreover, the scope of the present application is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments of the process, machine, manufacture, composition of matter, means, methods and steps described in the specification. As one of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate from the disclosure, processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps, presently existing or later to be developed that perform substantially the same function or achieve substantially the same result as the corresponding embodiments described herein may be utilized according to the present disclosure. Accordingly, the appended claims are intended to include within their scope such processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps. | <SOH> BACKGROUND <EOH>Digital cameras are increasingly popular, and the popularity is due in part to their elimination of processing delays involved with conventional film-based photography. With a digital camera, one does not have to shoot an entire roll of film and send it to a processor for development before seeing the resulting photograph. Instead, one can immediately download a digital image to a computer and display the photograph, or in some instances link the digital camera to a TV monitor to display the photograph. Another attractive feature of digital cameras is that the digital images they create, after being stored on a computer, can be forwarded to others via e-mail or can be incorporated into other electronic documents, including Internet web pages. However, the process of connecting the digital camera to a computer and then downloading images to the computer for storage and viewing can be complicated. Some digital camera manufacturers have attempted to make this process easier by including in the camera a standard format 3.5-inch floppy disk drive for storing digital images so that the images can be easily accessed by computers with similar disk drives. Others provide flash card memory which can store a high number of images, or provide an infrared (IR) port for transferring images to a computer. Even with these features, the image transfer cannot be begun until the digital camera (or storage device) is physically connected to a computer, or in the case of digital cameras and computers which include IR transceivers these must be in close proximity before a transfer can be made. For many users, this process is confusing and detracts from the usefulness of the device. When a user wishes to view or share access to a digital photo quickly, this delay and manual transfer process can be both inconvenient and frustrating. Another potential problem with current digital cameras is that they generally require creation of a database of images on a home or office computer, which often has limited accessibility, is unsecured, and is infrequently backed up. With the growing popularity of Internet accessible software programs, and “network computers” which include little or no data storage, there is a need for a networked image storage and archival service that provides secure, reliable, and universally accessible image storage services. Such a service would allow shared access to and transfer of images by family or business groups in a format which would greatly enhance the ability to categorize and sort each image by time, date, and occasion, and which would at the same time greatly reduce the possibility of losing important images. The Fujifilm company is known to offer an Internet archival service in connection with conventional film processing, but there is no known similar service for digital photos. When compressed, a color digital image is typically 10 K bytes or more in size, and transmission of such an image requires from 10 to more than 30 seconds, depending on wireless modem transmission rates. Cellular service providers typically charge for total circuit connection time or, in the case of wireless data services providers, for the amount of data transferred, and it is therefore advantageous to reduce the required connection time to perform a file transfer or the amount of data to be transferred. One way to do this is to compress the file before transmission. But even when a file is to be sent to multiple recipients one would not want to initiate multiple calls in order to transfer the file to each recipient, even if the file is compressed. It would be beneficial to have a system which allowed one to forward an image file, with distribution instructions, to a central repository, and know that the repository would then save and/or automatically distribute the image file according to prior user instructions, without incurring another expensive wireless transfer. Digital cameras which include the ability to effect a wireless RF image transfer are not known to be currently marketed in the United States. A search of issued U.S. patents has revealed U.S. Pat. No. 4,884,132 to Morris et al, which provides a “personal security unit” which includes a digital image sensor, a cellular transmitter, a window aligned with the image sensor, and which transmits digital information identifying the hand-held unit to a remote cellular receiving station where all cellular communications received from the personal security units are recorded. Morris states that the recorded data can be accessed at a later time if a crime is reported. Another known device is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,712,679 to Coles which discloses a security system with a method for locatable portable electronic camera image transmission to a remote receiver. This device provides the means to transmit a video image along with device identifying information and position coordinate information to a remote receiver. Coles states that the transmission may be accomplished by cellular radio and is received by a remote receiver where the image may be displayed or printed by facsimile. | <SOH> SUMMARY <EOH>Embodiments of the present disclosure may provide a wireless digital camera device (also referred to herein as a wireless device) including a processor, RF communications device (modem), memory, and digital camera which is configured to transmit a digital data message, including at least a digital image, an account ID, and a recipient code, across a combined wireless and wired network to a host system at a predefined Internet Protocol (IP) address. The portable apparatus is programmed to minimize the number of user inputs required for operation in order to operate much like other automatic cameras, providing “aim and shoot” operation. While it is presently possible to assemble a portable device which can transfer data files, including image files, to a destination computer by using readily available commercial products, such as a portable computer, camera, and cellular modem, such a system requires user input to configure and initialize, including a destination phone number for modem dialing or a host IP or e-mail address to send the image to. The present disclosure provides a simple wireless photo delivery system which requires minimal user inputs for successful configuration and operation. In order to simplify the wireless camera apparatus set up and operation, the present disclosure provides a user-friendly means to customize operational features of the camera. Many computer users today have access to web sites on the Internet, and are familiar with the process of interacting with programs and forms posted on Internet web sites. In one embodiment of the present invention, a digital camera service server provides a means for users to define distribution nicknames and custom operation options, and automatically downloads these custom operational parameters to the wireless camera whenever they are updated. In order for an e-mail system to resolve e-mail addresses into IP addresses, it is necessary for a user device to have access to a domain name server (DNS) resolver. This exchange of messages between the remote device and the DNS at time of message delivery is eliminated in one embodiment of the present invention by having e-mail addresses resolved into their corresponding IP addresses by the digital camera service server (subsequently referred to herein as the server) prior to downloading these IP addresses with address nicknames to the wireless camera device. This enables embodiments of the wireless camera device which contain a wireless packet data communications device such as a Cellular Digital Packet Data (CDPD) modem to construct and send messages directly to the intended recipient's known IP address in a protocol format known to those of ordinary skill in the art, such as TCP, Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP), Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP), Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME), Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP), Point to Point (PPP), or Post Office Protocol (POP) without reference to a DNS resolver. Wireless device users may wish to maintain control over who can send messages to them, in order to avoid paying for unwanted message transmissions. Another aspect of the present invention allows messages generated by the wireless device to be formatted so that the message origin address appears as a server address. This causes all message replies to be routed to the server, which receives and filters all replies addressed to the wireless device and only forwards messages which are from approved sources and in appropriate formats to the wireless device. There is then a need to provide an apparatus and system which will allow for effortless transfer of a message including a digital image, an account identifier, and an optional recipient code, across a combined wireless/wired network to a host device at a pre-defined IP address. One aspect of the present disclosure provides a digital camera service server host device at the pre-defined IP address which can store portions of the message, and/or forward select portions of the message and digital image to one or more recipients associated with a message recipient code. In the case where the delivery IP address corresponds to a server, the data message may be stored at the server for later access or may be immediately forwarded to one or more IP addresses that correspond to a recipient code included in the data message. When an image is to be sent to multiple recipients, it is much more economical to only incur one transmission from the wireless camera device across the wireless communications link to the server, and then forward the image to each intended recipient through a conventional wire-line or fiber optic network. In one embodiment of the present disclosure, an account is established on the server which corresponds to at least one wireless camera device. This server may be a private system accessible only via a private network, or may be connected to the Internet and be configured to allow wireless device users to access the server by using commonly available world wide web browsers. In either case the server is preferably remotely accessible in order to establish or update account parameters, or to access previously transmitted digital images and or responses thereto. In the preferred system, each server account is password protected for access only by authorized users. Authorized users may update their server accounts to establish recipient codes, or nicknames, and associate these codes with one or more destination e-mail addresses, IP addresses, phone numbers (for delivery of audio messages), or storage destinations (such as a server path name), thereby creating nicknames for the purpose of controlling how messages will be archived and/or distributed to individuals or groups. When certain account parameters, such as nicknames, are changed on the server, they are automatically flagged to be downloaded in a list to the wireless camera device the next time the wireless device contacts the server. Alternately, the wireless device may be programmed to get a fresh copy of account parameters, or portions thereof, upon each new connection to the server. This nickname list is viewable in a scrollable window on the wireless camera device, providing a quick means for selecting who a particular data message is to be sent to, without concern for entering an e-mail or IP address. For example, a camera user who is employed as a Realtor may define both business nicknames and personal nicknames. Business nicknames may include codes based on property attributes (a 3BR2BA code for all customers who are currently looking for a house with at least three bedrooms and two baths) or may include codes for different communities or property price ranges. Finance companies could also use the wireless camera to automatically create a photo of the collateral property, as required in many states, and simultaneously send the photo to the loan processor and to an archive file. Other potential uses for the present disclosure include (i) photo-advertisements—for example, camera can be used by sales agents to send pictures to a list of current clients, to an office webmaster, print shops, etc., or to save photos in a pre-defined server directory; (ii) journalists could use the system to submit late breaking news pictures; (iii) insurance adjusters—photo with claim or file number can be mailed directly to the home office or saved in a pre-defined server directory associated with the file; (iv) police—photos of accident site/crime scene can be captured and archived; and (v) a holiday photo system where the camera can be rented while on vacation in order to have photos automatically e-mailed to a printing service, or to a list of friends/relatives with whom you want to share trip events. In the preferred embodiment, the present disclosure comprises a battery-powered wireless camera device, including a digital camera for creating a digital image, a memory for storing digital images, a delivery IP address, and a list of nicknames, an RF communications device connected to the wireless device, and processor means for transmitting a message to the delivery IP address via the communications device. Backup memory in the form of a removable disk or memory card may be provided in some embodiments for message storage with or without message transmission. The message includes an account ID, a recipient code (nickname), and at least one digital image created by the digital camera. As further described in the Detailed Description, in some embodiments, the message may include message origination date, time, a message classification indicator, digital audio recordings, and/or location coordinates, and in some instances, may not include a digital image. The delivery IP address may be saved in the wireless camera device memory in response to input commands entered at a device user interface, input commands entered remotely via the communications device, or input commands during manufacture of the wireless device. The RF communications device may be a circuit-switched data modem or packet data modem, and may respectively establish a switched connection through the Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN) to the server or to a host device and router system at a particular phone number from which messages are transmitted to the destination IP address, or may transmit the message directly through a cellular service provider digital packet network connection, such as CDPD, to the destination IP address through an Internet connection. In alternate embodiments, the wireless camera includes a microphone interface for recording audio messages to be transmitted in a digital format with messages. In such embodiments where the interface includes a microphone, a voice recognition module may be used to translate spoken messages into operational commands. For example, the wireless apparatus may be activated to record a spoken nickname, address, or alphanumeric identifier for association with the message, process this recording with the voice recognition module, and then include the character output of the voice recognition module as a nickname, e-mail address, classification or message field in the next message transmission. Other interface means may include a bar code scanner, or numeric or alphanumeric keypad. Another embodiment is configured to function as an enhanced digital phone that includes a digital camera. Other embodiments include an optional global positioning system (GPS) unit for capturing location data that may then be included in the message. Yet another embodiment of the present disclosure includes a data port which is connected directly to the communications device so that the wireless camera device can be used as a portable RF modem for external devices which are connected to the data port from time to time. Other technical features may be readily apparent to one skilled in the art from the following figures, descriptions and claims. | H04L6704 | 20170810 | 20180403 | 20171123 | 74087.0 | H04L2908 | 4 | NGUYEN, LUONG TRUNG | Digital Message Processing System | SMALL | 1 | CONT-ACCEPTED | H04L | 2,017 |
Subsets and Splits